(2020/4) An Abbot&#39;s Vision of an Authentic and Global Saṃgha: On the Efforts of Master Dayuan to Revive Buddhism in China

Haiyan Hu-von Hinüber

Among those Buddhist monks ordained in China after the Cultural Revolution, Ven. Dayuan 大愿 (1971–) was one of the youngest when he became appointed as Abbot for Renrui Monastery 仁瑞寺 at the age of 24. Motivated by a generation gap within the Saṃgha’s leadership and the urgent need to uphold the Dharma, Dayuan has made great efforts to learn from many older masters including Tibetan Buddhism. In 2004, he then became appointed as first Abbot of the new Liuzu Monastery 六祖寺. The post-Mao period of China’s reform era was accompanied by significant social changes and desperation. The social circumstances have led religious leaders such as Dayuan to become adored as “Spiritual Leaders” by many Buddhist followers. Thus, the influence of Buddhist abbots extends far beyond that of local monasteries and has taken on a fundamental role within Chinese society. In order to explore the challenges and opportunities for the on-going movement of “Reviving Buddhism” in China, this survey will focus on the religious background of various joint projects between the Liuzu Monastery and several research institutions in China and around the world. To a certain extent, this study is also a documentation of how Buddhism in China was painstakingly brought back to life and developed new perspectives in the course of a new generation of Buddhist leadership, after having suffered devastating oppression and destruction in the years from 1949 to 1976. In this respect, the study aims to look at examples of common patterns or different directions of Buddhist strategies in the present and with regard to the future.

An Abbot’s Vision of an Authentic and Global Saṃgha: On the Efforts of Master Dayuan to Revive Buddhism in China Haiyan Hu-von Hinüber Abstract Among those Buddhist monks ordained in China after the Cultural Revolution, Ven. Dayuan 大愿 (1971–) was one of the youngest when he became appointed as Abbot for Renrui Monastery 仁瑞寺 at the age of 24. Motivated by a generation gap within the Saṃgha’s leadership and the urgent need to uphold the Dharma, Dayuan has made great efforts to learn from many older masters including Tibetan Buddhism. In 2004, he then became appointed as first Abbot of the new Liuzu Monastery 六祖寺. The postMao period of China’s reform era was accompanied by significant social changes and desperation. The social circumstances have led religious leaders such as Dayuan to become adored as “Spiritual Leaders” by many Buddhist followers. Thus, the influence of Buddhist abbots extends far beyond that of local monasteries and has taken on a fundamental role within Chinese society. In order to explore the challenges and opportunities for the on-going movement of “Reviving Buddhism” in China, this survey will focus on the religious background of various joint projects between the Liuzu Monastery and several research institutions in China and around the world. To a certain extent, this study is also a documentation of how Buddhism in China was painstakingly brought back to life and developed new perspectives in the course of a new generation of Buddhist leadership, after having suffered devastating oppression and destruction in the years from 1949 to 1976. In this respect, the study aims to look at examples of common patterns or different directions of Buddhist strategies in the present and with regard to the future. © Haiyan Hu-von Hinüber. 5–1 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 1. Introduction1 Among those Buddhist monks ordained in China after the Cultural Revolution, Venerable Dayuan 大愿 (1971–) was one of the youngest when he became appointed as Abbot for Renrui Monastery 仁瑞寺 at the age of 24 (§3.5). Similar to many others of his generation, Dayuan’s religious career is the result of a confluence of inspiration from different Buddhist traditions combined with the modern education he received from the Buddhist Academy (§6.1). However, in contrast to his predecessors and coevals, Dayuan is one of the first Buddhist leaders to have been trained in business management before becoming a monk. Motivated by a generation gap within the Saṃgha’s leadership and the urgent need to uphold the Dharma, Ven. Dayuan has made great efforts to learn from many older masters who survived the Cultural Revolution (§3.2–§3.3). Another aspect of Dayuan’s study has included his interest in Tibetan Buddhism. Starting in the mid-1980s and up through the 1990s, when Dayuan was a young monk in training, Buddhism underwent several crucial periods. During this time, Tibetan monastic scholars made considerable contributions to the revival of Chinese Buddhism (§3.4). Additionally, Ven. Dayuan has also shown great interest in Theravada Buddhism and has held active exchanges with countries that boast strong Theravada traditions (§4.1 and §5.3). During all of his years of study, Ven. Dayuan has continuously applied academic knowledge to his meditation practices. Meditation is an aspect of cultivation that he appears to emphasise more than his peers, and one which he, from early on in his education, would practise silently in solitude (§4.2). By doing so, he deepened his understanding of Buddhism in various respects, including the practice-oriented Chan tradition, Tibetan Lamaism, and esoteric Tantrism. 1 I sincerely thank Abbot Dayuan and Abbot Dengjue 登觉 for the many conversations and exchanges we have shared, together with my colleagues from Europe and Japan, in Göttingen and Sihui between 2017 and 2020. A special thanks to Ven. Dengjue, who was gracious in answering all of the questions that arose during my in-depth fieldwork concerning Liuzu Monastery. The present article is based on the presentation I gave at the workshop, “When a New Generation Comes up: Buddhist Leadership and Lay People in Contemporary China”, at the Numata Center for Buddhist Studies, University of Hamburg, 10/11 February 2020. I sincerely thank Dr. Carsten Krause 康易清 for inviting me to the workshop and his valuable suggestions to improve this paper. I also thank Dr. Michael Cavayero 柯伟业 very much for proofreading my final draft. To a certain extent, this paper is related to an earlier colloquium lecture “Chinesische buddhistische Klöster in Deutschland. Zu Entwicklungen im 21. Jahrhundert” [The Chinese Buddhist Monasteries in Germany. On the Current Development in the 21st Century], which was given in connection with a research project at the Max Weber Center for Advanced Cultural and Social Studies in July 2018; see Hu-von Hinüber 2019a and 2019b, however with a different focus. 53 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Consequently, Ven. Dayuan received high recognition and encouragement from various Ācāryas and Rinpoches, who have viewed him as a capable figure to carry on the Buddhist teachings and help others to end suffering. These conditions have helped Dayuan to create a solid basis for his extensive missionary work, which he has carried out since 1995 to the present day (§5). In 1997, Master Dayuan was appointed to supervise the construction and reopening of Liuzu chan si 六祖禅寺, the “Chan Monastery of the Sixth Patriarch”, also known as Liuzu Monastery.2 In 2004, he then became appointed as the monastery’s first abbot (§3.6). Using this platform, Ven. Dayuan began developing a nationwide network of more than 40 affiliated monasteries (appendix 2), many of which had been, for the most part, damaged or abandoned during the Cultural Revolution. The present study begins by discussing some general questions concerning Buddhist leadership in the past and present (§2). The post-Mao period of China’s reform era was accompanied by significant social changes and desperation; countless Chinese individuals once again found spiritual salvation in Buddhism. Such social circumstances have led religious leaders such as Dayuan to become adored as “Spiritual Leaders” (jingshen lingxiu 精神领袖) by many Buddhist followers. Thus, such figures’ influence extends far beyond that of local monasteries and has taken on a fundamental role within Chinese society (§2.4). Beginning with Dayuan’s family background (§3.1) and the early stage of his religious career (§3.2), this study traces the different stages and places of the national and international network established under his direction. Additionally, in order to explore the challenges and opportunities for the on-going movement of “Reviving Buddhism” in China, this survey will focus on the religious background of various joint projects between the Liuzu Monastery and several research institutions in China and around the world. To a certain extent, this study is also a documentation of how Buddhism in China was painstakingly brought back to life and developed new perspectives in the course of a new generation of Buddhist leadership, after having suffered devastating oppression and destruction in the years from 1949 to 1976. In this respect, this study aims to look at examples of common patterns or different directions of Buddhist leadership strategies in the present and with regard to the future (§6.2). 2 Often abbreviated as Liuzusi (六祖寺, in the following Liuzu Monastery), this monastery, like most other Buddhist monasteries in China today, is composed of two parts: a public “temple” part, with several Buddha Halls for visitors, and an internal “monastery” part, with living quarters and dining facilities for the clergy only, which remains mostly inaccessible to the public. 54 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 2. Does Buddhism need “Leadership”? The ongoing efforts of Chinese Buddhists to restore the traditional structure of the Saṃgha have made it very clear that there is a current increasing interest in understanding Buddhism’s “origin” and its early stages in India,3 especially among monastic scholars. Therefore, in this discussion on “leadership” within the Saṃgha, it may be relevant to examine the oldest canonical text that records the historical Buddha discussing this topic. 2.1. Buddha’s Last Wish Concerning the Leadership of the Saṃgha According to the “Sutra of the Great Decease” (Mahāparinibbānasuttanta), Śākyamuni said the following (buddhavacana) on his deathbed, addressing his main disciple, Ānanda: “It may be, Ānanda, that some of you now have the following thoughts: “The word of the master has now ended; we have no teacher from now on!” But Ānanda, you should not think in that way. The teaching of salvation (dharma) and discipline (vinaya), which I have explained and defined for you, should become your teacher when I have left.”4 In this account, the “wise man” (Muni) from the Śākya clan has strongly advised against an individualised leadership in the Buddhist community. Early Buddhist art also speaks for this narrative; almost 400 years after his Nirvāṇa, Śākyamuni Buddha had never been represented in human form, but only aniconically by his footprints, the wheel of the teachings (dharmacakra) or the Bodhi tree of his enlightenment, etc. According to the codes and discipline for monastic life (Vinaya), any five monks may form their own order. In doing so, the eldest in the group, according to the dates of their individual ordinations (i.e. not biological ages) is said to be the Saṃgha’s “leader” (sthavira, thera). Therefore, the saying “Vinaya as Teacher” (yi jie wei shi 以戒为师) is still very popular in Chinese Buddhist orders. Cf. Mak 2012. See The Dīgha Nikāya 17 (6.1–6.2), PTS Edition 1908, II: 154; the English translation is quoted from Rhys Davids 1910: 171. Additionally, the fraternal relationship in the monastic order was also regulated by Buddha himself: “Ānanda! When I am gone address not one another in the way in which the brethren have heretofore addressed each other – with the epithet that is, of ‘Āvuso’ (Friend). A younger brother may be addressed by an elder with his name, or his family name, or the title ‘Friend’. But an elder should be addressed by a younger brother as ‘Sir’ or as ‘Venerable Sir’.” 3 4 55 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 2.2. The Reconstruction of Genealogy as Incarnate Leadership in Chinese Buddhism Because Buddhism in China traditionally did not have a multi-level organisational body like that of the Christian church, deciding who should lead the Saṃgha has always presented a challenging question. What differentiates the development of so-called sinicised Buddhism5 from the original conception of Śākyamuni is not only the view of how the Buddhist community should be led after the Buddha’s death but also the emergence of several different schools, most of them grouped around individual charismatic personalities. This phenomenon of individualisation and personification of school heads is particularly pronounced in medieval China. This is primarily due to the need of many Chinese followers of this foreign religion to trace the masters of their faith and religious practice back to its Indian origin.6 Such a desire was additionally reinforced by the deeply rooted emphasis on genealogy in the Chinese tradition. Appendix 1 of the present paper “An Overview of the Eight Main Schools in Chinese Buddhism (4th–8th Century)” shows the position of the influential Chan school (Chan zong 禅宗)7 in the Buddhist landscape which gradually formed in medieval China. The boundaries between historical and lineal developments of the different schools have become more blurred over time, e.g. the differences between the prevailing Chan school and the Pure Land school (Jingtu zong 净土宗). Nevertheless, the terms zong 宗 or zongpai 宗派, which imply the traditional consciousness of belonging to a certain “school” were reinforced in the 19th and 20th centuries by the influence of Japanese scholars and, in many cases, even today remain fixed notions with diverse connotations and historical understandings. However, during Buddhism’s revival and self-assertion process in China in the post-Mao era, young Buddhist leaders’ vision to form a comprehensive and global Buddhism instead of restricting themselves to the historical school affiliations of their monasteries has become more evident. The aspect of “networking beyond the borders of one’s school” has also played a key role There have been a lot of discussions and diverse interpretations regarding what constitutes the so-called “sinicisation” of Buddhism in Medieval China. For some of these questions, see Zürcher 1984, and Friedrich 2001. 6 Cf. Schmidt-Glintzer 1982, and Young 2015. 7 For the meaning of the chan (dhyāna) cf. Nyanatiloka 1954 s.v. jhāna, and Vetter 1988. On the history of the Chan (Zen) school cf. Dumoulin 1985, and Hong 2000. 5 56 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA in Master Dayuan’s ideology, which aligns itself with both Chinese Chan and Tantric practices. While Dayuan officially represents a successor of the Chan school, via the platform of Liuzu Monastery, he also supports other monasteries which historically belong to alternative traditions. Examples are the Chongren Monastery 崇仁寺, which highlights the teachings of the Avataṃsaka school (Huayan zong 华严宗) and the Huizhao Monastery 慧照寺, which once specialised in teachings of the Vijñānavāda school (Weishi zong 唯识宗). Ven Dayuan renovated both of these monasteries at the end of the 1990s and in the early 2000s (§4.2). In this sense, the initiatives of Ven. Dayuan no longer imply a strict genealogy but rather engage with a wide variety of Buddhist communities that have become part of an extensive network built by Liuzu Monastery. Some of these monasteries also serve as one of the eleven Meditation Centers (Liuzusi chanxiu zhongxin 六祖寺禅修中心) under this network, which is set up in different provinces (see appendix 2). 2.3. The Relevance of Administrative Structures and Buddhist Education In order to understand the background of Master Dayuan’s access to Buddhist leadership, it is necessary to review the consequences of the easing measures after the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976),8 when the responsible authorities in China began gradually allowing more “Religious freedom” (zongjiao xinyang ziyou 宗教信仰自由), though not without monitoring by the government.9 The following diagram shows the basic structure of how religious life in Chinese Buddhist communities has remained regulated at various administrative levels. This system has had a crucial impact on how the young and well-educated generation gain leading positions in the religious context. The “political” position of Abbot Dayuan, for example, is located at the provincial level of Guangdong, i.e., not in Peking’s power centre (§2.4). 8 In general, the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (十一届三中全会) in 1978 is seen as a turning point for China’s reform. However, in the Buddhist context, the new easing measures only began a few years later, gradually in the early 1980s. For some concrete examples see §3. An important collection of laws and regulations that were passed from 1979 to 1994 (immediately after the Cultural Revolution), so far, has not been widely researched, see: Xinshiqi Zongjiao Gongzuo Wenxian Xuanbian 新时期宗教工作文献选编 [Laws and Regulations for Religious Affairs in the New Era 1979–1994]. 9 Cf. Laliberté 2011. Concerning revitalizing Buddhist tradition in general cf. the contributions in Chau 2011, Goossaert 2016 (e.g. Xue Yu 学愚, “Buddhism and the State in Modern and Contemporary China”), and Ji 2019a. 57 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA CPC Central Committee The Ministry for Working on the United Front, subordinate directly under the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (中共中央统一战线工作部, established in 1938 during the Anti-Japanese war). The Second Department of this ministry is responsible for minorities and religious affairs. Central Administration The State Office for Religious Affairs (国家宗教事务局) reports to the State Council of the People’s Republic of China. Its First Department is responsible for Daoism and Buddhism. This office is also the overall authority for “The Buddhist Association of China” (BAC 中国佛教协会, established in 1953). Provincial Administration “The State Office for Religious Affairs” as well as “The Buddhist Association of China” have offices in each of the twenty-three provinces, five autonomous areas and four municipalities. All matters relating to Buddhist institutions such as construction of a new temple e.g. must be applied for starting at the lower levels and finally approved by the central authority in Beijing. Early on, during the time of China’s Reform and Opening-up in the late 1970s, Zhao Puchu 赵朴初 (1907–2000),10 one of the founders and then president of the Buddhist Association of China (BAC),11 frequently emphasised that the most critical task for the revival of Buddhism should be the education of monastics as well as Buddhist scholars.12 This task was to remedy the vast For biographical information about Zhao Puchu cf. Yang 2009, Chapter “Zhao Puchu renjian fojiao sixiang shilun” 赵朴初人间佛教思想试论 [On Zhao Puchu’s Idea of Human Buddhism], and Ji 2017. 11 Concerning the BAC, see the introduction to this special issue by Xuan/Krause. The purpose of this association which now has its headquarters in the Guangji Monastery 广济寺 in Beijing, is to unite the three main traditions of Buddhism that have long coexisted in China: (a) the East Asian “Mahāyāna” Buddhist tradition, which follows Buddhism according to Chinese translations (hanchuan fojiao 汉传佛教), (b) Lamaism, which uses the canon in Tibetan translations (zangchuan fojiao 藏传佛教), and which was also adopted by the Mongols (as rulers of China: 1271–1368) and the Manchus (as rulers of China: 1636–1912), (c) the South East Asian “Theravāda” Buddhist tradition (shangzuo fojiao 上座佛教), which is practised by some minorities in southern China on the border to Myanmar and Laos. For information on how the BAC came into being, cf. Li Gang 2005, Wen 2006, and Ji 2016. 12 See the well-known statement by Zhao Puchu: “First is education, Second is also education, and Third is still education” (diyi shi rencai peiyang, di’er shi rencai peiyang, disan haishi rencai peiyang 第一是人才培养，第二是人才培养，第三还是人才培养). An overview of Buddhist education after the founding of the BAC in 1953 can be found in Xuecheng 2016; cf. also Ji 2019b. 10 58 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA amount of knowledge about Buddhism that had become lost after the prolonged interruption of almost 30 years (since 1949 and in wartime before). Such knowledge included an understanding of the Buddhist teachings, ritual practices, and administrative experience for managing monasteries. Since the late 1970s, a number of measures have been taken in order to increase the religious education of the monastic community. One of the important ventures has been the establishment or expansion of Buddhist academies (foxueyuan 佛学院), which currently number fifty in total in mainland China.13 Like Abbot Dayuan (§3.3), many of today’s young Buddhist leaders have studied in and graduated from such institutions. 2.4. Two Types of New Leaders in Contemporary Chinese Buddhism Because of the dynamic development of Buddhism in the post-Mao era, the need to lead the rapidly growing Samgha has become all the more pressing. According to statistics published on the website of the Buddhist Association of China,14 “There are – as of 2012 – more than 33,000 Buddhist event venues [monasteries] used by 240,000 monks and nuns in total who belong to the three major languages [Chinese, Tibetan and Thai]. With regard to the Chinese tradition, there are about 28,000 monasteries and roughly 100,000 monks and nuns. Some 130,000 monks and nuns are housed in 3,000 Tibetan monasteries. Around 1600 Theravāda monasteries give shelter to nearly 10,000 monks (2,000 nuns among them). There are currently 38 Buddhist academies and colleges of various levels and more than 100 Buddhist periodicals. Buddhist websites with a certain influence number about 200. Almost all Buddhist communities in various circles carry on charity organisations and Buddhist cultural institutions. According to incomplete statistics, the current number of Buddhists in China is above 100 million.” Regarding the quality of education and curriculum at Buddhist academies in China, see a series of articles collected in vol. 12 of the Journal Wuyue fojiao 吴越佛教 2017 [Buddhism in Province Zhejiang and Jiangsu]. In this volume, two reports based on field research are also particularly important, Xuan 2017, and Song/Huang 2017. 14 Cf. Zhongguo fojiao xiehui 2020. Presumably due to the unexpected changes of the BAC’s leadership in summer 2018, these quoted statistics from 2012 have not yet been updated on the official website of the BAC. However, one can assume that the number of Buddhist followers in China may have significantly increased in recent years, to an estimated 200 million. 13 59 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 截止至2012年，三大语系佛教活动场所有3.3万余座，僧尼约 24万人，其中汉传佛教寺院2.8万余座，僧尼10万余人；藏传佛教寺院3000余座，僧尼13万余人；南传上座部佛教寺院1600余座，僧人近万人（其中比丘2千多人）。现有各种不同层次的佛学院38座，佛教期刊100余种，较有影响的佛教网站近200家。各地佛教界均设有公益慈善组织和佛教文化机构。据不完全统计，目前中国的佛教徒人数有1亿多人. The BAC was designed as a modern institution for the guidance of Chinese Buddhists on a national level. However, its design has not focused on placing leadership in the hands of a sole Buddhist representative. Instead, “leadership” in China’s Buddhist communities has almost always been characterised by strong regionalism, a condition due to the different schools’ historical developments and trajectories, and the wide distribution of the religion still present in the current landscape. From the political perspective, in modern China, the term “leader” (lingxiu 领袖), which also includes the connotation “spiritual leader”, has been reserved for five figures: K. Marx, F. Engels, W. Lenin, J. Stalin and Z. Mao, as was once portrayed at Tian’anmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace 天安门) from 1949 to 1989. It is highly important to observe that as the reform process continues, people in China increasingly search for “spiritual guidance” concerning their religious beliefs. This trend is slowly replacing the statues of political leaders. In the religious sphere, one may differentiate between two types of leaders in contemporary Buddhism in China: • “Official-like Religious Leaders” (guanyuanshide zongjiao lingxiu 官员式的宗教领袖); this type refers mainly to the monastic officials commissioned in various areas concerning Buddhist affairs, who have been promoted by state authorities in the long term towards a special career. They are mostly acting in different central institutions of the Buddhist Association of China or as representatives of China’s Political Consultative Conference (Zhengxie 政协) etc. (§2.3) 60 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA • “Grassroots Religious Leaders” (caogenshide zongjiao lingxiu 草根式的宗教领袖); this type refers mainly to the monastic leaders who are – in the first place – deeply rooted in their local monasteries, which they have solidly built up as the basis for further activities. Such leaders’ great success and the overwhelming approval of lay supporters lead to their eventual recognition by the authorities, e.g., as a representative of a provincial Buddhist association. Master Dayuan belongs to the “Grassroots Leaders” category, because he attaches great importance to working at the grassroots level in order to show as many people as possible the Buddhist way to salvation (§3 and §4). He does not seem to be interested in residing at the centre of political power; on the contrary, he seems to avoid the political stage deliberately. During the transformation of China’s planned economy to a market economy that began in the post-Mao era, and which became marked by severe social problems, countless Chinese, once again, turned spiritually towards Buddhism. Religious leaders such as Abbot Dayuan have, therefore, become adored by their followers as “spiritual leader(s)” (§1). The approximately two dozen public posts that Ven. Dayuan now holds, such as Vice President of the Buddhist Association of Guangdong Province (§6.1), were, in fact, only assigned to him after his strategy “From the ground up” brought great success and an increase in his following. Such specific factors have shaped the public image of Master Dayuan as a Buddhist leader in contemporary China. Thus, they deserve analysis in the present case study in order to determine their level of effectiveness. 61 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 3. Abbot Dayuan as the New Generation’s Pioneer for Buddhist Revival in China 3.1. Ven. Dayuan’s Family Origin15 Venerable Dayuan 大愿 was born as the eldest of three siblings in September 1971 in the urban area Yiyang of Hunan Province. His birth name (suming 俗名) was Chen Yihua 陈一华.16 His father was a high school teacher and his mother a pious Buddhist who often took him to visit Buddhist sites. Both of Dayuan’s parents followed him years later and eventually found their way into the Saṃgha as well. Master Dayuan, Copyright and provided by Liuzu Monastery The curriculum vitae of Ven. Dayuan is based on the website of the Liuzu Monastery (https:// lzs.hrzh.org: Dayuan fashi jianjie 大愿法师简介 [About Dharma Master Dayuan]) and a short report that Mr. Zhang Zhenyu 张振宇 on behalf of the Liuzu Monastery sent to me in the Summer of 2018. More information about Ven. Dayuan can also be found at each website of Liuzu Monastery’s related monasteries (see appendix 2), e.g. of the Xiaoling-shan Monastery in Hong Kong 小灵山灵显法院: siulingshan.org.hk. However, the current data in all these sources is rather limited, and is now being supplemented and corrected by more extensive research and by several WeChat interviews with Abbot Dengjue, especially with regard to Dayuan’s study of Tibetan Buddhism (§3.4) and via the historical background of some Chinese monasteries where Ven. Dayuan studied and taught for years. 16 Both the Buddhist monks and the nuns in China are registered under their secular name, which also appears on their identity cards and passports. The “dharma name” (faming 法名) is used only in the Saṃgha. 15 62 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA In 1988, Dayuan (then Chen Yihua) started to study at the Hunan University of Applied Sciences for Finance and Economics (Hunan caijing xueyuan 湖南财经学院). At the University, he also came to know more about traditional Buddhist culture and literature. Like many others of his generation, he too developed an intense religious interest in Buddhism. During a visit to Lushan Temple 麓山寺 (built in 268), located near his University in the capital city of Hunan Province, Changsha, the young Dayuan prayed in front of the statue of Avalokiteśvara, the Bodhisattva Guanyin of a Thousand Arms and Eyes (qianshou guanyin 千手观音). At that moment, he recalls having felt a deep connection, which he understood as the indication of a turning point in his life. 3.2. From the University to the Buddhist Saṃgha After this experience, Dayuan, after only three terms, left his university education in Spring 1990. His first Buddhist teacher, Ven. Tianzhu 天柱 (1921– 2011) accepted him as a novice, allowing him to receive the primary monastic consecration (tidu 剃度, Sansk. pravrajyā) at the Renrui Monastery 仁瑞寺 (built in 1649) in July 1990. Dayuan’s monastic name, meaning “Big Vow”, was given by his master Tianzhu, who, since 1949, had worked tirelessly to preserve the old monastery Renrui (see §3.5 and §4.3). In 2016, Ven. Dayuan described his first encounter with Master Tianzhu as follows: “At that time, public transport was not well developed. It was getting dark when I arrived in Jilong Village. Driven by my inner longing for the Dharma, I tried to walk towards the Renrui Monastery in the moonlight. Since I didn’t know the way yet, I felt pretty insecure. At that moment two young men appeared, asking me where I wanted to go. They said that they lived near the monastery. Then I followed them both. Shortly before the monastery, they said to me: “We have arrived”, then bowed, and were off. When I turned around, the boys had disappeared without a trace and I was very amazed. At eleven o’clock p.m. I finally came to the entrance of the monastery where an old monk was sitting in the moonlight and said: ‘Arrived have you?’ I asked him, ‘Who are you?’ He stood up smiling and answered: ‘I have been waiting for you’. Out of sheer surprise, I followed him to the monastery. This is how I entered the Buddhist order at the age of 19, for unimaginable karmic reasons.”17 Translated from Tianzhu laoheshang shengxi wuzhounian jinian huace 天柱老和尚生西五周年纪念画册 [Memorial Album of the 5th Anniversary of Tianzhu Abbot’s Parinirvana]. 2016: 82. 17 63 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA At Nantai Monastery 南台寺 (built in 742) in Hunan Province, Dayuan received the higher monastic consecration (juzujie 具足戒, Sansk. upasampadā) from Master Baotan 宝昙 (1925–2008).18 He also received lessons on Buddhist teachings from Master Shengyi 聖一 (1922–2010) at the Baolin (Po Lam) Monastery 寶林禪寺 in Hong Kong. Looking at Dayuan’s path from university to the Saṃgha, via the monasteries Renrui and Nantai in his home province and Baolin in Hong Kong, it becomes obvious that conditions for initiation to become a monastic novice and receive appropriate training were quite limited during the politically troubled period from 1989 to 1990. As mentioned earlier, since much knowledge about religious rules and liturgy was lost from 1949 to 1978, in the 1980s monastic life was only gradually reviving. In some publications, even the word “secularisation” has been used to describe the situation at that time. In the following 30 years, Buddhist leaders of younger generations, such as Ven. Dayuan, made great efforts to restore the Saṃgha’s discipline (Vinaya), using the canonical scriptures on monasticism (appendix 3). In order to overcome this “secularisation”, Dayuan’s search for Buddhist teachings and practice was, from the very beginning, inspired by reading all kinds of sūtras that were accessible, and by learning from eminent Buddhist masters who were reachable, sometimes even seeking out those who were abroad. 18 In 1984, the Nantai Monastery was officially returned by the government to the monks, who were once again allowed to manage their own residence. In 1987, the famous monastery welcomed Master Baotan as its new Abbot to revive the Dharma. Ven. Baotan became a monk in 1933 and received the proper consecration upasampadā in 1938. In 1957, due to critical opinions he announced at a meeting, he was mistakenly classified as a rightist partisan (youpai 右派), and mistreated for more than 20 years. After Ven. Baotan took on responsibility for the Nantai Monastery, the great monk succeeded in converting numerous people to Buddhism. With the help of the generous donations of lay believers, the ancient monastery was fully restored. A year after his death, in 2009, a stūpa was built for the extremely meritorious abbot. In a sense, the fate of Ven. Baotan’s trajectory is quite typical to that of many Chinese monks and nuns in the 20th and 21st centuries. The biographical data of Dayuan’s Chinese and Tibetan teachers mentioned in §3.2–§3.4, who are all considered famous Buddhist masters in China, are largely based on the Chinese Internet Encyclopedia “Baike.Baidu”: https://baike.baidu.com. 64 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 3.3. Study and Teaching Activities at Buddhist Academies and with Different Masters In May 1991, Ven. Dayuan started to study at the Buddhist Academy of Fujian (Fujian foxueyuan 福建佛学院), which was established in 1983.19 As mentioned above (§2.3), for young monks and nuns, three or four years of study at one of the approximately 40 Buddhist academies in China is meant to be a crucial time to broaden one’s horizons. Although a degree from one of these academies is of great importance in terms of promotion to the rank of abbot, it is nevertheless not a prerequisite for chairing a monastery, which has its own separate criteria for evaluation. However, at that time, the range of courses offered by the Academy setting was not particularly satisfactory for Dayuan. That is why he decided to discontinue his study at the Buddhist Academy of Fujian and take on a more challenging role as the chancellor (jiaowuzhang 教务长) of the Saṃgha’s education in both Yumen 云门寺20 and Nanhua 南华寺,21 two important Chan monasteries in Shaoguan of Guangdong Province. This task was offered to him by the longtime Abbot Foyuan 佛源 (1923–2009) of Yunmen Monastery, who also served concurrently as Abbot of Nanhua Monastery, starting in 1992. Master Foyuan greatly appreciated Dayuan’s knowledge and competence. From 1991 to 1995, Dayuan helped Foyuan to organise the advanced training courses for the monastic order (sengjia peixunban 僧伽培训班) in both monasteries. Ven. Dayuan’s contribution should not be underestimated with regard to the preparatory work he undertook, which later led to the establishment of the Caoxi and the Yunmen Buddhist Academies (Caoxi foxueyuan 曹溪佛学院, Yunmen foxueyuan 云门寺佛学院). 19 The monks of this academy are studying at the Guanghua Monastery in Putian 广化寺 (built in 558) and the nuns at the Chongfu Monastery 崇福寺 (built in 977) in provincial capital Fuzhou. Regarding the rapid development of Buddhism after the Cultural Revolution in Fujian Province where the religion has a particularly long tradition, cf. Ashiwa 2000. 20 The Yunmen Monastery, located in Shaoguan and built in 923, is the place of origin for one of the five branches of the Chan School: the Yunmen 云门 branch. The monastery was severely destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Starting in 1984, its Buddhist legacy began being restored under the direction of Abbot Foyuan. 21 The Nanhua Monastery 南华寺 (built in 502), is regarded as one “Ancestral Court of the Sixth Patriarch” (liuzu zuting 六祖祖庭) because the Sixth Patriarch of Chan school Huineng taught at this place for 37 years and his mummy is still kept in this monastery. After the death of Abbot Weiyin 惟因 (1914–1990), the abbot’s post of the Nanhua Monastery was represented from 1992 to 1998 by Abbot Foyuan of the nearby Yunmen Monastery. 65 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 3.4. Studying Tibetan Buddhism and Other Buddhist Traditions Tibetan monastic scholars have made considerable contributions to the revival of Chinese Buddhism. Likewise, the inclination towards Tibetan Buddhism has a long and multifaceted history in China.22 While Dayuan was actively promoting the revival of Chan Buddhist practice at famous historical sites and serving under senior Chinese monks, he also developed a strong interest in Tibetan Buddhism, Tang-period Tantrism (tangmi 唐密), Korean Chan, and Theravāda practices. He saw all of these as a means to broaden his spiritual understanding and compensate for the lack of meditation practice within the Chinese Buddhist tradition. In the 1980s, Buddhist teachings expounded by learned Tibetan masters began becoming increasingly attractive to Chinese monks; this was also because much knowledge had become lost in Chinese-speaking areas between the 19th and 20th centuries. Thus in the early 1990s, in addition to lectures given by masters in Tibetan-speaking areas, diverse and lively exchanges between Chinese and Tibetan monks were also taking place, mostly in Chengdu and at Mount Wutai, where, even today, many Tibetan scholars regularly gather and give lectures by invitation. During this time, Ven. Dayuan established contact with Abbot Qingding 清定 (1903–1999)23 of the Zhaojue Monastery in Chengdu. Ven. Qingding was considered one of China’s most learned monks, combining Buddhist knowledge and practice from both Chinese and Tibetan traditions. It was master Qingding who recommended Dayuan to listen to the lectures given by the great scholar, Dr. (དགེ་བཤེས།) rGyal-mtshan Sha-kya རྒྱལ་མཚན་ཤ་ཀྱ་ 坚赞释迦 (1915–1999)24 at the 22 On the role of Tibetan Buddhism in contemporary China, esp. in Sichuan and Qinghai provinces, see Smyer Yü 2012. 23 After having obtained a degree in philosophy and a second degree in military science, he first worked for many years in a high teaching position in the army. Disappointed by the government’s policies at the time, he finally joined the Buddhist order in 1941. Unfortunately, Ven. Qingding was sentenced to imprisonment in 1955 and released 20 years later, only thanks to a personal instruction given by Prime Minister Zhou Enlai 周恩来. In 1985, the Saṃgha of the Zhaojue Monastery 昭觉寺 (built in 877) in Chengdu welcomed the master as their abbot. 24 Main biographical data about rGyal-mtshan Sha-kya’s life starts with the age of seven, the Tibetan boy entered the big Gelug monastery Ganden Songtsenling (དགའ་ལྡན་སུམ་རྩེན་གླིང), today located in the Tibetan autonomous district bDe-chen of Yunnan Province. At the age of 18, the novice went to Lhasa and studied at the Sera Monastery where he obtained the higher ordination (upasaṃpadā) at 21 years old. After the unrest in Tibet in 1959, there was no monk in the Sera Monastery who was able to hold the half-monthly confessional ceremony (gSo-sbyoṅ, Poṣadha) 66 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Sera Monastery (སེ་ར་དགོན) near Lhasa in the time that followed. Using vacation times between the training courses he organised at the Yunmen and Nanhua Monasteries in 1991–1995, Ven. Dayuan traveled several times to the Sera Monastery in Tibet, located north of Lhasa and belonging to the Gelug tradition. It was here that Master rGyal-mtshan Sha-kya taught as Khenpo (堪布) from 1982 continuously until 1998. The lectures given by the Khenpo had been translated into Chinese by the well-educated Lotsawas (interpreters) who were among his bilingual students. At the Kumbum Champa Ling in Qinghai Province, where Tsongkhapa once taught, Ven. Dayuan also searched for Buddhist knowledge and practised meditation in seclusion. With Master Jigme Phüntshog 晋美彭措法王 (1933– 2004) and Long Duo Rinpoche 龙多活佛 (1955–), he studied the Nyingma teachings such as the “Great Perfection” Dzogchen (Atiyoga, Chin. da yuanmanfa 大圆满法) at the Larung Buddhist Academy.25 In order to practise this teaching, in 2002, after having become an established teacher himself, Ven. Dayuan encouraged more than a hundred of his disciples to travel with him from the Pearl River Delta to gSer-rta in Sichuan to bring Master Jigme Phüntshog their great veneration personally. Furthermore, Ven. Dayuan attended many courses of Tibetan scholars hosted by the Gelug Monastery Yuanzhao 圆照寺26 on Mount Wutai and by the Zhaojue Monastery in Chengdu. In addition, he followed the guidance given by the Byams-pa-blo-gros Rinpoche 强巴洛珠仁波切 (1917–2002) of the Yokhang in Lhasa, by the Gelug Rinpoche Guṅ-thaṅ-tsaṅ 贡唐仓活佛 (1926– by reciting the Sūtra containing the confessional forms (So-sor thar pa´i Dor, Prātimokṣasūtra). Therefore, the monks asked rGyal-mtshan Sha-kya as a specialist in monastic discipline (´Dul-ba ´dsin-pa, Vinayadhara) to carry out this important ceremony. For this reason, he was sentenced to ten years in prison. When he was released in 1970, roughly another ten years of the Cultural Revolution followed in which he had to hide his religious life. From 1982 to 1998 he taught for 17 years as a main teacher (Khenpo) in the Sera monastery, although this chair would normally be available for only six years. 25 Located in the county gSer-rta (གསེར་རྟ་རྫོང) of the Tibetan autonomous district dKar-mdzes of Sichuan Province, the Larung Buddhist College of the Five Classical Sciences (གསེར་རྟ་བླ་རུང་ལྔ་རིག་ནང་ བསྟན་སློབ་གླིང་) was established by the Nyingma Master Jigme Phüntshog (འཇིགས་མེད་ ཕུན་ཚོགས་ འབྱུང་གནས་ 1933– 2004) in 1980, greatly supported by the Tenth Panchen Lama (1938–1989) and the president of the Buddhist Association of China, Zhao Puchu who calligraphically wrote the Chinese name of the college in 1993: Seda larong wuming foxueyuan 色达喇荣五明佛学院. 26 Abbot Qinghai 清海 (1922–1991) ran this monastery in the Tibetan Gelug tradition from 1984 until his death in 1991. Abbot Haixin 海信 (1964–) then took over the leadership of the monastery from 1992 until today. 67 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 2000), by the Nyingma Master Penor Rinpoche 贝诺法王 (1932–2009), and by the Khejok Rinpoche Lobsang Dhundop 祈竹仁波切 (1936-2013) of the DheTsang Monastery in Sichuan. By getting to know the Dorje Sempa method (རྡོ་རྗེ་སེམས་དཔའ, Vajrasatva, Chin. jin’gang saduo fa 金刚萨埵法) which is commonly practised by all Buddhists in Tibet, Ven. Dayuan has gained an insight into four main schools of Tibetan Buddhism, from Gelug and Nyingma to Kagyü and Sakya. Even if Dayuan’s search for various traditions of Buddhist teachings did not always necessarily lead to an equal level of spiritual understanding, the experience of learning with different masters was a decisive part of this stage of his career. For instance, in the mid 1990s, when the Korean Seon master Seungsahn 崇山禅师 (1927–2004) of the Jogye order, founder of the international Kwan Um School of Zen, came to visit the Nanhua Monastery and guide a seven-day meditation practice, he was very impressed by how the young monk Dayuan was able to give him perfect answers to a series of questions. As recognition, the Korean teacher gave Dayuan – in a symbolic gesture – a scripture about Chan in the hopes that he would pass on the Seon teaching. In 2005, the 52nd successor of the Chinese Vajrayana tradition, Ācārya Wu Xinru 吴信如 (1926–2009) handed a holy scripture concerning the Chinese Vajrayāna (tangmi 唐密) over to Ven. Dayuan in order to transmit this lineage. Master Dayuan also greatly appreciated the widespread Vipassanā meditation method (neiguanchan 内观禅) practised by the popular Burmese-Indian teacher Satya Narayan Goenka (in Chinese known as 葛印卡 , 1924–2013). So Dayuan incorporated this practice into his own meditation courses and recommended his followers to use the video recording by master Goenka as a guide.27 27 From 2011 to 2019, Ven. Dayuan made a series of exchanges and encounters possible between the Liuzu Monastery and leading Buddhists in Myanmar. In recent years, young monks and nuns from Liuzu Monastery have been regularly sent to the major meditation centers in Myanmar to be trained by Burmese masters. For more details, see reports on monastery’s website. 68 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 3.5. Becoming Abbot of Renrui Monastery at Age 24 In light of his loyalty, successful management, spiritual development and selfdiscipline, in 1995 Ven. Dayuan was promoted to be Abbot of the Renrui Monastery on Mount Qi, based on the recommendations of Master Tianzhu of the Renrui Monastery and Abbot Foyuan of the Yunmen and Nanhua Monasteries. Thus, at the age of 24, Dayuan became one of the youngest Buddhist leaders in China. According to Dayuan’s account concerning his “Ascension to the [Saṃgha’s] Head Seat” (shengzuo 升座), taking over the leadership of a monastery at such an early stage was not something he necessarily wanted, as the responsibility would hinder his studies and limit time for meditation. However, he felt he had no choice but to meet the expectations of his revered teachers.28 The Renrui Monastery played an essential role in the process of reviving Buddhism that started in the 19th century. Several leading figures have led or visited the monastery; some even lived and practised meditation there for several years. In 1889, Master Xuyun 虚云 (1840–1959) paid a visit to Ven. Hengzhi 恒志 (1811–1875), who started to rebuild the monastery in 1866, and brought about a new period of success in monastic life. Under the guidance of Master Hengzhi, the famous Buddhist monk-poet known as the “Eight Fingered Dhūta” (Bazhi toutuo shi jing’an 八指头陀释敬安, 1851–1912)29 stayed in this monastery for five years, focusing on strict spiritual practice until he attained enlightenment. When Master Taixu 太虚 (1889–1947), the initiator of “Humanistic Buddhism” or “Engaged Buddhism” (renjian fojiao 人间佛教), officially took over the leadership of the Renrui Monastery as Abbot on January 1st 1943, Dayuan’s teacher, Ven. Tianzhu, was a novice twelve years old. In this sense, Ven. Dayuan’s role as leader of Renrui Monastery (1995–), can be traced back to the legacy of Taixu, who was one of the most eminent and progressively oriented monks of the 20th century. Furthermore, Master Dao´an 道安 (1907–1977), who in many ways made great contributions to the reforms of Buddhist education in Taiwan from the 1950s to the 1970s, spent his monastic life in the Renrui Monastery from 1927 to 1930. There, in 1929, he was assigned to look after and assist guest monks (ketang zhike 客堂知客). His student, Ven. Huimin Bhikṣu 惠敏 (1954–), who now heads the Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts in Taiwan, made two pilgrimages to the Renrui Monastery. See Tianzhu laoheshang shengxi wuzhounian jinian huace 2016: 82. This monk is said to have once burned two fingers in front of Buddha’s statue to demonstrate his pious belief, thus leaving him with only eight fingers remaining. 28 29 69 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA It is also important to note that, from the very beginning, Ven. Dayuan was appointed as fangzhang (方丈), the highest rank among abbots in contemporary China. This post includes the possibility of eventual promotion to zhuchi (住持), usually translated as “abbot”, a post that allows one to lead multiple monasteries simultaneously (appendix 2).30 3.6. The New Monastery of the Sixth Patriarch and its First Abbot Dayuan Around the time that Ven. Dayuan took over the post as Abbot of Renrui Monastery in Hunan, another important event occurred amidst the Chinese Buddhist community. In 1995, two years before Hong Kong was returned to China, a massive fundraising campaign was carried out by followers of the Chan school in Hong Kong to rebuild the Liuzu Monastery in the small town Sihui (四会), which is administratively subordinate to the city of Zhaoqing ( 肇庆) 31 of Guangdong Province. The monastery is named “Liuzu” after the Sixth Chan Patriarch Huineng 慧能 (638–713), who is said to have meditated in seclusion for 15 years in the forests of Sihui before he became officially accepted as the successor of the Fifth Patriarch Hongren. Hong Kong and the adjacent Guangdong Province have always remained connected in ethnic, linguistic, and cultural terms. The original Liuzu Monastery, established during the Tang dynasty (618–907) and restored in 1809, has always been an important pilgrimage site for Chan Buddhism followers in the Pearl River Delta region, including Hong Kong. After the new monastery’s construction began in 1997, a selection process for its managing abbot (zhuchi) took place all over China. The chosen abbot would also supervise the construction work as its jianxiu (监修), an official title often given to a monk for several years when a large monastery is being In today’s China, the office “zhuchi” (住持) may be designated by the leadership of one’s own monastery, small or large; i.e. this position must not be approved by a higher authority. The procedure of promoting a monk to “fangzhang” (方丈), however, is much more demanding. In the first step, “recommendations” (tuiju chengxu 推举程序) from several highly respected senior monastics (gaoseng dade 高僧大德) are required. Next, the local authority for religious affairs must be informed about the person’s choice in order to officially permit it. At any rate, the monastery should have a certain size. Therefore, the solemn and honorable ceremony “Ascending to (the Saṃgha’s Head) Seat” (shengzuo 升座) will be only performed for a fangzhang. 31 Meanwhile, Zhaoqing city where Liuzu Monastery is located belongs to the nine priority cities of the “Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area”, which started in 2017. Because of his great merits for the area Zhaoqing and Sihui, Ven. Dayuan has been elected as Representative of the People’s Congress of Zhaoping City and received the title “Honorary Citizen of Sihui City”. 30 70 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA built. In 1999, Ven. Dayuan, who was then the Abbot of Renrui Monastery in the neighboring Hunan Province, was selected. Finally, five years later, in 2004, when the new monastery (located in a complex consisting of 120,000 sq. meters) was complete with 20,000 sq. meters of usable space, Ven. Dayuan was promoted to first Great Abbot (fangzhang), the position he still holds today.32 Despite this new endeavour, Ven. Dayuan has also remained Abbot of the Renrui Monastery. However, the new Liuzu Monastery, which differs significantly from Renrui Monastery, offers new possibilities for Dayuan’s creative development. Liuzu Monastery has thus become the headquarters for Ven. Dayuan’s vision of constructing an authentic, globally-oriented Saṃgha. Likewise, the spiritual legacy of the famous medieval Sixth Chan Patriarch of China, Huineng, has given Dayuan a deeper historical basis. In particular, Huineng’s legendary fifteen years of meditative seclusion, which took place on the Monastery’s site, has given Dayuan further inspiration to focus on diverse aspects of Buddhist meditation practice. From the relatively remote and secluded location of Liuzu Monastery, situated far away from any major cities, in the last 25 years, Ven. Dayuan has succeeded in focusing all of his energy and power to revive Buddhist tradition and culture in China and abroad. By synergising monastic and lay supporters’ combined efforts, around 40 monasteries have been renovated and restored to full use for religious life (appendix 2). These monasteries work in tandem with Liuzu’s headquarters and represent a national network under Dayuan’s leadership. Its large community and countless supporters have made it possible to establish the “Tianzhu Foundation” (§4.3) and sponsor many other projects around the world. (§5) 32 See Baidu Encyclopedia under item Dayuan fashi 大愿法师 [Master Dayuan]: https://baike. baidu.com: On April 25th acc. to the lunar calendar in 2004, about 30,000 people from 20 different provinces of China including Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan, as well as from other countries such as India, attended Dayuan’s ceremony “Ascension to the Abbot’s Seat” (shengzuo yishi 升座仪式). Eminent monks from various monasteries, great patrons of Buddhism, monks, nuns and lay followers of numerous Saṃghas as well as representatives of government authorities gathered in the newly initiated Liuzu Monastery in Sihui. Mr. Ye Xuanping 叶选平 (1924–2019), Vice Chairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, and Master Yicheng 一诚 (1926–2017), President of the Buddhist Association of China, sent their congratulations with Chinese calligraphy to the new abbot. Both, Ven. Mingsheng 明生 (1960–), Vice President of the Buddhist Association of China and Ven. Xincheng 新成 (1919–), President of the Buddhist Association of Guangdong Province personally accompanied Dayuan to his abbot’s seat (songzuo 送座). 71 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 4. Ven. Dayuan’s Concept for Reviving Buddhism and his Key Achievements As Ven. Dayuan has become more influential as the Buddhist leader of a broader, global network, he has continued to more accurately shape his agenda, systematically honing in on a diverse set of working models. After 25 years, his efforts have led to great success in devising the following four systems:33 Systematic Designation and Structure of Working Areas Correspondence to the Respective Buddhist Deities and their Ideals Setting up centres for practising meditation (修证体系) Following the great vows practised by Bodhisattva Samantabhadra Offering social services and charities (社会化服务体系) Following the great compassion of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara Establishing the subject “Chan Studies” at universities (佛教学科体系) Following the great wisdom of Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī Networking Buddhology and its inherent missions around the world (国际弘法体系) Following the great vow of Bodhisattva Kṣiṭigarbha Due to the limited scope of the present article, Ven. Dayuan’s diverse achievements can only be mentioned here in key words; further research will be needed to investigate these different branches in detail. Excluding Dayuan’s overall ideology for reviving Buddhism, insofar as it can be seen in the agenda above and related activities, I will briefly examine a few fundamental issues which may explain Dayuan’s enormous success in addressing such a broad audience. These issues include (a) dusheng 渡生 (helping human beings to achieve salvation through Buddhism: §4.1), (b) xiumiao 修庙 (constructing monasteries for the Saṃgha: §4.2), and (c) cishan 慈善 (engaging in charitable work for the socially disadvantaged: §4.3). However, the focus of this case study is on the issue of “national and international cooperation projects with universities” (hongfa 弘法: §5.1-§5.3). 33 For more details and current projects, I refer to the monastery’s website: https://lzs.hrzh.org. 72 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 4.1. Re-forming the Saṃgha through Pravrajyā (剃度) and Bodhisattvaśīla (菩萨戒) From the mid-1980s to the late 1990s, most Buddhist communities in China faced two challenges: first, the monasteries were largely damaged or abandoned; second, there were very few trained monks or nuns who were able to give sound explanations of the sūtras and to carry out Buddhist rituals. In other words, the Saṃgha barely existed in many places.34 At the same time, the number of people interested in entering the Saṃgha, especially young people, was increasing rapidly.35 Thus offering access to the Saṃgha became a priority. Beginning in 1995, utilizing his multilocal leadership, Ven. Dayuan paved the way for more than a thousand male and female novices to enter the Saṃgha, by granting them primary monastic consecration (pravrajyā, Chin. tidu chujia 剃度出家). The higher ordination (upasaṃpadā, Chin. juzujie 具足戒) takes place when a novice has passed the trial period of two years. Today, Dayuan’s disciples take on active roles in any one of the roughly 40 monasteries that remain connected via the Liuzu headquarters in Sihui. Meanwhile, some of these disciples are also leading monasteries, such as Abbot Dengjue 登觉 (1976–) who, succeeding his teacher Dayuan, has run the Linghui Monastery 灵惠寺 as fangzhang since 2014 (appendix 2, no.4), as well as Abbot Dengning 登宁 (1977–) who has run the Daxing Chan Monastery大兴禅寺 in Huaihua since 2018 (appendix 2, no.13).36 In the first decades after the foundation of the People’s Republic, traditional Chinese culture, including all religion, was practically forbidden for ideological reasons. Especially from 1957 (Anti-Rightist Campaign, fanyou 反右) to the end of the “Great Cultural Revolution” in 1977 (wenge 文革), followers of Buddhism also endured severe suffering such as persecution, discrimination and forced secularisation; monasteries with cult pictures and cultural objects were destroyed, set on fire, closed or used for other purposes. This brutal oppression of Buddhists (fa’nan 法难), which was due to the radical anti-traditionalist policies of both the Republican (1912–) and Communist regimes (1949–), is comparable to the so-called “Four Annihilations of Buddhism” (miefo 灭佛) in ancient Chinese history (446–452, 574–578, 842–846, 955–959), and will likewise “go down in history” with related stigma. 35 I am indebted to C. Krause for the following note concerning the self-value orientation of China’s young generation: “The 1996 national survey of youth by China Youth and the Children Research Center reveals that 77.5% of the youth consider the realisation of self-value as their life goal; meanwhile, 50.3% of the surveyed confess that the primary reason for their hard work is to realise their own value. Therefore, “self-realisation” is the salient characteristic of the value orientation of contemporary youth”, quoted from Xi/Xia 2006: 84. 36 As successor to his teacher Dayuan, zhuchi Chanding 禅定 (1988–) has run the Lingquan Monastery in Wuhan since 2016 (appendix 2, no.22). The young abbot managed to get the monastery through the corona crisis when Wuhan was shut down for 76 days in spring 2020. Also 34 73 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Currently, around 200 monks reside in the headquarters monastery alone. Ven. Dayuan has also taken over the leadership of various nunneries where more than 200 nuns are housed, mainly in the Huizhao Monastery 慧照寺 in Weinan and the Daqing Monastery 大庆寺 in Wenzhou. Dayuan’s significant following of female students also reflects a recent phenomenon: that an increasing number of women across China want to enter the Bhikṣunīsaṃgha (Chin. biqiuni sengjie 比丘尼僧伽). In light of this growing number, the nunneries’ administration commissioned several experienced psychologists to look after the unique needs of nuns residing in monasteries under Abbot Dayuan. In addition to the gender factor, there is also an age-related factor that plays a role in today’s Saṃgha. With very few exceptions, a person over 50 may no longer be accepted into the monastic order. This policy is partly because the Buddhist community in China often faces severe challenges in caring for older members in their respective institutions (anyangyuan 安养院). Due to these subjects’ complexity, the details regarding gender and age cannot be dealt with in this article, and will need separate examination.37 In theory, the complete Saṃgha consists of four parts (catuṣpariṣad, Chin. sibuzhong 四部众 or daosu sizhong 道俗四众): monks, nuns, male and female lay followers. Among lay practitioners, Ven. Dayuan has managed to attract even more followers. Historically, monks and nuns have always depended on the alms given by the laity.38 However, beginning in the 7th century, adherents of the Chan school, following the instruction on the “equal importance of farming and meditation” (nongchan bingzhong 农禅并重) taught by Huineng,39 began to pursue agro-economics alongside their daily meditation. In the past 25 years of his career, to realise a Saṃgha with all its traditional components, Ven. Dayuan has authenticated the Bodhisattva vow (bodhisattvaśīla, Chin. pusajie 菩萨戒) taken by more than 7,000 lay followers in numerous special ceremonies, over which he has presided in some of the main monasteries of the Liuzu Group. Abbot Dengxi 登禧 (1972–) who independently has run the Tianlongshan Monastery 天龙山寺in Ganzhou of Jiangxi Province as zhuchi since 2007 and as fangzhang since 2016, is Dayuan’s pupil. 37 As introduced in the book Chinese Religious Life by D. Palmer et al. 2016, “Religion provides a lens through which to observe a range of complex social issues related to the economy, gender and sexuality, health and the environment, human rights, ethnicity, and globalisation”; in this regard cf. also Ji 2011. 38 With regard to the dependent relationship of the Buddhist orders to their lay supporters cf. Hu-von Hinüber 2018. 39 Cf. Wen 2000. 74 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA In this way, Ven. Dayuan brought these lay Buddhists from the lowest level of religious commitment to the highest level that a layperson can reach, namely as Upāsaka (male lay disciple, Chin. youpose 优婆塞) or Upāsikā (female lay disciple, Chin. youpoyi 优婆夷). He extended their moral obligations from merely taking the three refuges (triśaraṇa, Chin. sanguiyi 三皈依) to that of the eight additional precepts to be kept permanently and periodically observed by monks or nuns, namely twice a month on the full and new-moon days (upoṣadha, Chin. busari 布萨日). In issuing the Bodhisattvaśīla vow, Ven. Dayuan uses the canonical scripture Upāsakaśīla (Youposejiejing 优婆塞戒经) translated by Dharmakṣema 昙无谶 (385–433, see appendix 3, no. 10). Finally, be it active support for the renovation of old monasteries or the fundraising campaigns for charities and research projects, Ven. Dayuan understands how to engage his lay disciples and encourage them to give their total support to all of his projects as volunteers or as sponsors. The popularity of Ven. Dayuan is also in part attributable to his excellent sermons, which are an aspect of his charisma. The profound knowledge he has acquired from various masters (§3.2–§3.4), combined with unique rhetoric, enables him to teach believers in clear and persuasive ways. While he refers to old sūtras preserved in the Buddhist canon, he also analyzes the cause of many pertinent problems in contemporary social, family, and business contexts with the basic Buddhist notions of triviṣa (greed, aversion, and ignorance). At the same time, Liuzu Monastery’s publications office has printed or digitised over 200 books by Abbot Dayuan, mostly based on his sermons and lectures (see appendix 3, which cites the first 20 books from a long publication list, supplemented by English translations and explanations). This rich history of teaching activities allows more in depth insight into Dayuan’s method of using traditional materials to revive Buddhism in contemporary China. It deserves more intensive research on another occasion. 75 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 4.2. Restoring Old Monasteries to Create a National Network Transcending Schools As shown above (§2.2), the so-called denominations developed during the 4th to 8th centuries in different Buddhist schools have not always been strictly kept apart. Over time, particularly the Pure Land school (Jingtu zong 净土宗) and Tiantai school (Tiantai zong 天台宗) gradually merged with the Chan school. Also, in monasteries focused on doctrinally heavy philosophies such as the Consciousness-only school (Weishi zong 唯识宗), meditation exercises have also been practised and considered as the basis for the “middle way” in Buddhist teaching. Thus, traditional divisions between “schools”, based on older understandings, have become less and less relevant in China’s contemporary Buddhist landscape. Ven. Dayuan, having become a Buddhist leader so young, was often invited to take over leadership positions of smaller monasteries in his home province Hunan and elsewhere. Invitations particularly came from those sites that had to be rebuilt entirely but lacked any funding or experienced local monks to take on the task. Refusing to confine himself to any particular school per se, and following the examples given by his teachers (§3.2–§3.3), Abbot Dayuan has initiated projects to renovate or rebuild more than 30 monasteries in the past two decades. This kind of non-discriminating “cross-school aid” of Vihāras was urgently needed at the turn of the 20th to the 21st century. Many monasteries had already been run down and destroyed during the Cultural Revolution.40 Thus monasteries in such a state were incapable of preserving any peculiar tradition. While being responsible for several monasteries all over the country, Ven. Dayuan continuously looked for a balance between his own specialisation and the local needs of each monastery. Under his direction, these monasteries are now thriving with religious activity once again. For instance, the Huizhao Monastery of the Consciousness-only school, once abandoned, is now administered by thirty nuns41 and used as a meditation center. As mentioned Cf. Fisher 2008. See appendix 2, no.28. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Abbot Chanxi 禅玺) of the Dazhuangyan [Great Alaṃkāra] Monastery 大庄严寺, Ven. Fagong 法肱 and Ven. Fadi 法地 of the Huizhao Nunnery 慧照寺, who kindly supported me during my fieldwork in both monasteries in Weinan in the Summer 2018. I was greatly impressed by the unwavering commitment of the two nuns Fagong and Fadi, who – on behalf of Abbot Dayuan and with the help of a group of female lay supporters from South China - monitored the reconstruction work to transform the dilapidated old monastery into a modern nunnery. 40 41 76 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA earlier (§4), establishing centres for meditation practice (xiuzheng tixi jianshe 修证体系建设) belongs to one of the four main working models that Ven. Dayuan has systematically devised. In 2018, the Liuzu Monastery confirmed eleven monasteries as affiliated “Centers of Meditation” (禅修中心, see appendix 2), where meditation courses following instruction by Ven. Dayuan can be arranged for the general public periodically. A unique feature of Dayuan’s teaching techniques includes meeting many contemporary practitioners’ needs by offering introductions to diverse Buddhist meditation methods. One of the most popular meditation retreats provided at these centres is the traditional Vipassanā meditation method (§3.4). Dayuan’s intensive workshops teaching Tantric practices, which require a high degree of collaboration with one’s master, are also immensely popular amongst his lay followers. To make it more convenient for ordinary people to practise meditation and optimise their experience, the Liuzu Monastery has also tried introducing services such as “Acupuncture before Chan Meditating” (zhenjiu qianxingchan 针灸前行禅) as a technical supplement to established meditation methods. 4.3. Establishing the “Tianzhu Foundation” Against the backdrop of Ven. Dayuan’s growing popularity and ongoing financial support from different sides, early in 2013, around one year after the death of master Tianzhu 天柱 (1921-2011), a foundation named after that eminent monk was established by a group of young entrepreneurs who are also lay followers of Ven. Dayuan and work closely with Liuzu Monastery. The full name of the foundation is “Tianzhu Association for the Promotion of Culture and Charity of Guangdong Province” (Guangdongsheng tianzhu wenhua cishan cujinhui 广东省天柱文化慈善促进会)”, Ven. Dayuan is Executive Director of the Foundation. 77 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Master Dayuan & Master Tianzhu, Copyright and provided by Liuzu Monastery. It was Ven. Tianzhu who previously led Dayuan into the Saṃgha in Renrui Monastery in 1990 (§3.2) and, in his old age, spent a few years in Liuzu Monastery at the invitation of his former pupil.42 In a sense, the foundation’s name is a reminder of the terrible time from 1949 to 1977, when Buddhism was suppressed in China. When the People’s Republic was founded in 1949, there were still about 100 monks living in Renrui Monastery. The government tried to persuade the monks to disrobe. However, Ven. Tianzhu and 17 other monks who did not want, under any circumstances, to give up their belief and monastic life, adhered to Huineng’s ideal that “physical work has the same value as meditation practice”. In order to maintain their monastery, they worked under challenging conditions as forest labourers.43 Finally, the Renrui Monastery was preserved. Immediately after the Cultural Revolution, Ven. Tianzhu returned to the monastery and continuously worked for over 30 42 The photo of teacher Tianzhu together with his pupil Dayuan was taken in Liuzu Monastery on the occasion of Ven. Tianzhu’s 87th birthday on September 16, 2007. 43 Cf. Tianzhu laoheshang shengxi wuzhounian jinian huace 2016: 26ff. 78 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA years to promote Buddhism gradually. The foundation also pays homage to the extraordinary character of this highly revered monk, who never strove for a leading position, but left the office of abbot to the younger generation several times, while he – as the oldest monk of Renrui Monastery (shouzuo 首座: Saṃghasthavira, Thera) – always served in the background in a very modest and reserved manner. According to the legacy of the humble master, the main goal of the Tianzhu Foundation is, on the one hand, to support the clergy’s Chan spirituality by actively “Practising Meditation in Solitude” (biguan shixiu 闭关实修)44 and, on the other hand, to “Widely Spread Buddhist Charity” (guangzuo cishan 广做慈善). The Foundation, which was officially approved by the authority of Guangdong Province (registry no. 1548), has its headquarters and a public bank account in the provincial capital of Guangzhou. Endeavouring to “give back to society something that comes from society” (yuanyu shehui er huikui shehui 源于社会而回馈社会), the Foundation, as a nonprofit organisation, aims at mobilizing voluntary members whose collective goal is to carry out charitable activities that relate to society based on Buddhist wisdom.45 Although officially established outside the Liuzu Monastery, the Tianzhu Foundation also supports Ven. Dayuan’s international collaborative projects in China and around the world (see §5.1–§5.3). With this legacy of the old master in mind, a “Meditation Centre” (biguan zhongxin 闭关中心) was built in June 2011 to enable the monastic staff members to have a space to meditate in peace and reflect on the teachings they have learned. The center, which is located in a mountainforest above the precincts of the Liuzu Monastery is not accessible to visitors. During the time of the “rains retreat” (varṣā, Chin. xiaanju 夏安居), which according to the Vinaya tradition, requires monks and nuns to remain in residence in one place for three months, the monks and nuns of the Liuzu Monastery retreat to this Meditation Centre as their “rains retreat” (varṣāvāsa, Chin. anjuchu 安居处) without any visitors for the whole month of August. This can be seen as an example of how the traditional rules for monastic life have been restored. At the same time, it would be worth investigating certain adaptations which have been made based on contemporary conditions in China, including the local climate etc. 45 See the website of the foundation: www.tzwhcs.org. Examples of abundant activities organised by the association, such as some 40 offices set up in many locations, volunteer recruitment and training etc., can be seen in its annual report 2018 published on the website of Liuzu Monastery. 44 79 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 4.4. Reviving the Traditional Structure Saṃghakarma Apart from the Tianzhu Foundation’s fundraising activities, the Liuzu Monastery also receives donations from temple visitors. According to the Buddhist tradition, the monastery has established an internal administrative body to make collective decisions regarding the Saṃgha’s property and development. This highest decision-making body is called the “Saṃgha Committee” (sengjia wei[yuanhui] 僧伽委［员会］ ). This committee, consisting of a few representatives of the leading monks and nuns, decides on operations and major expenses for various internal and external purposes. In historical terms, this committee corresponds to the traditional “working meetings of the Saṃgha” (saṃghakarma, Chin. sengjia jiemo 僧伽羯磨), even if not every member of the Saṃgha has a voice (śalāk, Chin. chou 筹) today. This modern structure is shaped by the contemporary Chinese mode of decisionmaking democracy, which uses a process of both “selection and election”. Nevertheless, the “Saṃgha Committee” is an attempt to revive the traditional managing structure Saṃghakarma. 5. The National and International Network of Academic Projects In the traditional view of the Buddhist “Saṃgha of the Four Directions” (cāturdiśa-saṃgha, Chin. sifang sengjia 四方僧伽), the Saṃgha should be both multilingual and multicultural. Likewise, followers of the Buddha from all over the world belong to the same Saṃgha as one religious congregation. Considering this, the interactions between Buddhists and their monasteries in various Asian countries have played a vital role in history. Such interactions helped China begin a new reform policy in the 1980s and aided the revival of Buddhism in Mainland China and its “diplomacy via religion” initiative. Probably inspired by the activist policy of “going out [into the world]” (zouchuqu 走出去), which initially encouraged many Chinese companies in the 21st century to invest abroad, some Buddhist monasteries also began exploring how to expand their sites in other countries. Thus diverse Buddhist projects, mostly associated with missionary activities, have noticeably increased in recent years. While the Buddhist Association of China officially approved individual monasteries’ global engagement on its homepage in 2018, emphasizing the “learning” of the local language and culture, etc., Ven. Dayuan has played a pioneering role among Chinese Buddhist leaders in this regard. His unique concept was right from the start different in the way that it was not focused exclusively on religious activities, but also considered how to spread Chan culture in combination with innovative academic research projects. 80 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA To support research on the history and current development of Chan Buddhism and Chinese Buddhism in general, between 2012 and 2019, the Liuzu Monastery organised a series of collaborative projects with domestic and foreign universities. In 2017, several strong collaborative partners joined the more extensive “Tianzhu Buddhist Network.” The following parts will introduce these university collaborations in chronological order, starting with the universities in China (§5.1), and then examine some of the projects abroad (§5.2 and §5.3). 5.1. Collaborative Projects with Universities in China46 In 2013, as a first step in bridging initiatives between Dayuan’s network and universities in China, on July 1st, a collaborative agreement between Wuhan University (Wuhan daxue 武汉大学) and Lingquan Monastery 灵泉寺 was signed to establish a “Research Centre for Chan Health” (jiankangchan yanjiu zhongxin 健康禅研究中心).47 The whole concept of “Health Chan” was conceived by Ven. Dayuan based on his teachings of the Medicine Buddha Bhaiṣajyaguru, who represents the central sacred figure in Lingquan Monastery. This religious site in Wuhan was first built in 749 during the Tang dynasty and rebuilt by Ven. Dayuan, who became its new abbot in 2000. At the new site, which was expanded to 9.3 hectares in 2001, Abbot Dayuan has taught the Bhaiṣajya guruvaiḍūryaprabhāsapūrvapraṇidhānaviśeṣavistara as a basic sūtra.48 Given the numerous health problems and increasing psychosomatic illnesses present in China, Ven. Dayuan has promoted the innovative teaching of “Health Chan”. Its methodology re-interprets the traditional term “Chan” and can be seen as a new terminology related to other popular terms developed in Chinese Buddhist 46 I sincerely thank Mr. Deng Jinhua 邓金华 who worked as head of the “Department for Cooperation with Universities” of the Liuzu Monastery (liuzusi gaoxiao hezuo jiaoliuchu 六祖寺高校合作交流处) from the end of 2014 to the beginning of 2020 and personally supervised most of the projects mentioned in §5, for having made a four-page written report available to me in 2018. My latest information about Liuzusi’s collaborative projects in the higher education sector can be traced back to a speech given by Abbot Dengjue at the Hong Kong Chinese University in September 2019. 47 As reported in the Newspaper Changjiang ribao 长江日报 [Yangtse River Daily] on July 1st 2013. 48 Chinese version Yaoshi liuliguang rulai benyuan gongdejing 药师琉璃光如来本愿功德经 (Taisho Edition T. 450, 451 and 499); cf. Dayuan’s book listed in appendix 3 under no. 16: Yaoshi famen jinsheng chengjiu fa 药师法门今生成就法 [Medicine Buddha Dharma Door for Attaining Enlightenment in This Life]. 81 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA history.49 The main goal of this collaboration with Wuhan University has been to bring scholars and Buddhist practitioners together to find solutions for various health problems in contemporary Chinese society. Ven. Dayuan’s concept consists of three components: “physical health without illness, psychological health without trouble, and mental health with direction to enlightenment” (shenti jiankang wu bingku, xinli jiankang wu fannao, lingxing jiankang de jietuo 身体健康无病苦、心理健康无烦恼、灵性健康得解脱). In 2012, 2015 and 2016 respectively, the Lingquan Monastery organised three sessions of the “Hubei Symposium of Health Chan” (Hubei jiankangchan luntan 湖北健康禅论坛). This symposium brought together medical professionals, psychologists, politicians, and monastery staff. Although the proposed Research Centre has not yet come to fruition, since its conceptio Dayuan’s idea has been taken up by several research institutions for psychology, including the China University of Geosciences (Zhongguo dizhi daxue 中国地质大学)50 and Minzu University of China (Zhongyang minzu daxue 中央民族大学). In 2014, the next collaborative project followed when the Liuzu Monastery started awarding scholarships to foreign monks and students who took part in the Master’s program, “Chinese History and Buddhism” (Zhongguoshi zhuanye hanchuan fojiao fangxiang haiwai yanjiusheng ban 中国史专业汉传佛教方向海外研究生班), established in conjunction with the South China Normal University (Huanan shifan daxue 华南师范大学) in Guangzhou. Prof. He Fangyao 何方耀,51 who is responsible for administering the program, summarised its structure as consisting of courses such as “A History of Chinese Culture”, “Buddhist Cultural Exchanges between China and Other Countries”, “Buddhism Transmissions in China”. In the years 2015 to 2017, a total of nine students from abroad (Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Turkey) received scholarships in the amount of 60,000 RMB annually, covering tuition, housing 49 Such as “Agriculture Chan” (nongchan 农禅), “Martial Art Chan” (gongfuchan 功夫禅), “Medicine Chan” (yaoshichan 药禅), or the modern term “Living Chan” (shenghuo chan 生活禅) etc. 50 This university and the Liuzu Monastery signed a contract in January 2015 to jointly establish a research centre “Research Centre for Chan for Psychological and Psychosomatic Treatment” (Chan yu xinli zhiliao yanjiu zhongxin 禅与心理治疗研究中心). A conference on the theme “Chan and Psychological Trauma Therapy” took place in Wuhan in December of the same year. 51 In May 2017, Prof. He organised a personal meeting with Abbot Dayuan in Sihui and invited me to give a guest lecture for the current students of the Master’s program. Thank you to Prof. He for providing me with the statistics regarding the number of foreign students and the total amount of the Liuzusi scholarships related. 82 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA and living expenses. Thus the sum financed by the Liuzu Monastery for this program has amounted to a total of 1.44 million RMB (approx. 210,000 USD). Five of the former scholarship holders are now pursuing Ph.D. degrees at renowned universities such as Beijing Normal University and Southwest University in Chongqing. In 2015, an even more significant step was made when the Liuzu Monastery reached an agreement with the Chinese University of Hong Kong (Xianggang zhongwen daxue 香港中文大學) to establish a “Centre for the Study of Chan Buddhism and Human Civilization” (Chan yu renlei wenming yanjiu zhongxin 禅与人类文明研究中心) under the Department of Cultural and Religious Studies. This project allowed Liuzu Monastery’s initiatives to achieve semiinternational status and gain an even more academic focus.52 In this case, the Centre’s mission was to create a platform to foster more excellent academic research on Chan Buddhism. From 2015 to 2019, the joint Centre, having developed unique specialisations, found great success under the direction of Prof. Xue Yu 學愚53 and, during this time, even expanded to include five areas: (1) Promoting academic studies of Buddhism, (2) Training Buddhist scholars, (3) Enhancing academic exchange among scholars, (4) Promoting Buddhist culture, and (5) Publication. Nevertheless, early in 2020 Liuzu Monastery ceased funding the Centre. In 2016, Liuzu Monastery initiated another collaborative agreement with the Centre of Buddhist Studies at Sun Yat-sen University (Zhongshan daxue foxue yanjiu zhongxin 中山大学佛学研究中心), a renowned university in Guangzhou. One of the research areas at this Centre, which was set up in 2009 and since headed by Prof. Gong Jun 龚隽, relates to Buddhism’s development in China’s 20th and 21st centuries. With generous funding from the Liuzu Monastery, the Center was able to successfully organise two international conferences: “Buddhism in East Asia and Its Modernisation Process” (dongya For more detailed information see the website of the centre: www.crs.cuhk.edu.hk/cbhc/en/. In some ways, the joint centre with Liuzu Monastery was similar to the Centre for the Study of Humanistic Buddhism established by Fo Guang Shan (佛光山) in 2005 at the same University. At one point, the two centers set up one after the other seem to share the same Director. 53 The author would like to express my sincere thanks to Prof. Xue Yu, who kindly invited me to two conferences organised by his centre: The International Conference on “Theory and Practice of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism in a Global Context” (26–28 June 2017 in Göttingen, Germany), and The International Forum on Buddhism and the Silk Route (13–16 September 2019 in Hong Kong). 52 83 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA fojiao yu xiandaihua wenti 东亚佛教与现代化问题), held in December 2018, and “Comparative Religious Studies in the Context of Traditional Indian Culture and the Sinicization of Buddhism” (yindu chuantong wenhuazhong de fojiao yu fojiao zhongguohua 印度传统文化中的佛教与佛教中国化) that followed one year later.54 Since Sun Yat-sen University is located in the vicinity of Liuzu Monastery, domestic and foreign participants of the conferences were offered the opportunity to witness the development of Buddhism in China by visiting the host monastery. In 2017, the Liuzu Monastery made a further step, far exceeding any of its related branch monasteries, and established an agreement with the Research Centre of Buddhism at Peking University (Beijing daxue fojiao yanjiu zhongxin 北京大学佛教研究中心). One of the research areas at this centre headed by Prof. Wang Song 王颂 since 2016 concerns the critical figure of modern Buddhism in China, Master Taixu, who headed Renrui Monastery in 1943 (§3.5). The funds offered by Liuzu Monastery have been allocated for two projects at this Centre. One is a subsidy for the printing costs of publications (e.g., the critical edition of the Gaoseng zhuan《高僧传》[Biographies of Eminent Monks] by Tang Yongtong 汤用彤 in the traditional thread-bound book form, and the other supports the Centre’s lecture series (Beijing daxue fojiao xilie jiangzuo 北京大学佛教系列讲座), which invites renowned scholars from all over the world. International workshops, such as “Buddhism during the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589)” and “Avataṃsaka Studies” held in 2017, have been supported by such funding as well. While all of these collaborative projects have taken place in an academic context, their common aim is to intensify the exchange between Buddhist practitioners (jiaojie 教界) and scholars (xuejie 学界) which can be seen in many other Buddhist countries. Early on, in Wuhan, the focus was on the topic “Health Chan”, which represents one aspect of Ven. Dayuan’s teachings. However, one can see that eventually, partner universities and the content of their projects were chosen more independently to fit Liuzu Monastery’s wider initiatives. 54 The author took part in the first joint conference and participated in the organisation of the second conference, which aims to draw attention to the importance of comparative religious studies, and, in particular, to the great potential of historical sources kept in the Buddhist canons concerning the early relationship between the Jainas and Buddhists. So far, this topic has not yet been given sufficient attention in the rapidly developing area of Buddhist Studies in China, and the conference’s design can be seen as an example of its high academic ambitions. For more details cf. Hu-von Hinüber 2020. 84 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA The idea of academic collaboration may take some inspiration from pre-existing Taiwan-based Buddhist education projects. At the moment, however, for many reasons, the Liuzu Monastery’s fields of collaboration have not yet led to full study programs or even to the establishment of a fully accredited university. Hence, its endeavours are mainly concentrated on conferences, scholarships and publication support. 5.2. Collaborative Projects in Northern America and Europe55 In 2017, after several years of preparation, Liuzu Monastery began its most significant international initiative to date. It launched the “Tianzhu Global Network for the Study of Buddhist Cultures” (Tianzhu guoji fojiao wenhua yanjiu wangluo 天柱国际佛教文化研究网络) 56 at the University of British Columbia (UBC) in Canada on June 18th. As the leading partner of Liuzu Monastery,57 UBC is in charge of the whole network that includes six universities in North America and Europe. Since the partnership began, the Director of UBC’s “From the Ground Up” platform, Prof. Chen Jinhua 陈金华, has since taken on the role as chief coordinator and liaison between Liuzu Monastery and the five other international academic partners: UC Berkeley, Harvard University, Ghent University, Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales, and McMaster University. 55 In response to Max Weber’s question “What should cause a Buddhist monk, who is looking for his own salvation and entirely dependent on himself alone, to take care of the salvation of others and to undertake the mission? Where were the real practical drives?” (M. Weber, Religion und Gesellschaft, 2010: 768), the author analysed the possible motivations for Liuzu Monastery’s missionary activities in social, religious and economic terms, cf. Hu-von Hinüber 2019a: 13-17. In this context, several aspects should be considered. (1) The success of Buddhist monasteries in China also poses a danger; the historical fear of a new smashing of Buddhism (see note 34) is still present. (2) The globalisation process offers new development opportunities, also for Buddhist communities; the “going-out strategy” was officially approved by the BAC. (3) The role models from Taiwan (Fo Guang Shan) and Japan (Numata Centres) that have found relative success in some Asian and Western countries. (4) Finally, many Buddhist organisations consider it their duty to respond to the westernisation of Chinese society because young people are increasingly drawn to Christianity. 56 With regard to the eminent monk Tianzhu and the naming of the Tianzhu Foundation see §3.2, §3.5 and §4.3. For more information about the concept and activities of the network, see http://tianzhubuddhistnetwork.org/. 57 The cooperation between the UBC and Liuzu Monastery had already started before signing this contract. From August 26th to 29th, 2016 both sides held a joint symposium at the Research Center for East Asia of University Madrid on the topic “When the Himalaya meets the Alps: International Forum on Buddhist Art and Buddhism’s Transmission to Europe” (当喜马拉雅山与阿尔卑斯山相遇:佛教艺术暨佛教在欧洲的传播国际高峰论坛). 85 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA For the first five-year collaboration (2017–2022), UBC received 4.9 million CAD from the Tianzhu Foundation for Chan Buddhist studies. Likewise, each of the partneruniversities mentioned above receives annually 105,250 CAD from donation funds to support studies on Buddhism and East Asian culture and host annual conferences on Buddhist culture. The network is managed by a special Tianzhu Steering Committee that includes a representative from the donor sector and each member institution. As its long-erm goal, this network of partners promotesinnovative and interdisciplinary study of Buddhism and East Asian culture that crosses the boundaries between countries, cultures and religions. In this respect, the network’s partnerships are kept free from doctrinal expectations and follow Ven. Dayuan’s aim to support the worldwide exchange of scholars and Buddhist practitioners. Currently, funding has served to increase academic engagement opportunities in many ways. 58 For example, eminent professors can be sent as visiting professors to partner universities, where they deliver lectures on their particular area of research; postdoctoral fellows can be employed to increase the number of courses related to Buddhist studies; graduate students benefit from scholarships that allow them to enhance the quality of their dissertations. The range of the funds donated by the Tianzhu Foundation also extends to other members of the academic community via the hosting of international conferences, and to the broader public via Buddhist cultural festivals organised by the partner institutions. In addition to the four universities in North America and two in Europe mentioned above, the “Tianzhu Buddhist Network” also includes – in the sense of partnership, but not in financial terms – three universities in China, which in earlier years had already received funding from Liuzu Monastery for several projects and thus established partnerships via bilateral collaborations: Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sun Yat-sen University, and Peking University (see §5.1). In 2017, just a week after Liuzu Monastery signed the contract with UBC in Vancouver, the Monastery also signed a declaration of intent with the University of Göttingen on June 26th to establish a Buddhist studies centre. 58 Acc. to the above mentioned website of the network, the six supported partner universities have e.g. organised roughly 70 guest lectures, nine conferences, and eleven events including schoolings from 2017 to 2020. In addition, 27 visiting professors and seven visiting students could be invited by each host university. 86 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Simultaneously, the German branch of “Liuzu-Monastery” (Deguo liuzusi 德国六祖寺), complete with a meditation centre, opened in Katlenburg-Lindau near Göttingen.59 However, in 2018, only one year after opening, the centre faced several setbacks regarding administration issues in the local setting, and the University of Göttingen eventually terminated its project. Additionally, on May 25th 2017, the Liuzu Monastery funded three faculty members at the University of Akron in Ohio to establish a “Centre for Health, Happiness, and Chan” as a non-profit and non-religious organisation. The centre works with local libraries to offer free meditation classes to the public on techniques including breathing meditation, mindfulness meditation, and others.60 In 2018, after a period of preparatory work beginning in 2017, the Hungarian branch of “Chongren Monastery” was established (Xiongyali chongrensi 匈牙利崇仁寺: 1161 Budapest, XVI.ker. Pál utca 74). The original Chongren Monastery (in current-day Zhejiang Province, see appendix 2) was first built in 907 and was strongly influenced by the Avataṃsaka school teachings. Unfortunately, much of the temple was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. In 2009, Ven. Dayuan became Abbot of the monastery and has since made great efforts for its restoration. Also, based on the historical school affiliation of this monastery, its Hungarian branch has chosen Prof. Imre Hamar (郝清新), who is an internationally known specialist in Avataṃsakarelated studies and Vice President of Eötvös Loránd University, to collaborate on the project. 59 See https://www.goettinger-tageblatt.de/Campus/Goettingen/Neues-Zentrum-fuerBuddhismuskunde. I owe Prof. Thomas Oberlies thanks for this reference. More information about the background of this venture can be found in Hu-von Hinüber 2019a. The author sincerely thanks Ven. Chanli 禅理, Ven. Ruxin 如心, Ven. Hongxuan 宏宣, Ven. Fazhi 法志, and Ms. Wang Hui 王卉 for their kind support during my fieldwork researches in Katlenburg-Lindau from 2017 to 2019. 60 See www.healthhappinesschan.com/; on this website, the instruction given by Ven. Dayuan is quoted as follows: “Only those who are the master of their mind can have true compassion and love because their mind are purified. They will fill their surroundings with the vibration of loving kindness and the powerful energy of love.” 87 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 5.3. Some other International Projects and Collaborations While Ven. Dayuan’s global engagement has emphasised the support of academic research and exchange, over the years he has also initiated many other large projects with a much more religious focus. For example, in the early 2010s, one of his strategic projects was directed at several Southern Asian countries with a mainly Theravada Buddhist tradition.61 Such projects initiated large “Festivals of Buddhist Culture” (fojiao wenhuajie 佛教文化节), such as “The First Asian Buddhist Culture Festival” (with the “Angkor Wat Declaration”), held in 2011 in Cambodia; The Asian Chan Seminar, held in 2013 in Hong Kong; “The Second Asian Buddhist Culture Festival” held in 2013 in Sri Lanka; and “The Third Asian Buddhist Culture Festival and the First International Festival for Monks’ Robes” held in 2016 in Chiang Mai, Thailand. In stages, the Liuzu Monastery established four “International Huineng Colleges for Chan Studies” (Liuzu huineng guoji chanxueyuan 六祖慧能国际禅学院) in Korea, Cambodia, Thailand and Sri Lanka. To spread Chinese Chan Buddhism globally, Ven. Dayuan organised a large project translating the “Platform Sūtra of the Sixth Patriarch” (Liuzu tanjing 六祖坛经) into eleven languages. Likewise, the establishment of the “Liuzu Monastery International Academy for the Translation of Buddhist Sūtras” (Liuzusi guoji yijingyuan 六祖寺国际译经院) is also underway. Since the mid-2010s, Ven. Dayuan has led delegations to Europe and North America, searching for possibilities to establish meditation centres in other western countries. As a result, several branches of Liuzu Monastery have been established in different countries, often at the request and with the support of the local laity, such as in Germany, Hungary (§5.2), the USA,62 Canada,63 and Japan.64 In all of these cases, Dayuan’s religious activities abroad have primarily focused on Chan Buddhism. He has tried to connect this focus with academic projects via the organisation of cultural events and other endeavours. Concerning the interrelations between these Asian countries cf. Sen 2014. The “Liuzu Monastery”, US Branch (Meiguo liuzusi 美国六祖寺) was set up in San Francisco (2450 San Bruno Ave. CA 94130) in 2018. A “Liuzu Center for Chan Culture” (Meiguo boshidun liuzu wenhua zhongxin 美国波士顿六祖禅文化中心) has been established in 2019 and is located not far from Harvard University (11 Tirrell crescent, Chestnut hill. MA 02467). 63 The “Liuzu Monastery”, Canada Branch (Jianada liuzusi 加拿大六祖寺) is located in Toronto (40 Shields Crt. Markham, Ontario L3R 9T5). 64 In 2019, the „Centre of Liuzu Culture in Japan“ (Riben liuzu wenhua zhongxin 日本六祖文化中心) was set up in city Ōme of Tokyo. 61 62 88 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA 6. Concluding Remarks As shown above (§3–§5), for the last 30 years, Ven. Dayuan has both experienced and played an active role in Buddhism’s development in China. To a certain extent, Dayuan can be regarded as a bridge connecting the older and younger generations of Chinese Buddhists. On the one hand, he studied with various old masters, who had entered the Saṃgha prior to the P.R. China’s founding in 1949 and fortunately survived the Cultural Revolution. On the other hand, Dayuan represents one of many young Buddhists who converted to Buddhist practice in the post-Mao era. His unique training became bolstered by his profound emphasis on meditation practices and teachings that he sought from an array of older Chinese and Tibetan masters. At the same time, Dayuan was profoundly inspired by his own teachers’ tireless commitment to restoring Buddhism in China. 6.1. What Makes a Leading Personality in 21st Century Buddhism? The present case study has shown how Ven. Dayuan has gradually developed into one of the most influential Buddhist leaders among China’s younger generation. Starting at Renrui Monastery, where he was initially accepted as a novice by Master Tianzhu at the age of 19, Ven. Dayuan has built up a national and global network of monasteries and Buddhist cultural and education projects for almost 30 years. In summary, Ven. Dayuan’s success as a Buddhist leader can probably be associated with some very extraordinary qualities of his personality in combination with a deliberate strategic alignment: • Broad knowledge of traditional Chinese, Tibetan and Theravada Buddhism and rich spiritual experience in meditative methods • A long-term vision of a well-equipped Saṃgha for the future • A cross-school mindset to create a nationwide network of affiliated monasteries • The ability to plan and manage skillfully from an economic point of view • Creation of new concepts that reach people with unique but understandable terminology • Contemporary interpretations of Buddhist teachings with convincing and inspiring rhetoric 89 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA • Personal charisma due to his kindness and open-mindedness • Willingness to enrich the Saṃgha by way of collaboration with Buddhist scholars • Building an extensive global network following the traditional ideal of a united Saṃgha • Keeping a certain distance from the power center of politics to focus on basic work Throughout the years, Ven. Dayuan has been elected as the Vice President of the Buddhist Association of Guangdong Province (Guangdongsheng fojiao xiehui fuhuizhang 广东省佛教协会副会长) and the Representative of the People’s Congress of Guangdong Province (Guangdongsheng renda daibiao 广东省人大代表). However, even more importantly, his religious career has prioritised reviving dozens of monasteries all over China, attracting Chinese followers interested in diverse spiritual meditation methods, and inventing strategic leadership methods as Director of both the Chan Culture Research Center and the Tianzhu Foundation. Thus, Ven. Dayuan represents the quintessential example of a “Grassroots Buddhist Leader” (§2.4), whose basis for all of his activities has been a growing network of local Saṃghas and lay followers. Dayuan’s communities and organisations, most of which remain linked to his headquarters in Sihui and some of which he leads personally (appendix 2), may make up in total about 0.15% of the 33,000 monasteries in China. All in all, such an influential network can be viewed as a small window into the entire process of Buddhist revival in China, because many Buddhist communities underwent similar development in post-Mao China. Likewise, since the passing of some of the last few old masters, in many ways, the future of Buddhism in China lies in the hands of a relatively small number of Buddhist leaders with ambitious visions and rich networks. 6.2. A Retrospective Analysis of some Roadblocks in Development As Ven. Dayuan repeatedly emphasises to his disciples, the intended purpose behind all the activities in setting up a global network should originate from the sincere desire to share Buddhist knowledge and learn from local cultures and scholars’ research at collaborating universities. Thus over the years, Ven. Dayuan succeeded in meeting and fostering exchanges with almost a thousand learned monks and scholars from more than 70 countries. 90 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Looking back at the past ten to fifteen years of extremely rapid development under Dayuan as Abbot of Liuzu Monastery since 2004 (§3.6), it becomes clear that some unavoidable omissions and missteps have also occurred. This fact is also noticeable when comparing Liuzu Monastery to some of the successful institutions set up by Buddhist organisations based in Japan and Taiwan,65 all of which have been built on solid foundations, and after extensive preparation have attained more longevity and insurability. In China’s contemporary context, in many cases, insufficient preparation and pressured timelines caused by national slogans such as “Going out” have led to overly rushed programs without robust support systems for wide consultation. Also, the training of a qualified community of monks and laity lags far behind the current speed of development. Thus, these deficiencies have caused many roadblocks while driving projects forward. Finally, in the case of Liuzu Monastery, perhaps the launching of so many new initiatives within such a short period (2014–2019) can be seen as having led to overstretching capacities and resources. Ultimately, essential projects could not be adequately sustained when unexpected difficulties occurred, such as the onset of the structural break caused by the global COVID-19 Pandemic, which broke out in early 2020. The leadership of Liuzu Monastery itself has since recognised these and other shortcomings. Nevertheless, the respective departments are now in the process of compensating and learning from the past. Thus, who is to say that such daring experiments are not acceptable means of schooling-via-practice? Seen in this light, one may expect a healthy future for Ven. Dayuan and his merits in creating an incredibly large groundwork and extensive global platform. 65 Regarding the impact from Taiwan cf. Johnson 2017. 91 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Appendix 1: An Overview of the Eight Main Schools in Chinese Buddhism (4th–8th Century)66 Name of the School Founder in China Indian Master Time of arising Centre in China Canonical Script Cult Image Influence abroad Two dogmatic schools 三论宗 Sanlun zong (also known as 中观派 Zhongguan pai 、法华宗 Fahua zong) Madhyamaka School 唯识宗 Weishi zong (also known as 瑜伽行 Yujiexing 、慈恩宗 Ci’en zong) Vijñānavāda School (or Yogācāra School) Kumārajīva 鸠摩罗什 (344–413) Nagārjuna 2nd cent. in India united with the Tiantai school later on Xuanzang 玄奘 (602–664) Asaṅga & Vasubandhu 4th cent. in India; 7th cent. in China Ci’enMonastery 慈恩寺 (Xi’an) Buddhayaśas from Kashmir (translator) 5th cent. (Chinese translation) Zhongnan Mountain 终南山 Dharmaguptaka Vinaya 四分律 Sifenlü 6th cent., forbidden in 600 Fazang Monastery 法藏寺 (Anyang) Lotos Sūtra 法华经 Fahua jing Mūlamadhyamakakārikā 中论 Zhong lun etc. Hossō-shū in Japan, 7th cent. Two Law Schools 律宗 Lü zong Vinaya School Daoxuan 道宣 (596–667) 三阶教 Sanjie jiao Ascetic School Xinxing 信行 (549–594) Kṣitigarbha 地藏菩萨 Dizang pusa 66 The emphasis of the school affiliation is mostly based on a particular aspect of Buddhist teaching including epistemological philosophy (Madhyamaka and Yogācāra), the meaning of the monastic discipline (Vinaya), the importance of various meditation exercises (Dhyāna) or the belief in Buddha Amitābha’s ruling in the joyful paradise Sukhāvatī for the next rebirth etc. Accordingly, one or a few sūtras from the large variety of Buddhist scriptures will be basically used for the respective teaching concept. Sometimes, a school is just named according to the location of its spiritual centre e.g. the Tiantai school. Neither both dogmatic nor both law schools were able to assert themselves in China in the long run. The four schools of belief, on the other hand, succeeded in adopting to local circumstances over time and influenced each other as well. The meditation Chan school has become particularly popular in southern China 92 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Name of the School Founder in China Indian Master Time of arising Centre in China Canonical Script Cult Image Influence abroad Four so-called Chinese „Schools of Belief“ 净土宗 Jingtu zong School of the “Pure Land of Amitābha” 天台宗 Tiantai zong (after 13th cent. gradually united with the ChanSchool) Tiantai School 华严宗 Huayan zong Avatamsaka School 禅宗 Chan zong Meditation School Huiyuan 慧远 (334–416) 1st–2nd cent. in India; 5th cent. in China Donglin Monastery 东林寺 (Lu Mountain) Sukhāvatīvyūha 无量寿经 Wuliangshou jing Amitābha 阿弥陀佛 Amituofo Japan: 13th cent., Jōdo-shū 2nd cent. in India, 6th cent. in China Guoqing Monastery 国清寺 (Tiantai Mountain) Lotos Sūtra 法华经 Fahua jing Avalokiteśvara 观音 Guanyin Japan: 8th cent. Korea: 10th cent. Zhiyi 智顗 (538–597) Nagārjuna Dushun 杜顺 & (557–640) Fazang 法藏 (638–715) Nagārjuna Huayan Monastery 华严寺 (Xi’an) Avataṃsaka Sūtra (transl. in 418–20) 华严经 Huayan jing Vairocana 大日如来 Dari rulai Korea: 7th cent. Japan: 8th cent. Finally established by Huineng 慧能 (638–713) Bodhidharma as 28. master after Mahākaśyapa Shaolin Monastery 少林寺 (Song Mountain) Diamond Sūtra, 金刚经 Jin’gangjing Platform Sūtra of the Sixth Patriarch 六祖坛经 Liuzu tanjing Śākyamuni 释迦佛 Shijiafo Maitreya 弥勒佛 Milefo etc. Vietnam: 6th cent. Korea: 9th cent. Japan: 12th cent. Appendix 2: Some Key Monasteries related to the Liuzu Monastery (see §4.2) Name of Monastery Location In Province Guangdong 广东省 1 Liuzu Monastery / Monastery of the Sixth Patriarch (Headquarters) 六祖禅寺 (总部) 2 Cha’an Monastery 茶庵古寺 3 Guanshan Monastery 观山寺 Sihui 四会 History School Affiliation Incumbent Abbot built in 1999–2004 Chan school Dayuan appointed as administrator in1998 and as fangzhang in 2004 Meditation Centre Jiangmen 江门 Gaozhou 高州 built in 14th–17th cent. and restored in 1999 built in 14th–17th cent. and restored in 2002 93 Meditation Centre Dayuan as zhuchi since 1999 Dayuan as zhuchi since 2002 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Name of Monastery 4 Linghui Monastery 灵惠寺 Location History Maoming 茂名 built in 8th cent. and restored in 2005 Dayuan appointed as zhuchi in 2005 and elected as President of the Buddh. Assoc. of City Maoming; Dayuan’s pupil Dengjue 登觉 as fangzhang since 2014 built in 2010 Dayuan as zhuchi built in 1952 Dayuan as zhuchi In Hong Kong 香港 5 6 Renhua Monastery 仁华寺 Xiaoling Mountain 小灵山 In Province Guangxi 广西省 7 Lingyan Monastery 灵岩寺 Heshan 合山 9 10 Renrui Monastery 仁瑞寺 Xianglin Nunnery 香林庵 Qifeng Monastery 奇峰寺 11 Fangguang Monastery 方广寺 12 Xiangshan Monastery 湘山寺 13 Daxing Chan Monastery 大兴禅寺 14 Ganquan Monastery 甘泉寺 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Puti Monastery 菩提寺 Guanyin Monastery 观音寺 Feishan Monastery 飞山寺 Wufeng Monastery 五峰寺 Wenchangge Monastery 文昌阁寺 Jingxing Monastery 景星寺 Yaowang Monastery 药王寺 Incumbent Abbot built in 2014 Meditation Centre Dayuan as zhuchi Qishan 岐山 built in 1649 Meditation Centre Dayuan as zhuchi since 1995 Hengyang 衡阳 restored in 1997 Dayuan elected as Vice President of the Buddh. Assoc. of City Hengyang Hengyang 衡阳 restored in 1998 Dayuan as zhuchi since 1998 In Province Hunan 湖南省 8 School Affiliation Nanyue 南岳 built in 503 and restored in 1998 Meditation Centre Dayuan as zhuchi since 1998 built in 906 and restored in 1998 Dayuan as zhuchi since 1998 Huaihua 怀化 built in 11th cent. and restored in 1999 Dayuan as zhuchi since 1999 elected as President of the Buddh. Assoc. of City Huaihua; Dayuan’s pupil Dengning 登宁 as fangzhang since 2018 Qiyang 祁阳 built in 1470 and restored in 2001 Dayuan as zhuchi since 2001 Huaihua 怀化 restored in 2003 Dayuan as zhuchi since 2003 Jingzhou 靖州 restored in 2003 Dayuan as zhuchi since 2003 Jingzhou 靖州 restored in 2004 Dayuan as zhuchi since 2004 Jingzhou 靖州 built in 1526 Dayuan as zhuchi Changning 常宁 Yongzhou 永州 built during the Song dynasty Yuanjiang 沅江 built during 785 and 805 Hongjiang 洪江 built in 2009 94 Dayuan’s pupil Dengxian 登贤 as zhuchi AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Name of Monastery Location History School Affiliation Incumbent Abbot Wuhan 武汉 built in 749 and restored in 2001 Meditation Centre Dayuan as zhuchi since 2000, Dayuan’s pupil Chanding 禅定 as zhuchi since 2016 Xiantao 仙桃 built during 1736–1796 In Province Hubei 湖北省 22 Lingquan Monastery 灵泉寺 23 Ganlu Monastery 甘露寺 In Province Zhejiang 浙江省 24 Chongren Monastery 崇仁寺 25 Daqing Nunnery 大庆寺 Dayuan as zhuchi since 2012 Longquan 龙泉 built in 907 and restored in 2009 Wenzhou 温州 built in 942 Dayuan as zhuchi Jingning 景宁 built in 861 Dayuan as zhuchi Avataṃsaka school Dayuan as zhuchi since 2009 and elected as President of the Buddh. Assoc. of City Lishui Meditation Centre 26 Huiming Monastery 惠明寺 In Province Anhui 安徽省 27 Sanhua Monastery 三华寺 Wuhu 芜湖 In Province Shaanxi 陕西省 28 Huizhao Nunnery 慧照寺 Weinan 渭南 In Province Hebei 河北省 29 Lapsum Shedrup Ling Monastery 护国崇德寺 Shangyi 尚义 built in 10th cent. Meditation Centre Weishi zong 唯识宗 (Vijñānavāda school) Meditation Centre 5th cent. 1636 Dayuan as abbot since 2012 Meditation Centre Appendix 3: Selected Publications by Ven. Dayuan 67 Chinese Title 1.《大乘经庄严论》学记（一） (六祖寺印, 2010 年, 310 页) 2. 佛说《八大人觉经》学记（六祖寺电子版, 2 集） English Translation and Explanation by Luo Yingyu 罗英玉 and Haiyan Hu-von Hinüber 胡海燕 “Part One of the Study Notes on the Treatise Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra-kārikā [T. 1604]” Printed version, 310 pages, 2010. Based on a lecture given at Liuzu Monastery 六祖寺 in July 2008. “Study Notes on the Sūtra on the Eight Great Enlightenments of the Human Beings [T. 779, transl. by An Shigao].“ Digital version, 2 parts. Based on a lecture given at Linquan Monastery 灵泉寺 in summer 2012. As mentioned in §4.1, only the first 20 books from a long list consisting of more than 210 publications by Ven. Dayuan are cited here as specimens, supplemented with English translation and explanation. For other books see Dayuan Shuku (大愿书库 Library of Dayuan’s Books) at Liuzu Monastery’s website https://lzs.hrzh.org. I sincerely thank Ven. Wuru 悟如 and Ven. Zhipu 智普 for their kind cooperation to clarify the origin of some books. 67 95 AN ABBOT’S VISION OF AN AUTHENTIC AND GLOBAL SAṃGHA Chinese Title 3.《华严经·净行品》学记 (2006 年11月灵泉寺讲座, 六祖寺 2007 年印) 4.《华严念佛三昧论》学记 (2013 年 8 月崇仁寺讲座, 六祖寺 2013 年印, 2020 年电子版) 5.《信心铭》学记（六祖寺电子版, 9 集） 6.《八识规矩颂》学记（六祖寺电子版, 14 集） 7.《随念三宝经》学记（2006 年9 月湘山寺讲座, 六祖寺印, 350 页） 8. 佛说《盂兰盆经》学记（竖版）（六祖寺电子版,7集） 9. 造擦擦佛像·见性成佛略仪略讲 10. 居士菩萨戒略讲（内附《优婆塞戒经》学记） 11. 《金刚般若波罗蜜经》学记 12. 《六祖法宝坛经》略讲 13. 《盂兰盆经》学记-导读版（横版）（16 开） 14. 《大学直指》学记 15. 《地藏菩萨本愿经》学记 16. 药师法门今生成就法 17. 迦陵仙音· 佛说《观无量寿佛经》学记 18. 《大念处经》学记 19. 《占察善恶业报经》学记 20. 净土资粮 English Translation and Explanation by Luo Yingyu 罗英玉 and Haiyan Hu-von Hinüber 胡海燕 “Study Notes on the Chapter of ‘Purifying Practices’ of the Avataṃsaka-Sūtra.” Printed version, 2007. Based on a lecture given at Linquan Monastery 灵泉寺 in November 2006. “Study Notes on the Treatise on Attaining Samādhi by Chanting Buddha’s Name According to the Avatamsaka Tradition [composed by Peng Jiqing 彭际清 (1740–1796)].” Printed version, 2013. Digital version, 13 parts, 2020. Based on a lecture given at Chongren Monastery 崇仁寺 in August 2013. “Study Notes on the Verses on the Faith Mind [composed by Sengcan 僧璨 (495–606), the Third Patriarch of the Meditation School (Chan zong)]” Digital version, 9 parts. Based on a lecture given at Liuzu Monastery 六祖寺 in April 2012. “Study Notes on [Xuanzang’s 玄奘 (602–664)] Verses on the Guideline of the Eight Consciousnesses [aṣṭavijñānāni]” “Study Notes on the Sūtra of the Recollection of the Noble Three Jewels [transl. by Ven. Fazun 法尊 (Lop bzang cho ‘phags, 1902–1980) from Tibetan].” Printed version, 350 pages. Based on a lecture given at Xiangshan Monastery 湘山寺 on 13th September 2006. “Study Notes on the Yulanpen Sūtra [T. 16, “Odana” Rice Bowl Sūtra]” [Vertical Edition]. Digital version, 7 parts. Based on a lecture given at Mulian Monastery 目莲寺（大治）in August 2014. “A Brief Introduction to the Meaning of Making Buddhist Mini Statues Tsatsa. On the Ceremony of Becoming a Buddha by Seeing One’s Own Nature.” Based on a lecture given at Liuzu Monastery 六祖寺 in May 2011. “A Brief Introduction to the Bodhisattva Precepts of Lay Buddhists (with Study Notes on the Upasākaśīla [T. 1488, transl. by Dharmakṣema]).” Based on a lecture given at Liuzu Monastery 六祖寺 in September 2006. “Study Notes on the Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra [Diamond Sūtra].” Based on a lecture given at Linghui Monastery 灵惠寺 in December 2009. “A Brief Introduction to the Dharma Jewel Platform Sūtra of the Sixth Patriarch.” Based on a lecture given in Hong Kong (尖沙咀街坊福利会) on July 1st–3rd 2016. “Study Notes on the Yulanpen Sūtra [T.16, “Odana” Rice Bowl Sūtra]: An Introduction.” [Horizontal Edition] “Study Notes on the Interpretation of Great Learning [by Zhi Xu 智旭 (1599–1655)].” Based on a lecture given at Liuzu Monastery 六祖寺 in July 2013. “Study Notes on the Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna-sūtra [T. 421, transl. by Śikṣānanda 实叉难陀 (652–710)]. ” Based on a lecture given at Linquan Monastery 灵泉寺 on October 1st 2004. “Medicine Buddha Dharma Door for Attaining Enlightenment in This Life. [based on the Bhaiṣajyaguruvaiḍūryaprabhāsapūrvapraṇidhānaviśeṣavistara, Chin. Yaoshiliuliguang rulai benyuan gongde jing 药师琉璃光如来本愿功德经, T. 450, 451 and 499].” A lecture given at Bailu Monastery 白鹿寺 in June 2014. “The Sound of Celestial Beauty – Study Notes on the Amitāyurdhyāna-sūtra [T. 365, transl. by Kālaṃ yaśas 畺良耶舍 (383–442)]” Based on a lecture given at Lingquan Monastery 灵泉寺 in October 2005. “Study Notes on the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta [Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra, T. 26, Chin. 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The World of Buddhism. London: Thames and Hudson: 193–211. 100 (November 2020) ISSN: 2047-1076 When a New Generation Comes up: Buddhist Leadership in Contemporary China Special Supplement of the Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies The Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies http://www.ocbs.org When a New Generation Comes up: Buddhist Leadership in Contemporary China Special Supplement of the Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies November 2020 When a New Generation Comes up: Buddhist Leadership in Contemporary China November 2020 ISSN: 2047-1076 Published by the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies www.ocbs.org Wolfson College, Linton Road, Oxford, OX2 6UD, United Kingdom Authors retain copyright of their articles. Editorial board Dr. Carsten Krause (Guest Editor): carsten.krause@uni-hamburg.de Production team Operations and Development Manager: Steven Egan Development Consultant: Dr Paola Tinti Journal production and cover illustration by Ivan de Pablo Bosch (www.ivancious.com) Cover: President of the Buddhist Association of China, Zhao Puchu, handing over a certificate to the first post-Mao generation of graduates of the Buddhist Academy of China, 1982 (source: Xu Jiliang 徐季良 (ed.). 1996. Zhongguo foxueyuan chengli sishi zhounian jiniance 中国佛学院成立四十周年纪念册 [Brochure about the 40th Anniversary of the Founding of the Buddhist Academy of China]) Contents Contents 4 List of Contributors 6 Editorial Carsten Krause 8 Transfers of Power and Influence: The Road to the Rise of Leadership in Chinese Buddhism in the Post-Zhao Puchu Era Xuan Fang and Carsten Krause 12 An Abbot’s Vision of an Authentic and Global Saṃgha: On the Efforts of Master Dayuan to Revive Buddhism in China Haiyan Hu-von Hinüber 52 Nurturing Buddhism with Traditional Chinese Culture: On the Characteristics of the Dharma Promotion by Ven. Guangquan and his Saṃgha in Hangzhou Zhang Jiacheng 101 Building the Largest Female Buddhist Monastery in Contemporary China: Master Rurui between Continuity and Change Amandine Péronnet 128 Leadership Transition within the Living Chan Movement: From Venerable Jinghui to his Dharma Heirs Wu Yuanying 158 In Quest of the Legacy of Buddhist Monasteries in Contemporary China: Identification Processes of the New Buddhist Leadership, between Historical Relevance and the Challenges of Modernisation Carsten Krause 194 List of Contributors Haiyan Hu-von Hinüber is currently Fellow at the Max Weber Center of Advanced Social and Cultural Studies (University Erfurt, Germany). She is Professor-at-large of Shandong-University and Senior Researcher of Peking-University. haiyan.hu.von.hinueber@orient.uni-freiburg.de Carsten Krause is a Research Fellow at the Numata Center for Buddhist Studies of Hamburg University since 2017. He has specialised in Chinese Buddhism since the early 1990s with a PhD in 2001. Currently, his main research interest is focusing on the development of Chinese Buddhism in the past four decades including its relationship to the distant past. carsten.krause@uni-hamburg.de Amandine Péronnet received her MA from the National Institute of Oriental Languages and Civilisations, and is completing her PhD in anthropology and sinology at both the Inalco and the Università degli Studi di Perugia. Her research interests centre on Chinese Buddhism and recent changes in its monastic discipline, education and philanthropy, particularly the role of nuns. peronnet.amandine@gmail.com Wu Yuanying studied Chinese Language and Literature before obtaining her PhD in Buddhist Studies at the Free University of Berlin. Her research interests include common Buddhist practices in urban areas, Buddhist material culture, religious policies, and Buddhist leadership of the younger generation in China today. yuanying_wu@163.com Xuan Fang is an Associate Professor in the Department of Religion at Renmin University of China. His main research interests include theory and practice of Buddhist meditation, Chan Buddhism and modern Chinese Buddhism, particularly humanistic Buddhism. He is the executive editor of Journal of Religion (China). xuanfang@ruc.edu.cn 6 Zhang Jiacheng, Bachelor of law (1986) in Anhui Normal University, Master of Philosophy (1989) in East China Normal University. Since 1989 he has been teaching in Zhejiang University, where he is Associate Professor of Chinese Philosophy. His research interests mainly focus on modern Chinese Buddhism, the relationship among Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, and the Sino-Japanese Buddhist cultural exchange in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. jan.jczhang@zju.edu.cn 7

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(2020/4) An Abbot's Vision of an Authentic and Global Saṃgha: On the Efforts of Master Dayuan to Revive Buddhism in China

(2020/4) An Abbot's Vision of an Authentic and Global Saṃgha: On the Efforts of Master Dayuan to Revive Buddhism in China

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