THE GODSOP

NORTHERN BUDDHISM

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK

TORONTO MELBOURNE BOMBAY

HUMPHREY MILFORD M.A.

PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY

THE GODSOF

NORTHERN BUDDHISMTHEIR HISTORY, ICONOGRAPHY AND PROGRESSIVE

EVOLUTION THROUGH THE NORTHERN

BUDDHIST COUNTRIES

BY

ALICE GETTYli

WITH A GENERAL INTRODUCTION ON BUDDHISMTRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF

J, DENIKERDOCTEUR ES SCIENCES

ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE COLLECTION OF

HENRY H. GETTY

OXFORDAT THE CLARENDON PRESS

1914

T o v-

* • * - ,•*

AUTHOR'S PREFACE

It is difficult for those who are unacquainted with the iconography of the gods

of the Mahayana Pantheon to realize the degree of interest that may be attached

to even a crude representation of a Northern Buddhist divinity.

To the uninitiated the images of these deities are only of value as works of art,

or as grotesque curios, with their various heads and many arms ; but to the initiated,

apart from their artistic merit, they furnish an almost inexhaustible fund for study

and research.

The most accurate source of information in regard to the Northern Buddhist

divinities has been found in the sadhana, or texts of invocations of the gods, in which

they are described with much detail. Unfortunately, sadhana of all the gods of

the Mahayana Pantheon have not as yet been discovered, and there remain a number

of deities about whom very little is known. At any moment, however, a flood of light

may be thrown on these obscure divinities, for, among others, Mr. Ekai Kawaguchi

(a Japanese Buddhist priest who spent three years in Tibet disguised as a Chinese

monk) is translating some valuable manuscripts which he succeeded in carrying out

of Tibet.

The study of the iconography of the Northern Buddhist deities is therefore in its

infancy. With the exception of a few erudite books, little has been written on the

subject, and it is only by persistent research, and by a comparative study of the

examples in the museums of Europe, India, and Japan, as well as in the temples of the

Northern Buddhist countries, that one can arrive at a comprehensive knowledgeof these gods and of their evolution during the process of transmission from India via

Chinese Turkestan (and later, through Tibet) to China, Mongolia, and Japan.

The Tibetan and Mongolian lamas, from whom one would expect to get

much valuable information, are, unfortunately, with few exceptions, more versed

in the tenets of their religion than in the iconography of their gods : and as Tibet is

still 'a forbidden land', intercourse with the Tibetan lamas in their own country

is practically impossible. Among the Japanese Buddhist priests, however, there are

some very learned men.

Through the kindness of the late Professor Arthur Lloyd, whose death has

recently deprived Japan of one of its greatest authorities on Japanese Buddhism,

I was put into communication with Mr. S. Tachibana, Buddhist priest and Sanskrit

scholar, who has kindly made many researches for me. I have also to thank Sramana

Kawaguchi of Benares,Sramana Jeshu Oda, Rector of the ChomojiMonastery atNagoya,and Mr. Hanazono of Tokyo, for their help in making certain researches possible.

3G0426

vi AUTHOR'S PREFACE

I owe special thanks to M. A. Foucher for his kindness in reading through

my manuscript and, as I am not a Sanskrit scholar, in revising the marking of

the letters in the Sanskrit words used in the text. I am also much indebted to

him, as well as to Sir Aurel Stein, explorer in Central Asia, to Herr von Le Coq,

explorer in Chinese Turkestan and attached to the Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin,

as well as to Mr. E. Denison Ross, officer in charge of the Records of the Government

of India, and philological secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, for their kindness

in giving me opportunities of studying Buddhist temple paintings, frescoes, and

miniatures which are not accessible to the general public.

My initiation into the intricacies of the Mahayana system I owe to M. J.

Deniker, whose general study on the vast and complicated doctrine of Buddhism in

its various ramifications will form a sufficient introduction to the subject for the

general reader, and will enable him to approach with a fair measure of equipment the

detailed discussion of the individual deities, their symbols and characteristics, found

in the following pages.

I place my book under the protection of the goddess Sarasvati. May she inspire

her consort Manjusn to draw his sword of Wisdom and '

cleave the clouds of

Ignorance'

so that in time the West may come to a clearer understanding of the East.

A. GETTY.Paris, March 1913.

II.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE

XI. a.

b.

XII. a.

b.

c.

XIII. a.

c.

XIV.

XV. a,

L

e.

d.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII. a.

b.

c.

d.

XIX. a.

b.

c.

XX.

XXI. a.

b.

c.

d.

XXII.

XXIII. a.

b.

c.

d.

FACING

Suddha. Bronze ; height 15£ in. Jain.

Gautama Buddha seated on a seven-headed Naga. Slate ; height 8 in. Cam-

bodian.

Head of Gautama Buddha, Gandhara School. Slate; height 2£ in. Indian.

Presented to the author by Mme. Michel.

The Parinirvana of the Buddha. Wood, gold lacquer, and painted shrine ;

height 10 in. Japanese.

Manjusri. Wood ; height 1£ in. Stand and cover of flaming pearl, gold

lacquer. Japanese.

Juntei Kwan-non. Wood, gold lacquer, painted shrine ; height 10 in. Japanese .

StQpa containing prayers. Wood, painted ; height 18 in. From the Horyuji

temple, Nara. One of the miniature stupas ordered by the Empress

Koken Tenno in the twelfth century and presented to the temple.

Gautama Buddha. Clay plaque with Chinese characters at the back, ninth

century.

StQpa. Stone ; height 8 in. Presented to Henry H. Getty by the Mahant of

Bodh'-Gaya,The Parinirvana of the Buddha. Stone

j height 10 in. Fragment from Bodh'-

Gaya .......••••••Maitreya on a Lion Throne. Bronze gilt ; height 10 in. Tibetan

Maitreya. Bronze with turquoise ornaments ; height 3 in. Tibetan.

Maitreya. Bronze ; height 3 in. Tibetan.

Maitreya. Bronze ; height 5 in. Tibetan.

Amitayus. Bronze; height 5 in. Tibetan .......

Mandala (Garbhadhatu) . . . .' . •

The Thirteen Shin-gon Buddhas. Bronze ; height 7 in. Japanese

Amida. Wood, gold lacquer ; height 3£ in. Japanese.

Amida. Wood, gold lacquer ; height 5 in. Japanese.

Amitayus. Bronze gilt, turquoise ornaments ; height 9 in. Tibetan.

Amitayus. Bronze gilt ; height 3^ in. Tibetan ......Naga lamp. Bronze ; height 11 in. Indian.

Amitayus. Bronze ; height 10 in. Tibetan.

MafijnsrT (or Avalokita ?). Bronze gilt with turquoise ornaments ; height 11 in.

Nepalese.

Buddhist emblematic vase. Copper gilt with mother-of-pearl ornaments ;

height 15 in. Tibetan..........Dogmatic form of Avalokitesvara. Bronze gilt with jewel ornaments ; height

30 in. Tibetan or Nepalese .

Avalokitesvara. Bronze gilt ; height 3 in. Tibetan.

Avalokitesvara. Bronze ; height 8 in. Chinese, with inscription at the back

too effaced to decipher.

Avalokitesvara. Bronze gilt ; height 4 in. Tibetan.

Avalokitesvara. Bronze lacquer, face painted ; height 6 in. Tibetan .

Avalokitesvara with twelve emanations. Bronze ; height 10 in. Tibetan

Avalokitesvara. Copper gilt : height 10^ in. Tibetan.

Avalokitesvara(?). Bronze ; height 5 in. Tibetan.

Avalokitesvara (Amoghapasa). Bronze gilt ; height 14 in. Tibetan.

Avalokitesvara. Bronze gilt ; height 17 in. Tibetan .....

PAGE

18

22

24

25

30

32

34

38

40

46

48

50

56

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI

PLATE

XXIV.XXV.

XXVI.XXVII.

XXVIII.

XXIX.

XXX.

XXXI.

XXXII.

XXXIII.

XXXIV.

XXXV.

XXXVI.XXXVII.

XXXVIII.

XXXIX.

a.

b.

c.

d.

a.

b.

c.

d.

a.

b.

c.

d.

a.

b.

c.

d.

a.

b.

c.

(I.

a.

b.

c.

64

66

70

74

80

82

FACING PAGE

Avalokitesvara'

22,000 arms '. Copper gilt ; height 16 in. Tibetan . . 58

a. Padmapani. Bronze gilt ; height 5 in. From the Honan, China.

b. Kwan-non. Bronze gilt ; height 5^ in. Japanese.

e and d. Padmapani. Bronze gilt ; height 6 in. From the Honan, China

Kwan-yin (Sung-tse). Porcelain ; height 15 in. Chinese. ....a. Kwan-yin (Sung-tse). Porcelain; height 13 in. Chinese.

b. Kwan-yin. Porcelain ; height 8 in. Chinese.

c. Kwan-yin. Porcelain ; height 8 in. Chinese.

d. Kwan-yin. Porcelain ; height 5£ in. Chinese

Sho Kwan-non (Padmapani). Wood, face and breast covered with gold leaf,

glory painted ; height 20 in. From Nara, Japan .....a. Ratnapani. Wood, gold lacquer ; height 8J in. Japanese.

b. Kwan-yin (Sung-tse). Biscuit; height 9^ in. Chinese.

c. Kwan-yin (Sung-tse). Ivory ; height 4 in. Chinese.

d. Kwan-yin. Bronze ; height 6 in. Chinese ......Kwan-non. Bronze gilt ; height 13^ in. Japanese. Small statue belongs

to the Imperial Treasures of Japan ......Kwan-non (Gyo-ran or

'fish basket

'). Wood, carved and painted ; height29 in. Japanese ........... 86

Ki-shi-mo-jin. Wood; height 8 in. Japanese.

Koyasu Kwan-non. Wood ; height 9 in. Japanese.

Ba-to Kwan-non. Wood, painted ; height 28 in. Japanese.

Ba-to Kwan-non. Bronze ; height 4 in. Japanese ..... 88

Jizo (Kshitigarbha), in a shrine. Silver ; height 9 in. Japanese.

Jizo. Wood, lacquered and painted ; height 12 in. Japanese.

Kshitigarbha. Bronze ; height 8 in. Tibetan.

Jizo. Wood ; height 12 in. Japanese . . . . . .94Pu-h'ien (Samantabhadra). Bronze ; height 5 in. Chinese.

Wen-shu (ManjusrT). Bronze; height 5 in. Chinese

Monju (ManjusrT). Wood, lacquered and painted ; height 31 in. Japanese.

Kwan-yin. Bronze gilt and painted ; height 9 in. Chinese. ... 96

Manjusn. Bronze gilt ; height 4 in. Tibetan.

ManjusrT. Copper gilt ; height 6 in. Nepalese.

Manjusn. Copper gilt ; height 4 in. Tibetan.

Simhanada-Lokesvara. Bronze ; height 6J in. Tibetan .... 98

White Tara ' of the seven eyes '. Painting ; height 12 in. Tibetan (in colours) 104

Tara. Bronze ; height 7 in. Tibetan.

Tara (Simhanada). Agglomerated material, lacquered ; height 10 in. Tibetan.

Tara. Copper gilt and yellow jade ; height 4 in. Tibetan.

Tara. Copper gilt with jewel ornaments ; height 14 in. Tibetan . . . 106

Tara. Bronze with traces of gilding and jewel ornaments ; height 28 in.

Tibetan 110

Aizen-myo-o in a shrine. Wood, lacquered and painted ; height 5 in. Japanese.

Marlcl in a shrine. Wood, lacquered and painted ; height 3£ in. Japanese.

Buddha, ascetic, in a shrine. Wood ; reliquary with ' Buddha bone'

; height

5^ in. Japanese.Juntei Kwan-non in a shrine. Wood, lacquered and painted ; height 6 in.

Japanese ............ 112

ba

Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE

XL.

XLI. a.

b.

c.

d.

XLII.

XLIII. a.

b.

c.

XLIV. a.

b.

c.

d,

XLV.

XLVI. a.

b.

XLVII. a.

b.

c.

(I.

XLVIII. a.

b.

c.

d.

XL1X.

L. a.

b.

c.

d,

LI.

LII. a.

b.

c.

d.

LIU. a.

b.

c.

d.

LIV.

LV.LVI. a.

b.

c.

d.

FACING

Marlcl(?) with three small heads behind the central head. Wood, lacquered ;

urna, a pearl ; height 21 in. Japanese.......Marlcl. Bronze ; height 2 in. Tibetan.

Ushnishavijaya. Bronze gilt ; height 4 in. Tibetan.

Ushnishavijaya. Bronze; height 10 in. Tibetan.

Kwan-non. Bronze ; height 3 in. Japan se ..... .

Sarasvatl. Painting on a leaf from the Bodhi-tree (in colours)

A Kurukulla. Bronze; height 12 in. Tibetan.

Kurukulla. Agglomerated material, gold lacquered ; height 12 in. Tibetan.

Dakini. Coral, in a shrine, gold lacquered with silver mountings ; height6 in. Japanese ...........

Hevajra with his sakti. Bronze ; height 4 in. Tibetan.

Hayagrlva. Copper gilt ; height 7 in. Tibetan.

Hayagrlva with his sakti. Bronze gilt ; height 11 in. Tibetan.

Kuvera (Nara-vahana) with his sakti. Copper gilt ; height 3^ in. Tibetan .

Hevajra. Copper gilt with turquoise ornaments; height 11 in. Tibetan (in

colours) ............Lhamo. Bronze

; height 8 in. Tibetan.

Samvara on the mule of Lhamo (Lhamo as sakti?) ; height 8 in. Tibetan

Yama. Bronze; height 4£ in. Tibetan.

Yama. Agglomerated material, painted and lacquered ; height 27 in. Tibetan

Samvara.

Samvara.

Kuvera.

Kuvera.

Kuvera.

Kuvera.

Bronze ; height 5 in. Tibetan.

From the Talo monastery

The back of the above bronze

Copper gilt ; height 2 in. Tibetan.

Copper gilt ; height 3£ in. Tibetan.

Copper gilt ; height 3£ in. Tibetan.

Mixed metals; height 3f in. Tibetan

Dharmapfila undetermined. Bronze ; height 12 in

near Punakkha, Tibet .

Mahakala. Bronze ; height 7 in. Tibetan.

Mahakala. Bronze gilt ; height 3 in. Tibetan.

Mahakala. Bronze; height 5 in. Tibetan.

Mahakala. Bronze; height 6 in. Tibetan .

Mahakala. Embroidered temple banner ; height 50 in.

(in colours) .........Yamantaka. Bronze

; height 5f in. Tibetan.

Citipati. Miniature ; height 5 in. Tibetan.

Yamantaka. Agglomerated material, gold lacquered ; height 6 in

Yamantaka. Copper gilt ; height 4 in. Tibetan .

Bishamon. Wood, painted ; height 16 in. Japanese.

Lokapala. Wood, painted ; height 16 in. Japanese.Bishamon. Wood, painted ; height 16 in. Japanese.Fudo. Wood, painted ; height 30 in. Japanese .

To-wen (Bishamon). Bronze ; height 16 in. Chinese .

Dakini. Temple banner; height 25 in. Tibetan (in colours)

Ts'ahgs-pa (?). Bronze, painted ; height 2 in. Tibetan.

Ts'ahgs-pa. Bronze ; height 5 in. Tibetan.

Undetermined. Bronze ; height 3 in. Tibetan.

Dam-can. Copper gilt ; height 3 in. Tibetan

From Gyantse, Tibet

Tibetan.

PAGE

114

118

120

122

124

125

126

128

134

136

138

142

146

147

148

149

150

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll

PLATE

LVII.

LVIII.

LIX.

LX.

LXI.

LXII.

LXIII.

a.

6.

c.

a.

b.

c.

d.

a,

b.

a.

b.

c.

4.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

./

9-

FACING PAGE

Amida with the Ni-o. Shrine, gold lacquered and painted ; height 9 in.

Japanese (in colours) . . . . . . . . . .151Naga god. Printed mamori or charm from the Enkakuji temple, Kamakura,

Japan 152

Naga. Bronze ; height 1£ in. Japanese.

Garuda. Copper gilt ; height 12 in. Tihetan ...... 153

Najaraja. Agglomerated material, gold lacquered ; height 10 in. Tibetan.

Mi-la ras-pa. Bronze ; height 3 in. Tibetan.

Ts'on-k'a-pa (?). Bronze gilt with turquoise ornaments ; height 4 in. Tibetan.

Man-la. Bronze ; height 6 in. Tibetan.

Undetermined. Bronze; height 6 in. Tibetan . . . . . .154Two leaves from a Nepalese book (in colours) :

Vasudhara.

Bhrikutl 155

Citipati. Charm-box. Copper gilt ; height 6 in. Tibetan.

Dharmapala. Charm-box. Copper gilt inlaid with turquoise, coral, and lapis

lazuli; height 6 in. Tibetan.

Skull-cup. Mountings in copper gilt ; height 16 in. Tibetan.

Dai-nichi Nyorai (Vairocana). Silver, in an inro, gold lacquer; height6 in. Japanese 156

Vairocana. Clay seal; height 2f in. From the Honan.

Padmapani. Clay seal ; height 2^ in. From the Honan.

Amitabha. Clay seal ; height 2 in. From the Honan.

Gautama Buddha. Clay seal; height 2\ in. From the Honan.

Tara. Clay seal; height 2 in. From the Honan.

Mahakala. Bronze gilt ; height 1^ in. Tibetan.

Manjusri. Clay, painted ; height 2\ in. Tibetan...... 157

Kwan-yin. Illustration, p. 139, A. Kircher, China Monumentis qua Sacris qua

Profanis . . . illustrata. Amstelodami, 1667 ...... 158

Design on the cover : Buddhist wheel with the six syllables of the mantra of Avalokitesvara Om,

mani, padme hum. In the centre is his vija-mantra Hri! E. Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet, Atlas,

Plate xiv.

LXIV.

NOTEThe Tibetan names are written according to the method used in the Dictionary

of Sarat Chandra Das with small modifications, and translated by J. Deniker.

For the Mongolian names, the Rainstedt method has been followed with the

exception of the Greek gamma, which has been replaced by the letters gh. The

translations are by J. Deniker.

The Chinese characters are by Kia Kien Tchou and the English transcriptions

have been made by Professor Bullock.

The Japanese names are transcribed by S. Tachibana.

ADDENDA AND ERRATA

Pages 3 and 27, note 5. Although Amida, in Japan, is one of the five

Dhyani-Buddhas (Grochi Nyorai) the Amida sects do not worship the other four

Dhyani Buddhas.

Page 6. The apparent confusion in Japan in regard to the representations

of Kongosatta and Fugen may be explained by the fact that in the Secret

Doctrine they are identified.

Page 23. Mania may hold in his left hand in dhyana mudra a bowl

resembling a begging-bowl, in which case the medicinal fruit is usually held in

the right hand in vara mudra. In Japan, Yaku-shi also holds the medicine-bowl

in the left hand which, however, is in vara mudra while the right is lifted

in abhaya mudra. If the medicine-bowl is missing, Yaku-shi resembles the

representations of Shaka.

Page 27. The Dhyani Bodhisattva of Vajrasattva is Ghantapani.

Page 31. The dhyana mudra of Vairocana when in the centre of the

Garbhadhatu mandala differs from the usual mystic gesture in that the tips of

the thumbs touch each other.

Page 33. Myo-ken and not Mio-ken.

Page 39. O-mi-to fo in China has also the usual dhyana mudra of the

Indian representation.

Amaterasu is sun-goddess.

Page 40. Amida, when standing (he may also be seated) has the right hand

in abhaya and the left in vara mudra, and thus resembles Shaka with this

difference that the tip of the thumb touches the tip of the index in both hands,

forming the '

dogmatic'

gesture. The three poses of the hands of Amida :

dhyana, dharmacakra, abhaya and vara, may have three variations, the tips

of the thumbs touching the indexes, second or third fingers. The second

finger is the most popular in Korea. The third is very rare.

Pages 46 and 99. The Buddha in the triad with Fugen and Monju, in

Japan, is always Shaka, although he may resemble Amida when, in the abhayaand vara mudras, the fingers are somewhat bent. If the second finger is

slightly bent, it indicates the Shingon sect.

Page 150. The writer, in accordance with Satow and other authorities,

has placed Komoku guardian of the South. In the Himitsu-jirin he is made

guardian of the West, in which case, if correct, Zocho would be guardian of

the South.

Getty, Northern Buddhism. Face p. xvi.

July, 1914.

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL SURVEY OF BUDDHISM AND ITS EVOLUTION

' Namo Buddhaya, namo Bharmaya, namo Sahghaya'

: 'I worship Buddha,

I worship the Doctrine, I worship the Community'—such is the formula which

represents the quintessence of the Buddhist religion. It is uttered and repeated

several times a day by numberless Buddhist monks and priests as well as by those

of the laity who are at all instructed in their faith. The others content themselves

with murmuring ceaselessly the magic formula: '

Om, mani padme, tern' ('Oh, the

jewel in the lotus !').

Now, to give a general idea of the great religion whose followers form a third

part of the human species, it is sufficient to develop this formula of the three jewels

(Triratna). First we shall examine the life of the sole and unique historical Buddha

(enlightened one), Sakya-muni, founder of the faith ; then we shall summarize briefly

the doctrine preached by him, following its evolution across space and time, in order

that we may see and understand the forms under which it has existed in the various

countries to which it has penetrated ; lastly we shall give a description of the

constitution of the Buddhist clergy (especially the Lamaite), and sketch what maybe called the material side of the religion.

I. Buddha

It is towards the end of the sixth century B.C. 1 that the majority of historians

place the birth of Siddhartha, future founder of Buddhism, the son of Prince

Suddhodana and of his wife Maya. Prince Suddhodana was one of the chiefs of the

tribe of the Sakya in the kingdom of Magadha and belonged to the clan (Gotra) of

Gautama. For this reason the name of Gautama Buddha is often, especially amongthe Southern Buddhists, applied to Siddhartha, in the same way as among the

Northern he is generally called S->akya-muni ('muni

'

having the significance simplyof

' wise'

or'

saint'

in Sanskrit).

The Buddhist books give as the birth-place of Sakya-muni the garden of Lumbini

near Kapilavastu, the capital of the little principality of which Suddhodana was

chief. It is situated in the north of India at the foot of the Himalaya, near

the present frontier of Nepal. In the literature of Buddhism there is no complete

biography of Sakya-muni, and one is obliged to reconstruct it from fragmentscontained in various documents,

2 which have only a single common characteristic—1 For details see p. 15. and commentaries in the Pali language (a dialect

2 The ' Jataka'

or ' Adventures of Buddha in intermediary between Sanskrit and Prakrit, the

previous Incarnations', with their introduction sacred language of the Southern Buddhists), carry

1188 C

I

xviii INTRODUCTION

the sui'rounding of the actual facts by a haze of legends. The life of Sakyais divided by the Buddhist theologians into twelve '

acts V which can be summarized

according to Northern Buddhists as follows: (I) The Bodhisattva ; Sakya-munidescends from the higher heaven (Tushita) to earth in the form of a young white

elephant.

(2) He enters into the body of his mother, Maya, by the right side without

causing her any pain.

(3) Ten months later he reappears from his mother's body, but with human

aspect. His birth, signalized by various prodigies, is honoured by Brahma, Indra,

and the other Brahman divinities.

(4) Despite the supernatural powers shown by this child who, at the time of

his birth, took seven paces in the four directions corresponding to the four miseries

of life (see later), he receives the education reserved for the sons of princes. Losinghis mother seven days after his birth, Prince Siddhartha is brought up first of all

by his aunt, MahaprajapatI, then taken to school. There, however, he astonishes

all his masters by reciting to them everything they desire to teach him and muchelse besides. In like fashion he proves himself pre-eminent at sports. Nevertheless

melancholy pervades his being, and he surrenders himself more and more to meditation.

(5) To dispel his sadness his parents conceive the idea of giving him a wife,

and he marries a princess of the Koliya clan, to whom the Buddhist texts ascribe

the name of Yasoda or of Gopa. By her he becomes father of a son Kahula. Butnot the joys of wedded life, nor the pleasures of the harem, nor his love for his son

can overcome in the young prince preoccupations of a philosophical and moral kind.

The evolution of his thought is well represented in the legend by the symbol of' the

four meetings '. Harassed by the question of the purpose of life, Siddhartha leaves

the city in his chariot and falls in with an old man whose decrepit air strikes him.' We live then to grow old and decrepit !

'

he cries. In the course of similar wanderingshe comes upon a sick man and a funeral procession.

' So this is life,' he meditates,'

suffering—then final annihilation !

'

Fortunately the fourth meeting dissipates his

pessimism. Seeing a hermit perfectly calm in his retreat, perfectly happy in his

contemplation, the prince divines that the true way of salvation lies in the

renunciation of the joys of life, causes of three great evils, old age, sickness, and

death,2 and in the surrender of oneself to contemplation which frees one from the

ties of earth.

(6) At the age of twenty-nine or thirty, having failed to obtain from his father

leave to adopt the ascetic life, Siddhartha secretly leaves the palace, and abandons

us only to the moment when Sakya-muni, after the Vinaya (the most ancient portion of the Pali

attaining perfect knowledge {Bodhi), begins his canon), &c.

preaching. The Lalita Vistara (in Tibetan Rgya-1 Cf. Foucber— Une liste indienne des Actes du

cer-rol-pa) and the Mahavastu of the Northern Bud- Buddha. Paris, 1908 {ficole prat, des haiUes etudes).dhists supply us with only very few new elements. 2 In certain Buddhist writings birth is added,Some fragments touching on the end of the life of thus making the evils of life four.'

Bhagavat'

(the Blessed One) are to be found in

INTRODUCTION xix

wife, children, kinsfolk, concubines, and all his possessions. The legend tells the

story of his journey at some length. He sets out on his horse, Kanthaka, under

whose shod hooves the gods place their hands lest the noise should waken

the guard. At a certain distance from his native town he discards his princely

attire for rough garments of orange colour, cuts his hair, and so forth. From this

moment Prince Siddhartha deserves the sacred name of Sakya-muni or Gautama.

He goes forward on foot'

to seek salvation'

;but where is salvation to be sought ?

At this period India did not lack various sects and schools, metaphysical, religious,

and mystical. Among the most widely spread was the school of Sankhya, which

taught the doctrine of deliverance from the cycle of renewed births recognized by all

the creeds of India. Not less known was the school of Yoga, which was derived from

the above, and principally developed the ascetic side of its doctrine. To one of the

initiated of this latter school, the monk Alara (or Arada)-Kalama, Sakya-muni applies

on reaching the town of Vaisali. Dissatisfied, however, with the monk's teaching, he

continues his journey and comes to Rajagriha, the capital of the kingdom of Magadha,where, after refusing the offer made by King Bimbisara of a share of the throne, he

retires to the mountains and follows the teaching of a celebrated Yogist, the ascetic

Udraka Ramaputra. In its desire to emphasize the originality of the doctrine of

Buddha, the legend describes him as equally little satisfied with the instructions of this

philosopher, but we are forced to believe that as a matter of fact the young ascetic

benefited by the teaching of several masters, for we find in Buddhism more than

one fundamental feature of the doctrines of Sankhya, of Yoga, and of other

contemporary schools (see later).

(7) The legend shows us Sakya-muni, wearied at last of all these false teachers,

seeking in the mortification of the body the solution of the problems which vex him.

Leaving the country of Magadha, he retires with five disciples whom he has

succeeded in gathering about him, to a desert place in the small district of Urubilva

near Gaya. There for six years he gives himself over to the most painful mortifica-

tions ; he attains to the consumption of a single grain of rice in the day, and ends

by reducing himself almost to the condition of a skeleton.

However, finding in asceticism no help towards the solution of the problemsof metaphysics and moral philosophy, he changes his system and returns to ordinary

life, a course which wins for him the contempt of his five pupils, who stigmatize him

as glutton and voluptuary because he accepts a little milk and honey offered bytwo young village women, the sisters (according to certain versions) Nanda and

Nandabala.

(8) Unmoved by these reproaches, Sakya-muni goes forth to the town to-daycalled Bodh'-Gaya. There he seats himself at the foot of a tree and declares that,

though his body may wither away in this position of meditation, he will not leave

it until he has attained the ' Bodhi'

or perfect knowledge.1 And one night the

miracle happens ; Sakya-muni has attained the Bodhi;an inward illumination lays

1 There is still shown at the present time in of Bodhi ', under the shadow of which legend de-

Bodh'-Gaya, a fig-tiee bearing the name of The Tree clares the founder of Buddhism to have sat.

C 2

xx INTRODUCTION

all things open to his understanding. Successively he gains (1) the knowledgeof previous existences ; (2) the destruction of evil desires ; (3) knowledge of the

nexus (incatenation) of the twelve interrelated causes ; and finally (4) complete

knowledge in its three divisions (see later). In a word from his former state of being

Bodhisattva he becomes Buddha.

(9) But at what price of superhuman effort has he won this supreme

knowledge ! To all the causes of difficulty inherent in his task has been added the

malevolence of Mara, the Genius of Evil and his personal enemy. Alike during

the ascetic life of Sakya at Urubilva and during his sojourn under the Bodhi

tree this maleficent being spares no effort, according to the legend, to prevent

£akya from becoming Buddha. At first he tries to turn him from the way of

holiness by threats and by loosing against him all the elements of nature and the

fury of the armies of evil spirits. Then he seeks to reach him by the attractions

of three virgins and numberless beautiful women. But Sakya comes victorious

from these trials. It will be recognized that these narratives are a parable,

easily comprehensible by the multitude, of the inward strife waged in the soul

of Sakya between natural attachment to the outer world and pleasures of life

and the total renunciation of the ascetic. In the same way the refusal of Buddha

when Mara offers to make him at once into the heavenly Buddha without his

passing through the stage of Manushi-Buddha (see p. 9), implies the desire of

•Jakya to propagate his teaching, to make known to men the true path of salvation,

and thus to deliver them from the fated circle of renewed births.

(10) The possession of the Bodhi once attained, Sakya remains yet seven (or

seven times seven) days at the foot of the tree in order fully to enjoy his beatitude.

Afterwards he goes forth under other trees and walks by the side of rivers and

streams where the nagas (serpents) shield him from the rays of the sun with their

heads miraculously multiplied and enlarged. This legend, which is of purely

Hindu origin (Vishnu was shielded by serpents in exactly the same way), clearly

reflects the period of early hesitations and experiments which preceded the

actual propagation of the teaching. According to the texts of the Southern

Buddhists, this propagation opened with the conversion of two merchants, Trapusaand Bhallika, who are considered by the theologians of Buddhism not as the first

disciples, but as lay adherents to the faith (Upasaka in Sanskrit). Just at first the

preaching of the new gospel does not seem to have had much success. The environ-

ment, it would appear, was not very favourable, for Buddha decided to set out for

Benares. On the road towards that city he met an aged' monk

', Upaka, to

whom, for the first time, he declared his quality of Arhat (the Saint or'

Worthy ')

and of Jina (the victorious).

(11) The real propagation of the faith and the foundation of a school and of

a community (sangha), after the fashion of the other ' churches'

of contemporary India,

only began with the arrival at Benares, where Buddha found once more his five original

disciples. At first they receive him with contempt, but are quickly converted by the

preaching known as dharmacakrapravartana, i.e. the preaching' of the foundation of

INTRODUCTION xxi

the reign of the Law ', or literally,' the turning (or setting in motion) of the wheel

of the Law '. For the first time in this discourse Buddha sets forth the foundation of

his teaching on ' the four truths'

(see later). Conversions become numerous after this

success;there is the rich young man Yasas, with his kinsfolk and dependants ; then

at Urubilva we find the thousand Brahmans whose leaders, the brothers Kasyapa,become the first apostles of the new faith ; and many more besides. Lastly, Bimbisara,

king of Magadha, with the majority of his people, adopts the Buddhist doctrine,

and presents to Buddha the ' Park of bamboos'

(Veluvana) near Rajagriha, which

becomes the head-quarters of the community. There are converted Sariputra and

Maudgalyayana, the two chief followers of Buddha.

(12) The Buddhist documents are sparing of detail about the forty-five later yearsof Buddha's life, consecrated to the propagation of his teaching and to the organiza-

tion of the monastic communities. They give, however, the description of his division

of his day ;narratives of the attacks directed against him by his cousin, the renegade

Devadatta, who was eventually converted, and by the six jealous enemies designated

collectively as Tirthika ; the story of his journey to the city of his birth, Kapilavastu,where he converts his father, and where all the inhabitants become monastics ; the

foundation of a community of nuns in this city by Gautami, aunt of Sakya ; the

conversion of Rahula, the son of Buddha ; the donation by the courtesan Amrapali ;

finally, the wars which brought ruin to the fatherland of Sakya. On the other hand,

there are in the Buddhist works abundant details about the death of Sakya-muni. Whenover eighty years of age, Buddha sets out for the town of Kusinagara, capital of the

Malla tribe. Thence he goes to the village of Pava, where he eats a meal offered him

by the blacksmith Cunda. Unable to digest the unhealthy food, Buddha falls ill,

and, feeling death at hand, he lays him down on his right side, his head turned

towards the north, and gives to his faithful disciple and lieutenant, Ananda, his last

instructions for the organization of the community. Warned by Ananda, the peopleof the Malla tribe (and even the beasts, avers the legend) assemble around the dyingmaster, who speaks a last word on the vanity of all things that are, and on the

necessity of seeking salvation in meditation and the renunciation of worldly pleasures.

After seven days of prayer, music, and ceremonies, in which all the living creatures

share, the body of Buddha is burnt, and the ashes, distributed among several kingsand peoples, are preserved in eight funerary monuments (see Stiijpa in the Glossary).

1

One of these groups of relics has recently been discovered (in 1908) in its reliquary of

silver, which was the work of a Greek artist, and bears inscriptions. The preciouscasket was buried under a Stupa, raised by King Kanishka, near the city of Peshawar.

The date of Buddha's death was probably 477 b. c.

1 Certain Buddhist texts divide this last'

act'

into taught to Mongol children. Properly to emphasizetwo—the death nnd the distribution of the relics, all the details of the life of Buddha a division

while they make into a single' act

'

those events into sixty-four paragraphs should be made of the

here given under numbers 9 and 10. Our present story, as was done by Foucher in the memoir cited

division is the more orthodox for Northern Bud- above (p. xviii, n.).

dhists. It figures, for instance, in the catechism

xxii INTRODUCTION

II. The Teaching ; its Propagation and Modifications

(a) Primitive Teaching. Sakya-muni left behind him no writings ; his instruction

was entirely oral. It is, accordingly, impossible to form an idea of his doctrine exceptfrom the most ancient sacred books which constitute the primitive

' canons '. The

religion founded by Sakya-muni did not form a wholly new element in the Hindu

world. Like all the creeds of India, it was based upon two fundamental '

verities'

:

transmigration, or' renewed birth

'

(Samara in Sanskrit), and the remuneration, or ' the

consequences'

or ' the fruits of the deeds'

(Karman). According to the Brahmanists

and the various sects which existed in India at the time of the appearance of Buddhism,all living beings die only to be reborn in the form of other beings, superior or inferior 1

according to the deeds committed in their previous lives. Man, therefore, may be

reborn as god or as beast, as he has proved good or evil in his human existence.

Primitive Buddhism accepted this conception without criticism as an axiom, and,

indeed, no sect—Brahmanist, Buddhist, Sankhya, or Jain—has ever sought to disputeor to deny what may be termed a national article of Hindu faith. But the

discrepancy between Sakya-muni and the Brahmanists and other sectaries lies in

the pre-eminently moral nature of his doctrine, a doctrine rather psychological than

theological. While the Brahmanists teach that there exists a God creator of all

things (Isvara) and that the circle of transmigrations of the soul through material

coverings must be terminated, by the virtue of offerings, sacrifices, and adoration of

the gods, in the absorption of individual souls into the universal, primitive Buddhism,on the contrary, is an atheistic religion, or rather philosophy, recognizing neither

creator nor organizer of the universe, neither personal soul nor universal, and

admitting worship of deities as something secondary. The entire weight of its

metaphysical edifice rests on a single basis—the idea of deliverance. But deliverance

from what evil ? From the interminable and fate-ordained circle of renewed births,

which, with all its accompanying evils, seemed a thing of terror. But why and

how must a man free himself from this circle of destiny in order that he may attain

the condition of Buddha and may exist in another world, opposed to the Sansara and

named Nirvana ? The reply to this last question is the essential stuff of the whole

Buddhist religion. Sakya-muni formulated it excellently in his renowned discourse

at Benares (see p. 20) when he announced the four holy' truths

'

(Catvari aryasatyani),

namely : (1) the existence of pain (Duha) ; (2) the definition of the cause of pain

(Samtidaya) ; (3) the suppression of this cause (Nirodha) ; (4) the path which leads

to this suppression, the so-called noble eightfold path (arya ashtangika marga).

It amounts to this, that all things existent are but passing ;all that is born is

condemned to death ; all that is created is condemned to dissolution. In a word

1

To-day Northern Buddhism confesses the exist- they desire to drink, and the inhabitants of hell,

ence of six classes of living beings: two living upon divided into twenty-two classes according to their

earth, men and beasts ; two living beneath the torments ; lastly two living in heaven, the Asura—earth, the Preta (in Sanskrit) or Birit (in Mongol), who struggle continually against the gods

—and,

condemned to an eternal hunger and thirst by reason highest of all, the various divinities themselves,

of their narrow throats, which shoot forth fire when

INTRODUCTION xxiii

every pleasure is only the prelude to grief and pain ; life brings on old age, the

activity of our organs brings on disease, love brings on separation from the beloved, &c.

(Truth 1). This pessimistic conception, born in the brain of Sakya-muni more than

2,000 years before Schopenhauer, caused him to reflect on the cause of suffering

(Truth 2). This cause is the '

thirst for life ', that impulse towards activity which weWestern people, on the contrary, exalt. While man is under the domination of this

'joie de vivre', of this 'will to live', he is not liberated from the ties of rebirth

(Truth 3). To be delivered from the sorrows of Samara man must therefore be

delivered from the '

thirst for life'

(Truth 4). To explain better these'

verities'

as

well as the meaning of life the first Buddhist theologians invented a ' causal nexus ',

or connexion of causes (pratUyasamutpdda), comprising twelve causes (Niddna, literally,'

preliminary condition')which are formulated as follows :

(1) Ignorance (avidyd) produces the syntheses or concealed impressions or

tendencies (sanskdra).

(2) The syntheses produce cognition or the substance of thought (vijnana).

(3) Cognition produces name and form (ndmarupa).

(4) Name and form produce' the sixfold sphere

'

or six organs of senses

(shoddyatana).

(5)' The sixfold sphere

'

produces contact (sparsa).

(0) Contact produces feeling (vedand).

(7) Feeling produces craving or'

thirst'

(trishnd).

(8) Craving produces grasping at, or attachment to existence (upddana).*"

(9) Grasping produces renewed existence or origination (bhava).1

(10) Renewed existence produces birth (jati).

(11) Birth (jati) produces

(12) Old age and death, grief, lamentation, distress, &c, i. e. the real or actual

life (maram).2

This series of almost incomprehensible phrases forms the obscurest point in the

Buddhist dogma, and one which the savants of the West have attempted to explainin various ways. However, the obscurity can be elucidated, if the formula be taken

in reverse order, as Sakya-muni himself was accustomed to take it.3 Read in this way,

the twelve ' causes'

constitute in sum a development of the third Truth. To be

delivered from old age, death, and what follows, man must be delivered from birth ; to

be delivered from birth he must be delivered from rebirth (renewed existence), and so

on in succession through all the Buddhist metaphysic which explains' the quality of

life', up to the very last phrase, which declares that to be delivered from the synthesesman must be delivered from ignorance. But what is the nature of this ignorance ?

The commentaries upon the Buddhist works inform us that it consists in lack of

1 It is only a question here of existence in one of 2Cf. Mrs. G. A. F. Rhys Davids, A Buddhist

the worlds of desire (kdmabhava) or of Sansara. Manual, London, p. 348.

Existences in one of the worlds of form (rupabhava)' This appears the more natural course from the

or in one of the transcendent worlds (arujxtbhava) psychological standpoint also,

is not considered by the causal nexus.

XXIV INTRODUCTION

knowledge of the Buddhist religion. Here then we grasp the first point—for deliver-

ance acceptance of Buddhism is a necessity. In like fashion one may go on to explain

the other ' causes '. The second ' cause ', Sanskdra, is a psychological conception ;it

signifies a sort of impress left by our actions upon our conscience, and capable, under

certain circumstances and after a certain time, of manifesting itself in the form of new

actions. This interpretation, as also that of the third'

cause ', the primitive Buddhists

were obliged to borrow from the school of Sankhya, which teaches that the ' concealed

impressions'

act upon a mental substance (Buddhi), which is the basal matter of a fine

covering or ethereal body, forming the centre of the soul-life and called lingasarira.1

These concealed impressions may be envisaged as the actions of a man, which, coming

slowly to maturity, have the property of manifesting themselves in the course of his

reincarnations. Thus with the Buddhists this Sanskdra takes the place of ' the soul'

of the Brahmanists. 2

By' causes

'

four and five it is signified that the individuality

(name and form) manifests itself by the aid of the six organs of sense (the sixfold

sphere), and that these put it in connexion with the exterior world (contact). Hence

arise feeling, thirst, and the like, which lead to all the evils. But let us return

to the third Truth. Summed up briefly, it is but a presentment of Nirvana,

that is to say, of a kind of existence not subject to rebirths. But what is its

nature ? The Buddhist works do not anywhere explain this clearly. All that

one can extract from them is that it is a condition of perfect blessedness, a state

of sanctity or bliss. For our European logic it is existence outside all sensation, all

desire, all will, all function—an existence, in fact, without life, which our mentalityrefuses to grasp. The fourth Truth speaks of the way of salvation, of the path which

leads to deliverance and ends in Nirvana. This way is made up of eight parts as

follows : right belief or views, right resolve or aims, right words, right behaviour,

right occupation or mode of livelihood, right effort or exertion, right contemplation or

mindfulness, and right concentration or meditation and tranquillity.3 For the conduct

of such a life it is clearly necessary to renounce the ordinary life for that of a monk,if not of an ascetic. The laity labours, so to speak, under a disability for

' deliverance '.

Accordingly, more than one opponent of Sakya-muni has objected that if every one

followed his precepts there would be no more men upon the earth ; the result would

be that 'gradual suicide' spoken of by the German poet Heine as implied in

Christian asceticism. The theologians of Buddhism, however, came to a workable

arrangement by formulating, parallel with this'

way of salvation ', ten ' command-

ments', of which the first five are obligatory upon the laity for the attainment

1 This lingasarlra is often spoken of in the

wiitings of modern European theosophists.2 The term vijnana used by the Buddhists corre-

sponds sometimes to the lingasarlra, sometimes to

the Buddhi of the school of Sankhya. Elsewhere it

signifies' reason ', intelligence, ideas, and forms one

of the six elements of the universe (the other five

being earth, water, fire, air, and ether), as well as

one of the five aggregates (Skandha) which, com-

bined, constitute every living man or animal, the

four others being body, sensations, perceptions, and

consciousness.

3 This translation of the original Pali terms is

from Mr. Warren's Buddhism in Translation. Cam-

bridge, Mass., 1900, 2nd edition. According to

the Sanskrit-Tibetan texts one should read :

'

the

"perfection": of faith, judgement, speech, action, life,

application, reflection or meditation, and extasy or

contemplation.'

INTRODUCTION XXV

of salvation, while the whole must be strictly observed by monastics. These ' com-

mandments'

are :

(1) Not to take life,

(2) Not to steal.

(3) To refrain from unlawful sexual intercourse (for the monks, from all sexual

intercourse).

(4) Not to tell lies.

(5) Not to drink intoxicating liquors.

(6) Only to take food at certain specified times.

(7) Not to take part in dancing, music, performances, and similar pleasures.

(8) Not to adorn the body with flowers, nor to use perfumes and unguents.

(9) Not to sleep on any high or wide bed. _

(10) Not to possess gold or silver.1

It must be borne in mind that the Buddhist understands each of these prohibitions

in a very wide sense. Thus, for instance, according to the first commandment, it is

forbidden to kill and in general to harm not merely men, but any living creature of

whatever kind, even parasitic insects, for the injured creature may haply be the rebirth

of a kinsman. According to the second ' commandment' man must respect the

property of his neighbour to the point of appropriating no single article without

the consent of its owner, even though it have no value of any kind.

(b) Subsequent Development of Primitive Buddhism. At the moment of his death

Sakya-muni, who had organized the little religious community under his own direc-

tion, did not appoint a successor. One of his oldest disciples, Kasyapa, proposed to

summon an assembly of five hundred Arhats (sages), whose business it should be to

work out a ' canon'

and to edit a rule for the common life of the monastics. This

first council, held at Rajagriha, edited, according to tradition, the first two books of

the canon, Vinaya, i.e. the statutes and rules of the community (its discipline), and

the Sutras, or collection of Sakya-muni's Exposition of the Doctrine. It is probable,

however, that nothing at all was written at this council, but that its proceedings,as in the case of other half-civilized races, consisted of chanting and reciting byheart the words of the wisest among the wise men. It is, moreover, certain that

the works cited above were written at a later period. Much later still the

Abhidharma, a metaphysical treatise based on the Sutras, was added, and thus was

formed the entirety of the Buddhist sacred code which is in full force to-day and is

known as the Tripitaka ('the three Baskets ', i. e. Collections). This code was drawn

up in the MagadhI dialect of the Prakrit language, the speech of Sakya-muni's

country. The absence of discipline and authority, and a too wide tolerance of ideas,

which prevailed in the first communities, caused numerous disputes. Moreover,

among certain of the Buddhist monastics there arose a slackness of moralitywhich compelled the assembling of a second Council to prevent the ruin of

1 In the canon of the Northern Buddhists there sins of the body, murder, theft, adultery; four sins of

exists in addition the prohibition against committing speech, lying, calumny, insult, idle talk ;three sins

ten sins which are grouped together as follows : three of thought, hatred, covetousness, dogmatic error.

xxvi INTRODUCTION

the Doctrine. This Council, held at Vaisall a century later than the first, was

composed, we are informed, of seven hundred Arhats. Tt attempted, but unsuccess-

fully, to introduce a certain unity among the different parties and to re-establish

the ancient discipline. The cleavages became more marked ; the sects multiplied

till there were already eighteen in the third century B.C. One of these, the

Vibhjavadis, finished by gaining the ascendancy and caused to be drawn up in Pali

a canon termed 'the orthodox', the most ancient now extant in written form

which it assumed in Ceylon in 45 B.C. The canons of the other sects, which

were reformers, were drawn up in Sanskrit and Prakrit and are known to us

only through Tibetan and Chinese translations. Some fragments in the original

language have been discovered, however, in Nepal, and quite recently in Chinese

Turkestan. Towards the middle of the third century B.C. the learned among the sect

of the Vibhjavadis succeeded in converting Asoka Piyadasi (Asoka the pious), kingof North-east India, who in 242 B.C. ordered the assembling of the third Council in

his capital, Pataliputra. The thousand Arhats who came together drew up a final

canon and resolved to send missionaries into the various countries to propagate' the

excellent law'. The propaganda met with its greatest success in Ceylon. The

convent founded there by Mahendra (in Pali Mahinda) became the centre of

Buddhism as codified by the Council of Pataliputra. Thence the creed spreadinto other regions. The Buddhists of India, however, continued their internal dis-

sensions, and the fourth Council, convoked by Kanishka, the king of the Yue-Chi

(Indoscythians), towards the year A. D. 100 at Jalandhara in Kashmir, ended in schism

between the Buddhists of the 'south (Ceylon) and those of the north (India). The

former refused to recognize its decisions, and held fast to the ancient doctrine

which received the name of Hinayana (the little vehicle), while the representatives of

the eighteen other sects accepted the new canon, drafted at the fourth Council, but

not formulated definitely until a great deal later, which bears the title of Mahayana (the

great vehicle). This canon was taken as the foundation of his teaching by the real

founder of Mahayana, the monk Nagarjuna, who lived towards the end of the second

century a.d. The canon of the south [Hinayana) represents better than that of the

north a state of Buddhism which, if not quite primitive, is at least the oldest knownto us. It gives the rule of life of the monastics and a moral code much akin to that

of the Brahmans and Jains. The canon of the north (Mahayana), on the other hand,

which includes the canon of the south almost in its entirety, and is known to us only

through translations (the Tibetan Kanjur and the Chinese Tripitaka, with an additional

volume), is contaminated with metaphysical and, especially, with magical dissertations,

formulas, incantations, and so forth (Tantra), borrowed from the Sivaites of India.

The difference of dogma between the two '

vehicles'

is quite considerable. While

the Hinayana preserves almost intact the '

primitive Buddhism '

as we have sketched it

above, the Mahayana adds thereto several innovations which completely change the

meaning of the old faith. Of these innovations the following are the chief :—

(1) The

recognition of a supreme God (Adi-Buddha, see p. 2) and the worship of the divinities.

These two articles were borrowed from the Brahmans, and were unknown to primitive

INTRODUCTION xxvii

Buddhism, in which the gods, belonging to the Sansara, or circle of rebirth, and con-

sequently always liable to return to one of the lower states, were far below the

Buddhas who were free of the Sansara and living in a very much higher world, that of

Nirvana. The Mahayanists,on the other hand, relegated the Buddhas to the background,or rather made of them a sort of special divinity. (2) The Mahayanists introduced

the conception of the Bodhisattvas, predestined Buddhas-designate so to speak, whoare accomplishing the last stages of their avatars before attaining to the dignity of

Buddha (see p. 42). (3) Again, the Mahayana recognizes the Manushi Buddhas,

inhabitants of earth, and incarnations in flesh and bone of the Dhyani-Buddhas or

Buddhas of contemplation who dwell in heaven. It is the same also with the

Bodhisattvas. (4) The adoption of magical formulas and '

tantric'

practices of magesand sorcerers, formally forbidden to the monastics by the canon of the South.

(5) Finally, the adoption of the theory of ' the void '. In the Prajna paramitd (ideal

knowledge), the gospel of the Mahayana, attributed to Nagarjuna, the theory of ' the

void' is developed at great length, as well as that of the adoration of the gods (the

Bhakti of the Brahmans), and the whole is curiously interspersed with metaphysicaldiscourses and magic. Since then there have been schisms among the Mahayaniststhemselves. 1 In the sixth century Asanga founded the sect of the Yogacarya, which

developed the magical side of Buddhism to its highest power. The adherents of

the ancient teaching then took the name of followers of Madhyamika (the via media).

III. The Expansion of Buddhism

The Southern Buddhism flourished in Ceylon, where the famous Buddhaghoshawrote in the fifth century some commentaries on the canon of the little vehicle. Then,

spreading to Burma, it replaced there, about the sixth century and again in the fifteenth,

the meagre remains of the mahayanist propaganda of the time of Asoka and Kanishka.

The Mahayana, however, had a great triumph in other countries. In India itself the

Mahayana and the Hmayana existed side by side for some long time, but both eventuallywere forced to give way, first by Brahmanism and then by the creed of Islam. The fall

of Buddhism began with the eighth century. By the thirteenth it was no longera living force in Central India, but it continued at the foot of the Himalayas and in the

east ofthe peninsula. In the fifteenth century it disappeared from Bengal, and it is to be

met with to-day, disfigured under the form of Lamaism, only in Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan,

and Ladak, and in some communities settled about its historic seats, such as Benares

or Bodh'-Gaya. To-day attempts are being made to re-establish Buddhism in India.

Unfortunate in its own country, the faith has succeeded better in less civilized

districts or in those whose inhabitants were less enervated than the Hindus by religious

musings and magical practices. From India primitive Buddhism and, subsequently, the

Mahayana spread first to the neighbouring countries, to Eastern Bactria and Gandhara,

1 A detailed exposition of the doctrine of Maha- Buddha '. It has been translated by S. Beal, Cowell,

yana has been made by Alvaghosha, a poet attached and Teitaro Suzaki (see Bibliography),

to the court of Kanishka and author of ' The Life of

d2

xxviii INTRODUCTION•

which to-day are included in the Punjab, Kashmir, and Kafiristan. Thence both

forms of the creed penetrated into the lands of Khotan, Turfan, Kuchar, &c, in

Chinese Turkestan. Flourishing there exceedingly from the second to the seventh

century, mahayanist Buddhism persisted till the ninth, the age of the Mohammedan

conquests. Numerous expeditions of recent times (those of Sir Aurel Stein, Griinwedel,

von Le Coq, Pelliot, Klementz, Beresowski, Yamagushi, and others) have brought to

light artistic and literary traces of the Buddhism of Turkestan. Such was the ex-

pansion of Buddhism in the regions to the north of India. As for its propagationtowards the east, mahayanistic Hindu Buddhism penetrated into Burma, Siam, and

Cambodia, where its presence is attested by numerous ruins (e.g. those of Angkor-Vatin Cambodia) ;

but it proved unable to maintain itself there. Later it was replaced bythe hlnayanist form of the faith. Southwards the Mahayana spread to the Malay

Archipelago. In the island of Java, where it was probably introduced in the fifth

century and had reached its highest power towards the eighth (as is proved by the

famous ruins of Boro-Budur, see later under Buddhist Art), it most likely lived on side

by side with Brahmanism, but was destroyed by the Mohammedans. It was from

Java that the Mahayana reached the island of Bali, where degenerate remains of it

exist even to-day. There remain evidences of the existence of Buddhism in the

east and south of Sumatra from the eighth to the twelfth centuries. 1

The introduction of Buddhism into China dates from the first century A. D.,

although Chinese writers make vague mention of certain attempts, probably byscattered individuals, which would date back to the second century B. c. The positiveand historical fact is that in a.d. 65 the Emperor Ming-Ti, of the Han dynasty, sent

into Khotan a deputation of eighteen persons, who, accompanied by the Indian

theologians Matanga and Gobharana, brought back in the year 67 a collection of

Buddhist works. From among these some (notably' the Sutra in forty-two paragraphs ',

a kind of selection, of thoughts made from the whole canon) were at once translated in

the first Buddhist temple at Lo-yang (now Ho-nan-fu). Up to the fourth centurythe activity of the Buddhist missionaries in China (mostly foreigners) was limited to

the translation of the sacred books; but from the reign of Yao-Shing (379-415)

Buddhism was recognized as the state religion and the Chinese began to study it for

themselves. Several pilgrims betook themselves to India and Ceylon to gain some

idea of the faith in its own country. Among the most famous must be cited the

monks Fa-Hien, who travelled from 399 to 413, and Yuan-Chuang or Hiuen-T'sang,whosejourney is dated between 629 and 645. Others, as, for instance, the layman Sung-Ylin (in 518-521), visixed more especially the land of Gandhara, and others. We owe to

them valuable information on India, and the state of Buddhism in general, from the

fifth to the seventh centuries. On the other hand, there were during this periodseveral embassies from India and Ceylon to the Emperor of China. The envoysof the Hindu princes congratulated the ruler of China on the success won by the

New Law in' the Middle Kingdom '. One of the great Hindu priests, Bodhidharma,

1

Verbeek, OudhedenvanJava,S' Grnvenhng,1891. in Verhandelingen van het Bataviaaseh Genootschap—Groeneveldt, Notes on the Malay Archipelago; van Kunsten en Wetenscha2>pen, Batavia, t. 39,1877.

INTRODUCTION xxix

succeeded (in 526) in converting to Buddhism the Emperor Wu-Ti of the Lyang

dynasty, which then reigned in Southern China. For a time the Emperor became

a monk, and Bodhidharma was made head of all the Buddhist monastics in

China, and took up his residence in a famous convent near the present Kiu-Kiang on

the Yang-Tze. In spite of these triumphs the Buddhists had to sustain a struggle

against their enemies, the faithful of the Taoist creed and the disciples of Confucius.

To a certain degree they were able to amalgamate with the former, but the latter aroused

against them persecutions which were particularly bitter at the beginning of the

eighth century and down to the tenth. Thousands of convents were destroyed by

violence, and hundreds of thousands of monks compelled to return to secular life.

Since that date, the doctrine of Mahayana, slightly modified by borrowings from

Taoism, has endured till the present time. Its followers, divided into ten sects, live

peaceably in their convents, often quite close to Taoist monastics or Buddhist-Lamaites

(see later). The latter, however, are not very numerous in China.

From China Buddhism passed into Korea. It was brought by a Chinese monknamed Sun-Do, who carried 372 sacred images and books with him. The new

faith grew very rapidly and attained its apogee from the tenth to the fourteenth

century. In 1447 a Buddhist monk invented the present Korean alphabet called

Un-mwn which is derived from the Sanskrit (M. Courant). At the end ofthe fourteenth

century, with the fall of the dynasty which had protected it, Buddhism began to

decline in Korea, and to-day only a few degraded remains of it are to be discovered

there.

From Korea the spark of the Buddhistic faith passed to Japan, where the start-

ing-point of the Buddhist propaganda was the introduction of an image of Buddha

into the court of the Emperor by a monk sent by the king of Hyakusai, one of the

states into which Korea was at this time (552) divided. At the end of the sixth

century (c. 588) the new religion found a firm footing in the country despite the

opposition of the Shintoists, who, after a vigorous struggle, ended by fusing themselves

with the Buddhists, as the Taoists have done in China. An excellent example of

this fusion is to be found in the sect of the Byobu, which was founded in the ninth

century and is a veritable mixture of both creeds. At this period the centre of JapaneseBuddhism was at the court of the Emperor. Certain princes, Shotoku Daishi

(canonized in 621), for instance, even distinguished themselves as ardent propagandistsof the new faith. As in Korea, Buddhism caused the invention of a national systemof writing, the Kana (KataJcana and Hiragana), and introduced into the country the

fine arts, the taste for letters, and the like. Several of the sacred books in Sanskrit

were brought thither, and there have since been discovered in Japan portions of the

Buddhist canons in that tongue which elsewhere are unknown. It is a curious fact,

however, that until quite lately the Buddhistic works in Chinese or Sanskrit have

never been translated into Japanese (Chamberlain). At the time of its introduction

into Japan, Sino-Korean Buddhism already comprised several divisions, which in the

Land of the Rising Sun developed into six sects, the chief being : Tendai ; Shingon

(True-Word); Jodo (Pure-Land) and Zen. To these must be added six others, of

xxx INTRODUCTION

local origin, of which the most important are : the Byobu already mentioned ; the Shin

(true), called also Monto or IkJco ; and the Nichiren or Hokke. Of these sects the last,

founded in 1222, is considered the most fanatical. The Shin (a'

protestant'

sect,

so to speak) allows the marriage of priests ; the sect of the Jodo introduces the idea

of 'the western paradise'; that of the Zen shows artistic and literary tendencies.

The establishment of Chinese Confucianism in the seventeenth century, and then,

to some extent, the first steps taken to introduce Christianity, dealt Buddhism

a blow. The more cultivated minds became disinclined for it, and the revolution

of 1867-8 brought about its almost complete downfall by declaring Shintoism

the state religion. A series of measures taken by the government from 1871 to 1874

left Buddhism wholly disestablished and disendowed. Lately there has been

a revival of Buddhistic studies in Japan, but it is rather towards scientific and

evolutionary ideas or theosophical speculations that the neo-Buddhists turn their

attention.

From China Buddhism penetrated into Annum, where it was considerably modified

by the introduction of indigenous animistic elements and magical practices. This

mutilated Buddhism numbers, however, only a few devotees. There is no ecclesiastical

organization nor clergy. The bonzes', living apart or in small bodies in the convents,

are also sorcerers, faith-healers and the like.

In Tibet and later in Mongolia the doctrine of the Mahayana developed into a new

religion—Lamaism—of which we shall give a short account. The introduction of

Buddhism into Tibet dates from the year 632, when the King Srongtsan-sgam-po

(Sroft-btsan sgam-po), influenced by his two wives, one a Chinese princess, the other

from Nepal, but both ardent Buddhists, ordered from India images, sacred books, and

(most important of all) theologians. These last invented the Tibetan alphabet

(derived from the Sanskrit), undertook the translation of the canonical writings, and

applied themselves to a very active propaganda of the new Law. In the eighth

century, the King Ti-sron De-tsan summoned to his court Hindu theologians whose

names have remained famous, for instance Santa-Rak6ita (venerated to-day as Acarya-

Bodhisattva) and Padmasambhava (in Tibetan Guru Rin-po-c'e, 'Precious Teacher'),a native of Udyana, now Dardistan in the north-west of Kashmir. The latter, a keen

disciple of the school of Yogacarya, came to Tibet in 747, and succeeded in firmly

implanting his doctrine, owing, it is true, to a compromise with the native religion of

Bon-pa, whose demons he admitted to his pantheon. Two years later he laid the first

stone of Tibet's first Buddhist monastery, that of Sam-yas (Bsam-yas). To him is due

the introduction into the mahayanist doctrine of the division of men into two cate-

gories, Nan-pa ('insiders

'

or Buddhists) and Ci-pa ('outsiders

'

or non-Buddhists), as

well as many other modifications which transformed the '

Mahayana'

into the Church

or sect known under the name of Bnih-ma-pa which adores Samantabhadra

as the supreme divinity. Under the King Ral-pa-can (c. 899) was finished the

translation of the sacred books, which were brought together into two collections, form-

ing to this day the foundation of the Lamaist religion—the Kanjur (Ekah-hgyur) and

the Tanjur (Bstan-hgyur) [see later]. But a terrible reaction was produced by the

INTRODUCTION xxxi

accession to the throne of the brother of Ral-pa-can, by name Langdarma (Glah-

dharma). This monarch, the Julian the Apostate of Buddhism, won over by those who

practised the religion of Bon-pa, inaugurated an era of persecution, burned monasteries,

and slew or banished thousands of monks. The banished monks retired to the

mountains in the east of the country, but avenged themselves at the end of three

years by bringing about Langdarma's death. After this, the Buddhists again dared to

raise their heads and the propaganda was recommenced. A century later the countrywas covered with convents and full of monks. The arrival of the great Hindu priest

Atlsa in 1040 marked an epoch in the history of Tibetan Buddhism—the conclusion

of the Nga-dar, or period of primitive Buddhism, and the beginning of the C'yirdar, or

period of Lamaism. Atlsa founded the sect of Ka-dam-pa, less ascetic and more

ritualistic than that of Rnin-morpa, and this sect became later (in 1417) the chief' church

'

of the Lamaist creed, under the name of Ge-lug-pa (dge-lugs-pa, the '

sect of

the righteous ', or of ' the yellow caps ').The founder of the sect, the real reformer of

Lamaism, was the famous Tson-k'a-pa (1356-1418), born in the country where stands

to-day the convent of Kum-bum (Kham province in the north-east of Tibet). Hehad made it his chief object to re-establish discipline in the convents, where it was so

slack that several monks were either married or openly kept mistresses. Moreover,he also introduced new dogmas of which the most important is the recognition of

'living Buddhas' or reborn lamas (Qubilghan in Mongolian), i.e. priests and monks in

whose very flesh and bones are incarnated the famous saints and even the different

deities. This dogma gave an enormous power to the Lamaist clergy and found its

expression towards the end of the fifteenth century in the creation of a Grand-

Lama, and later in 1640 of a sole temporal and spiritual chief of all Tibet, bearingthe title of the Dalai-Lama. Indeed the fifth Grand-Lama (the incarnation of Avalo-

kitesvara), called Nag-wan Lo-zang (Nag-dbah blo-bzan), was honoured by the

Mongol prince Gushi Khan with the title of King of Tibet, and was confirmed in this

dignity by the Emperor of China in 1650. The institution of the Dalai-lama has lasted

in Tibet up to the present time in spite of the wanderings undergone by the presentbearer of the title after the Anglo-Tibetan war. Tsoh-k'a-pa founded the monastery of

Galdan or Gah-dan, which became the centre for the reformed Buddhists (Ge-luk-pa) whoassumed the yellow cap (Sha-ser in Tibetan), while the orthodox (Rnih-ma-pa) adhered to

the red cap (in Tibetan SJia-mar). The former spread all over Tibet, among the Mongols,and in China (where they exist side by side with the mahayanist Buddhism) ;

the

latter are numerous in Nepal, in Sikkim, in Bhutan, and on the frontiers of China and

Tibet. Alongside of these two principal' churches

'

exist some twelve Lamaist sects,

but their importance is insignificant in comparison with that of • the red caps'

and'

the yellow '. Several among them are attached by origin to the orthodox ' reds '.

Such is the sect of Sakya-pa, with its subordinate bodies, whose faithful adore

principally the Bodhisattva Manjusri. Others, e. g. the Orgyen-pa, are descended from

the Nin-ma-pa before the reformation. Finally, a certain number sprang from the

sect founded in the twelfth century by Mar-pa and spread afterwards by the poet-monk Mi-la ras-pa (the cotton-clad) (1038-1122). The faithful of the Kargya-pa revere

xxxii INTRODUCTION

above all others Adi-Buddha. In essentials there is not any great difference of

doctrine between all these sects of Lamaists. To-day they are distinguished only bytheir recognition or repudiation of certain saints, their veneration of certain divinities,

the character of their practices, and the number of miracles wrought by their

magicians.At the time of the conquest of Tibet by the Mongols, a monk of the country,

Saskya-Pandita, was summoned to Mongolia by the Khan Godan, or Qutan, the

second son of Chinghis-khan. He arrived in 1246 in order to propagate Lamaism,

and made the first attempt to invent a script for the Mongolian language,

drawing his inspiration from the Uigur alphabet. He failed, however, in his experi-

ment, and his nephew, the monk Matidhvaja ('the standard of wisdom

'),better known

under the name of P'ags-pa ('the famous,'

' the saint') [in Mongol, qutuqtu], invented

' the square script'

(durheljin ustik in Mongol.) which was derived from the Tibetan

alphabet. This, despite its phonetic value, had only a small success. It was replaced

by the present Mongol script, which is only a modified form of the Uigur script pro-

posed several years before by Saskya-Pandita. It was perfected by the Lama Cojqu

ojer (in Mongolian, Chos-kyi-hod-zer in Tibetan) in the reign of Kuluk-khan (1308-11).

P'ags-pa converted to Buddhism the famous Khubilai-khan (Qubilai-qaghan) (1260-

91), who became one of its most ardent propagators. But, notwithstanding the pro-

tection of the emperors, Buddhism did not make any great progress in either China

or Mongolia, and even suffered a temporary eclipse after the fall of the Mongolian

dynasty of the Yuen (1368). In Mongolia the people returned to their beloved

Shamanist beliefs, and the monks fell very far away from the rules of the discipline.

Buddhism was, so to speak, re-introduced in Mongolia two centuries later, in 1577,

under the form of the sect of Ge-luk-pa {see above), by the saint {Qutuqtu) Sodnam-jamju

(Bsod-nams-rgya-mtsho), who, having been proclaimed Dalai-Lama by Altan-khan,

chief of the Tumet Mongols and king of Tibet, came to Mongolia, where he laid downthe rules for monastics, did away with the sacrifice of animals at funerals, and per-

formed such services for Buddhism, that by the Mongols he is considered their first

national saint. Towards the end of the sixteenth century the Mongol princes had as

much influence with the Dalai-Lamas as had the emperors of China, and from 1602

we find one of the descendants of Altan holding the throne of the Grand-Lama under

the name of Dalai-Erden. He it was who in 1 604 settled the qutuqtu Maydari in the

convent of Urga on the banks of the river Tola The successors of this personage, whoare held to be qubilghan (reincarnations) of one of the pupils of Sakya-muni, are amongthe most powerful members of the Lamaist clergy. It was the last of these incarnations,

the Bogdo-Gegen ('shining excellence') or Je-btsun dam-pa ('holy chief), who lately

(in 1912) proclaimed himself at Urga king of an independent Mongolia.Towards 1625 Lamaism was introduced among the Kalmuks by Boibeghus-

baghatur, chief of the Khoshot (qosot) tribe. Later it spread among the other princes,

nobles, and landholders. Finally, towards the end of the eighteenth century all the

Kalmuk race, or Olot, from Lake Kuku-Nor to the banks of the Volga and the Don, •

had become Buddhist. As to the third branch of 'the Mongols, the Buriats, they

INTRODUCTION xxxiii

were not affected by Buddhism before the middle of the eighteenth century, and

a part of them remains Shamanist even at the present time.

IV. The Religious Community (Sangha)

(a) Clergy. The first Buddhist community was founded by Sakya-muni himself, and

the rules of its organization served as a base for the compilation of the Vinaya, that part

of the canon (Tripitaka) which is devoted to' the discipline '. These rules, however,

which resembled those of many other religious communities of ancient India, did not

acknowledge the existence of a chief, and up to the present the southern Buddhists,

like those of Ceylon, have never had one, or, at most, have had leaders appointed bythe temporal power, as in Siam. As we shall shortly see, the case is different in the

north. The primitive Buddhist community admitted to itself every man without

distinction of caste, and was thereby differentiated from the other contemporary com-

munities of India. It is even maintained by some authors that to this principle of

equality and democracy Buddhism owes its success. On the other hand, it must be

pointed out that Sakya-muni himself established, as a set-off to the privileges enjoyedat his time by every religious community in India (exemption from taxes, right of

asylum, &c), certain prohibitions : thus slaves, criminals, soldiers, persons afflicted

with infirmities or contagious diseases, were all inadmissible. In the same waypersons of less than twenty years and above eight were admitted only as pupils or

novices (Sramanera in S.,1 Bandi in M.), and that with the consent of their parents. As

to women, though all, even those living in concubinage, could become Buddhists, their

constitution in communities was permitted by Sakya-muni only very reluctantly, at

the instance of his aunt who reared him. He maintained, even, that the time of his

apostolate on earth as ManusM-buddha, and therefore the total benefit which he could

confer upon humanity, had been reduced one-half by this concession.

In the primitive community the admission to two grades (Pravrajya'

departure ',

and the great admission Upasampada) were accompanied by several ceremonies, the

cutting of hair, the clothing in monastic habit, and the taking of an oath to observe

the four fundamental commandments—not to kill, not to thieve, to abstain from sexual

connexion, and not to boast the possession of supernatural qualities. Monks werebound to live by alms, to sleep under trees, to be clad in rags, &c. Usually their life

was passed in walking from one town to another, with no more baggage than anearthen bowl {Patra S., Batir M.) holding food, a razor, and a sieve to strain from their

drinking-water the living creatures which might be therein and run the risk of

being swallowed. A pilgrim's staff was allowed. 2They slept in the open air, and only

1 The words Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Mongolian Ceylon the umbrella has replaced the staff, and

are here represented by the letters S., T., and M. among the Mongolian Buddhists the future monk,J Some of these rules are in practice to-day. during the ceremony of admission, is given, instead

Thus the monks of Ceylon go bareheaded and bare- of a sieve, a sort of fan made of dry herbs, with

footed, and the monk of Tibet always has his patra. which he must drive away the insects which mightOthers have disappeared (e. g. the fourth command- fall into his drinking-water,

ment), or at least have changed. For instance, in

im« e

xxxiv INTRODUCTION

in the rainy season assembled in houses( Vihara) built for them by the faithful. These

ViMra later became monasteries. The day of the primitive monk began with household

toil and was afterwards divided between meditation, collection of alms, and worship

paid to the relics of Buddha or to the Bodhi tree. It ended with reading or copyingthe sacred books. Strictly speaking there were no prayers, for to whom could theybe addressed ? The primitive faith did not allow a personal deity, and Buddha is in

Nirvana, outside the universe in whose midst living beings are compelled to exist until

their deliverance (Samara). Meetings for any common rite were rare : there were

a public confession every eight days and a great mutual confession at the end of

the rainy season. Such a cult might satisfy a few ecstatic monks, but madeno appeal to the common people ;

and it is no matter for surprise if the new

religion immediately after Sakya-muni's death made concessions to the latter. They

began with the public adoration of the relics of Gautama himself and then of

other Buddhas. Afterwards came pilgrimages to spots which recalled his life and his

works, and where commemorative monuments (Stupa S., Thupa in Pali, mC'od-rten T.,

Suburga M.) had been erected. 1

The simple organization of the primitive Sangha has undergone, like any other

institution, its processes of evolution. Among the southern Buddhists it has resulted

in the foundation of convents, each containing but a few monks (bhikshu), while amongthose of the north it has been transformed into a regular church, which, in some

countries, as for instance in Tibet, has ended by absorbing the entire life of the people.With the northern Buddhists the clergy is composed of monks of various grades,

some of whom follow a special course of teaching, and, after examination, receive an

ordination which endows them with power to perform the sacred rites. The numberof these monks is considerable. More than half the population in Mongolia, morethan a third in Tibet, consists of ' Lamas '.

2 But it must not be supposed that all

Lamas are true monks living in convents. Those who have attained to the first two

grades of the hierarchy live, for the most part, outside such institutions and attend to

their businesses like ordinary Mongols and Tibetans. Moreover, to mention only the

most important class, there are laymen of all ages who, desirous of proving their

devotion, undergo a sort of affiliation to the monastic life, and acquire the title of

Ubasi (M.) or Upcisaka (S.). In their case ordination takes place in the tent of the

postulant or his parents at the hands of a priest (Geliing, see later), who demands of

the candidate obedience to the first five commandments (see p. xxv). The Ubasi

afterwards follows the life of the other nomads, and is not, strictly speaking, a monk.

The real hierarchy begins with the grade of Genyen (dge bsnen T., Sramanera S.,

Bandi M.). The usual age for candidates for this grade is from infancy up to seven

or eight years, and the rank is attained after two or three years of study under the

1 Till quite lately' the real tooth

'

of Buddha was but the word in Tibetan signifies'

superior'

or

shown at Kandi in Ceylon, and ' the real Bodhi tree' ' revered master ', and is applied only to high

existed as late as 1876 near the ancient town of dignitaries, who gain a right to it only after the

Urubilva in India. completion of higher studies.» iThis is the European term for Buddhist monks,

INTRODUCTION xxxv

direction of a teacher appointed by the superior of the convent. Ordination is accom-

panied by a certain amount of ceremonial. The head of the new Genyen is shaven;

flowers are thrown over him, after he has been made to submit to a kind of confession

in order that his freedom from infectious disease may be assured, as also his sex, and

the fact of his not having taken life, and so on. The Bandi is compelled to observe the

ten commandments (see p. xxv). He is given the monastic habit of red and yellow, the

patra, and a bundle of dry herbs for driving away insects (see p. xxxiii, n.). The next

rank, that of novice or Getsul (dge-ts'ul T., Gejul M., Sramana S.), can be tried for onlyafter fifteen years of age. The ordination resembles that of the Bandi, but with more

ceremonial and a harder examination. To become a perfect monk or Gelung (M.) ('a

virtuous mendicant'—

dge-slon T.) the candidate must be between twenty and twenty-five years old, must pass an examination which lasts for three days, and must maintain

in debate various theses in theology. Those who are successful in this examination,

remain at the convent, those who fail are obliged to leave it and to become sorcerer-

Lamas (in Tibet), or (in Mongolia) to adopt nomadic life, always preserving their religious

character and title of getsul.

The Gelung are qualified to officiate in all the ceremonies of the religion, and

can even become the superiors of smaller convents.

At this rank the monastic hierarchy (strictly speaking) reaches its term. All

other distinctions depend upon the functions fulfilled by the various Gelung or uponacademic degrees. As a matter of fact, the more ambitious and intelligent amongthe Gelung continue their studies in the universities of the great convents where

is taught the tsanit (bjanit M.) or Mts'an-nid (T.), i. e. the distinctive signs of • the

things of the quintessence', or (to put it more accurately) the commentaries to

the Kanjur and the Tanjur (see p. xxx), accompanied by special studies in astrology,

medicine, and the occult sciences. After studies, more or less long, and severe

examinations, the students obtain successively the degrees of Bachelor (Dkah-bcu T.,

Arkan bergedei M.), of Licentiate (Babs-hbyams-pa T., Masi-Kedureksen M.), of Master

(Snas-rams-pa T.), and of Doctor (Hla-rams-pa T.).

As to the offices of the monks in the convents, they are more than twenty in

number. The highest is that of Qambo-Lama (M.), Upadhyaya (S.), Mkhan-po (T.), or

Superior of one of the greater convents. The Qambo are nominated by the incarnated

Lamas (see below) and confirmed in their office by the civil power (up to lately bythe Emperor of China). A Qambo has supreme direction of the entire life of the

convent, while the management of convent affairs lies in the hands of a functionaryof the rank immediately below, who is called Corgi-Lama (M.) or Tsos-rje (T.). Thenfollow in order the siretu (M.), who presides at all ceremonies of the religion ; the

Dge-bskos (T.) or Gebgui (M.), a kind of overseer or beadle with extensive authority,

always armed with his staff, which he plies on the columns of the temple to stop the

noise of talking, and also, after a summary cross-examination, on the backs of such

monks as may disturb the order of the services. Finally comes the Umcat (M.) or

Dbu-mtsat (T.) who organizes all the religious sei-vices and has the special function

of leading the intoning of the hymns and chants.

e2

xxxvi INTRODUCTION

Besides the assistants of the three officers just named, we have to reckon a crowd

of underlings ; the Takilci (M.) or Mtsod-pa (T.) who arranges the offerings ; the Ja-ma

(T.) who prepares them and looks after everything concerning the feeding of the

monks ; the musicians, the monks who, by ringing a gong or blowing into a shell,

give the signal to the rest to assemble in the temple or elsewhere.

There are also monks especially employed in instruction, who, like the higher

officers, are chosen from among those possessed of academic degrees. Such are the

C'os-skyon (T.) or professors of the occult sciences, who interpret difficult passages

of the sacred books and are also busied in averting or attracting rain, in indicating

the places where are reborn the souls of the departed, and so forth. These must be

distinguished from the magicians (Coijin-Sanghasak M.) who do not live in monasteries,

and who, although they receive investiture from the Dalai-Lama himself, do not

follow the monastic rules. Usually they are married and devote themselves to rites

akin to Shamanism. Some are renowned as oracles. Along with the Cos-skyon

must be classed the doctor-Lamas (EmciM.., Sman-paT.) and the astrologers (Jiruqaici

M., Ganaka S., Btsis-nan T.).

In spite of the number of grades and functions all monks, at least in Mongolia

(Pozdnieev), believe in their mutual equality, and act upon this principle. In this

respect the traditions of the ancient brotherhood of the Sangha have been preserved

up to our day.

Beside the '

regular'

clergy (so to speak) exists a special class of ecclesiastical

dignitaries—the ' incarnations

'

(Qubilghan M., Sprul-ba T.) or living Buddhas who are

at the summit of the lamaist hierarchy and who, in right of their very origin, differ

from the rest. A Qubilghan is, in fact, the representative, in flesh and blood, of

some Buddha, Bodhisattva, god or saint, whose spirit is incarnated in him at the

moment of his birth, and will pass, at his death, into the body of the child destined

to become his successor in the functions fulfilled by him. The incarnation is thus

less a matter of person than of function. The system is a useful one ; for by

exploiting the belief in transmigration or rebirth and the veneration for famous

ancestors it creates positions which are to some extent hereditary and precludesthe competition and party-strife which an election might occasion. Besides the

Dalai-Lama (supreme head of the Lamaist church of the '

yellow caps ', and at the

same time incarnation of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara) who lives at Lhassa,

and the Pan-c'en Rimpoce (supreme head of the ' church'

of the ' red caps ',and also

incarnation of Buddha Amitabha) who lives at Tashi-Lumpo, there are in Tibet,

as in Mongolia and China, a certain number of ' saints'

(Qutuqtu M.) and '

Qubilghan ',

incarnations of numerous saints and deities. Every greater convent has its

own Qubilghan whose authority is purely local. As to the Qutuqtu there are only

very few of them. Such for example is the Qutuqtu of the convent of Urga in

Mongolia, called Bogdo-Gegen (see p. xxxii), incarnation of one of the pupils of Sakya-muni. There are also the Grand-Lama of Pekin, head of the Lamaist clergy in China,

and the Depa-raja, spiritual and temporal sovereign of Bhutan.

When one of the incarnate Lamas dies, his'

spiritual being'

or, as we should

INTRODUCTION xxxvii

say, his soul, goes first to a celestial abode, then, at the end of a period varying

from forty-six days to four years, is reborn in the body of a child, who from his birth

gives signs of his supernatural character. When public report or the inquiries of

the Lamas have pointed out the locality where the child in question is to be found,

the chapter of the monastery, or (if it is a matter of the Dalai-Lama) the sacred

college of the Qambo (counsellors) holds an inquiry into the authenticity of the facts

alleged, and goes to the spot to subject the child to a series of tests, the chief of

which consists in making him recognize among several similar objects (cups, books,

rosaries, &c.) those which the dead Qubilghan or Dalai-Lama habitually used. After

due trial, the child is proclaimed a rebirth and is brought to the convent or the palace

of Po-ta-la, if it is a question of succession to the Dalai-Lama. There up to the age of

eighteen he receives the necessary education. Afterwards he may exercise his authority.

The day of a Tibetan monk is passed very much in the following manner.

Rising about five, he makes his ablutions, recites the prayers in honour of his tutelar

divinity or patron (Yi-dam), then, summoned by the trumpet or the shell, joins the

procession of other monks who are going to the temple. There, after prayer, is made

the first distribution of tea to the monks. This rite over, he retires to his cell and

does not return to worship till nine o'clock ; then at midday come service and tea.

After this he is free and takes a rest, only returning to the temple towards three to

take part in theological controversies and receive tea again. About seven he goes

back to his cell, after having revised the tasks to be done by his pupils, if there is

occasion. Apart from the hours devoted to worship, the Lamas are occupied with

various matters according to their particular capacities. Some give instruction ; others

copy the saced books ; others, again, design and carve images of the deities or perform

some manual labour. Some travel about among the encampments to aid the laity with

their counsel ; others, to complete their education, travel from one convent to another.

The costume of the Mongolian monks consists of a skirt of blue linen or red

cloth (Pancali S., Sham-t'abs T., Banjal M.), a sort of shirt of white linen (jamja M.),

and a long full robe of cloth or of silk (Debel M.) ornamented with fur for the winter,

and of a colour varying in accordance with the wearer's grade : brown for the Bandi,

red for the Getsul, and yellow for the Gelling. In Tibet trousers also are worn, and

a long red shawl (Bla-gos T.) thrown over the left shoulder and leaving free the right

arm as among the primitive Buddhists. In Mongolia the same shawl (Kimji M.) is

donned only for the religious service. The headgear varies with the circumstances

and rank of the monks and Lamas. The conical hat, red or yellow according to

sect, with large turned-up brim, is common to all. Another, shaped like a biretta

and trimmed with a yellow or red fringe, is worn only by monks resident at the

convent. For the services is worn a sort of helmet with a crest (Saser M.,

Rtse-swa T.), while the Lamas of high rank wear different kinds of tiaras (Obbotai M.).

For some of the divine services is assumed the titim (M.) (or chodpan, see Glossary) or

another head-dress, shaped like an inverted barber's dish and topped by a vajra.

The conical cap, with long appendages in the form of ribbons falling on the shoulders

and the temples, is only adopted by the '

reincarnations '.

xxxviii INTRODUCTION

An indispensable accessory of the costume of the Gelling is the water-bottle

wallet (Cab-lug T.yjabori orjavrun M.), a little flagon sewn up in a bag and containing

holy water with which the monk washes his mouth after meals. There are also

rosaries (Akshamdla S., P'ren-ba T., Erike M.) of 108 beads of the same size, made of

bone, wood, coral, metal, seeds, and the like. These are divided into nine series by largerbeads. In addition, the Lamas carry with them a drinking-cup, reliquaries, a little

book wrapped in cloth with which they give the blessing, and sometimes a bag con-

taining small necessaries, tobacco, pipe, tinder-box, writing-materials, and the like.

Besides the monks there are Lamaist-Buddhist nuns (Bhikshunl S.). Formerlynumerous, they are met with to-day only in the south and east of Tibet. They wearthe same costume as the monks and shave the head completely. Their principalorder has its seat at the monastery of Samding (Bsam-lding T.), on Lake Palte or

Yamdok, the abbess of which is an incarnation of Vajravarahl (Rdo-rje p'ag-mo)

(see p. 117). In Dzungaria and western Mongolia are found also some female'

Qubilghan '.

(b) Religious Ceremonies. Presence at the daily offices in the temple of the

convent is obligatory only on the Bandi, the Getsiil, and some Geliing specially

charged with the performance of the services. The remaining Geliing and the Lamasof the higher grades assist only at the high services (jke qural M.). These take

place usually on the 15th of each lunar month, with an extra service (Qanghal M.)towards the end of the month ; but there are others which last several days, usuallyfrom the 1st to the 15th of the month or from the 8th to the 15th.

Besides the daily services there are solemn religious ceremonies at certain

appointed seasons : first on the 15th of each lunar month, then on the days of

certain feasts. Among these feasts the most important are the new year or ' white

moon' (Zal-ba Ban-po T., Caghan-sara M.), which lasts from the 1st to the 16th of the

first 'moon' of the year (according to the Chinese cycle, i.e. between the middle of

January and the beginning of February). It corresponds to the sixteen days duringwhich Sakya-muni sustained his struggle with the adversaries of his doctrine

(see p. xx), and coincides with the civil feasts of a sort of carnival which lasts, at

Lhassa for instance, for more than six weeks. Another feast commemorating the first

preaching of the tour ruths by Sakya-muni (see pp. xx-xxi), is kept by a high service

from the 8th to the 15th of the third ' moon '

of the summer (towards the end of

July), and is followed by a special ceremony on the 1 6th of the same month, the dayof ^akya-muni's conception. Afterwards begins the ' Lent ', imposing hard and

painful service and repentance, and called Jam (M.) or Bpyar-gnas (T.), i.e. 'the

solitary summer fasting'

of the monks. This lasts for forty-five days, during which

the monks may not leave the convent and must remain all day seated in the temple.

The 25th day of the first month of the winter,' the feast of Lanterns ', gives oppor-

tunity for one of the most impressive ceremonies, accompanied by a sudden illumination

of all the buildings of the convent with thousands of lanterns, and by other features.

This has been rendered popular in Europe by the picturesque narrative of the Abbe

Hue. Lastly, in the third' moon

'

of the winter (end of January or beginning of

INTRODUCTION xxxix

February) occur the three high services. On the 15th is the secret congress (Nighuja

qurianghui M.) ; from the 27th to the 28th the feast called Sor, when offerings of butter

are burnt, and on the 29th the service of sacrifices (balin M.). Besides these festal

days there are high services from the 8th to the 1 5th of the first month of summerin commemoration of the entry of Buddha into Nirvana, and on the 15th day of the

third month of autumn in honour of Man-la (see p. 23), and a few others.

We must add that the laity assist at the daily services in Tibet only on rare

occasions, and never in Mongolia. It is only on feast days that they throng as if on

pilgrimage to the vicinity of the convents. In Tibet they enter the temples, but in

Mongolia they are content to make genuflexions and salutations, prostrating them-

selves upon the earth outside the temple. Moreover in Tibet, as also in Mongolia,

they make 'the circumambulation'

of the temple, either walking or prostratingthemselves continually so as to measure with the length of their bodies the circuit of

the shrine. The more fervent act in the same manner all the way from their encamp-ment to the convent ;

it is even said that the most ecstatic use the same fashion

of progression during the whole journey from the frontier of Tibet up to Lhassa.

The usual daily service (Jis T.) includes the same cycle of prayers and repetitions

which are intoned by the Uncat (see p. xxxv), and taken up in chorus by the rest of

the monks. According to the ' Sumbrum '

or'

breviaries'

in vogue in Mongolia the

offices are composed of three parts : (1) the 'rapsal' (rab-gsal T.), 'the most luminous

collection of hymns in honour of Buddha, which include the ' credo ', the '

praises ',

the '

prayers ', and the ' wishes and benedictions'

; (2) the litanies addressed to the

dokshit or defenders of the Faith (see p. 130), which vary according to the divinity to

whom they are addressed ; (3) iindiisiin (M.) or Tantra (S.), esoteric invocations to the

Yi-dam (see p. 123) grouped under four heads. In the larger convents these magicTantra are read in special chapels called Jud (T.).

The three kinds of '

sung prelections'

of the liturgy are the same for the low and

the high services, which only differ in the number of chapters read. Thus at the

low service are read only four or five'

rapsal'

and a single'

dokshit'

in honour of the

deity who protects the convent, while at the high service the entire series of'

rapsals'

is exhausted, and six or eight litanies are sung to the ' dokshits '. To

these daily services, at which the monks are present in their ordinary dress, seated,

and without making any gestures or imitative actions, others are from time to time

added. First there is a ' dokshit'

service, specially composed for invoking.the protectivedeities and the '

defenders of the faith '. This service is invested with more splendourthan usual. The presiding Gelling assumes a special dress ; the banjal (see p. xxxvii)is worn above the robe and not below ; his shoulders are draped with a sort of

tippet (do-dik T.) ; lastly, the head is crowned by the chodpan (see the Glossary). The

principal celebrant stands upright and makes a certain number of gestures. The office

is accompanied by music and includes offerings and sacrifices to the divinities. The

objects indispensable for this service are (1) the gong and vajra (see Glossary), which

the celebrant generally holds ; (2) the hapala (see Glossary) on a tripod, filled, accordingto the deity to whom sacrifice is made, with tea, wine, or blood ; (3) the bum-pa, vessel

xl INTRODUCTION

of holy water with a peacock's feather for sprinkling it ; (4) a little plate with grainsof corn or rice to be thrown in the air as a sacrifice to the spirits.

Moreover special offerings are prepared (balin M.), a kind of pyramid made of

paste mixed with sugar and currants and covered with ornaments made of coloured

butter which represent the sun and moon, the jewel (cintamani S.), flowers, and so

forth. The preparation of these balin demands the greatest care. Since the breath

of the maker must not touch them, he puts over his mouth a hair-net (galgabci M.).

The priest's gestures have relation to the seven special offerings, the flower, lamp,scented wands, and the rest (see p. xlviii). The assistants mark these gestures by

clapping their hands in a special'

tempo'

or cadence. The prayers recited are taken

from the Sadhana (see Glossary).

Another service, known by the Mongolian name of Tuiurgukji, has for object

the preparation of the lustral water (rasayana S.). It includes prayer, the abso-

lution of sins, a recital of all the ablutions made by Sakya-muni, and finally the

thanksgiving. Between the first and second part of the rite is performed the

preparation of the holy water. One of the priest's assistants raises a mirror so that

it reflects one of the statues of the divinities;another takes the vessel (Kuje M.)

filled with water and pours it upon the mirror. The water which flows off and is

believed to have caught the image of the divinity, is collected in a special dish {Kris-

gc'os T.) held by a third acolyte, while a fourth wipes the mirror with a silken

napkin (qadaq M.). Fifteen libations are made in this way, and at the end of the

ceremony the lustral water is poured off into a bum-pa and set on the sacrificial altar.

Thereafter it is used for the aspersion of offerings, and for washing the mouths of

the Lamas, while among the -laity it serves the same purposes as does holy water

among Catholics.

The service called so-jin (gso-sbyon T.) is worthy of special treatment. It is held

on the fifteenth and thirtieth of each month, and is really the ancient uposadha or

collective confession of the monks ; being of a very intimate character, it involves

the wearing of special habits. The monks are called to it not by the sound of bells

or trumpets, but by that of a great block of wood (gandi S.) struck by a small staff.

In reality it is no longer the primitive confession, but a sort of renewal of vows ;

for to all the questions (253 at least) put by the presiding official, the monks make

invariably the same replies. For the sake of record we may mention the special

annual ceremonies. These are the tour made by Maitreya, when the statue of

this divinity is drawn about on an enormous wooden horse ; and the tsam, a kind

of mystery with masked figures representing the Citipati, the god Vajrapani, the

Jamsaran or earth-spirit under the form of an old man, several monsters with

heads of oxen, stags, and the like.

V. Short Survey of Buddhist Art

After this description of the organization and life of the Buddhist clergy as well

as of the ritual, there remains the task of saying a few words on the buildings and cult-

objects amid which a great number of Lamas pass their existence ; that is to say, the

INTRODUCTION xli

convents and temples and also the images they contain must be described. Since,

however, these images are the subject of the volume to which this is but the Intro-

duction, we shall limit ourselves to giving some general idea of the architecture of

the convents and temples and of the sculptures and pictures representing the deities.

Notwithstanding numerous works, among which must be mentioned as of first

rank those of Foucher, Griinwedel, von Le Coq, and S. Oldenburg, the study of

Buddhist art still presents considerable lacunae and numerous uncertainties.

This art must have first appeared soon after the institution of the first sangha,

probably towards the middle of the fifth century b. c, but the most ancient monu-

ments known to us do not date back beyond the third. From that period down to

the present day can be distinguished four stages of development (1) the art of the

ancient Indian school, (2) the so-called art of Gandhara, (3) the mediaeval art varying

according to locality, (4) and lastly the art of modern times.

(1) The ancient art is almost purely Hindu in character. At most, we can

recognize in it a few Greek and Iranian influences. It is known to us by a small

number of architectural monuments ; sculpture is represented by architectural orna-

ment only, and painting up to the present has not been discovered. Apart from the

hypogea which have served as temples, and the huge monolithic pillars set up by

King Asoka (c. 250), of which one was found at Benares in 1905, crowned by a superb

capital supporting the wheel of the Law, the monuments are principally Viharas and

Stupas. The former are houses once inhabited by monks, or chapels of a kind, once

occupied by images of the divinities. A collection of these constitutes a monastery

(Sangharama). Very few have been preserved to our day (examples are found in the

monasteries of Swat or at Takht-i-Boghas). These consist of a kind of tower with

cupola or pitched roof, and trapezoidal door. As to the Stupas, they were originally

commemorative tumuli faced with stones and surrounded by a balustrade. Each of

these monuments is composed of three essential elements whose legendary origin is as

follows. When Sakya-muni was desirous of showing his disciples the right way to

construct the Stupas and decorate them symbolically, he took off his three monastic

garments, folded each into a square, and laid them one upon another ; then he set

on top his beggar's bowl (patra), and arranged above all his staff of pilgrimage.

Thenceforth the Stupa was composed of a square base of several steps ; of a mass

recalling a cupola or dome ; and of a pinnacle or finial formed of an upright, garnishedwith several discs (five to twelve) one above another, which represent as manyparasols, ensigns of authority. In the subsequent development of these buildings the

highest and lowest portions (the base and the pinnacle) tended to increase more and

more at the expense of the middle (the cupola). The primitive tumulus must have

been surrounded by a wooden palisade. The stone Stupas, the only ones that remain

to us, were surrounded by a round or quadrangular balustrade also of stone, but

imitating a wooden structure. This balustrade was furnished with several doors and

covered with bas-reliefs. Surviving from the ancient period of Buddhist art are several

Stupas known to us : that of Barhut, whose bas-reliefs are preserved in the Calcutta

Museum ; that of Sanchi, whose four doors have been restored ; and lastly that

xlii INTRODUCTION

of Bodh'-Gaya which is in a fair state of preservation. All date from the second

century B. c. and are situated in Central India.

The sculptural ornaments of these Stupas have this much in common that theycombine in a single whole various consecutive scenes of the life of Buddha or of his

previous rebirths (jtitaka), scenes which in the later periods are reproduced separately.

The style is conventional with a leaning to realism. But what chiefly characterizes

this art is the absence of representation of the Master, or Buddha, in human form.

His throne, surrounded by worshippers, is often seen, but it is empty ; empty also is

the place beneath the tree where Buddha was seated when he attained Bodhi. At

most, some symbols (a wheel, for instance) replace his figure. According to Foucher

this abstention from representations of the form of Buddha is due to the fact that at

the outset of Buddhism the ex-votos and smaller objects which must have been broughtback from pilgrimages represented only the symbols of the places of pilgrimage

(e. g. a wheel where Buddha held his first discourse, and so forth). Bespect for

tradition and the principle of survival have probably caused this method of repre-

senting Buddha to be adopted in the first manifestations of Buddhist art.

(2) Graeco-Buddhist art is so called because it adopted classical forms to express

Buddhist motives;but it is also called the art of Gandhara after the north-west

district of India (now Peshawar) where it originated towards the end of the first

century A. D. It lasted up to the end of the fifth century, remaining purely Hellenistic

except for some debts to Iranian forms and style. It treated, however, only Buddhist

subjects, which sometimes demanded modifications even of form if they were to be in

accord with the rules of the religion. Unlike what is to be seen in ancient Indian art,

the art of Gandhara introduces the representation of Buddha in human shape, his

prototype being Apollo and the sole addition being a nimbus. As for the state of

Bodhisattva, it is represented by the figure of an Indian prince in all the splendourof his ornaments. It is also in the bas-reliefs of Gandhara, that the figures of Buddha

and the saints appear seated on a reversed lotus-bloom, the base of whose bell-

shaped calix serves for a throne. The favourite subjects, unlike those of the older

Indian art, are rarely scenes from the jatakas, but principally from the life of Buddha,and are of an edifying character. They are disposed in separate panels which run in

order from right to left, a system which (in Stupas, for example) is connected with

the custom of circumambulation in the direction of the sun's course ; that is to say, the

building around which the circuit is made is kept on the right hand. The bas-reliefs

of this period are remarkable in point of execution for their very high relief

approaching treatment in the round : also for their correctness of proportion, for the

absence of stiffness in their draperies, and for delicacy of features.

But if the ornamentation of the buildings shows a considerable advance on the

older art, their architecture did not greatly vary. At the same time, thanks to modi-

fication in the organization of the Sarighas, which had grown larger, the cells (Vihdra)

where the monks lived had come to be built one on to another and to form a sort of

quadrangular cloister, surrounding a court in the middle of which were placed the

Stupas. These accumulated Vihdras formed a monastery (Sahgharama). Moreover,

INTRODUCTION xliii

such Viharas as contained images of the gods had been joined likewise. These had

lost their partition-walls, which were now replaced by columns;and thus they became

temples.

Finally these buildings were combined : a quadrangle of cells was constructed

round the temple, and the Stupa was moved outside. Such a combination is still

exemplified in our own day in the construction of the Lamaist convents (see p. xlvi).

The best specimens of the art of Gandhara are in the museums of Calcutta,

Lahore, and Peshawar, and also in the British Museum, and the Museum fur Volker-

kunde at Berlin. We know nothing of the painting of this period, but to judgefrom later works of a derivative art which have been observed in the caves of

Ajanta and in Chinese Turkestan (see later), it must have attained a high degree

of perfection in fresco.

(3) The art of Gandhara forms the base of several mediaeval schools of art. In

Central India it persists almost pure in the school of Mathura with its beautiful bas-

reliefs of Bacchic subjects ; while the school of Magadha which developed the Indian

elements(i.

e. the Brahman Pantheon) invented new forms. To it are due those well-

known figures with long thin legs, salient hips, flexible as reeds—those figures over-

loaded with jewels, gesticulating extravagantly upon bosky backgrounds of stylized

plants, that one sees on so many Buddhist buildings in India, Java, and Cambodia.

In Bengal an art analogous to that of Magadha lasted till the eleventh century in

miniature-paintings on palm-leaves, whose technique passed presently to Nepal and

Tibet.

In the south-east of India the remains of the magnificent Stupa of Amaxavati,

not far from the mouth of the river Kistna, which are preserved to-day in the Museumat Madras and in the British Museum, exemplify a very happy combination of Hel-

lenistic with Indian art, indicating the existence of a local school during the first

three centuries of our era.

On the other hand, in the famous grottoes of Ajanta, east of Bombay (West

India), are found sculptures and, in particular, frescoes in bright colours of an

individual style. They date from the first to the seventh centuries and represent

scenes in the life of Buddha (the temptation contrived by Mara, &c.) as well as the

Jataka. This style is characterized by realism in the treatment of human figures and,

still more, of animals. The ornamentation is rich, abundant, and varied.

(4) With the disappearance of Buddhism the art inspired by this religion died

out in India towards the twelfth century. Let us consider its development in other

regions, in some of which it has continued to the present day.In Ceylm Graeco-Buddhist art had penetrated along with the religion in the

second and third centuries, but only a few monuments survive. Then came the Indian

mediaeval art which struck root, and is still found in our day, but in full decadence.

In Java, on the other hand, this mediaeval art was grafted upon a native stock,

and the temple of Boro-budur, built in the ninth century, and still in admirable

preservation (out of 2,000 bas-reliefs only about 600 are missing), is one of its most

striking manifestations.

1588 f 2

xliv INTRODUCTION

In Indo-China the same art has undergone Brahman influences, as the ruins of

Angkor in Cambodia prove. In Siam and Burma the modern art which has been

evolved from it is distinguished, on the architectural side, chiefly by bell-shaped

Stupas, by the pointed towers of the temples, and by the affected and distorted forms

of the figures of divinities and genii. The surfaces are overloaded with gold and

with encrustations of tinsel which tire the eye.

But the most unexpected influence of Graeco-Buddhist art, and one which was

only discovered a very few years ago, is that which it exercised on Central Asia, and,

probably through that region, on China and Japan.

Excavations, carried out in recent years by learned expeditions from England,

France, Germany, Russia, and Japan, have thrown a vivid light upon Buddhism

and its art in Eastern or Chinese Turkestan and the territories immediately adjacent

to the Chinese province of Kan-su. In the south of this country the oasis of Khotan

was an important centre of the Buddhist faith. The art of Gandhara, and subse-

quently that of mediaeval India, were transported there, to be modified only by the

exigencies of the plastic medium, namely, clay, which the artists were obliged to employ ;

for quarry-stone does not exist in Eastern Turkestan. The wooden statues, which are

excellently preserved, thanks to the dry climate of the country, are profusely painted

and gilded. Imposed on an art which is fundamentally Indian or Hellenistic are

to be noted some Persian influences and, to a slight degree, the influence of Chinese

art. The miniatures found at Khotan show a quite original style.

From Khotan Buddhist art penetrated farther to the north-west towards the oasis

of Kashgar and beyond to Tamchuk (to the north-east of Maralbashi), where have

been discovered sculptures of the pure Indian type. More to the north, near the

town of Kucha, numerous frescoes have been found in underground buildings, the

subjects and the execution of which are Indian with traces of Iranian and Chinese

influences. To the east of Kucha, in the marshy regions of Lake Lob-Nor, other

frescoes have been noted by the learned traveller Sir Aurel Stein—very remarkable and

close akin in style to the works of Hellenistic art. In the north of Chinese Turkestan,

near Karashar, monuments have been met with in which the most diverse styles

are associated, while at Turfan the frescoes show us a new art, that of the Uigurs,

a Turkish people. This is an art formed of a native element with a mixture of

Chinese elements and later of Tibetan, not to mention an influence of Iranian art

exercised through the Manichaean monks in whose ranks Uigurs were found in

considerable numbers.

Finally, outside Turkestan, but quite near to its frontier at Tun-huang (Kan-su

province), the grotto' of the thousand Buddhas

',visited by Sir Aurel Stein and by

Pelliot, has supplied us with several specimens of Buddhist art dating from the sixth

to the tenth centuries, which present a very remarkable mixture of Indian, Chinese,

Persian, and Tibetan styles.

The existence of this art of Gandhara in a state of greater or less degeneration in

Eastern Turkestan explains the presence of certain features in the Buddhist sculptures

and paintings of China and Japan (in this matter we know almost nothing about Korea).

INTKODUCTION xlv

In purely national motives appear certain details, which are of Hellenistic style, e. g.

the nimbus, the arrangement of the folds of the robes of Sakya-muni and the other

Buddhas, and the costume of certain Bodhisattvas. Finally, it explains the very com-

position of certain pictures or bas-reliefs, as for example those treating of the scene of

l-iakya-muni's death or of his passage into Nirvana.

But apart from these remnants of Hellenistic influence the style of the mediaeval

sculptures and paintings of China and Japan is dependent upon tendencies identical

with those which manifest themselves generally in the national art of these two

countries. For Korea we lack documents, as we have already said, but we maysuppose that Buddhist art there differs but little from that of China.

In Nepal the old Indian art is now represented by the five Stupas raised,

according to tradition, by King ASoka; while the mediaeval art of India is

reflected there in the Stupa of Svayambhu-Natha, near Katmandu. This monument,which has been repaired several times, is covered now with paintings and gilded

plaques in the Lamaite fashion (see later). But it is in the making of large wooden

statues and the casting of bronze statuettes of Lamaite divinities that the Nepalese,clever carvers and founders, excel. Miniature painting, introduced into the countryabout

the eleventh century, has prospered continuously. A number of Persian and Tibetan

motives make their appearance in what is, fundamentally, an Indian art (Sylvain Levi).

The art of Tibet which dominates all aesthetic expressions of the Lamaites

in general, whether Tibetan, Mongolian, or Chinese, has a distinctively individual

character. In architecture especially, the Tibetans have developed a special type,

remotely reminiscent of the Egyptian style, but of still unknown origin. Its

characteristic feature is the predominance of straight lines and geometrical

forms, and ornament is confined to uniform coloration of large spaces. The result

is that the Tibetan buildings look like fortresses. The most remarkable monu-

ments of the purely geometrical type are the '

gilded temple'

of Gyantse and

the gate near the temple of Marbo-ri at Lhassa. As an example of the uniform

colouring may be cited the palace of the Dalai-Lama (Po-ta-la). In sculpture, the

Tibetans borrowed the style of the statues at first (from the twelfth to the four-

teenth centuries) from Nepal ;but their national genius has so far transformed

them that to-day it is Tibetan art which dominates Nepalese artists in their

production of statues and statuettes. It is a curious fact that bas-reliefs, so

widely known in all other Buddhist countries, are almost completely lackingin Tibet except on very ancient monuments, probably the work of Indian

artists (S. Oldenburg). They are replaced everywhere by single statues and

statuettes. Temple figures are often grotesquely muffled in costumes of rich

stuffs like certain Madonnas or saints in Spain, Italy, and, above all, Latin America.

As regards painting, Tibet lived at the outset upon its borrowings from Nepal orff

Northern India ; but very few monuments of this period remain to us. The most

important have been discovered recently (1911) in the ancient convents of Quara-

qoto (M.) in the country of the Tangutes (province of Kuku-nor) by the Russian

traveller Kozlof. These remnants of the ancient Tibetan-Indian art, which evidently

xlvi INTRODUCTION

had been imported into the country where they have been found, are mingled with

products of the art which may be called Tangut. This displays Uigur, Chinese, and

even Persian influences imposed on a fundamentally Indo-Tibetan art (S. Oldenburg).

In its later development Tibetan painting transformed its Indian models at will,

without experiencing any foreign influence, except perhaps, to a very slight degree,

that of China, so far at least as concerns fineness of brush-work and perfect

sureness of line. True, that this last characteristic is partly owed to the estab-

lished and theoretically immutable rules, in accordance with which Lamaite

pictures must be executed. Nevertheless, a certain freedom of fancy is permitted and

one sees sometimes non-canonical attitudes and accessories which produce the best

possible artistic effect. Certain painters add bits of landscape to the likenesses of

gods and of saints with very happy result. Others try to give portraits in place

of conventional figures. One of the characteristic features of Tibetan paintings is

the extreme brightness of their coloration, which is, perhaps, the best means which

could be used to make them visible in the half-darkness of Lamaite temples.

The only manner of painting among Tibetan and Mongolian artists is that of

the miniaturist, and it is applied even to surfaces which attain the dimensions of

several yards, as, for example, banners in certain processions or pictures exposed

during the great feasts at Lhassa and other centres of pilgrimage. This manner is

governed by the desire to omit no detail, and it is really astonishing to see in the

imagery on one of the Ts'ogs-isin (see later), ten inches in height and eight in width,

for instance, more than one hundred figures, each scarcely one inch high, but repre-

sented with all details which make them readily recognizable, though these are often

indicated by no more than a single but characteristic stroke.

VI. Convents, Temples, and Sacred Images

(a) The Convents. The modern Buddhist Lamaite convents (Dgon-pa T., Kiiren M.)

are ordinarily situated in remote places, often difficult of access, and if possible

on a mountain and not far from a lake. They are planned on the lines of the

ancient Sangharama.1 A quadrilateral space of ground is usually surrounded by

a wall surmounted by numerous dorjaq (M.), streamers of ribbon on the end of a stick

which are imprinted with the sacred formulas. These ribbons are held to have the

power of keeping evil spirits away from the convent. We have here a relic of ancient

animism. The principal entrance is on the south and it is surmounted by a kind

of pavilion, in which are seen the statues of the four guardians of the temple (Loka-

pala, see p. 139). Before this gateway at a distance of sixty yards are two columns,

upon which on feast days are placed a vessel of incense and a lighted lantern. At

the same distance and all round the enclosing wall of the convent are placed large

cylinders (Kilrde M.) covered with inscriptions and containing rolls of paper printed

with prayers or mani. The pilgrims who have whirled these cylinders are considered

to have pronounced the sacred formula Om, mani padme, hum as many times as the

cylinder has revolved. There are also little Kilrde, which are carried by hand and

1 This Sanskrit term is applied to-day only to the convent libraries.

INTRODUCTION xlvii

turned for the same purpose. Nearer to the entrance are erected the Stupas (see

Glossary).

Inside, the convent is divided into three courts by walls either at a right angle or

parallel to the south side. In the first case the principal temple is situated in the

central court, with the cells of the monks on the right and left ; in the second it is in

the third court, the two previous ones being occupied by the monks' cells. In both cases,

however, the main way, which leads from the principal door to the temple, traverses

the entire length of the convent from south to north, for the temple is always placedunder the north wall. In the middle of this way is placed an altar with incense-vessels,

and at each side of it (or on the right and left of the principal temple) are smaller

temples or chapels. The cells, which are replaced in Mongolia by felt tents, are of

various sizes and are placed in accordance with the rank of the monk who is lodgedthere. Their importance diminishes from left to right, or from north to south. The

dwellings of the superiors of the convent and of the '

Qubilghans'

are close to the

principal temple.

(b) The Temples. There are hardly any temples outside convents with the

exception of some buildings at Lhassa and other great towns. The principal templeof a convent, whether of Tibetan, Chinese, or mixed architecture, invariably has its

entrance towards the south. This entrance is often preceded by a vestibule, usually

containing the images of the ' four guardians'

and a prayer-wheel. The wall lookingtowards the north (the abiding-place of Buddha) is the only one which must have

no windows, and against this wall are placed on its inner side the statues of the

divinities, before which stands the principal altar of sacrifice. The roof is sometimes

gilded, but must be always surmounted by one or two Ghanjir (M.), a kind of gildedvessel filled with rolls of paper containing the prayers (mani). Moreover, in Mongolia,on the four corners of the roof there are gilded cylinders containing, besides the mani,a copy of the book of Atisa (the

' sacred'

organizer of Lamaite Buddhism) called

Lam-sgron (T.) or Bodhipatha pradlpa (S.), i. e. the way of attaining the Bodhi. In

Tibet the cylinder is covered with black yak-hair striped cross-wise with white.

It bears the name of Jaljan (M.) or Rgyal-mts'an (T.) or Dhvaja (S.). Above the

principal entrance, near the roof, is a gilded wheel with two gazelles regardant on

either hand, to commemorate the preaching of the wheel of the law or of the four

truths in the park of the gazelles.

Inside, the end of the temple towards the north wall is occupied by the altar of

the divinities, frequently separated by a rank of columns from the main body of the

building. This latter is divided by other ranks of columns into four or five parts.Thus are formed a central nave, and on each side one or two lateral naves where the

seats of the monks are placed. These seats differ in shape according to the rank

of the monk : arm-chairs with backs for the superior and the head of the choir, stools

for the Gelling, plain benches for the ordinary monks. The number of flat cushions

(qolboq M.) made of felt and covered with yellow stuff, which are placed upon these

seats, varies from one to nine in accordance with the rank of the Lama. Rank also

accounts for the position in which the seats are placed. As in the cells, the left

xlviii INTRODUCTION

hand is more honourable than the right, and the importance of a seat diminishes

from the altar on the north to the entrance of the temple on the south. The Gebgili

(see p. xxxv) are seated on each side of the door. The Superior of the Convent and

the principal celebrant have in front of their seats small low tables upon which they

place their Vajra, gong, bowl of holy water, rosary, and other things. The Qubilghanhave seats apart, placed in the nave in front of the altar opposite the door, so that these'

living gods'

partly mask the images of the divinities placed against the north wall.

The columns of the temple are painted red and draped with stuffs, or covered with

frescoes like the walls ; moreover, along the colonnades and also from the crown of

the ceiling hang long ribbons of every colour of the rainbow. This mass of bright-coloured stuffs, which stirs at the least breath, combines with the absolutely uniqueodour and the half-darkness which broods in the building (the doors and windows

are always covered with thick curtains), to impart a curious sensation, and to givea wholly singular aspect to a Lamaite temple.

(c) The Altar and Objects of Ritual. In front of the statues of the divinities

grouped along the north wall rises the Altar, a kind of table covered with rich stuff,

and of length varying with the size of the temple. Upon it are placed the following

objects : (1) the eight'

glorious emblems' (Ashta mangala S., Uljeitii naiman temdek M.,

Bkra4is-rtags-brgyad T.), i.e. the white parasol (Cliattra S., Gdugs-dan T., Sikur M.)which keeps away the 'heat of evil desires'; the 'two gilded fishes' (Matsya S.,

Gser-na T., Jighasun M.), 'symbol of happiness and utility' ; the sea-shell [Sankha S.,

Duh-dkar T., Labai M.), symbol of the ' blessedness of turning to the right'

; the lotus-

flower (Padma S. and T., Badma M.),'

pledge of salvation or Nirvana'

; the sacred

bowl (Kalasa S., Bum-pa T., Bumba M.), 'the treasury of all the desires' ; the mystic

diagram (Srivatsa S., Dpalrbe'u T., Balbu M.),' the thread which guides to happiness

'

;

the standard (Bhvaja S., Rgyal-mts'an T., Boja M.),' erected on the summit of the

palace of salvation'

; and, finally, the wheel (Cakra S., Kor-lo T., Kilrde M.),' which

leads to perfection'. All these objects, whose dimensions vary according as they are

made in wood or in gilded metal, are supported on stands more or less decorated.

(2) Beside or behind this group is set a similarly arranged tableau of the' seven jewels

'

: the wheel, the ' Cintamani',the woman, the official, the elephant,

the horse, the military leader (see Ratna in the Glossary).

(3) In front of these two groups are arranged seven cups of brass or silver

containing the seven offerings ;the first two are filled with water ; the third holds

a flower and the fourth the scented wands (Kiiji M.) ; the fifth (filled with oil and

furnished with a wick) represents a lamp, the sixth is full of water, and the seventh

of viands. This is a symbolic survival of the objects offered in ancient India to

every recipient of hospitality ; water to wash the feet, water to wash the face,

flowers and perfumes for the charm of their appearance and odour, and finally

everything necessary to provide light, drink, and food.

(4) Among these seven cups is placed another vessel with incense (Bdug-spas T.,

Jcke Kiiji M.), and a large lamp (Mar-me T., Jeke jula M.), which must stay alight and

shine with even brilliance by night and day without flickering. In summer this is

INTRODUCTION xlix

replaced by a lantern, lest the insects attracted by the light should scorch themselves

and die of their burns.

(5) During certain of the services, for instance that of the Man-la (see p. 23),

there are put also upon the altar the '

eight glorious offerings ', or'

eight blessed sub-

stances' (or 'things') (Bkra-iis-rdsas-brgyad T., Vljeitu naiman ed M.), namely : the mirror

(Adarsa S., Me-lon T., Toll M.) ; the bezoar (Ge-ham or Ghi-dam T.), i.e. concretions which

form themselves in the stomachs of certain animals, and, as is said, also at the back of

the elephant's neck ; the curdled milk (Sho T., Taraq M.) ; the herb ' durva'

(Dur-bas T.,

ObSsiln M.) ; the fruit 'bilva' (Bil-ba T., Modonoi-temesiin M.) ; the shell (Dun T.,

Labai M.) ; finally the red lead, a piece of lead ore (minium) or mercury (cinnabar)

(Li-gti T., Singghu M.). All these offerings recall the objects which were presented bya particular spirit or person to Sakya-muni himself.

(6) Sometimes are set also upon the altar the sacrifices of the five senses ;

a mirror (sight), a shell (hearing), a cup filled with nutmegs (smell), a bowl filled with

fruit or sugar (taste), and a morsel of yellow silk stuff (touch).

(7) Finally a patra and a gong (K'ar-gsil T., Duldui M.) with some decorative

vases and flowers complete the furniture of the altar. The ritual objects employed

during the service are also placed upon the altar for the time being. These are, in

addition to the vajra and little bell which the celebrants generally hold in their

hands, the following objects : the Mandal M. (Mandala S., Dkyil-k'or T.), i. e. a dish of

bronze, silver, or gold upon which are set representations of Mount ' Meru '

in the samemetal and of the four great and eight little divisions of the world (Dvipa S., Tib M.).In the spaces between these representations, which suggest the toys of children, the

offerings are set : little piles of rice, coins, shells, and the like. The mandal is placedat the right corner of the altar ; beside it is the '

Kapala'

or Tod-ma T. (see Glossary),filled with blood or wine during the service of ' dokshit '. Balancing these two objectsthere stand on the left side of the altar, upon a pedestal, a mirror and the Bum-pafilled with lustral water for the same ' dokshit

'

(cf. above, p. xxxix).For the sake of ornament there are also placed upon the altar, as has been

already said, vases and pots of flowers, and the whole is surmounted by a kind of

baldachino (Bla-bri T., Labari M.). Behind the altar and consequently immediately in

front of the images of the divinities hang from the ceiling quantities of ribbons of five

colours (Ba-dang T. and M.), cylinders (Jalcan M.), and globes (Cima-purma M.) madeof pieces of stuff in five colours sewn together and filled with scented hay, like our

balls; further parasols, lanterns, scarves of silk (Qadaq M., ICa-bdags T.), and the like.

All this forms a veritable forest in front of the images and obstructs almost completelythe view of the divinities. We will, however, pull aside the tremulous curtain and

penetrate to the images of the gods themselves.

(d) The Images of the Divinities. The Buddhist Pantheon includes, as we know, at

least 500 deities. Each has a counterfeit presentation sculptural or pictorial. The

statues, whose dimensions vary from the length of half an inch to several feet in

height, are made of wood, papier-mache, ivory, stone, copper, iron, silver, gold, and

especially bronze. They are covered with painting, with lacquer, and with gilding.

1 INTRODUCTION

It is compulsory that there should be made in the lower part of each statue a kind

of cavity in which are placed with certain ceremonies rolls of paper with inscribed or

printed prayers (mani). These cavities are closed with a plate of bronze, sometimes

bearing the image of the double vajra. Before being filled with this '

spiritual body'

the statue is treated like any other object, but afterwards it can be treated only as a

sacred object though it merely represents' the image of the divinity

'

;it is not an

'

idol ',but a mere ' sacred image

' such as are possessed by certain Christian churches.

The best statues are made in Nepal, Lhassa, and at the convent of Dolon-Nor in

Eastern Mongolia. Usually they represent but a single divinity, sometimes, however,

accompanied by his attendants ;but often groups of three, five, or eight statues are

made, all having the same character and the same dimensions so that they compose

groups (for instance, the Buddha triad or Ts'on-k'a-pa with their two favourite pupils ;

the eight Bodhisattvas, the eight'

Drag-ched'

or • the terrible ones ', and others).

Pictorial art on the contrary represents a great number of divinities or persons

symmetrically grouped. Most often the picture will portray on a large scale a

divinity or personage as principal figure, and around him, on a smaller scale, scenes

from his life, or divinities and accessory persons. Besides these there exist paintings

representing mandala or 'the domain of the saint' (PI. XVI), as well as views of

certain celebrated monasteries, and the like. The pictures are painted on a sized canvas

prepared with chalk. This is stretched on a frame with zig-zag lacing as we should

stretch a piece of tapestry. The colours are diluted with oil or water.

Among the pictures should be noted particularly the wheel of life or of the sansdra

(Sansarjin kilrde M.), which sums up pictorially certain principal parts of the Buddhist

doctrine. A huge dragon holds a disc formed of three concentric circles. The central

and smallest of these encloses the likeness of three animals—the snake, the pig, and the

chicken, symbolizing the sins of anger, ignorance, and voluptuousness. The surround-

ing and much larger circle is divided into six segments representing the life of the

six categories of living beings (cf. p. xxii, n.). Therein are to be seen men busy at

their affairs, animals real or imaginary, the preta tormented by thirst, the twenty-two

compartments of Hell grouped around its divinity (ErliJc-qaghan M.), who presides

over the last judgement and computes good and bad actions with the help of white

or black counters which his attendants throw down before him. Finally the last two

segments represent the war of Asura (see Glossary) against the gods, and the dwelling

of the latter, a kind of Paradise. The third circle contains twelve images which

represent, more or less vaguely, the nexus of the twelve causes(cf. p. xxiii).

Another class of paintings is formed by what is called Tsok-shin or Ts'ogs-Sin (T.).

These have not yet been studied in any of the works written on Buddhist iconography.1

I shall proceed to give a brief sketch of them based on my own researches.

We know that all the Buddhist-Lamaite divinities are divided into six large

1 With the exception of ten lines concerning them Prince Ukhtomsky, Bibliotheca buddhica, VI, St.

in QrUnwedel's Obzor sobranya, &c. (Review of the Petersburg, 1905, text, p. 54.)

collection of the objects of lamaite cult, belonging to

INTRODUCTION li

groups : (1) the Buddhas, (2) the Bodhisattvas, (3) the Feminine deities, (4) the'

protectors'

or tutelary gods (Yi-dam), (5) the Defenders of the Faith (Cos-sJcyon T.)

and the '

eight terrible ones'

(Drag-ched or Drag-gsed T.) ; finally (6)'

the minor

divinities', genii, guardians of the four cardinal points, &c.

In the native albums of images of gods, e. g. that of the 300 divinities reproduced

by Pander or by S. Oldenburg (see Bibliography), these divinities, to which are joinedthe saints and the Arhats, are classed as follows : the Saints (to the number of 51), the

Protectors (42), the Buddhas (48), the Bodhisattvas (12), the Goddesses (9), the

Defenders (27), the Arhats (18), the Drag-ched or Drag-gsed (12), the Dakini and the Devi

(Gon-po) (15), lastly the Yama, Lamo, Guardians of the cardinal points, genii, &c. (45).

But what is the relative importance of each of these classes, and how are the divinities

arranged in the Temple ? No work on Buddhism answers this question in a precise and

detailed manner. The pictures of the Ts'ogs-Un alone give some guidance in the subject

to the student who has learned how to decipher and interpret them. Of the five

pictures which I have been able to study, the largest comes from Nepal and dates from

the beginning of the nineteenth century (collection of Mr. H. Getty) ; two others, of

moderate size, come from Eastern Tibet (collection of M. Bacot in Paris) and seem to

date from the middle of the last century ; finally the two smallest come from Pekin

and are still more recent (Getty and Deniker collections). In spite of their different

sources, ages, and sizes, all these pictures are painted on the same scheme which

I attempt to state in the lines which follow. (For the orientation see the frontispiece

with the tracing of it and p. 160.)

At the top are three medallions surrounded with a border often of the colours

of the rainbow, inside which are crowded numerous Buddhas (Frontispiece: a,b,c).

Below is seen the image of the principal divinity (Sakya-muni in the Ts'ogs-bin of

Nepal, Ts'on-k'a-pa in the four others), surrounded by smaller images of his different

attendants grouped to right and left (d). Lower still, and occupying the largest partof the picture, is what we may call the principal pyramid of the divinities (g). This

is a tree which supports the images of a great number of the divinities, arranged in

a certain order which I shall give later. On both sides of this tree-pyramid are seen,

in the upper field, two spaces (e, f) filled by groups of monks or genii on clouds, while

below can be distinguished the row of guardians of the four cardinal points, and on

each side of the trunk of the tree two sirens or Ndgas. Besides these are displayed

on the right of the trunk the images of the seven jewels and eight emblems (see

p. xlviii), while upon the left there is invariably a personage who presents upon a plate

the offering to all these deities, an offering which consists of a kind of pyramidal cake.

In the explanation of the frontispiece (p. 160) will be found the names of most

of the divinities which I have been able to identify in the Ts'ogs-sin of Nepal.

Here I shall give only their arrangement in groups. It is in a way concentric, and the

rank of every one of the divinities is determined by the distance at which it is put from

the centre;the principal divinities are the nearest to the central point of the pyramid

which is occupied by Avalokitesvara (No. 49 of the frontispiece). Above the chief

divinity are three ranks of Bodhisattvas (Nos. 18-22, 27-31, 37-41) as his attendants ;

lii INTRODUCTION

on his right are three Buddhas (Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, &c.) (46-48), and on his

left three others (but of this I am not sure) (50-52). This central group, then, includes

the principal divinities. It is surrounded on right and left by the goddesses (Nos. 17,

26, 36, 45, 23, 32).

Above the principal group is the double rank of the ' Protectors'

(Nos. 2-6,

10-14), flanked on right and left by feminine divinities of the second order (Kuru-

kuUa, &c, 1, 7-9).

Below Avalokitesvara stands the rank of Tathagata or Buddhas which overflows

on to the sides of the pyramid above and below (15-16, 24, 25, 33-35, 42-44, 53-68,

77-82, 91-93). In the rank below reappear different Bodhisattvas (69-76) and

below them the Man-la (No. 101) with his twelve acolytes (83-90, 94-95, 107-108).In the same rank as he on right and on left and encroaching also at each end on

the rank immediately below, whose centre is occupied by the Dakinl (113-119), are

placed the eighteen Arhats (96-100, 102-106, 109-112, 120-123). Finally the verylowest rank is occupied by the ' Defenders' and the Drag-ched (124-138).

As for the Ts'ogs-Un which come from Pekin and Eastern Tibet, in No. 1, the large

figure of Sakya-muni is replaced by that of Ts'on-k'a-pa carrying upon his breast in

a nimbus a little figure of Sakya-muni which itself encloses a tiny image of a Buddhaof a bluish-grey colour. From this small image radiate rainbow-coloured ribbons

or golden threads towards the groups of monks at the sides (e, f) and towards the

'pyramid of divinities'. The number of Bodhisattvas and of Dhyani-Buddhas is

considerably reduced in the imagery of Eastern Tibet and of Pekin. On the other

hand new personages appear in the most recent of the Ts'ogs-sin (e. g. that from Pekin

in H. Getty's collection). Padmasambhava is seen there to occupy a place of

honour, namely, that of the Buddhas, and to be surrounded by a multitude of feminine

divinities. Among these figure Kwan-yin, unknown in the other Ts'ogs-tin. Several

other Chinese saints are also to be seen in them.

However, if I attempted to treat this subject I should invade the domain of the

author of the book to which I do but supply an introduction. Indeed everything that

has been written above is to be regarded only as a means to facilitate the use and

study of A. Getty's work by the reader. Thanks to the orientation which this

introduction gives the latter, he will be able readily to understand the details involved

in the history and representation of each of the divinities of the Buddhist Pantheon.

It is not my business to estimate the value of A. Getty's work, but perhaps I mayplead that in this book for the first time the problems of Buddhist iconography in

general and in detail are to be found collected and systematically treated. Moreover

the treatment is based on the author's own researches in Europe and in the Far

East, and on information drawn from specialist works which the public finds difficult

of access. These words should be enough to show the very great interest and utility

of the book for general Buddhist studies.

J. Deniker.

i

i aTAjq

ADI-B

rp

Adi-Buddha

AHcrcrtra amatuaoI. Vajra.Ni

II. *

PLATE I

• • -.

ADI-BUDDHA

Table I

Adi-BuddhaI. Vajradhara.

II. Vajrasattva (J.) Kongosatta.

...;i • .

*

ADI-BUDDHA

(T.) mc'og-gi dan-pohi sans-rgyas (lit.

most excellent first Buddha) ; or dus-kyi

hkor-hhi mts'an(lit.

the saint of (the

religion of the) wheel of Time).

(M.) anghan burhan (the beginning

deity).

In the Guna Karanda Vyuha it is written :

' When nothing else was, Sambhii

was : that is the Self-Existent (svayambhu) : and as he was before all, he is also

called Adi-Buddha.' 1

The first system of Adi-Buddha was set up in Nepal2

by a theistic school called

Aisvarika, but was never generally adopted in Nepal or Tibet, and had practically

no followers in China and Japan.3

The Nepalese school supposed an Adi-Buddha infinite, omniscient, self-existing,

without beginning and without end, the source and originator of all things, who byvirtue of five sorts of wisdom (jnana) and by the exercise of five meditations

(dhyana) evolved five Dhyani-Buddhas or Celestial Jinas called Anupapadaka, or' without parents '.

When all was perfect void (maha-Sunyata)4 the mystic syllable aum 5 became

manifest, from which at his own will the Adi-Buddha was produced. At the creation

of the world he revealed himself in the form of a flame which issued from a lotus-

flower, and in Nepal the Adi-Buddha is always represented by this symbol.All things, according to Hodgson, were thought to be types of the Adi-Buddha,

and yet he had no type. In other words, he was believed to be in the form of

all things and yet to be formless, to be the ' one eternally existing essence from

which all things are mere emanations'

(Monier Williams).

According to the system, Adi-Buddha was supposed to dwell in the AgnishthaBhuvana (the highest of the thirteen 7 Bhuvana, or celestial mansions), quiescentand removed from all direct communication with the world which he had caused

to be created by the Dhyani-Bodhisattva, through the medium of the Dhyani-Buddha.

1 Adi(first), Buddha (wise one).

2

According to Griinwedel, in the eleventh cen-

tury a.d. Other authorities give earlier dates,

but also posterior to the system of five Dhyani-Buddhas.

s

Although the system of Adi-Buddha was not

adopted in Japan, the Amitabha sects look uponAmida as the One Original Buddha (Ichi-butsu),while the Hosso, Tendai, Kegon, and Shin-gon

sects call Vairocana (Dai-nichi Nyorai) 'the SupremeBuddha'. *

v. Glossary.6 The mystic syllable aum signifies the Tri-ratna

(Three Jewels) : Buddha (a), Dharma (w), Sangha

(to), or Buddha, the Law, the Community. In the

mantra, it is written dm. v. Tri-ratna and dm.6 The flame symbol is also represented in the

centre of a moon crescent, v. PI. xix, fig. d.

7 In Nepal, 13 ;in India, 10 Bhuvana.

PLATE II

a. Dai-nichi-nyokai b. Va.tradhara

c. Akshobhya d. Akshobhya

PLATE III

a. Amitayus b. Gautama Buddha

c. Vajkadhara d. Manjuski

9ft

ADI-BUDDHA 3

It was believed that neither the Adi-Buddha nor the Dhyani-Buddha ever descended

to earth, but left the creation and direction of the world's affairs to the active author

of creation, the Dhyani-Bodhisattva, and that as they were absorbed in perpetual

contemplation, prayers were not to be addressed to them.

Other sects in Nepal, besides the AisVarika, set up an Adi-Buddha, the most

important being the Svabhavika, which afterwards became the most popular Buddhist

sect in China.

Svayambhu, or Adi-Buddha, was called IsVara by the AisVarika, and Svabhava

by the Svabhavika ; but he was also given such special names as Vairocana, Vajrapani,

Vajradhara, and Vajrasattva. In the Namasanglti (compiled before the tenth

century a.d.) Maiijusri, god of Transcendent Wisdom, is referred to as Adi-Buddha.

The Adi-Buddha is always represented as a ' crowned'

Buddha, that is to say, that

although he is a Buddha, he wears the five-leaved crown as well as the other traditional

ornaments of a Dhyani-Bodhisattva, and is dressed in princely garments. His consort

is Adi-Dharma (Adi-Prajna).In Japan, although the term ' Adi-Buddha

'

is not known, the Dhyani-Buddhas,Amitabha and Vairocana, are both looked upon as Supreme. They are not believed,

however, to have evolved the five Dhyani-Buddhas. The Amida sects claim that

Vairocana and the other three Dhyani-Buddhas are manifestations of Amitabha, while

the Shin-gon sect claims that Amida and the other three Dhyani-Buddhas are

manifestations of Vairocana. They are never worshipped in company with their

sakti? while in Nepal and Tibet the Adi-Buddha is frequently represented with his

female energy, in which case he is called Yogambara,2 and the saMi, Jiianesvari.

VAJRADHARA (Adi-Buddha)

(Thunderbolt-bearer).

(T.) rdo-rje-hc'an (He who holds a thunderbolt). Mudra : vajra-hum-kara.3

(M.) Ocirdara (corruption of Vajradhara), or Vacir Colour : blue.

bariqci (He who holds a thunderbolt). Sakti : Prajnaparauiita.

Symbols : vajra (thunderbolt). Other names : Karmavajra, Dharmavajra.

ghanta (bell).

Vajradhara is the supreme, primordial Buddha without beginning or end, lord of

all mysteries, master of all secrets. It is to him the subdued and conquered evil

spirits swear allegiance and vow that they will no longer prevent or hinder

the propagation of the Buddhist faith. He is thought to be too '

great a god and

1 Female energy. of Buddhism derived from the Bauddha Scriptures2 Adi-Buddha as Yogambara, or the esoteric form of Nepal, pub. Eoyal Asiatic Society, vol. ii, 1830,

(PI. iv, fig. d), is represented nude with the legs PI. i, fig. a.

closely locked. He wears no jewels and has the 3Mystic gesture ; v. Glossary.

ilrna and ushnlsha (v. Glossary). Hodgson, Sketch

B2

4 ADI-BUDDHA

too much lost in divine quietude to favour man's undertakings and works with his

assistance, and that he acts through the god Vajrasattva, and would be to him

in the relation of a Dhyani-Buddhi to his human Buddha V

Vajradhara is looked upon as Adi-Buddha by the two greatest sects of the

Mahayana school : the dKar-hGya-pa (Red Bonnets) and the dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow

Bonnets).2

He is always represented seated, with his legs locked and the soles of his

feet apparent, and wears the Bodhisattva crown as well as the dress and ornaments

of an Indian prince. He has the urna and ushnisha. 3 His arms are crossed on

his breast in the vajra-hum-kdra mudra holding the vajra and ghanta. These two

symbols may, however, be supported by flowering branches on either side, the stems

being held in the crossed hands, which is his special mystic gesture (v. PI. n, fig. b,

and PI. in, fig. c).

As '

Karmavajra'

(Dorje las) his left hand holds a lotus and his right hand is

in vitarka (argument) mudra : arm bent, hand raised, palm turned outward, all fingers

extended upward except the index and thumb which touch at the tips, called'

triangular pose'

(v. vitarka).

As *

Dharmavajra'

{Dorje c'os) his right hand balances a double vajra at his

breast, and the left holds the bell on the hip.

When Vajradhara holds his sakti in yab-yum4attitude, his arms are crossed at

her back, holding his usual symbols. The yum holds a vajra and kapala (skull-cup).

VAJRASATTVA (Adi-Buddha)

(Whose essence is the Thunderbolt).

Buddha of Supreme Intelligence.

(T.) rdo-rje sems-dpah (soul of the thunderbolt). Colour : white.

(C.) Suan-tzii-lo-sa-tsui(ffy ^ jgg ||| ]$t). Bodhisattva of Akshobhya (Dhyani-Buddha) and

(J.) Kongosatta (essence of a diamond). chief (Tsovo) or president of the five Dhyani-

Symbols : vajra (thunderbolt). Buddhas.

ghanta (bell).

The position of Vajrasattva in the Mahayana pantheon is difficult to determine.

He is looked upon as the spiritual son of Akshobhya, and is at the same time Tsovo

or chief of the five Dhyani-Buddhas. M. de la Vallee Poussin identifies him with

Vajradhara. Eitel calls him the sixth Dhyani-Buddha of the Yogacharya school.6

1

Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet, p. 51.* The yum {sakti) in the embrace of the god

*Prof. S. Chandra Vidyabhflshana,

' On certain {yah).

Tibetan scrolls and images', Memoirs of the AsiaticB

Vajra (thunderbolt or diamond), sattva (essence).

Society of Bengal, vol. i, No. 1.°

v. The Dhyani-Buddhas.8

v. Glossary.

VAJRASATTVA 5

The Svabhavika sect in Nepal identified Svabhava l

(Adi-Buddha) with Vajra-

sattva, who, according to the Nepalese Buddhist writings, manifested himself on

Mount Sumeru in the following manner. A lotus-flower of precious jewels appearedon the summit of the mountain which is the centre of the universe, and above it arose

a moon-crescent upon which,'

supremely exalted ', was seated Vajrasattva.

It is not probable that the image of the Adi-Buddha Vajrasattva is here meant,

but rather the symbol which designates the Adi-Buddha, a lihga-shaped flame. If

the moon-crescent, which arose above the lotus-flower, is represented with . « .

the flame symbol in the centre, instead of the '

image of Vajrasattva ', it 1W7

forms a trident. 2 The special emblem of the Svabhavika sect was a trident

rising from a lotus-flower, which, if we accept the above hypothesis, symbolized the

manifestation of Vajrasattva as Adi-Buddha on Mount Sumeru.

In the Musee Guimet there is an example of a Bodhisattva (or' crowned

'

Buddha), with four lieads? seated, with the legs locked, and balancing a vajra on his

hands in dhydna mudra. As the Adi-Buddhas are always represented with the

Bodhisattva ornaments, it may be a representation of Vajrasattva as Adi-Buddha ; and

since Brahma, chief of all the Brahman gods, has four heads, the idea of representing

Vajrasattva in the same manner may have been borrowed from Brahmanism to distin-

guish Vajrasattva as Adi-Buddha, chief of all the gods of the Mahayana system, from his

manifestations which occupy a less exalted position in the Northern Buddhist pantheon.

As sixth Dhyani-Buddha, Vajrasattva presides over the Yidam,4 and has the

same relation to the Adi-Buddha that the Manushi (human) Buddha has to his ethereal

counterpart or Dhyani-Buddha. The sixth sense is believed to have emanated from

him, as well as the last of the six elements of which man is composed—the manas, or

mind (v. Tlie Dhyani-Buddhas).

Vajrasattva is always represented seated, wearing the five-leaved crown and the

dress and ornaments of a Dhyani-Bodhisattva. He generally holds the vajra against

his breast with the right hand, but the vajra may be held in the hand or balanced

on its point in the palm of the hand. With the left, he holds the gJmnta on his hip

(PL iv, fig. c).

When seated on a white lotus, he is looked upon by certain sects as Guardian

of the East.5

Unlike the other Dhyani-Buddhas, he is always crowned with or without

his sakti, whom he presses against his breast in the yab-yumGattitude, with the right

hand holding the vajra, while the left holds the ghanta on his hip. The yum holds the

Jcapala (skull-cup) and vajra.

1 Sva (own), bhava (nature). Hodgson, The the vajra. In the Pantheon des Tschangtscha

Languages, Literature, and Religion of Nepal and Hutuktu, there is the representation of a Bodhi-

Tibet, p. 73. sattva with four heads balancing a wheel, which

2v. illustration, G. d'Alviella, The Migration of seems to indicate Vairocana (v. Vairocana).

Symbols, fig. 159. Also see Stupa.* Protectors of Buddhism.

s Collection Bacot, No. 28. It is catalogued as5

v. Lokapala.' Brahma

'

(Ts'angs-pa), but Ts'angs-pa does not carry6

v. Glossary.

6 ADI-BUDDHA

In Nepal, according to Hodgson, he is seldom represented in statuary form, but

is more often met with in paintings, and especially in miniatures. In Tibet, however,bronzes of Vajrasattva are not infrequently found, while in paintings, especially

in mandala,1 he is often met with. In Japan he is found in statues as well as

in paintings, and is called '

Kongosatta '. The Japanese look upon Trailokya-vijayaBodhisattva as a form of Vajrasattva.

KONGOSATTA 2

(Japanese form of Vajrasattva).

Symbols : vajra (thunderbolt). Colour : pinkish white.

ghanta (bell). Vahana 3: elephant (white).

There is a divergence of opinion in Japan in regard to the divinity whose

representations seem to correspond with that of Vajrasattva in Tibet. He is seated

with the legs locked, dressed like the usual Japanese Bodhisattva. The right hand

holds the vajra at the breast, like Vajrasattva. The left hand rests the ghanta on

the left knee instead of holding it on the hip like Vajrasattva. He may have from

two to six or more arms, and has both a ' mild' and '

ferocious'

form.

The ' mild'

form has usually two arms, and is seated on a lotus-throne which is

often supported by an elephant,4 for which reason he is sometimes mistaken for

Fugen (Samantabhadra), especially as the elephant frequently has three heads 5 and is

always white (PI. IV, fig. b, and PI. v, fig. c). The vajra and ghanta, however, are not

Fugen's symbols (v. Fugen), and the elephant may have four heads. If this form has

four or six arms, the original arms hold the same symbols as the above, and in the

same manner, while two of the accessory arms always brandish the bow and arrow

(v. TrailoJcya-vijaya). If there are six arms, the symbols held by the fifth and sixth

may vary.

Kongosatta may also be supported by four elephants, on each of which is one of

the Lokapala or guardians of the Four Cardinal Points (PI. iv, fig. a). He holds

the vajra and ghanta ;but instead of the bell, he may hold a lotus, which is the

symbol of Samantabhadra, and this seems to be a form of Kongosatta and Fugen mergedinto one. One often finds him in Japanese as well as in Tibetan mandala (magic

circles) in the centre, surrounded by the four Lokapala. He is always represented

seated, holding the vajra against the breast with the right hand, and the ghanta in the

left which lies on his lap.

1

Magic circles;

v. Glossary. father of Vajrasattva, the Dhyani-Buddha Aksho-2Kvngo (diamond), satta (saltva

—element or bhya.

essence).6Fugen is, however, usually supported by a

3 v. Glossary. white elephant with one head and six tusks, but it

4 The elephant is the mount of the spiritual may also have only two tusks.

PLATE IV

a. KONGOSATTA b. KONGOSATTA

c. Vajrasattva d. Esoteric Buddha

PLATE V

a. Samvaba (?)

b. AlZENMYO-0

ft KwAN-NON ON A LION, KoNGOSATTA ON AN ELEPHANT

KONGOSATTA 7

The '

ferocious'

form has six arms, a third eye, and a ferocious expression. Above

the forehead is a skull, and a vajra issues from the tishntsha. The vajra and ghanta are

carried in the same position as the above form, and he holds the bow and arrow and

other Tantra symbols. His colour is red. The author has never seen the ' ferocious'

form supported by an elephant. He is worshipped by the Tendai and Shingon sects,

and is called'

Aizen-myo-5 (PL v, fig. b, and PI. xxxix, fig. a). He is found in a

triad with Kwan-non and Fudo and, in spite of his ferocious appearance, is looked

upon by the common people as god of Love. As both the ' mild'

and ' ferocious'

forms hold the same symbols, in the same manner, may not Aizen-myo-6 be termed the'

ferocious'

form of Kongosatta?

THE BUDDHASTable II

I. Dipahkara Buddha.

II. Kagyapa.The Buddhas III. Gautama Buddha.

IV. Maitreya1

(The Coming Buddha).V. Mania (Buddha of Medicine).

1 v. The Dhyani-Bodhiaattva.

PLATE VI

a. Gautama Buddha b. Gautama Buddha

c. Dipankara Buddha d. Gautama Buddha speaking his first words

9

THE BUDDHAS (NIRMANA-KAYA) 1

' The Buddhas who have been, are, and will be, are more numerous than the

grains of sand on the banks of the Ganges'

(Aparimita-DMrani).The early Northern Buddhist school in Nepal adopted the system of 1,000

fictitious Buddhas, which so closely correspond to the 1,000 Zarathustras of the

Zoroastrians that the system is believed to have originated in Persia. In this list

appears for the first time the name of Amitabha, who became the fourth Dhyani-Buddha.

Hodgson gives a list of fifty-six Buddhas taken from the Lalita Vistara, in which

the last seven Tathagata, called the '

Saptamanushi-Buddhas'

(the seven human

Buddhas), are : Vipasyi, Sikhi, and ViSvabhu of the preceding kalpa* and Kraku-

cchanda, Kanakamuni, Kasyapa, and Sakya-muni of the present cycle. Sometimes

the Dlpankara Buddha and Ratnagarbha were added, making a group of nine

Buddhas.

Later on, there appeared a group of twenty-four mythical Buddhas, of whomthe Dlpankara Buddha (the first of the twenty -four) is the best known, and Gautama

Buddha is added to this group, making twenty-five in all. Sometimes the last seven

of the group (including Gautama Buddha) are reckoned as the seven Principal

Buddhas, who, with the coming Buddha Maitreya, form a group of eight, and eight

has remained a popular number among Buddhists for grouping the gods (the eight

Bodhisattva, the '

eight Terrible Ones ', &c).The group of the five Manushi-Buddhas,

3corresponding with the five Dhyani-

Buddhas and five Dhyani-Bodhisattva, became, however, the most popular in Nepal ;

and was adopted not only in Tibet, but in China and Japan, and has lasted up to the

present day.A Manushi-Buddha, according to the system of Adi-Buddha, is one who has

acquired such enlightenment (bodhi-jnana) by his previous incarnations as Bodhisattva,

that he is capable of receiving Bodhi, or Supreme Wisdom, a particle of the essence

of Adi-Buddha. He has become a Tathagata4 and can have no more rebirths, but at

his death will attain Nirvana-pada, or absorption into the Adi-Buddha.

Those of the Northern Buddhist sects that did not adopt the system of

Adi-Buddha, looked upon the Manushi-Buddha as a manifestation of, or an emanation

from, the Dhyani-Buddha ; or, according to the system of the Tri-kaya, as a distinct

nature or body (kaya) representing the embodiment of intellectual essence.

The system of the Tri-kaya5

supposed each Buddha to have three kaya or

1

Body of Transformation. av. Glossary.

5v. Schmidt, Memoires de VAcademic des Sciences

8Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, KaSyapa, Sakya- de Saint-Petersbourg ; Schlagintweit, Buddhism in

muni, Maitreya. For the twenty-four mythical Tibet;and de la Vallee Poussin,

' The Three Bodies

Buddhas, see R. S. Hardy, A Manual of Buddhism, of a Buddha ', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society

p. 94. *v. Glossary. of Great Britain and Ireland, Oct. 1906.

10 THE BUDDHAS

bodies—'that is to say, three distinct natures, which might be said to be living in

three spheres at the same time.

1. On earth, as Manushi-Buddha—mortal and ascetic, having passed throughinnumerable transformations on earth and arrived at the Nirmana-kaya state of

practical Bodhi (knowledge).2. In Nirvana, as Dhyani-Buddha

—abstract body of absolute purity, in the

Dharma-kaya state of essential Bodhi.

3. In reflex in the Rupadhatu heavens as Dhyani-Bodhisattva, body of supreme

happiness, in the Sambhoga-kaya state of reflected Bodhi. 1

The kaya of a Manushi-Buddha is material, visible, and perishable. Being of

human form, the Manushi-Buddha is born into the world and released from it bydeath. He did not, however, enter the world as a Buddha but as a Bodhisattva, nor

did he reach the stage of Buddhahood until the moment when he attained Supreme

Enlightenment, such as Sakya-muni under the Bodhi-tree. f After the Enlighten-ment ', according to M. de la Vallee Poussin,

2 '

nothing earthly, human, heavenly, or

mundane remains of a Tathagata. Therefore his visible appearance is but a contrived

or magical body . . . the unsubstantial body which remains of a Bodhisattva after he

has reached Buddhahood.'

It was believed by the Mahayanists that when the Bodhisattva arrived at the

stage of Bodhi, he would have acquired the thirty-two superior and eighty inferior

outward marks 3 of a Buddha. In the Mahavastu it is written that the future

Buddha would have all the outward 'signs' at his last rebirth ;

4 but the representa-tions of Sakya-muni as a child do not show the protuberance on the skull s

(ushnlshd)

which is the most important and probably the last acquired of the thirty-two outward

signs. Nor as an ascetic is he represented with the full-sized ushnisha. 6 It is onlyafter his attainment of Supreme Wisdom that the representations of the Buddhashow the fully-developed protuberance on the skull—the receptacle, presumably, of

the divine mind (manas), which was thought too great to be held in a normal-

sized skull.

Although the different Mahayana sects disagreed as to the source of the divine

intelligence, they were all of accord in believing that after the attainment of Bodhi

the '

body'

of the Tathagata was animated by a divine force. This '

body of

Transformation'

(Nirmana-kaya) of the Manushi-Buddha has been variously explained.M. de la Vallee Poussin is of the opinion that it is a '

magical'

body, in other words,

an illusion ; while Mr. G. B. S. Mead calls it the ' outer shell of the inner body of

1Eitel, Handbook of Chinese Buddhism. Some- * lakshana

;v. Glossary.

times a fourth body is given, the Svabhdva-kaya.*

According to M. de la Vallee Poussin, the

According to Hodgson, The Languages, Literature, Bodhisattva would possess the marks in '

germand Religions of Nepal and Tibet, p. 92, there are state

'

and '

ripen' them in course of his different

five bodies, the last two being Mahasukha-kaya and reincarnations.

Jfiana-kaya.6

v. PI. vi, fig. d, and PL vn as well as illustra-

2 ' The Three Bodies of a Buddha ', The Journal tion, A. Foucher, L'Art greco-bouddhique, fig.155.

of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and 6v. PI. x.

Ireland, Oct. 1906.

PLATE VII

Gautama Buddha (fiust bath given by the Nagas)

PLATE VIII

a. Gautama Buddha b. Gautama Buddha

c. Gautama Buddha d. Gautama Buddha

U ^^1 '

n

THE BUDDHAS 11

Transformation '. Might it not also mean the transformation of the '

body'

of the

Bodhisattva as he approaches Buddhahood—the acquiring (or developing) one by-

one, in his different rebirths, of the thirty-two superior and eighty inferior markswhich are outward proofs of his inner progress toward Bodhi ?

Certain Northern Buddhist sects designated the Tri-kaya by the triad'

Buddha,

Dharma, and Sahgha '.

' Buddha '

symbolized the generative power,' Dharma '

(or Prajna) the productive power, and their union produced'

Sangha'

(Dhyani-

Bodhisattva), the active author of creation.

The Manushi-Buddha is always represented in monastic garments without orna-

ments, and with the right shoulder and breast, or only the breast, bare, and with the

ilrna,1

ushnisha, and long-lobed ears. He is usually seated with closely locked legs,

but may also be standing.

Suzuki, in his Outlines of Mahdyana Buddhism, writes :

'

If we draw a parallel

between the Buddhist and the Christian Trinity, the Body of Transformation

(Nirmana-kaya) may be considered to correspond to Christ in the flesh, the Body of

Bliss (Sambhoga-kaya) either to Christ in glory or to the Holy Ghost, and Dharma-

kaya to the Godhead.'

DIPANKARA BUDDHA

(Buddha of Fixed Light).2

(T.) mar-me-mdsad (the illuminator or enlightener). Mudra : abhaya (' blessing of Fearlessness').

(M.) jjulajoqiaqtt (the maker of light). vara (charity).

(C.) Ting-kuang-fo (£j? jfc -j^).3 Colour: yellow.

Bodhi-tree: pulila.

In one of the innumerable past kalpas there lived a king called Arcishtra in the

royal city of Dlpavati. During the same kalpa, Dipankara was a Bodhisattva in the

Tushita heaven, and, as the time had arrived for him to manifest himself as a

Buddha, he descended to earth, and, finding the king Arcishtra 4 a suitable father,

entered into the womb of his virtuous spouse Suslla.

The Mahdvastu Avaddna goes on to relate that ' when in the throes of childbirth,

she requested the king to send her to a lotus tank. When she arrived at the side of

the tank, lo ! an island (dvipa) sprang up in the midst of it. The Bodhisattva was

born on the island. At the moment of his birth there was a miraculous manifestation

of a large number of bright lamps (dipa), hence his name Dipankara. On the second

1 v. Glossary.» Beal. According to Edkins,

'

Jan-teng ',

*Eitel. According to E. Denison Ross, 'that

* In the Mahdvastu his father is called Arcismat

makes a lamp or light'. and his mother Sudlpa.

c2

12 THE BUDDHAS

day of his birth Dipankara commenced his philanthropic tour round the earth, equally

useful to gods and men. . . . Megha offered five lotus-flowers 1 to Dipankara and

asked that he might become, in one of his future existences, equal to Dipankarain power and knowledge and in every good quality. His request was granted.

It was foretold on this occasion that Megha would become Buddha Sakya-muniof Kapilavastu.'

2

The above legend has several variations. According to the Bodhisattvdvadana-

Kalpalata, a Brahman, Sumati 3

by name, was present at the sacrifice of the King of

Benares. The king's daughter, Sundari, saw the Brahman and became enamoured of

him;but when he sternly rejected her suit, she became a Bhikshuni (Buddhist nun).

Sumati then had a strange dream and repaired to Dvipavati, where dwelt the

Buddha Dvipankara,4 to ask for its interpretation. There- he met the Bhikshuni,

Sundari, who was carrying seven lotus-flowers of Utpala.

Now, the king had commanded that all the flowers in the surrounding countryshould be brought to the palace, for the Buddha Dvipankara was to pass through the

city and the flowers were to be strewn in his path. Thus had Sumati hunted

in vain for flowers to offer before the Buddha, and seeing that Sundari carried seven

lotus-flowers, be begged them of her. She willingly gave them to him, at the

same time praying that, in their next existence, he might be her husband. Sumati

promised that such would be the case, and telling her he would offer two of

the flowers in her name, prostrated himself before the Dvipankara Buddha. He then

offered the flowers, which, according to some accounts, arose in the air and formed a

baldachin over the Buddha's head. Sumati then unbound his long hair and spread it

on the ground before the Dvipankara Buddha, who, treading upon it, exclaimed,' You

shall become a great Buddha, Sakya-muni by name !'5 This incident, as well as that

of the flowers, is a favourite one in Buddhist art.

According to Griinwedel, the Dipankara Buddha is the twenty-fourth teacher of

Buddhist law before Sakya-muni, and the last four alone (with Maitreya added

to them) belong to the present period. The Southern school accepts the list of

twenty-four Tathagata, while the Northern Buddhists reckon the Dipankara Buddhaas the fifty-second predecessor of Sakya-muni. Hodgson places him as the first

Tathagata of the actual universe, and the ninth predecessor of Gautama Buddha.

The most popular system, however, is the list of twenty-four Tathagata, with the

Dipankara Buddha as the first and Gautama Buddha added as the twenty-fifth.

The Dipankara Buddha is believed to have lived 100,000 years on earth.

According to Beal, he was 3,000 years on earth before finding any one worthyof hearing the divine truth. He then decided to convert the world and caused' the appearance of a great city to proceed from his lamp and fix itself in space '.

1 These flowers are generally represented as * Called Dipankara in the Mahavastu,

growing on one stalk or stem (Beal).6 Herr von Le Coq discovered a fresco represent-

2Et. Mitra, Ne]>alese Buddhist Literature. ing this scene in a temple at Turfan, Chinese

3 Or Sumedha, or Megha, one of the incarnations Turkestan. It is now in the Museum fur Volker-

of Gautama Buddha. kunde in Berlin.

DIPANKAKA BUDDHA 13

While the people of Jambudvipa (India) were gazing upon this miracle, fierce flames

were emitted from the four walls. Fear filled their hearts and they looked for

a Buddha to save them. Then Dipankara came forth from the burning city,

descended to Jambudvipa, seated himself on the Lion Throne,1 and began to teach the

Law. Legend claims that he remained another kalpa on earth '

turning the Wheel of

the Law '.

In the Mahavastu the Tathagata is called '

Dipankara'

(from dipa, meaning'

lamp '),

2 while in the BodMsattvavadana-Kdlpalata he is called'

Dvlpahkara'

(from

dvipa or island'). Either name applies to him, for he was born on an island

and miraculous lamps burned at his birth. One can, therefore, understand his

popularity on the islands of Java and Ceylon and at all Buddhist festivals celebrated

by illuminations.

According to M. Foucher 3many of the merchants who carried on commerce with

China and the Southern islands were Buddhists. As it was their custom to put their

cargo and equipage under the protection of a Buddha, he thinks it not unlikely that

the Dipankara Buddha was looked upon as ' Protector of Mariners '. In the

Saddharmapundanka* there is the description of a Buddha walking on the waves

while his disciples remain in the boat, and in the caves of Ajanta there is a fresco

depicting this scene. 5

The Dipankara Buddha is represented in Java and Ceylon with the right hand in

ahhaya mudra—gesture of protection, called '

blessing of Fearlessness '. He is always

standing, with the monastic garment draped over the left shoulder, the folds beingheld by the left hand either at the shoulder or at his hip. The right shoulder is

uncovered, which, according to M. Foucher, indicates an occasion of ceremony.One finds in India the statues of a Buddha much resembling those of the DipankaraBuddha in Ceylon and Java, but the right shoulder is generally covered and the folds

of the garment are held below the hip. Like all Buddhas, Dipankara has the

short, curly hair, the ushnisha, urna, and long-lobed ears.

In Siam, the Dipankara Buddha has either both hands in ahhaya mudra or

the right only, while the left hangs against the folds of the monastic garment.

(PI. vi. fig. c.)

The triad in Java is :

Manjusrl—Dipankara Buddha—Vajrapani.

In Ceylon :

Avalokitesvara—Dipankara Buddha—Vajrapani.In Nepal and Tibet :

Sakya-muni—

Dipankara Buddha—Maitreya, called the 'Three White

Buddhas '.

1 Simhasana;

v. Glossary.4 Lotus of the Good Law.

2 His name is also translated in this sense in the 5 See miniature in the MS. Add. 1643 of the

Tibetan and Mongolian sacred books. University Library, Cambridge.3Iconographie bouddhique, vol. i, p. 80.

14 THE BUDDHAS

The earliest images of Buddha in Japan resemble the Dipankara Buddha, with

the exception that while the right hand is in abhaya1mudra, the left is in vara mudra,

gesture of charity. The right shoulder is almost invariably covered.

In China, the Dipankara Buddha has always been popular, and is still worshippedthere. In the cave temples of Yunkang

2 near Ta-t'ong-fou there are many examples,but only a few standing ; the rest are all sitting with legs locked—with both the

shoulders covered but with the breast bare, The right hand is in abhaya mudra, while

the left generally holds the folds of the monastic garment either at the shoulder or on

the left knee. In the Long-men temple caves there are also many examples much

resembling those at Yun-kang.

KASYAPA 3 (THIED MANUSHI-BUDDHA)

(The Keeper of Light).

(T.) hod-srun (luminous protector). Colour : yellow.

(M.) ghasiba (from the Sanskrit) or gerel-sakiqciBodhi-tree : banyan.

(luminous protector). Dhyani-Bodhisattva : Batnapani.

Mudra : vara (charity). Dhyani-Buddha : Batnasambhava.

Vahana : lion. Hanushi-Buddha : Kasyapa.

Kasyapa was Manushi-Buddha in the Jcalpa preceding that of Sakya-muni who hadbeen his disciple in a former halpa, and whose eventual Buddhahood he had predicted.He lived on earth 20,000 years and converted 20,000 people.

It is believed that he is buried under Mount Kukkutapada, in Northern India,

near Bodh-Gaya, and that when Maitreya comes upon earth as a Manushi-Buddha,he will go first to the mountain which will open miraculously. Kasyapa will then

come forth and give to Maitreya the garments of a Buddha, after which his body will

be consumed by holy fire4 and he will enter Nirvana.

According to the Mahayana system, Kasyapa is the third Manushi-Buddha of

the group of five, and the sixth of the group of seven ancient Buddhas.

Kasyapa is sometimes represented seated on a Lion Throne, and is alwaysclothed like a Buddha. His right hand is in

'

charity'

mudra, and his left holds

a fold of his monastic garment. The two folds held in the hand look like the ears of

an animal.

'v. Glossary. other words,

' the sun and moon which caused his2

v. plates of Chavannes, Mission archeologique body to shine like gold Eitel).

dans la Chine septentrionale.* See B. S. Hardy, A Manual of Buddhism, p. 97.

'Kasyapa, lit.

'

(one who) swallowed light '. In

PLATE IX

Gautama Bim>diia

15

GAUTAMA SAKYA-MUNI 1

(FOURTH MANUSHI-BUDDHA)

Siddhartha of Kapilavastu.

The Supremely Happy One (Bhagavan or Bhagavat).

(T.) iha-kya thub-fa (the sage Sakya). Symbol : patra (begging-bowl).

(M.) Sigemuni or Burqan (Buddha Sakya-muni). Colour : golden.

(C.) Kiao-ta-mo (|fjf 2£ M) and Ju-lai. Support: red lotus.

(3\Shk Bodhi-tree : Ficus religiosa.

\'\a a

™', .. Fourth Dhyani-Buddha : Amitabha.Mudra, : vitarka (argument). _, . _ *

. . . . ., ,

„ , /. i .1 i i ..i i x Dhyam-Bodhisattva : Avalokitesvara.dliarmacakra (turning the wheel ot the law),

bhwmisparsa (witness),

or dhycma (meditation).

Manushi-Buddha : Sakya-muni.

According to Buddhist tradition, Sakya-muni, after passing through 550 exis-

tences 2 as animal, man, and god, was born in the Tushita heaven as Bodhisattva in

the kalpa preceding the present era. When the time came for him to manifest him-

self on earth and receive Buddhahood, it is believed that he descended to earth in the

form of a white elephant with six tusks. Certain Buddhist sects, however, claim

that Sakya-muni descended from the Tushita heaven on a ladder brought to him by

Indra, and that the white elephant was only the dream of his mother, Maya.The conception of Maya is variously treated by Buddhist writers. According to

Satow, the Japanese Buddhists believe that 'Maya saw a golden pagoda on a

cloud. The doors opened and she saw a golden Buddha within. A white elephant

with a red head 3 and six tusks appeared, carrying on its head a white lotus, on

which Buddha took his seat. From the white spot4 on his forehead shone a brilliant

light which illuminated the whole universe, and alighting from the white elephant, he

passed into her bosom like a shadow.'

Maya's conception does not seem to have inspired the Indian sculptors to the

same extent as the incidents of the birth of the Buddha ;

5 of his first bath at which

assisted the Naga gods ;

6 or of his first steps, when lotus-flowers sprang from

the earth under each foot as he walked ; or of his flight into the wilderness and

meditation under the Bodhi-tree,7 his temptation by Mara, and of his Parinirvana

or death. (PI. xn, fig. a, and PI. xiii, fig. d.)

1

Sakya, the mighty (the Sakya Sage).5Every Buddha is born from the right side of

2Eitel gives

'

5,000 existences'. his mother; v. miniature in the MS. Add. 1643

8 In one of the miniatures in the MS. Add. 1643 in the University Library, Cambx-idge.

in the University Library, Cambridge, the Buddha 6v. the Nagas and PI. vn.

is represented surrounded by four elephants with ' Each Buddha had his sacred tree under which

red heads. he attained Buddhahood.4 wrna

;v. Glossary.

16 THE BUDDHAS

Up to the first century of our era, the sculptors in India were still so stronglyunder the influence of the Buddha's teachings that they had made no image of him.

In fact, according to M. Foucher, they succeeded in'

representing the life of Buddhawithout Buddha V In the panels of the famous stupa at Amaravati (North-west India),

his birth and his presentation to the sage A£ita are represented by the imprints of his

feet. On the Sanchi stupa his departure from the palace is depicted by a horse with

its saddle empty. At the temple of Bodh-Gaya, his first meditation is symbolized

by a vacant seat. At Barhut, according to M. Foucher, an inscription on the stiipa

explains that the personages depicted kneeling before a vacant throne are rendering

homage to the very'

Happy One '.

As he was called a' wheel king ',

2 the Tathagata was sometimes represented by a

wheel with eight spokes. If the sermon in the deer park at Benares was meant, the

wheel was flanked on either side by a gazelle.3 A ' bodhi

'

tree, as well as a column

topped by a trident,4symbolized his teachings. A ladder with footprints on the top

and bottom rungs denoted his descent from the Tushita heaven, and a white elephantwith six tusks his last incarnation.

According to Hiuen-tsang, the first image of the Buddha was made at the com-

mand of King Udayana, while the Tathagata was in the Trayastrim^a heaven, where

he had gone to convert his mother to Buddhism. Upon his return to earth, after

ninety days, the statue was completed. It was five feet high and was made from a

precious sandal-wood called gosirsha. When the Buddha appeared before the statue

it lifted itself in mid-air and saluted him, whereupon the Tathagata prophesied that

Buddhism would spread to China one thousand years after his Parinirvana. 5 TheChinese Buddhists claim that the sandal-wood statue was taken to China by Kasyapa

Matanga when he joined the Emperor Mingti's mission in the first century A. D., and

that it was presented to the emperor.

According to other accounts 6it was King Prasenajit who was the originator of

Buddhist idolatry. He caused an image of Gautama to be made in'

purple' gold. It

was five feet high. The Japanese Buddhists believe that this statue was made bythe Buddha himself from gold brought from Mount Sumeru. Chinese history records

a golden image of Buddha taken in a warlike expedition 122 B.C. in the Hieou-thou, a

country beyond Yarkand, and sent to the Chinese Emperor.At Lhassa, in the temple of the Dalai Lama, there is a gilt statue of the Buddha

said to have been brought from China in the seventh century A. D. by the Chinese

wife of the Tibetan king, Srong-tsan-gam-po, who was the daughter of the Chinese

emperor.The first image of Buddha in Japan was brought by a Chinese priest A. D. 534,

and eighteen years later the Korean king sent to the Emperor of Japan a golden

1 Debuts de I'art bouddhique, p. 8. the entrance of every Buddhist temple in Tibet and2 'A king who rules the world and causes the wheel Mongolia.

4 tritula ; v. Glossary.

of doctrine everywhere to revolve'—Edkins. (v.6 The Chinese, in order to fulfil this prophecy

Cakra.) date back the birth of Buddha one thousand years.8Symbol which is represented over the door of 8 Fah-hian.

rijj\ 1 cj a.

a. Gautama Buddha, ascetic b. Gautama Buddha, ascetic

c. Gautama Buddha, ascetic d. Gautama Buddha, ascetic

GAUTAMA SAKYA-MUNI 17

image of the Buddha, which is believed to be the statue now in the Zenkoji templeat Nagano.

The Indian images of the Buddha represent him with short locks, for, accordingto Buddhist tradition, Gautama, after his flight from the palace, drew forth his sword

and cut off his long hair. In the Mahdvastu it is written that the hair was caught bythe gods and carried to the Trayastrim&a heavens, where it was worshipped as

a sacred relic. According to some accounts, they carried away his turban as well. 1

The Gandhara school never portrayed the Buddha, however, with short locks, but

depicted the event by his taking off his turban and ear-rings. The short locks, follow-

ing tradition, should curl from left to right2 and were represented by the Indian

artists in the shape of sea-shells. In China and Japan they sometimes took the

form of round beads or sharp spikes.

He always has the mhnisha or protuberance on the skull, which is presumablythe seat of the mams, or divine mind (soul) of the Buddha. It may be terminated bya round ornament 3

(the flaming pearl), or have, as in Nepal, a single flame issuingfrom it. In Ceylon, the flame is three or five-forked (v. PI. vi, fig. b), and in Siam

it may be seven-forked. The Buddhas, however, in Siam, as well as in Burma,often have the ushnisha covered by an ornate head-dress which is tapering in shapeand somewhat resembles a stupa (v. PI. viii).

There is usually the auspicious mark (urna) on the forehead of the Indian Buddha,and the lobes of the ears are long. The monastic garment is almost invariably

draped over the left shoulder, leaving the right arm and shoulder bare, which

fact indicates a ceremony of importance. In the early Indian images of the Buddha,the right hand is generally raised, the fingers extending upward, the palm turned

outward, 4 while the left hand lies on the lap, with the palm turned upward. If

seated, the legs are closely locked in the 'adamantine' pose ; both feet apparent, the soles

turned upward, sometimes marked by a wheel, or a button resembling the urna on

the forehead. There may be, in Tibet, a svastika (but rarely) marked on the breast,

or lying on the throne before the Buddha (PI. n, fig. c).

When the sculptor wished to indicate the sermon in the deer park at Benares,a wheel was apparent somewhere on the statue, but in later images the fact wasindicated by a pose of the hands called dharmacaJcra 6 mudra (turning the Wheel of

the Law).Another early mudra or mystic pose of the hands of the Buddha was the

dhyana mudra, representing his meditation (samadhi) under the Bodhi-tree. In this

pose both hands lie on the lap, the right on top of the left, with the palmsturned upwards,

6 and the figure, with the legs closely locked, formed a perfect

triangle v. (Trikona).1 A. Foucher, L'Art greco-bouddhique, p. 363. * The abliaya mudra (v. Glossary) gesture of the2 One of the thirty-two superior marks of a Buddha in the episode of the mad elephant, v. minia-

Buddha. v. Lakshana. The priests of the Ge- ture in theMS. Add. 1404 in the University Library,

lugs-pa sect always turn their prayer-wheels from Cambridge.left to right.

s Dharmacakra mudra, v. Glossary.3Cintamani, v. Glossary.

« Also mudra of Amitabha.

18 THE BUDDHAS

As Buddha,' Liberator of the Nagas

'1

(kLu-dban-rgyal-po) ,he may have either

the dhyana mudra or a special pose2 of the hands, held at the breast with all

fingers locked except the indexes, which are raised and touch at the tips. Gautama

Buddha may be represented either seated on the coils of a serpent with its hood

of five or seven heads spread over him, or seated on a lotus throne with only the

serpent's hood protecting his head. (v. PI. vi. fig. a, and PI. xi, figs, a and b.)Accord-

ing to Buddhist scriptures, the Buddha once sat near a lake absorbed in meditation.

The tutelary deity of the lake was the Naga king, Mucalinda, who '

wishing to

preserve him (Buddha) from the sun and rain, wrapped his body seven times

around him and spread his hood over his head, and there Buddha remained seven

days in thought '.s

Buddha, invoking the earth to witness his resistance of the temptations of the

spirit of evil, Mara, is represented by the bhumisparsa mudra. The right arm is

stretched downwards, all the fingers are extended, the tips touching the earth, the

palm turned underneath (v. Glossary and Pis. I and viii).

Buddha of the Vajrasana (diamond throne)4 has also the bhumisparia mudra.

He is awakening to the consciousness of Buddhahood from the state of Bodhisattva.

He is seated under the Bodhi-tree on the ' diamond '

throne,'

supposed to be the

centre of the universe and the only spot capable of supporting the weight of a

Buddha and his thoughts '.5 The ' diamond

'

throne is sometimes indicated by a vajra

lying in front of Buddha on the lotus throne. 6 The most beautiful example of

Buddha of the Vajrasana is in the temple of Mahabodhi at Bodh-Gaya, where he is

not only worshipped by the Buddhists, but also by the Brahmans, as one of the

avatars of Vishnu, and there is a Vishnu mark on his forehead.

The Buddhas of the Gandhara sculptures show strong Hellenic influence. The

features are Grecian. The hair, long and wavy, is caught up in a knot in place of

the protuberance of the skull of the Indian images, (v. PI. xi, fig. c.) The unia is

sometimes omitted, and the lobes of the ears are somewhat elongated by the weightof the ear-rings which he wore during his youth, but not to the abnormal extent

characteristic of the Indian school. In the early images there is no moustache,

but later statues have a slight moustache which one also sees in Japan and in

China. In fact the Gandhara images of the Buddha may have both a moustache

and, when in the ascetic form of Gautama, a beard. The right arm and shoulder

are never bare, but are covered by the monastic garment draped in the Grecian

fashion over the left shoulder.

It is this form of the Buddha that found its way from India into China and

Japan, presumably via Khotan (Chinese Turkestan), where there was an art-loving

court in the seventh century A. D. The celebrated painter, Wei-ch'i-I-song, of

Khotan, lived at that time and was much at the Chinese court. It is believed

1

Nagas, serpent gods. of ' indestructible '.

2v. Glossary renge-no-in.

6 A. Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, p. 91.

3

Oldenberg, Life of Buddha, p. 23.e

PI. n, fig. c.

*

Vajra is here translated' diamond

'

in the sense

PLATE XI

a. Buddha b. Gautama Buddha

GAUTAMA SAKYA-MUNI 19

to have been through his influence that the Gandhara school was introduced into

China, where, however, the influence lasted but a few centuries, and into Japan,where it made a deep impression which has lasted till the present day.

Some of the statues of Buddha in China and Japan have a curious wavy line in

the folds of the monastic garment, and Griinwedel explains that when the Buddha

posed for the statue ordered by Udayana, the artist was so blinded by his glory that

Buddha caused himself to be mirrored in the water so that the statue might be

finished.' The artist produced this reflection and thus the wavy lines of the robe are

accounted for.'

Gautama Buddha is believed to have had thirty-two superior and eighty inferior

marks of beauty.1 The thirtieth of the thirty-two superior marks is :

' Webbed

fingers and toes.' In the Volkerkunde Museum, Berlin, there is a fresco, discovered

by Herr von Le Coq at Turfan, Chinese Turkestan, which represents the Buddha with

webbed fingers, the webbed part being painted bright red. In the collection of

Buddhist divinities owned by Mr. Okura, of Tokyo, there is a life-sized statue of the

Buddha, with wavy lines in the folds of the monastic garment draped in Grecian

fashion and with the fingers and toes webbed. But although the draperies of the

Japanese representations of the Buddha often indicate the influence of the Gandhara

school, the features are never Grecian ; and (with the exception of the eyes) closelyresemble the Indian Buddhas with the long-lobed ears. The Buddha is never repre-

sented in Japan with Mongolian features and rarely with the right shoulder and arm

bare, but the breast is sometimes uncovered and may be marked with a svastika.

(v. PI. xviii, fig. a.)

Other examples of the historic Buddha found in China and Japan, and but

rarely in Tibet, are :

1. Buddha as a child, standing with the right arm pointing upward while

the left points towards the earth. It represents Buddha immediately after his birth

speaking his first words :

' Now for the last time am I incarnate.' (PI. vi, fig. d.)

2. Buddha as an ascetic, sometimes standing, but generally seated with his rightknee raised. He is represented very emaciated and often with moustache and beard

(PL x, fig. c.)

3. Buddha as entering into Nirvana. He is represented lying on the right side

with his right hand under his head. He is often accompanied by his two favourite

disciples, Sariputra and Maudgalyayana. (PI. xn, fig. a.)

The Buddhist formula is'

Buddha, Dharma, Sangha'

(Buddha,—the Law—the

Assembly). In China, Dharma and Sangha are personified and form a popular triad

with the Buddha. They symbolize the generative power (Buddha), the productive

power (Dharma), and the active power of creation (Sangha).'Dharma' is represented with four arms. The normal ones are in namahhara

(prayer) mudra—the other two hands hold respectively a rosary and a book.'

Sangha'

is represented with two arms—one resting on the knee and the other

holding a lotus-flower.

1Laksltana, v. Glossary.*

D 2

20 THE BUDDHAS

When the Buddha is in the centre with Dharma at the right and Sangha at the

left, the triad is called the Upayika, or Theistic Triad. When Dharma is in the

centre with the Buddha at the right and Sangha at the left, it is called the

Prajiiika or Atheistic Triad.

The statue representing Dharma seems to combine AvalokitesVara, god of Mercy,and Manjusn, god of Wisdom, by its mudra and symbols, for the namahkara mudra

and rosary belong to the former, and the book, the Prajnaparamita, to the latter.

One also finds the Buddha in a triad with Maitreya and AvalokitesVara, as well

as surrounded by the '

eight Bodhisattva '.

MA1TBEYA (the future fifth Manushi Buddha)

(The Compassionate One).

(T.) byams-pa (pro. cam-pa) (kind, loving). Colour : yellow.

(M.) maijdari (from the Sanskrit). Emblem: campa (naga pushpa)J

(white flower with

(C.) Mi-lo-fo (^ $J -$|).yellow centre).

IS ) Miroku Distinctive marks : stUpa in head-dress.

scarf around the waist tied at

Mudra : dharmacakra (turning the Wheel of the left side.

Law), or Dhyani-Buddha : Amoghasiddha.vara (charity), and

Dhyani-Bodhisattva : Visvapani.vitarka (argument). Manushi-Buddha : Maitreya,

Symbols : kalato (vase). The Dhyani-Bodhisattva form of Maitreya belongs

cakra (wheel). to the group of eight Dhyani-Bodhisattva.

Buddhist tradition divides the period between the death of Buddha and the

manifestation of Maitreya in the actual universe into three divisions of time 2:

I. Period of 500 years,' the turning of the Wheel of the first Law '. II. Period of

1 ,000 years,' the law of images

'

(Saddharmapratirupaka). III. Period of 3,000 years,' the turning of the Wheel of the second Law ', after which Maitreya will leave

the Tushita heaven and come upon earth to'

establish the lost truths in all

their purity '.

Sakya-muni is supposed to have visited Maitreya in the Tushita heaven when he

appointed him to be his successor, and many Buddhist sages (arhats) are believed to

have had communion with him, transporting themselves by supernatural means to the

Tushita heaven to seek enlightenment on various religious points. The great Asanga,one thousand years after the birth of Buddha, ascended to the Tushita heaven, where

1

Foucher, Iconographie boiiddhique, p. 113. 2Grunwedel, Buddhist Art, p. 181. Usual length

of time given 5,000 years, in China 3,000.

MAITREYA 21

he was initiated, by Maitreya, into the mystic doctrine of the Tantra, which he

grafted on to the Mahayana school in the beginning of the sixth century. Maitreyais therefore looked upon, by certain sects, as the founder of the Tantra school.

He is the only Bodhisattva who figures in Southern Buddhism, and statues of

him are found in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam, generally in company with GautamaBuddha. His worship was at its height in India, according to the accounts of

the Chinese pilgrims, in the fifth century, and there are many statues of him in

the Gandhara sculptures of that period. He is represented either seated as a

Buddha with his long hair drawn up in a knot on the top of his head forming the

ushnisha, his legs closely locked, and his hands in dharmacakra (teaching) mudra ;

or as a Bodhisattva, in which case he is standing, with his long hair hangingover his shoulders, while a part of it is caught up in a knot on his head. His

hands form '

argument'

and '

charity'

mudra.

In the Indian sculptures, as Bodhisattva, he is standing. His hair is arranged

mitre-shaped. His hands form the usual mudra, and in the left is a vase which

is round, while in the sculptures of the Gandhara school the vase is oval or pointedin shape.

The early Mongolian images of Maitreya are also generally standing and hold in

their hands, forming'

argument'

and '

charity'

mudra, the stems of flowers called

1

campa ', which, however, in the bronzes often resembles the lotus-flower. If painted,

the campa is white with a yellow centre.

In Tibet, Maitreya is also represented both as Buddha and Bodhisattva. As

Buddha, he has short curly hair, the ushnisha, urna, and long-lobed ears. He wears

the monastic garment, with the right shoulder bare, and the hands are in dharmacakra

mudra. He is seated, but the legs, instead of being locked, are both pendent, and the

feet may be unsupported. He is the only divinity in the Northern Buddhist

pantheon represented seated in European fashion. (PI. xv, fig. b.)

As Bodhisattva, he may be also seated with the legs closely locked, which,

according to M. Foucher,1 was possibly his attitude in the Tushita heaven when

teaching the Arhats ;but as Bodhisattva he is usually seated in European fashion

with each foot resting on a small lotus-flower asana. (v. PL xv, fig. a.) He is

represented as an Indian prince with all the Bodhisattva ornaments, and in

the crown is generally a stupa-sh&ped ornament which is his distinctive mark, but he

may be without a crown and have the stupa in his hair. His hands are in dJiarmacakra

mudra and may be holding the stems of flowers supporting his two symbols, the vase

and the wheel, on a level with his shoulders. (PL xv, fig. c.) He may be seated

on a throne supported by lions and have five Dhyani Buddhas in the nimbus.

(PL xiv.)

He may have an antelope skin over his left shoulder, in which case he is

generally standing. His hands are in vitarka and vara mudra, and he either carries

the vase, or the two symbols—vase and wheel—are supported by lotus-flowers on a

1

Iconographie bovddhique, p. 113. (v. PI. in, fig. d.)

22 THE BUDDHAS

level with each shoulder. It is in this latter attitude that he is represented in the

group of '

eight Bodhisattva '. He never carries the wheel, which is always supported

by a lotus-flower.

When the stupa is not well defined in the crown and he is standing with

the hands in ;

argument'

and '

charity'

mudra holding the vase, with the antelope

skin over the left shoulder, he resembles a form of Padmapanix and is extremely

difficult to determine. Padmapani's distinctive mark is a small image of Amitabha in

his crown, but it may be missing.

Maitreya's two distinctive marks are a stupa in the crown and a scarf wound

around the waist and tied on the left side with the ends falling to the feet ; but these

may be missing. According to Griinwedel, if all the distinctive marks are missing,

one may call this form '

Maitreya ',as he is a more popular deity than Padmapani.

The stupa in the crown of Maitreya is thought to refer to the belief that a stupa on

Mount Kukkutapada near Bodh-Gaya covers a spot where Kasyapa Buddha is lying.

When Maitreya leaves the Tushita heaven, he will go to the mountain, which

will open by magic, and Kasyapa will give him the garments of a Buddha. 2

In the Gandhara sculptures, Maitreya was represented much larger than his

assistants. According to Hiuen-tsang, there is a statue of Maitreya at Dardu, north

ofthe Punjab, in wood, which is one hundred feet high. It is believed to have been made

by an artist whom the Lohan Madhyantika caused, by magic, to mount three times to

the Tushita heaven to contemplate the form of Maitreya before carving the statue. 3

The Chinese claim that Maitreya was thirty feet high. According to Edkins, in

the province of Che-kiang there is a stone image of Maitreya forty feet high, and

still another seventy feet high. At Peking in the Yung-ho-kung, there is a wooden

image still higher.

The bronze and stone images of Mi-lo-fo (Maitreya) of the sixth century a.d.

are usually standing, with the right hand in abliaya mudra, and the left in vara mudra.

In the cave temples of Yun-kang and Long-men there are many examples of Maitreya

seated European fashion, but the feet are crossed.

In Japan, he is seated with legs locked, his hands in dhyana mudra holding a vase,

and in this form he somewhat resembles the Tibetan Amitayus.

Maitreya is found in a triad with Gautama Buddha and Avalokitesvara, and also

with the goddesses, Kurukula and Bhrikutl.

1v. Padmapani.

3Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World,

2v. Kaiyapa. vol. i, p. 134.

a. The Parinirvana of the Buddha

b. Manjushi

C. JUNTEI KWAN-NON22

23

MANLA (rank of Buddha)

(The Supreme Physician).

(S.) Bhaysajaguru or Pindola. Mudra : vara (charity).

(T.) sman-bla (pro. Mania) (supreme medicine). dhyana (meditation).

(M.) ototi (prince of medicine) or bindwria (beryl). Symbols : patra (begging-bowl).

(C.) Yao-shih-fo (|j| gjjj ffi). myrobalans (T. A-ru-ra, a golden fruit).'

(J.) Yaku-shi and Binzura sama. Colour : blue.

Mania, the Buddhist Aesculapius, is not only venerated in Tibet and Manchuria,

but in China and Japan, where he is a most popular divinity. He is called the'

Healing Buddha ', and is said to dispense spiritual medicine when properly

worshipped. It is even believed in all these countries that an efficacious cure maybe accomplished by merely touching the image.

In China he is worshipped under the name of ' Yao-shih-fo'

(Bhaysajaguru), or

Healing Teacher and Medical King. He is the ruler of the Eastern world and has

two attendants, the Bodhisattva, Ji-kwang-pien-chau and Yue-kwang-pien-chau,who are believed to assist him in removing all suffering.

In Japan, as Yaku-shi, he is sometimes counted among the five Dhyani-Buddhas,

taking the place of either Vairocana or Akshobhya. He is also one of the thirteen

Buddhas of the Shingon sect, and is believed to look after the soul on the seventh

week after death (v. Fudo). Yaku-shi is always placed inside the temple, and may be

found in a triad with Amitabha and Gautama Buddha.

There is a popular form of Yaku-shi in Japan called ' Binzura Sama ', which is

worshipped by the common people as a veritable fetish. His head is usually covered

by a hood, his hands with mittens, and there are often so many bibs around his neck,

one on top of the other, that his face is scarcely visible. He is looked upon as

Pindola, one ofthe sixteen Japanese Rakhan (Arhats), and is always placed outside of

the temple or principal shrine, for the following reason : 'According to popular

Japanese tradition he was expelled from the Sixteen for having violated the vowof chastity by remarking upon the beauty of a woman, and hence his usual situation

outside the temple.' (Satow.) It is also believed that, at Mania's request, the powerof curing all ills was conferred on him by Gautama Buddha.

As a Buddha, he is represented with the urna, ushnisha, and short, curly hair.

He wears the monastic robe, and is seated with the legs crossed. His left hand, lyingin his lap in ' meditation

'

mudra, holds either a branch with the fruit, or the fruit

alone, of the myrobalans, a medicinal plant found in India and other tropical countries.

The fruit resembles a lemon and is five-sided, (v. PI. lx, fig. c.)

In Tibet, as Bodhisattva, he wears the five-leaved crown as well as all the usual

1 Terminalia of botanists.

24 THE BUDDHAS

ornaments, and is represented in paintings rather than in bronzes. In China and

Japan, on the contrary, he is more usually found in bronzes ; and while he wears the

five-leaved crown, he is dressed like a Buddha and wears few ornaments. His

symbols and mudra are the same as his form as Buddha. If painted, he is blue.

There is a group of eight medical Tathagata who are believed to have created the

medicinal plants, and Mania is the most popular of this group.1

They figure in Pander's

Pantheon des TscJmngtscha Hutuktu, and Mania is represented (No. 142) as a Buddha

holding a branch of the myrobalans on which is the fruit. If painted, three of

the gods are red, and four yellow, while Mania is blue.

1v. plate of tsoh-shin (frontispiece), where all the eight Tathagata are represented with the alarm staff

(khakkhara).

PLATE XIII

a. Stupa containing prayers b. Gautama Buddha

c. Stupa d. The Parinirvana of the Buddha

84

PLATE XIV

Maitkeya on a Lion Throne

25

THE DH Y ANI-BUDDH AS

Dhyani-Buddhas i

Table III

I. Vairocana.

II. Akshobhya.

III. Katnasambhava.

IV. Amitabha

V. Amoghasiddba.

I. Amitayus.II. Amito-fo.

III. Amida.

26

THE DHYANI-BUDDHAS (DHARMA-KAYA)

(Buddhas of Meditation).

The Dhyani-Buddha is the first Jcaya or'

body'

in the Buddhist Trinity

(Tri-kaya), and dwells quiescent in the Arupadhatu heaven in abstract form of

perfect unity. He is the '

body of Dharma'

(Dharma-kaya), or the inner enlightened

body of a Buddha. According to the Yoga doctrine, the law preached by the

Nirmana-kaya (Manushi-Buddha) is exoteric. When he preaches the esoteric doctrine

he is inspired by the Dharma-kaya—his Dhyani-Buddha. The '

body of Dharma '

is

identified by certain Buddhist sects with Dharma, in the Triad,'

Buddha, Dharma,

Sahgha ',or the Tri-ratna (Three Jewels). Dharma is looked upon by them as the

material essence, which, united with the intellectual essence (Buddha), produced

Sangha, or the Dhyani-Bodhisattva, the active power of creation.

According to the system of Adi-Buddha, the group of five Dhyani-Buddhas

(Vairocana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddha) was evolved

by the Adi-Buddha. Each of the Dhyani-Buddhas received,'

together with his

existence, the virtues of that jnana (wisdom) and dhyana (meditation), to the

exertion of which, by Adi-Buddha, he owed his existence : and by similar exertion of

both he produced a Dhyani-Bodhisattva.'1

Besides the five Dhyani-Buddhas who evolved the five Dhyani-Bodhisattvas,there is a sixth,

2Vajrasattva, who is looked upon as

'

president'

of the group of five,

and was adopted by certain sects as Adi-Buddha. It is believed that the sixth

sense of man emanated from him, while the other five organs of sense (sight, sound,

smell, taste, and touch) proceeded from the five Dhyani-Buddhas.Likewise the five colours, white, blue, yellow, red, and green, are believed

to emanate from the five Dhyani-Buddhas as well as five of the six elements of which

man is composed : earth, water, fire, air, and ether. The sixth element, variouslycalled wisdom, the soul, or the mind (manas), is claimed to be a particle of the essence

of Adi-Buddha.

The five Dhyani-Buddhas, with the direction where they are located, their corre-

sponding elements, senses, colours, oija, and Dhyani-Bodhisattva, are :

1

Hodgson, The Languages, Literature, and Re- 2 The group of five is the exoteric group. The

ligion of Nepal and Tibet, p. 28. sixth belongs to the esoteric system.

THE DHYANI-BUDDHAS 27

28 THE DHYANI-BUDDHAS

Celestial Buddhas in Japan also varies. One often finds : I, Yakushi (Bhaishajya-

guru) ; II, Taho (Prabhutaratna) ; III, Vairocana ; IV, Akshobhya ;and V, Amo-

ghasiddha or Sakya-muni. Yakushi is sometimes placed second and Jizo third.

Each Dhyani-Buddha possesses a iakti (female energy), who, if painted, takes his

special colour but in a paler tonality. When represented with his sakti, the Dhyani-Buddha is seated in the yab-yum attitude and is dressed like an Indian prince with

the thirteen Bodhisattva ornaments. The Dhyani-Buddhas are always crowned when

holding the iakti, and hence are called by the Tibetans the 'crowned Buddhas'.

Vajrasattva alone is always crowned, with or without his female energy. Schlagint-

weit, however, in his Atlas, gives the reproduction of a temple drawing where

Vajrasattva is represented as a Buddha, uncrowned and holding his iakti, but this is

practically unique.The heads of the Dhyani-Buddhas are often encircled by a nimbus, which, in the

most ancient form, was round ; but later examples, especially in Japan, were often

pointed at the top in the shape of the leaf of the Bodhi-tree under which the Buddha

attained Supreme Knowledge. The five Dhyani-Buddhas are represented in India in

the aura of a Dhyani-Bodhisattva when preaching the Law. 1 In the Mahavastu it is

written that when a Bodhisattva is about to preach the Law 'five thrones appear'.

In Tibet the five Dhyani-Buddhas surrounding the Dhyani-Bodhisattva are more

often found in paintings than in statues, but in Japan they are frequently found

in both. (PI. xiv.) In China there may be only three Dhyani-Buddhas in the

aura of a Bodhisattva. (v, PI. xxi, fig. b.)

In Nepal the Dhyani-Buddhas are represented in niches around the base of the

caitya.2

Amoghasiddha is enshrined in the North ; Batnasambhava in the South ;

Akshobhya in the East;Amitabha in the West. Vairocana is believed to be in the

interior, but if he is represented outside, his statue, according to Hodgson, is at the

right of Akshobhya. The sixth Dhyani-Buddha, Vajrasattva, is never represented in

statue form on the caitya.

Each Dhyani-Buddha has his own colour, mount (vahana), iakti, and mystic poseof the hands, taken from the mudra invented by the Gandhara and Indian schools

to symbolize certain events in the life of Gautama Buddha, whose ethereal form is

Amitabha.

Of the various groups of Dhyani-Buddhas, the five Celestial Jinas are alone

of interest to the student of iconography, being the Buddhas of the actual universe—the fourth world.

1v. illustration of Simhanada-LokesVara, A. Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, Partie II, p. 33.

2v. Glossary.

29

VAIROCANA1

(First Dhyani-Buddha)

(Buddha Supreme and Eternal).-1

,

(T.) rnam-par-snah-mdsad or rnam-snan (maker of Symbol : cakra (wheel).

brilliant light).Colour : white.

(M.) masi geiguliinjoqiaqH (maker of perfect light).Vahana: lion.

(C.) Pi-lo-che-na($fc ^ jjg %$),

&akti : VajradhatviSvarl (white).

/t\ n • i- » in x a \ Support: blue lotus.(J.) Dai-nichi Ayorai (Great Sun).

rr

As Adi-Buddha.Element: ether-

Mystic mudra, of the Six Elements *

(earth, water,

fire, air, ether, and wisdom). Dhyani-Buddha : Vairocana.

As Dhyani-Buddha. Dhyani-Bodhisattva : Samantabhadra.

Mudra : dharmacakra (teaching). Manushi-Buddha : Krakucchanda.

When the system of Adi-Buddha appeared in Nepal, certain Northern Buddhist

sects set up Vairocana as Adi-Buddha ; but, prior to this, he was worshipped as

the first of the five Dhyani-Buddhas of the actual universe, and is best known under

that form.

The Tibetan Northern Buddhists do not associate Vairocana 3 with the foundingof the Yoga system, but the Chinese and Japanese Buddhists of the Yogacarya

4 school

claim that he transmitted the doctrine directly to the Hindu sage Vajrasattva, who,

it is believed, lived in an Iron Tower in Southern India. They further claim that

Nagarjuna visited Vajrasattva in his Iron Tower 6 and learned from him the mysticdoctrine of the Mandala of the Two Parts 6

(Vajradhatu and Garbhadhatu), which he

transmitted to Nagabodhi, his disciple. Nagabodhi, in his turn, taught the doctrine

to Vajrabodhi, who transmitted it to Amoghavajra.In the year A. d. 720, Vajrabodhi, accompanied by his disciple, Amoghavajra,

introduced the Yoga system into China. After his death, Amoghavajra continued

the propagation of the Yoga doctrine by transmitting it to the Chinese scholar

Kei-kwa, who spread it to all the provinces of China.

Toward the end of the eighth century, the Japanese sage Kukai (Kobo Daishi) k.^

went to China to study the doctrine of the Yogacarya school with Kei-kwa (Jap.

Hiu-kio), and after being initiated into the most secret mysteries of the system,

carried it into Japan and founded the Shingon sect.

In India the Yogacarya school was grafted on to the Mahayana in the middle of

1

Lit., the Illuminator. Pro. Vairochana. gon sects were founded on the Yoga doctrine.

2 I use this term as I have been unable to find °v. Nagarjuna.

a Sanskrit or other name for this mudra. • The secret doctrine of the Two Parts forms the

aThey look upon Samantabhadra as the founder body and substance of the Yoga system (v. Vajra-

of the Yoga doctrine. dhatu).* In Japan the Hosso, Tendai, Kegon, and Shin-

30 THE DHYANI-BUDDHAS

the sixth century by Asanga,1 who claimed to be inspired by Maitreya from the

Tushita heaven. The doctrine was purely esoteric, and '

taught that by means

of mystic formularies (tantra) or litanies (dharani) or spells (mantra), the reciting

of which should be accompanied by music and certain distortions of the fingers

(mudra), a state of mental fixity might be reached, characterized by their being

neither thought, nor annihilation of thoughts, and consisting of sixfold bodily and

mental happiness (yogi), from which would result endowment with supernatural

miracle-working power.' (Eitel.)

The fundamental principle of the Yoga2system is the ecstatic union of the

individual with the Universal Spirit, and in Japan Vairocana is looked upon as the

highest vehicle of the mystic Union, which is called by the Japanese the'

action of

the Dainichi Nyorai '. The mudra ofVairocana indicate the mysticUnion. As Dhyani-Buddha he has the dharmacakra mudra (v. Glossary), which the Tibetans call Thabdong-

sJiesrab, or the Union of Wisdom with Matter. As AdiJ3uddha he has the mudra of

the Six Elements, which also indicates the same principle, and, although rare in

Tibet,3 is often found in Japan. The index finger of the left hand is clasped by

the five fingers of the right. The six fingers represent the Six Elements which,

when united, produce the '

sixfold bodily and mental happiness '. The five fingers

of the right hand represent the five material elements of which man is composed :

earth (little finger), water (ring finger), fire (middle finger), air (index), and ether

(thumb). The index finger of the left hand represents the flame-symbol of Adi-

Buddha, for the sixth element, the mind (manas), is a particle of his essence.

The two hands, thus representing the union of the Spiritual with the Material,

correspond with the Vajradhatu and Garbhadhatu of the Mandala 4 of the TwoParts. The Vajradhatu, represented by the index finger, is the ' diamond

'

element

corresponding to the spiritual world (v. Vajradhatu). The Garbhadhatu, indicated bythe five fingers, is the matrix element, corresponding to the material world.

The Shingon sect represents the ' Two Parts'

of

the Yoga Mandala by two diagrams. In the Vajra-dhatu diagram, Vairocana is the sun—the centre of

a planetary system around which revolve his manifes-

tations, the four Dhyani-Buddhas, as planets.5 It is

believed that '

in him as in a mighty sun all thingsvisible and invisible have their consummation and

absorption '. He is in fact the ' one Truth surrounded

E»^ by the four constituent elements '. (Lloyd.)

Vairocana is represented in the centre of the diagram. He is seated, dressed

*Mystic circle, v. PI. xvi and Bunyiu Nanjio,

A Short History of the Twelve Buddhist Sects ; A.

Lloyd, Developments of Japanese Buddhism.6 Dai-nichi Nyorai (Vairocana), Ashuku (Aksho-

bhya), Hosho (Ratnasambhava), Amida (Amitabha),

Fuku-jo-ju (Amoghasiddha).

West-

1

Lloyd places Asanga about A. d. 300. Prof.

Takakusu a. d. 445, and Griinwedel A. d. 550,

which is the usual date given.2 Derived from the Sanskrit root yuj, or ' union '.

3v. Tibetan statuette, Bacot collection, Musee

Guimet, Paris, No. 23. Japanese examples, v. PI. n,

fig. a, and PI. lxii, fig. d.

PLATE XV

a. Maitkeya b. Maitkeya

A -' ^Ji

VAIROCANA 31

like a Bodhisattva, with a crown and the traditional ornaments, and his hands are

in the mudrd of the Six Elements (see above). It is believed that from him proceededthe element ether (aka,6a),the organ of sight and all colours. The colour of Vairocana

is white.

In the centre of the diagram of the Garbhadhatu x is an eight-leaved lotus-flower

which represents the ' heart'

(hridaya) of beings. It is the solar matrix,' the

mysterious sanctuary to which the sun returns each

night to be re-born'

(v. Vajradhatu). Vairocana is repre-

sented in the centre, and is looked upon as the source

of all organic life—the ' heart'

of the lotus. (Accord-

ing to Hodgson,2 his symbol, the wheel, may be repre-

sented by the round top of the seed-vessel of the lotus,

in the centre of which is the Nepalese yin-yang3 around

which are eight seed-cells.) The eight petals around

the ' heart'

of the lotus represent the four Dhyani-Bodhisattva who have created the four worlds (the

fifth being yet to come), and their respective four

Dhyani-Buddhas, or spiritual fathers. Around the

eight-leaved lotus enclosure are twelve other enclo-

sures. In the centre of the Sarvajha enclosure, immediately above the eight-leaved

lotus enclosure, is a triangle resting on its base, which is the symbol of Adi-Dharma,

or Matter (v. trikona, tri-ratna, and v. PI. xvi).

Vairocana, seated in the heart of the lotus of the Garbhadhatu, is represented

like a Bodhisattva, with a crown and many ornaments. He is not, in the

Mandala, a simple Dhyani-Buddha, but the president of the Dhyani-Buddhas—

almost an Adi-Buddha (in which case he would also be represented like a Bodhi-

sattva). His hands are in his lap in dhyana mudra, balancing his special symbol, the

eight-spoked wheel.

The fundamental principle of the Yoga doctrine, the Union of the Spiritual

with the Material, is represented in Nepal and Tibet by the divinity and his &akti

(female energy) in the attitude called'

yab-yum '. The yah is the divinity repre-

senting the Vajradhatu, while the yum (the sakti) represents the Garbhadhatu. But

this crude representation of the union of Spirit and Matter, while it found favour

in Mongolia, highly displeased the more refined sense of the Chinese and Japanese,

and was never adopted in either country.4

They considered the mystic mudra of the

Six Elements as sufficiently representing the principle on which the Yoga school was

founded, and one finds many beautiful examples of Dai-nichi Nyorai in Japan,

expressing this principle with great dignity and much religious feeling,

The Shingon sect associates Vairocana with its funeral ceremonies. Lloyd says

1v. PI. xvi. 3

v. Glossary.2 Notice on Buddhist symbols, Journal of tlie

4 One finds examples in the Lamaist temple in

Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Peking, but carefully covered.

vol. xviii, Part II.

32 THE DHYANI-BUDDHAS

in his Shinran :

' When, prior to its removal to the Temple, the corpse has been

placed before a temporary altar in the house, on which stand the thirteen Buddhas l

whom the Shingon reverence, the priest commences the service with lustrations. . . .'

Then comes an invocation of the Being who represents to the Shingon the ' sum total

of the Universe ', who manifests himself to man through his five personified attri-

butes : earth, fire, water, air, and ether.

The five Dhyani-Buddhas are next invoked : Vairocana, Akshobhya, Ratnasam-

bhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddha, after which, Amitabha, as ' conductor of souls ',

accompanied by Kwannon and Seishi (Mahasthana-prapta) is invoked '

to come and

meet the soul in its passage from this world to the next '. Then follows an invocation

of Jizo (Kshitigarbha), also' conductor of souls ',

and of Fudo (Acala),'

championof the righteous '. When all these gods have been invoked,

' the celebrant at

last raises his heart to the invocation of Vairocana, the great Buddha '.

This ceremony shows that the Shingon sect worships Vairocana in his three

forms : as Buddha Supreme,2Dhyani-Buddha, and in his manifestation of Fudo,

the form which he takes to combat Evil, the flames about him symbolizing the

destruction of Evil.

The ' thirteen Buddhas'

invoked in the ceremony are Vairocana, his eleven

disciples, and his manifestation, Fudo, who are looked upon as' Guardians of the

spirits of the dead '. The Kegon sect worships a triad of Vairocana with Fugen and

Monju (Samantabhadra and Maiijusri). (v. Fudo.)In Nepal and Tibet the statues of Vairocana, either as Adi-Buddha or Dhyani-

Buddha, are extremely rare, but in Japan he is frequently found in statues and

paintings. As Adi-Buddha he is always represented in Tibet as a Bodhisattva and is

seated with his legs locked, his hands forming the mystic mudra of the Six

Elements ; or he may be represented holding his special symbol, the wheel, balanced

in his hands in dhyana mudra.

In Pander's Pantheon, illustration No. 76, there is the representation of a

deity with four heads, wearing a Bodhisattva crown, but called by Pander a '

Dhyani-Buddha '. He is seated, with his hands in dhyana-mudra, balancing a wheel surrounded

by flames. He is called kun-rigs, which means ' omniscient ', one of the qualities

of Vairocana, and may possibly be his Tibetan form as Adi-Buddha.

As Dhyani-Buddha he is represented in Tibet with the monastic garmentsand short, curly hair, the ushnlsha, urnd, and long-lobed ears. His hands are in

dharmacahra mudra, and his legs are closely locked. He is sometimes in company with

his Sakti, in which case he is dressed like a Bodhisattva and holds a wheel and a

bell. The sakti encircles his body with her legs, and holds a skull cup and a knife or

a wheel. If painted, Vairocana is white, and when with his sakti is seated on a

blue lotus.

The goddess Ushnlshavijaya holds in the hands, lying in her lap in dhyana mudra,

1

Illustration, PI. xvu. ' Adi-Buddha ',but Vairooana is nevertheless looked

' The Nepalese system of Adi-Buddha was not upon as the'

origin of all> even of the universe '.

adopted in Japan. There is no Japanese term for

PLATE XVI

Mandala (Garbhadhatu)

VAIROCANA 33

a vase which is believed to contain a particle of the essence of Vairocana—thus

symbolizing the Spiritual, enveloped by the Material—or the ' Two Parts ', Vajradhatuand Garbhadhatu.

The goddess MaricI has a small image of Vairocana in her head-dress.

In Japan, Vairocana (Dai-nichi Nyorai) is represented with the high head-dress of

the Japanese Bodhisattva, but is, however, dressed in the monastic garments of the

Japanese Buddhas, with the right shoulder bare and wears no ornaments. His hands

form the mystic mudra of the Six Elements (PI. n, fig. a, and PI. lxii, fig. d).

Mio-ken (Polar Star)l is worshipped in Japan under the form of Dai-nichi

Nyorai, who balances a wheel in his hands lying in dhyana mudra on his lap.

FUDO-MYO-0

Form of Dai-nichi Nyorai (Vairocana).

Symbols : khadga (sword). Colour : black.

paia (lasso). Distinctive mark : glory of flames.

Fudo, champion of the Righteous, is chief of the five Devas called niyo-o (malm

deva), and is believed in Japan to be a manifestation of the Dhyani-BuddhaVairocana, for the purpose of combating Evil. This form, however, so closely

resembles one of the Dharmapala forms of Vajrapani,2 that one cannot but believe

with Satow, that it is the Japanese manifestation of Acala rather than of Dai-nichi

Nyorai.His appearance is fierce and angry. He holds the sword in his right hand

to smite the guilty, and the lasso in his left to catch and bind the wicked. He may,however, have four arms and be standing on a dragon. Behind him is a gloryof flames, symbolizing the destruction of Evil (v. PI. liii, fig. d).

Fudo figures in the group of thirteen Buddhas (illustration, PL xvn) used in the

funereal ceremonies of the Shingon sect, and is believed to take charge of the

soul after death. The central Buddha at the top of the group is Dai-nichi Nyorai(Vairocana), while the figure surrounded by flames at the left of the lowest rowis Fudo, who is believed to meet the soul and look after it for the first week.

Sakya-muni for the 2nd week,

Monju (Manjusri) „ ,, 3rd „

1 ' The Polar Star was a type of the Eternal Churchward, Signs and Symbols ofPrimordial Man.because apparently it never changed with time. It It was called the '

Eye upon the mountain ', the

was the earliest type of Supreme Intelligence . . . radiating centre of light surmounting the triangle,which was unerring, just and true ... a point (v. trikona.)within the circle from which you could not err.'

2v. Vajrapani.

I

34 THE DHYANI-BUDDHAS

Fugen (Samantabhadra) for the 4th week,Jizo (Kshitigarbha) „ „ 5th „

Miroku (Maitreya) „ „ 6th

Yakushi (Bhaishajyaguru)1

,, „ 7th „

Kwannon (Avalokitesvara) for 100 days,Seishi (Mahasthanaprapta) ,, 1 year,Amida (Amitabha) „ 3 years,Ashaku (Akshobhya) „ 7 years.Kokuzo (Akiisagarbha) and Vairocana remain its guardians for ever. 2

AKSHOBHYA (second Dhyani-Buddha)

(The Immovable).3

(T.) mi-bskyod-pa (pro. mijod-pa) or mi-hklirugs-pa Colour : blue.

(pro. mintug-pa) (unagitated). Vahana : elephant.

(M.) iilii kiideliikli (without movement). Sakti : Locana (blue).

(C.) Pu-twng-fo (^ gj|j -J^).Element: air.

(J.) Ashuku. Dhyani-Buddha : Akshobhya.

Mudra: bhimisparsa (witness). Dhyani-Bodhisattva: Vajrapani.

Symbol : vajra (thunderbolt).Manushi-Buddha : Kanaka-muni.

Akshobhya is supposed to reside in a realm called Abhirati, the Eastern

Paradise, which, however, has never been so popular as the Western Paradise of

Amitabha.

It has been claimed by certain Buddhist sects that the Bodhisattva of Akshobhyais Vajrasattva, while others look upon Vajradhara as his spiritual son

; but, accord-

ing to the system of five Dhyani-Buddhas, his Dhyani-Bodhisattva is Vajrapani.

His worship extended to China and Japan, but Akshobhya was never popular to

the same extent as Vairocana or Amitabha. He is represented less frequentlyin statues than in religious paintings and mandala, where he is found in companywith the other Dhyani-Buddhas.

Akshobhya is represented seated, like all the Dhyani-Buddhas, with the legs

locked and both feet apparent. There are often wheels marked on the soles of

his feet, or a protuberance like a button, resembling the urna on the forehead.

His left hand lies on his lap in' meditation

'

mudra. His right touches the earth with

the tips of the outstretched fingers, the palm turned inward. This is called the

bhumisparsa or' witness

'

mudra, and is the same pose of the hands that the

Gandhara school gave to Gautama Buddha, when representing his invoking the Earth

1v. Mania (Chin. Yo-shi Fo), or the Healing

*Lloyd, Creed of Half Japan, p. 65.

Buddha, and Edkins, Chinese Buddhism, p. 235. 8 Or ' the undisturbed '.

PLATE XVII

The Thirteen Shin-gon Buddhas

34

AKSHOBHYA 35

to bear witness that he had resisted the temptation of the God of Evil, Mara

(v. PI. i).

The Hinayana Buddhists in Ceylon, Java, Burma, and Siam worship GautamaBuddha under this form, while those of the Mahayana school look upon it as

Akshobhya ; for, with but rare exceptions, the historic Buddha is only appealed to

by the Northern Buddhists in his ethereal form of Amitabha.

Akshobhya may also take in Tibet another form of Gautama Buddha called'

Vajrasana'

(diamond throne).1 The attitude is the same as the above, but before

him on the lotus throne lies a vajra, or it may be balanced in the palm of the

left hand lying in' meditation

'

mudra on his lap.

In St. Petersburg, according to Oldenburg, there is a unique representation of

Akshobhya with the vajra in the hand which holds the folds of his monastic

garment on the left shoulder.

A small image of Akshobhya is often in the head-dress of ManjusrI, Yamantaka,Tara, and Prajnaparamita.

In his yab-yum form he is crowned and presses his iakti to his breast, with armscrossed at her back, holding the vajra and bell. She holds the Icapala (skull-cup) and

vajra.

RATNASAMBHAVA 2(Third Dhyani-Buddha)

(Buddha of Precious Birth).

(T.) rin-byun (source of the treasure).

(M.) erdeni-in oron (the place of the jewel).

(C.) Pao-sheng-fo (|| ^ fi$).

(J.) Hosho.

Mudra : vara (charity).

Symbol : cintamani (magic jewel).

Colour: yellow.

Vahana : horse.

Sakti : Mamakj.

Support : yellow lotus.

Element : fire.

Dhyani-Buddha : Ratnasambhava.

Dhyani-Bodhisattva : Ratnapani.

Manushi-Buddha : Kasyapa.

Ratnasambhava, the third Dhyani-Buddha, seems to have been the least popularof all the five Dhyani-Buddhas. His statues are extremely rare, but one may come

across him in paintings.

He is represented seated, with his legs closely locked. His left hand, lying on

his lap, holds the cintamani (magic jewel), and his right is in vara (charity) mudra—the

arm is stretched downwards, the hand having all the fingers extended, and the palmis turned outwards. He has the ushnisha, urna, and long-lobed ears.

There may be a small image of Ratnasambhava in the head-dress of Jambala.

1v. Gautama Buddha and PI. n, fig. d.

2Ratna-sambhava,

'

the rource of precious (or holy) things '.

F 2

36 THE DHYANI-BUDDHAS

AMITABHA (Fourth Dhyani-Buddha)

(Buddha of Infinite Light).

(T.) hod-dpag-med (infinite light). Colour : red.

(M.) cagldasi iigei gereltii (he who is eternally Sakti : Pandara (rose).

brilliant). Element : water.

(C.) O-mi-t'o-fo (|Jpf tjff |$£ f$}). Dhyani-Buddha: Amitabha.

(J.) Amida. Dhyani-Bodhisattva : Avalokitesvara.

Mudra : dhyana (meditation). Manushi-Buddha : Sakya-muni.

Symbol : patra (begging-bowl).' Crowned '

form of Amitabha, without iakti-

Vilhana : peacock. Amitayus.

Amitabha is the fourth Dhyani-Buddha and the ethereal form of Sakya-muni.It is claimed by the Northern Buddhists that Gautama Buddha, before enteringinto Nirvana, transmitted to Sariputra (one of his favourite disciples) the dogmaof the Western Paradise (Sukhavati) over which presides Amitabha, Buddha of

Boundless Light, immortal, and bestowing immortality on the people of his

paradise.

Amitabha is only known in Northern Buddhism. His name does not appear in

the canons of the Hlnayana school, and his worship is unknown in Ceylon, Burma, and

Siam. Neither Fa-hian in the account of his travels in India (399-414) nor Hiuen-

tsang (629-45) mentions him, although both refer to Avalokitesvara and Manjusri.

The name of Amitabha first appears in a list of one thousand fictitious Buddhas

introduced by the Nepalese Mahayana school. The list so closely coincides with the

thousand Zarathustras of the Zoroastrians that Amitabha (in reality a sun-god)

and his Western Paradise are thought to have been evolved in Nepal, or Kashmir,

from Persian sources. His worship reached China at the same time as the Mahayanadoctrine of Dhyani-Buddhas and Bodhisattva, by the northern route, and it is

therefore believed that the birthplace of the worship of Amitabha was probablynorth of the Himalayas.

The description of Sukhavati,1 the Western Paradise ofAmitabha, varies according

to the imagination of the author. In the Saddharma pmidariha (Lotus of the Good

Law) it is written that women are debarred from Amitabha's paradise, but by acts of

merit may attain masculinity in the next world, and thus be eligible to the joys of

Sukhavati. The thirty-fifth vow of Amitabha, according to the Aparimitayus-sutra, is

as follows :

' If I become Buddha, all women in innumerable other Buddhist countries

shall hear my name and be filled with joy and gladness and dislike their womanhood,

desiring enlightenment. If they again resume the feminine form after death and

1v. Glossary.

AMITABHA 37

remain unsaved, I will not receive Buddhahood.' One finds, however, in other

Buddhist writings, reference to the inmates of the Western Paradise as sexless.

Amitabha is represented seated with his legs closely locked. His hands lie

on his lap, in dhyana (meditation) mudra, and hold the patra (begging-bowl). He has

the ushnlsha and urna and long-lobed ears (v. PI. xvill, fig. a).

He is sometimes represented with his sakti held in the yab-yum attitude, but his

manifestations in China and Japan are never with the female energy. In this form

he wears a crown and is dressed like a Bodhisattva. His arms are crossed behind

her back and hold the vajra and ghanta, while the sakti holds the skull and either the

grigug (chopper) or wheel.

A small image of Amitabha is in the head-dress of AvalokitesVara, or may be held

above the ten heads by two of his arms. He may also be in the head-dress of the

goddess Kurukulla.

Besides being Buddha of Boundless Light, Amitabha is Buddha of Boundless

Life,1 in his form of Amitayus, and of Boundless Compassion in his Bodhisattva form

of Avalokitesvara.

AMITAYUS (APAPJMITAYUS)

(Buddha of Eternal Life).

(T.) tse-dpag-med (eternal life). Mudra: dhyana (meditation).

(M.) ajusiovcaghlasi ilgei namtu(ha,xmg eternal life). Symbol : tse-bum (ambrosia vase).

(C.) Ch'ang sJteng-fo (Js ^ f$5)-Colour : bright red.

Amitayus (Dispenser of Long Life) is the name given to Amitabha in his

character of bestower of longevity, and the Tibetans, unlike the Chinese and

Japanese, never confuse the two forms.

The Lamaist ceremony for'

Obtaining Long Life'

is a curious mixture of

Buddhism and demon-worship, and takes place in Tibet at stated intervals with

much pomp. According to Waddell,' in the preliminary worship, the pills are made

from buttered dough and the ambrosia (amrita) is brewed from spirit or beer and offered

in a skull-bowl to the great image of Amitayus '. The Lama then places a vajra on the

ambrosia vase, which the image of Amitayus holds in its lap, and applies a cord,

which is attached to the vajra, to his own heart.'

Thus, through the string, as by a

telegraph wire, passes the divine spirit, and the Lama must mentally conceive that

his heart is in actual communion with that of the god Amitayus.'2

The wine in the tsd-bum, or ambrosia vase, is then consecrated, and the people

partake of it, as well as of the sacred pills, with the firm conviction that their

1v. PI. xv, fig. d.

2Waddell, Lamaism, p. 445.

38 THE DHYANI-BUDDHAS

lives will be prolonged through their faith in Amitayus. He is, therefore, a very

popular divinity, and one sees many of his images and paintings in Tibet.

Amitayus may be termed either a ' crowned Buddha',

or a Bodhisattva,

and is therefore richly clad and wears the thirteen ornaments. His hair is painted blue

and falls on either side to his elbows, or may be curiously coiled. He is seated l like a

Buddha, and his hands lie on his lap in dhyana (meditation) mudra, holding the

ambrosia vase, his special emblem. The vase is richly decorated, and from the cover

fall four strings of beads, which represent the sacred pills quoted above;and from this

cover often sprouts a tiny a§oJca-tvee (tree of Consolation, v. Vajradhatu). (v.

PI. in, fig. a ; PI. xv, fig. d ; PI. xvm, figs, c and d; PL xix, fig. I.)

Amitayus never holds a sakti, or female energy, nor has he a consort.

He is often found in a triad between Manjusri and Vajrapani. The presence of

Vajrapani in company with Amitayus might be accounted for by the fact that

the Buddhas put him in charge of the Water of Life, which they had procured by

churning the ocean with the mountain Sumeru. 2

In China and Japan Amitayus is worshipped under the usual form of Amitabha.

O-MI-TO FO

(Chinese Buddha of Boundless Light).

The first Amitabha sutra is supposed to have been brought from Nepal or

Kashmir into China by a Buddhist priest, about a.' d. 147 ; but the doctrine of

Amitabha made no headway until the fourth century A. D., when an exoteric

sect called the ' Lotus School'

(Lien Tsung), more commonly called the ' Pure Land

School', was founded. In the next century an Amitabha sutra was translated

into Chinese by Kumarajiva ; and Amidai'sm then began to spread so rapidly that the

Confucianists took alarm—the result of which was a heated controversy between the

literati of both sides as to the relative merits of Buddhism and Confucianism.

The Chinese had never been able to understand the Indian conception of

Nirvana. Ancestor worship was a universal custom in China. It found its way even

into the Buddhist monasteries,3 where ancestral tablets were set up dedicated to

members of the community who had died in sanctity.

The great teachers, philosophers, moralists, were themselves ancestor worshippers,and while they would not accept the Indian doctrine of complete annihilation

after death, they as greatly disapproved of the doctrine of immortality in Amitabha's

paradise. They avoided as much as possible discussing the problem of life after

1 Statues of Amitayus standing are very rare.2

v. Vajrapani.3

Edkins, Chinese Buddhism.

PLATE XVIII

a. Am ir>A b. Amida

c. Amitayus d. Amitayus

0-MI-TO FO 39

death, preferring to teach men how to live. They claimed that an act of merit with

hope of ultimate recompense was no real act of merit. The Northern Buddhist reply

was that no man would till his field without ultimate hope of harvest.

The common people understood nothing of the controversy. They were Tao'ists,

and Taoism, indigenous to China, promised life hereafter in glowing colours. The

step from Taoism to Amidaism was easy enough, with its promise of paradise, and

faith in O-mi-to Fo was not difficult, when he was flanked by the popular god

(or goddess) Kwan-yin on the left (place of honour in China) and Ta-shi-chi on the

right.1 Thus Amitabha became the object of much veneration in China.

The Chinese representations of Amitabha resemble the Southern Buddhist

images of Buddha, with short, curly hair, long-lobed ears, the ushnisha, the urnd, and

the half-closed eyes indicating deep meditation (the eyes and features are always

Indian, not Mongolian). He is seated with closely locked legs, and his hands are

against his breast with the tips of the index fingers touching and pointing upwards,while the other fingers are locked. This mudra in India indicates Buddha as' Liberator of the Nagas ',

and in Japan is the mystic gesture of the Ba-to Kwannon.

It is said to be emblematical of the lotus-flower.

There is another form of O-mi-to Fo sometimes seen in China. He is standing,

his arms abnormally long, and is called Chien-yin Fo, or the ' Buddha who guides into

Paradise '.

AMIDA NYORAI

(Japanese Buddha of Infinite Light).

Amitabha was pronounced incarnate in the great Sun god Amaterasu 2by

Kobo Daishi in the ninth century a.d., but the actual worship of Amida in Japandoes not date further back than the twelfth century.

The Jodo-shu (Pure Land Sect) was founded by Gen-kou a.d. 1175 on the

doctrines of the Amitayurdhyana sutra. Towards the thirteenth century another

Amida sect, the Shin-shu, was founded by the great Shin-ran, and Amidaism, with its

dogma of the Western Paradise and salvation through faith in Amida, became so

popular that these two sects alone constituted more than half the Buddhist

population of Japan.Amida is looked upon as the One Original Buddha (Ichi-butsu), without begin-

ning and without end, besides whom there is none other. He is the ' Father of the

World ', and all the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are temporary manifestations of him,

but is he the creator ? Here the Amida sects disagree. They call him the '

Supreme

1 Avalokiteivara and Mahasthanaprapta.2

According to A. Lloyd, Creed of Half Japan, p. 201, goddess identified with Vairocana.

40 THE DHYANI-BUDDHAS

Buddha', although the doctrine of Adi-Buddha, as evolved in Nepal, does not appearto have been adopted by the Japanese Mahayanists.

The Amida sects claim, however, that Amida revealed himself in Nepal as Adi-

Buddha, and that when Nagarjunax went there to worship the Adi-Buddha, he

became acquainted with the Bodhisattva Mahanaga, who taught him the doctrine of

faith in Amida. When Nagarjuna was sufficiently enlightened, Mahanaga conducted

him to the Dragon Palace under the sea, where he received further instruction, and

was then given the treatise on which the Amida doctrine is founded.

According to Mr. A. Lloyd, the Amida sects claim that Amida ' revealed himself

many times in a long list of Tathagata, of which Sakya-muni was the last manifesta-

tion '. He is believed to have two special qualities, Mercy and Wisdom, which are

personified by Kwan-non (Avalokita), god of Mercy, and Dai-sei-shi (Mahasthana-

prapta), who is the spiritual manifestation of the wisdom of Amida, and these two,

with Amida, form a trinity. According to Lloyd, they 'are at once distinct in

Person and one in Essence, and bear a striking resemblance to the unity of Three

Persons in our Christian Trinity '.

Amida is represented like the Amitabha of Northern Buddhism with the excep-

tion that, while he wears the usual monastic garments, both shoulders are covered,

the breast partly bare. If sitting, the legs are closely locked, the soles of the feet

turned upward. The hands may be forming the dharmacakra mudra, but are usually

both lying in the lap in dhyana mudra, differing, however, from the Indian pose. The

palms are held upward with all the fingers locked underneath, except the indexes,

which touch the tips of the thumbs with their tips (the second joints of the indexes

against each other), thus forming two '

triangular'

poses.2

The eyes are almost closed in deep meditation, and the features with the

long-lobed ears are Indian.

1v. Nagarjuna.

2v. Glossary for vitarka and dhyana-rnudra, Illus. PI. xviii, fig. b, and PI. lvii.

PLATE XIX

41

AMOGHASIDDHA (Fifth Dhyani-Buddha)

(Buddha of Infallible Magic).

(T.) don-grub. Vahana : shen-shang (dwarf).

(J.) Fukujo-ju. Sakti : Tara.

Mudra : abhaya (protecting). Support : blue-green lotus.

Symbol : viiva-vajra (double thunderbolt). Element : earth.

Colour: green.

Amoghasiddha, the fifth Dhyani-Buddha, is believed to be '

unfailingly success-

ful'

and to have the power of infallible magic. He is seated in' adamantine

'

pose

(legs closely locked, with the soles of the feet apparent). The left hand lies in his

lap, with the palm upwards, and may balance the double thunderbolt, or hold a

sword. The right hand is lifted in abhaya mudra(' blessing of Fearlessness

'),a pose

of the hands indicating protection. All the fingers are extended upwards, palmoutwards.

At Touen-houang (or, more exactly, in the Chinese province of Kantsu) a statue

of Amoghasiddha* was discovered by the Pelliot mission, with the right hand in

abhaya and the left in vara (charity) mudra. The right shoulder is bare, and he is

seated in European fashion like his Manushi-Buddha, Maitreya.

1Amoghasiddha, lit unfailingly successful, according to E. Denison Ross, Memoirs of the Asiatic Society

of Bengal,

G

*

42

THE DHYANI-BODHISATTVA

Table IV

Groupof

Samantabhadra.

Dhyani-Bodhisattva.

Vajrapani.

Ratnapani.Five. U Avalokite&vara

V Vi&vapani.

Groupof

Eight.

Avalokite^vara.

Akasagarbha.

Vajrapani.

Kshitigarbha . .

Sarva-nlvarana-

vishkambhin.

Maitreya.1

Samantabhadra.

Manju^ri.

Mahastbanaprapta.

Trailokyavijay a.

I. Kwan-shi-yin.II. Kwan-non.

III. Legend of Miao-Chen.

IV. Haritl.

I. Ti-tsang.

II. Jizo.

v. The Buddhas.

43

THE DHYANI-BODHISATTVA 1

(S AMBHOG A-K AYA)

(He whose essence is Perfect Knowledge).

According to the Northern Buddhist school, there are both mortal and celestial

Bodhisattva.

A mortal Bodhisattva is one who has manifested himself on earth in human

(manushi) form, in a series of incarnations, until such a time as he has acquiredsufficient merit and enlightenment (bodhi-jnana) to receive Buddha-hood.

Like Gautama Buddha in his incarnation of the arhat Sumedha,2 the Bodhisattva

may have been, in a former re-birth, an arhat 3 bent on his own salvation who,

becoming inspired with the desire for Bodhi in order to save mankind, renounced his

arhat-ship.

It is unusual, however, according to M. de la Vallee Poussin,4 for the future

Bodhisattva to have been an arhat. In the first stage, he usually becomes a candidate

for Bodhisattva-hood by the practice of the six Paramitas, or Transcendent Virtues

through which he is to accumulate merit.

The second stage of the Bodhisattva is reached when he becomes conscious of the

desire for Buddha-hood. This illumination is called' Bodhi-chitta \ 5 The aspirant,

now aware of his wish for Bodhi, must make the vow that he will re-enter, or continue

to remain in, the world of suffering for the sole purpose of saving mankind.

This, the Great Vow of the Bodhisattva, however, does not make the aspirant

a Bodhisattva. It is only when he enters on the Path of Bodhi that he reaches the

third stage, at which he becomes a Bodhisattva.

But in order to reach the ultimate goal of Buddha-hood, it is necessary for the

Bodhisattva, in one of his incarnations, to meet the reigning Buddha of that kalpa,

or epoch, and acquaint him with his desire for Buddha-hood. The Tathagata will

then look forward through the future re-births of the Bodhisattva and announce his

eventual triumph.The Bodhisattva, now aware of his future Buddha-hood, enters on a stage

' from

wbich there is no return '. He must practise the ten Paramitas which makea Buddha, and continue to accumulate merit in his different re-births, always bearingin mind that his sole aim in becoming a Tathagata is to save all creatures from

suffering.

When the future Buddha has reached the last stage of Bodhisattva-hood, and

resides in the Tushita heaven, he is free to decide whether he will pass through the

Bodhi (knowledge), sattva (essence).

v. The Dlpankara Buddha.

v. Arhat.

*

Hastings's Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics,' The Bodhisattva ', vol. ii.

5 Bodhi (knowledge), chitta (thought or aspiration).

G2

44 THE DHYANI-BODHISATTVA

intermediary stages of the thirteen Bodhisattva heavens x to reach Nirvana, or will

descend to earth and become a mortal Buddha, after which he will enter directly

into Nirvana.

The only Manushi-Bodhisattva that is met with in Buddhist art is Maitreya,

who has two representations : as Bodhisattva, his present form in the Tushita heaven,

and as Buddha, the form he will take when he descends to earth as Manushi-Buddha.

(PI. xv, figs, a and b.)All the other Bodhisattva representations are of Dhyani-

Bodhisattva.

The Dhyani-Bodhisattva is celestial and is the second '

body'

(kaya) in the

Tri-kaya or Northern Buddhist Trinity.2 He is believed to dwell in the Rupadhatu

heaven in the body of absolute completeness (Sambhoga-kaya), in a state of ' reflected

spirituality ', that is to say, that it is in this form that the Dharma-kaya (Dhyani-

Buddha) reveals himself to the Bodhisattva or future Buddhas in the Tushita heaven.

Although, according to the Buddhist writings, the name is legion, there are compara-

tively few Dhyani-Bodhisattva represented in Buddhist art, and these may be divided

into two groups—of five and of eight.

The five Dhyani-Bodhisattva correspond with the five Dhyani-Buddhas and

differ in many respects from the other celestial Bodhisattva. They are : Samanta-

bhadra, Vajrapani, Ratnapani, AvalokitesVara, and Visvapani.Those belonging to the group of eight are found in Northern Buddhist temples

on either side of an important divinity. The gods on the right are : AvalokitesVara,

Akasagarbha, Vajrapani, and Kshitigarbha, while on the left are : Sarva-nivarana-

vishkambhin, Maitreya, Samantabhadra, and Manjugrl.Each Dhyani-Bodhisattva in the group of five is evolved, according to the

system, by his Dhyani-Buddha. He is a reflex, an emanation from him;in other

words, his spiritual son. Certain Northern Buddhist sects that interlink the dogmasof the Tri-kaya and the Tri-ratna 3 look upon the Dhyani-Bodhisattva as the active

creator, Sahgha, product of the union of Buddha (mind) and Dharma (matter).

According to the system of Adi-Buddha, the Dhyani-Bodhisattva receives the active

power of creation from Adi-Buddha through the medium of his spiritual father, the

Dhyani-Buddha.The Dhyani-Bodhisattva of this group of five have a definite place in the

Mahayana system and for a special purpose, that is, to evolve, each in his turn, from

his own essence, a material and perishable world over which he is to preside until the

advent of the Manushi-Buddha of his cycle. At the death of his mortal Buddha, he

must continue the work of the propagation of Buddhism until his successor creates

a new world.

Three of the Dhyani-Bodhisattva have created worlds, and are now engrossed in

worshipping Adi-Buddha, or, according to some, have been absorbed into Nirvana.

The present wrorld is the fourth, and there is the fifth yet to come.

1 In India, ten bhuvana. Buddha).a

Dharma-kaya, Sambhoga-kaya, Nirmana-kayas Or ' Three Jewels ', Buddha, Dharma, Sarigha.

(Dhyani-Buddha, Dhyani-Bodhisattva, Manushi- v. Tri-ratna.

THE DHYANI-BODHISATTVA 45

The first world was created by Samantabhadra (Dhyani-Bodhisattva). His

spiritual father Vairocana (Dhyani-Buddha) manifested himself on earth in the form

of Manushi-Buddha, Krakucchanda. In the same way we have :

The second world.

Dhyani-Bodhisattva : Vajrapani.

Dhyani-Buddha : Akshobhya.Manushi-Buddha : Kanaka-Muni.

The third world.

Dhyani-Bodhisattva : Batnapani.

Dhyani-Buddha : Batnasambhava.

Manushi-Buddha : Kasyapa.

The fourth world is the present one, created by AvalokitesVara (Dhyani-Bodhi-

sattva). His spiritual father, Amitabha (Dhyani-Buddha), manifested himself on

earth in the form of Gautama-Buddha, Sakya-muni. The Northern Buddhists believe

that AvalokitesVara continues the work that Gautama Buddha began, and, in order

to do so, incarnates himself in each successive Dalai-Lama of Lhassa.

Five thousand years after the death of Gautama Buddha, Maitreya will appearas Manushi-Buddha in the fifth world, which will be created by VisVapani (fifth

Dhyani-Bodhisattva), who dwells in the Bupadhatu heaven waiting for the fifth cycle,

when he will receive active power of creation and evolve the fifth world.

The Dhyani-Bodhisattva is represented dressed in princely garments and wearingthe thirteen precious ornaments, which are : a five-leaved crown, an ear-ring, a closely-

fitting necklace, an armlet, a wristlet, a bracelet, an anklet, a shawl for the lower

limbs and one for the upper ; a garland reaching to the thigh and another to the

navel ; a girdle, and a sash. In the central leaf of the five-leaved crown is usually

a small image of his Dhyani-Buddha or spiritual father. The hair is drawn up in

mitre shape, forming the ushnisha, and may be decorated with jewels. He generallyhas the urna on the forehead.

If the Dhyani-Bodhisattva is in a sanctuary with his Dhyani-Buddha he is

always standing, but is represented seated when in his own chapel.

The first Dhyani-Bodhisattva mentioned in the Buddhist scriptures is ManjusYI,

personification of Wisdom. The second is AvalokitesVara, personifying Mercy, while

the third is Vajrapani, bearer of the thunderbolt (vajra), personifying Power. These

three form a very popular triad—the first triad in Northern Buddhism.

The Dhyani-Bodhisattva may be in company with their Sakti in yab-yum attitude,

as well as the Dhyani-Buddhas, who, in that case, are represented like the Bodhisattva

and are called ' crowned Buddhas'.

The Chinese claim four Dhyani-Bodhisattva : Ti-tsang (Kshitigarbha), who

presides over the earth ; Kwan-yin (AvalokitesVara) ,who presides over water and

symbolizes Mercy ; Pu'hien (Samantabhadra), who presides over fire and symbolizes

Happiness ; Wen-shu (Manjusrl), who presides over ether and symbolizes Wisdom.

These are also practically the only Bodhisattva popular in Japan. The Bodhi-

sattva in both China and Japan may be either dressed like a Buddha with only the

high and complicated ushnisha, indicating his rank, or richly dressed and wearing

many ornaments, which, however, do not correspond to the traditional thirteen

ornaments quoted above, (v. Kwan-yin and Kwan-non.)

46

SAMANTABHADRA (First Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

(Universal Kindness).

(T.) kun-tu bzan-po (kind toall).

(M.) qamugha sain (all goodness).

(C.) Fu Men (^ |^).(J.) Fu-gen.

Mudra : vitarka (argument).vara (charity).

Symbol : cintamani (magic jewel).

Colour: green.

Emblem : utpala (blue lotus).

Vahana : elephant.

Dhyani-Bodhisattva of the first Dhyani-Buddha,

Vairocana.

Samantabhadra was looked upon, among the ancient Northern Buddhist sects, as

Highest Intelligence, a primordial Buddha ; but his popularity diminished when the

two great sects, the Kar-gya-pa (Red Bonnets) and Ge-lug-pa (Yellow Bonnets), set

up Vajradhara as Adi-Buddha.

Certain of the Yogacarya sects claim that Samantabhadra, instead of Vairocana

(his Dhyani-Buddha), was the founder of the Yoga system, and look upon him as

divinity of Religious Ecstasy. He is the special divine patron of those who practise

Hokke"sammai (ecstatic meditation).Samantabhadra is the first Dhyani-Bodhisattva corresponding with the five

celestial Jinas, or Dhyani-Buddhas, and is one of the group of eight Dhyani-Bodhisattva found in Northern Buddhist temples. He is represented with the

five-leaved crown, the ornaments and princely garments of the Bodhisattva, and holds

his symbol, the cintamani, in his left hand, or it may be supported by a blue lotus

at his left shoulder. The right hand makes vitarka mudra : the hand raised—the

thumb and index touching at the tips forming the '

triangular pose '. He maybe either seated or standing ; and is sometimes with his sakti in the yab-yumattitude.

When in the group of eight Bodhisattva, he is standing with his hands in

'

argument' and '

charity'

mudra, holding the stems of lotus-flowers which support his

special symbol, the cintamani, at the right, and an accessory symbol, the vajra, at the

left.

In Japan one finds Samantabhadra (Fu-gen) at the right of Amitabha in a

triad with Manjusri, seated on an elephant and holding a lotus-flower. The elephant

may be crouching, but is more usually standing, and may have three heads or

one head with six tusks (the more usual form). As Kongosatta is sometimes

represented supported by an elephant with three heads, he is often confused with

Fu-gen (v. Kongosatta).

In China the triad of Pu-hien (Samantabhadra) with Amitabha and Manjusri is

also popular. He is practically never represented alone, and is always on an elephantand usually holds a scroll (v. PI. xxxiv, fig. a). The place of pilgrimage of Pu'hien is

on Mount Omi (Wo-mei shan) in the province of Si-ch'wen, where, in one of the

monasteries, there is a very fine bronze statue of the god, seated on an elephant.

PLATE XX

Dogmatic form of Avalokitesvara

47

FOKMS OF VAJRAPANI

Table VA. Human form :

I. Symbol : vajra (thunderbolt) . . . Dhyani'Bodhisattva.

II. Symbols: vajra, sometimes third eye.j Acarya-Vajrapani

ghanta (bell).(Dharmapala).*

"

paSa (lasso), I

B. Other forms

I. One head,

four arms.

Symbols : vajra.

Treads on personage lying Nilambara-Vajrapani (Yi-dam).

on snakes-

Symbols : vajra.

[I. Three heads, Holds snakes.

six arms. Treads on Brahma and Siva

Form : yab-yum.

Mahacakra-Vajrapani (Yi-dam).

III. Four heads, f

Symb°ls : **"&! ^°^paia (lasso)

Acala-Vajrapani.vajra (thunderbolt)

Treads on demons-

four arms,

four legs.

IV. Form with head, wings, and claws like Garuda.

1v. Dharmapala.

av. Yi-dam.

48

VAJRAPANI (Second Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

(Thunderbolt-bearer) .

God of Rain.

(T.) p'yag-na rdo-rje (pro. tchagdor) (holding the 4 Dhyani-Bodhisattva of the second Dhyani-Buddha

thunderbolt). Akshobhya.

(M.) vaiiirbani (corruption of Vajrapani) or modur Dharmapala (Drag-ched) forms.

taghan vaSirtu (with a thunderbolt in his hand). Symbols : vajra.

(C.) Ssu-kin-kang (|7E| ^ $\\),khadga (sword).

(J.) Kongo.1 paia (lasso).

Symbol : vajra (thunderbolt). ghanta (bell).

Colour : blue (dark).Distinctive marks : serpent.

Emblem : utpala (blue lotus).small garuda (mythical bird).

Sakti : Sujata. One of both groups of five and eight Dhyani-Mantra : Om, Vajrapani, hum ! Bodhisattva.

Corresponds with the Brahmanical god Indra.

Vajrapani is both the ferocious emanation of Vajradhara and the spiritual reflex,

the Dhyani-Bodhisattva, of Akshobhya ;

2 but in the early Buddhist legends, whenmentioned as accompanying Gautama Buddha, he is referred to as a minor deity. In

fact, according to certain accounts, he lived in the Trayastrimsa heaven as kingof the devas.

Griinwedel identifies Vajrapani with 6akra or Indra, the Indian god of Bain.

In the Buddhist records, Sakra is mentioned as being present at the birth of the

Tathagata3 and as assisting at his flight from the palace. In the incident of the

return of Sakya-muni from Kapilavastu, however, Vajrapani is referred to as multiply-

ing himself into eight devas to escort him, while the ' divine Sakra, with a multitude

of devas belonging to Kamaloka, took their place on the left hand '.

Hiuen-tsang mentions Vajrapani as being with the Tathagata when he subdued

the gigantic snake in Udyana. It is also related that when the Nagas (serpent gods)

appeared before the Buddha to listen to his teachings, Vajrapani was charged by the

Tathagata to guard them from the attacks of their mortal enemies, the garudas* and

that, in order to deceive and combat the garudas, Vajrapani assumed a form with head,

wings, and claws like the garudas themselves. At the Parinirvana of the Buddha it

is recorded that '

letting fall his diamond sceptre5 in despair, he rolled himself in the

dust '.

1v. Ni-o.

sGriinwedel, Buddhistische Kunst (English trans-

2

Hodgson, however, calls him the ' aeon of Vajra- lation), p. 90.

sattva Buddha '.* A mythical bird of gigantic size.

*vajra.

PLATE XXI

a. AVALOKITESVARA 1), AVALOKITESVARA

C. AVALOKITESVARA d. AVALOKITESVARA

VAJRAPANI . 49

The Nagas are believed to control the rain-clouds, hence Vajrapani, as their

protector, is looked upon as the Rain God, and it is to him the Northern Buddhists

appeal when rain is needed, or is too abundant.

Vajrapani is rarely seen in statues alone, but often in a triad with Amitayus(or Manjusrl) and Padmapani. One finds him in religious paintings and in the

miniatures of Nepalese books, where he is either at the left of the Dipankara Buddhaor at the right of Tara. He is represented holding the vajra and standing with

his legs crossed. 1 This detail is of especial interest in identifying the personage in the

Gandhara sculptures who often accompanies Gautama Buddha, holding an object in

his right hand which may be the primitive form of the vajra,2 and whose legs are some-

times crossed. This same personage, holding the primitive vajra, was also found in the

frescoes 3 discovered by Herr von Le Coq in Chinese Turkestan, as well as a Vajrapani

carrying a most ornate thunderbolt.

The non-Tantra Bodhisattva form of Vajrapani is very rare. In Pander's

Pantheon he is represented seated with the legs locked, balancing the vajra on

his hands lying in' meditation

'

mudra on his lap, but he may be also making'

witness'

(bhumisparsa) mudra, the vajra being balanced in the palm of his left hand on his lap.4

In the collection of Mr. Gustave Schlumberger there is a Vajrapani brandishing the

vajra in his right hand while his left is in vitarka mudra.

Besides being the protector of the Nagas against the Garudas, Vajrapani is

the implacable enemy of the demons, the reason for which is explained in the followingBuddhist legend/' Once upon a time the Buddhas all met together on the topof Mount Meru (Sumeru) to deliberate upon the best means of procuring the Waterof Life (amrita) which lies concealed at the bottom of the ocean.

The evil demons were' in possession of the powerful poison, Hala-hala, and usingit to bring destruction on mankind. In order to procure the antidote, they decided

to churn the ocean with the Mount Meru. When the amrita had risen to the surface

of the water, they put it in the keeping of Vajrapani, until they should decide on the

best means of using it ; but Vajrapani left the Elixir of Life a moment unguarded and

the monster, Rahu, stole it. Then followed a fearful struggle for the possession of

the amrita. Rahu was conquered in the end, but the Water of Life had been defiled;

and the Buddhas, to punish Vajrapani, forced him to drink it, whereupon he becamedark blue from the poison mixed with the amrita.

This legend seems to explain the presence of Vajrapani as guardian of the Elixir

of Life in a triad with Amitayus, who holds the ambrosia vase, and Padmapani,who carries a kalasa (ewer of amrita).

Vajrapani is the second Dhyani-Bodhisattva corresponding to the five Celestial

Jinas. He is also one of the group of eight Dhyani-Bodhisattva found in the

1

Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, p. 121. represented balancing the vajra in his left hand2

v. Vajra. lying in his lap. He is painted white instead of3 Now in the Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin. blue.* In one of the miniatures in the MS. Add. 1643 6

Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet.

in the University Library, Cambridge, Vajrapani is

1586 TJ

50 ..FORMS OF VAJRAPANI

Northern Buddhist temples, in which case he is represented standing, with the vajra

and ghanta supported by lotus-flowers, the stems of which he holds in his hands

in'

charity'

and '

argument'

mudra.

He has several ferocious (Dharmapala) forms, assumed to combat the various

demons. The most important of these forms are :

Vajrapdni-Acdrya (Dharmapala) .

He is represented in human form, with his dishevelled hair standing on end and

wearing a skull crown. His expression is angry, and he has the third eye. Around

his neck is a serpent necklace, and at his waist a belt of heads, underneath which is a

tiger skin. He steps to the right, and in his uplifted hand is a vajra. If painted, he

is dark blue, and is generally surrounded by flames in which are small Garudas.

Nilambara-Vajrapani (Yi-dam).

He has one head, a third eye, a skull crown, with sometimes a vajra, and snake

in his dishevelled hair, and has four or six arms. Two hands are held at his breast in

a mystic mudra, and the second right arm is uplifted holding the vajra. He steps

to the right on a crowned personage*

lying on a bed of serpents.

Acala- Vajrapani (Dharmapala).

He has four heads, four arms as well as four legs, and his symbols are vajra, sword,

lasso, and skull-cup (kapala). He treads on demons.

Mahdcakra- Vajrapani (Yi-dam).

He has three heads with the third eye, six arms, and two legs. He is paintedblue—the head at the right is white, at the left red. His symbols are the vajra and

a long serpent, and he holds his yum with the two original arms. The sakti holds

a kapala (skull-cup) and grigug (chopper). He steps to the right on Brahma and his

left foot treads on Siva.

Garuda form.

He is usually standing and has the wings and claws of a Garuda (PI. lix, fig. c).

He may have a human head with a beak, or a head like a Garuda. He sometimes

carries a sword and a gourd-shaped bottle, or his two hands may be in'

prayermudra. 2

1 Grunwedel suggests that it is Siva, Mythologie du Bouddhisme, p. 164.

2 Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin.

PLATE XXII

AvALOKITESVARA WITH TWELVE EMANATIONS

50

52

THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF AVALOKITESVARATable VI

I. Avalokitesvara. Mudra : namahkdra (devotional).

Symbol : rosary and pink lotus.

II. Padmapani. Mudra : vara (charity).

Symbols : vase and lotus.

Distinctive mark : Amitabha in crown.

III. Avalokita as Buddha. 1

IV. Avalokitesvara. Simhanada (on roaring lion).

Distinctive mark : crescent in hair.

V. Nilakantharyavalokitesvara.

VI. Trailokyavasamkara-Lokesvara.VII. Harihariharivahanodbhava.

Onehead.

I. Humanform.

II. Humanform with

emanations.

III. Four

arms.

I. Avalokitesvara with emanations of twelve ' crowned'

Buddhas.

Symbol : lotus.

II. Simhanada-Lokesvara with emanations of five Buddhas.

I. Form incarnate in the Dalai Lama.

Mudra : namahkdra.

Symbols : lotus, vase, rosary or mudras.

II. Upper hands : mudra namahkdra.

Lower hands : mudra dhydna (meditation) holding pdtra

(begging-bowl).III. Mudra : dharmacakra (turning the wheel of the law).

IV. Rakta-Lokesvara.

IV. Ten to < I. Ten arms—anjali mudra—holding Tard.

eighteen arms.(

II. Padmanartesvara.

V. Dogmatic form of Avalokitesvara—twelve arms.

VI. Six to twenty arms. Amoghapasa. Mudra : namahkdra or

dharmacakra.

Special emblem : pdsa (lasso).

Symbols : rosary, lotus, bow, &c.

1 A. Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, p. 94.

THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF AVALOKITESVARA 53

Three

heads.

Five

heads.

Eleven]heads.

|

I. Third eye, four arms. Mudra : vara.

Symbols : rosary, padma, bow and arrow.

II. Halahala-Lokesvara.

I. Mayajalakramaryavalokitesvara.

Third eye—twelve arms.

II. Third eye, twenty-four arms. Mudra : anjali (salutation).

namahkara.

dhyana.

I. Six to eight arms. Mudra : namahkara.

One pair of arms raised in anjali mudra, holdingAmitabha image.

I. 1,000 armed (if eyes in palms'

1,000 eyes').

Symbols : rosary, lotus, kalasa, &c.

Mudra : dJiarmacakra or namahkara.

II. 1,000 armed—two upper hands hold sword and shield—steps to right

on serpent.1

III.'

22,000'

arms radiating from entire body.Chinese form Kwan-shi'-yin.

Japanese form Kwan-non.

1Difficult to determine (Illus. PI. xxiii, fig. b).

54

AVALOKITE^VARA (Fourth Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

Lit. avalokita (looking on), isvara (lord).

[The lord that looks down from on high.]1

(T.) spyan-ras-gzigs (pro. tc/ten-re-si) (with a pity-

ing look).

(M.) nidiiberujukci (lit' he who looks with the

eyes') or qonksim-bodhisattva (the smiling

Bodhisattva).

(C.) Kwanshi-yin (|

J.) Kwan-non.

Mudra : namahkara (prayer).

m)-

Symbols : mala (rosary).

padma (pink lotus).

Colour : white [in Nepal, red !

],

Consort : Tara.

Mantra : Om, mani padme, hum !

Vlja mantra : Hri !

Fourth Dhyani-Buddha : Amitabha.

Dhyani-Bodhisattva : AvalokitesVara.

Manushi-Buddha : Sakya-Muni.

In the Mani Kambum 3it is related that ' once upon a time, Amitabha, after giving

himself up to earnest meditation, caused a white ray of light to issue from his right

eye, which brought Padmapani (Avalokita) Bodhisattva into existence '. It goes on

to say that Amitabha blessed him, whereupon the Bodhisattva brought forth the

prayer :

'

Om, mani padme, hum t'

' Oh ! the jewel (of creation) is in the lotus !

' 4

(Beal).

Avalokitesvara is thus the reflex or spiritual son of Amitabha, and, as the

personification of Power, the All-pitying One, he is the most popular divinity in

the Mahayana or Northern Buddhist Pantheon, and is the object of much veneration

in Nepal and Tibet. In fact, his worship still extends northward to Lake Baikal and

from the Caucasus eastward to Japan.It is not known how early the worship of Avalokita existed in India. His name

is mentioned in the Suvarnaprabha-sutra, which dates before the Christian era,

and Kasyapa Matanga5 discoursed on this siltra in India before introducing Buddhism

into China, in the first century A. d. In Northern India his worship became populartoward the third century, and reached its climax in the seventh century. Fa-hian and

1

According to the Tibetans,' the lord who looks ',

but European scholars give' the lord of what we

see ',

' the revealed lord ',

' the lord whom we see',

or ' the lord with compassionate glances '.

2 Avalokitelvara usually takes the colour of his

spiritual father Amitabha (red) in Nepal. A.

Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, p. 99.3 A Tibetan historical work attributed to the

Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gam-po.

4

According to Hodgson the correct translation

is :

' the mystic triform is in him of the jewel and

lotus !

'

v. Om.6

Kasyapa Matanga is sometimes confounded with

Kasyapa Buddha. He returned with the Emperor

Mingti's mission to China A. d. 67, and is believed

to have been one of the first disciples of Gautama

Buddha in a previous incarnation.

AVALOKITE&VABA 55

Hiuen-tsang speak of him with much reverence in the accounts of their travels

in India.

Toward the eighth century the Mahayana school began to lose ground in India,

and by the twelfth had practically disappeared, with the result that the very name

of Avalokitesvara is at present almost unknown south of the Himalayas.His worship was introduced into Tibet in the middle of the seventh century,

when he was proclaimed by the Buddhist priests incarnate in the king Srong-tsan-

gam-po. He soon became the most popular of all the Northern Buddhist gods,

being looked upon as a representative of Buddha, and guardian of the Buddhist faith

until Maitreya should appear on earth as Manushi Buddha.

Another reason for his popularity is that he is believed to have created the fourth

world, which is the actual universe, and he is therefore our creator.

The worship of Avalokitesvara was introduced into China toward the end of the

first century a. d., where he was called Kwan-yin ; and penetrated into Japan in the

beginning of the seventh century, where he was worshipped as Kwan-non.

Avalokita, who plays an important part in some of the sutras, was endowed

by the Northern Buddhists with innumerable virtues. Sakya-muni himself, accordingto the Mahayanarsutra, acquainted the Bodhisattva Maitreya and Sarva-nivarana-

vishkambhin with the perfections of Avalokita, and with the miracles he accomplishedwhen he descended into hell to convert the wicked, deliver them and transport themto Sukhavati—paradise of Amitabha. Among other miracles, he relates how he

himself was saved by the Bodhisattva, and recounts the legend of Simhala,1 of

his shipwreck off Tamradvipa, of the beautiful women who were in reality Rakshasas,2

who tempted him, and of the miraculous horse that appeared on the sea-shore

and carried him away in safety. He ends by saying that he, Buddha, was Simhala,

and that the miraculous horse was Avalokita. 3

The figure of Avalokita was generally placed on a hill-top (which may account

for his being called' the lord that looks down from on high '), and, according to Beal,

is probably a relic or revival of the old worship of the hill-gods. Hiuen-tsang speaksof him as manifesting himself on Mount Potala in Southern India. Eitel claims that

he was first heard of at Potala,4 at the mouth of the Indus, the reputed home of the

ancestors of Sakya-muni ;but his chief sanctuary is on Mount Potala at Lhassa,

' on

the top of which towers the residence of the Dalai-Lama, in whom and whose

successors Avalokita is supposed to be incarnate.' (Eitel.)

Avalokitesvara is in reality a kind of pope'

existing eternally in the heavens as

a vicar of one of the Buddhas of the present age, but delegating his functions to a

succession of earthly popes in whom he is perpetually incarnated and reincarnated,

while at the same time preserving his personality in his own heaven '.

Buddhist legend claims that he manifested himself 333 times on earth for

the purpose of saving mankind, and that all the manifestations were human, with

1v. Burnouf, Introduction, p. 199. as a white horse.

2 Demons who devour men. *Eitel, Three Lectures on Buddhism.

*

According to Beal, Avalokita is often spoken of

56 THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF AVALOKITESVARA

the exception of the miraculous horse KeSi, and masculine, with the exception of the

female forms of Kwan-yin in China and Kwan-non in Japan. He is supposed to have

been incarnate in the Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gam-po, as well as in every successive

Dalai-Lama, and is the principal tutelary deity of Tibet. He is worshipped in

a triad with Manjusri, God of Wisdom, and Vajrapani, God of Power, on either

side.

Although his first representations in India resembled Brahma, with the hands in

the Brahmanjali mudra (devotional attitude), his functions were those of Vishnu—Preserver and Defender. But he also has much in common with Siva, for the colour

of both is white, and Avalokita may carry the trident with a serpent coiled about it—Siva's symbol.

Avalokitesvara is sometimes represented with five heads (v. PI. xxm, fig. d), in

which case he resembles Siva as Mahadeva with five heads ;

1 but his form with more

than one head has usually double that number, with the head of Amitabha on top,

making eleven heads in all. He is often represented in yab-yum attitude with

his SaJcti, but there are examples where he holds the yum on his knee in archaic

manner, as Siva holds Parvatl.

In his earliest form he is represented with one head and two arms, and either

sitting or standing. His hands may be in'

prayer'

mudra, or the right in5

charity' and the left in'

argument' mudra. His most popular non-Tantra form is

Padmapani.In the earliest representations of Avalokita, the hair is drawn up in a high

ushnisha, but in later images he wears the five-leaved crown, in the centre leaf of

which is usually a small image of his spiritual father Amitabha. In the paintings,

however, according to M. Foucher, the image is usually omitted, and, if standing, the

left hand is almost invariably in vara (charity) mudra. 2

Although Avalokitesvara is more popular than Manjusri, he is the second

Bodhisattva mentioned in the Buddhist Scriptures, while Manjusri is the first.

1v. Moor, The Hindu Pantheon, PL xv.

2 A. Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, p. 98,

PLATE XXIII

a. AVALOKITESVARA b. AVALOKITESVARA (?)

C AVALOKITESVARA (AmOGHAPASa) (1. AVALOKITESVARA

56

57

SIMHANADA-AVALOKITESVARA (or Simhanada-Lokesvara)

(The Lord with the voice of a Mon).

Symbols : padma (lotus).

khadga (sword).

kapala (skull-cup).

tridula (trident).

Colour : white.

Simhanada-Lokesvara is a non-Tantra form of Avalokitesvara invoked to cure

leprosy. Northern Buddhists claim that the first success of Lamaism among the

Mongols was due to the cure of a leprous king by means of the Simhanada-sadhana. 1

The title' Simhanada

'

means ' with the voice of a lion', and was also applied to

Sakya-muni and ManjusYi. Griinwedel believes that it may have reference to an

ancient legend in which the roaring of a lion awakened still-born babes to life.2

In this form, Avalokitesvara is seated sideways on a roaring lion that is generally

crouching, with the head always turned upward toward the god. According to the

sadhana, the god should be seated on a lotus which is supported by a lion, but he is

often seated on a cushion instead of on the lotus-throne.

In this Simhanada form, Avalokita is represented in his manifestation of Padma-

pani with one head and two arms. He wears all the Bodhisattva ornaments with a

small image of Amitabha in the five-leaved crown. But the crown may be omitted, in

which case his hair is drawn up into a mitre-shaped ushnisha elaborately decorated

with jewels, and on the left side of the head-dress is usually a half moon. Over the

left shoulder there may be an antelope skin. (v. PI. xxxv, fig. d.) The right leg is

either pendent (in which case the right hand is in'

charity'

mudra) or is in the

attitude called '

royal ease ', with the right knee raised and the right arm hanging

loosely over the knee, the hand sometimes holding a rosary. In the latter attitude

the left hand leans, behind the left knee, on the cushion (or lotus-throne), and holds

the stem of a lotus-flower, which either supports a kapala (skull-cup) out of which rises

a sword, or the sword rises directly from the lotus-flower. 3 In the latter case, the

kapala filled with flowers is at his left side, but is often missing. Behind the right

arm may rise a trident, around which is coiled a cobra,4 but this also may be missing.

In the bas-relief examples in Northern India there are usually emanations of the five

Dhyani-Buddhas.5

1v. Sadhana.

i

Mythologie bouddhique, p. 130. According to

Theobaldus in his Physiologus, when a lion is born

it lies for three days as if dead and is then awakened

to life by the roarings of its sire, the lion.

3v. Waddell, Journal of the Royal Asiatic

Society, Jan. 1894, PI. i.

4 A. Foucher, Iconograj>hie bouddhique, Partie

II, illust., p. 33.

6v. The Dhyani-Buddhas, and PI. xiv.

58 THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF AVALOKITESVARA

The Simhanada-Lokesvara seems to unite the form of Avalokita and Manjusrl—

the idea evidently borrowed from an ancient Brahman custom, but although the

sword, the pose, and the support indicate Manjusri, the god is undoubtedly

Padmapani, according to all the authorities.

Avalokitesvara is represented as Simhanada in a simpler form, but is always

a Lokesvara (or Lokanatha), a prince wearing rich garments and many jewels. In

this form he is seated on the lion support with his hands at his breast in namahkara

mudra (devotional attitude). His hair is drawn up on his head in a high ushnlsha,

mitre-shaped. His symbol, the rosary, is supported by a lotus-flower on a level with

his right shoulder.

PADMAPANI (Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

(Lotus-bearer)

(Non-Tantra form of Avalokitesvara).

(J.) SJw Kwan-non. Colour : white [in Nepal, red],

Mudra : vitarka (argument) and vara (charity). Distinctive mark : small image of his Dhyani-

Special symbols : padma (lotus). Buddha, Amitabha, in his crown.

kalasa (vase).

Padmapani is a non-Tantra form of Avalokitesvara, and is supposed to create all

animate things by command of his Dhyani-Buddha, Amitabha. According to the

system of Adi-Buddha, he received from the Adi-Buddha, through the medium of

his spiritual father, Amitabha, the active power of creation, of which the lotus he holds

in his hand is the symbol.1

He is supposed to have created the actual world, which is the fourth, and

according to Hodgson, to have produced'

Brahma, for creating ; Vishnu, for preserving;Mahesa (Siva), for destroying'.

2

After the death of Gautama Buddha, Padmapani is believed to have undertaken

the work of propagation of Buddhism, until the creation of the fifth world by Visva-

pani, and it is probably for this reason that he is extremely popular in Tibet, and

especially so in Japan, under the name of Sho Kwan-non. 3 He is also said to be the

favourite deity of the Nagas (serpent gods).

Padmapani is represented as a slight, graceful youth, and, being a Dhyani-

Bodhisattva, is dressed like an Indian prince with many ornaments. His hair is

drawn up in a mitre-shaped ushntsha behind the five-leaved crown, in which is a small

image of Amitabha (his distinctive mark), but the crown may be missing, especially

in the paintings.

In his earliest form he held the lotus-flower (his special symbol) indicated by his

1v. Padma, 2

v, Padmapani, with twelve emanations.

PLATE XXIV

AVALOKITESVARA '

22,000 ARMS '

58

PADMAPANI 59

name ;but in later representations the vase was added. The lotus-flower, however,

was seldom represented in the vase, as in China and Japan.

According to his mantra,'

Om, mani padme, hum ! ', he should carry a jewel ; but

such examples are very rare in Tibet, while in both China and Japan the cintamani

often figures as an accessory symbol carried by the Tantra forms of Avalokitesvara,

and the jewel and lotus are held as principal symbols by the Nyo-i-rin Kwan-non

(when with six arms).

Padmapani is generally represented standing, with his hands in '

argument'

and'

charity'

mudra. The left hand in '. vara'

mudra holds either the stem of a lotus-

flower or the vase. When in the group of eight Bodhisattva, Padmapani holds the

stems of two lotus-flowers which support the vase and a rosary (symbol of Avalo-

kitesvara). When the vase is supported it usually has a spout like the libation

kalasa used in the Buddhist ceremonies. When carried in the hand it is held at

the neck, and is round in shape if Indian, and oval or pointed if of the Gandhara

school.1

Padmapani may have an antelope skin over his left shoulder, and in this form, if

the small image of Amitabha is missing from his crown and he holds the vase, he

resembles a form of Maitreya, whose symbol is also the kalas"a. (v. Maitreya.)

In Ceylon small bronze figures of Padmapani have been found, considered to be

between the sixth and ninth centuries, where he is represented seated in the attitude

called'

royal ease'

(rajallld) with the right or left foot pendent. The right hand maybe in vitarka, abhaya, or vara mudra, while the left, behind the left knee, rests on the

throne, and usually holds the stem of a full-blown lotus-flower at the left shoulder

(PL xxi, fig. d). This form is also found in China (PL xxi, fig. b), and closely resembles

the Maharajalila-ManjusrI, the difference being that he carries the full-blown rose lotus

(padma) instead of the blue lotus with the petals closed (utpal), and has a small imageof his Dhyani-Buddha in his head-dress, which is unusual in the images of Maiijusri.

a

He sometimes accompanies the Dipankara Buddha, but he may himself have

assistants to the number of four. In the latter case, the green Tara is always at his

right, and he is accompanied by Prajnaparamita (or Marlci) and the yellow Tara, as

well as by the god Hayagrlva. Padmapani is also sometimes found in a triad with

Manjusri and Vajrapani.In the Lamaist temple pictures he is white, while in the Nepalese paintings,

according to M. Foucher, he is red, and the small image of Amitabha in his crown is

generally omitted.

Another form of Padmapani, seldom seen except in temple paintings, is called

! Defender of the Eight Dreads '.3 He is without the lotus and is painted white. In

the museum at Colombo there is an image of Padmapani, with a kalasa above the

forehead, in front of the ushnisha.

1v. Kalasa. of the Royal 'Asiatic Society of Great Britain and

1Illustration, A. Foucher, Iconographie bond- Ireland, April, 1909.

dhique, Partie II, p. 43, and A. Coomaraswamy,3 This form may be the origin of the Pa-nan or

'

Mabayaua Buddhist Images from Ceylon ', Journal'

Kwan-yin of the Eight Sufferings '.

I 2

60 THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF AVALOKITESVARA

PADMAPANI

with emanations of twelve Bodhisattva (or' crowned

'

Buddhas?).

The bronze statue with emanations oftwelve Bodhisattva (PI. xxn) is, as far as the

author knows, unique. It was purchased at Darjeeling, where, however, it was impos-

sible to find any one who could give a satisfactory interpretation of its significance.

The difficulty in determining the signification of the Bodhisattva (or are they' crowned

' Buddhas ?) that emanate from the ushnisha, urna, ears, mouth, heart, navel,

hands, and feet of the Padmapani form of Avalokitesvara is that there are no

symbols or distinguishing mudra. There are, however, several hypotheses which seem

to explain, to a certain extent, the bronze.

1. Does it correspond with the eleven-headed form of Avalokitesvara ?

The two emanations from the feet might be identified as Vishnu and Siva, for it

was often the custom of the Northern Buddhists to represent Brahma, Vishnu, and

Siva at the feet of their gods. (PI. xxiv.)The ten Bodhisattva thus left are most difficult to identify, but may possibly

correspond with the ten heads of Aryavalokitesvara, whose normal head is counted as

the eleventh.

If we accept the hypothesis that the form of Padmapani with the ten emanations

corresponds with the Arya Pala form of Avalokitesvara, the upper' crowned

' Buddha

emanating from the ushnisha would be his Dhyani-Buddha, and the one underneath

issuing from the urna the Manushi-Buddha. There still remain eight Bodhisattva to

identify.

The lower emanation on the left, issuing from the heart, has every appearanceof being his consort, the white Tara. The second, from the top to the left, with

a musical instrument, resembles SarasvatI ; and the third, with the left leg pendent,is possibly the green Tara. The rest seem impossible to identify. We know from

the sadhana x that there was a form of Padmapani called' PadmanartesVara ', seated

on an eight-petalled lotus, on each petal of which was a goddess, Tara, Bhrikuti, &c.

Are then these eight emanations goddesses ?

2. Does it represent the '

vital breaths'

?

Ten of the twelve emanations might represent' the ten vital breaths

'

(the five

organs of sense and the five material elements, earth, water, fire, air, and ether, of

which man is composed). The eleventh emanation would then be the sixth sense

which proceeded from the Dhyani-Buddha, and is indicated in the bronze by the

divinity above the forehead. The twelfth emanation would be the sixth element,

the mind (manas), which is believed to be a particle of the essence of Adi-Buddha, and

1 A. Foucher, Iconoyraphie buvddhique, Paitie II, p. 37.

PADMAPANI 61

would be represented by the divinity emanating from the ushnisha and placed above

the Dhyani-Buddha.3. Does it represent the creation of the fourth world by Padmapani ?

In the Karanda-Vyuha it is written that Padmapani, at the command of

Adi-Buddha, produced, by the virtue of three gunas (active principles), Brahma,creator of devas and human beings ; Vishnu, preserver ;

and Maha Deva, (Siva),

I

destroyer. From the Bodhisattva also emanated Vayu, the air ; Prithivi, the earth ;

Varuna, the water on which the earth was believed to rest ; Indra, who brought rain ;

Surya, the sun ; and Candra, the moon, whose rays fructified the earth. Added to

these was Sarasvati, goddess of music and poetry, and Lakshmi, goddess of beauty.Yama was also among the devas, to punish sin ; for although from Brahma emanated

virtue, from Siva proceeded evil.

In a passage in the Karanda- Vyuha these deities are made to proceed from the

body of Padmapani, and they are twelve in number.

In the Guna-Karanda Vyuha is the following passage :

' From between his

(Padmapani's) shoulders sprang Brahma;from his two eyes, the sun and the moon ;

from his mouth, the air ; from his teeth, Sarasvati ; from his belly, Varuna ;from his

knees, Lakshmi ; from his feet, the earth ; from his navel, water ; from the roots of

his hair, the Indras and devatas.' 1

In the bronze the emanation from the shoulders has three heads ;but the fourth,

not showing behind the heads, may possibly have been omitted by the artist, in which

case one could identify the Bodhisattva with Brahma.

The deva emanating from the right foot and holding a mountain over the head

may be easily identified with Prithivi, the earth, and the emanation from the teeth

with Sarasvati holding her lute. The deva with the serpent over the head, proceedingfrom the left foot, is evidently Varuna, water, but in the text Varuna proceeds from

the navel.

None of the other emanations have anything to identify them either by way of

a symbol or a mudra, so that if we accept the hypothesis that the bronze representsthe passage quoted above, we must look upon the emanation from the ushnisha as

Indra ; from the forehead, as Siva ;from the eyes, Surya and Candra ; from the

mouth (to the right), Vayu ; from the left knee, Lakshmi ; and from the emanation

between Sarasvati and Lakshmi (which may possibly proceed from the navel, althoughthe bronze does not clearly indicate it), Yama.

Among the Nepalese paintings from the collection of B. H. Hodgson in the

Library of the Institut de France, there is a temple painting representing Padmapani

(red) with eleven emanations, which closely follows the above text with the exceptionthat in his crown is a small image of Amitabha, in place of the twelfth emanation from

the ushnisha in the bronze. The painting is divided into three loka : celestial, terres-

trial, and the underworld. From each finger of the right hand of Padmapani is an

emanation (?) that is located in the third loka and is, according to M. Foucher,

Hodgson, The Languages, Literature, and Religions of Nepal and Tibet, p. 88.

62 THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF AVALOKITESVARA

a preta} These five personages, which are also represented in the pedestal of the

bronze, resemble Germanic gnomes.None of the hypotheses apply absolutely to the bronze, possibly because the

artist did not follow tradition in every detail, and also, very probably, because

the correct interpretation has not yet been found.

AVALOKITESVARA

Tantra form.

The first Tantra form ofAvalokita appeared in Northern India after the foundingof the Tantra school by Asahga about the middle of the sixth century a. d., and

differs from the non-Tantra form in that there are four arms instead of two. The godis represented dressed in princely garments, with many ornaments. The hair is drawn

up on the head, mitre-shaped, like the non-Tantra form, and the ushnlsha is often

surmounted by a flaming pearl. There is generally a small image of his spiritual

father, Amitabha, in his head-dress, especially when, later, the five-leaved Bodhisattva

crown was added. The god is represented seated with the legs closely locked,

and with the two original hands either against his breast in namahkara (prayer)

mudra, resembling the attitude of Brahma, when repeating the Vedas, or in dharma-

cakra mudra (PI. xxi, fig. c). The hands, however, may clasp a jewel, symbolical of the

mani (jewel) in his mantra :

'

Om, mani padme, hum !' 2 or hold a conch-shell, but these

forms are very rare. The other two hands hold the rosary, and either the lotus or

book. It is this form that is supposed to be incarnate in the Dalai-Lama at Lhassa.

There is another form with one head and four arms, but standing. The upperarms are against the breast in namahkara mudra, the lower are in dhyana mudra and

hold the patra (begging-bowl) (v. PI. xxi, fig. a).

In the Bacot Collection at the Musee Guimet thex-e is a small copper-gilt statue

of Avalokitesvara with one head and ten arms. The upper arms are raised, the

hands in anjali (salutation) mudra, over the head, and hold a small image which should

be his Dhyani-Buddha, but in this case resembles his sakti, Tara. It cannot be

Amitabha, as catalogued, for a part of the hair is drawn up into a mitre-shaped

ushnlsha, while the rest hangs down the back, indicating a Bodhisattva. The right

hand is in'

argument ', the left in'

charity'

mudra. Against the right shoulder is a

flowering branch. The left is pendent, indicating the green Tara.

1

Catalogue des Peintures nepalaises et tibetaines versity Library, Cambridge, where the ambrosia

de la collection B. H. Hodgson a la BibliolKegue de flows directly from his finger-tips into the mouths

Vlnstitutde France, p. 26. According to M. Foucher, of personages or animals, v. PI. iv, no. 28, Foucher,

the pretas are receiving ambrosia from the finger- Iconographie bouddhique.

tips of Padmapani, and there are three illustrations 5v. Bacot Collection, Musee Guimet, Paris,

of this in the Nepalese MS. Add. 1643 in the Uni-

AVALOKITESVARA 63

Avalokitesvara may have four heads and twenty-four arms. There is a head on

either side of the central head, and above them is a head of Buddha, which may be his

Manushi-Buddha, Sakya-muni, for he holds his Dhyani-Buddha, Amitabha, over

his heads by his upper arms, in anjali mudra (PI. xxni, fig. d).

There are many variations of these different Tantra forms of Avalokitesvara, and

one of them, called Amoghapaia, holas a special emblem, the pasa (lasso). He has one

head and from six to eight arms, and besides his special symbol, the lasso, he holds the

rosary, trident, ewer, &c, and may wear a tiger-skin. He is sometimes accompanied

by the green Tara, Sudhana-Kumara, Hayagriva, and Bhrikutl.

There is another form of Amoghapaia, with one head and twenty arms, which is

seated (PI. xxiii, fig. c). The normal arms are against his breast, in namahkdra mudra ;

the arms underneath lie on the lap, the right hand holding the lasso, the left

the rosary. The two upper hands are close to the head and hold cymbals, the next

pair holds lotus-buds, the next vajra and ghantd, and all the rest hold various symbols

belonging to Avalokitesvara.

The Dogmatic Form of Avalokitesvara (PI. xx).

In this form he has one head, twelve arms, and is seated with the legs

firmly locked. He wears all the Bodhisattva ornaments, and his ushmsha, behind the

five-leaved crown, is surmounted by a half vajra, above which the hands of the

uppermost pair of arms make the ' lotus'

mudra. The author has been unable to

find the Sanksrit name of this gesture, and will designate it as the padma mudra,1

which is made in the following manner : the middle and index fingers are stretched

upward and touch at the tips ; the ring and little fingers are locked (finger-tips

underneath) ; the thumbs are upright and pressed against each other. -

The hands of the next two pairs of arms hang over the shoulders, in vitarka mudra,

and, from their position, evidently held symbols—

presumably the rosary and lotus-

flower. The hands of the original arms are in abhaya mudra.

The hands of the arms directly underneath are in' lotus

'

mudra, with, however, a

slight variation, which is, that the indexes do not touch at the tips but are slightly

bent, and the tips press against the middle fingers.2 The position of the hands is

reversed, that is to say, that the indexes and middle fingers are stretched downward

instead of upward, and the tips of the latter descend into the vase held by the hands

underneath, in dhyana mudra. This position is most unusual and represents the

dominant principle of the Yogacharya school : the Mystic Union. The hands, in

'

lotus'

mudra, symbolize the Vajradhatu, and the vase the Garbhadhatu—the union of

the Spiritual and the Material or the Two Parts (v. Glossary—

Vajra, Vajradhatu,

Garbhadhatu).

1 Called by the Japanese renge-no-in (v. Glossary) the symbol of Adi-Buddha. This mudra (with the

or the ' mudra of the lotus '. v. PI. lxiv. fingers upright) is used by the Japanese priests in

2 The middle fingers symbolize the element fire, Buddhist ceremonies, and is called by them' nirvana'

and in this position represent the flame which is mudra.

64 THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF AVALOKITE&VARA

ARYAVALOKITE&VARA (Arya-Pala)

(Eleven-headed).

(T.) hp'ags-j>a spyan-ras-gzigs (the sublime (divinity Mudra : namahkara (prayer).

of) penetrating (and) charming vision). Colour : white (but may be yellow).

(M.) ariabalo (corruption of the Sanskrit). Distinctive mark : eleven heads.

(J.) Ju-ichi-rnen (eleven-headed) Kwan-non.

Avalokitesvara, in his manifestation with eleven heads, is samantamukha or the'

all-sided one'—the god who looks in every direction to save all creatures.

There are several versions of the legend explaining his eleven heads, but they all

resolve themselves into the following : Avalokitesvara, the All-Pitying One, descended

into hell, converted the wicked, liberated them, and conducted them to Sukhavati, the

paradise of his spiritual father, Amitabha.

He discovered, however, to his dismay, that for every culprit converted

and liberated, another instantly took his place, and legend claims that his head

split into ten pieces from grief and despair on discovering the extent of wickedness in

the world, and the utter hopelessness of saving all mankind. Amitabha caused each

piece to become a head and placed the heads on the body of his spiritual son,

Avalokitesvara, in three tiers of three, with the tenth head on top and his own imageabove them all. Thus, the '

On-looking Lord' was endowed with twenty-two eyes

instead of two, to see all suffering, and eleven brains instead of one, to concentrate on

the best means of saving mankind.

Monier Williams claims that the three tiers of heads indicate that Avalokitesvara

looks down on the three worlds : world of desire, world of true form, and world of no

form. According to Eitel, the three groups of heads represent the triad Avalokita,

ManjuSri, and Vajrapani, for in this form of Arya-Pala he always carries a book and a

thunderbolt, symbols of ManjuSri and Vajrapani. Statues were found in the Magadhawhich combine these three gods,

1 and there are descriptions of this form in the

Nepalese sddhana, where the Simhanadalokesvara is mentioned as being seated on

a lion with the sword (Manjusri's symbol) on a lotus at his left, and a tw/ra-shaped

trident, around which is coiled a snake, at his right, indicating Vajrapani. The

form is, however, looked upon as Avalokitesvara. Griffis claims that these three

gods were originally one divinity, and that the qualities attributed to this deity

of Mercy, Wisdom, and Force were personified later in the forms of Avalokitesvara,

Manjusrl, and Vajrapani.But the signification of the eleven heads may go back further than the Buddhist

legend. We have seen that Avalokita has much in common with Siva, who is

a development of the Vedic god Rudra.

In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad there is reference to a group of eleven Rudras

1Foucher. Iconographie bouddhiqice, vol. ii, illustr., p. 33.

PLATE XXV

a. Padmapani b, KwAN-NON

c. Padmapani d. Padmapani

ARYAVALOKITESVARA 65

which represent the ' ten vital breaths with the heart as the eleventh'

(Dawson).This seems to correspond with the ten heads of Arya-Pala, with his spiritual father,

Amitabha, as the eleventh.

In the Vishnu Purana there is also a description which applies closely to the Arya-Pala form : Rudra is born from a wrinkle in the forehead of Brahma, separatesinto male and female, and multiplies into eleven persons,

' some of which are

white and gentle and others black and furious '.* These are evidently the eleven

Rudras quoted above, and correspond with the painted forms of Arya-Pala, for the

first row of heads of Aryavalokitesvara are white and of a sweet expression,the second row are yellow and smiling, while the third row are dark blue and of

angry expression. The tenth head and the head of Amitabha are calm in expression,but there are examples of the Bodhisattva in which only the tenth head shows

anger.

Aryavalokitesvara may have from six to '

22,000'

arms approximately. The

original ones, in most of the examples, are against the breast, the hands usually

making the devotional mudra, but they may also be in dharmacakra mudra (turningthe Wheel of the Law), and below them are hands in dhyana mudra, sometimes holdingan ambrosia vase. The other hands hold the rosary, wheel, &c. The upper arms maybe raised above the head, in anjali (salutation) mudra, holding the image of Amitabha

over the ten heads. This form has usually twenty-two arms (PI. xxin, fig. a).

Avalokitesvara with eleven heads is sometimes represented with thousands

of arms, which radiate around him, forming an aura ; but the original pair is alwaysat his breast, in

'

prayer'

or '

teaching'

mudra, and several of the hands hold his

special symbols. If there is an eye on the palm of each hand, he is called ' of'

22,000 eyes ', which means that the eyes of Avalokita are ever on the outlook for

those in distress and carry with them a succouring hand. The various symbols he

may carry are : book, vase, jewel, vajra, begging-bowl, wheel, &c, and one of

the hands is usually making vara (charity) mudra. Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva are

sometimes represented at the feet of the Bodhisattva (PL xxiv).An image of Aryavalokitesvara, belonging to M. Deniker, has many arms radiating,

even from the legs.

Forms of Avalokitesvara from Sadhana. 2

I. Avalokita as a Buddha is seated, legs closely locked, hands in dhyana-mudra.He is white, has the urna, but not the ushnisha, and his monastic garment is red. 3

According to the sadhana, it is his Chinese manifestation, Kwan-yin.II. Simhanada-Lokesvara. He is white, and has one head and three eyes. He

is seated in the attitude called '

royal ease ', with the right knee raised, on a roaring

lion, and has a tiger-skin covering. In his crown is a small image of Amitabha. Five

1

Dawson, Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mytho-s The sramana of the White Horse Temple, at

logy. Loh-yang, China, wore red robes during the Han1 A. Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique. v. Sd- dynasty. Parker, Studies in Chinese Religion,

dhana.

66 THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF AVALOKITESVARA

Buddhas emanate from him. He has two arms. The left hand, resting on the throne,

holds the stem of a lotus, from which rises a sword (Manjusrl's emblem). The right

arm rests on his right knee, and behind it is a trident around which is coiled

a snake.

III. Nllakantharyavalokites>ara. Human form seated on an antelope-skin on

a red lotusi In his head-dress is a small image of Amitabha. His hands are in

dhyana-mudra, holding a skull of jewels. He wears the Brahmanical chord, and his

covering is a tiger-skin. He has no jewels. His colour is yellow and his throat is

blue. 1

IV. Trailokyava6ankara-Lokes>ara. Human form with third eye. Is seated on

a red lotus, a Vindienne, and holds the lasso with a half vajra at each end and

an elephant goad. His colour is red.

V. Harihariharivahanobdhava-Lokesvara-Avalokita is seated on Vishnu, who is

seated on Garuda, who is supported by a lion. 2

VI. Rakta-LokesVara. He has one head and four arms, and is represented

seated under an aSoJca-tree. His symbols are : lasso, elephant, goad, bow, arrow.

His colour is red.

VII. PadmanartesVara. He may be human, or have eighteen arms. His normal

ones embrace his fakti. He is seated on a lotus with eight petals, with a divinity on

each petal—Tara, Bhrikuti, &c. If he has eighteen arms, he has only four assistants,

among which are Hayagrlva.VIII. MayajalakramaryavalokitesVara, or 'he that passes through the net of

illusion '. He has five heads, each with a third eye. The two on the right are

white and red, the two on the left are yellow and green. He is black, as well

as the central head. His twelve hands hold : a hapala, lasso, vajra, ratna, lotus, &c,

and his normal ones hold the bow and arrow.

IX. Halahala3-LokesVara. He has three heads, each with a third eye. The

one to the right is blue, to the left red, and the centre one is white. In his chignon

is an image of Amitabha and a crescent. He has many ornaments, and has a tiger-

skin for covering. He has six arms, and his symbols are : rosary, lotus, bow

and arrow, &c. He is seated on a red lotus, and holds his Sakti on his left knee, the

right being stretched out. There is a trident, round which is circled a serpent to the

right, and a lotus supporting a skull filled with flowers to the left. His colour

is white.

1diva's throat became blue after drinking the one of the avatars of Vishnu, between his legs,

poison Hala-hala to save mankind. 3 The Hala-hala is the poison which was churned

2 This form is found in India with Vishnu seated from the ocean by the gods,

on Garuda, who stands on a turtle, with a dwarf,

PLATE XXVI

KWAN-YIN (SuNG-TSHl)

67

FORMS OF KWAN-SHI-YIN

Kwan-

sh'i-yin.

I. Two arms.

II. More thantwo arms.

III.

IV.

V.

Table VII

I. Holds child.

With or without acolytes.

With or without dragon.II. On lotus holding willow

branch or kalasa.

Or rolls of prayers.

Or hands making dhyanamudra.

III. a. Represented on the sea.

b. Represented on a cloud.

IV. Seated on a lion.

V.

Sung-tse (feminine).

Kwan-yin (feminine).

Kwo-hai (feminine).

Kwan-yin Simhanada

(feminine).

Pa-nan.

J San-sh'i-ri'-siang.

Group of eight Kwan-yin

(masculine or feminine).

VI. Group ofthirty-twoKwan-

yin (masculine).

VII. Kwan-yin with crown of eight heads called'

eight-

faced' (masculine).

I. Kwan-yin with ten arms (feminine).

II. Kwan-yin with eighteen arms (masculine).

III. 1,000 armed Kwan-yin (masculine or feminine).

Japanese form : Kwan-non.

Legend of Miao Chen.

Legend of Haritl.

68

KWAN-SHI-YIN

(S.) Avalokitesvara. (J.) Kwan-non.

Kwan-shi-yin, god (or goddess) of Mercy, is confounded, in some of the Chinese

texts, with Maitreya, whose title is'

family of Mercy ', and with Purna Maitrayani-

putra (disciple of Sakya-muni), whose title is' son of full Mercy

'

; but European, as well

as most Chinese scholars, look upon the god as a manifestation of Avalokitesvara,

although they do not agree as to the meaning of the name itself, Kwan-sh'iryin.

The word was used for the first time by Kumarajlva, who, in the fifth century a. d.,

translated a chapter of the Saddharmapundarifcax into Chinese. There is a divergence

of opinion in regard to his use of the word '

Kwan-shi-yin'

in his translation of the

title of this chapter, which is: 'Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva samantamukha '. Someclaim that '

Kwan-shi-yin'

is a Chinese version of 'Avalokitesvara ', while others are of

the opinion that it is a translation of samantamukha, his title, which may mean'

universally manifested voices '.2

According to Edkins 3 the literal translation maybe thus interpreted : kwan (looks on), shi

('the region

'

of sufferers), yin (whose'

voices'

of many tones, all acknowledging misery and asking salvation, touch the heart of the

pitiful Bodhisattva).The worship of Avalokitesvara was introduced into China during the Han

dynasty4 towards the end of the first century a.d., and by the sixth century the god

of Mercy was worshipped in all the Buddhist temples. In the seventh centuryhe was still popular, for Hiuen-tsang speaks of him with enthusiasm ; and bythe twelfth he was practically forgotten, except in monasteries and temples where

precedence demanded his presence.

But in spite of his popularity in China during several centuries, the Indian

Buddhist priests were unable to impose the Sanskrit name of their god on the Chinese,

and Avalokitesvara was exclusively worshipped as'

Kwin-yin ', god of Mercy.The quality of '

mercy ', however, seems to have appealed to the Chinese

as feminine rather than masculine, for a goddess of Mercy, believed to be the feminine

manifestation of Avalokitesvara, made her appearance and drew many worshippers.When later, the title

' Giver of Sons (Sung-tse) was added to that of '

mercy'

the goddess Kwan-yin acquired a popularity that defied all Indian Buddhist influence

and has lasted up to the present day, in China as well as in Japan.There are no records by which one can determine the earliest appearance of

the female form of Kwan-yin in China, and hence much divergence of opinion in

regard to her origin.

1 Lotus of the Good Law. ' Chinese Buddhism, p. 382.s M. de la Vallee Poussin gives as translation * Ibid.

' The All-sided One '.

KWAN-SHI-YIN 69

It is admitted by Eitel l that the goddess of Mercy may have been a divinity

worshipped in China long before the introduction of Buddhism. 2 She may even have

been a Taoist goddess, for Hackmann writes that deities peculiar to Taoism have

been ' found under another guise in Buddhism '. Edkins confirms the above quotationwhen he says that Taoist idols were often employed in Buddhist temples. He also

refers to a sutra found by a Japanese priest, Tan-wu, in India in the fourteenth

century, the subject of which was the ' admission of Kwan-sh'i-yin to a Buddhist

life'.3

Lillie,4 in referring to the goddess Kwan-yin, quotes from the Abbe* Proveze and

says :

' The Abbe Proveze is aware, however, that the Kwan-yin is much earlier

historically than the Virgin Mary,5 for he starts a second theory that the idea

was plagiarized from an Old Testament in a synagogue that the Jews had in China

two hundred years before Christ.'

If we accept the hypothesis that a goddess of Mercy was worshipped in China

earlier than AvalokitesVara, the divinity could have been none other than the

Chinese princess and saint, Miao-Chen, 6who, according to Chinese legend, lived

2587 B. 0. Chinese historical accounts, however, identify her father with King

Chanwang of the Chow dynasty 696 B.C., which date is probably more nearly

correct.

According to her legend, Miao-Chen became a goddess and retired to an island

in the Chusan Archipelago called P'u-to. The name Pu-to is believed to be a corruption

of' Potala ', home of AvalokitesVara, and probably only dates from the tenth century,

when the Buddhist priests took possession of the island.

It is not known whether or not the Buddhist priests found the worship of

a goddess' already established on the island when they took possession of it ; but

such would seem the case since, although the island was dedicated to Padmapani, it

became the most popular shrine of the goddess Kwan-yin.In one of the temples on the island there is a seated figure of the goddess

of Mercy, while behind her, standing, is a figure of Padmapani, and around the walls,

also standing, is the group of thirty-two masculine Kwan-yin. This fact alone shows

that the feminine form took precedence.

Unfortunately, no documents have been found to prove that the goddess Kwan-

yin was a development of the saint Miao-Chen, or that Miao-Chen was worshipped as

goddess of Mercy before the introduction of Buddhism into China. Only by inference

and deduction, and by comparing the different manifestations of the goddess Kwan-yin,

1 Handbook of Chinese Buddhism.1 Edkins says in his Chinese Buddhism, p. 415 :

'

Eitel, in his account of Kwan-yin, goes too far

when he supposes there was a Chinese divinity of

this name (goddess of Mercy) before the introduction

of the Mahayana into China.'3 Chinese Buddhism, p. 247. On one of the

Tsok-chin, Kwan-yin (feminine form) is represented

with AvalokitesVara in the place usually occupied

by a feminine divinity.4 Buddhism in Christianity, p. 205.

5 Dumoutier in his Cultes annamites speaks of

a goddess in Annam called ' Quanam ', who is repre-

sented seated on a rock, draped in a gown of many

pleats, holding a child in her arms. When the

'

troupiers'

first saw this image they called it the

Virgin Mary.6

v. Legend of the Miao-Chen.

70 FORMS OF KWAN-SHI-YIN

can one piece together a hypothetical story of the development of her various

forms.

The first idols were brought from India by King Mingti's mission when theyreturned to China in the first century a.d. Up to that time, the Chinese had

not '

imaged'

their gods.

It was not until the fourth century that the Chinese were admitted to the

Buddhist priesthood, and, as the making of the idols had been entirely in the hands

of the Indian Buddhist priests, the character of the representations of the godsremained Indian, with the long-lobed ears and Indian features. The Chinese Buddhists

seem never to have entirely freed themselves from the Indian influence.

The Mahayana school of Buddhism was introduced into China in the fifth centurya.d. If at that time the Northern Buddhist priests found a goddess of Mercy

already popular in China, it is not improbable that, in order to make converts, theyclaimed her as a feminine manifestation of their god of Mercy. It was done a few

centuries later by Padmasambhava in Tibet and by Kobo Daishi in Japan.

Edkins, however, claims that the feminine form did not appear in China until the

twelfth century.1 If such is the case, one cannot explain the presence of certain

female forms of Avalokitesvara in the temples and museums of Japan which date back

several centuries before that time. 2 As the feminine form came into Japan from

China, it must then have existed in China long before the twelfth century.There were two distinct manifestations of the goddess Kwan-yin in China. One

shows Northern Buddhist influence, while the other can be traced back throughChinese Turkestan and Kashmir into India, and originates in the Indian goddessHariti. 3

This latter form might easily have been brought into China by the celebrated

Buddhist pilgrims, Fa-hian in the fifth century, Hiuen-tsang in the beginning, and

Yi-tsing towards the end of the seventh century, when they returned from India.

Both Hiuen-tsang and Yi-tsing, in the accounts of their travels, mention seeingin India the representation of a goddess holding a child, called ' Giver of Children

'

(fH. g" ^ M "?*)• Tney must also have come upon this form of the goddess on

their return through Central Asia, for both Sir Marc-Aurel Stein and Herr von Le

Coq, in their excavations in Chinese Turkestan, found representations of the ' Giver

of Children'

in Buddhist temples, placed opposite Kuvera.

A small painting4 of the goddess with a head drapery, holding the child (the

form adopted by the Chinese to represent the Kwan-yin, 'Giver of Sons' or

Sung-tse), which was discovered by Herr von Le Coq at Turfan, dates from the fifth

century. It is therefore possible that Fa-hian was also acquainted with this form ;

and it seems more probable that this important representation of Kwan-yin should have

been brought into China by one of these celebrated Buddhist travellers rather than byan obscure Buddhist pilgrim.

The most ancient form of the female Kwan-yin is probably the feminine

1 Chinese Buddhism, p. 382. ' Now in the Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin;

2v. Kwan-non. 3

v. Hariti. v. also illus., La Madone bouddhique, A. Foucher.

PLATE XXVII

a. Kwan-yin (Sung-tse) b. KWAN-YIN

C. KWAN-YIN d. KWAN-YIN

70

KWAN-SHI-YIN 71

manifestation of Padmapani, non-Tantra form of Avalokitesvara (that is to say, with

only two arms), which was his earliest representation in China.

The goddess is represented as a Bodhisattva, wearing many ornaments and

the five-leaved crown in which is usually the image of the Dhyani-Buddha, Amitabha.

She is either seated with the legs locked, or is sitting sideways on a lion (simhanada)

nth. the right or left leg pendent (PI. xxxiv, fig. d). One of her hands is in

ira (charity) mudrd, while the other is in the '

dogmatic'

pose (vitarka). Her hands

may also be in dhydna (meditation) mudrd, but in that case she is holding

the luminous pearl (or is it the pomegranate ?).On a lotus-flower at her right

shoulder is the symbol of Padmapani, a vase (kala&a). At her left shoulder, also

supported by a lotus, is a symbol which is purely Chinese, and her special emblem, a

dove, symbol of fecundity (PI. xxvn, fig. d). This form of Kwan-yin seldom holds

the child (PI. xxvil, fig. c).

The form of the goddess which entered China from Chinese Turkestan is repre-

sented with a child on her knee and is called'

Sung-tse' (giver of sons). In China

the group does not represent the mother and child. The child ]is purely a symbol

and is stiffly held by the goddess (v. PI. xxvi and PI. xxix, fig. c).In this form she

is represented with flowing garments, and usually a drapery falling from her high head-

dress over her shoulders (v. PI. xxvn, fig. a, and PI. xxix, fig. b). Later, the Sung-tse Kwan-yin adopted the two symbols of the Northern Buddhist form, the vase and

the dove, thus merging the two manifestations into one.

The form of the goddess, which is inexplicable if one does not accept the legendof Miao-Chen as its origin, is represented seated, her hands in

' meditation'

mudrd

holding the flaming pearl or with the hands in'

prayer'

mudrd. She is accompanied

by two acolytes, which are surely Chen Tsai and Loung Nu. Underneath her lotus-

throne is the dragon (v. Legend of Miao-Chen;v. PI. xxvn, fig. c).

In this group she may have three different representations :

1. She takes the form of Padmapani, non-Tantra form of Avalokitesvara (two arms),

and holds the flaming pearl.

2. She is represented in the Tantra form of Avalokitesvara with many arms. 2 Hernormal hands are in '

prayer'

mudrd, while two hands may be lying on her

lap in' meditation

'

mudrd. In this form she is always seated, while the

masculine form of Kwan-yin with a thousand arms is always standing. All the

other arms are outstretched, holding various Buddhist symbols, and she

is either represented with the head drapery or wearing the five-leaved crown

(PI. xxvn, figs, b and d).

1According to certain accounts, the child is

Chen Tsai, the first disciple of Miao-Chen.2 In the legend of Miao-Chen, there is an incident

which seems to explain the thousand arms of the

female Kwan-yin. The father of Miao-Chen falling1 she cut the flesh off her arms and made it into

medicine which saved his life. To show his grati-

tude, he ordered a statue to be erected in her honour,

saying" with completely formed (ts'en) arms and

eyes"

;but the sculptor mistook the order for

" with a thousand (ti'ien) arms and eyes ", whence

it happened that a statue with a thousand arms

and a thousand eyes perpetuated her memory'

(Eitel). PI. lxiv.

72 FORMS OF KWAN-SHI-YIN

3. She is represented in flowing garments with the drapery over her high head-dress,

against which may be a small image of her Dhyani-Buddha, Amitabha, or she

may wear a crown. She holds the flaming pearl in her hands, lying on her lap

in ' meditation'

mudra (v. PI. xxvn, fig. b).

In this group she may hold the child instead of the flaming pearl, in which

case her disciple, Loung Nu, holds the pearl, while Chen Tsai stands on the

opposite side in attitude of prayer (PI. xxvn, fig. a).

She is sometimes represented either holding a roll of prayers or a willow branch,1

with which she is believed to sprinkle around her the divine nectar (San. amrita),

called by the Chinese ' sweet dew '. On her right is the ambrosia vase, and on her

left the dove, symbol of fecundity (PI. xxix, fig. d). She is sometimes accompanied

by the two acolytes, Loung Nu and Chen Tsai.

Other forms represent her in deep meditation, sitting or standing on a cloud 2 or

a lotus-flower, or on the sea (called Kwo-Hai).In the temples she is sometimes represented as a goddess of the sea, with rocks

and crudely carved waves about her.

All these different representations seem to indicate the legend of Miao-Chen.

Monier Williams claims that the Chinese looked upon the goddess of Mercy as

the Tibetans look upon the Sakti, or female energy of their gods. This is surely

erroneous, although there is a Chinese temple picture in the British Museum which

seems to support this theory. The goddess Kwan-yin is seated in the pose of the

iakti of Avalokitesvara, the green Tara, and is accompanied by two acolytes, Loung Nuand Chen Tsai.

It is evident, at all events, that the Tibetans did not understand the female

manifestation of Avalokitesvara in China from the following fact : The Mongolian

Emperor Kang-hsi, in the fourteenth century, sent to Tibet for images of the goddess

Kwan-yin, which he presented to the monasteries on the island of Pu-to. They

represent the goddess seated with locked legs, the upper part of the body bare, but

with a skirt of leaves 3 and with many jewels ;and the Buddhist Chinese priests were

evidently shocked by this representation of the goddess, for they covered all these

statues with yellow mantles. 4

In China, as well as in Japan, there seems to have been a confusion in regard to

the sex of Kwan-yin, for there is a Chinese temple painting6representing the god

dressed like the female Kwan-yin, seated in the attitude called'

royal ease'

(knee

raised). The left hand holds a vase in which is a willow branch, the special emblem

of the goddess, but the head outlined against a white glory is that of a man with

' The first of the thirty-three Kwan-non in the on a cloud. The twenty-fourth standing on a cloud.

Butsuzo Zui (Japanese Pantheon) is called ' Yorin' The thirtieth is sitting on a lotus on a cloud.

or '

willow ', from the branch she holds in her hand,3 In the Butsuzo Zui, the twenty-second of the

as does also the eleventh. The seventeenth has a thirty-three Kwan-non is called'

Haye ', or'

clothed

willow branch in her vase. in leaves'.

2 The second of the thirty-three Kwan-non is4Edkins, Chinese Buddhism, p. 261.

seated on a cloud and a dragon. The fifth is seated 6

Belonging to Madame Langweil.

KWAN-SHI-YIN 73

a moustache and beard. There is only one acolyte, Loung Nu, carrying the pearl.

This painting is claimed to be Taoist, dating between the fourteenth and fifteenth

centuries.

The first masculine form of AvalokitesVara in China was the Padmapani type,

standing, dressed in princely garments and wearing many ornaments. His face

is Indian in aspect, with long-lobed ears. In his left hand is a lotus—generally

a bud, while the Tibetan Padmapani holds a full-blown lotus-flower ;but he may also

hold a vase (PI. xxv, figs, a, c, d).

Kwan-yin, in his Padmapani form, may wear a crown of heads, generally eight in

number, which are disposed in two tiers of four, which possibly indicates the groupof eight Bodhisattva called the Pa-nan Kwan-yin. The Chinese seldom adopted the

Tantra form of AvalokitesVara with eleven heads disposed in the Tibetan manner ;

but there is an example of a Chinese bronze with four tiers of three heads—the

thirteenth is missing.

He has a Tantra form called 'thousand-armed', which is very popular in China,

and resembles the thousand-armed Avalokitesvara in Tibet. In this form he is always

standing.

There are two groups of the masculine Kwan-yin. One is composed of thirty-two

metamorphosesx called the '

Kwan-yin san-shi-ri-siang '. They are all modelled on

the Padmapani form and differ little from each other.

The other group is called the ' Pa-nan'

or '

Kwan-yin of the eight sufferings '. It

is composed of eight metamorphoses which he (or she) assumes for the purpose

of saving mankind from the eight kinds of sufferings.

The Legend of Miao-Chen. 2

'In the eleventh year of the Epoch of the Heaven of Gold, 2587 B.C., lived

a king called Miao Tohoang.' ... He had three daughters and no sons and when

they were old enough to marry, he found them suitable husbands so that he mighthave an heir to the throne. But Miao-Chen, the youngest, refused to marry, saying

that she preferred to pass her life in seclusion in order to perfect herself by medita-

tion and contemplation, and thus arrive at the state of Buddha. 3 She retired to the

monastery of the White Sparrows4 in order to live in perfect seclusion.

The king made every attempt to persuade her to return, and when every kindly

tentative failed he resorted to cruelty, each trial being more horrible than the last,

1 The group corresponds to the thirty-three to Max Mtiller in his Buddhism and Buddhist Pil-

Kwan-non iu Japan. grirns, p. 24. The fact, however, is not accepted2 Extracts taken from the legend of Miao-Chen hy more recent writers.

in the Annates du Musee Guimet. * One of the Chinese titles of Kwan-yin is the

' It is not surprising to find Buddhibt influence' White-Bohed Great Scholar

'

(Eitel). In the

in some of the versions of the legend of Miao-Chen. Butsuzo Zui, the Japanese manual of the Buddhist

There are records of Buddhist missionaries in China Pantheon, the fourth of the group of thirty-three

as early as 225 b. c. and again 217 B.C., according Kwan-non is'

Byaku-ye-no' (clothed in white).

158( L

74 FORMS OF KWAN-SH1-YIN

but she came out unscathed from them all. Then he ordered her to be decapitated.

During the execution there sprung up suddenly a great wind storm, the heavens were

obscured, and light breaking forth, surrounded Miao-Chen. 1 Then the tutelary god of

the place, having taken the form of a tiger, bounded out of the forest and carried her

inanimate form into the mountains.

She visited Yama in Hell and by her magic power liberated the damned souls.

Upon her return, Buddha appeared to her on a cloud, and counselled her to retire to

the island of P'u-to some three thousand miles away, and give herself up to medita-

tion. He gave her a peach2 from the garden of Heaven to preserve her for a year

from hunger and thirst, and to assure her eternal life. A local god of the island took

the form of a tiger and carried her there with the rapidity of the wind. 3 For

nine years she remained on the island practising meditation and performing acts of

merit, after which she was raised to the rank of Buddha and took her first acolyte,

Hoan Chen Tsai (he who prays in order that he may have virtue and talent).

Later, she acquired another acolyte in the following manner : The third son of a

Dragon King of the Sea was wandering one day upon the waves in the form of a fish,

when he found himself entangled in a fisherman's net and was offered for sale in the

market. 4 Miao-Chen, whose eyes see all things, discovered the danger and sent Chen-

Tsai in human form to buy the fish and set it at liberty. The Dragon Kingwas much touched by her kindness and sent her, by his granddaughter, Loung Nu, a

pearl that gave light in the dark, so that she might read the sacred books during the

night. Loung Nu was so entranced with Miao-Chen that she conceived the idea

of herself acquiring the state of Buddha, and asked to be permitted to remain with

her and become her acolyte, to which Miao-Chen readily consented.

Miao-Chen converted her parents and became a ' Saviour of Men ', and was able

to remove all obstacles to their attaining Amitabha's paradise. She herself refused to

enter it as long as any human being was excluded.

1 The fifth of the thirty-three Kwan-non is called every three thousand years.' Yen-kwo '

(sitting in bright rays).s Other versions say that she was ' carried over

2 The twenty-third of the thirty-three Kwan- the water on a lotus'

(Eitel). In the Butsuzo Zui

non, the ' Ruri',holds a round object in her hand. the twelfth Kwan-nou is represented standing on

According to an ancient Chinese (Taoist) legend, a lotus-petal on the sea, the seventh is seated on a

there was once a fairy queen called Hsi-wang-mu lotus-flower on the sea.

who held her court in the K'unlun mountains; she * The tenth of the thirty-three Kwan-non is called

had a garden of miraculous peach-trees which con- gyo (fish), ran (basket),

ferred the gift of immortality, but only bore fruit

PLATE XXVIII

Sho Kwan-non (Padmapani)

75

HARITI

(C.) Sung-tsii Kwan-yin, or Kouei-tseu-mon-chen. (J.) Koyasu-Kwannon, or Ki-shi-mo-jin.

The Hindu goddess Hariti, protectress of children, worshipped in Northern

India by bereaved parents, and believed, in Nepal, to prevent small-pox, was originally

a YakshinI, an ogress, a cannibal demon, who had made a vow to devour all the

children in Rajagriha.

According to Buddhist accounts, of which there are many variations, she had 500

children, of whom she devoured 499;and the last one, Pindola, was taken away from

her by Gautama Buddha, who hid him under his begging-bowl. Hariti forthwith

repented of her evil ways and, becoming a BhikshunI (Buddhist nun), was assured of

her daily food by Buddhist priests.

This latter fact may possibly account for the presence of the statues of Hariti in

the refectories of the monasteries of Northern India, where, according to Yi-tsing

(the Chinese pilgrim who visited India in the seventh century), she was adored

as' Giver of Children '. When the worship of Hariti reached China and she became

confounded with the goddess Kwan-yin, she was called' Giver of Sons

'

(Sung-tse).

Yi-tsing mentions the fact that her statues were always found either in

the porches or refectories of the Buddhist monasteries, opposite the god of

Wealth, Kuvera. In Java Hariti was likewise placed opposite the god of Wealth.

Herr von Le Coq also found the fresco-paintings of Hariti opposite those of

Kuvera in the temples that he discovered at Turfan, in Chinese Turkestan ;but in

neither China nor Japan was the custom followed. Waddell, 1 in speaking of the

persistence with which the Buddhist artists and sculptors coupled Hariti and Kuvera,

comes to the conclusion that Hariti is none other than a form of Vasudhara, goddessof Abundance, and consort of Kuvera, god of Wealth. 2

Hiuen-tsang, who also visited India in the seventh century, mentions her

worship in North-western India, where the Gandhara school represented Hariti in

flowing garments, holding a child and with several children climbing about her. She

was also sometimes represented holding a pomegranate, for Gautama Buddha is

believed to have cured her of cannibalism by giving her a diet of pomegranates, the

red fruit being supposed to resemble human flesh. The symbol is still used in Japanbut was never adopted in China.

Hariti was always represented with flowing garments, which varied slightly

according to the country. In the Gandhara representations she has no head-covering.

1 'Evolution of the Buddhist cult; its gods, for 1911-12, gives, opposite page 8, the illustration

images, and art,' The Imperial and Asiatic Quar- of a relievo-frieze from a stupa at Tahkt-i-Bahi

terly Review, Jan. 1912. representing Kuvera seated beside Hariti, who holds

a Sir Aurel Stein in his Annual Report of the a cornucopia filled with flowers and fruit.

Archaeological Society of India.—Frontier Circle,

L 2

70 FORMS OF KWAN-SHI-YIN

In Java, on the contrary, she was given an ornate mitre-shaped head-dress. In the

frescoes discovered by Sir Aurel Stein at Domoko, in Central Asia, she has a string of

pearls wound in her elaborately dressed hair.

A small painting of HaritI x was found by Herr von Le Coq in a temple at Turfan,

which resembles the representations in China of the form of the feminine Kwan-yin,called

'

Sung-tse '.

She is seated, offering her breast to the child in her arms. A drapery falls over

her shoulders from the high head-dress and her garments are flowing.2

This form in China holds the child but does not offer the breast. In Japan it

does not always hold the child, but corresponds, nevertheless, with the Chinese

goddess Kwan-yin, feminine form of Avalokitesvara.

The goddess HaritI, as such, does not exist in China, while in Japan she has both

the form of saint and ogress, holding the child, and is worshipped under the name of

Koyasu Kwan-non as saint, and Kishi-mo-jin as ogress.3

1 Now in the Volkerkunde Museum, Berlin. demie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, tome 1 7 a.

1v. illustration, A. Foucher, La Madone boud- * She is believed in Japan to have had 10,000

dhique, Monuments et Memoires publics par l'Aca- children ; v. Koyasu Kwan-non.

77

FOEMS OF KWAN-NON

Kwan-non.

One head.

I. Twoarms.

,-rin.

Forms not authorized

in the JapaneseBuddhist Scriptures.

Table VIII

I. Lotus and vase, rosaryor

'

charity' mudra . Sho.

II. Crown of eleven heads Ju-ichi-men.

fI. Non-Tantra. .

.)

"Mil. Six arms . . .\®J™I. Horse's head, mudra

renge-no-in, Tantra

symbols Ba-to.

II. Sword and banner,

mudra renge-no-in,Tantra symbols . .

III. Jizo's staff (shakujo),

rosary and lasso,

lotus and mudra .

III. 1,000 f I. Tantra and non-Tantra

arms. I symbolsI. Holding a child Koyasu Kwan-non.

II. Holding a pomegranate and some-

times a childKishi-mo-jin.

III. Group of thirty-three feminine Kwan-non.

II. Six or

more arms.Juntei (feminine).

Fuku-kenjaku.

Sen-ju.

78

K W AN-NONGod of Mercy.

(S.) Avalokitetrara. (C.) Kwan-yin.Kwan-non holding a child.

(C.) Sung-tse Kwan yin. (J.) Koyasu Kwan-non.

Kwan-non, god (or goddess) of Mercy, is the Japanese form of the Chinese

divinity Kwan-yin, manifestation of Avalokitesvara. His worship is said to have been

introduced into Japan during the reign of the Empress Suiko (593-628), forty yearsafter the introduction of Buddhism,1 and has lasted up to the present time.

There are three different non-Tantra manifestations of Kwan-non found in the

temples and museums of Japan. The first, and probably the most ancient, is modelled

after the Indian representation ofAvalokitesvara in his non-Tantra form of Padmapani:a slight, youthful figure, with long-lobed ears, dressed like an Indian prince, and with

often a moustache slightly outlining the upper lip.

The second form, which was brought into Japan from India and Central Asia via

China, is a female figure, seated or standing, with graceful, flowing garments, and

a crown or head-drapery.The third form is Japanese in aspect, but the long-lobed ears are Indian and the

folds of the drapery indicate the influence of the Gandhara School. The figure

is seated with the head leaning on the right hand.

The evident confusion in art in regard to the sex of Kwan-non has also existed

among the worshippers even to the present day. The common people pray to the

divinity as'

goddess of Mercy ', while the priests and the more educated classes

worship the god as a masculine deity, for he is believed to dwell on the right hand of

Amitabha in the Western Paradise of Sukhavati,2 where no woman without attaining

masculinity, through merit, can enter. Some of the sects, however, worship Kwan-non as sexless, for it is claimed that as objects of worship, all male or female beingsshould be looked upon as of no fixed sex.

Professor Lloyd says in his Creed of Half Japan that the Bodhisattva might be

considered as non-sexual, or bi-sexual, while in his Shinran he writes :

* It is a mistake

to speak of Kwan-non as a female deity. Kwan-non is the son of Amitabha, capableof appearing in many forms, male or female, human or animal, according to circum-

stances. But he is never manifested except as a means of practically demonstratingthe divine compassion for a suffering creation.'

1

According to some, 100 years after the intro- claim 150 years later,

ductiou of Buddhism into Japan, a.d. 552. Others 2v. Glossary.

KWAN-NON 79

It is very difficult to determine when the different forms of Kwan-non appearedin Japan. Chiso, a Chinese priest, is said to have brought Buddhist imagesinto Japan A. D. 564 (or 571). In the Nihongi there is the following reference

to a statue of Avalokitesvara :

' In the seventh month, after the Empress Suiko's

reign (a. d. 593-628), the king of Shiraki (a portion of the present Korea) sent

an ambassador to the Japanese court to make homage to the empress and to present

her with a gold-copper statue of Avalokitesvara. Prince Shotoku, who was regent to

the empress, accepting it, ordered Hata-no-Ka-wakatsu to put up a sanctuary for the

image.' It is also recorded elsewhere that Shotoku put up statues and shrines

to Kwan-non, and that whenever he was troubled by any serious state affairs, he shut

himself up in one of the shrines and offered prayers to Avalokita.

At the end of the seventh century, Dosho, a Japanese priest, went to China

to study Buddhism with Hiuen-tsang,1 the famous Buddhist pilgrim and scholar, and

brought back with him many Buddhist images. Hiuen-tsang was a fervent admirer

of Avalokitesvara,2

although he was not worshipped by the Hosso sect. It is there-

fore not improbable that among the images that Dosho brought back, there were

representations of AvalokitesVara, possibly in both the masculine and feminine forms.

The foreign gods, however, were not popular until the ninth century, when the

Japanese Buddhist priest Kukai (Kobo Daishi) returned from China, where he had

been studying the dogmas of the Yogacarya, or Tantra school, under Hiu-kio

(Kei-kwa), the celebrated Buddhist scholar.

After founding the Shin-gon3

sect, he proceeded to popularize the divinities of

the Mahayana by the same tactics that his master, Hiu-kio, had employed, with

success, in China. Hiu-kio, in his turn, had adopted the method of Asanga in India

several centuries before, and the method was a very simple one. It consisted in

accepting the gods of a people one intended to convert, at the same time proclaimingthat these gods were manifestations of the divinities one was about to impose.

Kukai went to the holy Shinto shrine of lse and prostrated himself before the

altar of the god* of Abundant Food, Toyuki-Bime" no Kami. After days of fasting he

succeeded in getting a revelation. The god appeared to him, expressed his belief in

the power of the gods of the Mahayana, and informed him that the Shinto gods were

avatars and incarnations of the Buddhist divinities. And so, with the approbation of

this most popular and powerful deity, he began the work of revealing the names

of the Buddhist gods, of which the Shinto divinities were but manifestations, and of

popularizing them.

As Kobo Daishi brought the Tantra doctrine into Japan, it is not improbablethat he also introduced the Tantra form of AvalokitesVara, the Sen-ju, or thousand-

armed Kwan-non, for it is recorded that, like Dosho, he brought back images with him

when he returned from China.

1 Founder of the Hosso sect in China (Yogacarya pp. 60 and 127.

school).3 The Shin-gon sect belongs to the Yogacarya or

2v. Beal, Buddhist Records of tlis Western World, Tantra school.

tianslated from the Chinese of Hiuan-tsang, vol. ii,* In the Shinto religion the gods are not 'imaged'.

\

80 FORMS OF KWAN-NON

There are seven forms of Kwan-non in Japan, which show the influence of the

Tibetan Mahayana school :

1. Sho Kwan-non. 5. Fuku-Kenjaku.2. Ju-ichi-men. 6. Ba-to.

3. Sen-ju. 7. Nyo-i-rin.

4. Jun-tei.

These seven forms are in two groups of six, for the Tendai sect does not include

the Jun-tei Kwan-non, and the Shin-gon omits the Fuku-Kenjaku. There is also

a group of thirty-three (sometimes thirty-four) Kwan-non made up from these seven

forms, which was established by the Emperor Kwazan, who abdicated the throne

in the tenth century, and himself made a pilgrimage to the thirty-three shrines in the

Yamato.

The Japanese Buddhists look upon these seven forms as manifestations of

Avalokitesvara, but only three of them, the Sho, Sen-ju, and Ju-ichi-men (with

possibly the Fuku-Kenjaku), resemble the Tibetan forms of the god of Mercy. The

Ba-to is modelled after the Tibetan god, Hayagriva, while the Jun-tei resembles the

Tibetan goddess, Cunda or Cuntl.

The Japanese do not absolutely follow tradition in their representations of

the Bodhisattva. The crown, when without the heads,1

is not usually five-leaved like

the Tibetan, but high, complicated, and most ornate, with ornaments hanging on

either side of the head to the shoulders. The breast and shoulders of the JapaneseBodhisattva are bare, but he wears a necklace and the traditional scarf, which crosses

his breast from the left shoulder and is wound around the body several times, falling

in graceful loops like garlands with the ends hanging over the arms.

The lower limbs are covered by a full, gracefully draped skirt-like garmentwhich falls to the ankles, and the folds often show the influence of the Gandhara

school. The lobes of the ears are always long, indicating the Indian school, but the

eyes may be Japanese in shape. There is usually the urna and, behind the crown,

the ushmsha. The Japanese Bodhisattva is sometimes represented dressed like

a Buddha, with only his high, complicated head-dress, indicating his rank as a

Bodhisattva.

I. The Sho Kwan-non (the All-wise One). In Japan the Sho Kwan-non is called

'

Aryavalokitesvara ', while in Tibet the term is used for the most complicated form of

Avalokitesvara, which in Japan is called '

Sen-ju '.

The Sho Kwan-non is the simplest form of Avalokita, and therefore corresponds

with his manifestation called '

Padmapani '. In fact, like Padmapani, he is repre-

sented as a graceful youth, standing with the right hand in vitarka (teaching) mudra,

and the left denoting'

charity '. His symbol, the lotus, which is generally a bud,

may be held in the right hand, or, if in the left, is sometimes in a vase. The eyes,

half closed, may be Indian in form, and the lobes of the ears are always long.

The hair is drawn up in a mitre-shaped ushmsha behind the complicated crown. The

1 The crown of heads is only found in Chinese Turkestan, China, and Japan.

PLATE XXIX

a. Ratnapani b. Kwan-yin (Sung-tse)

C. KWAK-YIN (SuNG-TSK) (7. Kwan-yin

KWAN-NON 81

urna is on the forehead, and the upper lip is often outlined by a moustache,

which one never sees on the Indian form. On the other hand, the antelope skin,

which is sometimes worn by the Indian Padmapani, is never seen on the Sho Kwan-

non. His shoulders and breast are bare and he may wear many jewels, which do not,

however, correspond to the thirteen traditional Bodhisattva ornaments, nor is his

dress exactly the same. He may also be without jewels. The Sho Kwan-non,

however, resembles more closely the Tibetan type than any of the other Japanese

forms (PI. xxviii).

II. Ju-ichi-men Kwan-non (Eleven-headed). The Ju-ichi-men Kwan-non, having

but two arms, resembles the Sho Kwan-non, with the exception of the head-dress,

which is a crown of eleven heads disposed in two rows of three and a row between of

five (the author has never seen them disposed in three tiers like the Arya-Pala). The

head of Amitabha rises out of the ushnisha. The Ju-ichi-men may, however, also

have four arms. In his left hand he holds a vase, in which is generally a lotus-flower,

and his right hand, in '

charity'

mudra, either holds a rosary or a shakujo (alarm staff).

He is sometimes surrounded by a glory, in which, on each side, are five suns and

a cintamani (magic jewel).

One often sees the central head of the first or second row replaced by a small

figure, standing or sitting like a Buddha, closely draped, and with the hands always

covered. The little figure might represent Kikuta Sanzo, an Indian prince belonging

to the Ritsu sect who came to Japan from India between the seventh and eighth

centuries. He was much venerated, and was always represented with the hands

covered.

III. Sen-ju Kwan-non (Thousand-armed). The Sen-ju Kwan-non resembles the'

Arya-Pala'

or Tantra form of Avalokitesvara. He either wears the crown of eleven

heads of the Ju-ichi-men Kwan-non, or a high crown without heads. He may also

have a low crown with a standing figure in the centre (PI. xli, fig. d).

His many arms are outstretched, with the exception of two pairs which are held

in front and against him, the upper hands holding the patra or begging-bowl, or in

'

prayer'

mudra, while the lower ones hold the ambrosia vase. All the other hands

hold Tantra and non-Tantra symbols. The two upper hands at the back may be

raised above the crown of heads forming anjali (salutation) mudra, sometimes holding

a sanko (vajra), or (but rarely) a small image of Amitabha,1 like the Indian '

Arya-

Pala'.

IV. The Jun-tei Kwan-non (San. Cuntl). The only feminine form among the seven

Kwan-non is Jun-tei, who is believed to have performed the three meditations, after

which she was directed in her actions by the Buddha himself.

She is called Kotl-sri, or Sapta-koti-Buddha-matri-Cunti-devi, or the goddess Cuntl,

mother of 70,000 Buddhas. It is believed by the Japanese that the goddess is taken

from Indian mythology and is Durga devi, wife of Siva, but the legend vaguely

resembles that of the ogress Haritl. 2

1v. Butsuzo Zui, Japanese manual of the Bud- 2 Haritl is believed, in Japan, to have had 100,000

dhist Pantheon. children.

82 FOEMS OF KWAN-NON

Jun-tei is sometimes represented as an angry goddess, but is usually pacific. Shehas the third eye and eighteen arms, all the hands holding different symbols. Thetwo original ones are against the breast, the hands forming the mudra '

renge-no-in ',

x

but it differs somewhat from the mudra of the Ba-to in that only the ring and little

fingers are locked. The second fingers are upright and touching at the tips. Theindex fingers touch the first joints of the second fingers, thus forming a kind of1

triangular'

pose. The hands of the two upper arms hold a sword and banner

(PI. xii, fig. c).

According to the Butsuzo Zui the god is represented seated in the form of a

woman. The ushnisha is covered by a stiff, highly decorated, cone-shaped turban, andshe is clothed in flowing draperies.

V. Fuku-Kenjaku (San. Amoghapasa). Fuku-Kenjaku made his appearance in

Japan much later than the others, and was not adopted by the Shin-gon sect, but is

a popular deity with the Tendai sect.

He may be seated or standing with eight (or only six) arms, and wears a highcrown. The original arms are held in front and against him, the hands formingnamahkara (prayer) mudra. The upper arms hold Jizo's staff (shakujo) and a lotus-

flower. Two of the lower ones hold a rosary and lasso, and the other two form

vara (charity) mudra, but the symbols may be disposed differently.

There is a form of Fuku-Kenjaku which wears the ' Ju-ichi-men'

crown ; but

he is usually represented with a complicated crown without heads and may be with-

out the urna. He carries the vase, in which is the lotus-flower, in the left hand, andin the right is his usual symbol, the shakujo, or alarm staff.

VI. Ba-to Kwan-non (San. Hayagrlva). Ba-to, the horse-headed Kwan-non, takes

the form of the Tibetan masculine divinity Hayagrlva, and nevertheless remains for

the common people the '

goddess of Mercy '.

In Tibet Hayagrlva is the protector of horses, and is supposed to frighten a" aythe demons by neighing like a horse. There may also be some such idea in Japan, for

he is worshipped chiefly in the north, where many horses are raised, and effigies ofthe

god may be seen along the roadside. He is, in fact, the patron god of the horse-

dealers.

The horse's head in the hair of the Ba-to Kwan-non is a Northern Buddhist

symbol, and in the legends of the Mahayana, the horse, especially if white, played an

important role. In the Mahayana siltra, Sakyamuni tells of the miraculous horse 2 that

saved Simhala (in reality himself, Buddha)3 from the wiles of the Rakshasa. 4 It was

on the white horse, Kanthaka, that the Buddha left his palace to become an ascetic.

Legend says that the horse died of grief at being separated from his master and

was reborn in the Trayastrimsa heaven as the deva Kathagata.5

The white horse played an important part in Chinese Buddhism in the followingmanner :

1v. Glossary.

sBurnouf, Introduction.

a The horse was white, according to the Abhinish- * Cannibal demons. * Fa-hian.

kramana sutra.

PLATE XXX

7A

KWAN-NON

KWAN-NON 83

' In the year A. D. 63, the Chinese emperor, Mingti, had a vision. A man hold-

ing a bow and arrow * in his hands announced to him the appearance in the world of

a " Perfect Man ". He was impressed by the vision and sent a commission of eighteen

men to go to the west and find him.

As the commissioners were on their way they met two men holding a white

horse laden with books, images, and relics. The commissioners recognized the men

as those they were seeking, and, turning back with them, brought them to Loyang,the residence of the Han emperor, where they were installed in the " White Horse

Monastery ", which is the earliest Buddhist sanctuary in China.' 2

The tradition of the white horse also reached Japan, for the horse's head in

Ba-to's hair must be white to be efficacious.

It is curious that a white horse (albino, if possible) is always attached to

important Shinto shrines, and that the Restoration in abolishing all Buddhist

symbols from the Shinto temples should have allowed the horse to remain.

Ba-to Kwan-non is represented seated, either with the legs locked, or the right

knee raised in the attitude called'

royal ease '. Unlike the other types of Kwan-non,

his expression is always angry and in his forehead is a third eye. The hair stands

upright, and protruding from it is a horse's head, the characteristic mark of this

god (PI. xxxn, fig. c).

Sometimes there are three heads, one on either side of the central head, each

face having a different but angry expression, and above the central head is that of

a horse (PI. xxxn, fig. d). This form closely resembles one of the manifestations of

Hayagriva.There are generally eight outstretched arms, of which five hands hold the same

symbols as Hayagriva : wheel, sword, lasso, &c, and the sixth can be making the

vara mudra, or holding a symbol. The two normal arms are against the breast,

the hands forming the Japanese mudra called '

renge-no-in ',

3 which is emblematical

of the lotus-flower all fingers locked except the indexes that point upwards and

touch at the tips.

VII. Nyo-i-rin Kwan-non (San. Cintamani-cakra). The Nyo-i-rin Kwan-non, called

' The Omnipotent One ', is a manifestation of Avalokitesvara, seldom found outside

of Japan. In Tibet, however, there are a few rare examples of this non-Tantra form,

and, with a slight variation, it is also found in China.

The non-Tantra form of Avalokitesvara, in his manifestation of Nyo-i-rin, is

seated European fashion, with the right foot supported by the left knee. The right

elbow rests on the right knee, while the head leans on the index, or both the index

and second finger of the right hand. The left hand rests on the right ankle with the

palm underneath, and the left foot is supported by a small lotus asana.

This attitude of the god signifies'

meditating on the best way to save mankind '.

In China the divinity, which is found mostly in the Honan, differs from the

usual Nyo-i-rin in that the head does not usually rest on the right hand, which,

1Hayagriva sometimes carries a bow and arrow. * It resembles the mudra of k'Lu-dban-rgyd-po

J

Lloyd, Development of Japanese Buddhism. or' Buddha Liberator of the Nagas'. v. Glossary.

M 2

84 FORMS OF KWAN-NON

in that case, holds a lotus-bud. Both shoulders are covered, but the breast is bare,

and he is generally accompanied by two acolytes, who are without symbols, or

definite mudra unless in prayer attitude. The group may be under a '

bodhi-tree '.

In Japan, the Nyo-i-rin Kwan-non is either represented with a crown, or with

the hair drawn up mitre-shaped, or in different complicated forms, which may be

ornamented on the top by a moon-crescent, in the centre of which is the flame

symbol. The upper part of the body is bare, with the exception of ornaments on

the breast and arms. The lower limbs are covered by a skirt-shaped drapery which

falls from the waist to the feet, and shows the influence of the Gandhara school in

its graceful folds. The Horyuji temple owns a bronze in the traditional pose, as

well as a Nyo-i-rin Kwan-non where the head is not supported by the right hand,which is in vitarka mudra. In Japan the non-Tantra form never holds a symbol.

In his Tantra form the Nyo-i-rin Kwan-non is seated in the attitude called'

royal ease'

with the right knee raised, while the left is bent in the usual positionof a Buddha. In this form he has six arms. His head rests on his normal right

hand, and the elbow may rest on the right knee, but does not always do so. Thenormal left arm is extended in '

charity'

mudra. Of the two arms underneath, the

right holds the cintdmani against his breast, while the left, in '

teaching'

mudra, holds

a lotus-bud. The third right arm is pendent, holding a rosary, and the third left armis raised, balancing a wheel on the index finger.

This form is called by the Japanese Cintdmani-cakra, probably on account of the

two symbols, the magic jewel (cintdmani) and the wheel (cakra) which he carries. TheTantra form of the Nyo-i-rin does not exist outside of Japan ;

but although Tantra,

his expression is never ferocious, nor has he the third eye. The urnd is often missing,and although the lobes of the ears are always long, the features are more Japanesethan Indian, and express great calm and intense introspection.

KOYASU KWAN-NON

(Holding a child).

(S.) Harill. Ogress form : Kishi-mo-jin (holding a pomegranate).

(C.) Sung-tse Kwan-yin.

The form of Kwan-non with flowing garments and a head-drapery, holding the

child, was unquestionably brought to Japan from India via Central Asia and China ;

but at what epoch it is most difficult to determine.

If the form was introduced into China by Fa-hian, Hiuen-tsang, or Yi-tsing,it might easily have made its appearance in Japan by the middle of the eighth

century. In fact, it seems possible that the form was already known there by that

time, for, according to certain accounts, the Empress Komyo, in the year A. D. 718,

had a vision of Kwan-non holding a child.

The empress, so the legend runs, was with child, and prayers were being said

KOYASU KWAN-NON 85

in the holy shrine of Ise for an easy deliverance. The empress slept, and in a

dream she saw Kwan-non at her bedside. She awoke, and the image, holding a child,

remained and was later enshrined in a three-storied pagoda called Koyasu-to (child-

ease), and worshipped as ' Giver and Protector of Children'.

According to tradition handed down by Japanese artists, the Empress Komyocaused a statue of the Koyasu Kwan-non, holding a child, to be modelled after her

own image ; and a statue of Kishi-jo-ten (owned by the Joruriji temple, Yamashiro) is

also claimed to have been modelled after the Empress Komyo, who was celebrated for

her beauty, both mental and physical.

The Japanese Buddhist priests place little credence in these accounts ; but even

if legendary, the fact remains that tradition has been handed down associating the

form of Kwan-non holding the child with the eighth century, and in all probability

with reason.

It is also claimed by the Japanese Buddhist priests that the forms of Kwan-non

which seem feminine in aspect are, in reality, masculine, but are given a female

appearance to symbolize the qualities of love, compassion, and benevolence, which are

conceded to be rather feminine than masculine. The student of the iconography of

these gods, however, must look upon the images of the deities which are unquestion-

ably female in appearance as feminine, although, according to the tenets of Japanese

Buddhism, the female form is only symbolical.

The Koyasu Kwan-non,' Giver and Protector of Children ', resembles too closely

the Chinese ' Giver of Sons'

as well as the Indian ' Giver of Children'

for any doubt

to exist as to its origin ;and not only was the pacific form of the Indian goddess

HaritI adopted by the Japanese (PI. xxxn, fig. b), but also her demoniacal form * as

ogress, with the Indian symbol, the pomegranate. These two forms are also found in

Japan, merged in one, that is, the Kwan-non holding the child and the pomegranate?

but the pomegranate may be missing (PI. xxxil, fig. a).

The kichi-jo-Jcwa, or pomegranate, is the special symbol of Kishi-mo-jin, the

demoniacal form of Koyasu Kwan-non. When she is represented holding the child

and the pomegranate, or her special symbol alone, she may be either in pacific

or demoniacal form. If the former, she wears a flowing garment, a crown, and manyjewels. If the latter, her hair is dishevelled and she is portrayed as a terrifying

demon.

The Koyasu Kwan-non never holds the pomegranate. The mild form of Kishi-

mo-jin holding the kichi-jo-hva and the child is represented in the Exterior Diamond

section (Vajranubhava-vritti) in the Mandala of the Garbhadhatu of the Shin-gon sect,

while in the temple paintings of the Ritsu sect, she is placed in the Eating Hells. She

is especially worshipped in her ogress form by the Nichiren sect, who look upon her

as Protector of the Saddharma-pundarika.

1 In China the demoniacal form' was never 2 In Japan, however, the ogress form, Kishi-mo-

adopted, nor, judging from the excavations in jin, is not looked upon as a demoniacal form of

Chinese Turkestan, was it ever popular in Central Koyasu Kwan-non, and nei her form is authorized

Asia. in the Japanese Buddhist scriptures.

86 FORMS OF KWAN-NON

Among the Japanese Imperial treasures there is a small bronze statue which,

according to the inscription on its base, was cast in the beginning of the seventh

century A. D. The bronze is catalogued as a ' Sho Kwan-non '

because of the round

object in its hands which, according to the mantra of Avalokita,• Om, mani padme,

hum !

'

might be a magic jewel !

The compiler of the catalogue of the Imperial treasures admits that there

is no traditional example of a Sho Kwan-non holding a magic jewel, when he bases

his hypothesis as to the name of this idol on the fact that the Horyuji temple owns a

somewhat similar statue with the cintamani on the lotus-throne instead of in the hands.

He also admits that there are '

peculiarities'

which may be of ' Korean art or due to

Indian influence '.

As the bronze in question,1

although more archaic, resembles in every importantdetail the gilt bronze statue illustrated on PI. xxx, it will easily be seen that the'

peculiarities'

are indeed striking if one compares it with the traditional representa-

tion of a Sho Kwan-non.

The symbol of the Sho Kwan-non is a lotus-bud (or flower), sometimes held in a

vase. The hands are in'

charity'

and '

teaching' mudra ; the breast and shoulders,

aside from the ornaments and scarf, are bare, and the lower limbs are covered by a

full, skirt-shaped garment which falls from the waist to the ankles.

The bronze figure, on the contrary, is completely covered by a long, complicated

garment, which falls below tJie feet almost to the second row of petals of the lotus-throne.

(In the archaic statue the garment is longer than in the larger one illustrated in the

same plate.)

It is therefore evident that if the statue were standing on a flat surface the gar-

ment would fall on the ground like the long trailing robes which the Japanese court

ladies have worn, in the interior, from time immemorial. The fact of the long gar-

ment alone indicates a feminine rather than a masculine divinity.

The statue in the Imperial treasures wears a crown, in which, however, there is

no small image of Amitabha which would indicate the Sho Kwan-non.

The round object which is held in the left hand might be a magic jewel were it

not covered by the right hand. The cintamani, both in the Tibetan form as well as in

pearl shape, is represented flaming.2 Even if it is not so portrayed, it is understood, and

it would be against all tradition to represent the magic jewel held in this way. If it is

not a cintamani, is it a pomegranate ? There is no other Northern Buddhist symbolthat is round. If, then, the divinity is feminine and holds a pomegranate, it is

Hariti, which fact would prove that the worship of the goddess Haritl was introduced

into Japan as early as the seventh century.It is believed by some that the form of the goddess holding the child did

not appear in Japan until the Tokugawa Shogunate (beginning of the seventeenth

century), when the Roman Catholics were repressed and persecuted. It is claimed

that the Catholics caused this form to be made in porcelain, or bronze, in which was

1v. small image, PI. xxx. M. Goloubew, smoke arises from the flaming pearl

1 On a Japanese temple banner, belonging to held in the right hand of Jizo.

PLATE XXXI

KWAN-NON (GYO RAN OR ' FISH BASKET ')

KOYASU KWAN-NON 87

inserted a cross, and that they worshipped the Koyasu Kwan-non as the Virgin Mary.There are examples of these images in the Imperial Museum at Tokyo ; but this does

not prove that the form of Koyasu Kwan-non did not exist long before that epoch.

One of the most popular forms of the female Kwan-non is the Byakuye, or the

white-robed Kwan-non, which was first brought to Japan from China in the Mingdynasty in the fifteenth century, when Chinese painters, sculptors, and casters came

to Japan, and enriched the country by more than one masterpiece.

According to the Butsuzo Zui (the Japanese manual of the Buddhist divinities)

the Byakuye Kwan-non belongs to the group of thirty-three female Kwan-non, which

are all represented with the flowing garments and either a crown or the head

drapery of the Indian goddess. Several of the thirty-three Kwan-non indicate, either

by their names or by their representations, events in the legends of Miao-chen

(v. legend), while others refer to the Chinese goddess Kwan-yin.

The Byakuye Kwan-non (sixth)

(white-robed).

The Yen-Kwo Kwan-non (fourth)

(sitting in bright rays).

The Gyo-ran Kwan-non (tenth) (fish-

basket), PI. XXXI.

The Ryuzu Kwan-non (second)

(Dragon-head).The Anoku Kwan-non (twentieth)

(protects against aquatic demons).The seventh, twelfth and thirteenth

Kwan-non are represented on a

lotus-flower, a lotus-petal, and a

lotus-leaf on the sea.

The Ruri Kwan-non (twenty-third)holds a round object.

TheYoryuKwan-non (first) (willow).The eleventh Kwan-non holds a

willow branch and the fourteenth

has a vase at her side in which is

a willow branch.

TheHayeKwan-non (twenty-second)

(clothed in leaves).

When, at the command of the Buddha, Miao-

chen retired to the island ofP'u-to to medi-

tate, she clothed herself in white.' White-robed

'

is also one of the titles of

the Chinese Kwan-yin.When the father of Miao-Chen ordered her to

be decapitated,' a light breaking forth,

surrounded Miao-Chen.'

When Miao-Chen saw that the son of the

Dragon King of the Sea (who had taken

the form of a fish) had been caught by a

fisherman and was to be sold, she sent her

acolyte, Chen-Tsai, to buy the fish and set

it at liberty.

Miao-Chen was miraculously carried across the

sea to the island of P'u-to on a lotus-flower.

The Dragon King of the Sea sent Miao-Chen

a luminous pearl. The Buddha gave her a

peach to secure her immortality.The willow is the special symbol of the

Chinese goddess Kwan-yin, with which she

is believed to sprinkle about her the Nectar

of Life.

The images of Kwan-yin sent to the templesand monasteries of P'u-to by the Emperor

K'ang-hsi were clothed in leaves.

88 FORMS OF KWAN-NON

In fact, all the forms of the thirty-three female Kwan-non show Chinese influencej

and were possibly introduced into Japan at the same time as the Byakuye Kwan-non

by the Chinese artists, in the fifteenth century. Some of these forms, however, are

not authorized by the Japanese Buddhist scriptures.

The Japanese Buddhist priests do not look upon the Butsuzo Zui as an absolute

authority on Japanese Buddhism ;but until another manual is compiled, the Western

student must continue to refer to this Japanese manual of Buddhist divinities,

especially as, in so many respects, it has been found to be perfectly reliable.

No satisfactory conclusion, however, has yet been arrived at in regard to the

Koyasu Kwan-noii, nor the Chinese Kwan-yin, Sung-tse. The dominant questionsstill remain unanswered : When did these forms first make their appearance in their

respective countries ? Is the Chinese princess and saint, Miao-Chen, their legendaryancestress 1

Until these two questions have been satisfactorily answered, every hypothesis

is of value in that it may contain the germ of enlightenment in regard to one of the

most interesting Buddhist manifestations, the goddess Kwan-shii-yin.

VISVAPANI (Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

Visva (vajra) pani.

(Double-thunderbolt holder).

Symbol : viha-vajra (double thunderbolt). Dhyani-Bodhisattva : Visvapani.Fifth Dbyani-Buddha : Amoghasiddha. Manushi-Buddha : Maitreya.

The Dhyani-Bodhisattva Visvapani is very obscure. One seldom finds representa-tions of the god either in bronzes or paintings. He is seated, dressed in all the

Bodhisattva ornaments, his left hand lying on his lap, palm turned upward ; andthe right hand, in charity mudra, holds his symbol, the double thunderbolt. 1

Visvapani is believed to be in contemplation before the Adi-Buddha, while

waiting for the fifth cycle, when he will create the fifth world, to which Maitreya will

come as Manushi-Buddha.

1v. Pander, Das Pantheon des Tschangtscha Hutuktu, iii. 81.

PLATE XXXII

^ppy^ ,-,

a. Ki-shi-mo-jix b. KOYASU KWAN-NON

c. Ba-to Kwan-xon d. Ba-to Kwan-non

89

AKASAGARBHA (Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

(Essence of the Void Space above).1

(T.) nam-mk'ahi siiin-po (the matrix of the sky). Mudra : vitarka (argument).

(M.) oqtarghui-injiriiqen (the essence ofthe heaven). vara (charity).

(C.) Hii-k'ung-tsang (j|| ^ |£|).Symbol : surya (sun).

(J.) Kukuzo.

Akaiagarbha, whose essence is ether, is one of the group of eight Bodhi-

sattva. He is usually standing, with his hands in vitarka and vara mudra, in which

case his special symbol, the sun, is supported by a lotus at his right shoulder, while at

his left is a lotus-flower supporting a book, the symbol carried by four Bodhisattva of

this group.

According to Pander's Pantheon, he is seated, his legs loosely locked. His

right hand holds the stem of a flower which is not a lotus, nor is there a disc rising

from it as indicated by the text. 2 The left hand forms dbhaya (protection) mudra. But

in the work of Oldenburg,3Akasagarbha is represented with a white lotus supporting

the sun in his right hand ;the left hand forms '

charity'

mudra.

In the reproduction in the Five hundred Gods of sNar-t'an he is represented seated,

holding in his left hand the stem of a lotus, from which springs a sword. 4 Both hands

seem to be in vitarka mudra. In this form he resembles Manju&ri.In both China and Japan he is represented practically in the same way. He

is standing, a graceful drapery falls from his waist, and a long narrow scarf is

wound loosely around the body from the left shoulder to the right hip. The

breast and the right shoulder are bare, and the hair is drawn up. in a s£«#>a-shaped

uslinisha like Maitreya. If there is a crown, a stiipa-sh&ped ornament is in the central

leaf of the five-leaved crown. There are no symbols, but the left hand forms the'

triangular pose'

(all fingers extended with the tips of the thumb and index touching,

forming a triangle—see vitarka), and the right is in vara (charity) mudra. The features

are Indian, with long-lobed ears, and he has the urna.

1 E. DenisonRoss, Sanskrit-Tibetan-English Voca- 3 No. 1, Selection of Images of the three hundred

bulary, Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Buddhist divinities, &c.2

p. 76, illust. 150. 4

Griinwedel, Mythologie du Bouddhisme, p. 143.

N

90 THE DHYANI-BODHISATTVA

KSHITIGARBHA (Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

(Matrix of the Earth).

(T.) sahi-min-po (the matrix of the earth).Mudra : vitarka (argument).

(M.) ghafar-un firiigen (the essence of the earth).vara (charity).

(C.) Ti-tsang p'u-sa (Wj M # g§).Symbols : cintamani (magic jewel).

(J ) Jizo.khakkhara (alarm staff).

Kshitigarbha belongs to the group of eight Bodhisattva, and is, according to

Beal, the great' Earth Bodhisattva

',invoked by Buddha to bear witness that he

resisted the temptation of Mara, god of Evil. 1

The name of Kshitigarbha often appears in the ceremonies of initiation to the

Northern Buddhist priesthood, and he is believed to be the Bodhisattva of the

Mysteries of the Earth.

Kshitigarbha, unlike Ti-tsang in China, or Jizo in Japan, seems in no way con-

nected with the infernal regions, although he is considered in both countries to be

their Indian manifestation. In Tibet the ' Over-Lord of Hell'

is Yama, while in China

Yama holds a subordinate position under Ti-tsang, who is' Over-Lord of Hell '. In

Japan Jizo, while looked upon as incarnation of Ti-tsang (and Kshitigarbha), holds a

subordinate position, and Emma-0 is' Over-Lord of Hell '.

But although Kshitigarbha, Ti-tsang, and Jizo hold different posts in their

respective countries, the three manifestations have this in common, that they are

believed to have made a vow to do the work of saving all creatures from hell duringthe interim of the death of Sakya-muni and the advent of Maitreya.

In Tibet statues of Kshitigarbha are rare and are seldom found outside of

the group of '

eight Bodhisattva ', where he is represented, like all the other Dhyani-Bodhisattva, with the thirteen ornaments, and is standing with his right hand in'

argument ', while his left hand his in '

charity'

mudrd. His symbol, the magic jewel,

generally in shape of a flaming pearl,2 is supported by a lotus-flower on a level with

his right shoulder. There is sometimes a book supported by a lotus-flower at his left

shoulder.

Kshitigarbha may also be represented seated, holding an alarm staff in his two

hands. On his head is a five-leaved crown, in each leaf of which is the representationof a Dhyani-Buddha (PI. xxxin, fig. c). The chodpan crown is only worn by the

Northern Buddhist priests and never by the gods ; but this bronze is undoubtedlythe representation of a god, for the personage is seated on the lotus-flower, and the

alarm staffhas six loose rings, which number indicates a Bodhisattva. As Kshitigarbha is

1

According to the usual Buddhist legend, Buddha fur Volkerkunde, Berlin, and illustration, Olden-

invoked the earth goddess Prithivl or Sthavara. burg, Izviestia, Sfc. (Bull. Musee Pierre-le-Grand),2

v. group of eight Bodhisattva in the Museum St. Petersburg, 1909.

KSHITIGARBHA 91

especially worshipped by those entering the Northern Buddhist priesthood, it may be

that he is adored by them in this special form.

Among the temple banners discovered by Sir Aurel Stein in Chinese Turke-

stan, and now in the British Museum, are some very beautiful paintings of Kshiti-

garbha. He is either represented seated, holding the alarm staff in his right hand

and the naming pearl in his left, or standing, with one foot on a yellow and the

other on a white lotus, holding the flaming pearl in his right hand. In almost all the

temple banners from the Khotan his head is enveloped in a turban-shaped head-dress

with the ends falling over the shoulders.

Kshitigarbha is also represented as Master of the Six Worlds of Desire, which is

a very popular form of representing the god in Japan in temple pictures. He is

surrounded by :

1. A Bodhisattva, symbolizing the heaven of the gods.

2. A man, symbolizing the world of men.

3. A horse and an ox, symbolizing the world of animals.

4. A demon armed with a pitchfork, symbolizing the hells.

5. An asura, representing the world of asuras.

6. A preta, representing the world of spectres.

A temple picture representing this subject was found by Sir Aurel Stein in

Chinese Turkestan, proving that the form of Kshitigarbha with his alarm staff and

as' Master of the Six "Worlds of Desire

'

was brought into Japan from Central Asia.

In Japan he may wear a crown, and be represented carrying a lotus-flower in his

left hand. The right either holds the magic jewel, or is in mystic mudra : the fingers

are all extended upwards, and the thumb bent inwards touching the palm, a mudra

which the Japanese call' semui '. It seems to be a corruption of the vitarka mudra.

His usual form, however, in Japan, is his manifestation, Jizo.

N 2

92 THE DHYANI-BODHISATTVA

TI-TSANG (Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

(Over-Lord of Hell).

Chinese manifestation of Kshitigarbha.

Symbols: khakkliara (alarm staff).1 cintamani (magic jewel).

Before the god Ti-tsang became a Dhyani-Bodhisattva and' Deliverer from Hell ',

2

he was, according to the Ti-tsang siltra, a Brahman maiden, and his legend runs

as follows : There was once a Brahman maiden whose mother died slandering

the ' Three Treasures'

(Buddha, Dharma, Sangha), and to save her parent from

the torments of the damned, she made daily offerings before the image of an ancient

Buddha, imploring his help. One day she heard a voice telling her to return home

and meditate on the name of Buddha. She did so, and while in deep meditation her

soul visited the outposts of Hell, where she met the Demon-Dragon, who informed her

that through her prayers and pious offerings her mother had already been released

from Hell. Her heart was so touched by all the suffering souls she saw still in

Hell, that she vowed through innumerable kalpas to perform acts of merit to release

them.

In this same stltra Buddha announces to Manjusrl that the Brahman maiden

has become a Bodhisattva through her acts of merit and that her name, as such,

is'

Ti-tsang '. Thus the Brahman maiden became a masculine divinity and ' Over

Lord of Hell '.

Although Ti-tsang is the Begent of Hell, he does not judge the souls but,

according to Edkins,'

opens a path for self-reformation and pardon of sins '. Heseeks to save mankind from the punishments inflicted on them by the ten Judgesor Kings of Hell.

Ti-tsang is sometimes represented surrounded by the ten Kings of Hell, of

which the fifth, Yen-lo-wang, is the Chinese manifestation of the Indian god of

Death, Yama. The ten kings are always represented standing when in his presence.

Ti-tsang may be represented standing or sitting, and always as a round-faced,

benevolent person, carrying his special symbol, the alarm staff, topped by loose

rings, in his right hand, and the magic jewel in his left.

Women who have ugly faces pray to him and believe that, if they are devout

enough, they will be born for a million Jcalpas with beautiful countenances.

His place of pilgrimage is at Chin-hua-shan, on a mountain crater, where a

pagoda, ornamented with images of Ti-tsang and dedicated to him, soars above the

monasteries and temples that cluster about it, and forms a pious landmark from

the plains below.

1 Carried by mendicant Buddhist monks to' warn (Waddell). v. Khakkliara. -

off small animals lest they be trod upon and killed' 2

Ti-tsang-wang j/u-sa.

93

JIZO (Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

Japanese Manifestation of Kshitigarbha.

Symbol : sliakujo'

(staff topped with loose metal rings).

Jizo is the 'Compassionate Buddhist Helper' of those who are in trouble and

of women desiring maternity, in which latter case he is called Koyasu Jizo. He is

also the patron god of travellers, and, as such, his image is often seen used as a

signpost on the highways. Stones are sometimes heaped about his statues bybereaved parents, who believe that Jizo will

'relieve the labours of the young, set by

the hag Sho-zuko-no-baba, to perform the endless task of piling up stones on the

banks of the Sai-no-Kawara, the Buddhist styx'

(Satow).The position of Jizo in Hell does not seem to be so closely defined in Japanese

Buddhism as his manifestation in China. During the Kamakura period Jizo was

believed to be an incarnation of Yama-raja, king of Hell, the idea probably comingfrom China ; but he has never been confounded, however, with Emma-O,

' Over-Lord

of Hell '.

Jizo is worshipped as Master of the Six Worlds of Desire. In this form he is

only represented in paintings, and is surrounded by a Boddhisattva, a man, a horse

and an ox, a demon, an asura, and preta, thus symbolizing the Six Worlds of Desire.

The Tendai sect worship a group of six Jizos, or '

Compassionate Helpers ',which

may correspond to the ' Six Muni', presidents of the six worlds of rebirth of

Northern Buddhism. Three of these Jizos have the title of '

King of Hell '.

Legend recounts that a certain holy monk went to visit Emma-O, King of Hell,

and saw Jizo sitting among the damned, in the lowest of the hells, undergoing tor-

ments for the sins of mankind (Satow). This, however, would not be incompatiblewith his being king of Hell, for Yama, the Tibetan king of Hell, undergoes the same

torments as his subjects.

Jizo is usually represented as a shaven priest with a benevolent countenance,

sitting or standing.2 He wears the monastic robe, and, although a Bodhisattva, has

no ornaments, but may wear a crown. In his right hand he carries his distinctive

symbol, the sliakujo, an alarm staff topped by six metal rings, which represent his

vow to save all who follow the Six-Fold Path. In his right hand he may carry the

magic jewel, a rosary, or a Kongo flag. He is sometimes represented without the

shakujo, but rarely.

1 San. KJiakkhara;

v. Glossary.* v. PI. xxxiii, figs, a, b, and d.

94 THE DHYANI-BODHISATTVA

SARVANlVARANA-VISHKAMBHIN (Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

(The Effacer of all Stains).1

(T.) sgrib-pa rnam-sd (he who makes the realms of (J.) Jo-gai-sho (removing-covering-obstacle).

darkness). Mudra : vitarka (argument).

(M.) tuitger-tejin arilghaqU (the cleaner of moral • vara (charity).

spots). Symbol : candra (moon).

(C.) Ch'u-chu-chang (^ |g ($j|£).Colour : white.

In the Lotus of the Good Law the Bodhisattva Sarvanivarana-vishkambhin is

mentioned as holding conversation with Gautama Buddha, during which he expressesthe desire to see the wonderful form of Avalokitesvara. Thereupon Sakya-munisends him to Benares, where Avalokita miraculously appears to the sage Vishkambhin,who ever after

' enumerates the qualities of this divine being '.2

Vishkambhin belongs to the group of eight Bodhisattva found in the Northern

Buddhist temples, and according to Oldenburg3 is standing with hands in vitarka and

vara mudra. His special symbol, the full moon, and a symbol which is also carried byseveral of the Bodhisattva of the group, the pustaka (book), are supported by lotus-

flowers at either shoulder.

According to Pander,4 he may hold the sun, but the disc is more probably meant

to represent the full moon,5 for the sun is the special symbol of Akasagarbha of this

group. The Bodhisattva is seated with legs closely locked. The right hand, in

vitarka mudra, holds the stem of a lotus on which is a disc, and the left is in

vara mudra.

If in company with the Buddha, as Liberator of the Serpents, and Maitreya,

Avalokita, and Manjusri, he may hold a cintamani and an ambrosia cup.

In his Yi-dam form he stands with legs apart, on a prostrate personage lying face

downward. He wears a tiger-skin hung around his waist, and a garland of heads.

On the top of his ushnisha is a half-thunderbolt ; he has the third eye ; his right hand

holds a kapCda (skull-cup) and his left a grigug (chopper)-

1

E.DenisonRoss, Sanskrit-Tibetan-EnglishVoca- ill us. 149.

bvlary, Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.6 Sarva-nivarana never carries the moon-crescent,

2

Burnouf, Introduction, p. 201. but the full moon, and as his Sanskrit name signi-3Oldenburg, III. (Materially : 5, note on several fies

'effacer of spots ', and his Japanese name

images and Bodhisattva.)'

removing-covering-obstacle ', may there not be4 Das Pantheon des Tscliangtscha Hutuktu, p. 76, here a reference to the eclipse t

PLATE XXXIII

I

a. Jizo (Kshitigarbha) b. Jizo

C. KSHITIGAEBHA d. Jizo

95

FORMS OF MAftJUSRl

I. Humanform.

I. Withsword and

book.

II. Withblue lotus.

III. Withsword and

utpal.

II. Tantra forms.

Table IX

I. White (symbols on lotus sup-

ports) ; vitarka mudra.

II. Yellow (symbols on lotus sup-

ports); dJiarmacakra mudra;

seated on a lion.

III. Yellow (sword held in the

hand) ; may be simhanada.

I. Yellow (attitude 'royal ease') ;

on lion throne.

II. Yellow (dharmacakra mudra) ; -\

leg pendent ; on lion or|

lion throne.

III. Yellow (dharmacakra mudra) ;\

legs locked ; seated on a[

lion.J

IV. White (dhyana mudra) ;from

j

sadhana. I

V. White (vara mudra) ; legs

locked ; from sadhana.

I. Black or dark blue (kneeling, }

third eye). I

I. Yellow (one head, four arms) ; \

symbols : lotus, book, bow \

and arrow.

II. Yellow (one head, four to six

arms) from sadhana.'

a. Three heads, six

arms.

{ b. Three or four

heads, six or

eight arms.

IV. Dharmapala form.

V. Archaic form with §akti.

III. Three or

four heads.

I. Mafijugosha,

II. Simhanada-

Manjugosha.

III. Manjusn.

IV. Maharajallla-

Manjusrl.

V. MaiijusVl.

VI. Simhanada-

Manjusrl.

VII. Dharmasanka-

samadhi-

Manjusri.

VIII. Siddhai-kavira-

Manjusri.

X. Manjusri.

XI. ManjusnJafianasattva.

XII. Vajranaga.

XIII. Manjuvajra.

XIV. Dharmadhatu-

vagisvara.

XV. Yamantaka.

96 FORMS OF MANJUSRI

MANJUSRI l

(Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

(God of Transcendent Wisdom).

(T.) kdjam-dpal2

(pleasing splendour). Symbols : khadga (sword).

(M.) manjusri. pustaka (book—the Prajnaparamita).

(C.) Wen-shu-shi-li (^ Jjfo ffi %\\)- utpala (blue lotus).

(J.) Monju. Colour : saffron or white, red or black.

Mudra : dharmacakra (turning the Wheel of the Vahana (support) : lion.

Law). Sakti : Sarasvatl.

Different names: Manjugosha, Kumara,Vaji£vara,&c.

Manjusri, personification of Transcendent Wisdom, is the first Bodhisattva men-

tioned in the Buddhist scriptures, and as such his name frequently occurs in the

« Lotus of the Good Law '

in connexion with Sakya-inuni. In the Ndmasangtti he is

called' Adi-Buddha ', while in some of the sutras he is referred to as an historical

character.

According to Chinese Buddhism, the Bodhisattva Manjusri was informed byGautama Buddha that it was his duty to turn the Wheel of the Law for the salvation

of the Chinese, and the place chosen for the manifestation was Paflcasirsha (moun-tain of five peaks) in the Shan-si province. Legend relates that the five peaks of five

different colours were once upon a time of diamonds, sapphires, emeralds, rubies, and

lapis lazuli, that a flower grew on each peak of its especial colour, and that a different

shaped pagoda was on the summit of each peak.

When the time came for the manifestation of Manjusri, Gautama Buddha caused

a golden ray to burst from his forehead. It pierced a jambu-tree which grew from the

foundation of the mountain Paflcasirsha. A lotus sprang from the tree, and ' from

the interior of the flower was born the prince of sages, Arya Manjusri. His colour

was yellow ; he had one face and two arms ;in the right hand he brandished the

sword of Wisdom ; in his left he carried a book on a lotus of Utpala ;he was

endowed with the superior and inferior marks of beauty ; he was covered with

many ornaments, and he was resplendent.':! Thus he was born without father and

mother, and ' free from the pollution of the common world '.

But he is also referred to as being mortal. It is recorded in the Chinese

Buddhist books that the activity of Manjusri, in the first century, at Wu-t'ai-shan

(mountain of five peaks), was brought to the attention of the Emperor Ming-ti, while,

according to the Buddhist writer Yi-tsing, it was popularly believed in India in the

seventh century that Manjusri was at that time teaching the doctrine in China. 4

1

Manju-lrl. Monju, according to certain author!-2

According to Hodgson, Jam-yang.

ties, may possibly be a Tokharian word correspond-3Griinwedel, Mythologie, p. 138.

ing to the Sanskrit word kumara (hereditary prince).*Foucher, Iconograpldt bouddhique, p. 114.

PLATE XXXIV

a. Pu-h'ien (Samantabhadra) b. WiSN-sHu (Manjushi)

c. Monju (Manjusei) (I, K\VAN-YIN

%

MANJUSRI 97

In the SvayambM-purana1

it is related that Manjusri left Mount Paficasirsha to

visit the shrine of Svayambhu (Adi-Buddha), which was on a mountain near the Lake

Kalihrada. 2 He found the lake filled with aquatic monsters and the templeinaccessible. He therefore

'

opened, with his sword, many valleys on the southern

side of the lake . . . the waters of the lake rushed through the opening, leaving

dry land at the bottom ', and this was Nepal.He is believed by some to have been the founder of civilization in Nepal. By

others, to have been a ' Wanderer'

(mendicant Buddhist priest) who carried Buddhism

into Nepal. He is also supposed either to have been, or to have manifested himself as

the prime minister 3 of the Tibetan king, Srong-tsan-Gampo, who was sent to India

in the seventh century to study the Buddhist scriptures. It is also believed that

Manjusri may have been originally the deified hero of one of the Northern Chinese

tribes. Mitra claims that he wrote the Svayambhti-purana in the tenth century. Both

Padmasambhava and Tson-ka-pa are said to have been his incarnations.

The first day of the year is dedicated to Manjusri. He is looked upon by certain

sects as the god of Agriculture, by others as the Celestial Architect, and is believed

to have inspired, with his divine intelligence, those who have been active in the

propagation of the Buddhist doctrine. He is the god of Science, and swings his

sword of Wisdom with its flaming point to dissipate the darkness among men, to cleave

the clouds of Ignorance. The Chinese say that when he preaches the Law everydemon is subjugated, and every error that might deceive man is dissipated. He is

an extremely popular deity in all the Northern Buddhist countries, and one often

sees his image in magic paintings, charms, and mandah.

Manjusri belongs to the group of eight Dhyani-Bodhisattva, and is therefore

represented like a prince with all the Bodhisattva ornaments. He may have a small

image of Akshobhya in his crown, and his ushnisM is sometimes ornamented at the

top by a flaming pearl. The tirna is generally on his forehead, and, if painted,

his colour is usually yellow, but may also be white, red, or black.

Manjusri or Manjugosha, as he is frequently called in the sddhana, has two dis-

tinct types : one with the sword and book, which is his more usual form, and the

other with the utpala or blue lotus.

The sword symbolizes the cleaving asunder (dissipating) of the clouds of Igno-rance ; the book 4 is the Prajndpdramitd, Treatise on Transcendent Wisdom. It is

represented in the usual form of the Nepalese book, which is made of palm-leaves, cut

long and narrow, the manuscripts being placed between two pieces of flat wood,the whole bound together by a string. The book may be held in the hand of Manjusri,but is more generally supported by an utpala, and surmounting it is sometimes a

flaming pearl.5

The representation of Manjusri with the sword and book has several variations.

1Mitra, Nepalese Buddhist Literature, p. 249. l'lnstitut de France, No. V.

v. also Hodgson, The Languages, Literature, and * Thu-mi-Sam-bhota.

Religion of Nepal and Tibet, p. 116. 4

Pustaka; v. Glossary.*

v. Nepalese temple painting, Bibiiotheque de 6 Cintamani;

v. Glossary.

98 FOEMS OF MANJUSRl

1. He is seated with the legs locked; the right arm is lifted brandishing the

sword ; the left hand holds the book on his lap.1

2. Like the above, except that the book is supported by a lotus-flower at his left

shoulder. The stem of the lotus is held in the left hand in vitarka mudra. This form

may be on a lion.

3. Both the sword and book are supported by lotus-flowers ; the stems are held

by the hands ; the right hand is in vara mudra, the left in vitarka. He is white and

is usually called Manjugosha. When this form is standing, it belongs to the groupof eight Bodhisattva.

4. Like the above, except that the hands are in dharmacakra mudra; the left leg

is pendent ; the deity is usually seated on a lion or lion throne.

The above forms of Mafijusri are more commonly found in bronzes, while the forms

with the blue lotus are oftenest seen in paintings and sculpture.

The representation of the blue lotus differs from the pink in that the petals are

closed, elongated in form, and presented in profile. Sometimes the first row of outside

petals is turned back, but the centre of the utpala is always hidden by the petals.

There are various forms of Mafijusri holding the blue lotus, which symbolizes the

teachings of Buddha :

1. MaJmrajalila-Maiijusrl. He is seated, as his name indicates, in the attitude

called'

royal ease ', with the right knee lifted, over which hangs the right arm; the

left leg is bent ; the left hand, holding the stem of the utpala (which is on a level with

the left shoulder), leans on the lion throne or on the back of the lion support.If painted, he is yellow. Several very fine examples of this form were found in

the Magadha, and one of them, seated on a lion, reverses the above attitude, the left

knee being lifted. 2Maharajallla-MaiijuSri, when seated on a lion, closely resembles

the Simhanada-LokesVara, but the latter may be identified either by the antelope skin

over his left shoulder (PI. xxxv, fig. d) or by a trident,3 while the Mafijusii has no

distinguishing mark besides the blue lotus, not even the sword, which, in the represen-

tations of the Simhanada-LokesVara, usually rises from the lotus-flower. If painted,

they are easily identified, for the Maharajalila-Mafijus>i is yellow on a blue lion, while

the LokesVara is white on a white lion.

2. He is seated with legs closely locked, or, if on a lion or a lion throne, with the

right leg pendent. The hands are in dharmacakra (teaching) mudra, with the stem of

the utpala, which is on a level with his left shoulder, wound around the left arm above

the elbow. If painted, he is yellow.

3. Mafijusri may be seated on the lion throne with the left leg pendent ;the

hands are in dharmacakra mudra and the utpala is at the left shoulder. His colour

is yellow.

4. Like the above, except that the legs are locked and he is seated on a lion.

1 In Java the book is sometimes held at the p. 115.

breast. sv. Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, Partie ii,

2A. Foucher, Iconograplde boitddhique, illus., p. 33,

PLATE XXXV

a. Man.juski b. Manju4iu

c. Manju^ri d. SlMHANADA-LOKESVARA

MANJUSRI 99

5. He is seated with the legs locked ; the hands are in dhyancc mudra. This form

is white, and is called Dltarmasanka-samadliirMafijusri.

6. Like the above, except that the right hand is in vara mudra, and the left holds

the stem of the lotus. He is also white and is called Siddhai-Kavlra.

Manjusri may have only the sword and utpcda, and be sitting, standing, or kneeling

on one knee. 1 The right arm, which is lifted, holds the sword, and around the left arm

is wound the stem of the lotus. If painted, in this form, he is black, and has

the third eye.

There are various other forms of Manjusri :

Mafijuvajra is a form of Manjusri represented with his s"akti. Both have three heads

(the centre head is red ; the one to the right, blue ;to the left, white). Symbols :

two vajras, a sword and lotus, bow and arrow. The yob is red and the yumis pink.

Vajranaga Manjusri is standing and may have four or six arms. Symbols : sword,

utpala (or book), bow, arrow ;if six arms, with a mirror and branch of asoka as

well. If painted, he is yellow.

Dharmadhatu Manju&ri is seated. He has four heads : centre, white ;to right, saffron ;

to left, reddish yellow ; behind, rose. He has eight arms;the normal arms

are in '

teaching'

mudra; the six others hold sword, book, bow and arrow, &c.

Manjusri, archaic form (see illustration, PI. xxxv, fig. b). He is with his sakti, whomhe holds on his knee in the archaic fashion, instead of in the attitude yab-yum.

He has five heads, the fifth being above the central one, and eight arms, with

four holding swords and the others books. He may also hold the sword and

lotus with various other symbols (PI. xix, fig. c).

Manjusri is one of the '

eight Terrible Ones'

in his Dharmapala form of Yaman-

taka. His head, yellow in colour and with a slightly irritated expression, is usually

above the head between the horns of the Bhairava form of Yamantaka (PI. lii,

figs, c and d).

In China as' Wenshu ', and in Japan as

'

Monju ', Manjusri is seldom worshipped,

except in a triad with Amitabha and Samantabhadra. He is represented in both

countries seated on a lion and holding a sword (PI. xn, fig. b, and PI. xxxiv, fig. c).

The monastery of Wu-t'ai in the Shan-si province is one of the most holy places

of pilgrimages in China, and Manjusri is worshipped there by the Mongols as well as

by the Chinese.1

v. PI. lxiii, fig. g.

o 2

100 THE DHYANI-BODHISATTVA

MAHASTHANAPRAPTA (Dhyani-Bodhisattva)

(He that has obtained great strength).

(C.) Ta-shih-chih (^£ |^ ^§). Mudra : vitarka (argument).

(J.) Sei-shi, or Dai-sei-shi. vara (charity).

Mahasthanaprapta is believed to be the deification of Maudgalyayana,' the right-

hand disciple of Gautama',

x and although he is a Dhyani-Bodhisattva, he does not

belong to either the group of five or of eight Dhyani-Bodhisattva. He is mentioned

with Avalokitesvara in the Lotus of the Good Law as well as in the SukMvati-vyuha,which dated from the first century A. c, but Mahasthana does not seem to have been

represented in either paintings or bronzes in Nepal or Tibet.

In China, however, one frequently finds him in a triad at the right of Om-i-to Fo

(Amitabha), with Kwan-yin (Avalokitesvara) at the left, which is the place of honour

in .China.

In Japan he is looked upon as the manifestation of the wisdom of Amida. 2 Onefinds him in a triad with Amida and Kwan-non, or worshipped alone. There is a statue

of Mahasthanaprapta at the Zen-ko-ji temple, said to have been made by Sakya-munifrom gold found at the foot of a Beiruri-tree on the south side of Mount Meru (Satow).

TRAILOKYA-VIJAYA 3

(Subduer of the Three Worlds).

(C.) Kiang-san-kie (Jftfc=

^). Symbols : vajra (thunderbolt).

(J.) Go-san-ze. ghanta (bell).

Mudra : vajra-hum-kdra. Colour : blue.

In the TrailoJcya-vijaya sddhana, translated into French by M. A. Foucher,4 there

is the following description of this divinity about whom very little is as yet known :

On a sun (red platform) from the blue syllable' Hum !

' was born the lord Trailokya-

vijaya ;he is blue, with four faces and eight arms : his first face expresses amorous

fury ;that at the right, anger ; that at the left, disgust ; the face at the back,

1

Grunwedel, Buddhist Art, p. 205. (conqueror), v. Loka.

2 v. Amida.4

Iconographie bouddhiqiie, Partie ii, p. 58, illus.,

3 Trai (tri, three), loka (loka, world), vijaya p. 59.

TRAILOKYA-VIJAYA 101

heroism ;in his two (original) hands are the bell and thunderbolt ; he makes on his

breast the gesture called vajra-hum-kara ; his three hands at the right hold (beginning

at the top) a sword, elephant-goad, and an arrow ; the hands at the left carry (begin-

ning from below) the bow, lasso, and a disc ; he is upright, stepping to the right

on the breast of Parvati ; among other ornaments, he wears a garland made of

little images of Buddha. 1

In the court-yard of the Brahman convent at Bodh'-Gaya there is the statue of

a divinity which corresponds with this description in every particular, except the

minor detail of the bow and arrow being held in different hands in the statue from

the description in the sadhana.

Trailokya-vijaya (Go-san-ze) is worshipped in Japan as one of the five Devas who

are called myo-o (maha deva). He is believed to wage war against and conquer the evil

spirits who pretend to have created the Universe, and to be Protectors of the Three

Worlds, and who seek to upset the laws of Karma. He is represented making the

mudrcl of anger (djo Fudo) with both hands, and the wrists are crossed to indicate

intensity of anger.In the Vajradhatu there is a magic circle of nine assemblies. The eighth

assembly is called Trailokya-vijaya-karma, or the '

three-world-subduing-action-

assembly'. Nanjio writes 2 that 'it shows the state of Maha-krodha-kaya (great-

anger-body) manifested by Vajrasattva3 to destroy the enemies of the three worlds '.

Again, in the ninth assembly, there is reference to Vajrasattva.' It shows the state

of the form of Samaya or argument4 of Vajrasattva -who holds the bow and arrow.' 5

We see from this that in Japan Vajrasattva is the Subduer oftlie Three Worlds ; first,

to destroy the enemies of Buddhism in the three worlds, and, secondly, when holding

the bow and arrow, to warn living beings. It might be inferred from this that

Trailokya-vijaya is a special manifestation of Vajrasattva when conquering the

celestial and terrestrial worlds, as well as the ' under'

world.

1 In Java several statues have been found which 3v. Vajrasattva.

correspond with this description. A. Foucher, 'Notes 4 Is not 'agreement 'here meant? Samaya means:

d'archeologie bouddhique,' Bulletin de VEcole fran- convention, contract, engagement, and also'

identi-

caise de VExtreme-Orient, 1909, p. 48. fication with the Buddha'.2 A Short History of the Twelve Japanese Bvd- 6

v. Kongo-satta.

dhist Sects, p. 95.

FEMININE DIVINITIES 1

Table X

I. Attri-

butes.

I. Onehead.

^

I. Twoarms.

( I. One or

three

heads.

II.

Several \

heads.

I. Twoto six

arms.

II. Six to

ten arms

II.

I. Green ; right foot pen-dent on lotus sup-

port Green Tara.

II. White; legs locked . White Tara.

III. Yellow; right foot may

be pendent . . . Yellow Tara.

II. Lute ........... Sarasvati.

III. Lute and white snake Aryajangull.

{ IV. Chopper and skull-cup .... Ekajata.II. Four to sixteen arms Cunda.

III. Eight arms, sword, wheel, arrow, lotus . . . Ekajata with Tara.

I. Draws the bow, danc-

ing Kurukulla.

f1. Angry, red . . Bhrikuti (angry)

i II. Calm, white . . Bhrikuti (calm).

III. Vase, spike of grain . Vasudhara.

IV. Book Prajnaparamita.I. One head, two arms . Marlcl.

II. Three heads, of which

one is that of a sow Marlcl.

I. Six arms Bhrikuti (angry).II. Six or eight arms, apron of leaves . Parnasavari.

II.

Double thunderbolt ....II. Two parasols, third eye, some-

times four heads . . .

1Vajra-varahi.Na ro-mk'ha-spyod-ma.

Vajra-dakinl.Simhavaktra.

IVajradhatvisVari.Locana.

The Pafica Dhyani-Buddha Sakti < Mamakl.

Pandara.

Tara.

II. Three

heads. Ushnlshavijaya.

Sitatapatra-

DakinI

Table of J. Deniker,

FEMININE DIVINITIES

Until the female principle was glorified by Krishna, the Aryans had exclusively

worshipped Agni, the male principle in the universe, their only feminine divinity

being the virgin goddess of the Dawn, Ushas.

The Aryans did not admit the feminine principle in their worship until civiliza-

tion in India had become more refined, but, at the same time, weakened. Brahmawas given a feminine counterpart

—Sarasvati, goddess of Speech and Learning and

patroness of the Arts and Sciences;Vishnu received as consort the goddess of Love

and Beauty, Lakshmi ;while the Maha-Devi, Parvati, whose ferocious forms are

Durga and Kali, goddess of Death, became the sakti of Siva.

The Mahayana school had also its period of the exclusive adoration of the male

principle, from the first to the middle of the sixth century A. d., at which epoch the

Yoga system was grafted on to the Northern Buddhist school by Asanga, and the

adoration of the feminine principle was introduced in the form of the goddess Tara.

In the seventh century she took on two distinct forms, and in the succeeding centuries

her forms multiplied, forming a group of twenty-one Taras. Other goddesses, also

having the rank of Bodhisattva, made their appearance, but none of them gained the

popularity of Tara.

By the seventh century the corrupt influence of the Tantra system had begun to

weaken the austerity of the Northern Buddhist school, and not only did Tantra,

or ferocious forms of the goddesses, appear, but the adoration of the Sakti, or female

energy of a god, was introduced, and the '

green'

Tara was declared the Sakti of

Avalokitesvara.

Gradually the popular belief throughout Tibet and Mongolia developed in favour

of the view that a god was more disposed to listen to and grant their requests when

worshipped in company with his Sakti. As a result, nearly every god was givena female energy, who was represented with him in the yab-yum

1attitude, which was

the final sign of degradation of the Mahayana school.

In China the only feminine divinity whose popularity equalled the masculine

deities was the goddess Kwan-yin. She was, however, not worshipped as the consort

of Avalokitesvara, but as a feminine manifestation of the god himself, for a specific

purpose—as was also the goddess Kwan-non in Japan.

The worship of the Sakti was never adopted in China or Japan. The only repre-

sentations of a god in yab-yum attitude are found in the few Lama temples still

existing in China.

In Japan several goddesses of the Mahayana pantheon are worshipped ; but

1v. Glossary.

104 FEMININE DIVINITIES

in both China and Japan the male principle alone is considered of primal importance,

since no woman, without gaining masculinity through re-incarnation, can enter

Sukhavati, the paradise of Amida.

There are three forms of feminine divinities : goddesses with rank of Bodhisattva,

fakti, and dakinl.

The goddesses are divided into two classes : the pacific and the angry.The pacific goddesses are generally represented seated, and wear the thirteen

Bodhisattva ornaments, including the five-leaved crown. They are of smiling expres-

sion, and usually have the urna on the forehead. The hair is long and wavy.The angry goddesses, with dishevelled hair, the third eye, and Tantra ornaments

and attributes, resemble the Dharmapala form of the gods.

The sakti are rarely represented alone, but in the embrace of the gods, and are of

pacific or angry form according to the god with whom they are represented. Theyare generally covered at the hips by a tiger or lion skin, and have either Bodhisattva

or Tantra ornaments and attributes.

The dakinl are divinities of lesser rank, and are generally represented standingin a dancing attitude. Although they may have either pacific or angry forms, theyare always represented with Tantra ornaments and attributes, and generally carry the

khatvanga, or magic stick claimed to have been invented by Padmasambhava. The

dakinl are believed to have given to the guru Padmasambhava the books in an unknown

language, on which he is said to have founded the doctrines he preached in Tibet.

There is a group of five dakinl that seems to correspond with the five Dhyani-Buddhas and Bodhisattva :

Buddha dakinl holding a wheel.

Vajra ,, ,, thunderbolt.

Ratna „ „ jewel.

Padma ,, „ lotus.

VisVa „ „ double (thunderbolt).

Pander •

gives still another dakinl called ' Karma ', holding a sword.

1 Das Pantheon des Tschangtscha Hutuktu, p. 91, No. 226.

PLATE XXXVI

104

ffVlXINE DIVINITI

IVXXX 3TAJ<I , , .

ale principle alone is < ..- nmal lmpoi

lining masculinity•

nation, can enl

ujwftw of Amida.

:iine divinit ddesses with rank of Bodhisatt''

into two dattM : the pacific and the angry.

pat 'ile&n are general! esented seated, and wear the thirte

v. . . i ornament . Deluding tl re-leaved crown. They are of smiling exprand usually have the firm ot forehead. The hair is long and wavy.The angry goddess's, with -lied hair, the third eye, and Tantra ornamei

and attributes, resemble the 1 >:iarmapala form of the gods.The ktkti are rarely r< ed alone, but in the embrace of the gods, and are

pacific or angry form a g to the god with whom they are represented. Thare generally covered at ips by : d have either Bodhisatt

or Tautra ornamen.

The dakinl are diviniti represented standi

dancing attitude. Altho icific or angry forms, tli

are always repr< I with Tantra ornaments a aid generally carry t

khatvanga, or magi'

as&vkx&faivttid i®'- baxT a-rmW I 'admasambhava. I

dakinl are believed to have given to the guru Padmasambhava the books in an unkno1

language, on which he is said to have founded the doctrines he preached in Tibet.

The up of five dakinl. that seems to correspond with the five DhyiiBuddhas t d Bodhisattva:

lha dakinl holding a wheel.

„ ,, thunderbolt,

tna „ „ jewel.

Padma ,. „ lotus.

sva „ ,, double (thunderbolt).Pai ives still another dakinl called

' Kami

1 Dag Pantheon des TtchnnyUeka Mtfubto, p. 91. No. 226.

*0I

• • •'•

-• •

I

105

TARA (rank of Bodhisattva)

(The Saviouress). .

(T.) sgrol-ma (dbl-ma), or rol-ma (the Saviouress). Colour : white or green.

(M.) dara eke (Tara, the mother). Tantra forms : blue, yellow, or red.

(C.) To-lo (Kfe j§||).Consort of Avalokitesvara : white.

(J.) Ro-tara-ni-bl $akti of Avalokitesvara : green.

Mudra : vitarka (argument).Different names : Jarigull, Ekajata, BhrikutI, Kuru-

vara (charity).kull5 > Sitatar». Ac-

Symbol : parkaa (lotus).

The goddess Tara was enrolled among the Northern Buddhist gods in the sixth

century ; by the seventh, according to Hiuen-teang, there were many statues of her

in Northern India, and between the eighth and twelfth centuries her popularity

equalled that of any god in the Mahayana pantheon. Many temples and colleges

were dedicated to her, and there was hardly a household altar without a statue of

Tara. Her worship extended to Java, but neither Tara nor any other goddess was

worshipped in Ceylon,1 Burma, and Siam. The Southern Buddhist school never

adopted the feminine divinities.

' Tara ', the Sanskrit name of the goddess, according to M. de Blonay, is derived

from the root'

tar'

(to cross). In other words, Tara helps to cross the Ocean of

Existence. The Tibetan translation of ' Tara'

is sgrol-ma (pro. dol-ma), which means

saviouress'

or '

deliveress '. Her Mongolian name ' Dara eke'

means ' Tara mother ',

and she is called the 'mother of all the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas '. The faithful

may appeal to her directly without the intermediary of a lama, which is not the case

with the other deities of first rank, and possibly accounts for her great popularity.Her titles are to the mystic number of 108, and the manual of worship of Tara is

commonly found throughout Tibet. It is called the ' Praises and Spells (dharanl) of

the pure, original Tara ', and is believed to have been written by the Dhyani-BuddhaVairocana

;

2 but the author was more probably the monk Vairocana, who lived in the

eighth century.There are infinite legends in regard to the origin of Tara, one of them being that

she was born from a blue ray that shone from the eye of Amitabha. The generally

accepted legend, however, is that a tear fell from the eye of the god of Misericordia,

Avalokitesvara, and, falling in the valley beneath, formed a lake. From the waters

of the lake arose a lotus-flower, which, opening its petals, disclosed the pure goddessTara.

The lamas believed that Tara was incarnate in all good women, and in the seventh

1 A plaque, considered to be of the ninth century,2 Also alleged to have been composed by the first

however, has been found in Ceylon, on which is of the seven mythical Dhyani-Buddhas, VipaSyi.

inscribed a prayer to the goddess Tara.

1686 p

106 . FEMININE DIVINITIES

century they declared the two pious wives of the Tibetan Buddhist king, Srong-tsan-

gampo, incarnations of Tara. She was then given two distinct forms : the ' white ',

believed to be incarnate in the Chinese princess Wen-ch'eng, daughter of the emperorof China

-,

1 and the '

green ',incarnate in the Nepalese princess Bribsun, daughter of the

Newar king Amsu Varman. The white and green Taras thus became distinct deities.

The former was given as symbol the full-blown white lotus, while the latter carried

the utpah, or blue lotus with the petals closed.

As the lotus opens by day and closes by night, the white Tara with the full-

blown lotus, and the dark Tara with the utpala having its petals closed, may symbolize'

day'

and '

night' 2

. Or in other words, since they were born from the tears shed byAvalokitesvara, they may represent his never-ceasing grief at the miseries of mankind.

Or they might also symbolize the willingness of Tara to soothe human suffering by dayas well as by night, for it is believed that Avalokitesvara imposed on her that duty.

In support of the above hypothesis, M. de Blonay mentions a representation of

Tara found in a Jain temple in the fort of Dambal. 3 She is seated, holding a full-

blown lotus in her hand. To the right is a sun, to the left a moon under which is

a standing figure holding a lotus with its hand in namahkara (prayer) niudra. In the

library of the Institut de France there is a temple-painting of Padmapani, with

the sun emanating from the right eye and the moon from the left (see Padmapaniwith twelve emanations). The white Tara was born from a tear which fell from the

right eye, and the green Tara from a tear from the left eye of Avalokitesvara. It is

also interesting to note that the second Tara in the group of twenty-one Taras

is called'

of white moon brightness ', and that the seventeenth Tara carries a sun anda moon.

The Tantra forms of Tara made their appearance when the Northern Buddhist

school became weakened by the pernicious influence of the Tantra system. These

ferocious forms of the goddess were represented in the three colours : red, yellow, and

blue, which, with the white and green pacific forms, completed the five colours of

the five Dhyani-Buddhas of whom they were believed to be the SaMi.

In the collection of Tibetan temple pictures belonging to M. Bacot, there is a

painting of Tara with ' one thousand heads and arms '. The heads are arranged in tworows on either side of the central row, superposed one above the other ad infinitum, and

the five rows are painted green, red, white, yellow, and blue. She is represented

standing, which is very unusual in Tibetan representations of the goddess (PI. xxxviii).The Taras are almost always seated, but if they accompany AvalokitesVara, or any

other important god, they are usually standing. Tara may be surrounded by her ownmanifestations as well as by other gods.

The non-Tantra forms of Tara wear all the Bodhisattva ornaments, and are

1

Wen-ch'eng is believed to have brought with in Heaven 1 The reply is that it is determined '

byher from China the sandal-wood statue of the the closing of the Padma flower and the opening of

Buddha, which is now at Lhassa;

it is said to be the Utpala flower : in the former case, it is night ;

gilded. in the latter, day '. Beal, Catena, p. 78.2 In the Vibasha Shatter the question is asked,

3

Godefroy de Blonay, Materiaux pour servir a

What is it determines the period of day and night Vhistoire de la deesse bouddhique Tara, p. 9.

PLATE XXXVII

a. Tara b. Tara (Simhanada)

c. Tara d. Tara

100

TARA 107

smiling and graceful. Their hair is abundant and wavy. The Tantra forms have

the ornaments and symbols of the Dharmapala, with the hair dishevelled and the

third eye.

In Japan Tara is found more often in temple banners than in statues, and is little

worshipped.The Japanese believe that Tara made two vows : to conquer evil (as green Tara)

and to save human beings (as white Tara). There is, however, in Japan but one

form of the goddess. She holds the lotus, and may be making'

charity'

and'

argument'

mudra, or have the hands folded. Her colour is a whitish green, and she

never has eyes on the palms of her hands or the soles of her feet like the Tibetan white

Tara. She holds the blue lotus or the kichi-jis-Jcwa (pomegranate), which is believed,

as in India, to drive away evil.

In China her worship is practically unknown, although Hiuen-tsang mentions

a statue of the goddess Tara,' of great height and endowed with divine penetration ',

and says that on the first day of each year, kings, ministers, and powerful men of the

neighbouring countries brought flower offerings of exquisite perfume, and that the

religious ceremonies lasted for eleven days with great pomp.

WHITE TARA

(S.) Sitatara.

(T.) sgrol-dkar (pro. do-kar) (the white saviouress). Symbol : padma (full-blown white lotus).

(M.) jaghan dara eke (the white mother Tara). Consort of AvalokiteSvara.

Mudra : vitarka (argument).

vara (charity).

The white Tara symbolizes perfect purity, and is believed to represent Transcen-

dent Wisdom, which secures everlasting bliss to its possessor. She is the consort

of Avalokitesvara, and is represented at his right hand, generally standing.

In Tibet she is considered a form of the green Tara, but in Mongolia, where

the goddess is extremely popular, she is looked upon as equal, if not superior, to the

green Tara.

This form of Tara is white, as she is believed to have been incarnate in the

Chinese wife of the Buddhist king Srong-tsan-gampo, who was of white complexion

according to Buddhist accounts, but was probably painted, following the Chinese

custom.

When alone or surrounded by acolytes, Sitatara is represented seated, with the

legs locked, the soles of the feet turned upward (PI. xxxvn, fig. d). She wears the

same garments and ornaments as a Bodhisattva, and her hair is abundant and wavy.Her right hand is in '

charity'

mudra, and her left, holding the stem of the full-blown

lotus, is in'

argument'

mudra. She generally has the third eye of fore-knowledge, andp 2

108 FEMININE DIVINITIES

if there are eyes on the palms of her hands and the soles of her feet, she is called' Tara of the Seven Eyes

'

(PI. xxxvi). This form is most popular in Mongolia, and

may be found (but rarely) in China. As the sakti of Amoghasiddha (according to the

system of the five Dhyani-Buddhas) she is represented seated with legs closely locked,

her hands in '

argument' and '

charity'

mudra, holding the stems of lotus-flowers

which support the visvavajra or double thunderbolt, symbol of the fifth Dhyani-Buddha. 1

Janguli-Tara is a Tantra form of Sita-Tara, and is invoked to cure serpent stings.

She is represented with four arms;with the normal ones she plays on a lute, with the

second right hand she makes the mudra of protection, and with the second left hand

she holds a snake. If painted, she is white,2 as well as her clothes, ornaments, and

the snake she holds.

It is interesting to note that, in Japan, Sarasvati is worshipped in the form

of a white snake. The lute which the Jangull-Tara carries is the special symbol of

Sarasvati, while the white snake, which is the special symbol of the Jahgull-

Tara, symbolizes Sarasvati !

GREEN TARA

(S.) Syamatara.

(T.) sgrol-ljah (pro. do-ngon) (the green saviouress). Symbol : utpala (blue lotus, closed).

(M.) noghoghan dara eke (the green mother Tara). Sakti of AvalokiteSvara.

Mudra : vitarka (argument).

vara (charity).

The green Tara is considered by the Tibetans to be the original Tara. In fact,

the Tibetan name for the goddess is dd-ngon, which means ' the original Tara,'

; but

ngon (original) has been confused by the ignorant lamas with sngo, meaning'

green'

(or blue), and the epithet'

green'

has become inseparable from this form of Taraj

which symbolizes the Divine Energy.She is represented seated on a lotus-throne, the right leg pendent, with the foot 3

supported by a small lotus, the stem of which is attached to the lotus-throne. She

is slender and graceful in her pose, which is somewhat more animated than that of the

white Tara. She is dressed like a Bodhisattva and wears the thirteen ornaments,and usually the five-leaved crown (PI. xxxvn, figs, a and

c).

Her hair is abundant and wavy. Her right hand is in'

charity'

mudra, and her

left, which is in'

argument'

mudra, holds the blue lotus presented in profile.

1

Represented on the walls of the Vihar of Yama 3 In one of the miniatures in the MS. Add. 1643

Guti in Cathmandu. • in the University Library, Cambridge, she has both2 There is' a green form of Janguli with four arms, legs pendent,

and a yellow form with six arms and three heads.

GREEN TARA 109

The utpala is represented either with all the petals closed or the central petals

closed, while the outside rows are turned back. The artists, however, do not alwaysfollow tradition and sometimes erroneously give the green Tara the full-blown lotus of

the white Tara (PL xxxviii). She may be represented' Simhanada ', that is to say,

that her lotus-throne is supported by a roaring lion (PI. xxxvn, fig. b). The goddess

may also be represented with a small image of Amoghasiddha in her head-dress, both

when alone or as a sakti, and she usually has the urna on her forehead.

If represented in company with several gods, she is usually at the left of the

principal god, but in miniatures is sometimes at the right of Avalokitesvara. She

may be accompanied by eight green Taras or only by her manifestation, Ekajata,

and the goddess Marici, or by Jangull and the goddess Mahamayuri.In the latter case she is called Bhanada,

'

giver of treasures ', and has four arms.

The upper normal ones make the usual mudra, while the other two hold a lasso and

elephant goad.

The green form of the Jaiiguli-Tara has four arms and holds Tantra symbols.

The ' Taras of the four Dreads'

is a group of four ferocious Taras, of which,

unfortunately, the author has been unable to find either examples or description.

The titles of the twenty-one Taras,1

according to Mr. Waddell, are the following :

1. Tara the supremely valiant.

2. „ of white-moon brightness.

3. „ the golden coloured.

4. „ the victorious hair-crowned.

5. ,, the ' Hun '

shouter.

6. „ the three world best worker.

7. „ suppressor of strife.

8. „ bestower of supreme power.

9. ,, the best providence.

10. „ dispeller of grief.

11. „ cherisher of the poor.

12. „ brightly glorious.

13. „ universal nature worker.

14. j, with frowning brows.

15. „ giver of prosperity.

16. „ subduer of passions.

17. „ supplier of happiness.

18. ,, excessively vast.

19. „ dispeller of distress.

20. Realization of spiritual power.21. Completely perfect.

S

1 For description of the twenty-one Taras, see and his consort Tara ', Tlie Journal of the Royal

Waddell, 'The Indian Buddhist cult of Avalokita Asiatic Society, Jan. 1894.

110 FEMININE DIVINITIES

YELLOW TARAS

Bhrikuti.

(The goddess that frowns.)

(T.) k'ro-gnyer-can-ma (she whose face is wrinkled Symbols : trisula (trident).

with anger [or frowning]). mala (rosary).

(M.) kilingtil eke (the angry mother). padma (lotus).

Mudra : vara (charity). kalasa (vase).

Bhrikuti 1 is an angry form of Tara, and has one head and four arms. The lower

right hand is in'

charity'

mudra, sometimes holding a lotus ; the upper one holds

a rosary. In the left hands are a trident and a vase. She is generally standing,

especially if she accompanies Amoghapasa, a form of Avalokitesvara, but, accordingto a sadhana translated by M. Foucher, she may be reclining. She has the third eyeand her brows are frowning.

Bhrikuti may also have three heads and six arms, but in this form she is blue

(v. Blue Two).

Khadiravani-Tara is a form of the yellow Tara. She is represented seated, with

the right leg pendent, but the foot is not supported by a small lotus asana like the

green Tara. The right hand is in '

charity'

mudra and holds the stem of a full-blown

lotus-flower. The left hand is in'

argument'

mudra and holds the stem of an utpala.

She may be accompanied by the goddesses Marici and Ekajata.

Vajra-Tara is represented with four heads, eight arms, and the third eye. She is

often found in Mandala, where the four doors of the magic circle are guarded by the

Yogini (fairies) Vajrankus% Vajrasphoti, and Vajraghanta. The four corners are

guarded by four Taras,' of the flowers ',

' of the incense ',

' of the lamp ', and' of

the perfume '. The right hands hold a thunderbolt, arrow, and conch-shell, and form

the mudra '

charity '. The left hands hold the blue lotus, bow, elephant goad, and

lasso. If painted, she is yellow.

Jahgull-Tara is represented with three heads and six arms. The yellow form does

not carry the lute as does the white Janguli, but holds all Tantra symbols.

1PI. lxi, fig. a.

PLATE XXXVIII

Taea

Ill

BLUE TARA

Ekajata (or Ekajati)

(She who has but one chignon)

or Ugra-Tara (the ferocious Tara).

(T.) ral-gcig-rna (lit.' she who has one knot of hair').

Ekajata is a ferocious form of Tara, and, with Lhamo (see), is one of the most

terrifying manifestations in the Mahayana pantheon. In her simplest form she is

the assistant of the green Tara, and is represented seated, holding in her two hands

the chopper and skull-cup.

When not the assistant of Tara, she has from four to twenty-four arms, and is

generally standing and stepping to the right on corpses. She has the third eye, is

laughing horribly, her teeth are prominent, and her protruding tongue, accordingto the sadliana, is forked. Her eyes are red and round. Her hips are covered by a

tiger-skin, and she wears a long garland of heads. If painted, her colour is blue, and

her chignon is red. She is dwarfed and corpulent. Her ornaments are snakes. If

she has but four arms her symbols are : sword, knife, blue lotus, and a skull-cup, or

she may carry the bow and arrow instead of the last two symbols. If she has twenty-four arms, she carries several non-Tantra symbols and the rest are all Tantra. Theyare the following :

Bludgeon.Knife.

Tambourine.

Eosary.Bow.

Lasso.

Index raised.

1.

112 FEMININE DIVINITIES

RED TARA

Kurukulla.

(Goddess of Wealth.)

(T.) ku-ru-ku-le (goddess of wealth). Symbols : capa (bow).

Mudra : abhaya (blessing of Fearlessness). s'ara (arrow).

The goddess Kurukulla is called by M. Foucher ' the heart of Tara '. She

is worshipped by unhappy lovers, but can only be invoked when no woman is

near. Red is the colour of love in India, and, according to the sadhana translated

by M. Fouchier :

x The Happy One is red of colour;red is the lotus on which she is

seated ;red is her clothing ; red her crown ; she has four arms ; at the right,

she makes the abhaya mudra, and with the other hand holds the arrow ; at the left,

with one hand she holds the precious bow, and with the other the red lotus. Amitabhais seated in her tiara ; she lives in a grotto in the Kurukulla mountain ; she beamswith the emotion of love in all the freshness of youth ;

it is thus that one must

imagine Kurukulla.

She is usually represented in dancing attitude, sometimes on the demon Rahu,but she may be seated. If standing, the right leg is raised and she stands on the left,

which is also bent. She either wears a crown of skulls or a band surmounted by five

ornaments, the central one of which is a wheel surmounted by a skull. A small imageof Amitabha may be in her head-dress. Her expression is ferocious and she has the

third eye. She wears a long garland of heads and a scarf, the stiff folds of which rise

above her shoulders at the back of her head. Her breast and hips are covered with

ornaments. With her normal arms she draws the bow and arrow. With the other

two hands she may make the abhaya mudra and hold a vajra or lasso. Her colour is

red, her hair is yellow (PI. xliii, figs, a andb).

She is the goddess of Wealth and follows in the suite of the god of Wealth,

Kuvera, but is not his consort or saJcti.

There are other still more ferocious manifestations of Kurukulla, with six and

eight arms, represented dancing on corpses.

1

Iconographie bouddhique, p. 73.

PLATE XXXIX

^*-

a. AlZEN-MYO-O b. Makici

C. Buddha, ascetic cl. JUNTEI KWAN-NON

113

SARASVATI

(Goddess of Music and Poetry).

(T.) dbyafis-can-ma (having a melodious voice), or

nag-gi-lha-mo (goddess of speech).

(M.) kele-jin iikin tegri (goddess of speech).

(C.) Ta-pim-ts'ai-t'ien ngiu {y^. ^f ~/f ~Jt, jK)(goddess of great eloquence), or Miao-yin-fo-mu

(J.) Ben-zai-ten (or Benten).

Symbol : vina (lute).

Colour : white.

Vahana : peacock.

Sakti of MaiijuirT.

Sarasvati is the sakti of both Brahma and Mafijusri. As goddess of music and

poetry, she is revered alike by Brahmans and Buddhists, and her worship has

penetrated as far as China and Japan.In India and Tibet she is generally represented seated, holding with her two

hands the vina, or Indian lute;but in Tibet she may hold a thunderbolt, in which

case she is called Vajra-sarasvati. If painted, her colour is white and her mounta peacock.

1

The Aryajanguli, a form of the white Tara, also holds a lute in two of her four

hands, but the special attribute of this goddess is a white snake. In Japan the

white snake is believed to be a manifestation of Sarasvati, from which we must infer

that the Japanese have confounded the two goddesses, Sarasvati and Jangull.

According to the sadhana,2 she has a Tantra form in Tibet which is red, with

three faces, six arms, a warlike pose, and Tantra attributes.

In Japan the goddess Benten is looked upon as a manifestation of Sarasvati.

Her full name is Dai-ben-mi-ten, or' Great Divinity of the Reasoning Faculty ', and

she is believed to confer power, happiness, riches, long life, fame, and reasoning

powers. She is also one of the Seven Gods of Good Luck—the only feminine divinityof the group.

In regard to the goddess Benten, there is the following ancient Japanese legend :

Once upon a time there was a monstrous dragon that devoured all the children wholived in the neighbourhood of the cave where he dwelt. A violent earthquake took

place and the goddess Benten appeared on a cloud. From the waters suddenly

emerged the island Enoshima, and the goddess Benten, descending to the island,

.' married the dragon,

3 and put an end to his ravages ". It is probably in reference to

1

v. PI. XLII.

2 A. Toucher, Iconographie bouddhique, vol. ii,

p. 89.

3 It is not impossible that this Japanese legendoi

-

iginated in China, for, according to Yu-kie, who

recounted his travels to the Chinese emperor and

his court in the beginning of the sixth century a.d.,

there existed to the north-west,' about 1,000 li from

China, a kingdom of women who took serpents for

husbands. These serpents were inoffensive. They

remained in holes while the women, their wives,

lived in houses and palaces.' Marquis d'Hervey

de St. Denis, Memoire sur le pays connu des anciens

Chinois sous le nom de Fou-sang.

Q

114 FEMININE DIVINITIES

this legend that the goddess is generally represented either sitting or standing on a

dragon or huge snake. She has only two arms, and holds a biwa or Japanese lute.

Hayashi Kazan, a sixteenth-century writer, states in his Jinshako (studies on

shrines) that Tairo-no-Tokimasa once repaired to the shrines of Enoshima to prayto the goddess for the prosperity of his descendants. She appeared to him in the

form of a beautiful woman, prophesied as to the future of his descendants, and then,

turning into a huge snake, wriggled away into the sea.

It is probably on account of the belief that Benten is closely connected with

snakes and dragons that her shrines are always in caverns, on islands, or near the sea.

In one of the temples of Kamakura there is the representation of a coiled snake 1 with

a man's head having a scraggy beard, which the common people worship as the

goddess Benten. Yanagiwara Motomochi, a writer of the eighteenth century, states

in his Kansojigo that a painting of Benten with three heads and a serpentine bodyhad been handed down in his family for generations, and was believed to have come

originally from a temple in Kyoto.Tse Teijo, another eighteenth-century writer, says, in his Anzaizuihitsu, that the

form of Benten which has a woman's head and a serpentine body came from RomanCatholicism, where ' Deus was so represented '. He further states that whenCatholicism was repressed and the followers were persecuted by the government, at

the end of the sixteenth century, they worshipped this form of God, calling it

Benten.

But, although there are many legends of Benten connecting her with the snake,

there is nothing which explains the meaning of the snake, or whether Benten and

the snake are one and the same or only'

mistress and servant '.

The goddess Benten also has, in Japan, a Tantra form with eight arms. Herattributes are : a sword, spear, axe, box, arrow, lasso, thunderbolt, and a ' "Wheel of

the Law '.

According to Satow, Benten is believed, by certain sects, to be a sister of Vishnu,

and by others a feminine manifestation of Vairocana ; but in her form with the lute

she is unquestionably a manifestation of Sarasvati.

1v. illustration, PI. lviii.

PLATE XL

4

MakIci (?)

m

115

CUNDA

(T.) tsunda. Symbols : kala4a (vase).

(C.) Chun-ti(Jj£ ^). mala (rosary).

Mudra : dhydna (meditation). pustaka (book).

Colour : red (or white).

The goddess Cunda has two representations—one with four arms and another

with sixteen. She may even have eighteen, for there is a statue of Cunda in the

courtyard of the house of the Mahant of Bodh-Gaya with eighteen arms.

According to the sadhana, the form with four arms is red, and the upper handshold the rosary and book, while the lower are in ' meditation

'

mudra and hold the

vase. She has a sweet expression.Cunda with sixteen arms is warlike in appearance, but besides the sword, hatchet,

bow, arrow, and thunderbolt, she carries a rosary, lotus, vase, &c, and one of her

hands may be in '

charity'

mudra, while the original pair of hands are in'

teaching'

mudra.

VASUDHARA (or Vasundhara)

(Goddess of Abundance).

Mudra: charity. Colour : yellow.Symbols : kalasa (vase). $aM of Kuyera

spike of grain.

Vasudhara, goddess of Abundance, is the Sakti of Kuvera, god of Wealth. She is

always represented with one head, but may have from two to six arms, and wears all

the Bodhisattva ornaments. When she has but two arms, the left hand holds a spike

of grain, while the right holds a vase, out of which pour a quantity of jewels.

Vasudhara, represented with six arms, holds in the lower left hand her character-

istic symbol, the vase : the hand above holds another distinguishing attribute,

the spike of grain. The third hand holds a book, the Prajnaparamita. The lower right

hand, lying on the knee, is in'

charity'

mudra, and may hold a lotus-bud ; the one

above holds a jewel, while the upper hand makes a mudra of salutation. The right leg

is usually pendent, and the foot is unsupported or rests upon a vase which is

supported by a lotus asana, like her consort Kuvera. In the Nepalese miniatures,

however, she is sometimes white instead of yellow, and holds the bow and arrow,

a spike of grain and three peacock feathers.

She may have a small image of Ratnasambhava in her head-dress, and be

accompanied by four minor goddesses or eight YakshinT. According to Waddell

Vasudhara is a form of the Indian goddess Hariti. 1

1v. Hariti.

q2

116 FEMININE DIVINITIES

PRAJNAPARAMITA 1

(Goddess of Transcendent Wisdom).

(T.) S'es-rab-pha-rol-tu (lit.' she who lias arrived on Mudra : dharmacakra (turning the Wheel of the

the other side of superior wisdom'). Law).

(M.) bilig-un cinadu kijaghar-a kiirilksen (being Symbols : pustaka (book).

possessed of more than superior wisdom). mala (rosary).

Colour : yellow.

Prajilaparamita, is a personification of the attribute she carries, the sacred book,

which Gautama Buddha is believed to have given the Nagas to guard until mankind

should become sufficiently enlightened to understand its Transcendent Wisdom. The

goddess is, in fact, an incarnation of the Divine Word.

In Nepal, according to Bhagvanlal Indraji, she is worshipped by those who desire

to know the true doctrine, and in Java she is also popular, but in Tibet she is almost

unknown.

Prajfiaparamita is represented with all the Bodhisattva ornaments, and may have

two or four arms. If there are but two arms the book is supported by a blue lotus at

her left shoulder, and the hands are in'

teaching'

mudra.2

If she has four arms the upper hands carry the book and rosary, or the upper left

hand may hold the stem of a blue lotus which supports the book, and the upper

right make the dbliaya mudra, while the lower hands in both cases are in dharmacakra

mudra.

A small image of Akshobhya may be in her head-dress, and there is usually the

urna on her forehead.

By certain sects she was looked upon as the sakti of Vajradhara.

1

Prajna (wisdom), para (farther side), mita Kanjur.

(arrived at). The Prajiiaparamita is the name 2 See illustration, Havell, Indian Sculpture and

of one of the divisions of the sacred books, the Painting, PI. xiv.

117

MARICI (rank of Bodhisattva)

(lit. Eay of Light)

(Goddess of the Dawn).

(T.) liod-zer-can-ma (she of the brilliant rays).

(J.) Marishi-ten.

Symbols : asoka (branch).

vajra (thunderbolt).

Colours : yellow or red.

Vahana : seven pigs.

Consort of Hayagriva.Different names : Vajravarahl and ASokakantft.

The goddess MaricI is called in China '

Queen of the Heavens'

and ' Mother of

the Dipper '. In Tibet her title is' Goddess of the Dawn ', and, according to

M. Foucher, is invoked by the lamas every morning at sunrise. Among the common

people she is not so popular as Tara, but there are several shrines dedicated to her in

Tibet, and in her Vajravarahl form she is believed to be incarnate in every successive

abbess of the monastery of Semding.

Vajravarahl means the ' Adamantine sow', and there is a legend

f to the effect

that one of these abbesses had an excrescence behind her ear which resembled a sow's

head. A Mongol warrior, Yun-gar, when attacking the monastery, called out

insulting challenges for the abbess to come forth and show her sow's head. When the

walls were destroyed and the army invaded the place, they found it inhabited by sows

and pigs, led by a sow bigger than the rest. Yun-gar was so amazed at the sight

that he stopped the pillage, at which the sows and pigs became transformed into

monks and nuns, and the largest sow into the abbess herself. Yun-gar became

converted at the miracle and enriched the monastery.This legend does not, however, explain the origin of the name '

Vajravarahl ',

which is more ancient than MaricI, nor why, when the goddess is represented with

three heads, the one at the left is that of a boar ; nor the reason for her chariot

being drawn by seven pigs.

In Japan MaricI is believed to reside in one of the seven stars forming the

constellation of the Great Bear. In India the Aryans may also have identified her

with that constellation which they called riksha, Sanskrit word for either ' bear '

or '

star '. If that was the case, it is not impossible that the first representations

of MaricI were made with a bear-support (instead of a boar). As the bear was little

known in India the artists may have represented an animal which somewhat

resembled a wild boar. The Great Bear itself is not true to nature, having a longtail. In the statues of MaricI from the Magadha, especially the one in the Calcutta

Museum, the head which, according to tradition, should resemble a sow, resembles

1v. Waddell, Lhassa.

118 FEMININE DIVINITIES

no animal in particulai\ If we accept the hypothesis that the original animal

associated with Marici was a bear, the representations of which, with time, changedinto a boar and sow, the seven pigs that draw her chariot might represent the

seven stars of the constellation of the Great Bear.

Marici is evidently the goddess Aurora of the Aryans, for the sadhana refer to

her as riding in her chariot surrounded by a glory of flame-shaped rays. Herseven pigs were possibly inspired from the seven horses that draw the chariot of

Surya, the Sun God.

When Marici accompanies the green Tara she is always at her right and is

called ASokakanta. She is seated on a lotus-throne, which may be supported by a pig,

yellow in colour, and her legs are either locked or with the right leg pendent. She

has the third eye. In her left hand she carries a branch of the asoka-tvee, and her

right is generally in '

charity'

muclrd, but may be in'

argument'

mudra or holding the

vajra. She may, however, be seated on the pig with the right hand in vara and the

left in vitarka mudra (PI. xli, fig. a).

She has a yellow form with three heads and eight or sixteen arms. The face

at the right is red and the one at the left, a boar's head, is blue ; on each face is

the third eye. Her attributes are : the thunderbolt, hook, arrow, needle, branch of

a&oka, bow, thread, and a hand in mudra with the index raised. Vairocana is in her

head-dress. She steps to the right on a chariot drawn by seven pigs, or may be

seated on a lotus supported by seven pigs. According to the sadhana, she is

surrounded by the four goddesses : Vattali (red), Vadall (yellow), Varall (white),

Varahamukhl (red). It is this form that is called'

Vajra-varahl ', and is representedmore often in sculpture than in paintings.

A red form of Marici has three heads and ten arms, and is her most hideous

representation. She is corpulent, and brandishes in her ten arms only warlike

attributes. In her dishevelled hair is a horse's head, and as she is the consort of

Hayagriva it is probably in this form that she is considered his sakti.

According to the sadliana,1 there is a white Marici with ten arms and four

legs, treading on Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, as well as a red Marici with six

heads and twelve arms. In this latter form the first head is red ; the second,

blue ;the third, green ; the fourth, yellow ;

the fifth—on top of the heads—white ;

and, above this, the sixth, which is a sow's head. She carries practically the same

attributes as the other forms, and has, for covering a tiger-skin and wears a long

garland of skulls. She is seated on a sow, and is most hideous and terrifying.

The Vajravarahl form of Marici may be a dakirii with a sow's head and woman's

body, nude, and stepping to the left on a prostrate body. She has a skull crown, the

third eye, and wears a long garland of heads and many ornaments. In her left

hand is a skull-cup and in her right a chopper. She is usually accompanied bytwo acolytes.

In Japan Marici is generally represented seated on a lotus-throne supported

1 A. Foucher, Iconograjtiie bouddhique, vol. ii, p. 96.

PLATE XLI

a. Maiuci h. USHNISHAVIJAYA

C. USHNISHAVIJAYA d. KWAN-NON

118

MABICI 119

by seven pigs (PI. xxxix, fig. b). She has three heads, of which the one at the

right is a sow's head (while in India it is always placed at the left), and has

usually six arms, the original ones holding the thread and needle. Behind her

head, instead of a nimbus, is sometimes the eight-spoked Buddhist wheel.

There is a curious Japanese example of Marlcl (PI. xl) holding a caitya. Behind

her head are three faces, of which one is a sow's head.

PARNA^AVAIil

(T.) Lo-ma-gyon-ma (dressed with leaves). Colour : yellow.

Distinctive mark : apron of leaves.

Parnasavari is a follower of Tara, and is specially interesting on account of the

apron of leaves that she wears, which, according to Mr. Griinwedel, shows that she

was worshipped by the aboriginal tribes of India. One of her names is'

Sarvasa-

varanam bhagavatl ', or goddess of all the Savaras (Savar or Saora),1 and there is still

a tribe in Eastern India known by that name.

She is represented turning to the left, but kneeling on her right knee. She is

yellow, and has three heads—white, yellow, and red, and although her expression is

irritated, she is smiling. In her six hands she holds a thunderbolt, hatchet, arrow,

bow, lasso, and a branch of flowers. 2

In the miniature (PI. lxi, fig. b) she is not represented according to the text.

Her colour should be yellow instead of green, and the three heads are white, green,and blue. The apron of leaves is missing, and, instead of the vajra, she holds a sword.

Otherwise, the symbols are the same as the above representations.

1 Savar means a ' mountaineer'

or '

savage '.

2Pander, Das Pantliemi des Tscliangtscha Ilutuklu, p. 80, No. 165.

120.FEMININE DIVINITIES

USHNlSHAVIJAYA

(lit. Victorious Goddess of the Ushnlsha).1

•

(T.) gtsug-tor-rnam-par rgyai-ma (victorious mother Symbols : visva-vajra (double thunderbolt).with a complete ushnlsha). ambrosia cup.

(M.) rasiian usnir-tu (she who has a nectar small image of Buddha.

(anointed2

) head-dress). Colour : white.

Mudra : dharmacakra (turning the Wheel of the

Law), or vara (charity).

Ushnlshavijaya,'

having the intelligence of the most splendid Perfect One ', is a

very popular goddess in Tibet as well as in Mongolia, and is one of the earliest

feminine divinities.

She is always represented seated, her legs closely locked, and with the soles of

both feet apparent. She has three heads, of which the one at the right is yellow, the

central head is white, and the face to the left is black. They are all, as a rule, sweet

in expression, and have the third eye. She has eight arms. The two normal ones

either hold a double thunderbolt at her breast, or are in dharmacakra mudra. The ones

underneath are either in ' meditation'

mudra, holding an ambrosia vase, or the right is

in '

charity'

mudra, while the left holds the vase. Of the two upper arms, the hand

at the right holds a small figure of Buddha, which may be supported by a lotus-flower,

while the left is in abhaya mudra. The other symbols vary, but may be the bow and

arrow, lasso, vajra, or one of the hands in abhaya mudra, or with the index raised

(PI. xli, figs, b andc).

Her hair is drawn up in a high chignon (ushnlsha) behind the crown, in which

may be a small image of Vairocana. Ushnlshavijaya is sometimes accompanied

by Avalokitesvara at her right and Vajrapani at her left.

In the bronze statues the vase she carries somewhat resembles the ambrosia

vase of Amitayus. There are the four ornaments falling from under the cover of

the vase, and from the cover itself rises an asoJca branch. The vase, however, is

sometimes perfectly plain, and, according to a sddhana translated by Mr. Griinwedel,

may be 'crowned by Vairocana's crown'. M. Foucher, in his translation of

another sddhana, calls it the ' vase de fortune '.

In Japan her form resembles the Tibetan representation of the goddess, but

she is little known.

1 Ushnlsha;

v. Glossary. Cambridge, there are several representations of ain-

3 In the MS. Add. 864 in the Univei'sity Library, brosia being poured over the ushn'isha of the gods.

PLATE XLII

120

IIJX ITAJq •IES

3HAVIJA1

ou8 God( Ushnlsha).1

(is :iK IMC Symbols : vUva-vajra (double thunderbolt),

ambrosia cup.

small image of Buddha.

r : white.

lg the \\)mi <

hnlshavyaya,'

ha-s

y popular goddess in•

is always represent**

^parent. She I

white, and

m, and have t\

ear hold a double thund

underneath are either in'

in'

cha- , while

at the right holds a small

while the left is in abhuyu

arrow, lasso, vujra, or one i

xli, figs.I and c).

r hair is drawn up.11 image of

by A at her i

In m tfc

vase of

« p.'Lii her f«

plendid Perfect One ', is

as well as md is one of the earli<

Mated, her I, and with the sole*

ITAV3AHA8

ve. I

n

<:h the < right is yellow, »

black. They are all, as a rule, sw<

s. The two norm.

it he mudra. The 01

ion'

i a vase, or the right

hold the two upper arms, the ha

i Bud ay be supported by a lotus-flow

her symbols vary, but may be the bow a

in ubhat/a mudra, or with the index raw

.jnon (u | behind the crown, in whj

-.•ana. Ushnishavijaya is sometimes accompani:lm at her I

<-hm carries somev bles the ambro

tfnaneuts falling from under the cover

•ka branch. T e vase, however.

iunstated by Mr. Griinwed

kh c M Fou' d his translation

repress of the goddess, fc

121

SITATAPATRA

(Invincible goddess of the White Parasol).

(T.) gdugs-dkar-can-ma (goddess of the white para- Symbol : atapatra (parasol).

sol).Colour: white.

(M.) caghan sigiirtei (having a white parasol).

Sitatapatra (lit. white parasol) is one of the titles of Avalokitesvara, according to

the sadhana,1 but there is also a goddess, Sitatapatra, who is looked upon as a form

of Tara, and has the rank of Bodhisattva. She may possibly be a feminine

manifestation of the god of Misericordia, or the sakti of a special form of the

Avalokitesvara.

The goddess Sitatapatra is white in colour and may have three heads (blue,

white, and red), or four heads with one at the back. With either form she has

eight arms, and the two normal hands hold her special symbol, the parasol, under

which she is believed to protect all true believers. (With the right she holds a

parasol at her breast, with the left another on her knee.) The other hands hold

the wheel, bow, arrow, book, and lasso. She may have the third eye, but her

expression is sweet.

NA-RO-MK'HA-SPYOD-MA

(Na-ro residing in the heavens).

(S.) Sarva bvddhadakini.

Symbols : kapala (skull-cup).

grigug (chopper).

khatvcunga (magic stick).

Colour: red.

The dalcinl Na-ro-mk'ha-spyod-ma is patroness of the Saskya sect and an acolyte

of the dakini Vajra-varahl.2

She is represented stepping to the left on two personages and drinking blood

from the skull-cup in her left hand, while the left holds the chopper. She has

the third eye, and wears a crown of skulls, a long garland of heads, and manyornaments. She balances the magic stick, the khatmnga, on her left arm. If

painted, she is red, and the two personages under her feet are red and blue

(PL lv).

1 A. Foucher, Iconograplrie bouddhique, vol. i, p. 110.!

v. Maria,

122 FEMININE DIVINITIES

SIMHAVAKTRA (dakini)

The lion-headed dakini Simhavaktra is in the suite of Lhamo, whom she

follows, carrying a chopper and skull-cup.

When she is represented alone she dances on a personage, and holds, besides

the above symbols, a khatvanga. She has a lion's head, her hair is erect, and she

wears a crown of skulls. If painted, she is blue with a white head. She may be

accompanied by the lion-headed witch Vyaghravaktra and the bear-headed witch

Rikshavaktra..

VAJRA-DAKINI.

She dances with one foot on a man lying on his back. In her right hand is

a vajra and a skull-cup in her left. Under the arm is a khatvanga. She has a

third eye, her hair is erect, and she wears many ornaments. The personageunder her feet may be missing (PI. xliii, fig. c).

THE PANCA DHYANI-BUDDHA SAKTI

On the wall of the Vihar of Yama Guti in Cathmandu are, according to

Hodgson, high reliefs of the five Sakti of the Dhyani-Buddhas. (See illustration,

Sketch ofBuddhism, Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii, PI. in.)

All of the five Sakti are dressed as Bodhisattva with the five-leaved crown,

and have the lower limbs in the same position, called by Hodgson the '

Lallita-

asana ', but the more common term is'

royal ease'

(v. Asana). They all hold the

right hand in vara mudra, and the left in vitarka pose, except :

1. VajradhatviSvari, whose hands are in dharmacakra mudra, like her Dhyani-Buddha Vairocana. A lotus-flower at each shoulder supports a flaming pearl in

which is the Nepalese yin-yang. Her symbol may also be the triangle (v. trikona).

2. Locana, sakti of Akshobhya. Her hands in vara and vitarka mudra hold the

stalks of lotus-flowers, each of which supports a vajra standing on end.

3. Mamaki, Sakti of Ratnasambhava, has the same attitude and mudra as above.

Both of the lotus-flowers support three peacock feathers.

4. Pandara, sakti of Amitabha. The lotus-flowers are closed (the utpala) and do

not support a symbol (v. Green Tara).

5. Tara, Sakti of Amoghasiddha ; the lotus-flowers support double vajras.

PLATE XLIII

The

Yi-dam.

THE YI-DAM (TUTELARY GODS) 1

Table XI

I. Derived

from

Dhyani-Buddhas.

I. Vajra at his feet

' cakra.

II. With sahti,

holds bell and

/

vajra.

eintamani. -

patra.

I. Vajrasattva.II. Vairocana.

III. Akshobhya.IV. Ratnasambhava.

V. Amitabha.

\ visva-vqjra. \ VI. Amoghasiddha.

II. Derived from the Bodhisattva Manjusri. VII. Mafijuvajra.2

Vajrapani.III. Derived from Dharmapala. .J Manjusri.

Kuvera.

IV. Forms

purelyYi-dam.

I. Seven heads, sixteen arms,

four legs

I. Three heads, six

II. Less arms . . .

than I. Four

seven|

II. Four

(

heads. heads.

VIII. Mahacakra. 3

IX. Yamantaka.

X. Jambala 4

XL Hevajra.

XII. Sang-dui.

XIII. Mahamaya.

1 Table of J. Deniker.*

v. Manjusri.

arms.

II. Twelve)

XIV. Samvara.

arms. j XV. Kalacakra.

3v. Vajrapani.

4v. Kuvera.

R 2

THE YI-DAM (GOD-PROTECTORS)

Every lama puts himself under the protection of a special Yi-dam. He prepares

himself for the event by solitude, meditation, and asceticism, after which, if the

divinity accepts the guardianship, he will reveal himself when the lama is in a proper

meditative state. The Yi-dam may be chosen for a lifetime, or for a given enter-

prise. A lama may even choose several at a time, but his choice must be keptsecret to be efficacious.

It is possible for a layman to be put under the protection of a Yi-dam

through the intercession of a lama ; but he cannot appeal directly to his tutelary

god, he can only do so through a lama. Tara is the only divinity of first rank

to whom a layman may appeal directly.

The Yi-dam are almost invariably represented with their sakti. In fact, the

ydb-yum attitude is the Yi-dam form of the five Dhyani-Buddhas. It is considered

that a tutelary god is more efficacious if worshipped in company with his consort.

The god-protectors have the rank of Buddha and are divided into two classes :

the ' mild'

and the '

angry'

types.The ' mild

'

Yi-dam are ' crowned'

Buddhas represented with the thirteen

ornaments of the Bodhisattva. They hold the usual symbols : wheel, rosary, lotus,

jewel, &c.

The '

angry'

Yi-dam are less fierce in aspect than the Dharmapala. They wear

the crown of skulls, but the skulls are smaller and are ornamented by Bodhisattva

ornaments. The hair is drawn up in a high ushnisha, and they wear many ornaments

besides the long garland of heads. Their symbols are Tantra : skull-cup, vajra,

chopper, &c, and, if painted, their colour is blue.

PLATE XLIV

a. Heya.tra with his sakti b. HayagkIva

c. Hayagriva with his sakti d. Kuvera (Nara-vahana) with his sakti

124

VJX tfTAJ<I

(T.) kye-ba-rdo-rje (oh, ebariii tfcaad

(M.) kevafra.

The tutelai

in his worship » *K6w

conversion of the Mongoo.

Hevaji'a is represent*-

three heads on either -

have the third eye. Above t

may be disposed in two tiers oi

are only seven heads.

All of the sixteen hands hold ski

of animals : an elephant, a horse, a 1

*.<.<! eareaaoBiei timd

bead on mpa. In those at the right . <res

ill, a camel, a man, a deer, and a c

In the skull-cups held by the btf hands are personages which, accon

to Griinwedel, are :

1 . God of the water—Varna*2. God of air—Va

3. God of

4. G5. G6. G7- Godde*

8. A terra

The colour of

AHT.AVaH

»ji*

head (which is blu

brown, and blue. The eight -

Two of the legs step to I

the back are in dancii

He is generally i

and the iakti, whher outstretched ri

yah and the yum wear nun .

•

the skull or the Bodhisat t

as the usual Bodhisattva sea;

painted, he is blue as

-ee heads a* (antral

e head*- left tw•

i

m human bein c ;s at

m attitude (PI. xlv;and PI. xliv, fir

dy of the yum with her legs, holds a flrigug in

ie left is around the neck of the god. Both the

aid all the heads are crowned,

ajra weart- garland of heads, at

tany ornamentv It

i

PLATE XLV

125

HEVAJRA (Yi-dam)

(T.) kye-ba-rdo-rje (oh, eternal thunderbolt!). Symbol : kapala.

(M.) kevajra. Colour : blue.

The tutelary god Hevajra is described, with all the rites and ceremonies used

in his worship, in the sutra of the Hevajra tantra, which figured historically in the

conversion of the Mongolian emperor Khoubilaii in the thirteenth century A. D. 1

Hevajra is represented with eight heads, sixteen arms, and four legs. There are

three heads on either side of the central head, which is larger than the rest, and all

have the third eye. Above the central head is another head. The heads, however,

may be disposed in two tiers of three, with a head on top. In this form there

are only seven heads.

All of the sixteen hands hold skull-cups. In those at the right are figures

of animals : an elephant, a horse, a mule, a bull, a camel, a man, a deer, and a cat.

In the skull-cups held by the left hands are personages which, accordingto Grunwedel, are :

1 . God of the water—Varuna : yellow.

2. God of air—Vayu : green.

3. God of fire—Agni : red.

4. God of the moon—Candra : white.

5. God of the sun—Surya : red.

6. God of death—Yama : blue.

7- Goddess of riches—Vasudhara : yellow.

8. A terrestrial god—

(?) : yellow.The colour of Hevajra is blue, and the three heads at the right of the central

head (which is blue) are red, blue, and white. The three heads at the left are yellow,

brown, and blue. The eighth head, which surmounts them, is a reddish brown.

Two of the legs step to the right on human beings, while the two legs at

the back are in dancing position.

He is generally represented in yab-yum attitude (PI. XLV ; and PI. xliv, fig. a),

and the Sakti, who encircles the body of the yum with her legs, holds a grigug in

her outstretched right arm, while the left is around the neck of the god. Both the

yab and the yum wear many ornaments, and all the heads are crowned, either with

the skull or the Bodhisattva crown. Hevajra wears a long garland of heads, as well

as the usual Bodhisattva scarf, and from a girdle hang many ornamented ribbons. If

painted, he is blue as well as the sakti.

1v. Mu/takala,

126 THE YI-DAM

SANG-DUI (Yi-dam)

(S.) Guhyasamaja.

(T.) dpal gsan-ba-hdus-pa (the secret assembly). Symbols : cahra (wheel).

(C.) Kuan-tsi-tsai fa.cintamani (magic jewel).

vajra (thunderbolt).

Sang-dui belongs to the mild type of Yi-dam and is dressed like a Bodhisattva,

or rather a * crowned'

Buddha, for he has the rank of a Buddha. He is always

represented seated, and has three heads. Each head has a five-leaved crown. In

the central leaf of the crown, on the middle head, there is generally a wheel, and his

high ushnisha is surmounted by a flaming pearl. He has six arms. The original ones

are crossed behind the back of the sakti and hold the vajra and ghanta. The others

hold the wheel, magic jewel, &c. The Sakti also has three heads, and in the central

leaf of the crown, on the middle head, is a small image of Amitabha. She has six

arms and holds the same symbols as the yah.

MAHAMAYA (Yi-dam)

(T.) ma-hha, mha-yak, or tsahs-pa (Brahma). Symbols : kapala (skull-cup).

(C.) Ta-huan-kin-kang. c&pa (bow).

Sara (arrow).

Colour: blue.

Mahamaya is the Yi-dam form of Brahma and, as a ' mild'

Yi-dam, is dressed like

a ' crowned'

Buddha. He has four heads, on each of which is a Bodhisattva crown,

and he does not have the third eye. He has four arms, the two normal ones are

crossed at the back of the sakti and hold each a kapala. The other hands hold a bowand arrow. There is sometimes a human skin over the shoulders. The sakti also

holds a bow and arrow. Mahamaya is generally seated, but may be standing, in

which case he rests on one foot while the other is raised, as if he were dancing. In

this case he, however, holds the sakti in the same attitude as if he were seated.

PLATE XLVI

oS

a

oa3t>

aw«

SB

o

>a-

302

HMg

NIC

CO

><

oa

X

oa<x

h-3

126

127

SAMVARA (Yi-dam).

(T.) bde-mc'oy (the best happiness). Ppecial symbol : four-faced head of Brahma.

(C.) Sanpa-lo(EE j$t !§)•Colour: blue (sakti, cherry).

Mudra : vajra-hum-kara (arms crossed on breast).

Samvara is believed to be incarnate in the Dalai-lamas of Peking, and his place O^fl H) i.

of pilgrimage, in the province of Tsa-ri, is visited not only by Chinese Buddhists but r , . ..

by pilgrims from Nepal and Tibet.(e '' f(M

As Yi-dam he has the rank of Buddha, and is the most complicated manifestation f\fS g a('\

{-

in the group. His four heads, if painted, are : the central one, blue ; the one at thebhfffef *-£ Q

right, white;the one at left, green ; the one at the back, red. On each head is a

crown of five skulls, above each of which is a flaming pearl, or an ornament like that

on the Bodhisattva crowns.

In the central ornament may be the small image of a Dhyani-Buddha. The highushnlsha is surmounted by a flaming pearl, and is decorated, at the left by a half-moon,

and in front by a double thunderbolt. Each face has a third eye and angry

expression.

He is represented with twelve arms. The original ones are crossed in vajra-hum-

kara mudra, and hold the vajra and ghanta (thunderbolt and bell). The upper arms

hold an elephant skin, which entirely covers his back (PI. xlvii, figs, c and d). The

others hold the head of Brahma (four-faced), a khatvanga (magic wand), and other

Tantra symbols. He wears a long garland of heads, and in the illustration in Pander's

Pantheon he has a tiger-skin hanging from the waist. He steps to the left on

the nude figure of a four-armed woman holding a khatvanga, and on the right treads

on a four-armed man with a tiger-skin covering. The group is on a lotus with jagged

petals.

Like all the Yi-dam, he is often represented with his Sakti, whom he clasps to his

breast, his arms crossed behind her back. The Sakti holds a skull-cup and a chopper,

and, if painted, is cherry colour, while Samvara is blue. There may be a glory

of flames J

surrounding the group.There is an example of Samvara (PI. xlvi, fig. b) which, as far as the author

knows, is unique. He is seated on the mule of Lhamo with the eye in the haunch,

and holds a Sakti, which is probably Lhamo herself.

In the Museum fiir Volkerkunde in Berlin there is a most curious fresco of

Sarpvara, brought from Turfan by Herr von Le Coq.

1Illus. 63, Das Pantheon des Tschangtscha Hutuktu.

128 THE YI-DAM

KALACAKRA

(Wheel of the Time).

(T.) dus-k'or (wheel of time). Symbols : vajra (thunderbolt).

(M.) iagh-un kiirde (he who turns the wheel of khadga (sword).

time). Colour : dark blue, or tricolour (blue, white, red).

Mudra : vajra-hum-kara. iakti (orange).

Although the god Kalacakra is represented in all the Tibetan paintings of the

Tsok-shin, or assembly of the gods, he is but rarely mentioned in the Northern Buddhist

texts. As Kalacakra is the title of a work in one of the divisions of the Kanjur, on a

mystic system in Nepal (also called Kalacakra). it is possible that the god Kalacakra is

a personification of that work, in the same way that Hevajra personifies the Hevajra

Tantra, and the goddess Prajiiaparamita, the Prajnaparamita, or Treatise on Tran-

scendent Wisdom.

In the temple banners Kalacakra is represented either as a Bodhisattva or a

Yi-dam. As a Bodhisattva he wears a five-leaved crown, the traditional Bodhisattva

ornaments, and is yellow ; but this form is very rare. He is usually represented as a

Yi-dam with four heads, on each of which is a third eye. He may have twelve or

twenty-four arms, but never has more than two legs. In his Yi-dam form he is

dark blue, his body is covered by a tiger-skin, and he wears a belt formed

of vajras.

Kalacakra is always represented in the yab-yum attitude, and may hold his

sakti, with either two or four arms. If the former, he carries a vajra and

ghanta. If the latter, he holds two vajras, a flaming sword, and a symbol difficult

to determine. In a Tibetan drawing belonging to M. Deniker x he has twenty-fourarms and holds many symbols, among which are, at the right : a flaming sword, a

trident, a chopper, an arrow, an axe, &c. At the left his hands carry : a khatvahga,

a kapala, a bow, a lasso, &c. These symbols, however, vary in the different Tsok-

shin. In the Three hundred Burquan of Oldenburg, Kalacakra has only twelve arms.

He is always represented stepping to the left on two prostrate personages or

demons, with four arms. The personage under the right foot holds a bow and

arrow ;the one under the left a trident and khatvahga. There are sometimes two

other demons who seem to be supporting the heels of the god, but may be also

represented supporting the heads of the prostrate personages.The sakti is represented with only one head, in the Pantheon des Tschangtscha

Hutuktu of Pander, No. 65, but in the text she is mentioned as having four heads,

1 I am indebted to M. Deniker for various iconographic details in this study.

PLATE XLVII

KALACAKRA 129

which is her usual number (v. Frontispiece). She may, however, have only two

heads, and always has eight arms. With one of her arms, at the left, she encircles

the neck of the god, while the others carry various symbols : a lasso, a flower, a

grigug, a vajra, &c, and one hand may be making a mudrd. Her two legs are

parallel with those of Kalacakra and step on the same personages ; her colour is

orange.In one of the temple banners of the Tsokshin, belonging to M. Bacot,

Kalacakra is represented with the central head blue, that to the right white,

while the two to the left are yellow and red. Of his twenty-four arms, eight are

blue, eight are white, and the other eight are red. The right leg is white, and

the left red. The sakti is orange in all the Tsok-shin.

THE DHARMAPALA(The Eight Terrible Ones). (T.) Drag-ched.

1

Table XII

I. Feminine divinity on a mule ....

r I. Twoarms.

II. Masculine

divinities.

I. Onehead.

'

I. Warrior.

II. Not a

warrior.

I. On a horse or

vII. Four to six arms.

JL More than one head . .

1 Table of J. Deniker,

dragon . .

II. Stands on a per-

sonage . . .

( I. Stands on a bull

and woman .

II. Sometimes on a

lion ....I I. Horse's head in

head-dress . .

II. Stands on one or

two elephants . VII. Mahakala.

Stands on animals

and demons . . VIII. Yamantaka.

I. Lha-mo.

II. Ts'ahgs-pa.

III. Beg-ts'e.

IV. Yama.

V. Kuvera.

VI. Hayagriva.

THE DHARMAPALA(Drag-ched)

« The Eight Terrible Ones'

(Defenders of the Law).

The Dharmapala, Defenders of Northern Buddhism, are Tantra divinities with

the rank of Bodhisattva, and are supposed to wage war without mercy againstthe demons and all enemies of Buddhism.

The Drag-ched are worshipped singly or in a group of eight, called ' the EightTerrible Ones ', and are not malignant deities, as erroneously supposed, but are

represented in ferocious form to inspire malignant spirits with fear.

Their worship was instituted in the beginning of the eighth century A. D. byPadmasambhava when he went to Tibet at the request of the Buddhist Tibetan

king Detsan. He waged war against and conquered all the malignant gods in

Tibet, only sparing those that promised to become Defenders of the Law (Dharmapala).Padmasambhava, in his turn, promised to enroll them in the Northern Buddhist

Pantheon, and to see that they were properly worshipped.The Dharmapala forms, which seem horrible and even disgusting to the

uninitiated, are, to the devotee, however crudely expressed, the symbol of a religious

thought. Even the ydb-ywn1attitude, which so offended the more refined taste of

the Chinese and Japanese, is, according to M. Deniker, but 'an expression of

divine ecstasy '. It symbolizes the Yoga system, or spiritual communion with the

Most High.The only goddess among the Dharmapala is Lha-mo, who is also one of the most

terrifying manifestations in the group. The only god who is not represented as

ferocious is Kuvera, god of Wealth, and one wonders at his presence among the1

Eight Terrible Ones', since he has no ferocious form. The explanation might possibly

be found in the fact that in every group of ferocious deities there must be, following

tradition, at least one pacific divinity ;but against this hypothesis one must admit

that in almost all the temple pictures of this group of eight Drag-ched a pacific deity,

Buddha or Bodhisattva, is added.

The '

Eight Terrible Ones'

are :

1. Lha-mo. 5. Kuvera.

2. Ts'angs-pa.- 6. Hayagriva.

3. Beg-ts'e. 7. Mahakala.

4. Yama. 8. Yamantaka.

1v. Vairocana and yab-yum ;

v. Glossary.

s 2

132 THE DHARMAPALA

The lamas, however, sometimes make other combinations, putting one of the

ferocious forms of Vajrapani in the place of one of the usual group ; or some other

Dharmapala manifestation of a Dhyani-Bodhisattva, taken for some special purpose,

like Manjusri, who took the ferocious form of Yamantaka to conquer the god of

Death, Yama.

In worshipping this group of eight Dharmapala the priests wear a special five-

leaved crown called cJwdpan, and special vestments.

The eight gods, with the exception of Kuvera and Ts'ahgs-pa, are represented

with a crown of five skulls, above each of which is generally a flaming pearl, and the

dishevelled hair stands on end in flame shape. There is the third eye, the brows are

scowling, and the expression shows great anger. Around the neck is a long garland of

heads. The lower body is covered by a tiger, elephant, or human skin. They tread

on human beings, or animals, and, if painted, are red, dark blue, or black.

The most ferocious gods of the group are represented on a pinkish lotus with

jagged petals, and, with the exception of Yama, Kuvera, and Ts'ahgs-pa, are almost

invariably represented with their sakti

(T.) LHA-MO (Dharmapala)

'The goddess'.

(T.) dpal-ldan-lha-rno (the glorious goddess). Symbols : khadga (sword).

(S.) Kaladevl, irl-devi, or Srirnatidevi- beng (mace).

(M.) iikin tegri (lit.'

goddess-daughter ').Colour : blue.

Vahana : horse (or mule).

Consort of Yama.

Lha-mo, the only feminine divinity among the '

Eight Terrible Ones ', is one of

the most terrifying manifestations in the Northern Buddhist Pantheon, and being the

only goddess, Defender of the Mahayana school, she was armed by the gods. Hevajra

gave her two dice to determine the life of men, Brahma gave her a fan of peacock's

feathers, and from Vishnu she received two luminous objects, of which she wears one

in her head-dress, while the other hangs over her navel. Kuvera, the god of Wealth,

gave her a lion, which she wears in her right ear;and Nanda, the serpent-god, gave

her a serpent which hangs from her left ear. From Vajrapani she received a hammer.

Other gods gave her a mule, whose covering is the skin of a Yaksha or demon, and the

reins are of venomous serpents.

Lha-mo is represented seated sideways on her mule. She wears all the Dharma-

pala ornaments, and behind the skull crown her hair, in which there is a serpent and

hedf-vajra, rises in flame shape, sometimes surmounted by a moon. She has the third eye,

her expression is ferocious, and on either side of her head rise the stiff folds of a scarf

LHA-MO 133

like that worn by several of the Dharmapala. She wears a long garland of heads, and

over her navel hangs a wheel-shaped ornament. Her covering is a tiger-skin. In her

right upraised hand she brandishes the leng, or sceptre, sometimes surmounted by a

skull, while the left holds the skull-cup at the breast. The back of the mule

is covered by the skin of a demon, with the head hanging downwards. According to

the legend given by Schlagintweit,1 the skin is that of her son whom she killed,

having made a vow that if she were unable to convert her people to Buddhism, she

would kill her own son (PI. xlvi, fig. a).

The mule, if painted, is white, and has a disc between its ears ; above the forelegs

hang the dice given by Hevajra, and on its haunch is an eye, the legend of which is

the following : In one of her incarnations, Lha-mo is believed to have been the wife of

the king of the Yakshas in Ceylon. The goddess had made a vow to convert

her husband to Buddhism, or failing, to extirpate the royal race;and finding it not

in her power to influence her husband, she '

flayed her son alive, drank his blood, and

even ate his flesh '. The king was so incensed, that he seized his bow and shot off an

arrow after his fleeing wife. It pierced the haunch of her mule, and she pulled it out,

pronouncing the following sentence :

'

May the wound of my mule become an eye

large enough to overlook the twenty-four regions, and may I myself extirpate the

race of these malignant kings of Ceylon !

'

The goddess then continued her journey northward through India to Tibet,

Mongolia, and China, and is supposed to have settled in Eastern Siberia.

Lha-mo is accompanied by two acolytes : the dakinl Makaravaktra (blue), who is

either elephant- or dolphin-headed and holds the bridle of the mule ; and the dakinl

Simhavatra (red), with a lion's head, who follows her, holding a chopper and a skull-

cup. The group walks on a lake of blood, in which float skulls and human bones.

Although she is the consort of Yama, there is an example of Lha-mo in the

embrace of Samvara with the elephant-skin over his shoulder, who is seated sidewayson the mule (PI. xlvi, fig. b).

Lha-mo is sometimes surrounded by four ferocious goddesses, who are, accordingto Grlinwedel :

1. Goddess of Spring (blue), seated on a yellow mule, holding a sword and

a skull-cup.

2. Goddess of Summer (red), on a blue yak, and holds a hatchet and skull.

3. Goddess of Autumn (yellow), on a deer, and holds a knife and skull-cup, and

around her neck are peacock plumes.4. Goddess of Winter (blue), on a camel. She carries a hammer and a

skull-cup.

In Tibet, Lha-mo is looked upon as the Protectress of the Dalai-lama of Lha-sa

and Tachi-Lumpo.

1 Buddhism in Tibet, p. 112.

134 THE DHARMAPALA

(T.) TS'ANGS-PA DKAR-PO (Dharmapala)

(II.) esrua (proper name).

(S.) Brahma.

(C.) Fan-wang.

White Brahma '.

Symbol :

Vahana :

khadga (sword).

white horse (or dragon).

Although Ts'angs-pa is one of the '

Eight Terrible Ones',but very little is known

about him. He may be represented seated on a white horse, brandishing a sword,

and sometimes carrying a banner. Like Beg-ts'e, he is a warrior god, but not so

ferocious in aspect. Behind his crown is a turban, in which there may be a conch-shell,

and he wears flowing garments and long sleeves. He sometimes accompanies one

of the Five Great Kings, in which case he rides on a ram.

According to Pander,1

Ts'angs-pa may be represented with four heads, like

the Hindu form of Brahma, in which case he holds the Buddhist wheel at his

breast with the right hand. The left seems to be in dblmya mudra.

(T.) BEG-TS'E 2

(Dharmapala)

(lit.'hidden sheet of mail').

God of War and Protector of Horses.

(T.) Icam-srih (brother and sister), or Beg-ts'e (hid-

den shirt of mail).

(M.) egeci degiiii (sister-brother).

Symbol : khadga (sword, with a shrimp-shaped

handle).

Colour : red.

Little is known of the ferocious warrior-god, Beg-ts'e, who seems to be con-

founded by the Northern Buddhists with Hayagriva, whom some of the sects also

call' Protector of Horses '.

We hear of Beg-ts'e in a Mongolian legend3 as appearing before the Dalai-lama,

mKasgrub bDod-nams, at the head of an army of demons in the guise of different

animals—horses, camels, rats, &c. The Dalai-lama had been summoned from Tibet bythe powerful king, Altan Khan, to convert the Mongols to Buddhism, and when he

found himself thus confronted he took, by his magic power, the form of the four-armed

Avalokites>ara, with the two original arms at his breast in'

prayer'

mudra. The

1 Das Pantheon des Tschangfscha Hutuktu, No.

278.

2 Lit.'

breastplate-covered '.

3Griinwedel, Mythologie du Bouddhisme, p. 82.

PLATE XLVIII

a. Kuvera b. Kuvera

C. KUVEEA d. Kuvera

134

BEG-TS'E 135

footsteps of his horse left the marks of Avalokitesvara's mantra,'

Om, manipadme hum !'

and Beg-ts'e, becoming convinced of his superior power and wisdom, was converted to

Buddhism.

Beg-ts'e belongs to the group of the '

Eight Terrible Ones ', and, as a warrior,

wears a breastplate, while on his feet are Mongolian boots. His hair stands uprightlike flames of fire, he wears the skull crown, and has the third eye. His expression is

ferocious. The right arm brandishes the sword—with a curious shrimp-shaped handle;

the left hand holds a heart with the thumb and index, as if he were about to put it

in his mouth—but this symbol may be missing. His left arm holds, against his body,a sword, bow, and flag. His lower limbs are covered by a tiger-skin, and he wears a

long garland of heads. The god steps to the right on a prostrate horse, and his left

foot treads on a human being. He may be accompanied by two small acolytes,

a warrior seated on a wolf, and a nude figure of a woman seated on a lion. As Icam-

srin means ' brother and sister ', Griinwedel believes he may be so named on account

of these two little figures.

YAMA (Dharmapala)

or Dharmaraja.

God of Death.

(T.) cos-rgyal (king of the religion), or gsin-rje (lord Distinctive mark : wheel ornament on the breast.

of the dead). Consort : Lhamo.

(M.) erlik qan (king Erlik). Attendant : his sister Yami.

(C.) Yen-lo-wang (j|f]SS J). Different forms : Phyi-sgrub.

(J.) Emma-6. Snag-sgrub.

Colour : dark blue, red or white (or yellow). Gsang-sgrub.

Symbols : dbyng-pa (sceptre).Yama is a Dharmapala (Drag-ched) with rank of

pasa (lasso).Bodhisattva.

grigug (chopper).

Yama, the Indian Pluto, was originally a king of Vaisall, who, when engagedin a bloody war, wished he were master of hell, and was accordingly reborn as Yamain hell,

1

together with his generals and army. His palace, made of copper and iron,

was, according to the puraiias,'at the extremity of the earth, southward, and floating

on the waters '. The wicked had 688,000 miles to travel, through terrifying ordeals,

to reach it and receive their final punishment.

Yama, king and judge of the dead, is believed to sit in the centre of the regionsof hell, which comprise eight hot and eight cold hells, as well as innumerable other

1

Eitel, Handbook of Chinese Buddhism.

136 THE DHARMAPALA

places of punishment. The wicked are brought before him to be questioned and

judged, and are then conducted to their punishment by demons.

Yama is generally accompanied by his sister Yarni, whose duty is to look after

the female culprits. Although he is supreme ruler of hell, Yama nevertheless under-

goes the same torments as the rest, in order to expiate his own sins, when he will be

reborn as Samantaraja.

Pander, in his Pantheon des TschangtscJm Hutuhtu, gives the following legend in

regard to Yama : There was once a holy man who lived in a cave in deep meditation

for fifty years, after which he was to enter into Nirvana. On the night of the forty-

ninth year, eleventh month, and twenty-ninth day, two robbers entered the cave

with a stolen bull, which they proceeded to kill by cutting off its head. When theydiscovered the presence of the ascetic, they decided to do away with him as witness of

their theft. He begged them to spare his life, explaining that in a few moments he

would be entering into Nirvana, and that if they killed him before the time he would

lose all the benefit of his fifty years' penance. But they refused to believe him, and

cut oft* his head, whereupon his body assumed the ferocious form of Yama, King of

Hell, and taking up the bull's head, he set it on his own headless shoulders. He then

killed the two robbers and drank their blood from cups made of their skulls. In

his fury and insatiable thirst for victims he threatened to depopulate the whole

of Tibet. The Tibetans appealed to their tutelary deity, Manjusri, to protect them

from this formidable enemy, whereupon he assumed the ferocious form of Yamantaka

and waged war against Yama. A fearful struggle ensued, in which Yamantaka

(lit.

' he who conquers death')was victorious.

Yama has three forms, of which there are many variations : Phyi-sgrub,

Snag-sgrub, and Gsang-sgrub. It is under this last form, Gsang-sgrub, that Yamawas conquered by Yamantaka.

Gsang-sgrub. In this form he has a bull's head, third eye, and crown of

skulls, behind which his hair rises in flame shape. He steps to the right on a bull,

and holds a grigug (chopper) in his right hand and kapala (skull-cup) in his left.

He may, however, hold a cintamani (magic jewel) in his right hand instead of the

grigug, in which case he is looked upon as a ' God of Wealth '. He may also hold a

mace and lasso (PL xlvii, fig. a). If painted, he is red. He is often accompanied bythe Citipati or two skeletons dancing the Tsam dance (PI. lii, fig. b).

Phyi-sgrub, or minister of the exterior. He is represented with a bull's head,

third eye, crown of skulls, hair rising in flame shape, and is naked, but has a belt of

heads and many jewels. On his breast is an ornament representing the Buddhist

wheel, his distinctive mark, for Tsoh-ka-pa, before his death, appointed Yama

protector of the Yellow Bonnets (Ge-lug-pa sect) with great ceremony. He steps to

the right on a bull, under which is a woman, and his attitude and expression show

great excitement and fury. He is never represented with a sakti, but may be accom-

panied by his sister Yarni, in which case, if painted, Yama is dark blue and Yarn! pale

blue. Yarn! stands at his left holding a skull-cup. If Yama is without his sister he

is painted white or yellow.

PLATE XLIX

Dharmapala undetermined

136

YAMA 137

Snag-sgnib, minister of the interior. In this form he is Judge of Hell. He is

like the preceding, except that he steps to the left on a man—and his symbols are

grigug and kapala. He is sometimes accompanied by two acolytes, each treading on

a bull. If painted, his colour is dark blue.

Yama may be represented with a human face and with two of his six arms

raised above his head in prayer mudra. On his breast is his distinctive mark, the

wheel, and he may step directly on the lotus-throne (PI. xlvii, fig. b).

In China Yen-lo-wang (Yama) is not regent of the Buddhist hells, he is a

subordinate under Ti-tsang (see) and the fifth of the ten Kings of Hell, who reign over

ten courts of judgement. They are represented in Chinese temples, standing whenin the presence of Ti-tsang, and surrounded by representations of the torments of the

different hells.

Yen-lo-wang is believed to be assisted by his sister who judges the women, while

he judges the men. They are called the Gam-ma-raja (f^ ||| ^ ffct j£ jfc)or the

Royal Pair. He is referred to in the Ti-tsang sutra as'

coming from the Iron Mountain,

where the Buddhist hells are situated, to the Tau-li heaven (Trayastrimsa) to hear

Sakya-muni Buddha deliver a sutra there '.

In Japan Emma-0 (Yama) is regent and holds the same position as Yama in

India. In both China and Japan the representations of Yama are practically alike,

a middle-aged man with a fierce expression and a beard. On his head is a judge's

cap, and he is dressed in flowing garments with the feet always covered. He is

seated with the legs locked and in his right hand is the mace of office.

T

Yi-dam.

Dharmapala.

Tantra (?) form. J

FOE MS OF KUVEEATable XIII

Jambala. Special emblem : Jambhara (lemon).

Symbols : ndkula (mongoose).

lai-bumpa (flat vessel).

I. Kuvera. Kegent of the North.

Special emblem : dhvaja (flag).

Symbol: nakula.

Dressed like a warrior.

II. Vaisravana. Symbols : mongoose.trident.

lai-bumpa or sword, &c.

Five heads, three legs, eight teeth.

Mudra : vajra-hum-Mra.

Symbols : vajra (thunderbolt).

ghanta (bell).

grigug (chopper).

kapala (skull-cup).

PLATE L

<#&$&

139

KUVERA (or Kubera) or VAISRAVANA (his patronymic)

God of Wealth.

Guardian of the North.

(T.) rnam-t'os-sras {Nam-toi-sre) (son of rnam-t'os). Colour : yellow.

(M.) Unman tegri (the god Bisman). Vahana: pushpaka (self-moving chaiiot)

(C.) Ts'ai-shen (Wr JJjAYor To-wvn. elephant or lion.

(J.) Bislmmon. Sakti : VasudharS.

Special symbol : nakula '

(mongoose vomiting jewels). As Dharmapala (Drag-ched) : Kuvera or Vailravana.

Symbols : trident. As Yi-dam : Jambala (Dsambhala).

dhvaja (banner). Special symbol : jambhara (lemon).

lai-bwmpa (flat vessel, &c). Symbol : nakula (mongoose).

According to Hindu mythology Kuvera was the son of a sage called' Visravas ',

hence his patronymic, Visravana or Vaisravana. He is said to have performedausterities for a thousand years, in reward for which Brahma gave him immortalityand made him god of Wealth, guardian of all the treasures of the earth, which he wasto give out to whom they were destined.

Kuvera also became one of the Lokapala, or Regents of the Four Cardinal Points,

who were likewise guardians of Mount Sumeru, the centre of the universe. His

city was Alaka in the Himalayas, abounding in wealth and magnificence, wherehe was attended by the Yakshas * and the horse-headed men called

' Kinnaras '.

According to some accounts, Kuvera's abode was on Mount Kailas,3 while others

state that when Brahma appointed him god of Riches, he gave him Lanka

(Ceylon) as his capital, and, according to the Maliabharata, presented him with the

car, pushpaka, which was of immense size, and ' moved at the owner's will at

marvellous speed '.*

It is believed that the name ' Kuvera'

may be a corruption of the wordkutana (vile body), in reference to his ugliness, for, according to Hindu mythology,he had three heads, three legs, eight teeth, green eyes, and a white leprous body. Hewore a crown and carried a mace, and was covered with jewels.

1 Nakula (Chin. No-ku-lo) is also the name of the holding a three-legged frog. T. Watters, Eighteenfifth of the eighteen Lohans or Sthaviras, disciples Lolmns of Chinese Buddhist Temples, Shanghai,of Buddha, and his sphere of action was Jambudvlpa 1 899.

(India). His name is found enrolled in the list of 2 Cannibal demons.

gods in the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean temples,3

Presumably the synonym of Mount Sumeru.

and he is represented in Tibetan temple pictures*Wilkins, Hindu, Mythology.

with a mongoose under his arm, or in his hand, or

T 2

140 FORMS OF KUVERA

The representations, however, of Kuvera do not follow the tradition of three

legs, either in Nepal or India. In fact, a statue of Kuvera found at Gandhara x

might be taken for a Roman emperor, were it not for the kneeling youth at his

feet pouring out money from a long narrow bag under his arm, which is in the

shape of the traditional mongoose of Northern Buddhism;but the images from

the Magadha follow more closely the corpulent, self-complacent god of the MahayanaPantheon.

Kuvera has no worship in India. He is mentioned in very ancient texts, but,

unfortunately, without reference to his symbols. Statues of him in Nepal date back

to the eleventh century, while in India, in the Magadha, they are much earlier,

and it is believed that the most ancient statues of Mahakala (the Great Black

One) were in reality but statues of Kuvera, for in Nepal they held the mongoose,and in India the long narrow bag of gold.

The Lamas claim that the mongoose symbolizes Kuvera's victory over the

Nagas, guardians of the treasures. The nakula, however, is merely a bag made of

the skin of a mongoose, replacing the long narrow sack of the earlier images. In

Java, according to Oldenburg, the long narrow sack is rarely finished by the head

of a mongoose as it is in the Magadha, but the neck is left open resembling a

mouth.2

Kuvera has both Yi-dam and Dharmapala forms. As Yi-dam he is called

Jambala, probably from the jambhara (lemon) this form always carries in his righthand. Under his left arm is the usual mongoose, vomiting jewels.

3 With but

very few exceptions, of which one is in the British Museum, only the Jambala form

of Kuvera carries the large mongoose under the arm, while all the other forms

hold on the palm of the left hand a small mongoose with a single jewel in its

mouth.

There is an example of Kuvera in a crouching position holding a Tccipdla in the

right hand, while the left rests on the neck of a mongoose which hangs over the

left knee. He wears serpent ornaments, and in his head-dress is the small imageof a Dhyani-Buddha.

Kuvera is always represented corpulent and covered with jewels. His right

foot is generally pendent and supported by a lotus-flower on which is a conch -

shell, or a hi-bumpa, a low, flat vessel used in the Lamaist ceremonies as an object

of contemplation, to procure perfection in abstract thought. The vessel is usually

represented overturned, with jewels sometimes issuing from it and falling over the

lotus-throne. The conch-shell may also be supported by a vase. He may also

carry a vase somewhat in the shape of an ambrosia vase under his right arm.

1v. Grumvedel, MythologieduBouddhisme, illust., there are five examples of the Javanese Kuvera,

p. 24, fig. 14. where the mongoose is represented in the usual2

Oldenburg, A propos de I'histoire du type des manner. In the British Museum there is a bronze

images de Kuvera avec Nakula. Publications du with the nakula holding a purse in its mouth.

Musee d'Anthropologie et d'Ethnologie, St-Peters- 3PI. xlviii, fig. d.

bourg, 1903, vol. iv. In the Musee Guimct, however,

KUVERA OR VAISRAVANA 141

According to Oldenburg, his foot may rest on a bag of precious things supported

by a lotus-flower.

His Dharmapala form is called ' Kuvera ', and he is either represented sitting

on a lion 1

(white, with green mane), or on several cushions called JcholboJc,2 the

number of cushions indicating the rank given him. He may also be seated on a

horse 3

(PI. xlviii, fig. a), and Grunwedel mentions a form sitting or standingon a demon.4 He carries the dhvaja, or victorious banner, or a trident, in his

right hand, and a small mongoose, with a jewel in its mouth, in the palm of his

left hand. According to Schlagintweit, he is accompanied by eight Vaisravanas,

each with his own special symbol in his right hand : a jewel, a sword, a lai-bumpa,

a small shrine several stories high, called khangtsig, &c. They all carry, in the left, a

small mongoose with a jewel in its mouth.

Kuvera may have a third eye, and is often represented with a closely cut

beard under the chin, reaching from ear to ear. He is found in a triad with the

Dipahkara Buddha and Mania, Buddha of Medicine.

There is a special ceremony in Tibet for imploring Kuvera for riches, which

is called Yanyung, and he plays an important part in the Tantras, in sorcery and

exorcism.

The illustration on PI. xlix is a bronze which, as far as the author knows,

is unique, and might possibly be a representation of the Tantra form of Kuvera.

Its three legs agree with the description of Kuvera in Hindu mythology, but

there are five heads instead of three, one on either side of the central head, and

one above the central one (all of which have the third eye and an angry

expression). The second head above the central one (which would be Ratnasambhava

if the god is Kuvera) has a sweet expression. The hair stands upright from the

heads, in flame shape, forming a nimbus for the two upper heads. He has eightarms. The two normal arms are in vajra-hum-kara mudra (crossed on the breast),

and the hands hold kapdla (skull-cups) which are supported by the arms from

underneath. The other hands hold the glmnta, (bell), vajra (thunderbolt), and grigug

(chopper). The hips are covered by a human skin and the feet of the three legs

rest on skulls. The necklets, bracelets, and anklets are snakes.

Kuvera is also one of the four Lokapala which are supposed to inhabit the

lowest compartments of the heavens, guarding the regions assigned them from the

wicked spirits called Asuras. Each has an immortal elephant, eight generals, and

an army of demons, and all are worshipped with fervour by the common peopleas well as by the priests.

For his Chinese and Japanese forms v. LohapCda.

1PI. xlviii, fig. b. there is a personage seated on a horse at the foot of

2PI. xlviii, fig. c. Avalokitesvara, and holds an object, which may be

3 In one of the miniatures in the Nepalese M S. a mongoose, in his hand.

Add. 1643, in the University Library, Cambridge,4 Called nara-va/uma, PI. xliv, fig. d.

142 THE DHARMAPALA

HAYAGRlVA (Dharmapala).

(T.) rta-mgrin (pro. tam-din) (lit.' with the voice Symbols : vajra (thunderbolt).

of a horse'). beng (mace).

(M.) morin qogholai-tu (with the voice of a horse). Colour : red or dark brown.

(C.) Pi-mih-ma-t'en-kin-kang. Sakti : Marlcl (light blue).

(J.) Ba-to Kioan-non. Distinctive mark : horse's head in head-dress.

Hayagiiva, as a Dharmapala, has the rank of Bodhisattva, but, according to

Grtinwedel,1

may also take a Yi-dam form, in which case he would have the rank

of a Buddha.

He is worshipped in Tibet principally by the horse-dealers, for, although he

is not the god, Protector of Horses, he is believed to frighten away the demons

by neighing like a horse. When invoked, he is said to announce his coming byneighing, which may account for the presence of a horse's head, his distinctive

mark, in his head-dress.

The horse is one of the Sapta Ratna (the Seven Precious Things), and Lungta,the 'airy horse', is extremely popular among the nomadic tribes of Tibet, as he

may be invoked without the intervention of a lama. Schlagintweit says, 'The

efficacy of any dharanl, or mystical sentence, for happiness in this existence is

supposed to become more certain by the presence of Lungta ; and from this belief it

has become customary to add to the dharanl a horse supporting the precious stone

Norbu, or a figure, allegorical of the horse, or at least an address directed to Lungta.'2

Hayagrlva's popularity may therefore possibly be attributed to the usual presence of

the horse's head in his dishevelled hair, but it is sometimes missing.In his most simple form he is normal, and swings a sword in his right hand and

holds a lasso in the other. His hair is dishevelled, and protruding from it is a horse's

head. He wears a crown of skulls, and under a belt of heads hangs a tiger-skin. Hemay have one head and four arms, in which case his upper hands hold the mace

(on the top of which may be a skull) and a flower. The lower left hand holds a wheel

(or lasso) against the breast. The right hand makes a mystic mudra and he steps to

the right on a lotus-throne.

There is a form with three heads, four arms, and four legs, which is believed to

be his manifestation when invoked by the Indian Pandit Atisa, who was invited bythe Tibetan king in the tenth century a. d. to reform the Northern Buddhist faith in

Tibet. He is represented like the above with dishevelled hair, crown of skulls, belt

of heads, and a tiger-skin covering. The upper hands hold a thunderbolt and a flower,

the lower hands draw the bow. He steps to the right on demons.

He may have still another form with three heads, six arms, and eight legs. His

1

Mylhologie da Bouddhisme, p. 166. Buddhism in Tibet, p. 254.

PLATE LI

U2

u iUW^'

ITAYAGBlVA 143

symbols are the thunderbolt, trident, lasso, &c, and from his dishevelled hair may

protrude three horses' heads (PI. xliv, fig. d).

Hayagriva may have garuda wings. In this form he has three heads, a third eye,

a necklace of heads, wears a lion's and elephant's skin, and steps to the right on

demons. He has six arms, the upper hands holding the double thunderbolt and

sword, the next the mace and khatvanga (magic stick). The lower arms encircle the

ktkti if he is in yab-yum attitude, and hold the JcapCda (skull-cup) in the left, while the

right is in mystic mudra. The kikti has a crown of heads, a third eye, and holds

a skull-cup and a flower. She encircles the yab with her legs, and her mouth almost

touches the tongue of the god. If painted, she is light blue (PL xliv, fig. c).

In the miniatures Hayagriva is never represented otherwise than as an assistant.

According to M. Foucher, a form of the god found in the sadliana has three heads :

the first blue, showing the tongue ; the second, red and smiling ; the third, white,

biting its lips. They are placed one on either side of the central head, which is red.

He has eight arms, and carries a thunderbolt, mace, flower, lotus, bow, and arrow,

and two hands make a mystic gesture. In his hair is a small image of Akshobhya.The phur-bu,

1

magic dagger, is believed to be a form of Hayagriva.

Hayagriva with Tara, Sudhanakumara, and Bhrikuti often accompany Avalo-

kitesvara, in which case Hayagriva is always at his left.

His manifestation in Japan is apparently Ba-to Kwan-non, 2 for the resemblance

is too close to admit of any doubt. In China he seems to have been little known.

MAHAKALA (Dharmapala)

The Great Black One.

(T.) mgon-po (the protector), or nag-po c'en-po (the Special symbol : trisula (trident).

Great Black One). Colour : black (or dark blue) or white.

(M.) jeke qara (the Great Black One). Distinctive mark : treads on one or two elephants.

(C.) Ta-shen-wang (^ jjj^ q£).One of the 'Eight Terrible Ones' (Drag-ched).

(J.) Dai-lco-ku,

It is claimed that Mahakala, holding the trident, is no other than a form of the

Greek god Poseidon 3copied from Indo-Scythian coins ; but it seems also possible that

he is merely the result of a misnomer ;in other words, that Mahakala and Kuvera are

one and the same divinity. Yi-tsing, the Chinese author and pilgrim, relates that at

the doors of the Indian monasteries there was usually the statue of a deity, seated,

with one leg pendent, holding a bag of gold. He further says that this god was called' Mahakala' (the Great Black One), because he was blackened by the oil constantly

1v. Phur-bu. 2

v. Ba-to Kwan-non. 3Grunwedel, Mythologie, p. 24.

144 THE DHAEMAPALA

poured over him by the faithful in performing puja.1 This description of the god

assuredly indicates Kuvera ;

2 and the Nepalese Mahakala, holding a mongoose under

his arm, resembles Kuvera even more closely. The Tibetan form of Mahakala,

however, is definite and in no way resembles Kuvera, although one of his manifesta-

tions is called'

god of wealth '.

The tutelary god of Mongolia is Mahakala, but he was not popular until the

sixteenth century, when the Dalai-lama, mK'asgrub of Lhasa, was summoned to

the court of Altan Khan, and so influenced the king that all non-Buddhist idols

were burned, and the six-armed Mahakala was proclaimed Protector of the MongolianBuddhists.

Mahakala may be both Yi-dam and Dharmapala, and has innumerable forms ;

but they may all be classed under four heads, or five, if we include the special

manifestation of mGon-po Bramzei.

Mahakala Son-dkar, god of Wealth, is the special protector of the MongolianBuddhists. He has one head, which is sometimes deformed to resemble a bull, his

hair stands upright behind the crown, flame-shaped, he has the third eye, and his

expression is angry. He has six arms. The cintamani (magic jewel) is in the hand of

his right (original) arm and is held against his breast. In the left is a kapala (skull-

cup) held underneath the magic jewel. The other four hands hold chopper, small

drum, trident, and elephant goad. He has an elephant-skin covering, and a scarf

rises stiffly from his shoulders, almost forming a nimbus around his head. He stands

on two elephants, and, if painted, he is white (PI. L, figs, c and d).

Mahakala mSon-po resembles the white Mahakala with the exception of two

symbols. Instead of the cintamani, he holds a grigug in his original right hand. The

other four symbols are : a rosary of skulls, a trident, a lasso, and a disc. His two

upper arms hold an elephant-skin over his shoulders. He wears a belt of heads, and

steps to the right on a prostrate elephant-headed god, the demon Vinataka (Brahman

god Ganesa), who holds a flower in one hand and either a skull-cup or rat in the

other. If painted, he is dark blue. This form is also popular in Mongolia (PI. Li).

There is an unusual example of this form with only two arms. The right holds

a sword and the left is in a mystic mudra. He stands on an elephant-headed

personage. In his hair is a small image of a Dhyani-Buddha (PI. l, fig. a).

Mahakala, Protector of Science, is seated on a personage and has one leg pendent.He has four arms. His symbols are : trident, sword, skull-cup, and a fruit. He is

dark blue.

Mahakala, Protector of the Tent, holds a grigug (chopper) and lasso, and horizon-

tally on his arms he balances a stick. He treads on a personage and is dark blue.

mGonpo Bramzei is a special form taken by Mahakala to manifest himself to the

great lama Pago-pa in the thirteenth century, when he was called to the Imperialcourt to convert the Emperor Koubilai, who was already conversant with the sutra of

the Hevajra-tantra. Pago-pa, on the contrary, had never seen this sutra, and finding

it impossible to reply to the questions of the emperor, begged that the discussion be

1 A. Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, p. 126. 2v. Kuvera.

MAHAKALA 145

put off until the next day. That night, while in utter despair at being unable to gethold of the Hevajra-tantra, there appeared, to his astonishment, an old white-haired

Brahmana, who told him to arrange his lamp and then put before him the coveted

sutra. He was thus able to confer with the emperor on the following day and convert

him. The old Brahmana was none other than Mahakala under the form of—mGonpo Bramzei (Mahakala Brahmanarupa). In this form he has one head and

wears a long white beard. He may have a third eye. In his right hand is a trumpetmade of a human thigh-bone, and in the left is a hapala full of blood. Around his left

arm is a rosary of skulls. He may step to the right on a personage or be kneelingon him, in which case he holds the trumpet to his mouth.

In Japan, Dai-ko-ku, god of Wealth, has a form which in no way resembles the

Tibetan Mahakala, for he is represented as a very fat, jolly-faced man, always seated,

and with a huge bag of grain at his side. He is the Japanese form of the MahakalaSon-dkar.

YAMANTAKA (Dharmapala)

Conqueror of Death (Yama).

(T.) gsin-rje-gSed (exterminator of the Lord of Distinctive mark : bull's head.

Death), or hjegs-byed (he who causes fear). Different names : Srivajrabhairava, Vajrabhayan-

(M.) erlig-jin jarghaqci (exterminator of Erlik). kara, Vajrabhairava, Bhairava, and YamSri.

(C.) Yen-man-te-kia(fig] j|| ^\jji 3(ftjj).

One of the '

Eight Terrible Ones'

(Dharmapala or

Symbols : grigug (chopper). Drag-ched).

hapala (skull-cup).Yi-dani of the Ge-lug-pa (Yellow Bonnet) sect.

1

Colour : red (when alone), black or dark blue.

Yamantaka, the ferocious emanation of Manjusrl, is the most complicated andterrible of all the Northern Buddhist divinities. Under this form he conquered the

demon king of Death, Yama, who was depopulating Tibet in his insatiable thirst for

victims.

Both Yama and Yamantaka are represented with bulls' heads, but Yama alwayshas an ornament, shaped like a wheel, on his breast, which is his distinctive mark.

Yamantaka as Vajrabhairava may be represented with a human head. Accordingto Vidyabhusana,

2 in his description of certain Tibetan scrolls found in a monasterynear Gyantse, Vajrabhairava

'

possesses a disproportionately large head, scowlingbrows, three cruel eyes, and a gaping mouth, showing canine fangs and rolling

tongue '. Nor does he figure with a bull's head in the two sadhana mentioned byM. Foucher,

3 for in the first he has six faces, and in the second one face.

1

Griinwedel, Mythologie, p. 100. 2 Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.8Iconographie bouddhique, vol. ii, p. 56.

1680 U

146 THE DHARMAPALA

The simplest form of Yamantaka has one head (a bull's) and two arms. He has

a crown of skulls and the third eye. In his right hand is a chopper and in his left a

skull-cup (kapala). He has a belt of heads and steps 1o the right (PI. lii, fig. a).

In the Srimahdvajrabhairava tantra there is a detailed account of the wayYamantaka should be represented if painted.

1 He is to have sixteen feet, thirty-four

arms, nine heads, is naked and black ; he steps to the right, and his aspect is more

than terrible. The first head is that of a bull. Next to the right horn, he must have

three heads : blue, grey, and black (description of three heads on left side omitted).Between the horns must be painted a head, red and terrible, above which mustbe the head of Manjusri with a slightly irritated expression. The hands hold all the

Tantra symbols (list given in the tantra). The right feet tread on animals and the

left on birds. In the bronzes Yamantaka may be treading on demons, under which

are animals and birds, or the reverse, or the demons may be supporting the throne as

in the accompanying illustration (PI. lii, fig. d).

Yamantaka has a skull diadem, a belt of heads, a third eye, and steps to the

right. He may have five heads, and hold the skin of a human being over his

shoulders. He is usually represented with his sakti (PI. lii, fig. c).

As Yamari, however, he is not represented with a &akti. In this form Yamantakaholds a sceptre topped by a skull in his right hand and a kapala in his left, and stepsto the right on a corpse, under which is a bull.

1

Griinwedel, Mythologie, p. 104.

PLATE LII

a. Yamantaka b Citipati

c. Yamantaka d. Yamantaka

PLATE LIII

a BlSHAMON b. LOKAPALA

C. BlSHAMON d. Fudo

MINOR GODS

Table XIV

I. Lokapala.II. The Five Kings.

III. The Ni-6 (Ni-wo).

IV. The Citipati.

V. Nagas and Garudas.

HISTORICAL PERSONAGES DEIFIED

Table XV

I. Arhat (Lohan, Rakhan).II. Nagarjuna.

III. Padmasambhava.-

IV. Tson-k'a-pa.

V. Mil-ras-pa.

U 2

THE FOUE LOKAPALA/

(S.) catur maharaja. (M.) malicvraja.

(T.) rgyal-c'en-bshi (the four kings). (C.) Hu-shih-cM(|j| {£ yjg).

The Lokapala, or guardians of the Four Cardinal Points, are believed to dwell

on Mount Sumeru (Kailasa) at the gates of the paradise of &akra (Indra), who is

looked upon as a protector of Buddhism.

The four Guardian Kings are mentioned in the earliest Buddhist writings as

visiting Gautama while he was in the Tushita heaven waiting for the time to comefor him to manifest himself on earth as Manushi-Buddha. They are alluded to in

the Nidana-Katha as having been present when Maya's couch was carried to the placeof incarnation of the Buddha. They assisted at his birth, and received the Buddha'on the skin of a spotted tiger'. They held up the hoofs of the horse Kanthakawhen Gautama secretly left his palace to go into the wilderness. After his fastingand meditation under the Bodhi-tree, they offered the Buddha four bowls of food,

which he miraculously merged into one (patra, v. Glossary). In fact, they assisted at

every important event in the life of the Buddha, and were present at his parinirvdna.

Images of the Lokapala were placed at the four sides of the Indian topes (stupa)to guard the sacred relics. The earliest known statues are on the Sanchi Tope, whichdates from between the second and first centuries b. c. The Buddhist Guardianswere generally represented in full armour standing on Naga demons,

1 while the

mounts of the Brahman Lokapala were elephants.2

They became very populardeities in Tibet, China, and Japan, and were also taken up by the Southern

Buddhists of the Hinayana school.

The four Indian Lokapala are :

North : Kuvera (Vaisravana), King of the Yakshas (supernatural beings that bring

disease). Symbols : dhvaja (banner) in right hand and mongoose in the left.

Colour : yellow.South : Virudhaka, King of the Khumbhanda (giant demons). Symbol : sword.

Colour : blue or green. Instead of the usual helmet, he wears the skin of an

elephant's head.

East : Dhritarashtra, King of the Gandharvas (demons feeding on incense). Symbol :

1 L. A. Waddell, 'Evolution of the Buddhist a In Japan the Lokapala are usually represented

cult; its gods, images, and art', The Imperial treading on demons, but on PL iv, fig. a, they are

Asiatic Quarterly Review, January, 1912. supported by elephants.

PLATE LIV

To-wen (Bishamon)

148

TilVJ BTAJT

stringed instrument. • wear*

which is a plume ami :icb tangWest : Virupaksha, King

shrine), or a jewt

Of these four guard! avana is the only god whose w<

became popular. As the Northern r< i vere believed to prodi; omrea,

the guardian of the North was looked upon as god of Wealth.

In Japan he is worshipped under the name of Bishamon, and is repreeentodarmour ornamented with the seven precious jewels, and is generally standi.

;wo demons. In his left hand he holds either a small shrine or the flan,

ile in his right is a jewelled lance (PI. liii, fig. a).

The mani, or jewel, on the i is believed to signify 'comp!fortune and virtue '. The small ca> shrine, represents the Iron Tower ii

where Nagarjuna found the Buddhist scriptures. He is represented looking at I

shrine, for, as one of the guardians of Buddhism, he must keep watch over its

greatest treasures (PI. liv).

A bronze example of Bishamon (Chinese) belonging to Mr. Goloubew is, as far as

the author knows, unique. It somewhat resemMea the illustration on PI. uv, with

the exception that instead of holding the hands m" the traditional pose, I

prayer mndra, and the treasure, balanced on the fore-arms, is not ay

resembling a temple banner when rolled.

Bishamon is believed to have revealed himself to Shotoku Ta

is said that in the helmet of Shotoku Taishi were four small imag*--

The Japanese Vaisravana is not, however, god of War, but

and belongs to the group of Seven Gods of Good Fortui

exception of Benten he is the only god of the grou ;

Amoghavajra introduced the worship of the Celestial Chawri

Quarters of the Heavens into China in the eighthsees them at the temple gates. The Chinese lo<

seasons.

North: To-wen (^ ^) (Kuvera) or Weip'o

Symbols : right hand, a banner or lance, lei

goose, out of the mouth of whieh pour jew<South : Tseng-chang (^ J|)

—blue (spring : red tttrnkfjand a demon. Symbol : sword.

East: Ch'i-kwo (^ |S)—white (summer: blue dra;.

instrument.

West: Kwang-mu (Jjf §)—red (winter : white tie a red

beard. Symbols : right hai.

In Chinese paintings the colon

sometimes all represented flesh colour. Is, with

exception of To-wen, who always holtl

en

PLATE LV

Dakini

149

THE FOUR LOKAPALA 149

stringed instrument. Colour : white. He wears a high helmet, on the top of

which is a plume and from which hang ribbons and bows.

West : Virupaksha, King of the Nagas (serpent-gods). Symbol : cJwrten (a small

shrine), or a jewel and a serpent. Colour : red.

Of these four guardian kings, Vaisravana is the only god whose worship, singly,

became popular. As the Northern regions were believed to produce endless treasures,

the guardian of the North was looked upon as god of Wealth.

In Japan he is worshipped under the name of Bishamon, and is represented in

armour ornamented with the seven precious jewels, and is generally standing on one

or two demons. In his left hand he holds either a small shrine or the flaming pearl,

while in his right is a jewelled lance (PI. Lin, fig. a).

The mani, or jewel, on the top of his staff, is believed to signify'

completeness of

fortune and virtue '. The small caifya,1 or shrine, represents the Iron Tower in India

where Nagarjuna found the Buddhist scriptures. He is represented looking at the

shrine, for, as one of the guardians of Buddhism, he must keep watch over its

greatest treasures (PI. liv).

A bronze example of Bishamon (Chinese) belonging to Mr. Goloubew is, as far as

the author knows, unique. It somewhat resembles the illustration on PI. liv, with

the exception that instead of holding the hands in the traditional pose, they are in

prayer mudra, and the treasure, balanced on the fore-arms, is not a stupa but an object

resembling a temple banner when rolled.

Bishamon is believed to have revealed himself to Shotoku Taishi in battle, and it

is said that in the helmet of Shotoku Taishi were four small images of the Lokapala.The Japanese Vaisravana is not, however, god of War, but the god of Good Fortune,and belongs to the group of Seven Gods of Good Fortune (Shi-chi-fu-ku-jin). With the

exception of Benten he is the only god of the group worshipped to any extent singly.

Amoghavajra introduced the worship of the Celestial Guardians of the Four

Quarters of the Heavens into China in the eighth century of our era, and one often

sees them at the temple gates. The Chinese look upon them as symbolizing the four

seasons.

North : To-wen (^> ^) (Kuvera) or Wei-p'o—

yellow (autumn : a black warrior).

Symbols : right hand, a banner or lance, left hand, a pearl, or stupa or mon-

goose, out of the mouth of which pour jewels.South : Tseng-chang (^§* ^|)

—blue (spring : red bird) ; may stand on a monkeyand a demon. Symbol : sword.

East : Ch'i-kwo (^p |i|)—white (summer : blue dragon). Symbols : stringed

instrument.

West : Kwang-mu (Jl| § )—red (winter : white tiger) ; may also be green with red

beard. Symbols : right hand, a caifya, left hand, a serpent.In Chinese paintings the colours of the Four Guardians often vary and they are

sometimes all represented flesh colour. They may also have no symbols, with the

exception of To-wen, who always holds the treasure.

1v. Glossary.

150 MINOR GODS

The Shi-tenno or Japanese Celestial Guardians of the Four Cardinal Points are :

North : Bishamon (Kuvera).1

Symbols : caitya (small shrine) and lance or flag.

South : Komoku.

East : Jikohu.

West : Zocho.

They are also represented as warriors, and are generally standing on demons.

In the illustrations in the Butzuzo Zui, with the exception of Bishamon, they hold no

symbols.In Chinese Turkestan representations of the Four Guardian Kings were found

by Sir Aurel Stein at Tun-huang, on temple banners, and by Herr von Le Coq at

Turfan, in frescoes, which are now at the Museum fur Volkerkunde in Berlin.

Vaisravana was also represented alone in frescoes at the entrance to the temples

opposite Hariti (v. Hariti). According to Waddell she is a form of his consort,

Vasudhara (v. Kuvera). In all the representations of the Lokapala found in Chinese

Turkestan they are elaborately dressed, usually in armour, holding their respective

symbols, and also standing, as a rule, on crouching demons.

THE FIVE GREAT KINGS

(T.) sku-lnga (or Dam-can) (five persons or bodies), (M

-)tahun qaghan (five emperors),

or Na'i-chin chon jon (the guardians of [the

oracle] Nauchin).

The Five Great Kings are objects of very active worship in Tibet as they are

believed to'

protect man efficaciously against evil spirits and enable him to attain the

accomplishment of every wish' (Schlagintweit).

According to Waddell, these king-fiends, or spirits of demonified heroes, are

supposed to have been originally five brothers who came from Northern Mongolia.

They are said to have been '

kings'

; of the East, mystically called ' the Body'

;of

the West,'

Speech' ;of the North, 'Deeds'

;of the South,

'

Learning' ; and of the

centre—difficult to determine. They were necromancers and astrologers, and became

oracles of different monasteries.

The oracle of Na-ch'un 2 was brought to Tibet by Padmasambhava, and after

being admitted to the Lamaist order was made state-oracle. He is believed to

incarnate himself in every successive religious guardian of the monasteries, who is

called after him, Choi-chong (C'os-rje).

The names of the Five Great Kings are the following :3

Bi-har, the special protector of monasteries, who rides on a red tiger.

Choi-chung, incarnate in the state-oracles, who rides on a yellow lion (PL lvi, fig. c).

1PI. Liu, fig.

c.2Waddell, Lamaism, p. 478.

3

Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet, p. 157.

PLATE LVI

a. Vauuna b. Vauuna

c. Undetermined d. Dam-can

150

THE FI\

_ .IIVJ 3TAJ<I

Dahla is the tutelary god of wai

Luvang, the god of the Nagas, i eodile.

Tokchoi, rides on a yellov

In this form they uddhas of Conft -

According to Schla i one of these gods is represented alone, be

is accompanied by :

Danichan dorje legpa, on a camel.

Ts'angs-pa, on a ram.

Chebu damchan, on a goat.

According to Griinwedel, it is I;

> is or the goat i<

the camel (PI. lvi, fig. d).

All of the Five Kings wear a broad

which, if painted, are red with a gre ier.

It is claimed that when Padmasambhava wis: '.Sam-

yas he forced the Five Kings to make a vow to protect it. For

called Dam-can, or' he who has made a vow '.

According to certain accounts, the chief of the Kings is Pe-har or Pe-dkar, i

is probably the ' Bi-har'

quoted abo$$n j#f dt^ licfr*^1118 and seated

a white Hon. He brandishes a sword, knife, and bow and arrov.

the Five Kings is said to be identical with the fourth guardian of I Id,

Dhritarashtra, and is also claimed by others to be the president of the Four

Lokapala.The second King is blue, on a white elephant. He has two arms, ami hoi

a knife and lasso.

The third King is blue, on a blue lion. He holds a vajra and a khakkhara (alarm

staff).

The fourth King is red on a blue mule, and holds an elepi >ad and a

dgeon.The fifth King is green on a black horse, and holds an axe.

In the paintings of the Five Kings, Padmasambhava is usually representedabove Pe-har, the chief of the Kings.

\ l-< > (Ni-wo)

rin

The Japanese god, Ni-6, guardian of the Buddhist script

tide on the four peaks of Mount Sumeru, the centre of th

mifest himself whenever enshrined and worshipped with prop •xmm.

Although his name Ni-d literally means ' two kings ', he

t may be represented by any nui. gods, even, ac< '*mt

dhi sutra, as many as ' ten tinu ins of sand of I

hobonenkyo call the deity Misshu

PLATE LVII

15!

THE FIVE GREAT KINGS 151

Daiila is the tutelary god of warriors, and rides on a yellow horse.

Luvang, the god of the Nagas, rides on a blue crocodile.

Tokchoi, rides on a yellow deer.

In this form they accompany the thirty-five Buddhas of Confession.

According to Schlagintweit, when one of these gods is represented alone, he

is accompanied by :

Damchan dorje legpa, on a camel.

Ts'angs-pa, on a ram.

Chebu damchan, on a goat.

According to Griinwedel, it is Dam-can rdor-legs who is on the goat and not on

the camel (PI. lvi, fig. d).

All of the Five Kings wear a broad-brimmed hat and long, flowing garmentswhich, if painted, are red with a green border.

It is claimed that when Padmasambhava wished to build the convent of bSam-

yas he forced the Five Kings to make a vow to protect it. For that reason they are

called Dam-can, or ' he who has made a vow '.

According to certain accounts, the chief of the Kings is Pe-har or Pe-dkar, whois probably the 'Bi-har' quoted above. He has six arms and is white, seated on

a white lion. He brandishes a sword, knife, and bow and arrow. The president of

the Five Kings is said to be identical with the fourth guardian of the world,

Dhritarashtra, and is also claimed by others to be the president of the Four

Lokapala.The second King is blue, on a white elephant. He has two arms, and holds

a knife and lasso.

The third King is blue, on a blue lion. He holds a vajra and a khakkhara (alarm

staff).

The fourth King is red on a blue mule, and holds an elephant goad and a

bludgeon.The fifth King is green on a black horse, and holds an axe.

In the paintings of the Five Kings, Padmasambhava is usually representedabove Pe-har, the chief of the Kings.

NI-0 (Ni-wo)

The Japanese god, Ni-6, guardian of the Buddhist scriptures, is believed to

reside on the four peaks of Mount Sumeru, the centre of the universe, but will

manifest himself whenever enshrined and worshipped with proper ceremonies.

Although his name Ni-o literally means ' two kings ', he is, in reality, one deity,

but may be represented by any number of gods, even, according to the Surahgamasa-

madhi sutra, as many as ' ten times the grains of sand of the river Ganges '. The

Shobonenkyo call the deity Misshakukongo.

152 MINOR GODS

Ni-6, however, is best known in his dual form of Missaku and Kongo,1 or the two

guardians enshrined on either side of the gateway of Buddhist temples (PI. lvii).

These two kings'

probably find their origin in a Japanese legend, which runs

to the effect that there was once a king whose first wife bore him a thousand sons,

whom he wished to acquire perfect enlightenment. His second queen bore him two

sons, one of whom desired to turn the Wheel of the Law for his thousand brothers,

while the other vowed to protect the Law which his brother preached. The former

was called Missaku, and the latter Kongo.

The king Kongo is the Japanese Vajrapani. He is represented at the right of the

gateway of a Buddhist temple and holds a vajra (thunderbolt). The name «

Kongo'

means vajra, or thunderbolt, with which the god is believed to destroy all evil.

The king Missaku is enshrined at the left of the gateway, and is believed to

propagate goodness.

The two Kings'

are sometimes termed the Vldyaraja, and, as such, are called

Raga (Aizen) and Acala (Fudo), and are represented by the Mandala of the Two

Parts. 2

Raga belongs to the Garbhadhatu (matrix section), or the material world of the

five elements : earth, water, fire, air, and ether. He is represented by the sound ' a'

and his statues have the mouth open.

Acala belongs to the Vajradhatu (diamond section), or spiritual world of one

element : the mind. He is represented by the sound ' hum ', and his statues have

the mouth closed.

The deity Ni-o is thus the union of the Spiritual with the Material, or the

' two Kings'

in one. In other words, he is the dual form of Vairocana (Dai-nichi

Nyorai).

THE CITIPATI

(T.) dur-k'rod bday-po (the lord or master of the cemetery).

The Citipati are two skeletons, one of a man and the other of a woman, who are

represented with arms and legs interlaced, dancing the Tsam dance on two corpses.

Each brandishes a sceptre topped by a skull, and one holds a skull-cup and the other

a vase, or else they both carry the same symbol (PI. lii, fig. b). They are usually

represented in the suite of Yama, but may also accompany the dakim, Naro-mk'ha-

spyod-ma.1 From the Myokyojochinsho.

Name Misshaku Kongo

Manifestation Raga (Aizen) Acala (Fudo)

Mouth open closed

Heaven Garbha Vajra

Germ a hum2

v. Vairocana.

PLATE LVIII

4fe

SmA

A<

H*

ft ^fT^;#

£- **«*>&*

>JU$ *J /4 5 *\

Naqa god. Printed mamori or charm from the Enkakuji

temple, kamakura, japan

PLATE LIX

«, Naga

b. Garuda C. NaJARAJA

THE CITIPATI 153

In Pander's Pantheon (No. 253) they are represented each on a separate lotus-

flower and not following the text.

According to a Northern Buddhist legend, the Citipati were, in a former

existence, two ascetics who were once lost in such deep meditation that they did not

notice that a thief had cut off their heads and thrown them in the dust. Since that

time they have been ferocious enemies of the thief and have vowed eternal vengeance.It somewhat resembles the legend of Yama.

NAGAS AND GARUDAS.

The Nagas, or serpent-gods, are minor deities, but superior to man, and believed

to be the protectors of the Law of Buddha. In fact, Buddhist legend claims that the

sacred book, the Prajnaparamitd, was put under the protection of the Nagas byGautama Buddha himself until such a time as the human race should have acquiredsufficient knowledge to understand it. In the first century of our era, the sage

Nagarjuna claimed to have received from the Nagas the Prajndpdramitd, on which

he founded the Mahayana School.

The seat of Naga worship was in Kashmir and spread south into India along the

Indus. When Hiuen-tsang entered the valley in the beginning of the seventh

century A. D. he found, in almost every place he visited, a shrine dedicated to a local

Naga. He relates that it was even believed that a member of the Sakya family (that

of Gautama Buddha) had married the daughter of a serpent-king, and he also tells of

a Buddhist priest who was reborn as a serpent because he '

killed'

the Elapatra-tree.1

In a Tibetan scroll 2it is related, in regard to the Elapatra Naga, that he assumed

the guise of a monarch in order to hear the Blessed One preach. The All-KnowingBuddha, perceiving him among his hearers, addressed him as follows :

' O King of

Snakes, during the ministry of Buddha Kasyapa you violated the rules of moral

conduct, for which you were condemned to be born a snake. Have you now come

here, assuming a false appearance, like a hypocrite, while I am preaching ? Assume

your own shape and listen to my sermons, if your nature permits you to do so !

' Next

day there appeared in the audience a huge serpent on whose head was grown an

Elapatra-tree. His body measured many miles, for while his head came to hear

Buddha's sermon in Rajagriha, his tail lay in Taxila.

In Japan there is a legend in regard to a priest who was reborn as a fish, out of

whose head grew a huge tree. 11 It is probably a version of the Elapatra Nagalegend.

The Nagas play an important rdle in the legend of Gautama Buddha. They1 For legend v. Journal and Text of the Buddhist Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Text Society of India, vol. ii, Part I, 1894, p. 3.3 For legend see the Open Court for June, 1911.

2 Translated by Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana,

154 MINOR GODS

assisted at his birth and gave him his first bath (PL vil). They came to hear him

preach and became his disciples. It is recounted that once when Buddha remained

in a state of samadhi (form of deepest meditation) for seven days, under a tree near a

pond, the blind Naga that lay in the pool was restored to vision by the light that

shone from the Buddha's body and became his disciple. When Mara, god of Evil,

unchained the fury of the elements to disturb Buddha's meditation, Mucalinda,

a serpent-king, wound his coils about him and spread his hood over the Tathagati's

head to protect him during his samadhi (PI. vi, fig. a).

The serpent, from the annual renewal of its skin, is a symbol of immortality, and

when represented with its tail in its mouth forming a circle symbolizes the Yoga

principle of Union, or the Circle of Regeneration. The Nagaraja Mucalinda, whowound his coils around the body of the Buddha to protect him from the temptationsof the god of Evil, typifies the impenetrable armour which the Tathagata fashions for

himself by the observance of the ten Paramitas. The Naga god protecting Sakya-muni may be represented with five, seven, or many heads, the last form being purelyIndian (PI. xi, figs, a and b).

The nimbus of Amoghasiddha in Nepal is representedsurrounded by Nagas, and that of Nagarjuna has seven overhanging serpents.

In Kashmir serpent-worship existed as early as the fifth century B. c. In Ceylonthe serpent-worshippers were converted to Buddhism in the third century B. c, but

the worship has now practically disappeared, while in India the Naga god is still

reverenced, especially in the South.

The Indian representations of the Naga gods from the third century b. c. to the

twelfth a. d. were of human form, with, behind the head, a spread cobra's hood havingthree, five, or seven heads. After the twelfth century, the Nagas were representedwith the body ending in a serpent's tail. When the cobra-hood had only three or

five heads, the tail was spotted ;if seven or nine heads, the serpent was represented

covered with scales. The more modern representations are merely that of a cobra

capella with the hood spread.

The Chinese used the snake symbol much less than that of the dragon, althoughthe Naga god was worshipped in China from the earliest times. Fergusson

1 mentions

that ' two heaven-sent serpents watched over the first washing of Confucius '.

In Japan the serpent has been worshipped from prehistoric times, and manyNaga shrines may still be found throughout Japan. At Kamakura there is a templededicated to a local Naga, who is represented coiled in spiral shape with the head of

a bearded man 2

(PI. lviii). It is worshipped as the goddess Benten by the common

people, but is probably a relic of serpent (or phallic) worship. The goddess Benten

(Benzai-ten), one of the seven gods of Good Luck, is usually represented riding on a

snake (or a dragon). As she is a very popular divinity, it may be that the serpenthas become identified with her as an object of adoration. Her shrines as related above

1 Tree and Serpent Worship. the four-headed Naga, on the coils of which the2 On the tip of its tail is balanced a cintamani, Buddha is seated, has also the cintamani on the tip

in the form of a flaming pearl. In the Nepalese of its tail.

JIS. Add. 864, in the University Library, Cambridge,

PLATE LX

a. Mi-la ras-pa b. Ts'on-k'a-pa (?)

c. Man-la d. Undetermined

154

AND GARXJDiIXJ 3TAJ1

are generally on islands!, and always near a river, lake, or t

is white, it is belie be a special manifestation of the

On PI. i,l\ all household shrine

with a human head. xample on PI. lviii,

claimed at the temple to have been carved by Kobo Daishi.

According to Hi the Nagas were in <• .

rudas, or fabulous|

birds, and especially of their b

bird would fly up into a huge tree called Kutasalmali, which

Great Ocean. lPPmg his wings to divide the wat

serpent-gods, pick them up with his beak, and eat them. In t

that had been c d to Buddhism appealed to the 1

against their mi and he appointed the god Vaj

protector. The Tath hem his monastic garment, which wis d

into infinitesimal pieces ;• ributed among them. No Naga, with I

talisma §d be hi a Garuda. Vajrapani, as related above, in

combatthesegformidable birds, assumed the shape of a Garuda.

One of |he Garuda's most formidable enemies is Nanda, the Nagaraja, king of

the serpents.^ He esented inhuman form as far as the wais&'and the rest of the

body as a serpent. He may havg one head, with a serpent croj^n, and two ha;

holding ase*j>ent ; or have four Iftads and six arms, two of theghands of which

drawing a bclv (PI. lix, fig. ^^

The Nagas were not considered malignant gods, but, on "the contrary <

kindly disponed towards mankind. They were believed to control the rain

and, whenaproperly >d, would protect from lightning, bring benefi'

showers, or atop too

The king of the Nagas is Virupaksha, one of the four Lokapala, or Celest

Guardians of the Four Cardinal Points. His kingdom is the continent west

Mount Meru, which was sn. be the centre of the universe ; but the c:

residence of the Nagas is Bhogav '00 yoganas under the sea.

ARHAT- (or Arhan, or Sthavira).

(T.) gnas-brtan (pro. n*tan), or netan eudug (the sixteen sthavira).

(M.) dain-i darughmn (the vanquisher of enemies), or batu aqii (steady, constant, or fiim).

(C.) Lo-han.

(J.) Rakhan.

An Arhat is on* ias reached the end of the Eight-Fold Path, and

only perfect himself, but can give perfection to others. Gautama Buddha, before

making the Great Vow of the Bodhisattva, was, in one of his incarnations, the Arliat

Sumedha.

Vajrapani.'Arhat, lit.

'

fit','

worthy '.

x 2

«i

PLATE LXI

x\<xa

<>

e-i-

X

ooMHCOw

w^5

155

NAGAS AND GARUDAS 155

are generally on islands, and always near a river, lake, or the sea. When the snake

is white, it is believed to be a special manifestation of the Indian goddess Sarasvati.

On PI. lix, fig. a, there is a small household shrine of a Naga god in bronze

with a human head, resembling the example on PI. lviii, which is in wood, and

claimed at the temple to have been carved by Kobo Daishi.

According to Hindu mythology, the Nagas were in constant terror of the

Garudas, or fabulous golden-winged birds, and especially of their king. This giganticbird would fly up into a huge tree called Kutasalmali, which is at the north of the

Great Ocean, and flapping his wings to divide the waters, swoop down upon the

serpent-gods, pick them up with his beak, and eat them. In their distress the Nagasthat had been converted to Buddhism appealed to the Buddha to protect them

against their mortal enemies, and he appointed the god Vajrapanix their special

protector. The Tathagata then gave them his monastic garment, which was divided

into infinitesimal pieces and distributed among them. No Naga, with this inviolable

talisman, could be harmed by a Garuda. Vajrapani, as related above, in order to

combat these formidable birds, assumed the shape of a Garuda.

One of the Garuda's most formidable enemies is Nanda, the Nagaraja, king of

the serpents. He is represented in human form as far as the waist, and the rest of the

body as a serpent. He may have one head, with a serpent crown, and two hands

holding a serpent ; or have four heads and six arms, two of the hands of which are

drawing a bow (PI. lix, fig. c).

The Nagas were not considered malignant gods, but, on the contrary, were

kindly disposed towards mankind. They were believed to control the rain-clouds,

and, when properly propitiated, would protect from lightning, bring beneficial

showers, or stop too abundant rains.

The king of the Nagas is Virupaksha, one of the four Lokapala, or Celestial

Guardians of the Four Cardinal Points. His kingdom is the continent west of

Mount Meru, which was supposed to be the centre of the universe ; but the chief

residence of the Nagas is Bhogavati, 3,000 yoganas under the sea.

ABHAT* (or Arhan, or Sthavira).

(T.) gnas'brtan (pro. netan), or netan cudug (the sixteen sthavira).

(M.) dain-i darugh$an (the vanquisher of enemies), or batu-aqci (steady, constant, or fum).

(C.) Lo-han.

(J.) Rakhan.

An Arhat is one who has reached the end of the Eight-Fold Path, and is not

only perfect himself, but can give perfection to others. Gautama Buddha, before

making the Great Vow of the Bodhisattva, was, in one of his incarnations, the Arhat

Sumedha.1

v. Vajrapani. Arhat, lit.'

fit ',

'

worthy '.

x 2

156 HISTORICAL PERSONAGES DEIFIED

In the Buddhist temples of Tibet, China, Japan, and Corea, along the east and

west walls of the principal hall, are rows of figures usually seated. These are the

Arhats, disciples of the Buddha, patrons and guardians of Buddhism, and may be

either five hundred in number or in a group of sixteen. In China, however, as well

as often in Tibet, one finds a group of eighteen Arhats. The reason for the addition

of two Arhats to the traditional group of sixteen is not clear, for, according to

Watters,1 in the ancient Chinese literature, there is only question of sixteen Lo-han.

Besides these two groups of Arhats there are the four'

great Bhikshu'

to whomthe Buddha entrusted the propagation of Buddhism after his death. They are

Mahakasyapa, Pindola (Mania), Kuntes-pan-t'an, and Rahula. These men were to1 remain in existence and not experience Nirvana until the advent of Maitreya as

Buddha '. Two of these, Pindola and Rahula, are among the eighteen Lo-han.

The fifth Arhat is called Nakula in China, and is represented like Jambala with

a mongoose under his arm (v. Kuvera). Some of the names of the Arhats vary in the

different countries.

NAGARJUNA

(T.) klu-ssgrub (the serpent saint). Mudra : dharmacakra (teaching).

(M.) naganyuna baksi {Nagarjuna, the teacher).

Nagarjuna is usually called the ' founder'

of the Mahayana system ; but it

is claimed by some that he was only its principal expounder. The Japaneselook upon Asvaghosha, the probable master of Nagarjuna, as the founder of the

doctrine of the Great Vehicle. Others, still, believe that Nagarjuna founded the

Madhyamika school and was the first to teach the Amitabha doctrine. It is thoughtthat he lived in the beginning of the second century a. d., but the exact dates of his

birth and death are still unknown.

He was born in Southern India, and his parents were of the Brahman caste. Athis birth, according to an old Tibetan legend, it was predicted that he would only live

seven days. In consideration of the acts of merit performed by his parents, the gods

delayed his death until seven weeks, and then to seven months, and finally to seven

years. Before the seven years were up, he was sent to the convent of Nalanda,where he learned to adore Amitayus, god of Long Life, and succeeded in so pro-

pitiating the god that he is said to have lived three hundred years on earth, endinghis life only by cutting off his own head.

Nagarjuna was the greatest Buddhist philosopher and mastered all the sciences,and especially magic art. He is said to have acquired Siddhi, by which magic powerhe obtained the ' rainbow

'

body (jahlus), and was thus able to become invisible at will

and transport himself from one place to another by supernatural power.1

Tlie Eighteen Lohan of the Chinese Buddhist 1'emples.

PLATE LXII

a. ClTIPATI I. Dharmapala

c. Skull-cup d. Dai-nichi Nyorai (Vairocana)

156

PLATE LXIII

a. Vairocana

e. Tara

b. PabMABANI

d. Gautama Buddha

c Amitabha

q. Manjuski

/. Mahakala

NAGARJUNA 157

The Tibetan Buddhists claim that Nagarjuna was the fourteenth of the twenty-seven Patriarchs that propagated the Buddhist faith, beginning with the senior discipleof the Buddha, Kasyapa, and ending with Bodhidharma, who carried Buddhism into

China in the sixth century A. D.

According to the Chinese and Japanese Buddhists, he was the third of the eightPatriarchs of the Yogacarya school, beginning with Vairocana and ending with the

Japanese sage Kukai (Kobo Daishi). According to the Buddhist texts, Sakya-munipredicted the rebirth of his disciple Ananda under the name of

'

Nagarjuna ', founder

of the Mahayana system. Nagarjuna is believed by the Shin-gon sect to havereceived the secret Yoga doctrine directly from the second Patriarch, Vajrasattva,whom he visited in his Iron Tower in Southern India.

Other Mahayana Buddhists (the Amitabha sects), however, claim that he

received the treatise on which he expounded and developed the Mahayana school

from the serpent-gods, the Nagas ; and that the Naga king himself revealed to

Nagarjuna the holy texts in the Dragon palace under the sea. They further claim that

Gautama Buddha had given this treatise, the Prajnciparamitd, to the Nagas to guarduntil such a time as the world should become sufficiently enlightened to understand

its transcendent wisdom ; and that the Nagas, after converting Nagarjuna to

Buddhism, handed over to him their precious Measure.

In the representations of Nagarjuna, who was deified and enrolled amongthe Northern Buddhist divinities, he has an aureole on which are seven snakes. If

painted, the middle one is yellow and the others grey. He is represented like

a Buddha with the ushnisha, urna, and long-lobed ears, and wears the monastic

garments. He has no symbols, and his hands are in dharmacakra mudra. If painted,he is white.

PADMASAMBHAVA

(Lotus-born).

(T.) pad-ma hbjuh-gnas (lotus-born), or u-rgyan-pa Symbols : khatvdnga (magic stick).

(the crowned one). vajra (thunderbolt).

(M.) padmasambhava. patra (begging-bowl).

In the middle of the eighth century A. D. the Tibetan king Thi-Sron Detsan sent

to India inviting the learned guru Padmasambhava to come to Tibet. Padmasambhavawas renowned for his knowledge of dharani (mystical sentences) and of their efficacious

application, and was warmly welcomed. He remained fifty years in the country,

founding monasteries and teaching the Tantra-Yogacarya doctrine. He is said to have

subdued all the malignant gods in Tibet, sparing only those that became converted

to Buddhism and that promised to be defenders (Dharmapala) of the doctrine. Pad-

masambhava, in his turn, promised to enroll them in the Mahayana Pantheoa and

158 HISTORICAL PERSONAGES DEIFIED

to see that they were properly worshipped. He claimed to have received from the

dakinl the books from which he acquired his miraculous powers.At the end of fifty years Padmasambhava disappeared miraculously, and is said

to have entered the body of a Yaksha king, Me-wal, where he has reigned supreme' over all the Yakshas up till the present day and in perpetual youth, is preaching the

doctrine of Lamaism in a paradise which rivals that of Amitabha's western heaven of

SukhavatI'

(Waddell, Lamaism).Padmasambhava was deified and is still worshipped by the Northern Buddhists

of Tibet. He is represented seated on a lotus asana with the legs locked, the righthand holding the vajra, and the left, lying in his lap, the patra. He holds his

special symbol, the hhatvahga (which he is believed to have invented), pressed

against his breast with the left arm. The vajra was also made popular in Tibet byPadmasambhava, who used it in casting spells and exorcising devils.

His garment is flowing, and, if painted, is red, as well as his peaked cap, which

sometimes ends in a half vajra. The lappets over the ears are divided and turned

back, thus resembling a lotus-flower, for Padmasambhava is believed to have been

born from a red lotus-flower.

Besides the bronzes, one often finds Padmasambhava represented in the temple

paintings of the Dharmapala. He is probably put in their company because he

subdued them, and also because, according to the Mahayana traditions, there must

always be one pacific deity among the ferocious gods. He is always placed at the

top of the picture above them, and is sometimes accompanied by two disciples.

In China and Japan his worship is practically unknown.

TS'ON-K'A-PA

(lit.'Man from Ts'oh-k'a

').

(S.) Swmatiklrti. Mudra: dharmacakra.

(T.) blo-bzan grags-pa (pro. lobsan dagha). Symbols : khadga (sword).

(M.) jonqaba. imstaka (book).

Ts'oh-k'a-pa was born in Tibet, in the valley of Ts'oh-k'a, in the middle of the

fourteenth century, and it is said that the tree which overshadowed the house in

which he was born has the imprint of a Buddha on its leaves.

Ts'on-k'a-pa, the Northern Buddhist reformer, founded the Ge -lug-pa sect,

which he called the ' virtuous '. In spite of the severity of its rules and the

practice of celibacy which it enforced, the Ge-lug-pa sect became very popular,

quickly spreading over Tibet, and has remained the most important sect up to the

present day.

They were called 'yellow bonnets' from the pointed yellow caps which

PLATE LXIV

Typm Puffie Tea Cytelis aut iddis SitienCium,

^i ^ ?n 7i ^ ?i fi fi

3 51 is ft

^ 51 ^; ?i

3 #1 an ai 31

mautPg accepe-rntitt, ifsch

tfti-ibuin. eaqrrim u n t.

KWAN-YIN

158

TS'ON-K'A-PA 159

they wore in opposition to the'

red bonnets'

(Kar-gyu-pa), a sect founded over

three centuries before, which allowed the priests marriage, besides many other

liberties, and permitted the practice of sorcery.

Ts'on-k'a-pa, at his death, put the church under the protection of the god of

Death, Yama (some say under Yamantaka), and repaired to the Tushita heaven, where

he is believed to be sitting beside the future Buddha, Maitreya. He was canonized

as an incarnation of Manjusri, and enrolled in the Northern Buddhist Pantheon.

Ts'on-k'a-pa is represented seated on either a kholbok or a lotus. He wears the

yellow pointed cap with the long ear-lappets, and his hands are in dharmacakra mudra,

holding the stems of lotus-flowers, which support, at each shoulder, the sword and

book (Manjusri's symbols). His garment, if painted, is red.

He is generally represented in temple pictures with two of his disciples, while

below is sometimes Yamantaka.

MI-LA-RAS-PA

(T.) grub-pai dban-p'yug Mi-la (the mighty saint, Mi-la).

Mi-la-ras-pa, mendicant monk and poet, lived in the beginning of the twelfth

century A. D., and spent his life wandering through Tibet performing miracles,

converting the nomadic people to Buddhism, and writing his 100,000 songs, which

have never, as yet, been translated into English.1

He was deified and enrolled in the Northern Buddhist Pantheon, but does not

figure in the Pantheon of the Tschantscha Hutuktu.

Mi-la-ras-pa is represented in the bronzes seated on a gazelle-skin on a lotus

usana. He has short, curly hair, the urna, is dressed in monastic garments, and

always holds his right hand with the fingers extended and the palm turned outwards

behind his right ear, as if he were listening to the ' echoes of nature ', to use his ownwords. His left hand holds a begging-bowl (PL lx, fig. a).

1 There is a fragment translated into French, Grunwedel, Mythologie du Bouddhisme, p. 62.

TS'OGS-£lNG (TSOK-SHIN)NEPALESE PAINTING OFFERED TO A TEMPLE IN 1809. 1

A. Left medallion : two Bodhisattva and 42 16.

lamas or saints.

B. Central medallion : two Divinities and 22 17.

lamas or saints. 1 8.

C. Right medallion: two Bodhisattva (Mafijusrl 19.

and ?) with 42 lamas or saints. 20.

D. The summit of the Pyramid. 21.

1. Sakya-muni. 22.

2. Sariputra. 23.

3. Maudgalyayana. 24.

4. Atisa. 25.

5. Ts'oh-k'a-pa.

6. Nagarjuna. 26.

7-17. Saints and lamas.

E-F. Space on the right and left of the Pyra- 27.

mid : flying deities, praying monks, &c. 28.

G. The Pyramid.1. Vajravarahl (T. Rdo-rje-p'ag-mo),incarna- 29.

tion of an ahbess of Central Tibet (see30.

No. 7) (red).31.

2. Hevajra. 32.

3. Yamantaka (P. 61). 33.

4. Sangdui (T. Gsah-ba hdus-pa) (P 62). 34.

5. Samvara.

6. Combination of Mahamaya (P. 67) and 35.

Buddha Kapala (P. 69) (blue).36.

7. Vajravarahl? (see No. 1) (red).37.

8. Kurukulla (T. Rig-byed-mo) (red). 38.

9. Simhavaktra (T. Sen-gdon-ma DakinT) 39.

(G. p. 174). 40.

10. Mahasakra Vajrapani (G. p. 161) (black). 41.

11. TheredYamari(T.Gsed-dmar)(G.p.l23). 42.

12. Kalacakra (T. Dus-hk'or) (P. 65) (blue).

13. The black Yamari (dark blue). 43.

14. HayagrTva with three heads (T. Rta-

mgrin). 44.

15. First Tathagata or Buddha (?) with a 45.

jewel (yellow).

Second Tathagata or Buddha (?), the hands

turned in the same direction.

Usmsasita (P. 162).

A Bodhisattva (?).

Vajrapani.

Manjughosa (?) (G. p. 99).

Vajrapani.

A Bodhisattva (?).

SarasvatI (P. 157).

Third Tathagata (black).

Fourth Tathagata (T. Rgyal-ba Gyul-las)

(P. 127) (black).

Parnasavari, Sakti de Manjughosa (P. 165)

(red).

Acala (black).

A Bodhisattva with four arms (undeter-

minable, being erased).

The white Manjughosa (erased).

Kun-rig (P. 76).

Acala (black).

The white Tara.

Fifth Tathagata (colour of cinnamon).Sixth Tathagata (T. Rgyal-ba Dpan-

pohi(?)) (black).

Seventh Tathagata (red).

The green Tara.

Vajrapani (simple form) (black).

Bodhisattva or White Tara?

A Bodhisattva (colour of cinnamon).

Mila-ras-pa ?

Jambhala nag-po (P. 267 ?) (black).

Eighth Tathagata (T. Rgyal-ba mts'on-

dpal) (P. 124).

Ninth Tathagata (T. Rgyal-ba Sin-tu-

rnam-par) (P. 126).

Tenth Tathagata (yellow).

Usnisavijaya (T. Rnam-par) (P. 164)

(white).

1 The indications in parentheses signify the corresponding figures in Pander's Pantheon, e.g. (P. 61),

or the pages of Griinwedel's Buddhism in Tibet, where the figures are to be found, e.g. (G. p. 166). The

images of this book are indicated by the roman numbers of plates, e. g. xn.

"

: :• : :• •

• • • • . :» •

£lNG (TSOK-SHIN)

46. Ann(P. 85).

47. Akskobh\ sakti) (dark green).

48. Ratnaaai tir of cinnamon).

49. Avaloki' -

50. jJamantabbadra [after the explicative list

of the lama] (P. 152) (dark blue).

51. Sman-bla (P. 142L(fork)52. Yisvapani (Dbyfini-Bodhisattva^oi^

Amr,

ghasidi ?).

53-61. Eleventh to nineteenth Tat hSgatl

62. Twentieth Ti thagata (5>. Klu-dba

(P. 100) (wii r.63-68. Tvsen ventv-sixth T#h«-^

gata

69. First Bodhisa t\a SarvanlvaranaviskpAt

bin V (gn70. Second Bodhiiattva: Ksitigarbrrai

71. Third Bodhisittva: Manjulrl'72. Fourth Bodhisattva: Vajrap73. Fifth

Bodhisijtt.vTf:It

brown)

T4. Sixth Bodhisattva

(white)

75. Seventh Botjhisattva :

(yellow).

76. Eighth Bodhji77-82. Twen Q

Tathagata,

83-90. The

91-95. Thirl

gata.

96. First Sthavi

97. Second Stha

98. Third Sthav

99.

100. Piftl

101. i

102.-

ra : Bakgla (P. 20M£103. Severn! vita :

'<vT)"'

110. Twelfth Sthavira ; B!

cen (P. 200).

111. Thirteenth Sthavba: Gaer-behu (P.

199).

1 12. Fourteenth Sthavira : Beah-po? (with-

out his book) (P. 198).

113.Yfljr-ul,il,ini (P 9"H>)

114. Padrrt&dakinl (P. 22>

1 lg Dakir

116. BuddhaJfikin^

5

(P. 223).

/(P. 225).

(P. 226).

(P. 228).

[P26i>!

jl35.Twelfth Dharmapala : Lilia^mo sol-ru

(P, 245),

t. Eigl. Bhara-dvadsa (P. 204).

105. Ninth l

lawn-p' ran-batm (P.

201

136. Thirteenth Dharmapala : B.

106. 1 >7). 254).

107. (?)rravid io

rJHW^4'\*»tWirf**Dfl{irn.apal» : Lha-mo tm

108. (*)dika (P. 244).

109. (Chin. 138. Fifteenth Dharmapala : Lha-mo skyohs-

ma (P. 246) or Ma-cig-pal (P. 256).

/

TS'OGS-SING (TSOK-SHIN) 161

46. Amytayus (T. Tse-dpag-med) (P. 85). 110.

47. Akshobhya (without Sakti) (dark green).

48. Ratnasambhava (colour of cinnamon). 111.

49. Avalokitesvara.

50. Samantabhadra [after the explicative list 112.

of the lama] (P. 152) (dark blue).

51. Sman-bla (P. 142) (dark). 113.

52. Visvapani (Dhyani-Bodhisattva of Amo- 114.

ghasidi?). 115.

53-61. Eleventh to nineteenth Tathiigata. 116.

62. Twentieth Tathagata (T. Klu-dban-gi) 117.

(P. 100) (white). 118.

63-68. Twenty-first to twenty-sixth Tatha- 119.

gata. 120.

69. First Bodhisattva : Sarvanlvaranaviskam-

bhi? (green). 121.

70. Second Bodhisattva: Ksitigarbha (yellow).122.

71. Third Bodhisattva: Manjusrl? (yellow).

72. Fourth Bodhisattva : Vajrapani? (yellow). 123.

73. Fifth Bodhisattva : Akasagarbha (yellow-

brown). 124.

74. Sixth Bodhisattva : Avalokitesvara

(white). 125.

75. Seventh Bodhisattva : Samantabhadra ?

(yellow). 126.

76. Eighth Bodhisattva : Maitreya (yellow).

77-82. Twenty-seventh to thirty-second

Tathagata. 127.

83-90. The eight acolytes of Sman-bla

(P. 136-441, 142, 143). 128.

91-95. Thirty-third to thirty-seventh Tatha-

gata. 129.

96. First Sthavira : Rdo-rje mo-hi (P. 197). 130.

97. Second Sthavira : Nags-na (P. 195).

98. Third Sthavira : Dus-ldan (P. 196). 131.

99. Fourth Sthavira : Ma-p'am-pa (P. 194).

100. Fifth Sthavira : Yan-lag-hbyun (P. 193). 132.

101. Snkya Muni or Sman-bla ?

102. Sixth Sthavira : Bakula (P. 201). 133.

103. Seventh Sthavira : Sgra-gcan-hdsin

(P. 202). 134.

104. Eighth Sthavira : Bhara-dvadsa (P. 204). 135.

105. Ninth Sthavira : Lam-p'ran-bstan (P.

203). 136.

106. Tenth Sthavira : Sbed-byed (P. 207).

107. (?) 137.

108. (?)

109. Eleventh Sthavira: Hva-sang (Chin. 138.

Hwa-chang) (P. 210).

Twelfth Sthavira : Bha-ra-dva-dsa gser-

cen (P. 200).

Thirteenth Sthavira: Gser-behu (P.

199).

Fourteenth Sthavira : Bsan-po ? (with-

out his book) (P. 198).

Vajradakini (P. 224?).

PadmadakinI (P. 227).

Dakini?

Buddhadakinl ? (P. 223).

Ratnadakinl (P. 225).

Karmadakini (P. 226).

VisVadakinl (P. 228).

Fifteenth Sthavira : Lam-bstan (P.

205).

Sixteenth Sthavira: Klu-hi-sde (P. 206).

Seventeenth Sthavira : Mi-pyed (P.

208).

Eighteenth Sthavira : Dharma-tala

(P. 209).

First Dharmapala : Vajrapani with

Garuda wings (P. 184-186) (blue).

Second Dharmapala: Acala (T. Mi-

gyo-ba) (typical form dark blue).

Third Dharmapala : Mgyon-po p'yag-

bji (P. 243) or Ye-ces (G. p. 177)

(black).

Fourth Dharmapala : Kubera (P. 263)

(brownish-yellow) .

Fifth Dharmapala : Yama gsah (P. 240)

(red).

Sixth Dharmapala : Yama snan (blue).

Seventh Dharmapala : Yama Pyi (with-

out his sister) (P. 239) (blue).

Eighth Dharmapala : Blue Mahakala

(T. Mgon-po) (P. 230).

Ninth Dharmapala : White Mahakala

(T. Mgon-dkar) (P. 229).

Tenth Dharmapala: Gur-gyi mgon-

po ? (protector of the tent) (P. 242).

Eleventh Dharmapala: Brag-ca (P. 260).

Twelfth Dharmapala : Lha-mo sol-ma

(P. 245).

Thirteenth Dharmapala : Beg-tse (P.

254).

Fourteenth Dharmapala : Lha-mo tsan-

dika (P. 244).

Fifteenth Dharmapala: Lha-mo skyons-

ma (P. 246) or Ma-cig-pal (P. 256).

162 TS'0GS-6lNG (TSOK-SHIN)

If. Zone of the Guardians of the temple (Loka-

pala), &c.

I. The guardian of the North (P. 280).

II. The guardian of the East (P. 284).

III. Brahma offering a cakra (P. 278?).IV. Dbah-po-si offering a jewel (P. 156).

V. The guardian of the West (P. 282).

VI. The guardian of the South (P. 281).

J. The lowest space.

1. The ' seven jewels' : a. the wheel, b. the

jewel, c. the horse, d. the elephant, e. a

military chief, f. a civil dignitary, y. a

wife.

2. The five senses : a. sight (mirror), b. hear-

ing (conch), c. smell (vase for perfume),d. touch (silk), <?. taste (fruits).

3. A Stnpa.

4. A rock or tree-stock ; at its base a flaming

pearl on two balls, and under which

there are playing musicians; on every

side of the rock, a Naga.5. The 'eight emblems': a. conch, b. bumba,

c. umbrella, d. standard, £.fishes,y! wheel,

(j. diagram, h. flowers.

6. A monk offering a sort of pyramidal cake;

before him, the musicians.

K. Inscription (Langsha characters).

lYi-dam

Principal Dakinl

I Feminine diviniHes

JBodhisattva

BodhisaHva or^mmm, sAcolyfes of5man-bla

j feminine diviniHes? C3 and 4- of Fheirassistemb

H Buddha I 1 18 5>haviza

J Tafoagala L I 75econdaryDakinr

J Bodhisaftva (8) E9 Dharmapala,

5man-bla or iakya Muni ?

Face p. 102.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEB.C.

6th cehtury.

4th century.

3rd century.

1st centurv.

2nd century.

3rd century.

4th century.

5th century.

6th century.

7th century.

8th century.

9th centuiy.

11th century.

12th century.

Gautama Buddha—his birth, 557 ; assumed Buddhahood, 528;his Parinirvana, 447

(v. Sahjarmuni).

Confucius, 551-478.

Date of the birth of the Buddha according to the Singalese, 623 ;Siamese and Bur-

mese, 653; Chinese, 1027.

Alexander of Macedonia invaded India, 326.

First Buddhist Missionaries in China, 217.

Beginning of the Gandhara school, about 30.

Emperor Mingti's mission returned to China from India, 65.

Asvagosha wrote the Makdyana-Sraddhotanda-saslra.

Worship of Avalokitesvara introduced into China.

Patanjali founded the Yoga school in India.

Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika system and expounded the Mahayana doctrine

150-200.

Amitdba Vyuha suira translated in China, 222-280.

Buddhism carried into Nepal, 350.

Buddhism entered Corea, 372.

Fa-Hian made a pilgrimage to India, 399-414.

Yoga school grafted on the Mahayana by Asahga, about 550.

Buddhism spread to Japan, 552.

Tantrism made its appearance.

Shotoku Taishi, 593-621.

Worship of Avalokitesvara introduced into Japan.

Hiuen-Tsang made a pilgrimage to India, 629-645.

Buddhism introduced into Siam, 639.

Worship of Avalokitesvara and Tara introduced into Tibet.

Death of the Tibetan king, Srong-tsan-gampo, 650.

Yi-tsing travelled in India, 671-695.

The Yoga system was introduced into China, 720.

Padmasambhava carried the Mahayana doctrine into Tibet, 747.

Kobo Daishi, 774-834.

Tendai sect founded, 805.

Shin-gon sect founded, 806.

Buddhist Reformer, Atisa.

Ts'oh-ka-pa.

Y2

EXPLANATIONS OF THE SANSKRIT (S.), TIBETAN (T.), CHINESE (C),

MONGOLIAN (M.), AND JAPANESE (J.) WORDS USED IN THE TEXT

Abhaya (S.) Mudra of Protection(' Blessing of Fearlessness

')—the gesture of the right hand of the

Buddha in the episode of the mad elephant. The arm is elevated and slightly bent. The handis lifted, with the palm turned outward, and all the fingers are extended upward. Mudra of

the Dlpaiikara Buddha and of Amoghasiddha. (PI. vi, fig. c.)

Akma (S.) Ether or void. According to Hodgson, dkdsa is'

established, governed, perfected byits own nature. All things are absorbed into it ; it is uncreated or eternal ; it is revealed byits own force

;it is the essence of creation, preservation, and destruction ;

it is the essence of the

five elements;

it is intellectual essence . . . for infinite things are absorbed into it. The five

colours are proper to it as well as the five Dhyani-Buddhas. From Vairocana proceeded dkdh,'

Alidha (S.) Attitude of drawing the bow. Attitude of Kurukulla.

Amrita (S.) Nectar of Life, called by the Chinese ' sweet dew '. v. Vajrapdni and kalasa.

Anjali (S.) Mudrd of Salutation. The aims are stretched upward, and both of the palms are turned

upward with all the fingers extended. Attitude of Avalokitesvara (Tantra form) when holdinga small image of Amitabha.

Ahku&a (S.) Elephant goad.Asana (S.) 1. Support of a god, or group of gods.

All of the Northern Buddhist divinities are represented either seated or standing on lotus

supports, with but few exceptions. In Tibet and Nepal the lotus support is usually representedwith two rows of petals, of which the outer row is turned down, while the inner row stands

upright, thus representing an ufpala (blue lotus) ; but there may be more than two rows, and

there are also examples, in Tibet, where all the petals stand upright, which is the usual form

in Japan. In the temple paintings and frescoes from Central Asia, Kshitigarbha is sometimes

represented (as well as the Dlpankara Buddha) standing with a small lotus-flower under each

foot.

According to the Buddhist tradition, the Buddhas, when '

turning the Wheel of the Law ',

should be represented seated on a lion support (simkdsana). Manjusrl may be seated on a throne

supported by lions, instead of on a roaring lion. In the Chinese cave-temples of Yun-Kang and

Long-men, Maitreya is seated on a lion-throne, European fashion, with the feet crossed.

Yamantaka's throne may be supported by demons. Kuvera is sometimes seated on a kolbok, or

dmna made of cushions.

The vajrdsana is the diamond throne on which the Buddha sat when meditating under the

bodki-trce, and the fact is indicated by a vajra lying before him on the lotus-throne. Instead of

the vajra, there may be a svastika, marked on the throne, which probably refers to the esoteric

doctrine of Buddha, for the svastika was adopted as a special symbol of the doctrine by several

Buddhist sects.

2. A small supjwrt for the foot or feet of a god is also called asana, and is generally in the

form of a small lotus-flower, with the stem attached to the lotus-throne. Maitreya, as Buddha,has usually no support for his two pendent feet, but as Bodhisattva each foot is supported by a

small lotus-flower. The left foot of the green Tara has also a similar support, as well as the left

foot of the Nio-i-rin Kwan-non in Japan. The left foot of Jambala may rest on a conch-shell,

or a lai-bumpa which is supported by a lotus asana.

EXPLANATIONS OF WORDS USED IN THE TEXT 165

Some of the gods do not touch, directly, the lotus support.

Mahakala treads on one or two prostrate elephants. Yama may stand on a man or a bull, or

on a bull on top of a woman.

Yamantaka (eight legs) treads on eight birds under which are different animals.

Hevajra stands on animals and genii.

Samvara stands on a man and a woman.

Ts'aftgs-pa treads on a man and a prostrate horse.

3. An deana is also the position of the lower limbs of a god. In the ' adamantine'

pose the

legs are closely locked with the soles of both feet apparent, while in the saliva attitude the legs

are loosely locked and the soles of the feet scarcely visible. According to Waddell, this poseindicates the '

first emergence from meditation '. The attitude called rdjalUd or'

royal ease'

(by

Hodgson, Lalita-dsana pose) is with the right knee raised, the left remaining bent in the usual

position of a Buddha. In the '

enchanter's pose'

the left remains bent, while the right is

pendent. Maitreya is seated with both of the legs pendent. The Nio-i-rin Kwan-non has the

right foot supported by the left knee. The masculine Kwan-yin may also have this position in

China when meditating upon the best means of saving mankind.

Ahka-flower. Attribute of the yellow Marlcl and of Kurukulla. The atoka-ixzQ is called the tree of

Consolation, and it was between the bod/d-tvee and the ah&a-tree that the Buddha was born.

The a&>£«-flower is red, and should be represented somewhat like a rose in shape, with small

jagged leaves.

Asura (S.) Lit.' those who are not clevas '. The asura are the mortal enemies of the devas.

Atapatra (S.) Parasol—symbol of the goddess Sitatapatra.

Aum ! v. Om !

Beng (T.) Mace.

Bhagavat (S.) or Bhagavan. Epithet of a Buddha;

lit.' The Happy One '.

Bhikshu (S.) Buddhist monk. One who assumes the alarm staff (khakkhara) and begging-bowl

(pdtra), and gives himself up to contemplation.

Bhumisparia (S.) Mudra called' witness

'

(lit.'

earth-touching ').The right arm is pendent over

the right knee. The hand, with the palm turned inward, has all the fingers extended down-

ward. The left hand lies on the lap, palm upward. This mystic gesture was used by Buddha

to invoke the Earth-goddess as witness of his having resisted the temptation of Mara, god of

Evil. It is also the mudra of Akshobhya. (PL vm.)

Bija (S.) v. vija.

Bodhi (S.) Enlightenment.Bodhi-druma (S.) Lit.

' Tree of Enlightenment '. Each Buddha has a special tree called his

• bo-tree'

(or bod/d-tvee), under which he is supposed to have been born, do penance, preach, and

die. The * bo-tree'

under which Gautama Buddha is believed to have received bodhi is the fig-

tree (Ficus religiosa), or, according to others, the banyan-tree (Pippala).

The Buddha is said to have seated himself in meditation under four different trees symbolizingthe four stages of dhydna : under the fig-tree, the banyan-tree, the Mucalinda-tree (protected bythe serpent), and the Rajayatana-tree.

Budd/iasmarana (S.) Mudra of Salutation. The right hand is raised to a level with the head, with

all the fingers extended upward, the palm outward.

Bum-pa (T.) v. kalasa.

Caitya (S.) or Stupa (T. Chorten). A Buddhist sanctuary.

In the open square of every vihdra (Buddhist monastery) there is a caitya dedicated to Adi-

Buddha and the five Dhyani-Buddhas. In Nepal, around the base (which may be square or

quadrangular), are four niches, in which are placed the statues of the four Dhyani-Buddhas :

Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddha. Vairocana is believed to occupy

166 EXPLANATIONS OF SANSKRIT, TIBETAN, CHINESE,

the interior, and in Java, according to Hodgson, his image is immured. Vajrasattva, the sixth

Dhyani-Buddha, is never represented ;hut as Adi-Buddha he is symbolized by the flame-shaped

spike at the top of the caitya, in tbe centre of a moon-crescent (v. Vajrasattva). In China, on

the four sides of a pagoda, are placed stone images of the four great Bodhisattva : Ti-tsang

(Kshitigarbha) on the south; Kwan-yin on the east ; Wen-shu (Manjusrl) on the west ; P'u-hien

(Samantabhadra) on the north.

The ' elemental'

caitya of Tibet and Japan is made up of five parts superposed, representing

the five elements. The lower structure which holds the relic is the first element, earth {garbha),

and may be either bell-shaped or quadrangular. Above it is either a dome (if the lower structure

is quadrangular) or a square capital (if the lower part is bell-shaped), which represents the second

element, water. This part is surmounted by a tapering pinnacle, sometimes divided into thirteen

step-like segments representing the thirteen Bodhisattva heavens, and is the third element, fire

(v. PI. xix, fig. d). In the ' elemental'

caitya the pinnacle is surmounted by a moon-crescent,

representing the fourth element, air. In the centre of the moon-crescent is a /mya-shaped spike

which represents the fifth element, ether.

There are, however, many variations of the caitya, especially in the upper part. The

quadrangular cone often terminates, in Nepal, in a ^nya-shaped pinnacle which represents the

Akanishtha Bhuvana of Adi-Buddha. This part is surmounted by a five-spoked umbrella,

the spokes representing the five Dhyani-Buddhas ; or there may be five umbrellas, one above the

other. In Tibet the dome is usually inverted, being larger at the top than at the base (v. illus.

in Waddell, Lamaism, p. 263).

Miniature caitya are often found in Tibet and Japan (PL xni), and the cintamani is frequently

replaced in Japan by a small caitya representing the Iron Tower in which were hidden the

Buddhist Scriptures (v. Nagarjuna). As a symbol, it is held by Bishamon (the Japanese form

of Kuvera) as well as by his Chinese form To-wen (v. PL liv), and by Ratnapani (PL xxix, fig. a),

and MaricI (v. PL xl).

In the caves of Ellora, three circles placed side by side with the third on the top q^, thus

forming a triangle, symbolize a caitya as well as the Tri-ratna (v. Ratnapani).Cakra (S.) Wheel, symbol of absolute completeness. In the Vedic times the wheel was symbolical

of occult powers, but in Buddhism it symbolizes the Wheel of the Law, which turns twelve

times, or three revolutions for each of the Four Noble Truths. It is represented with eight

spokes (or multiples of eight), indicating the Eight-Fold Path of Self-Conquest.The wheel is one of the sixty-five marks on the footprints of the Buddha, which, at Amaravati,

are represented on the footstool below the vacant throne of the Buddha, behind which is also the

Thousand-spoked Wheel of Victory. Buddhist legend relates that the Buddha, at his birth,

took seven steps toward each of the four cardinal points, and thus indicated the conquering of

the 'circle' or universe (v. temple painting in the Musee Guimet, Bacot Collection). The

mystic mudrd called dharmacakra represents the •

turning of the Wheel of the Law '.

In pre-Buddhist times a great ruler was called a ' Wheel King'

(cakra-vartin), and at his

investiture a golden wheel was believed to fall from heaven. The Pali term chakkavatti (chakka,

wheel ; vatti, ruler) was applied to the Buddha as the spiritual ruler of the world. In the

earliest sculptures and frescoes the Master is symbolized by the Wheel, which is sometimes

flanked by two gazelles. A trident may rise from the wheel (v. Trisula).

The wheel symbol was first represented as a sun-disc which developed into a full-blown lotus

with the centre surrounded by eight petals, and from that it developed into a wheel with eight

spokes.

The origin of the thousand-spoked wheel is also probably the sun and its rays. According to

Hiuen-tsang, the ' diamond'

throne (vajrasana) of the Buddha reposed on the circumference of

a thousand-spoked wheel. (See illus. in Simpson, Buddhist Prayer Wheel, p. 48, fig. 12, and

MONGOLIAN AND JAPANESE WORDS USED IN TEXT 167

Havell, Indian Sculpture and Painting, PI. iv.) At the Buddha's Parinirvana, the thousand-

spoked wheel appeared outside of his coffin.

In Nepal the wheel of Vairocana is represented by the seed-vessel of the lotus, in the centre

of which is the Nepalese Yin-yang.

The cakra is believed to symbolize Karma,' a wheel of Fate that revolves relentlessly and

ceaselessly '. It is the symbol of Maitreya,Vairocana, and Sitatapatra (when holding1 the parasol).

Yama as well as Gon-po Bramzai wear it on the breast, and Sangdui has it in his head-dress.

Ts'angs-pa may also hold the cakra.

Cdmara (S.) Tail of the yak used as a fly-whisk. Tantra symbol.

Campa (T). White flower with yellow centre, emblem of Maitreya, whose two symbols are supported

by two campu flowers, of which he holds a stem in each hand. Campa is also the Tibetan name

of Maitreya.

Candra (S.) Moon. The full moon is the special symbol of Sarva-nivarana-vishkambhin. Samvara

has the crescent-moon in his head-dress, as does also Avalokitesvara when Simhanada. v. turya.

Cdpa (S.) Bow (of Mercy), attribute of Kurukulla, Cunda, (sixteen arms), Halahala-Avalokite^vara,

and the red Maricl.

Carana (S.) Footprint. The footprints of MaBjusrI have an eye in the centre of the charan. The

Buddha has the eight glorious emblems and the thousand-spoked wheel figured in his footprints.

v. cakra.

Chodpan (T.) Five-leaved crown worn by the Northern Buddhist priests when worshipping the'

Eight Terrible Ones '.

Chorten (T.) Buddhist sanctuary, v. caiti/a.

Churl (S.) Knife. Tantra symbol.

Cintamani (S.) Lit.'

magic gem ',which satisfies all desires (v. Mani). It is the special symbol of

Kshitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Ratnapani, Ratnasambhava, and Mahakala, as well as of Jizo and

the six-armed Nyo-i-rin Kwan-non. Aval okites"vara may also carry it, but rarely, and it is the

accessory symbol of several other gods.

The cintamani is represented in several different ways. The mani, or jewels, may be nine

in number, in which case they represent the nava ratna, or the nine jewels borrowed from

Brahmanism. Or they may represent the sapta raffia, or seven precious jewels, much con-

sidered in Tibet and China (v. ratna). The mani may also be six, or only three in number (more

frequent in Japan), representing the tri-ratna, Buddha, Dharma, Sangha.In the usual Tibetan representation of the cintamani, the mani are bunched together and are

surrounded by a flame-shaped glory. They are represented like the profile of an elongated

eyeball, and in Japan the three mani are often enclosed in a flaming pearl.

In China as well as in Japan the cintamani may take the form of a flaming pearl without the

mani, the origin of which is possibly the luminous pearl sent to Miao Chen by the Dragon Kingof Sea (v. legend Miao Chen). In Japan, in the paintings, the flame around the pearl has three

points, vaguely indicating a tri&ula. In the statues it may be without the flame, or represented

with three lines of flames which meet at the top, dividing the pearl into three equal divisions

(v. PI. xii, fig. b).

The flaming pearl may also take the place of the traditional form of the cintamani in Tibet

(v. illustration of Mahakala, PI. l, fig. c).

In the frescoes discovered at Turfan by Herr von Le Coq, the Bodhisattva have the urna on

the forehead and sometimes on the breast, outlined by a red flame, thus resembling the flaming

pearl. Kshitigarbha is also represented in the frescoes from Chinese Turkestan holding a flaming

pearl. In China Ratnapani may hold a pearl with a three-forked flame issuing from it.

In Tibet the cintamani is represented in charms, supported by the airy horse, Lungta.

The cintamani also takes the form of the stupa or caitya (v. Glossary).

168 EXPLANATIONS OF SANSKRIT, TIBETAN, CHINESE,

According to the esoteric doctrine, the cintdmani, in pearl shape, is the symbol of the manas,

the sixth sense. It is the '

glorious vesture of the soul',the radiant vehicle of the divine essence

which, united with matter, forms man. v. Yajradhdfu.

Dagola (S.) Precious tower, v. caitya.

Bamaru (S. and T.) Hand-drum. Tantra symbol supposed to be made of two half-skulls.

Banda (S.) Magic wand.

Bhdrani (S.) A magical prayer, or merely a suite of mystic syllables for the purpose of casting spells.

At the beginning and in the middle of a dharanl is a mantra(see), and at the end is the

mdhdtmya, or the purpose of the dharanl; that is to say, for what particular thing the dharanl is

supposed to be efficacious—in bringing rain, or getting advantage over an enemy, or obtaining

children, &c. (Illustration of dharani with miniature of the god to be evoked, PI. lxi.)

Dharma (S.) Buddhist Law. One of the Tri-ratna.

Dharmacakra (S.) Mudra of teaching. Lit.' Law (dharma), wheel (cakra) ', usually interpreted

'

turning the Wheel of the Law '. In Tibetan it is called Thabdong-shesrab, lit.' Wisdom-matter

',

or the union of the Spiritual with the Material.

The dharmacakra mudra varies somewhat according to the different schools and countries.

The Indian mystic gesture is : the right hand at the breast, with the united tips of the index

and thumb touching one of the fingers of the left hand, the palm being turned inward (for

illustration see A. Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, partie I, p. 88). In Tibet both hands are

held against the breast with the left hand covering the right, but it may be below the right,

which is upright, while the left is on a line with the fore-arm. (PI. xiv.) The Gandhara

school differs considerably. The fingers of the right hand are closed, the palm turned inward.

The index of the left hand is loosely held by the closed fingers of the right, while the thumb

touches the closed fingers at the tip, and the other fingers of the left hand are loosely closed

(Grunwedel, Buddhist Art in India, p. 173, and A. Foucher, L'Art greco-bouddhique du Gandhara,

p. 192). This gesture, in Japan, became the mudra of the Six Elements (v. Fairocana, and

illustration, PL n, fig. a).

Bhydna (S.) Also called Samddhi. Mudra of meditation. The hands lie in the lap, the right on the

left with all fingers extended, and the palms turned upward. In Japan the fingers are locked,

with the exception of the thumbs and indexes, which touch at the tips and form the '

triangular'

pose (v. Vitarka). The indexes touch each other between the first and second joints, the palms

being turned upward. (PI. xvin.)

Bhvaja (S.) Banner of Victory. Symbol of Vaisravana.

Blpa (S.) Lamp.

Bvlpa (S.) Island.

Fnh-shou-kan (C.) A horned lemon, called by the common people in China ' Buddha fingers ', from

the finger-like tendrils of its base. It is sometimes in the hand of the Medicine Buddha.

Gaja (S.) Elephant, symbolizing'

care, caution, and a mighty dignity '. It is the support of

Samantabhadra, and is represented in Tibet with one head, while in Japan, as support of Fugen,it has usually six tusks. The white elephant with six tusks symbolizes the reincarnation of the

Buddha. The elephant support of Kongosatta has three or four heads. Mahakala treads on

one or two elephants, and Samvara may have an elephant-skin over his shoulders. The elephantas a Northern Buddhist god is the demon Vinataku.

Garbhadhatu (S.) Matrix element, v. Fajradhdtu.

Ghantd (S.) Bell with vajra handle carried by Vajradhara, Vajrasattva, and Trailokya-vijaya.

Grigvg (T.) Chopper. Tantra symbol.

Hlnayana (S.) Lit. hina = small, ydna = conveyance. In other words, the simplest vehicle of

salvation, doctrine of Sakya-muni; v. Tri-ydna.

Isvara (S.) Lit. ' Lord'. In Nepal Adi-Buddha was called Iivara by the Aisvarika sect.

MONGOLIAN AND JAPANESE WORDS USED IN TEXT 169

Jambhara (S.) Lemon, symbol of Jambala, a form of Kuvera.

Jambu. A tree with triangular leaves, considered sacred by Northern Buddhists, v. Manjmri.Jndna (S.) Wisdom.

Kalaia (S.) (T. Ue-bum.) Vase believed to hold the amrila, or Water of Life. The special symbolof Padmapani is the vase which he usually holds by the neck, but it may also be supported by a

lotus-flower, of which he holds the stem in his right hand. In the former case the vase is round,

or oval if Indian, and pointed if of the Gandhara school, and without a base. If, however, the

kalaia is supported, it has a base and generally a spout.

The feminine Kwan-yin may hold the vase, or have it at her side, and in it (or held in her

hand) may be a willow-branch, with which she is believed to sprinkle around her the Nectar of

Life which in China the kalaia is also supposed to contain.

The masculine form of Kwan-yin, both in China and Japan, often has a lotus-bud in the

vase. The vase and the willow-branch, or lotus-flower (or bud) symbolize the mandala of the

Two Parts, v. Vajradhatu.

Maitreya has the kalaia as an accessory symbol with the wheel. He rarely carries it, but it

is supported by a lotus-flower at his left shoulder.

The goddess Vasudhara has the vase symbol, from which pour jewels.

Amitayus holds the ambrosia vase, which differs from the usual kalaia. It is low and has a

cover, out of which issues an aioka-hvauch. From under the cover, falling in garlands around

the vase, are strings of beads, representing sacred pills used in the ceremony of praying for

long life.

•

UshnTshavijaya also carries a similar covered vase which is, however, much less ornamented.

Kuvera may have one nnder his arm, and his right foot is sometimes supported by an over-

turned kalaia.

Kalpa (S.) Period of time transcending calculation.

Kapala (S.) Skull-cup. A Tantra symbol carried by the Dharmaj fila, Yi-dam, and their iakti, and

by the Dakinl. The origin of the skull-cup is probably found in the legend of Yamantaka (see),

who, before waging war on Yama, killed the three robbers, and, making cups of their skulls,

drank their blood. The kapala is represented filled with blood when in the hands of the gods,

but in temple pictures it is sometimes filled with eyes, ears, and tongues of demons—offerings to

the gods. In the skull-cups held by the various hands of Hevajra are animals and devas. In

the Tantra ceremonies a skull-cup is filled with wine to represent the blood, and offered to the

god. In the temples it is usually on a bronze stand with a bronze cover. (PI. lxh, fig. c.)

Khadga (S.) Sword, symbol of the enlightenment of the world, for'as the sword cuts knots, so does

the intellect pierce the deepest recesses of Buddhist thought '. The khadga is the special symbol

of Manjusrl, either carried in his hand or rising out of a lotus-flower. Fudo, in Japan, also

carries the sword, and it is held as accessory symbol by Cunda (sixteen arms).

Khakkhara (S.) (T. K7iar-gil, J. Shakvjo.) Sounding staff. The khakkltara was believed to be a

purely Japanese symbol until temple banners and frescoes dating from the fifth century were

found, in Chinese Turkestan, by Sir Aurel Stein at Tun-huang, and by Herr von Le Coq at

Turfan, representing Kshitigarbha with the sounding staff. As Buddhism did not enter Japanuntil a. D. 552, this fact proves that the use of the khakkhara as a symbol came into Japan from

Central Asia. It was practically never used as such in Nepal or Tibet.

Although the khakkhara is nowhere mentioned in the teachings of the Southern school of

Buddhism, reference to it is found several times in the Mahayana Scriptures, and it is looked

upon by the Northern Buddhists as one of the eighteen indispensable articles that a Bhikshu

must possess.

According to the command of Gautama Buddha, the Bhikshu (mendicant Buddhist priest),

when on a pilgrimage, must carry the khakkhara.

1686 Z

170 EXPLANATIONS OF SANSKKIT, TIBETAN, CHINESE,

If the Bhikshu wishes to enter a dwelling he may not speak, hut after knocking, if it is asked

who is there, the sounding staff is to be shaken.

Again, according to the Buddha, no life must be taken, and a Bhikshu, by shaking the

khahkhara, warns all crawling life of his approach and thus avoids treading on them. It is also

believed that if the Bhikshu shakes his sounding staff while walking through a thicket or grassy

ground, all wild beasts and poisonous insects will be frightened and do him no harm.

The khahkhara is a long, hexagonal wooden statf, capped with a metal capital, which has a

pagoda-shaped head with two, three, or four crotchets, into which four, six, or twelve loose

metal rings are inserted.

The different numbers of metal rings have each a special meaning, according to the different

teachings of Buddhism.

The staff carried by the Bhikshu should only have four metal rings, which represent the Four

Noble Truths : suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path leading

to the cessation of suffering.

The staff with three crotchets and six rings was invented by Kasyapa Buddha, and is carried

by the Bodhisattva, who, as a preliminary condition of their attainment of Buddhahood, must

exercise the six Paramita, or Perfections.

The khahkhara with four crotchets and twelve metal rings was invented by Gautama Buddha,and can only be carried by Pratyeka Buddhas. The twelve rings represent the Twelve-Fold

Chain of Causation.

It is claimed by certain Buddhist sects that the whole khahkhara signifies Mount Sumeru, and

that each part of the staff has its special meaning, but the explanation, although extremely compli-

cated, resolves itself into this, that the metal part represents the Garbhadhatu and Vajradhatu,or the Mandala of the Two Parts, v. Vairocana.

The khahkhara is practically never used as a symbol in Tibet, but is carried by Ti-tsang in

China and by Jizo and Fuku kenjaku in Japan.

Khantsig (T.) Small shrine several stories high. v. siupa.

Khar-gil (T.) v. khahkhara.

Khatvanga (S.) Magic stick which is believed to have been invented by Padmasambhava and is

carried by him, as well as by the Dakini. The top of the khatvanga is composed of an ambrosia

vase, on which reposes a vajra, or double vajra, above which are two Buddha heads and a skull

superposed. The skull may be surmounted either by a vajra placed upright, or a trimla, which

latter form is usually carried by Padmasambhava. According to Griinwedel, khatvanga have

been found in Tibetan temple paintings which have rings hanging from the lower vajra like the

khakkhara.

Kichi-jo-kwa (J.) Pomegranate, symbol of the goddess Hariti, and may also be carried by the

Japanese Tara.

Kin-kang (C.) Diamond; v. vajra.

Kolbok (M.) Cushions piled one on top of the other forming a seat, in general use in Mongolia for

Buddhist priests, the number indicating the rank. Vaisravana may be represented seated on

a kolbok.

Kongo (J.) Diamond;v. vajra.

Lai-lumpa (T.) Tibetan low flat vessel, symbol of perfection in abstract thought, object of con-

templation used by the Lama priests when meditating.

-J Lakshana (S.) The thirty-two superior marks (mahdjturvsha lakshana) of a Buddha are : 1, a pro-

tuberance on the skull (ushnisha) ; 2, the hair, glossy black, arranged in short curls, each curl

turning from left to right ; 3, the brow is broad and smooth ; 4, between the eyebrows is

a little ball (urnd) or tuft of hair, shining like silver or snow; 5, the eyelashes are like those of

a bull; 6, the eyes brilliant black

; 7, he has forty teeth of perfectly equal size ; 8, they lie close

MONGOLIAN AND JAPANESE WORDS USED IN TEXT 171

to one another; 9, and are dazzling white; 10, his voice resembles Brahma's; 11, he has an

exquisite sense of taste ; 12, the tongue is large and long ; 13, the jaws are those of a lion ;

14, the shoulders and arms are perfectly rounded and full; 16, the space between the shoulders

is filled out; 17, the skin has a tinge of gold colour ; 18, the arms are long, and when he stands

upright the hands reach to the knees; 19, the upper part of the body is like that of a lion ;

20, his figure is like that of a banyan-tree (Ficus religiosa) ; 21, only one hair grows from each

pore ; 22, these little hairs curl from above towards the right ; 23, nature has concealed the

marks of sex; 24, the thighs are well rounded ; 25, the legs are like those of a gazelle ; 26, the

fingers and nails are long ; 27, the heel is elongated ; 28, the instep is high ; 29, the feet and

hands are delicate and slender; 30, the fingers and toes have a web between ; 31, under the soles

of the feet appear two shining wheels with a thousand spokes ; 32, the feet are flat and stand firm.

For the eighty inferior marks (anuvyanjana-lakshana) see Griinwedel, Buddhist Art in India

(English translation), p. 161.

Lungta (S.) Airy horse which supports the cintdmani—considered indispensable on charms, especially

by the nomadic Tibetan tribes.

Madhyamaydna (S.) Lit. (Madhyama) middling, (ydna) conveyance, doctrine founded by Nagarjuna.

v. Tri-ydna.

Mahdydna (S.) Lit. (mahd) great, (ydna) conveyance. The real founder of the Mahayana system

is unknown. In the first century a.d. the Mahdydna-iraddhotanda-sastra was written by

Asvaghosha. In the second century the Mahayana system was developed by Nagarjuna and took

a definite form. v. Tri-ydna.

Mala (S.) Generally translated as rosary, but is possibly symbolical of the necklace of pearls referred

to in the ' Lotus of the Good Law',when the Akshayamati Bodhisattva, addressing the Buddha,

says :

' World Honoured One, let me now present an offering to the Bodhisattva Kwan-shai-yin'

(Avalokitesvara). Then, loosening from his neck an entire pearl necklace of the value of

100,000 pieces, he presented it to the Bodhisattva as a religious offering, but Kwan-shai-yin

refused it until the Buddha begged him to accept it. He then 'accepted the necklace and,

dividing it into two parts, presented one part to Sakya-muni and the other part to the stupa of

the Buddha Prabhiitaratna'

(Beal, Catena, p. 389).

The maid is the special symbol of Avalokitesvara as well as that of his Chinese manifestation

Kwan-shi-yin. It may also be carried by Prajfiaparamita (four-armed), Cunda, and Vasudhara.

Mandala (S.) Magic circle geometrically subdivided into circles or squares, in which are painted

Buddhist symbols and divinities, v. Vairocana and vajradhdtu (illus., PI. xvi).

Matii (S.) A jewel. According to Eitel, it is' a fabulous pearl which is ever bright and luminous,

therefore a symbol of Buddha and of his doctrine '. v. cintdmani and the Legend of Miao Chen.

In the Kdma-^dslras the name mani is applied to the male principle, v. Om.

Mantra (S.) Short mystic formula, often meaningless. It figures at the beginning and in the

middle of a dhdrani, and i3 believed, when recited, to be most efficacious, v. Om.

Meru (Mount) v. Sumeru.

Mudra (S.) Mystic pose of the hand or hands. According to Eitel,' a system of magic gesticulation

consisting in distorting the fingers so as to imitate ancient Sanskrit characters of supposed

magic effect '. The use of the mudra, as well as the mantra, was introduced into Japan by Kobo

Daishi, and is only used by the Shin-gon sect.

Muni (S.) Saint or sage, one who is inspired.

Ndga (S.) Mythical serpent-god. v. Ndgas.

Ndga pusfipa (S.) v. campa.

Ndga-taru (T.j Ndga-tiee (eight-branched coral), seen usually in the Tibetan temple pictures. In

the Museum fur Volkerkunde in Berlin there is a large tidga-tree in wood, painted to represent

coral, and on each branch there is a small Buddha.

z2

172 EXPLANATIONS OF SANSKRIT, TIBETAN, CHINESE,

Naknla (S.) Mongoose—attribute of Kuvera (v. s.).

Namahkara (S.) Mudra of Prayer. The hands are at the breast in the devotional attitude, with the

palms and fingers touching. It is the special mudra of Avalokitesvara when with more than

two arms.

Nirvana (S.) Nirvana, according to the Northern Buddhist, is not annihilation after death, but the

extinction of all worldly desires,' the blowing out of the flame of selfish longing '. To arrive at

Nirvana is to reach the highest stage of bliss, since it is an escape from the ever-turning wheel

of transmigration.

Forbu (T.) Jewel, v. ratna.

Nyorai (J .)Lit.

' Lord '.

Om ! Om, the mystic syllable of A-u-m, is venerated by the Brahmans as well as by the Buddhists.

The most devout esteem it to be too sacred to be uttered aloud, the word being only formed

by the lips.

In the Svayamlhu-Purana it is written that when all was void ' the triliteral syllable Aum

became manifest, the first created, the ineffably splendid, surrounded by all the radical letters

(Vija-Akshara) as by a necklace '.

From Aum the alphabet was produced, called Malta Varna, the letters of which are the • seed

of the universe '. v. vlja.

Adi-Buddha, at his will, proceeded from Om. ' In that Aum, he (Adi-Buddha), who is present

in all things, formless and passionless, who possesses the Tri-ratna, was produced by his own

will'

(Svayambhu-Purdna). According to the Namasanglti, the Adi-Buddha became manifest in

the greatest Sunyata (void) as the letter A. In the Pujd-Khanda it is written that when all

was Sunyata, Prajna Devi (Adi-Dharma) was revealed out of Akasa (ether) with the letter u.

According to the Svayambhu-Purd?m, the vlja mantra of Sangha is m. Thus the letters A-u-m

are the vija mantra of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. v. Tri-ratna.

The mantra generally begin with Om and end with hum. The most widely known mantra is

the six-syllable one of Avalokitesvara,' Om, mani padme, hum !' (v. Avalokitesvara and Vajra-

dhdtu). The Tibetans claim that it fell from the heaven in the fourth century a.d. In China

and Japan there is a six-syllable mantra A-ba-ra-ka-ki-un. A corresponds with Om and un

with hum. The Ni-6 (v. s.) symbolize these two syllables.

Pada (S.) Absorption. Nirvana jiada, absorption into Adi-Buddha.

Padma (S.) (J. Ren-ge.) The pad-ma is a symbol of self-creation. Every Buddha and Bodhisattva

being svayambhu, or self-existent, is supported by a lotus-flower to indicate his divine birth.

The padma, as symbol of self-generation, was also adopted by the most important Buddhist sect

in China, the Svabhavika, as their special emblem, with the tr'dula, indicating the Tri-ratna

issuing from its centre (v. p. 5).

The lotus-flower is in itself a prodigy, being productive of itself, and, to use the words of

Mr. Payne Knight,'

vegetating from its own matrix without being fostered in the earth. It

was naturally adopted as a symbol of the productive power of the Waters upon which the

active spirit of the Creator (Adi-Buddha) acted in giving life and vegetation to matter.'

At the beginning of the world Adi-Buddha manifested himself in the form of a flame rising

from a lotus-flower. In the Nepalese paintings (.^ee No. V in the library of the Institut de

France) the stalk of the padma may rise from a triangle (v. tri-kona) lying on the seed-vessel of

an eight-leaved lotus-flower ; but the usual representation is rising from water.

According to the Nepalese legend, when the ancient Buddha Vipasyi went to Nepal,

accompanied by his disciples, to worship the Svayambhu (Adi-Buddha), he thrice made the

round of the lake, Naga Vasa. He then said several mantra over the root of a lotus, and,

throwing it into the water, exclaimed :

' With time, this root shall produce a flower, then, from

out of the flower, Svayambhu, the Lord of the Agnishtha Bhuvana, shall be revealed in the

MONGOLIAN AND JAPANESE WORDS USED IN TEXT 173

form of a flame;and then shall the lake become a cultivated and populous country. (For

legend see Hodgson, The Languages, Literature, and Religion of Nepal, p. 115.) v. Manjmrl.The lotus-flower symbolizes the female principle. In the Salapatha Brahmana it is written,

' the lotus leaf is the womb',and in the mantra,

' Cm ! mani padme, hum !

'

the padma represents

the Material and the mani the Spiritual elements, v. Om.

The padma in the hand of Padmapani denotes creative power. In Nepal and Tibet it is

generally a full-blown lotus-flower;while in China and Japan the Kwan-yin and Kwan-non

often hold a lotus-bud. If the padma is in the vase it represents the union of the Spiritual and

the Material. The lotus-flower in the hand of ManjusrI represents the teachings of Buddha,

replacing the usual book (Prajhdpdramitd) ; while in the hands of the Taras it symbolizes perfect

purity, for although the padma may rise out of impure water, it remains undefiled.

The pink lotus-flower is represented full-blown, with the centre apparent. It is the special

symbol of Padmapani and of the white Tara.

The blue lotus may either be represented with all the petals upright, or with several of the

outside rows turned back. The centre is always hidden and the ulpala is almost invariably

presented in profile. It is the special symbol of ManjusrI and the green Tara. The lotus-bud is

a more frequent form in China or Japan than in Tibet.

"When the symbols are not held in the hands of the gods they are supported by lotus-flowers,

of which the stems are held by the gods, and in that case the hands generally make a mystic

gesture (mudrd) as well.

The teachings of the Buddha were symbolized by a full-blown lotus-flower with eight petals,

indicating the Eight-Fold Path of Self-Conquest. The lotus was also used to represent the

Buddhist wheel, the eight petals being the eight spokes. In the paintings of the mandala

(magic circles) there is usually an eight-petalled lotus-flower, in the centre of which is an

important god, and on each petal an assistant, v. PL xvi, and mandala.

The lotus support of a Buddha, or Bodhisattva, if painted, is red ; of a Dharmapala, pink.

The fiercest forms of the Dharmapala are supported by a pink lotus with jagged petals,

v. dsana.

The god, however, may not be on a lotus-throne, but have his divine birth indicated by a

lotus-flower under each foot. In the paintings discovered at Tun-huang by Sir Aurel Stein the

first steps of the Buddha are represented by lotus-flowers which sprang up under each foot as he

walked ; and Jizo (Kshitigarbha) is represented with a small yellow padma under one foot and

a white one under the other.

In the frescoes found at Turfan, by Herr von Le Coq, the Dlpahkara Buddha is represented

with a lotus-flower under each foot, while all the Bodhisattva stand on lotus-thrones.

The Northern Buddhists believe that in SukhavatI, the western paradise of Amitabha,

there is a lotus-pond, and that whenever a Buddhist is born a lotus-bud rises to the surface

of the water, and is believed to bloom or fade according to the life the Buddhist leads.

v. Sukhavati.

The mantra of Avalokitesvara is' Om, mani padme, hum !

' '

Oh, the jewel (of creation) is in

the lotus.' v. Om.

Param (S.) Axe. Tantra symbol.

Parinirvdna (S.) Death of the Buddha.

Paia (S.) Lasso, sometimes with a small thunderbolt at each end—symbol of Amoghapasa, Marlcl,

Yamantaka, and Acala and Fudo.

Pdtra (S.) Begging-bowl carried by wandering Buddhist priests. The pdtra is often represented in

the Buddha's left hand, possibly in reference to a Buddhist legend, which is the following :

On the seventh day of the third month the spirit of a tree under which Buddha had for' seven

weeks been in a state of samdd/ti (deep meditation) took notice of Buddha's long absence from

174 EXPLANATIONS OF SANSKRIT, TIBETAN, CHINESE,

food. Some travelling merchants passed at that moment, and their way being blocked byinsurmountable objects, they asked the spirit of the tree to help them. He called their attention

to the presence of the Buddha, and told them that they should offer him food. The four Kingsof the Devas (Lokapala) had four sweet-smelling bowls, which they filled with the barley mixed

with honey that the merchants offered. Buddha took all the four bowls through fear of offending

one of the kings, and, placing one on top of the other on his left hand, formed them into one

(Edkins, Chinese Buddhism, p. 24). It is believed that when Maitreya comes upon earth as a

Manushi Buddha the pdtra will again become four bowls.

The pdtra may also be carried by Amitabha, Avalokitesvara, and Mania.

Phurbu (J.) Lit.'

peg'

or ' nail '. Tantra symbol supposed to prevent evil spirits from inflicting

mischief. It is a dagger in form of an elongated triangle, and often has a very complicated

handle, in which there is usually a head, believed to represent Hayagriva (Tamdin), who is

looked upon as a special protector against malignant spirits.

Prajnika (S.) Atheistic triad : Buddha, Dharma, Sahgha.

Pratyeka (S.) A Buddha without master or disciples.

Preta (S.) (M. Birit.) Lit.'

hungry demon '. They have large stomachs, narrow months, and

exhale fire, but cannot drink. The Pretas are believed to be visible only at night.

Pustaka (S.), or book, made originally of palm-leaves cut long and narrow, and held together between

two pieces of flat wood of the same size and shape, the whole bound by a string.

The pustaka as a symbol represents the Prajndpdramitd, a treatise on Transcendent Wisdom,

supposed to have been given to the Nagas by the Buddha to guard until mankind had become

wise enough to grasp its profound truths.

Nagarjuna claimed to have received the book from the Nagas and to have founded the Maha-

yana school on its teachings, v. Nagarjuna.

The pustaka is the symbol of Manjusrl, Avalokitesvara, and of the goddesses Prajnapfiramita,

Cunda, and Vasudhara, and may be carried as an accessory symbol by other gods.

Rdkshasa (S.) or Rdkshas, demons that devour men. Invoked by sorcerers.

Ratna (S.) Jewel. The Sapta Ratna (M. dologa erdeni), or the seven Buddhist jewels, are: 1, the

golden wheel believed to fall from heaven on the investiture of a ' Wheel King ', symbol of

Perfection of the Law; 2, a precious stone (rnani), symbol of the accomplishment of wishes

;

3, a royal consort (a noble woman) symbolizes the'

calming caress'

; 4, the best horse (a white

horse), symbol of prompt success in the acquisition of the cpialities of the Buddha; 5, the best

elephant, as bearer of 84,000 sacred books, symbolizes the infinite propagation of the religion ;

6, the best treasurer (civil officer), who by his generosity removes poverty, and by his justice

assures the well-being of people ; 7, the best leader (military chief), who with his sword of

wisdom repels the enemies. (These last two are sometimes interpreted : 6, guardian spirits ;

7, soldiers and servants.) v. also Tri -ratna.

Ren-ge (J.) Lotus-flower, v. padma.

Renge-no-in (J.) Padma mudrd or gesture of the lotus, v. Uttara-Bodhi.

Sddhana (S.) Formula for the invocation of a god, which must be carried out in the following

manner : On a certain day the Buddhist magician priest makes his proper toilet and goes out to

a solitary spot, which, according to his humour, is either gay like a wood, or the confluence of

two rivers, or to a place of cremation. He then seats himself on a spot already purified for the

occasion, where he proceeds to invoke the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, offering imaginary or real

flowers or perfumes. He begins by a confession of sins, pronounces his act of faith in the three

jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sahgha), and, after deep meditation, succeeds in abolishing his own

personality and identifying himself with the divinity which he wishes to invoke, proceeding

according to the Sadhana.

As an example, the Simhanada Sadhana proceeds as follows : He (the Buddhist priest) must

MONGOLIAN AND JAPANESE WOKDS USED IN TEXT 175

see, developed from the white syllable' Om ! ', a moon disc

;

* above this, from the white syllable' Ah !

', a white lion;and above this, from the white syllable

' Am ! ', a white lotus, on the heart

of which he is to see the syllable 'Hrih!', white and shining. Having developed all this, he

must see himself in form of Sirphanfida, a body all white with two arms, one face, and three

eyes ;his hair in form of a tiara, his head-dress ornamented with a small image of Amitabha

;

crouched in Indian fashion, with one knee raised, seated on a lion covered with a tiger-skin, the

five Dhyani-Buddhas emanating from his person. Having thus meditated on all this, tired of

meditation, let the conjurer pronounce the formula of conjuration (A. Foucher, Iconographie

bondd/iique, partie II, p. 8).

The priest is then believed to be visited by the god, whereupon he presents the petition of his

client.

&akii (S.) (T. nus-ma), or the more popular expression yum (v. yab-yum). Female energy of

a god.

Samdd/ii (S.) (Sam-a-dhi), lit.'

self-possessed'. The deepest form of abstract meditation.

Sangha (S.) The Buddhist community, or church. Esoteric sense, union, v. Tri-ratna.

Sankha (S.) Conch-shell, symbol of the preaching of the Buddha as well as of the feminine

principle.

Sara (S.) Arrow (of confession), v. Capa.

Sarira (S.) (M. and J. shari.) Lit. particles of bones, relics, or ashes of a Buddha preserved in stupas

and worshipped. They are sometimes called Dharmamrlra. v. tsa-fsa and thari-lo.

Shakujo (J.) v. khakkhara.

Shari-tb (J.) Japanese shrine containing a Sari or Buddha bone. In the ninth century cremation

was introduced into Japan, and in the ashes of Buddhist saints were found small cartilaginous

balls which were looked upon as holy gems and kept as relics in crystal shrines.

Simha (S.) Lion—symbolizes'

boldness, bravery, and a fresh, eager, and advancing spirit'—emblem

of Vairocana. v. lakshana, 13 and 19.

SMiandda (S.) Lit.' with the voice of a lion'. According to legend, the roarings are believed to

awaken stillborn babes. A god seated on a roaring lion is believed to cure leprosy. Avalokites-

vara (Kwan-yin), MafijusiT, and Jambala may be Simhanada, as well as the female Kwan-yinand the green Tara. (v. Pis. xxxv and xxxvn.)

Simkdsana (S.) Lion throne, v. dsana.

Skugsum (T.) v. Tri-kdya.

Stotra (S.) Buddhist hymn.

Stupa (S.) (J. sotoba.) Lit.'

precious tower'—a tower to hold relics, v. caitya.

Sukhdvatl. The Western Paradise of Amitabha. The common people look upon Sukhavat! as

equivalent to Nirvana, but, according to the Mahayana teachings, it is the last stage before

Nirvana. M. de la Vallee Poussin calls it a ' Buddha field'

to prepare the souls for Nirvana. It is

here that the Bodhisattva, who have not elected to acquire merit by becoming Manushi-Buddhas,

sit on lotus-flowers and accumulate merit until they are eligible to Nirvana, v. Amitabha.

Sumeru (Mount) or Mount Meru—supposed highest peak of the Himalayas, and believed to be the

centre of the universe. In the Bhadra Kalpdvaddna it is written : First air, then fire, then

earth, and in the centre of the earth, Sumeru, the sides of which are the residence of the thirty-

three millions of gods (Deva(as). Sakra lives in his paradise which is on its summit, and its

four sides are guarded by the four Lokapala.

tiunyatd (S.) Emptiness, unreality, nothingness.

Surya. Sun, special symbol of Akasagarbha. The sun-disc and the moon are held by one of the

twenty-one Taras as well as by Aryavalokitesvava, especially in China and Japan.

1 Platform on which the god is seated.

17(5 EXPLANATIONS OF SANSKRIT, TIBETAN, CHINESE,

The sun-disc, surmounted by a trident, is called the surya-mani or sun-jewel (v. ciutdmani).In the Suryanama Sutra it is said that Buddha ' caused to issue from the summit of his head

a flood of glory composed of a hundred precious rays'

(Beal, Catena, p. 424). The NepaleseBuddhas are sometimes represented with the surya-mani above the ushnisha. The symbol is also

used in Nepal, issuing from a lotus-flower, to represent the Svayambhu or Adi-Buddha at the

creation of the world, v. Trimla.

Sutra (S.) From the Sanskrit root siv,'

to sew ', meaning to thread or string. In other words, a

sutra is a bcdy of doctrine. It must be composed of words coming from the Buddha's own lips—

words '

strung together'

in form of a sermon.

Svabhava (S.) Lit. sva (own), lhava (nature),'

self-existent'. Adi-Buddha is called Svabhava by the

Svabhavika sect.

Svastika (S.) The svastika is one of the sixty-five marks of Buddhahood found in the imprint of the

Buddha's foot. On some of the images of the Buddha it is on his breast, and may also be

represented before him on the lotus-throne. It is called by the Chinese sin-yin (heart-seal). Asa Buddhist symbol it represents the esoteric doctrine of Buddha, and was adopted by several

sects. The svastika, however, is found in many other countries, and is the subject of much

controversy. (PI. it, fig. c, and PI. xvm, fig. a.)

Svayambhu (S.) Lit.'

spontaneity ', or that which is self-existent. The Adi-Buddha is called

Svayambhu.Tantra (S.) Lit. 'treatise'. The Tantra, or mystic treatises, comprise twenty-two volumes. The

Anuttara Tantra treats of the worship of the Active Producing Principle on which the Tantra-

Yoga system is based.

The Maha-Tantra system is a debased form of the Yoga-carya school, and made its appearancetoward the end of the sixth century. The worship of the iakli, or female energy of the gods,

began to influence the Mahayana system in the seventh century, and became very popularin Tibet and Mongolia, but was never adopted by the Chinese or Japanese in the yah-yumform.

The Tantra forms of the gods often have several heads, and always more than two arms.

They may be peaceful, but are usually ferocious in aspect, in which case their symbols are

warlike, and their ornaments are skulls and serpents. The most popular Tantra symbol, which

is held by both the god and his sakti, is the kapala or skull-cup filled with blood, or with the

eyes, ears, and tongues of demons.

Tarjani mndrd (S.) Menacing with the index.

Tathagata (S.) Tathagata is the highest epithet of a Buddha, and is generally used for the seven

principal Buddhas. It sometimes designates the Tri-kaya (v.s.). There is a divergence of

opinion as to the correct translation of the word. Hodgson gives :'

Tatha, thus; gata, gone, or

he who does not come again.' In other words, he who will have no more rebirths. TheBuddhist scriptures say,

'

it does not come again '. Remusat translates it as the ' avenu '.

Eitel gives :'

like—to come ', or ' one who (in coming into the world) is like the coming (of his

predecessors) '. According to Waddell,'

similarly gone'

;while Mead interprets Tathagata as

'

He-who-has-reached-the-That-stage, meaning the state of Perfection '. Hodgson says that the

term should only be applied to Adi-Buddha, and alludes to his '

voluntary secession from the

versatile world into that of abstraction'.

Thabdong-shesrab (T.) or union of Spirit and Matter, v. Dharmacakra.

Tri-kaya (S.) (T. Shugsum.) Three (Tri), bodies (kdya), a threefold embodiment. It is believed bysome of the Northern Buddhist sects that a Buddha may live in three separate spheres at the

same time.

According to Eitel (Handbook of Chinese Buddhism) there are three representations of

Buddha :

MONGOLIAN AND JAPANESE WORDS USED IN TEXT 177

1. Statues, Teachings, Stupas.

2. The historical Buddha unites in himself three hodily qualities :

I. Nirmana-kaya—human, mortal, and ascetic ;

II. Sambhoga-kaya—body of Supreme Happiness ;

III. Dharma-kfiya—abstract body.

3. Buddha having passed through and existing in three forms :

I. Sakya-muni on earth. Earthly Buddha endowed with Nirmana-kaya, having

passed through innumerable transformations on

earth.

II. Locana in Dhyana Sahgha. Heavenly Dhyani-Bodhisattva endowed with Sambhoga-

kaya of absolute completeness.

III. Vairocana in Nirvana. Dhyani-Buddha endowed with Dharma-kaya of absolute

purity in Nirvana.

Tri-kona (S.) Triangle. The tri-kona is the symbol of the Tri-ratna, and, according to the secret

doctrine of certain sects, represents the yoni,' from which the world was manifest ', the source of

all things. The triangle is often found in Nepalese temples dedicated to the Jiuddha-saktis and

figures in the Garbhadhdtu mandala immediately above the five-leaved lotus enclosure (v. Vajra-

dhatu, Tri-ratna, and PI. xvi). The Japanese look upon the triangle as a flame-symbol—'

body of

fire'

(third element)—which destroys all that is impure.

The Buddha, according to Beal, once '

discoursed on the symbol "I"with three dots .*. arranged

as a triangle resting on its base ', and' used the triangle as a symbol of the embodied form of the

Tathagata '.

When seated in dhydna-mudrd the Buddha forms a perfect triangle resting on its base, and it

is believed by Buddhists to have been his attitude in the womb of his mother. In the Garbha-

dhdtu mandala the triangle rests on its base, and, according to the esoteric doctrine, is the form

which is symbolical of material essence. The triangle with the point below is the symbol of the

highest form of spirituality—the spiritual essence of Adi-Buddha.

Triloka (S.) The celestial, terrestrial, and infernal divisions of the versatile universe created by

Brahma.

Trimurti (S.) Buddhist triad : ManjusrI, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani.

Tri-ratna (S.) The three jewels—Buddha, Dharma, Sahgha (Buddha, the Law, the Community).

The three jewels are symbolized by the trisula, by the trilateral syllable a-u-m (v. Om !),and by

the trikona.

In the Buddhist scriptures it is written that Adi-Dharma revealed herself from a point in the

centre of the triangle. From one side of the triangle she '

produced Buddha;from another side,

Dharma ;and from the third side, Sangha '. Adi-Dharma is therefore the mother of the

Buddha that issued from the first side (right side of the triangle. All the Buddhas are bornfromthe right side of their mothers). The Dharma that issued from the second side is the

' wife of the

Buddha of the first side and the mother of the other Buddhas '. (v. Hodgson, The Languages,

History, and Religion of Nepal and Tibet, p. 87.)

According to the esoteric doctrine, Buddha represents the spiritual essence,' the efficient cause

of all '. Dharma is the material essence, the '

plastic cause'—' a co-equal bi-unity with Buddha '.

Sahgha is the compound of Buddha and Dharma,' the immediate operative cause of creation '.

Certain Northern Bnddhist sects interlink the doctrine of the Tri-ratna with that of the Tri-

kaya, and look upon Dharma as the Dhyani-Buddha, and Sangha as the Bhydni-Bodhisatlva.

TriSula (S.) Lit. tri (three), iula (points), a three-forked flame which Burnouf believes to be the

invocation of the '

highest '. The trisiila, which is an emblem of Buddhism, is represented in the

form of a trident, and may surmount a round object, which Beal believes to symbolize the sun

with a flame or'

Empyrean above it '.

use a a

178 EXPLANATIONS OF SANSKKIT, TIBETAN, CHINESE,

There is much diversity of opinion in regard to the trtiula. According to d'Alviella,' some

have seen therein the monogram of Buddha; others, the symbol of Dharma, the Law, which

sums up the doctrine of Buddhism ; others, again, a representation of the tri-ratna, the three-

fold jewel formed by Buddha, his Law, and his Church '. Sir George Birdwood claims that the

trtiula stands for the Tree of Life, and by some it is looked upon as a symbol of lightning.

According to Burnouf, it is merely one of the sixty-five signs of Buddhahood which adorn the

impression of the Master's feet.

The Singalese Buddhas have a three-forked flame issuing from the ushnisha. The Svabhavika

sect, a generally accepted school of Buddhism in China, took for its emblem a trtiula rising out of

a lotus-flower (v. p. 5). The urna on the forehead of some of the Buddhas in the Turfan frescoes

discovered by Herr von Le Coq have a red flame-glory forming three points. Among these

Buddhist frescoes 1is one of a trident surmounting an eight-spoked wheel, on either side of

which is a gazelle, thus symbolizing the sermon of the Buddha in the deer-park at Benares.

Tri-yana (S.) Lit.' three vehicles

'—the Mahayana (great vehicle), the Madhyama-yana (middling

vehicle), Hlnayana (lesser vehicle), the three Buddhist means of attaining Nirvana.

Tsa-tsa (M.) Moulds of Buddhist gods made of ashes of saints mixed with mud and corn. v. &ar\ra.

Tse-bum (T.) v. KalaSa.

Vpdyika (J.) Theistic triad—Dharma, Buddha, and Sangha.Urna (S.) The urna is the fourth of the thirty-two superior marks of a Buddha, and is represented

by a small, round protuberance above the bridge of the nose.

The Sanskrit word urna means ' tuft of hair ', which, according to tradition, should be white

and ' shine like silver '. It indicates a predestination to Bodhi.

In the Buddhist scriptures the Urna is referred to as follows :

' The countenance of Buddha was

transfigured, while the tuft of hair on his forehead radiated forth a brilliant light.' And again,' Gautama was seated on a white lotus supported by a white elephant. From a white spot on

his forehead shone a brilliant light which illuminated the universe.' The Japanese believe that

five colours radiated from the urna.

The urna is the divine eye—a sign of spiritual insight. According to Havell, it is the

'

spiritual consciousness of soul-sight as distinguished from eyesight and intellectual perception'

(Ideals of Indian Art, p. 50).

Both the Buddhas and Bodhisattva have the uriid on the forehead as well as, sometimes, on

the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. The Bodhisattva on the frescoes brought from

Turfan by Herr von Le Coq have the urna on the forehead and breast outlined by a red flame,

thus resembling the flaming pearl (v. cintamani).

It is difficult to make out the origin of the urna unless it came from the superstition of the

people of Northern India, who believed that if the eyebrows met over the bridge of the nose it

was a sign of great mental superiority.

Ushnisha (S.) (T. Tsugior.) The protuberance on the skull of the Buddhas.

The ushnisha is the seat of the intellectual faculties—the receptacle of the divine manas of

Buddha. The Platonists believed that the soul was centred in the head, which notion, accordingto Mead, was '

presumably the influence of the old Oriental mystic doctrine of Asia Minor or

higher Asia'. They further believed that the soul had a radiant vesture (Augoeides) which

manifested itself'

spark-like '. If we accept the hypothesis that the ushnisha is the receptacle ol

the manas of the Buddha, might not the flame, which is sometimes represented issuing from the

protuberance, indicate the'

spark-like'

radiance of the'

vesture of the soul'

?

The ushnisha is the first and most important of the thirty-two superior signs of a Buddha, and

probably the last acquired. In the Indian scriptures the Buddha at his birth, or in the different

1 In the Museum fiir Volkerkunde, Berlin.

MONGOLIAN AND JAPANESE WORDS USED IN TEXT 179

episodes of his life before his supreme Enlightenment, is not represented with the protuberance

of the skull. It is not until he achieves Buddhahood under the Bodhi-tree that he is represented

with the full-sized ushnlsha. (v. the Buddhas.)

Ushnlsha means ' turban'

or ' dressed hair '. The Gandhara school never represented the Buddha

with the protuberance on the skull, but with the long wavy hair drawn up on the top of the head in

a cluster of curls, or a knot which concealed, or took the place of, the protuberance. They thus

seem to have followed the Brahmanical representations of the Buddha, for the ninth avatar of

Vishnu was represented with long hair arranged in a knot on the top of his head.

According to Buddhist tradition, which was followed by the Indian artists, the hair of the

Buddha should be short, the curls falling from left to right, and the protuberance should also be

covered with short curls.

The shape of the ushnlsha varied somewhat in different countries.

In Nepal the protuberance was round on the top and placed nearer the forehead than in

North-Eastern India, where it was represented more pointed in shape. The ushnlsha of the

Nepalese Buddhas was sometimes surmounted by a ball from which issued a flame. In the

Suryanama sutra it is written,' Buddha caused to issue from his head a flood of glory composed

of a hundred precious rays,

.1

In Tibet the protuberance was higher than in India, and often surmounted by a flaming pearl.

There are examples of a small protuberance above the usual ushnlsha, the whole surmounted bya pearl.

In. China and Japan the ushnlsha was generally low and large at the base, sometimes with

a tonsure on the top of the protuberance. The Tibetan type, however, was often followed. In

Japan the ushnlsha is called Fou-ken-tcho-so, or the '

invisible form of the skull '. It was believed

that only the initiated were able to see the protuberance on the skull of a Buddha.

In Burma and Siam there was either a high, pointed flame issuing from a low ushnlsha, or

a spike-shaped head-piece, often elaborately ornamented, entirely covering the protuberance. In

Cambodia the ushnlsha was very pointed.

In Java the protuberance was either low and small at the base, or high and large at the base.

In Ceylon the ushnlsha is usually very low, and the Buddha almost always has a three or five-

forked flame rising from the top of the protuberance. It is one of the characteristics of the

Singalese Buddhas.

The protuberance of the skull, according to Griinwedel, was regarded as a sign of supernatural

wisdom of a Buddha. According to Eitel the ushnlsha was first a coil of hair, which later took

the form of a protuberance on the skull. Schlagintweit claims that the Buddhist sculptors

adopted the style of representing the Buddha with a coil of hair on the top of his head because

it was the Brahmanical way of dressing the hair. They thus ' conferred on their sublime Master

this prerogative of the highest Indian caste '.

Utpala (S.) Blue lotus, v. padma.

Uttara-bodhi (S.) Mudrd of best perfection. (J. Renge-no-in.) All the fingers are locked (the palms

turned underneath), with the exception of the thumbs and indexes, which touch at the tips, the

fingers being extended upward. In Japan the second fingers are also often upright, while the

other fingers are in the above pose. The attitude is emblematic of the lotus-flower, and is the

mudrd of Buddha, Liberator of Serpents, Avalokitesvara (p. 63 and PI. xx), Kwan-yin (PI. lxiv),

and of Bato Kwan-non (PL xxxn, figs, c and d).

Vahana (S.) The mount of a god. The mount of Amite" i«— fT is a vw>r'

** ' «*

Akshobhya, Samantabhadra (Fugen) and Kango-satta iTraduite du tibStain. Paris, 1868.

is a lion ; Ts'ahs-pa, is a horse or dragon ; Lhamo, is * FInde. l repartie, Paris, 1900. 2e

partie,

1

Beal, Catena, p. 289. v,_ , r ,.

' r'5. Vol. l.

A a 2 „,

180 EXPLANATIONS OF SANSKRIT, TIBETAN, CHINESE,

Avalokitesvara, Mafijusri, Tara, and the female form of Kwan-yin, as well as Jambala, may be

on a roaring lion. v. Simhandda.

Vajra (S.) (T. rdo-rje, M. vaiir or o6ir, C. kin-kang, J. kongo.) Lit.' diamond ', or that which

is indestructible. Generally translated' thunderbolt ',

or that which destroys but is itself

indestructible. It is likened to the Mystic Truth which cannot be destroyed, or to Wisdom that

destroys all passions.

The vajra is claimed by some to be of Western origin and an adaptation of the thunderbolt

symbol held by Jupiter. The Assyro-Chaldean gods were represented holding a trident (v. tri-

Sula) with the points zigzag-shaped, representing lightning. In Mesopotamia the gods hold

a double trident, which is also found in the caves of Ellora, as well as other parts of India, in the

hand of Siva. The Northern Buddhists believe that Buddha wrested the vajra (double trident)

from the Hindu god Indra, and adopted it as a Buddhist symbol with the slight change of closing

the points of the darts. The Indian vajra with three darts is flat and the points do not touch.

The Tibetan '

thunderbolt'

with four darts is round, and as the points are closed the two ends

resemble lotus-buds in form. A fifth dart runs through the centre of the vajra, from end to end,

making five darts, which represent the five bodies of the Dhyani-Buddhas.In Japan the vajra [kongo), called cloko, has only one dart, which is four-sided. There is also

a three-darted vajra, the san-ko, which resembles the Indian form in that it is flat and that the

points are not closed. The five-darted kongo, the go-kb, differs from the Tibetan vajra in that all

the five darts are outside. It is looked upon as representing the five elements as well as the five

bodies of the celestial Buddhas.

Padmasambhava introduced the vajra into Tibet, and through his influence it became most

popular. The priests adopted its use to exorcise devils, and it was also introduced into the

ceremonies for worshipping Amitayus (v.s.).

In the esoteric doctrine the vajra is the mystic symbol of the linga, and the expression, 'in

vajra attitude', is the attitude of yab-yum.

The vajra is the special symbol of Akshobhya and of Vajrapani. Vajradhara holds it in his

right and the wyra-handled bell in his left hand, as does also Trailokyavijaya, Kongosatta, and

Aizen-myo-o ; Vajrasattva holds it balanced on his right hand, while the left hand holds the

vajra-handhi bell on his hip. The vajra is carried as an accessory symbol by all the Yi-dam,

but not by the Dharmapala.

Vajra-dhatu (S.) The mandala of the Two Parts [Vajra-dhatu and Garbha-dhatu) occupies a most

important position in the teachings of the Yoga doctrine, v. mandala.

According to Kobo Daishi, who founded the Yoga school (Shin-gon) in Japan, the teachings of

the mystic doctrine were too profound to be expressed by words, and could only be taught to the

ignorant by means of illustrations. The ' Two Parts'

are therefore represented by two diagrams,

for details of which see Bunyin Nanjio, A Short History of the Twelve Japanese Sects, p. 88.

The Vajra-dhatu is the ' diamond'

element. Vajra is here translated ' diamond'

rather than' thunderbolt ', and represents the Spiritual world, or complete Enlightenment

—the esoteric

teachings of the Dharma-kaya as against the exoteric teachings of the Nirmana-kaya. It is

the sixth element, the manas (mind), and is symbolized by the triangle with the point below

(v. tri-kond), as well as by the full moon. It is located in the West, and is symbolized by the

setting of the sun.

tbe'rn"'' '

or '

embryo'

element—the Material World. It is likened

x

pritabeiM**., I «* *u<ft MM '

spark-like'

fcReived—its body, mind, &c. It is the mja mantra A,

The ushmsha is the first and most r ^cts and nourishes it. It is reason, form, and the five

probably the last acquired. In the In.ter- :t "> symbolized by the triangle resting on its base,1'irbha-dhdtu above the five-leaved lotus enclosure in the

1 In the Mug" lotus (in reality, the sun) is also its symbol.

:,•> I

MONGOLIAN AND JAPANESE WORDS USED IN TEXT 181

The location of the Matrix-element is in the East, and is symbolized by the rising of

the sun.

The Vajra-dhdtu and Garliha-dhatu are one, for Wisdom cannot exist without Reason, nor

Reason without Wisdom, and this is expressed by the Man/Jala of the Two Parts, as well as bythe mudrd of the Six Elements (v. Vairocana). The Union of the Spiritual and the Material is

symbolized in Nepal by the flame rising from the lotus-flower or moon-crescent (v. Vajrasaltva)

and by the flame rising from the kalam as seen in the paintings on the inside of the covers of

the MS. Add. 1643 in the University Library, Cambridge ;in Tibet, by the aSoka branch in the

ambrosia vase ;in China, by the willow in the kalasa ; in Japan, by the vajra issuing from the

ambrosia vase (PI. xvi),and in both the Chinese and Nepalese yin-yaitg. (The Japanese yin-yang

contains three segments.) The mantra,'

Om, mani padme, hum !

'

is an expression of the MysticUnion (v. Om), as is also the mudra of the dogmatic form of Avalokitesvara ; and the Ni-o signify

the Two Parts. In fact, the Yoga school of Mahayana Buddhism is founded on the One-nest of

the Vajradhdtu and Garbhadhdtu.

Vajra-hum-kdra (S.) Mudra of Buddha Supreme and Eternal. The wrists are crossed at the breast

which indicates intensity, and the hands hold symbols, usually the vajra and ghantd. Special

mudra of Vajradhara, Samvara, Trailokyavijaya, and of most of the gods when holding their

Saktis.

Vajrdsana (S.) v. Asana.

Vara (S.) or Varada. Mudra of Charity. The arm is pendent, with all the fingers extended down-

ward, and the palm turned outward. Mudra of the Taras and of many gods.

Vihdra (S.) Buddhist monastery.

Vija (S.) (J. Shu-ji.) Root, radix, seed. The germ of a mantra (v. s.)—a mantra-seed. A vija

mantra is a letter or syllable used in casting spells and in the invocations of the gods (v. dhdrani

and sddhana). The elements came from the mjas. In the Pujd Kdnda it is written :' from the

vija of the letter Y, air ; from that of the letter It, fire ; from that of letter V (or B), water ;

from that of the letter L, earth, and from the letter A proceeded Akfisa, or ether (v. Vajradhdtu

and 0m). The most commonly known vija mantra is that of Avalokitesvara,' Hri !

'

which is

a contraction for Hridaya or '

(Sacred) Heart '.

Visvavajra (S.) Lit.'

doable-vajra ',or thunderbolt, is the special symbol of Ushnlshavijaya and

Amoghasiddha and his iakti, Tara. Samvara has it in his head-dress, v. Vajra.

Vitarka (S.) Mudrd of argument. The dogmatic attitude is represented with the arm bent and all

the fingers extended upward, except either the index or the ring finger, which touches the tip of

the thumb, forming the '

triangular pose '. The palm of the hand is turned outward. Mystic

gesture of the Taras and of the eight Bodhisattva. In Japan the mudrd called semmui corresponds

with the vitarka, the only difference being that the index and thumb do not touch at the tips.

The thumb is pressed against the palm of the hand.

Yab-yum (T.) Lit.' Father-Mother '. Attitude of a god (yab) when embracing his iakti {yum), also

called'

in vajra attitude '.

Yaksa (S.) Demons in the suite of Kuvera.

Ydna (S.) Vehicle, v. Tri-ydna.

Yin-yang (C.) Lit.' female-male ', or the two first causes. The primal causatiifcisserfients nouveau'x,

a circle divided into two equal parts. In China the two p~ •' •*

In Nepal they are divided by a wavy line (v.- edition, London, 1873.

vol. xviii, PI. in). In Japan the corresponding

tadpole-shaped segments. t i. Traduite du tibe'tain. Paris, 1868.

Yoga (S.) From the Sanskrit root Yuj or ' union'. I\, e fa l'Inde. 1™ partie, Paris, 1900. 2 epartie,

Material, or communion with the Universal Spi

Two Parts, v. Vairocana. 1905. Vol. i.

182 EXPLANATIONS OF WORDS USED IN TEXT

The Yoga is the practice of ecstatic meditation, and was introduced into Hinduism by

Pataiijali in the second century B.C. It was grafted on the Mahayana System by Asanga, in

the middle of the sixth century a.d., introduced into China A.D. 720, and into Japan by KoboDaishi in the ninth century.

Yogacarya (S.) Lit. ' school of Yoga '.

Zuchi (J.) Small Japanese travelling shrine in which is enshrined the image of a god.

7/

(v. tn-kotm.h na ».

setting of the sun. -

Til 7 1 il , ,• ) 1

the rr>" or ' err

protaberau .. .„ Kotft fflM'

spark-like ^^

The ushnisha is the first and most i jcts "'

probably the last acquired. In the In her. /

'trbt

1 In the Mup-

.-•

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INDEX

Abhinishkramana sutra, 82.

Abhirati, 34.

Acala, 33.—representation of, as Ni-o, 152.

Acala-Vajrapani, 47.—representation of, 50.

Acarya-Vajrapani, 47.—representation of, 50.

Adi-Buddha, 2-3, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 40, 44, 46,

58, 60, 61, 63 n., 88, 96, 97.— table of different forms, 1 .— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 2.—special characteristics, 2.—systems of, 2, 2 n., 29.—symbolic forms, 2, 5.—representations of : popular, 3; esoteric, 3n.; as

Vajradhara, 4;

as Vajrasattva, 5 ; as Kongo-satta, 6.

Adi-Dharma, 3.

Adi-Prajfia, 3.

Agni, 103, 125.

Ailvarika, 3.

Aizen-myo-o, representation of, 7.— as the Ni-o Rfiga, 152.

Akasagarbha, 27, 34, 42, 44.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanese

names, 89.—special characteristics, 89.—representations of, 89

;in China and Japan, 89.

Akshobhya, 23, 26, 27, 28, 30 n., 32, 45, 48, 97,

116, 122, 123, 143.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanese

names, 34.

—special characteristics, 34.—representations of, 34, 35.

Altan Khan (king), 134, 144.

AmaravatI, 16.

Amaterasu, 39.

Amida, 30 n., 34, 36.— worship of, 39.— manifestations of, 40.—representations of, 40, 100, 104.

Amida (sect), 2 n., 3, 27 n.

Amitabha, 3, 9, 15, 22, 23, 26, 27, 27 n., 28, 30 n.,

32, 34, 35, 45, 46, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59,

62, 63, 64, 65, 71, 74, 78, 86, 99, 100, 105,

112, 122, 123, 126, 156, 157, 158.

— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 36.—

special characteristics, 36.— worship of, 36 ; paradise of, 36.—representation of, 37.— as Amitayus, 37-8.

— as O-mi-to Fo, 38-9.

Bb

Amitabha, as Amida, 39-40.

Amitayurdhyana sutra, 39.

Amitayus, 36, 37-8, 49, 120, 156.— Tibetan, Mongolian, and Chinese names, 37.—special characteristics, 37.— ceremony for worship of, 37.—representation of, 38.

Amoghapasa, 52, 82, 110.—representations of, 63.

Amoghasiddha, 20, 26, 27, 28, 30 n., 32, 88, 108,

109, 122, 123, 154.— Tibetan and Japanese names, 41.—

special characteristics, 41.—representations of, 41.

Amoghavajra, 29, 149.

Amrita, 49, 72;

v. Glossary.Amsu Varman, 106.

Ananda, 157.

Ancestor (worship), 38.

anglian burqan (M.), Adi-Buddha, 2.

Anoku Kwan-non, 87.

Aparimita-DharanI, 9.

Aparimitayus-sfitra, 36.

Arhat (Arhan or Sthavira), 23, 43, 147.— in Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanese, 155.— the Buddhas as the Arhat Sumedha, 43, 155.— group of sixteen, 156;of eighteen, 156 ;

of four,

156.— the Arhat Nakula, 1 56.

ariabalo (M.), Aryavalokitesvara, 64.

Arupadhatu, 26.

Aryajangull, 102, 113 ;v. Jangull.

Arya Pala, 60, 64, 65, 81.

Aryavalokitesvara, 60, 64-5, 80.— Tibetan, Mongolian, and Japanese names, 64.

—special characteristics, 64.

Asana, 83, 115; v. Glossary.

Asahga, 20, 30, 30 n., 62, 79, 103.

Ashaku (Akshobhya), 30 n., 34.

Asita, 16.

Asoka- flower, 38, 66, 118, 120; v. Glossary.Asokakanta, (MaricI), 117.—

representation of, 118.

Asura, 90, 141 ;v. Glossary.

Asvaghosha, 156.

Atisa (pandit), 142.

Aurora, 118.

Avalokitesvara, 13, 15, 20, 27, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40,

42, 44, 45, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 94, 100, 103,

105, 106, 120, 121, 134, 141.— table of different forms, 52-3.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 54.—

special characteristics, 54.

2

188 INDEX

Avalokitesvara, first representations, 56.

— different representations of, 57-88.— Tantra forms, 62, 63, 64.

— Dogmatic form, 63;as Buddha, 52.

— forms from sadhana, 65, 66, 107, 109.

Ba-to (Kwan-non), 39, 77, 80, 82-4, 142, 143.

—representations of, 83.— resemblance to Hayagriva, 83.

bde-mc'og (T.), Samvara, 127.

Beg-ts'e, 130, 134.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 134.—

special characteristics, 134.—legend of, 134-5.—representation of, 135.

Benten (Dai-ben-zai-ten), 149, 154.—legend of, 113.—popular representation of, 113-14.— with body of a snake, 114.— Tantra form, 114.

Ben-zai-ten (J.), Sarasvati, 113.

Bhairava (Yamantaka), 99, 145.

Bhaishajyaguru (Yakushi), 28, 34.

Bhaysajaguru (Mania), 23.

BhikshunI, 12, 75.

Bhrikuti, 60, 63, 66, 102, 105, 143.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 110.

—special characteristics, 110.—representations of, 110; as Khadiravani-Tara,,

110; as Vajra-Tara, 110.

Bhumisparsa, 17, 18 ;v. Glossary.

bhuvana, 2, 2 n., 44 n.

Bi-har, representations of, 150, 151.

Bija, 26, 27;

v. Glossary, vija.

bilig-un cinadu kijaghar-a kiiriiksen (M.), Prajfia-

p&ramita, 116.

Bishamon, 132, 150.—representation of, 149.

bisman tegri (M.), Kuvera, 139.

blo-bzan grags-pa (T.), Ts'on-k'a-pa, 158.

Bodh'-Gaya, 16, 18, 22, 101, 115.

Bodhidharma, 157.

Bodhisattvavadana-kalpalata, 12, 13.

Bodhi-tru (or' Bo-tru

',v. Glossary, Bodhi-druma),

11, 14, 15 n., 16, 18, 28, 84, 148.

Brahma, 47, 50, 56, 58, 60, 61, 65, 66, 103, 113,

118, 126, 127, 132, 134, 139.

Bribsun, 106.

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 64.

Byaku-ye Kwan-non, 73, 87, 88.

byams-pa (T.), Maitreya, 20.

caghan dara eke (M.), White Tara, 107.

caghan sigiirtei (M.), Sitatapatra, 121.

caghlasi iigei gereltil (M.), Amitabha, 36.

caghlasi iigei nasutu (M.), Amitayus, 37.

cagh-un kiirde (M.), Kalacakra, 128.

Caitya, 51, 118, 149;

v. Glossary.

Cakra, 16, 17, 22; v. Glossary.

Candra, 61, 94, 94 n., 125; v. Glossary.Catur maharaja (Lokapala), 148.

Ch'ang sheng-fo (0.), Amitayus, 37.

Chan-wang (king), 69.

Chebu dam-chan, representation of, 151.

Chen Tsai, 71, 72, 74, 87.

Chien-yin Fo, 39.

Ch'i-kwo, representation of, 149.

Choi-chung, representation of, 150.

Chun-ti (C), Chunda, 115.

Cintamani, 17, 86, 86 n., 90, 154;

v. Glossary.Cintamani-cakra (Nyo-i-rin), 83-4.—

representation of, 84.

Citipati, 136, 147.—representation of, 152.—legend of, 153.

Confucius, 38, 154.

cos-rgyal (T.), Yama, 135.

Cunda (or Cunti), 80, 102.— Tibetan and Chinese names,—special characteristics, 115.— form according to sadhana,—representations of, 115.

115.

115.

Dahla, representation of, 151.

Dai-ko-ku (J.), Mahakala, 143.—representation of, 145.

Dai-nichi-nyorai (J.), v. Vairocana, 2 n., 28, 30, 33,152.

dain-i darughsan (M.), Arhat, 155.

Dakinl, 102.—popular form of, 104.—group of five dakinl, 1 04.— as Vajravarahl, 118.— as Naro-mk'ha-spyod-ma, 121.— as Simhavakha, 122.— as Vajra-dakini, 122.

Dam-can (Damchan) rdor-legs, representations of,

151.

dara eke (M.), Tara, 105.

dbyans-can-ma (T.), Sarasvati, 113.

Detsan (king), 131, 157.

Dhanada (Green Tara), representation of, 109.

DharanI, 30, 105, 142, 157; v. Glossary.

Dharma, 2 n., 11, 44.—representation of Dharma personified, 19, 20,

26, 92;

v. Glossary.

Dharmadhatuvagisvara Manjusri, 95.—representation of, 99.

Dharma-kaya, 10, 11, 26, 44.

Dharmapala, 33, 47, 50, 99, 104, 107, 124, 157.— table of, 131.—worship of, 131.—symbolic meaning, 131.—groups of, 131-2.—popular forms of, 132.

Dharmasanka-samadhi-ManjusrI, 95.—representation of, 99.

Dharmavajra, 3, 4.

Dhritarashtra, 148, 151.

Dhyana, 17;

v. Glossary.

Dhyani-Bodhisattva, 3, 10, 11, 26, 28, 42-45, 132.— mortal Bodhisattva, 43.— the stages of a Dhyani-Bodhisattva, 43, 44.—group of eight, 44.

INDEX 189

Dhyani-Bodhisattva, group of five, 44, 45.—popular representation of, 45.— group of four, in China, 45

;in Japan 45.— table of, 42.— different forms of, 46-101.

Dhyani-Buddhas, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 21, 23, 26-8 ; 44,

46, 48, 57, 60, 61, 62, 71, 102, 104, 106,

124, 140.— sixth Dhyani-Buddha, 26.— table of, 25.—representations of, 27.— different forms of, 29-41. <--

Dlpa, 11, 13.

Dlpaiikara Buddha, 9, 11-14, 43 n., 49, 59, 141.— Tibetan, Mongolian, and Chinese names, 11.—special characteristics, 11.—legends of, 12.—representations of, 13 ;

in China, 14.

Dosho, 79.

dpal gsan-ba-hdus-pa (T.), Sang-dui, 126.

dpal-ldan-lho-mo (T.), Lha-mo, 132.

Drag-ched (v. Dharmapala), 131.

Durga, 103.

Durga devl, 81.

dur-k'rod bdag-po (T.), Citipati, 152.

dus-k'or (T.), Kalacakra, 128. _

dus-kyi hkor-lohi mts'an (T.), Adi-Buddha, 2.

DvTpa, 11, 13."

egeci degiiii (M.), Beg-ts'e, 134.

Ekajata, 102, 105, 109.— Tibetan name, 111.—simple form, 111.— ferocious form, 111.

Elapatra Naga, legend of, 153.—

Japanese version, 153.

Elephant (gaja), 6, 1 5 n., 16, 1 7 n.;

v. Glossary.— incarnation of the Buddha, 15.

— mount of Samantabhadra, 46 ;of Fugen, 46.— mounts of the Lokapala, 148 ;in Japan, 148 n.

Elephant-headed god, Vinataka, 144.

Emma-o, 90, 93, 137.—representation of, 137.

erdeni-in oron (M.), Ratnasambhava, 35.

erlig-jin jarghaqci (M.), Yamantaka, 145.

erlik qan (M.), Yama, 135.

esrua (M.), Ts'angs-pa dkar-po, 134.

Fa-hian, 36, 54, 70, 82 n., 84.

Feminine Divinities, table of, 103.— in India, 103; in China, 103 ; in Japan, 103-4.— different forms of, 104.—

representations of, 105-22.

Flame (symbol of Adi-Buddha), 2, 2n., 5, 17, 27, 30.

Fudo, 7, 23, 32, 33-4, 101.—special characteristics, 33.

—representations of, 33.

— as Ni-o, 152.

Fugen (Samantabhadra), 6, 32, 34.

—representation of, 46.

Fuku-jo-ju, 30 n.

Fuku-Kenjaku Kwan-non, 77, 80.

Fun-wang (C), Ts'angs-pa dkar-po, 134.

Gandhara, 18, 19, 34, 59, 75, 78, 84, 140.

Gandharvas, 148.

Garbhadhatu, 85, 152; v. Glossary, Vajradhatu.Garudas, 47, 48, 49, 50, 66, 143, 147.—

legend of, 155.

Gautama Buddha, 22, 23, 48, 74, 75, 94, 96, 116,

148, 153, 155, 157.

gdugs-dkar-can-ma (T.), Sitatapatra, 121.

Ge-lug-pa (Yellow Bonnets), 4, 17 n., 46, 136, 145,158-9.

gerel-sakiqci (M.), Kasyapa, 14.

ghasiba (M.), Kasyapa, 14.

gnas-brtan (T.), Arhat, 155.

inGonpo Bramzei (Mahakala), legend of, 144-5.—representation, 145.

Go-san-ze (J.), Trailokya-vijaya, 100.

grvh-pai dban-p'yug Mi-la (T.), Mi-la-ras-pa, 159.

Gsang-sgrub (Yama), 135.—representation of, 136.

giin-rje-gsed (T.), Yamantaka, 145.

gtsug-tor-rnam-par rgyal-ma (T.), UshnTshavijaya,120.

Guhyasamaja (Sang-dui), 126.

Guna Karanda Vyuha, 2, 61.

Gyo-ran Kwan-non, 74.

Halahala-Lokesvara, 53, 66.

HarihariharivBhanodbhava, 52, 66.

Hariti, 42, 70, 75-6, 81, 81 n., 86, 115, 150.—representations in India, 75 ; in Java, 75

;

Gandhara school, 75 ; Chinese Turkestan, 76.

Hayagriva, 59, 63, 66, 80, 82, 117, 118, 130, 134.— resemblance to Ba-to Kwan-non, 83.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 142.

—special characteristics, 142.— invocation of, 142.—popular form, 142 ; when invoked by Atisa,

142;other forms, 142-3; with garvda wings,

143;form from sadhana, 143 ; symbolic form,

143; v. Ba-to Kwan-non.

Haye Kwan-non, 72, 87.

hdjam-dpal (T.), Mafijusrl, 96.

Hevajra, 123.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 125.—special characteristics, 125.—representations of, 125, 128, 132.

Hevajra Tantra, 125; 128, 144, 145.

Hinayana, 35, 36, 148.

Hiuen-tsang, 16, 22, 36, 48, 55, 68, 70, 75, 79,

84, 105, 107, 153.

Hiu-kio, 29, 79.

hpd-dpag-med (T.), Amitabha, 36.

hod-srun (T.), Kasyapa, 14.

hod-zer-can-ma (T.), Marlcl, 117.

Hokkesammai, 46.

Horse, white, 55, 82 n., 83 ;White Horse Monastery,

83;in Shinto shrines, 83 ; mount of Ts'angs-pa,

134.

Bb3

t

190 INDEX

Horse, head of, in the hair of the Ba-to Kwan-

non, 82, 83; of Hayagriva, 142; of Marlci,

118.— as Kesi, 82;as Kanthaka, 82 ;

as Lungta, 142.

— legend of Simhala, 55, 82.

Horyuji (temple), 84, 86.

Hosho, 30 n., 35.

Hosso (sect), 2 n., 29 n., 79.

hp'ags-pa s'2>yan-ras-gzigs (T.), Aryavalokitesvara,64.

Hsi-wang-mu, 74.

Hu-k'ung-tsang (C), Akaiagarbha, 89.

Hu-shih-che (C), Lokapala, 148.

Ichi-butsu, 2 n., 39.

Indra, 15, 48, 61.

Jambala, 35, 123, 139, 156.—representation of, 140.

Jangull-Tara, 105.—representation of, 108.—green form, 108 n., 109.—yellow form, 110.

jeke qara (M.), Mahakala, 143.

Jikoku, 150.

Jizo, 28, 32, 34, 42, 82, 86, 90, 91.—special characteristics, 93.—representations of, 93.

— group of six Jizos, 93.

Jnana-kaya, 10 n.

Jnanesvarl, 3.

Jodo-shu (Pure Land sect), 39.

jonqaba (M.), Ts'on-k'a-pa, 158.

Joruriji (temple), 85.

Ju-Ichi-men Kwan-non, 64, 77, 80, 82.—representation of, 81.

jula jokiaqci (M.), Dipankara, 11.

Juntei Kwan-non, 77, 80, 81.

Kalacakra, 123.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 128.—special characteristics, 128.— form as Bodhisattva, 128.—representation as Yi-dam, 128.—representations in Tibet, 128, 129.

Kali, 103.

Kamaloka, 48.

Kanakamuni, 9, 34, 45.

K'ang-hsi (emperor), 72, 87.

Kanjur, 128.

Kanthaka, 82, 148.

Karanda-Vyuha, 61.

Kar-gyu-pa, 4, 46, 159.

Karma, 101.

Karmavajra, 3, 4.

mKasgrub bDod-nams (Dalai-lama), 134, 144.

Kaiyapa, 9, 14, 22, 35, 45, 153, 156, 157.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 14.—special characteristics, 14.—representations of, 14.

Kasyapa Matanga, 16, 54, 54 n.

Kegon (sect), 29 n., 32.

Kei-kwa, 29, 79.

kele-jin iikin tegri (M.), Sarasvati, 113.

Kesi, 56.

Khadiravani-Tara, representation of, 110.

Khatvanga, 104; v. Glossary.Khoubilai (emperor), 125, 144.

Khumbhanda, 148.

Kiang-san-ze (C), Trailokya-vijaya, 100.

Kiao-ta-mo (C), Sakya-muni, 15.

Kikuta Sanzo, 81.

kilingtil eke (M.), BhrikutI, 110.

Kings (The Five), 147.— Tibetan names, 150, 151.—

representations of, 150, 151.

Kinnaras, 139.

Kishi-jis-kwa (J.), pomegranate, symbol of Kwan-non, 85, 86.—

symbol of Tara, 107.

Ki-shi-mo-jin (ogress form of Koyasu Kwan-non), v.

HaritI, 75, 76, 77, 84-8.

klu-sgrub (T.), Nagarjuna, 156.

Kobo Daishi, 29, 39, 70, 79, 155, 157.

Kokuzo (Akasagarbha), 34, 89.

Komoku, 150.

Komyo (empress), 84, 85.

Kongo, legend of, 152.—representation of, 152.— as attribute

;v. Glossary, vajra.

Kongosatta, 6-7, 46, 101.—special characteristics, 6.—representations of, 6.— as Aizen-myo-o, 7.

Koyasu Kwan-non (Giver of Children), 75, 76, 77,

78, 84-8.—legend of, 84-85.—symbolic significance, 85.— mild forms, 85, 86.—ogress form, 85, 85 n.

Krakucchanda, 9, 29, 45.

Krishna, 103!

k'ro griyer-can-ma (T.), BlirikutI, 110.

Kshitigarbha, 32, 34, 42, 44, 45, 90-1.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 90.—

special characteristics, 90.—representations of, in Tibet, 90

;Chinese Tur-

kestan, 91 ; as Master of the six worlds of

Desire, 91 ; Japanese form, 91;

as Ti-tsang,92 ;

as Jizo, 93.

Kuan-tsi-tsai fo (C), Sang-dui, 126.

Kukai (Kobo Daishi), 28, 79, 157.

Kumara, 96.

Kumarajiva, 38, 68.

Kuntes-pan-K'an, 156.

kun-tu bzah-fo (T.), Samantabhadra, 46.

ku-ru-ku-le (T.), Kurukulla, 112.

Kurukulla, 22, 36, 102, 105.— Tibetan name, 112.—special characteristics, 112.— form from a sadhana, 112.—representations of, 112.

ft

[NDEX 191

Kuvera, 70, 75, 112, 115, 130, 131, 132, 139-41,143, 144, 148, 149, 150.— table of different forms, 138.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 139.—

special characteristics, 1 39.— abode of, 139 ; form according to Hindu mytho-logy, 139 ; representations in India and Nepal,140 ; Gandhara School, 140.— Yi-dam form, 140.—

popular form, 140.—Dharmapala form, 141.— accompanied by eight VaiSravanas, 141.— Tantra form, 140.— as Lokapala, 140.

Kwang-mu, representation of, 149.

Kwan-non, 7, 32, 34, 40, 42, 53, 54, 55, 56, 68, 72,

100, 103.— table of different forms, 77.— three early forms, 78 ; confusion of sex, 78.—popular forms, 80 ; group of seven : Sho, 80 ;

Ju-ichi-men, 81; Sen-ju, 81

; Jun-tei, 81, 82;

Fuku-Kenjaku, 82 ; Ba-to, 82, 83 ; Nyo-i-rin,

83, 84 ; Koyasu, 84-8; group of thirty-three,

87.

Kwan-shi-yin, 39, 42, 45, 53, 54, 55, 56, 65, 67-73,75, 100, 103.— table of different forms, 67.—

popular representation, 71;as Sung-tsS, 71

; as

Miao-chen, 71-2; special forms, 72, 73; Tantra

forms, 73.

Kwan-yin ; v. Kwan-shi-yin.Kwazan (emperor), 80.

Kwo-hai, 67, 72.

kye-ba-rdo-rje (T.), Hevajra, 125.

Lakshana, 10n., 17, 19 ; v. Glossary.

Lakshmi, 61, 103.

Lalita Vistara, 9.

Icam-srin (T.), Beg-ts'e, 134, 135.

Lha-mo, 122, 127, 130, 131, 135.— Tibetan, Mongolian, and Sanskrit names, 132.—

special characteristics, 132.—representations, 132, 133.

—legend of, 133.—acolytes two dakini, 133; four ferocious god-desses, 133.

Lien Tsung (lotus school), 38.

Lion (simha), 57, 57 n., 96, 99.— mount;

v. sirnhanada.— throne, 14, 21; v. Glossary, asana.

Locana, 34, 102.—representation of, 122.

Lohan, 147, 155, 156.

loka, 61, 100 n.

Lokapala, 139, 141, 147, 148-50, 155.— Sanskrit names of the Four Lokapala, 148-9;Chinese names, 149; Japanese names, 150.

— abode of, 148; important events in the life of

the Buddha at which they assisted, 148.—representations in India, 148-9.—symbolic meaning of, 149.

Lokapala, representations in China, 149;in Japan,

150; in Chinese Turkestan, 150.

lo-ma-gyon-ma (T.), ParnaSavarl, 119.

Loung-nu, 72, 74.

k'Lu-dban-rgyd-po (Buddha liberator of the ser-

pents), 18, 83 n., 94.

Lungta (airy horse), 142.

Luvang, representation of, 151.

ma-bha (T.), Mahainaya, 1 26.

Madhyamika system, 156; v. Glossary.

Mahabharata, 139.

Mah&cakra, 123.

Mahacakra-Vajrapani, 47.—representation of, 50.

Mahadeva (Siva), 56, 61.

Mahakala, 130, 140, 143-5.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 143.—

special characteristics, 143.— earliest forms of, 143; in Nepal, 144; in

Mongolia, 144; representation as Son-dkar,

144; as mSon-po, 144; other forms, 144; as

mGonpo-Bramzei, 144, 145; asDai-ko-ku, 145.

Mahamaya, 123.— Tibetan and Chinese names, 126.—special characteristics, 126.—representations of, 126.

Mahamayurl, 109.

Mahanaga, 40.

Maharajallla-Manjulri, 59.—representations of, 98.

Mahasthana-prapta, 32, 34, 39, 40, 42.— Chinese and Japanese names, 100.—special characteristics, 100.— in China, 100.— in Japan, 100.

Mahasukha-kaya, 10 n.

Mahavastu, 10, 11, 13, 17, 28.

Mahayana, 4, 21, 29, 35, 44, 54, 55, 69 n., 70, 79,

82, 103, 132, 153, 156, 157; v. Glossary.

Mahayana-sutra, 55, 82.

maijdari (M.), Maitreya, 20.

Maitreya, 9, 12, 13, 14, 20-2, 30, 34, 41, 42, 44,

45, 55, 59, 68, 88, 89, 90, 94, 156, 159.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 20.—

special characteristics, 20.—representations of, 21-2.

Makaravaktra-dakinI, 133.

Mamaki, 35, 102.—representation of, 122.

Manas (divine mind), 5, 10, 17, 26, 30.

Mandala, 6, 29, 30, 34, 85, 95, 152; v. Glossary.

mani, 62, 149; v. Glossary.ManI Kambum, 54.

MaBjugosha, 95, 96, 97.—representation of, 98.

MaBjuSrT, 3, 13, 20, 32, 33, 35, 36, 38, 42, 44, 45,

46, 49, 56, 57, 59, 64, 66, 89, 92, 94, 113,

132, 136, 144, 145, 159.— table of different forms, 95.

ft

192 INDEX

MafijuSri, Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanese

names, 96.—special characteristics, 96 ;

birth of, 96.

popular form, 97 ; representations with sword

and book, 98 ;with blue lotus, 98, 99

;other

forms, 99 ; in China and Japan, 99.

Manjusri-JaSanasattva, 95.

Manjuvajra, 95, 123.

Mania, 23-4, 141, 156.— Sanskrit, Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and

Japanese names, 23.—special characteristics, 23.—representations of, 23, 24.

Mantra, 30, 86 ;v. Glossary.

Manushi-Buddhas, 9-11, 26, 29, 41, 43, 44, 55, 60,

63, 88, 148.— table of, 8.—systems of, 9.— groups of, 9.

Mara, 15, 18, 35, 90, 154.

MarTcT, 33, 59, 102, 109, 117-19.— Tibetan and Japanese names, 117.—special characteristics, 117.— titles of, 117 ; as Vajravarahl, 117.

— - first representations of, 117;as goddess Aurora

of the Aryans, 118; as Asokakanta, 118;

yellow form from sadhana, 118; red ferocious

form, 118.— white form from sadhana, 118.— as a ddkini, 118.—representation in Japan, 118, 119.

Marishi-ten (J.), Marlcl, 117.

mar-me mdsad (T.), Dlpankara, 11.

masi geigiilun joqiaqci (M.), Vairocana, 28.

Maudgalyayana, 19, 100.

Maya, 15, 148.

MSyajalakramaryavalokitesVara, 53, 66.

mc'og-gi dah-pohi sans-rgyas (T)., v. Adi-Buddha.

Megha, 12, 12 n.

Meru (Mt. Sumeru), 100, 155.

mgon-po (T.), Mahakala, 143.

Miao-chen, 42, 69, 71, 72, 87, 88.—legend of, 73-4.

mi-bskyod-j>a (T.), Akshobhya, 34.

Mi-lo-fo (C), Maitreya, 20.

Mi-la ras-pa, 147.— name in Tibetan, 159.—representation of deified form, 159.

Mingti (emperor), 16, 70, 83, 96.

Mio-ken, 33, 33 n.

Miroku (J.), Maitreya, 20, 34.

Missaku, legend of, 152.

Monju (MaSjusVl), 32, 33.—representations of, 99.

morin qogholai-tu (M.), Hayagrlva, 142.

Mucalinda, 18, 154.

Mudra, 28, 30 ; v. Glossary.

Myokyojochinsho, 152 n.

Myrobalans, 23.

Na-ch'un (oracle of), 150.

Nagabodhi, 29.

naganjuna baksi (M.), Nagarjuna, 156.

Nagarjuna, 29, 40, 147, 149, 153, 154.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 156.—legend of, 156.— as Patriarch, 157.—representation of deified form, 157, 158.

Nagas (serpent gods), 15, 48, 49, 58, 113 n., 116,

140, 147, 153-5, 157.— Buddha Liberator of the Nagas, 18.— Naga king Mucalinda, 18, 154.— white snake as attribute, 1 08 ; as manifestation

of SarasvatI, 113, 155.— the Nagaraja Nanda, 132, 155; mounts of the

Lokapala, 148 ; king of the Nagas, 149, 155.— seat of Naga worship, 153, 154.— the Elapatra Naga, 153.— Nagas in Buddhist legends, 154; symbolic

meaning, 154.— different representations, 154.— Naga worship in Japan, 154; as Benten, 114,154-5.— Nagas and Garudas, 155.— abode of, 155.

Nakula, as Lohan, 139 n., 156.— as attribute, 139, 140, 140 n.

Namasangiti, 3, 96.

nam-mk'ahi snih-po, (T.), AkaSagarbha, 89.

Nanda, 132, 155.

Na-ro mk'ha-spyod-ma dakinl, 102, 152.—special characteristics, 121.—representations of, 121.

Nichiren, 85.

Nidana-Katha, 148.

nidiiberujiikci (M.), AvalokitesVara, 54.

NllakantharyavalokitesVara, 52, 66.

Nllambara-Vajrapani, 47.—representation of, 50.

Ni-o, 147.— abode of, 151.— as two kings, Misshaku and Kongo, 151, 152.

— as the Vldyaraja, 152.— symbolic meaning of, 152.

Nirmana-kaya, 9-11, 26.

Nirvana, 9, 14, 19, 36, 38, 44, 63, 136, 156 ;v.

Glossary.

noghoghan dara eke (M.), Green Tara, 108.

Nyo-i-rin Kwan-non, 59, 77, 80, 83-4.— non-Tantra form, 83.

—representation in China, 83-4 ;

in Japan, 84 ;

as Cintamanlcakra, 84.

ocirdara (M.), Vajradhara, 3.

Om, 2, 54, 59, 86, 135; v. Glossary.O-mi-t'o fo (C), Amitabha, 36.

O-mi-toFo, 38-9, 100.—representations of, 39.

oqtarghui-in yirugen (M.), Akaiagarbha, 89.

oto-ci (M.), Mania, 23.

pad-ma lihjuh-gnaa (T.), Padmasambhava, 157.

PadmanarteSvara, 60, 66.

i

INDEX 193

Padmapani, 22, 49, 52, 54, 56, 57, 58-62, 69, 71,

73, 78, 80, 106.—Japanese name, 58.—special characteristics, 58.—representations, 58, 59.— with twelve emanations, 60-2.

Padmasambhava, 70, 97, 131, 147, 150, 151.— Tibetan name of, 157.—special characteristics of deified form, 157.

—legend of, 157, 158.—representations of, 158.

Pags-pa (lama), 144-5.

Pa-nan, 59, 67, 73.

Pancaslrsha (C. Wu-t'ai-shan), Mountain of Five

Peaks, 96.

Pandara, 36.

Pandara, 102.—representation of, 122.

Pao-sheng-fo (C), Ratnasambhava, 35.

Paramitas, 43, 154; v. Glossary, khakkhara.

Parinirvana, 16, 48, 148.

Parnasavari, 102.— Tibetan name, 119.—special characteristics, 119.—representations of, 119.

ParvatI, 56, 101, 103.

Patra, legend of, 148;

v. Glossary.Pe-har (or Pe-dkar), representation of, 151.

Phurbu, 143 ;v. Glossary.

Phyi-sgrub (Yama), 135.—representation of, 136.

Pi-lo-che-na (C), Vairocana, 28.

Pi-mih-ma-t'en-kin-kang (C), Hayagrlva, 142.

Pindola, 23, 75;as one of the Lo-han, 156.

Poseidon, 143.

Potala (Mt.), 55, 69.

Prabhiitaratna, 28.

Prajnaparamita, 3, 20, 35, 59, 102, 128, 153, 157.

— as goddess : Tibetan and Mongolian names, 116.

—special characteristics, 116.

—representations of, 116.

— as symbol, 97, 115, 116.

Prajnika, 20.

Prasenajit (king), 16.

Preta, 62, 62 n., 90, 93 ;v. Glossary.

Prithivl, 61.

Pu'hien (Samantabhadra), 45.

—representation of, 46.

Purna Maitrayaniputra, 68.

P'uto, 69, 72, 74, 87.

Pu-tung-fo (CA Akshobhya, 34.

p'yag-na rdo-rje (T.), Vajrapani, 48.

qamugha sain (M.), Samantabhadra, 46.

Quanam (Kwan-yin), 69 n.

Raga, representation of, 152.

Rahu, 49, 112.

RShula (Lo-han), 156.

Rakhan, 23, 147, 155.

Rakshasa, 55, 82 ;v. Glossary.

Rakta-LokeSvara, 52, 66.

ral-gcig-ma (T.), Ekajata, 111.

rasiian umir-tu (M.), Usbnishavijaya, 120.

Ratnagarbha, 9.

Ratnapani, 27, 35, 42, 44, 45, 51.—special characteristics, 51.—representations of, 51.

Ratnasambhava, 14, 26, 27, 28, 30 n., 32, 35, 45,

51, 115, 122, 123, 141.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 35.—

special characteristics, 35.—representations, 35.

rdo-rje-hc'an (T.), Vajradhara, 3.

rdo-rje sems-dpah (T.), Vajrasattva, 4.

Renge-no-in, 63 n., 82 ;v. Glossary, Uttara-Bodhi.

rgyal-c'en-bshi (T.), Lokapala, 148.

riksha, 117.

Rikshavaktra, 122.

rin-byun (T.), Ratnasambhava, 35.

Ritsu (sect), 81, 85.

rnam-par-snah-mdsad (T.) ; v. Vairocana, 28.

rnam-t'os-sras (T.), Kuvera, 139.

Ro-tara-ni-bi (J.), Tara, 105.

rta-mgrin (T.), Hayagrlva, 142.

Rudra, 64, 65.

Rupadhatu, 10, 44, 45.

Ruri Kwan-non, 74, 87.

Ryflzu Kwan-non, 87.

Saddharma pratirflpaka, 20.

Saddharmapundarlka (Lotus of the Good Law), 13,

36, 68, 85", 96, 100.

Sadhana, 57, 65-6, 97, 100, 101, 111, 112, 115,

118, 120, 143, 145; v. Glossary.Sakra (Indra), 48, 148.

Sakti, 28, 72, 103, 105.—popular form, 104.— the five Dhyani-Buddha Sakti, 102, 122; 118,

121 ; v. Glossary, yab-yum.

Sakya-muni, 9, 12; previous rebirths, 13, 15-20,

28, 33, 36, 40, 45, 48, 54, 55, 57, 63, 68, 82,

90, 94, 96, 100, 137, 154, 157.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 15.—

special characteristics, 15.—symbolic forms of, 16, 17.— first statues of, 16, 17.— Indian representations, 17, 18; in Nepal,

Burma, Siam, Ceylon, China, and Japan,

17-20; Gandhara school, 18, 19; as a child,

19; ascetic, 19; parinirvana, 19; dogmatictriad, 19, 20.

Samantabhadra, 6, 27, 29, 32, 34, 42, 44, 45, 46, 99.—Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 46.—

special characteristics, 46.—representations of, 46.

Samantamukha, 64, 68.

Samantaraja (Yama), 136.

Sambhoga-kaya, 10, 11, 43-5.

Samvara, 123, 133.— Tibetan and Chinese names, 127.

194 INDEX

Samvara, special characteristics, 127.— incarnations, 127.—representations of, 127.

Sanchi (topes), 16, 148.

Sang-dui, 123.— Tibetan and Chinese names, 126.—special characteristics, 126.—representation of, 126.

Sangha, 2 n., 11.—representation of Sangha personified, 19, 20,

26, 92 ; v. Glossary.San pa-lo (C), Samvara, 127.

San-sh'i-r'i-siang (Kwan-yin), 67, 73.

Sapta Katna, 142 ; v. Glossary, Cintamani.

SarasvatI, 60, 61, 96, 102, 103, 108.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 113.—

special characteristics, 113.—representations of, 113; as Vajra-Sarasvati,

113; forms from sddhana, 113; as Benten,113, 114, 154, 155.

Sariputra, 19, 36.

Sarva-buddhadak inl, 121.

Sarva-nlvarana-vishkambhl, 42, 44, 55.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 94.—

special characteristics, 94.—representation as Dhyani-Bodhisattva, 94

; as

Yi-dam, 94.

Sarvasavaranam bhagavati (Parnasavarl), 119.

Seishi or Dai-seishi (Mahasthanaprapta), 32, 33,

40, 100.

Sen-ju Kwan-non, 77, 79, 80.—representation of, 81.

ses-rab-pha-rol-tu (T.), Prajnaparamita, 116.

sgrol-dkar (T.), White Tara, 107.

sgrol-ljah (T.), Green Tara, 108.

sgrol-ma (T.), Tara, 105.

Shakamuni(J.). 15.

sha-kya thub-pa (T.), Sakya-muni, 15.

Shi-chi-fu-ku-jin, 149.

Shin-gon (sect), 2 n., 3, 7, 23, 27, 29, 29 n., 30,

31, 32, 79, 80, 82, 85, 157.

Shin-ran, 32, 39, 78.

Shin-shu, 39.

Shinto, 79, 79 n.

Shobonenkyo, 151.

Sho Kwan-non, 58, 77, 86.—representation of, 80, 81.

Shotoku Taishi, 79, 149.

Sho-zuko-no-baba, 93.

Siddhai-kavira Maiijusri, 95.—representation of, 99.

sigernuni (M.), Sakya-muni, 15.

Sikhi, 9.

Simhala, 55.

Simhanada, 57 n., 71, 108; v. Glossary.

Simhanada-Avalokitesvara, 52, 57-8.—special characteristics, 57.—representations of, 57, 58.—representation uniting forms of Manjusrl and

Avalokita, 58.

Simhanada-Lokesvara, 28 n., 52, 64, 98.—representation of, 57, 65.

SimhanSda-Manjugosha, 95.

Simhanada-sadhana, 57.

Simhavaktra (dakini), 102, 133.—representation of, 122.

Sitatapatra, 102.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 121.—special characteristics, 121.—representations of, 121.

Sitatara (White Tara), 105, 107-8.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 107.—special characteristics, 107.—symbolic meaning, 107.—representation of, 107-8.— Tara of the Seven Eyes, 108.— Tantra form, 108.— in Japan, 108.

Siva, 47, 50, 56, 58, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66, 80, 103,118.

sku-lnga (T.), The Five Kings, 150.

sman-bla (T.), Mania, 23.

Snag-sgrub (yama), 135.—representation of, 137.

spyan-ras-gzigs (T.), Avalokitesvara, 54.

Sramana, 65 n.

Srlmahavajrabhairava tantra, 146.

Srong-tsan-gam-po (Tibetan king), 16, 54, 55, 56,

97, 105, 107.

Ssii-kin-kang (C), Vajrapani, 48.

Stupa, 16, 17, 20, 22, 51,' 89, 148; v. Glossary,

caitya.Siian-tzti-lo-sa-tsui (C), Vajrasattva, 4.

Sudhana-Kumara, 63, 143.

Suiko (empress), 78, 79.

Sujata, 48.

Sukhavati, 36, 55, 57, 78, 104, 158.

Sukhavatl-vyuha, 100.

Sumatiklrti (Ts'on-k'a-pa), 158.

Sumedha (Sumati), 12, 12 n., 43, 155.

Sumeru (Mt.), 16, 38, 49, 139, 148, 151.

Sundarl, 12.

Sung-tse Kwan-yin (Giver of Sons), 67, 68.

—representations of, in Chinese Turkestan, 70

;in

China, 71 ; as Hariti, 75-6 ;as Koyasu-

Kwan-non, 84-8.

Surangamasamadhi sutra, 151.

Surya, 61, 106, 125.— as Sun God, 118.

Sutra, 54, 55, 69, 96, 137, 144;

v. Glossary.

Suvarnaprabha-sutra, 54.

Svabhavika, 3, 5.

Svastika, 17,19 ;v. Glossary.

Svayambhu (Adi-Buddha), 2, 3, 97.

Svayambhu-purana, 97.

Syamatara (Green Tara), 108-9.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 1 08.—special characteristics, 108.

—representation of, 108; simhanada, 109; as

Dhananda, 109.— Taras of the Four Dreads, 109.

I

INDEX 195

tabun qaghan (M.), The Five Kings, 1 50.

Taho, 28.

Ta-huan-kin-kang (C), Mahamaya, 126.

Tairo-vo-Tokimasa, 114.

Tantra, 21, 30, 62, 79, 141 ;v. Glossary.

Taoism, 39, 69.

Ta-pien-ts'ai-t'ien ngiu (C), Sarasvati, 113.

Tara, 35, 41, 49, 54, 59, 60, 62, 63, 66, 72, 103,

105-7, 117, 121, 124, 143.—Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 105

; meaning of Sanskrit name, 105.—special characteristics, 105.— worship of, 105, 105 n.— birth of, 105.—incarnations, 105, 106.—symbolic meaning of the White and Green Taras,

106, 106 n.— first Tantra forms, 106.—group of twenty-one Taras, 106, 107.—popular form of, non-Tantra, 106, 107

; Tantra,107 ;

in Japan, 107;in China, 108.—

special forms, 107-22.— as sakti of Amoghasiddha, 122.

Ta-shen-wang (C), Mahakala, 143.

Ta-shih-chih (Mahasthanaprapta), 39, 100.

Tathagata, 9, 10, 24, 40, 42, 41, 154; v. Glossary.Tau-li (C), 137.

Tendai (sect), 29 n., 80, 82, 93.

Thabdong-shesrab, 30 ;v. Glossary, Dharmacakra.

Ting-kuang-fo (C), Dipaiikara, 11.

Ti-tsang, 42, 45, 90, 137.—special characteristics, 92.—legend of, 92.—representation of, 92.— accompanied by the Ten Kings of Hell, 92.

Ti-tsang sutra, 92, 137.

Tokchoi, representation of, 151.

Tokugawa Shogunate, 86.

T'o-lo (C), Tara, 105.

To-wen, representation of, 149.

Toyuki-Bime no Kami, 79.

Trailokyavasamkara-Lokesvara, 52, 66.

Trailokya-vijaya, 6, 42, 100-1.— Chinese and Japanese names, 100.—special characteristics, 100.—representations from sadhana, 100

;in Japan,

101;

identification with Vajrasattva, 101.

Trailokya-vijaya-karma, 101.'

Trailokya-vijaya-sadhana, 100.

Trayastrimsa heaven, 16, 17, 48, 82, 137.

Tri-kaya, 9; system of 10, 11, 26, 44; v. Glossary.

Tri-kona, 17, 31 ; v. Glossary.

Trisula, 5 ; v. Glossary.Ts'ai-shen (C), Kuvera, 139.

Ts'ans-pa dkar-po (T.), 5 n., 130, 132, 151.—Mongolian and Chinese names, 1 34.—special characteristics, 134.—representations of, 134.

Tse-bum, 37 ; v. Glossary, kalaJa.

ts'e-dpag-rned (T.), Amitayus, 37.

Tseng-chang, representation of, 149.

Ts'on-k'a-pa, 97, 136, 147

Ts'on-k'a-pa, name in Tibetan and Mongolian, 158.—special characteristics of deified form, 158.— where born, 158; legend of, 159.—representations of, 159.

tmnda (T.), Cunda, 115.

Tushita, 11, 15, 20, 21, 22, 30, 43, 44, 148, 159.

Udayana (king), 16, 19.

Ugra-Tara, v. Ekajata.ilkin legri (M.), Lha-mo, 132.

ulii kiidelilkU (M.), Akshobhya, 34.

Upayika, 20.

Urna, 4, 15; v. Glossary.

Uslias, 103.

Ushnlsha, 4, 10, 11, 17, 45, 127; v. Glossary.

Ushmshavijaya, 32, 102.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, ISO.—special characteristics, 120.—representations of, 120.— in a triad, 120.

Utpala, 12, 96, 98, 106, 106 n., 108; v. Glossary,

padma.

va6irbani (M.), Vajrapani, 48.

Vadall, 118.

Vairocana, 3, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29-33, 34, 39 n., 45,

46, 105, 114, 118, 120, 122, 123, 152, 157.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 29.—

special characteristics, 29.— as Adi-Buddha, 29, 30.—representation in the Vajradhatu diagram, 30-1

;

in the Garbhadhatu diagram, 32;

as Adi-

Buddha, 32 ; as Dhyani-Buddha, 32.

Vaisravana, 138, 139, 148, 149, 150.—representation of, 141.

Vajra, 48 n., 49, 49 n., 158;

v. Glossary.

Vajrabhairava (Yamantaka), representation of, 145.

Vajra-dakinl, 102.—representation of, 122.

Vajradhara, 3-4, 34, 46, 48, 116.— Tibetan and Mongolian names, 3 ; other Sanskrit

names, 3.—special characteristics, 3.—representations of, 4.

Vajradhatu, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 63, 152

Glossary.

Vajradhatvisvarl, 29, 102.—representation of, 122.

Vajraghanta, 110.

Vajra-hum-kara, 3-4 ; v. Glossary.

Vajranaga ManjuirT, 95.—representations of, 99.

VajrankuSl, 110.

Vajranubhava-vritti, 85.

Vajrapani, 3, 13,' 27, 33, 34, 38, 42, 44, 45, 56, 59,

64, 120, 132, 152, 155.— table of different forms, 47.— Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 48.—

special characteristics, 48.

196 INDEX

Vajrapani, representation as Dhyani-Bodhisattva, 49 ;

as Yi-dam, 50 ;as Dharmapala, 50

;Garuda

form, 50,

Vajrasana, 18, 35 ;v. Glossary, asana.

Vajrasattva, 3, 4-6, 28, 34, 101, 123, 157.— Tibetan, Chinese, and Japanese names, 4.—special characteristics, 4.—symbolic form, 5.

—representations of, 5.— as sixth Dhyani-Buddha, 26-7, 28.

Vajrasattva (Hindu sage), 29.

Vajrasphoti, 110.

Vajra-Sarasvati, representation of, 113.

Vajra-Tara, representation of, 110.

Vajra-varahl (daMnt), 102, 117, 121.

.— incarnation and legend of, 117.

Varahamukhi, 118.

Varall, 118.

Varuna, 61, 125.

Vasudhara (or Vasundhara), 75, 102, 125, 139, 150.—special characteristics, 115.—representations of, 115; in Nepalese miniatures,115.

Vayu, 61, 125.

Vibasha Shaster, 106 n.

Vidyaraja, 152.

Vinataka (ganesa), 144.

Vipasyi, 9, 105n.

Virfldhaka, 148.

Virupaksha, 149, 155.

Vishnu, 18, 58, 60, 61, 66, 103, 114, 118, 132.

Vishnu Purana, 65.

Vilva'bhu, 9.

'

Visvapani, 20, 27, 42, 44, 45, 58.—special characteristics, 88.—representation of, 88.

Vittall, 118.

Vyaghravaktra, 122.

Wei-chi-I-song, 18.

Wen-ch'eng, 106, 106 n.

Wen-shu-shi-li (C.), Manjusri, 75, 96.

—representation of, 99.

Wheel king, 16, 16 n.

Yab-yum, 4, 31, 56, 103, 124, 131 ; v. Glossary.

130, 132, 133,

136:

137;

as

as

145:

145:

Yaksha, 132, 133, 139, 148, 158.

Yakshini, 75.

Yaku-shi (J.), Mania, 23, 28, 34.

Yama, 61, 74, 90, 92, 93, 125

134-7, 145, 152, 153, 159.—Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese, and Japanesenames, 135.—

special characteristics, 135.— where located, 135-6.—legend of; 136.— as Gsang-sgrub, 136; as Phyi-sgrub,

Snag-sgrub, 137; as Yen-lo-wang,Emma-o, 137.

Yamantaka, 35, 95, 99, 123, 130, 132, 136.— Tibetan, Mongolian, and Chinese names,various Sanskrit names, 145.—

special characteristics, 145.—popular form, 146 ; simplest form, 146.— manifestation of Manjusri, 145.— forms as Vajrabhairava, 145

;in sadhana

as Yamari, 146; in the SrlmahavajrabhairavaTantra, 146, 159.

Yamari (Yamantaka), 145, 146.

Yami, 135, 136.

Yao-shih-fo (C), Mania, 23.

Yen-Kwo Kwan-non, 87.

Yen-lo-wang, 92, 135.—representation of, 137 ; v. Ti-tsang.

Yen-man-te-kia (C), Yamantaka, 145.

Yi-dam, 47, 50.— table of, 123.— invocation of, 124.—popular form of, 124.— two classes of, 124.— different forms of, 125-9.

Yin-yang, 31, 122; v. Glossary.

Yi-tsing, 70, 75, 84, 96, 143.

Yoga, 29, 30, 31, 103, 131 ;v. Glossary.

Yogacarya, 4, 29, 46, 63, 79, 157.

Yogambara, 3, 3 n.

Yorin (Kwan-non), 72.

Yoryu Kwan-non, 87.

Yun-gar, 117.

Zarathustras, 9, 36.

Zocho, 150.

Oxford : Horace Hart M.A. Printer to the University

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