Vol. XXVI
Mar. 2021
A Survey of Prof. Moriyama’s Career and Works •••••••••••••••••••••••••（ 3 ）
The Final Lecuture at Bukkyo Univ.
MORIYAMA Seitetsu :
My Experience of Buddhist Studies ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（ 21 ）
Article
MATSUNAGA Chikai :
Some problems of the photographic Editions of Chinese Canon. ••••（ 43 ）
ITO Shinsho :
Priests Studying Buddhism at Muikutu（無為窟）in Zojoji Temple Danrin
─The connection of Shofukuji Temple in Hachiman, Omi Province, Daitokuji
Temple in Minakuchi, Omi Province, and Zendoji Temple in Kyoto─ ••••（ 77 ）
TSUJIMOTO Toshiro :
On the Texts the Wu-liang-shou-jin-lun •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（117）
KUBOTA Minoru :
Examination of Buddhist debate in modern times
─Focusing on Zennosuke Tsuji’s sectarian debate research─ ••••••••••••••（139）
Note
YONEZAWA Mieko :
Chan
.d
.āla •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（169）
YOKOTA Tomonori :
Introduction and Transcription of the “Ganso Daishi Gohyakugojunen
Gyoki Kikan” owned by Kōmyō-ji in Kamakura. ••••••••••••••••••••••••（187）
Announcements ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（215）
Article
NAMIKAWA Takayoshi :
Importance of sata and sati in the Oldest Buddhism •••••••••••••••••••（ 1 ）
MORIYAMA Seitetsu :
Triratnadāsa and Śākyabuddhi of Yogācāra Shool Śubhagupta:
A Study of the Later Mādhyamika Philosophy, Part 6. ••••••••••••••••（ 25 ）
MATSUDA Kazunobu :
Sanskrit Text and Japanese Translation of the Madhyama-āgama 139
(*Śivapathikā-sūtra) Based on the Tridan
.d
.amālā Manuscript •••••••••（ 63 ）
BABA Hisayuki :
『高麗国新
Problem of Koryokuk Shinjo Daejangkyochong Byollock（
）
: Focusing on Itivr
雕大蔵校正別録』
.ttaka-Sūtra Volume 3 ••••••••••••••（ 83 ）
XIAO Yue :
A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of the Larger
Sukhāvatı̄vyūha-sūtra ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（101）
KARAI Takanori :
Dependent Origination from the Perspective of the Usage of
phassa and vedanā ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（131）
FUKITA Takanori :
The Original Role of the Pratyutpannabuddhasam
. mukhāvasthitasamādhi •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（155）
NAKAJIMA Shojun :
Vasubandhu’s Interpretation on Upadana from Abhidharmakośabhās
. ya
to Pratītyasamutpādavyākhyā•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（181）
ISSN0919-5718
第 26 号
森山清徹教授古稀記念号
森山清徹教授略歴および業績 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（ 3 ）
［最終講義録］
仏教学を学んで ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••森山 清徹（ 21 ）
［論文］
影印版大蔵経の一二の問題
──影印高麗版を中心として── •••••••••••••••••••••••松永 知海（ 43 ）
増上寺学寮「無為窟」で学ぶ人びと
──近江国八幡正福寺・同国水口大徳寺・京樋口善導寺の結節点──
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••伊藤 真昭（ 77 ）
『無量寿経論』テキスト研究
──響堂山石刻本、金粟山大蔵経写本を中心として──
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••辻本 俊郎（117）
近代における仏教論議の研究
──辻善之助の宗論研究を中心に── ••••••••••••••••••久保田 實（139）
［研究ノート］
｢旃陀羅」考 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••米澤実江子（169）
鎌倉光明寺所蔵『元祖大師五百五拾年御忌規鑑』
（仮題） 紹介と翻刻
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••横田 友教（187）
彙
報 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••（215）
［論文］
最古層経典にみるsata、satiの意義とその展開
──仏教最古の根本的立場── •••••••••••••••••••••••••並川 孝儀（ 1 ）
形象虚偽論者トリラトナダーサ，シュバグプタ，
形象真実論者シャーキャブッディと後期中観派
──後期中観思想の形成(6)── ••••••••••••••••••••••••森山 清徹（ 25 ）
不浄観を説く中阿含139経
──三啓集から回収された梵文テキストと和訳── ••••松田 和信（ 63 ）
『高麗国新雕大蔵校正別録』の問題点
──『本事経』巻 3 を中心として── •••••••••••••••••••馬場 久幸（ 83 ）
A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of the
Larger Sukhāvatı̄vyūha-sūtra •••••••••••••••••••••XIAO Yue(肖越)（101）
｢触」と「受」の用法から見る縁起説
──認識論的解釈と輪廻的解釈をめぐって── •••••••••唐井 隆徳（131）
般舟三昧の原様相
──役割の考察から見えるもの── ••••••••••••••••••••••吹田 隆徳（155）
取
（upādāna）
をめぐるヴァスバンドゥの解釈
──倶舎論から縁起経釈へ── •••••••••••••••••••••••••中島 正淳（181）
2 0 2 1
『佛教大学仏教学会紀要』第26号
抜刷
2021年 3 月25日発行
A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of
the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
Xiao Yue
A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of
the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra*
XIAO Yue
Introduction
This paper is a study of the titles of the five extant Chinese translations of the Larger
Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra, with a focus on the two earliest versions. Although the study of
the Larger & Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtras began with FRIEDRICH MAX MÜLLER
(1823~1900) who was a distinguished scholar at Oxford, and his Japanese student,
NANJŌ BUNYŪ 南条文雄 (1849~1927), who was the first to receive a Ph. D degree in
Literature in Japan over 100 years ago, 1 ⎠ and a considerable amount of research is
available, several significant questions have remained, and the title of the earliest
version of the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra, one of the most difficult issues, is still
puzzling scholars. Since ancient times, there have been twelve Chinese translations of
the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra, covering the period from the Three Kingdoms, or
earlier, to the Song dynasty. 2 ⎠ The twelve versions of the Chinese translations of the
Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra based on their chronological order are the following:
*I have a special debt of gratitude to Mr. Petros THEODORIDES for the editorial assistance. Remaining
errors are, of course, my responsibility. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the head
priest of Kongō-ji, and the director of the library of the International College for Postgraduate
Buddhist Studies, for allowing me to reprint the photograph of the Da Amituo jing scroll preserved
at Kongō-ji in this paper.
1 ⎠ See MÜLLER & NANJŌ 1883; MÜLLER 1894, and NANJŌ 1908.
2 ⎠ So-called wucun qiiqian 五存七欠, goson shichiketsu in Japanese, which might have been firstly
mentioned by Gyōnen 凝然 (1240~1321) in his work, Jōdo (hōmon) Genrushō 浄土（法門）源流
章, “five extant versions as opposed to the seven versions which disappeared.”Cf. JDCT.
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仏教学会紀要
第26号
(1) Wulianshou jing 無量壽經 (2 juan 卷 “scroll”), attributed to An Shigao 安世高
translated in the Latter, or Eastern Han dynasty.
(2) Wuliang qingjing pingdengjue jing 無量清淨平等覺經 (2 juan), also titled as the
Wuliang qingjing jing 無量清淨經 (T361, hereafter the Pingdengjue jing, or
siglum: 清淨 ), attributed to Zhi loujiachen 支婁迦讖 Lokakṣema. 3 ⎠
(3) Amituo jing 阿彌陀經 (2 juan), whose internal title is Foshuo Amituo sanyesanfo
salou{fo}tan guodu rendao jing 佛說【諸佛】阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓【佛】檀過
度人道經 (T362, the so-called Da Amituo jing 大阿彌陀經, hereafter the Da Amituo
jing, or siglum: 大阿 ), attributed to Zhī Qiān 支謙 in the Wu 吳 period. 4 ⎠
(4) Foshuo Wuliangshou jing 佛說無量壽經 (T360, hereafter the Wuliang- shou jing,
or siglum: 無量 ), attributed to Kang Sengkai 康僧鎧 “Saṃghavarman,” but certainly
a product of cooperation between Fotuo batuoluo 佛陀跋陀羅 “Buddhabhadra”
and Baoyun 寶雲 in 421 C. E.
5⎠
(5) Wuliang qingjing pingdengjue jing 無量清淨平等覺經 (2 juan), attributed to Bo Yan
帛延 and translated in the Cao Wei, or early Wei period.
(6) Wuliangshou jing 無量壽經 (2 juan), also titled as 無量清淨平等覺經, attributed
to Zhú Fǎhù 竺法護 Dharmarakṣa and translated in the Western Jin dynasty.
(7) Wuliangshou zhizheng dengzhengjue jing 無量壽至真等正覺經 (1 juan), also
entitled as Le fotu le jing 樂佛土樂經 ·, or Jile fotu jing 極樂佛土經, attributed to Zhu
Fa Li 竺法力 and translated in the Eastern Jin dynasty.
3 ⎠ This version is also labelled as 無量壽, which reads: 亦直云無量清淨經第二出與大阿彌陀及寶
積無量壽會等並同本見吳錄 (T2154, 478c03).For the authorship of this version, see FUJITA 1970,
35-51. For a different suggestion on the authorship of this version, see KAGAWA 1984, 7-38.
4 ⎠ Regarding the authorship of this version, see FUJITA 1970, 51-62. For a different suggestion, see
YIN Shun 1981, 759-773, HARRISON 1988, and KARASHIMA 1999. This paper can also be regarded as
a preparatory study for the comprehensive study of the authorships of the Chinese translations of
this sūtra, which I would like to discuss in the near future. The title of this version is also labelled as
Wuliangshou jing 無量壽經 in the Kaiyuan shijiao lu 開元釋教錄 (T2154, 586629, 680c25, 701c04
see below).
5 ⎠ This version was regarded as one of the three standard texts in the Pure Land School. Regarding
the authorship of this version, see FUJITA 1970, 62-96; KAGAWA 1984, 24-32.
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A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
(8) Shin Wuliangshou jing 新無量壽經 (2 juan), attributed to Fotuo batuoluo 佛陀跋
陀羅 (359-429) Buddhabhadra, translated in the Eastern Jin dynasty.
(9) Shin Wuliangshou jing 新無量壽經 (2 juan), attributed to BaoYun 寶雲 and
translated in the Liu Song era.
(10) Shin Wuliangshou jing 新無量壽經 (2 juan), attributed Tan mo mi duo 曇摩蜜多
and translated in the Liu Song era.
(11) Wuliangshou Rulaihui 無量壽如來會 (2 juan), attributed to Putiliuzhi 菩提流志
Bodhiruci and translated sometime between 706 and 713 C.E.
(12) Dacheng Wuliangshou zhuanyan jing 大乘無量壽莊嚴經 (3 juan), attributed to
Fa Xian and translated in 991 C.E.
Those Chinese translations listed above from (1) to (11) are derived from the catalogue
of the Kaiyuan Shijiao lu 開元釋教錄, attributed to Zhi Sheng 智昇, which was
compiled during the Kaiyuan era. 6 ⎠ No. 12, translated in the Song dynasty, was added
later. Among these twelve Chinese translations, nos. (2)(3)(4)(11)(12), the five extant
versions, are collected in the TAISHŌ Tripiṭaka. By contrast, the seven extinct versions
are (1)(5)(6-10). 7 ⎠
6 ⎠ See T2154, 478c3-4; 480b04; 486c27-28; 487a14, and c27 (it reads: 內題云 : 佛說諸佛阿彌陀
三邪三佛薩捿檀過度人道經, 第三出亦名 : 無量壽三邪三佛薩捿檀過度人道經 ); 495b09;
505c8; 509a21; 524a25; 525b29; 626c2-16. Cf. FUJITA 1970, 30, and 2007, 34-56.
7 ⎠ In addition to those twelve Chinese translations, there are four combined versions, ranging from
the Song dynasty to the middle of the twentieth century, based respectively on several or all five
versions above. That is to say, the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra might be the only one among the
vast amount of Chinese Buddhist texts that is holding nine integral texts covering a period starting
from as early as the Three Kingdoms, or earlier, to the middle of the twentieth century. For a
preliminary discussion of those four combined versions of the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra, see
XIAO forthcoming (a), and 2011 (JDKC).
Firstly, this was discussed by KUDARA. These fragments from an unknown Chinese manuscript
includes only 615 characters, the Dharmākara narrative, in part, and the first five vows (see KUDARA
1989, and FUJITA 2007, 36-39). For some additional comments regarding these fragments, see XIAO
2015, 26 n.13).
Secondly, some fragments considered to be part of an unknown Chinese translation were discussed
by MITANI (2014). It is noteworthy that MITANI presented a similar suggestion to mine (see XIAO
2010, and 2011), that as early as the period when the Da Amituo jing and the Pingdengjue jing had
been translated into Chinese, a version with a forty-eight vows system precedent existed (see MITANI
─ 103 ─
仏教学会紀要
第26号
The titles listed above can be divided and summarized in three categories: (i) The
term 無量壽 “measureless life” appears in the titles of nos. 1, (2, 3), 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11,12 highlighting the measureless life-span of the Buddha. That is to say, the titles of all
versions listed above contain the term 無量壽. (ii) The term 無量清淨 is found in nos. 2,
5, 6 highlighting the characteristic of the Buddhaʼs purity. 8 ⎠ (iii) The transliteration of
the Buddhaʼs name, 阿彌陀, only appears in no. 3, the title of the Da Amituo jing.
Although there are some suggestions regarding the title of the Da Amituo jing, as
a matter of fact, this issue does not exclusively concern the earliest version, but
involves all five Chinese translations of the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra. This issue
will be approached from the following perspectives: (i) the diverse forms of the titles
of the Da Amituo jing; (ii) the origin of the term Wuliang qingjing; (iii) the origin of
the term Wuliang-shou 無量壽 “measureless life” found in the original Indian text of
the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra. 9 ⎠
1. The previous studies of the titles of the Da Amituo jing
Before undertaking the discussion of this issue formally, I would like to summarize the
following five scholarly perspectives regarding the titles of the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra.
1.1
FUJITAʼs suggestion on the titles of the Sukhāvatīvyūha
In the research of early Pure Land Buddhist thought, FUJITA Kōtatsu presented a
comprehensive series of research conclusions representing the foremost level of
academic achievement in the field. FUJITAʼs research is covering almost all of the issues
of the Sanskrit and Chinese versions of the Larger & Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtras, and the
Contemplation sūtra, the Guan Wuliangshou fo jing 觀無量壽佛經 (T365).10⎠ With
2014). However, because MITANIʼs fragments include merely a few characters, it is hard to exactly
determine to which Chinese translation listed above those fragments should be attributed to.
8 ⎠ The terms 無量壽 and 無量清淨 simultaneously appear in the title of no. 6.
9 ⎠ Although the term Wuliang shou parallels the Sanskrit Amitāyus, scholars were not able to
confirm that the term Amitāyus was derived from an Indian text of the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra,
especially in the title of this sūtra.
10⎠ For the comprehensive studies on the early Pure Land sūtras, see FUJITA 1970 and 2007. For a
─ 104 ─
A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
respect to the titles of the Chinese translations of the Larger and Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha
sūtras, FUJITA presented his own explanation for the titles of the different editions.
Regarding the title of the Da Amituo jing （佛說諸佛阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓
【佛】檀過度人道經）, according to FUJITA,11⎠ undoubtedly, the characters for Amituo
阿彌陀 are equivalent with Amitābha; the phrase sanye sanfo 三耶三佛 is equivalent
with samyaksaṃbuddha. With respect to the most difficult characters of sanloufotan 薩
樓【佛】檀,12⎠ even though two scholars had tried to restore them earlier as a
transliteration of sarvabuddha,13⎠ FUJITA did not think this methodology is liable.
Regarding the phrase guodu rendao 過度人道, FUJITA did not believe that it is a
genuine translation based on the Sanskrit found in the title of the original Indian text of
the Da Amituo jing, but rather the creation of the Chinese translator. In sum, FUJITA
also suggested that the whole title of the Da Amituo jing（佛說諸佛阿彌陀三耶三佛
薩樓【佛】檀過度人道經）might have been purposely edited by the translator with
this kind of background because some typical elements of Chinese traditional thought
were imported in the Da Amituo jing.
FUJITA also mentioned the origin of the title of the second oldest version, the
Pingdengjue jing. Although he tried to restore the title as *Amitābhasamyaksaṃbuddhha-sūtra, he doubted there is reliable evidence to suggest that this Sanskrit title
has ever appeared in history. He did not agree with NANJŌʼs suggestion, according to
which the original title of this version should be restored as *Amita-śuddha-
reliable Sanskrit versions of the Larger & Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtras, see FUJITA 2001. For
Japanese translation of the Sanskrit version of the Larger & Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtras, see
FUJITA 1984 (re-edition in 2015).
11⎠ See FUJITA 1970, 23-34.
12⎠ It is noteworthy that FUJITA did not realize that the character fo 佛 contained among the
characters 薩樓佛檀 does not appear in the earliest extant catalogue, Chu Sanzangji ji 出三藏記集,
which reads: 阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓檀過度人道經 (T2145, 6c25). This title was recorded in the
Lidai sanbao ji 歷 代 三 寶 紀 edited by Fei Changfang, 費 長 房 in 597 (T2034, 57b4-5), and the
Datang neidian lu 大唐內典錄 (T2149, 226a06), which was formed in 664 and edited by Dao Xuan
道宣 (see below).
13⎠ See SAKAINO 1935, 146, 186, and 247; and SUZUKI 1959, 95.
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仏教学会紀要
第26号
samyaksaṃbuddha-sūtra. On the other hand, FUJITA was not able to infer the origin of
the Buddhaʼs name, Wuliang Qingjing 無量清淨 “Measureless Purity.”14⎠
Among the twelve Chinese translations listed above, the titles of six versions, nos.
(1)(4)(6)(8)(9)(10), are labelled as Wuliangshou jing 無量壽經 “Measureless Life
Sūtra.” Additionally, the title of no. (11) must also include the term, Wuliang-shou.
Although the term Wuliang-shou 無量壽 “Measureless Life” is equivalent with
Amitāyus, it is hard to determine, as suggested by FUJITA, whether the term Wuliangshou is derived from the Sanskrit term Amitāyus. Moreover, FUJITA was not content
with the suggestion by NANJŌ that the title of the Wuliangshou jing can be restored as
*Amitāyus-sūtra, or *Aparimitāyus-sūtra.15⎠ The origin of the title of the Wuliangshou
jing should be restored as *Sukhāvatī-vyūha, or *Amitābha[sya Sukhāvatī] based on the
extant Sanskrit version and the Tibetan translation. Therefore, the title of the
Wuliangshou jing is probably derived from the translatorʼs own ideas instead of a
genuine translation from the original Indian text, as FUJITA suggested.
FUJITAʼs research on the Pure Land Sūtras is generally accurate and
comprehensive. Although his research was published over 50 years ago, it still has
important reference value. I generally agree with FUJITAʼs suggestion that the title of
the Da Amituo jing must be the creation of the Chinese translator based on his own
views. Unfortunately, FUJITA did not recognize: (i) the greatest differences and the
relationship between the Da Amituo jing and the extant Sanskrit version; (ii) the
relation between the Da Amituo jing and the Pingdengjue jing, and the extant Sanskrit
version; and: (iii) the origin of the term Wuliang qinging. All these are the most crucial
issues which I will discuss below. Additionally, with regard to the title of the Da
Amituo jing, FUJITA did not discuss the internal relationship between the phrase 過度人
14⎠ See FUJITA 1970, 33-34, and 2007, 243-248. As I will discuss in detail below, the origin of
Wuliang qingjing is a significant issue in the field of the formation of early Pure Land Buddhism.
Especially, it has a close connection with the formation of the term Jingtu 淨土, “Pure Land.”
15⎠ See NANJŌ 1883, No.23(5) note (iv), No. 27. It is noteworthy that NANJŌʼs assumption has been
withdrawn from the Japanese Alphabetical Index of Nanjōʼs Catalogue of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka
edited by D. TOKIWA and published in 1930. Cf. FUJITA 1970, 34 (note 1).
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A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
道 and the contents of the sūtra.
1.2 SHIKIIʼs suggestion on the three sutras
According to SHIKII,16⎠ three sūtras might have existed in advance, (i) Amituo fo ershiʼ
si yuan jing 阿彌陀佛二十四願經 “The Sūtra of the Twenty-four Vows;” (ii) Jile
zhuangyan jing 極樂莊嚴經 “The Sūtra of the Solemnity of the Land of Bliss;” (iii)
Amituo fo guodu rendao jing 阿彌陀佛過度人道經 “The Sūtra of Amitābha Buddha
Delivering and Saving Humans,” preceding the Da Amituo jing. The Da Amituo jing
might have been edited based on those three supposed sūtras. He supposed that the
original title of the Da Amituo jing, in part, might resemble *Amita-saṃyak-sambodhisaṃbuddha, which is equivalent in meaning to 阿彌陀成佛道及過度人道經. “The
Sūtra of Amitābha Who Attained Buddhahood to Deliver and Save Humans.” The
greatest difficulty here is the meaning of the words 薩樓【佛】檀, whose parallel in
Sanskrit cannot be restored. As a result, SHIKII restored, in part, the title of the Da
Amituo jing as *Amita-saṃyak-saṃbodhi-saṃbuddha “Cultivation of the Buddhist
Path and Delivering People through the Buddhist Path.” It is noteworthy that SHIKII did
not agree with FUJITAʼs suggestion that the term guodu rendao 過度人道 might be the
creation of the translator, believing instead that it is a genuine translation from the
original Indian text of the Da Amituo jing. Moreover, it seems he did not realize the
difference between 薩樓檀 and 薩樓佛檀 like FUJITA.
Although I agree with the suggestion that the Da Amituo jing mainly consists of
three parts based on the contents, (i) Dharmākaraʼs twenty-four vows; (ii) solemnity of
the Land of bliss; (iii) Amitābha Buddha Delivering and Saving Humans, this does not
mean that the Da Amituo jing was purposely compiled based on those thee sūtras
preceding the Da Amituo jing as suggested by SHIKII (see below).
16⎠ See SHIKII 1976.
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1.3 OKAYAMAʼs suggestion on guodu rendao
OKAYAMA undertook a discussion on the title of the Da Amituo jing, with a focus on the
phrase guodu rendao 過度人道.17⎠ He respectively analyzed the term guodu 過度
through seven examples containing this term, and rendao 人道 through the nineteenth
vow. He noticed that the terms 過度 and 人道 might have close connections with the
paragraphs on the Five Evils, and Taoist sūtras, such as the Taiping jing 太平經.
Accordingly, OKAYAMA suggested that the words 過度人道 might be the creation of the
translator, who was influenced by the Chinese Taoist culture and texts such as the
Taiping jing. Additionally, OKAYAMA did observe the differences between 薩樓檀 and
薩樓佛檀 respectively recorded in different catalogues, however, it is hard to
determine, he suggested, which is the one found in the original title of the Chinese
translation of the Da Amituo jing (OKAYAMA 1986, 69, and 1990, 14).
Even though OKAYAMA realized that the paragraphs on the Five Evils were most
likely not translated from the original Indian text of the Da Amituo jing but rather
created by the translator based on a certain Chinese Taoist sūtra, he obviously did not
understand the structure of the whole sūtra,18⎠ including those typical characteristics
listed in my recent publications.19⎠
1.4 KARASHIMAʼs suggestion on the titles of the Chinese translations
According to KARASHIMA,20⎠ the characters 薩樓檀 found in the title of the Da Amituo
jing might be a miswriting of helougeng 廅樓亘 as suggested by Professor Chen
Jinhua, which is regarded as an incomplete transliteration of Avalokitasvara. The
meaning of the whole title of the Da Amituo jing is probably “Amitā(b)ha
*samyāsaṃbuddha [and] Avalokitasvara save human beings.” He also indicated that
17⎠ See OKAYAMA 1986, and 1990.
18⎠ Regarding the formation of the paragraphs on the Five Evils in the Da Amituo jing, see XIAO
2012b, and 2014a, 58-59.
19⎠ For the characteristics of the Da Amituo jing, see XIAO 2017b, 3-13, and 2018b.
20⎠ See KARASHIMA 2009, 125-126. I am very grateful to Professor KARASHIMA Seishi for his teaching
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A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
this was probably not the original Indian title, but was rather given by the translator or
somebody else in a later period, summarizing the content of the sūtra (T362, 309a14).
KARASHIMA reconstructed the original title of the Wuliangshou jing as Amitābhavyūha. And he stressed that the word Wuliang-shou is found in many places in the
Wuliangshou jing, where the Sanskrit version reads Amitābha, which indicates the
translatorsʼ preference of Wuliang-shou 無量壽 over Wuliang-guang 無量光. Probably,
owing to this preference, the title was rendered as Wuliangshou jing 無量壽經 instead
of
Wuliangguang jing 無量光經. Moreover, he restored the original title of the
Wuliangshou rulai hui 無量壽如來會 as *Amitābhasya tathāgatasya vyūha parivarta.
Additionally, the original title of the Dacheng wuliangshou zhuangyan jing could be
restored as *Amitābhasya vyūha-mahāyānasūtra.
KARASHIMAʼs research was based on two prerequisites: (i) the Da Amituo jing was
the one representing the earliest form of Pure Land Buddhism that originated in India;
(ii) the Da Amituo jing was translated by Zhī Lóujiāchèn 支婁迦讖 “Lokakṣema” and
the Pingdengjue jing was attributed to Zhi Qian. With respect to (i), KARASHIMA
obviously did not recognize those physical characteristics of the Da Amituo jing which
I indicated recently.21⎠ As I will introduce in detail below, the greatest difference
between the Da Amituo jing and the later versions, especially the extant Sanskrit
version, is that there is a set practical system, the six perfections, purposely edited into
the Da Amituo jing. Obviously, the Da Amituo jing is not representing the earliest form
of Pure Land Buddhism. Regarding the problem (ii) above, it is true that there are some
characteristics regarded as Lokakṣemaʼs work. However, there are many features
typical of Zhi Qian found in the Da Amituo jing. One of these typical examples is the
passage on the Five Evils, which is as long as one third of the Da Amituo jing.22⎠
and encouragement at the Early Chinese Translations Club once every two weeks or month, held at
Soka University from October, 2006 to the end of the 2008. I would like to express condolences and
regret for his unfortunate passing in 2019.
21⎠ See XIAO 2017b, 1-13.
22⎠ KARASHIMA obviously also knew that the texts on the Five Evils are not the work of Lokakṣema,
but most possibly of Zhi Qian. He supposed three possibilities, and each of them includes two items,
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Moreover, it is hard to believe that the characters 薩樓檀 are a miswriting of 廅樓亘
Avalokitasvara. As I pointed out, 廅樓亘 appears only three times in the Da Amituo
jing, and at least one of them was purposely edited by the translator. That is to say,
Avalokitasvara is not a main figure like Amitābha in the Da Amituo jing. Accordingly, I
cannot admit KARASHIMAʼs suggestions on the titles of the Chinese translations of the
Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra, although it is well-known that he was devoted for over
twenty years to this field, very confident in his opinion, and his research results on the
authorships of the two earliest versions - which contradict FUJITAʼs research - have had
a great impact on academia, especially scholars from North America and Europe.
1.5 LIʼs suggestion on the title of the Da Amituo jing
Recently, LI23⎠ published a paper in Taiwan regarding the title of the Da Amituo jing
based on ancient linguistics, with a focus on the characters 薩樓【佛】檀. According
to LI, (i) 薩樓佛檀 could be restored as sarvabuddha “all buddhas;” and: (ii) 薩樓檀
could be restored as sarvalokadhātu “all the worlds.” In the case of (ii), the whole title
of the Da Amituo jing could be restored as *Amitābha-samyaksaṃbuddha-sarvalokadhātumanuṣya-parimocaka “The perfectly enlightened Amitābha Buddha who saves human
beings in all the words.”24⎠
LIʼs research was merely based on Buddhist linguistics with a focus on the
characters sanloufotan 薩樓【佛】檀, however, he did overlook the contents and the
regarding the paragraphs on the Five Evils (see KARASHIMA 2011). That is to say, there are six
possibilities for this issue, which are too vague to be admitted, and even all of them might be
incorrect. For the formation of the paragraphs on the Five Evils, see XIAO 2012b. For the three
stages in the paragraphs on the Five Evils, see XIAO 2014a, 58-59.
23⎠ See LI 2018.
24⎠ In this case, a prerequisite for LIʼs suggestion is that there was a title corresponding exactly to the
Sanskrit one. If we suppose that the original Indian title of the Da Amituo jing did correspond to the
one restored by LI, what would the relationship between this title and those in the remaining 11
versions listed above be? We cannot find a term, or phrase which corresponds to “all buddhas,” or
“all worlds,” or 過度人道 in all the remaining 11 versions listed above, even in the extant Sanskrit
version and the Tibetan translation. Accordingly, this prerequisite, the Sanskrit title restored by LI,
must have not existed in history (see below).
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characteristics of the sūtra, which are undoubtedly much more significant than those
four Chinese characters. Although Buddhist linguistics is one of the most significant
and useful methods in the field of the early Chinese translations, unfortunately, it
seems it is not an effective method based on the results of previous studies in the field
of the two earliest versions of the Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtras.25⎠ It is noteworthy that LI
seems to confuse two questions which are the following: (i) what is the origin of
sanloufotan 薩樓【佛】檀 ; (ii) whether there was a title in the original Indian text of
the Da Amituo jing equivalent with its counterpart in the Chinese translation, 阿彌陀三
耶三佛薩樓佛檀過度人道經. These are two completely different issues. Accordingly,
I cannot agree with his conclusion. Especially, it is completely unnecessary to restore
the typical Chinese words guodu rendao 過 度 人 道 as the Sanskrit manuṣyaparimocaka.26⎠ Obviously, the subtitle of the Da Amituo jing, 阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓
【佛】檀過度人道經 was not a genuine translation that originated from its original
Indian title, but was rather given by the translator or somebody else in a later period, as
suggested by FUJITA, OKAYAMA, and KARASHIMA.27⎠
In light of these five scholarly perspectives, I would like to classify academic
research developments into the following three stages: (i) The first stage is the NANJŌ
era, which marked the beginning of Buddhist philology from Europe being introduced
into Japan. At that time, scholars tried to find the original Indian counterparts of the
Chinese Buddhist translations. (ii) The second stage was represented by FUJITA, whose
systematic research is very comprehensive and still maintains great reference value
25⎠ For over 100 years, many distinguished scholars devoted their lifetime to this field, and some of
them have left us forever. However, the most significant issue which is the relationship between the
two earliest versions which were regarded as translated no later than the third century, and the extant
Sanskrit version which is the earliest manuscript recognized as written in the twelfth century, has
remained.
26⎠ Although LI presented evidence from the Sanskrit version of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka sūtra, I do
not think that what he presented can support his suggestion on the title of the Da Amituo jing.
27⎠ See FUJITA 1970, 33; OKAYAMA 1985, and 1990; and KARASHIMA 2009, 125. OKAYAMAʼs research
focused on the phrase guodu rendao 過度人道，without discussing the complete title of the Da
Amituo jing.
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仏教学会紀要
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despite the fact over fifty years have passed. (iii) The third stage was represented by
KARASHIMA. KARASHIMAʼs research was based both on Indian and Chinese linguistics,
but overlooked the significant elements of Mahāyāna thought in the Da Amituo jing.
He confidently indicated that the authorship of the Da Amituo jing is by Zhi Loujiachen
something contradicting FUJITAʼs suggestion. However, he did not recognize those
typical features of the Da Amituo jing which I pointed out in my research,28⎠ and did
not discuss those characters which are equivalent with those in the translations by Zhi
Qian. Accordingly, I think that KARASHIMAʼs research in this area looks unsuccessful.
2.0 The title of the Da Amituo jing
As I mentioned above, I generally agree with FUJITAʼs suggestion that the title of the
Da Amituo jing, 佛說諸佛彌陀三耶三佛薩樓【佛】檀過度人道經, must be a
creation by the Chinese translator.29⎠ Accordingly, instead of attaching significance to
some uncertain Chinese characters, 薩樓【佛】檀, the original Chinese title of this
sūtra must be recreated based on the content of the Da Amituo jing. In this case,
although we are unable to infer the exact meaning of the characters 薩樓【佛】檀, we
still can exactly infer the meaning of the title of the Da Amituo jing based on the
contents of the sūtra. This is exactly where lies the shortcoming of all previous
research, and conversely, the unique feature of this research. The issue will be
approached from the following perspectives.
21.The diverse forms of the title of the Da Amituo jing
The title of the Da Amituo jing holds two different forms presenting slight differences
between each other as follows:
(i)
阿彌陀經二卷（内題云：阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓檀過度人道經）
（出三藏記集）
(ii) 阿彌陀經二卷（上卷題云：佛 諸佛阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓佛檀過度人道經亦
28⎠ See XIAO 2016b, 1-13, and 2018b.
29⎠ I would like to eliminate the possibility that the the original Chinese title of this version was
written by somebody else in a later period, as suggested by KARASHIMA (see KARASHIMA 2009, 125).
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A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
名無量壽經）
（開元釋教錄）
The title (i) is recorded in the Chu sanzangji ji,30⎠ which was compiled no later than
515 by SENGYOU, and the title (ii) is found in the Kaiyuan shijiao lu, which was
compiled in 730 by ZHI SHENG. In the Kayuan shijiao lu, this title appears three times
in this catalogue; the two times (T2145, 680c25, 701c4) are the same as (ii), but the
remaining one is a reprinting from SENGYOUʼs catalogue, the Chu sanzangji ji, with a
slight difference, which reads: 阿彌陀經二卷（內題云：佛說諸佛阿彌陀三邪三佛
薩 檀過度人道經第三出亦名無量壽 (T2145, 487c26-27). It is of interest that the
title 佛說諸佛阿彌陀三耶 三佛薩
檀過度人道經31⎠ can be confirmed in the
Japanese ancient manuscript preserved at Kongo-ji 金剛寺 (see the image below).
Accordingly, it is exactly true that the title with the characters 薩
檀 had appeared at
some point the history.
（The beginning containing the title of the Da Amituo jing in Japanese ancient manuscript scroll
preserved in Kongo-ji 金剛寺）
30⎠ This title was firstly recorded in 出三藏記集 (T2145, 6c25), and recorded in 歷代三寶紀 (T2034,
57b4-5) and 大唐內典錄 (T2149, 226a06), cf. note 12 of this paper.
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With regard to the term 諸佛 preceding the Buddhaʼs Name Amituo 阿彌陀, it
must be an insertion by somebody in a later period in that Amituo 阿彌陀 should be a
dedicated noun in the Da Amituo jing instead of a generic term indicating all Buddhas,
諸佛, of the ten quarters. This point can be clearly verified through the following
significant sentence, which is contained in the beginning of a crucial short paragraph
consisting of 129 characters found in the Dharmākara narrative of the Da Amituo jing
(siglum: 大阿 ).
【大阿】我欲求佛為菩薩道，令我後作佛時，於八方、上下諸無央數佛中，
最尊智慧勇猛。(T362, 300c23-24)
I aspire to attain Buddhahood by cultivating the Bodhisattva path to perfection.
When I attain Buddhahood, among all Buddhas in the eight quarters, as well as
above and below, may I become foremost in sublime wisdom and bravery, and
may brilliance shine from my head as immeasurable as the light of the Buddhas.
These 129 characters constitute a significant passage for correctly understanding the
formation of the Da Amituo jing. According to my research series, these 129 characters
must have been purposely compiled by the translator of the Da Amituo jing.32⎠ In
addition, instead of being a genuine translation of a counterpart in the original Indian
text of the Da Amituo jing, a long paragraph following the twenty-four vows describing
Amitābhaʼs light (T362, 302b20-303b1) clearly indicates that Amitābhaʼs light is
foremost, unparalleled, unsurpassed, and without a parallel among all Buddhas, and
reads as follows.
【大阿】佛言：
“阿彌陀佛，光明最尊、第一、無比；33⎠ 諸佛光明，皆所不
及也。(T362, 302b20)
31⎠ The character 捿 should be a paragraphias by somebody in an uncertain period, and the 捿 was
corrected as 樓 at the side. Undoubtedly, the phrase 三邪三佛 found in the catalogue should be a
paragraphias and it was corrected back as 三耶三佛 in a later period.
32⎠ For the formation of the Dharmākara narrative, see XIAO 2012a, 2014b, 2015, 2018a.
33⎠ These three synonymous adjectives are used side by side for highlighting the excellence of the
light of Amitābha. Amituo is a transliteration of Amitābha “measureless light.” A detailed discussion
on the formation of the light of Amitābha emphasized in the Da Amituo jing is in preparation.
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The Buddha said, “The light of Amitābha is above all honourable, foremost,
unparalleled, and the lights of all other Buddhas are inferior to it.
【大 阿】 阿 彌 陀 佛 光 明， 所 照 最 大， 諸 佛 光 明， 皆 所 不 能 及 也。(T362,
303a01)
The illumination of Amitābhaʼs light is foremost and no light from other Buddhas
can parallel it.
Accordingly, Amituo 阿彌陀 must be a dedicated noun in the Da Amituo jing instead
of referring to all Buddhas in general.
Consequently, the character 佛 among the characters 薩樓佛檀 has also been
inserted by somebody in a later period. Firstly, as listed above, the title of the Da
Amituo jing found in the earliest extant catalogue, Chu sanzangji ji, does not include
the character 佛, but rather only 薩樓檀 (cf.note12 above). As indicated above, this
case can also be confirmed through the Japanese ancient manuscript preserved at
Kongō-ji (see the attached image above). Secondly, I cannot agree with LIʼs argument
based on the three examples found in the latter part of the Da Amituo jing that 佛檀, as
a term, is equivalent with the Chinese term 佛陀 “buddha.” There is no evidence
verifying this idea. Regarding Liʼs argument, it is exactly the fact that the third
example containing the phrase 南無阿彌陀三耶三佛檀34⎠ in the Da Amituo jing is
revised as 南無無量清淨35⎠ 三藐三佛陀 in the Pingdengjue jing. However, this case
just represents the translatorʼs (of the Pingdengjue jing) own understanding of the
34⎠ These examples read:【大阿】佛言：“若起，更被袈裟西向拜，當日所沒處為阿彌陀佛作禮，
以頭腦著地言：ʻ南無阿彌陀三耶三佛檀。ʼ”阿難言：“諾！受教。
”即起，更被袈裟西向拜，
當日所沒處，為彌陀佛作禮，以頭腦著地言：“南無阿彌陀三耶三佛檀。”……即時阿難、諸
菩薩、阿羅漢等，諸天、帝王、人民悉皆見阿彌陀佛及諸菩薩、阿羅漢國土七寶已，心大歡
喜踊躍，悉起，為阿彌陀佛作禮，以頭腦著地，皆言：“南無阿彌陀三耶三佛檀”(T362,
316b26-c11). The counterpart of these three examples in the Pingdeng jue jing read:【清 淨】 佛
言：“若起更被袈裟西向拜，當日沒處為無量清淨佛作禮，以頭面著地言：“南無無量清淨平
等覺。ʼ”阿難言：“諾，受教。”則起更被袈裟西向拜，當日所沒處為無量清淨佛作禮，以頭
腦著地言：“南無無量清淨平等覺。”……則阿難、諸菩薩、阿羅漢等，諸天、帝王、人民悉
皆見無量清淨佛及諸菩薩、阿羅漢、國土七寶已，心皆大歡喜踊躍，悉起為無量清淨佛作禮，
以頭腦著地，皆言：“南無無量清淨三藐三佛陀”(T361, 298b29-c14).
35⎠ For the Buddhaʼs name, Wuliang qingjing 無量清淨, in the Pingdengjue jing, see below.
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仏教学会紀要
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characters 佛檀 found in their counterparts in the Da Amituo jing, and does not mean
that these three passages are genuine translations from the original Indian text of the
Da Amituo jing.36⎠ After all, the characters 佛檀 merely appear in the Da Amituo jing
and the Pusa shouzhai ji 菩薩受齋記.37⎠ Accordingly, the original Chinese title of the
Da Amituo jing does not contain the characters 薩樓佛檀, but rather only 薩樓檀. That
is to say, the correct, original Chinese title of the Da Amituo jingʼs should be written as
阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓檀過度人道經, which could be a summary based on the
contents purposely edited by the translator of the Da Amituo jing.
2.2 The meaning of the title by the key characteristics of the Da Amituo jing
With regard to the title of the Da Amituo jing（阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓檀過度人道經）,
the three key words（阿彌陀，薩樓檀, 過度人道）need to be carefully considered.
Even though no one can confirm the exact meaning of the characters 薩樓檀, these
characters must be related to the key characteristics of the Da Amituo jing.
According to my research series on the formation of the Da Amituo jing and the
Pingdengjue jing, a great amount of evidence suggests that the Da Amituo jing is a
version largely compiled by its Chinese translator based on his own views. In addition
to those twenty-four typical characteristics of the Da Amituo jing indicated in my
36⎠ There are many examples related to the case, such as : (i) the name of the Buddha, 阿彌陀, in the
Da Amituo jing which was revised as 無量清淨 in the Pingdengjue jing; (ii) 蜎飛蠕動,in the Da
Amituo jing which was revised as 蠕動 ( 之類 ) in the Pingdengjue jing; (iii) 頂中光明, in the Da
Amituo jing which was revised as 項中光明 in the Pindengjue jing, etc.
37⎠ The 阿 彌 陀 三 耶 三 佛 檀 found in the Pusa shoutai jing should be a copy of the one in the Da
Amituo jing. It is noteworthy noting that there is an interesting sentence containing the characters 樓
檀 in the Pusa shouzhai jing, which reads: 從是分檀布施，當到須摩提拘樓檀阿彌陀佛前，受得
三昧禪。是為菩薩受齋法 (T1502, 1116a12-13). According to 翻梵語, 拘樓檀 is the abbreviation
of 拘樓檀那, people offering something ( 拘樓檀 : 應云拘樓檀那。譯曰 : 拘樓者作檀那者施。
T2130, 990c04). On the other hand, the phrase 分檀布施 also appears 6 times as one of the six items
of the Six Perfections in the Da Amituo jing. And it would be careless to hurriedly determine that the
characters 薩樓檀 refer to donating in that donating is merely one of the six items of the six
perfections purposely highlighted in the Da Amituo jing. For the term 分檀布施 in the Da Amituo
jing, see Xiao, 2012, 2015, and 2016b.
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A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
recent paper,38⎠ the greatest differences between the Da Amituo jing and the later
versions, especially the Sanskrit version, is that there is a set Mahāyāna practical
system, the cultivation of the bodhisattva path to perfection, in the Da Amituo jing,
which was purposely compiled by the translator of this version.39⎠ Accordingly, the title
of the Da Amituo jing must have some connection with the main doctrine found in the
Da Amituo jing, zuopusa dao 作菩薩道 “cultivation of the bodhisattva path to
perfection.” In fact, the phrase 過度人道 is likely to have some connection with this
idea in spite of being merely based on its literal explanation.
Regarding guodu rendao 過度人道 “saving humans,” this doctrine should not be
only connected to the paragraphs of the Five Evils, but also to the whole sūtra. A short
paragraph found in the latter part of the Dharmākara narrative can clearly support this
case.
【大阿】其曇摩迦菩薩至其然後，自致得作佛，名阿彌陀佛，最尊智慧勇猛
光明無比，今現在所居國土甚快善。在他方異佛國，教授八方、上下諸無央
數天人民，及蜎飛蠕動之類，莫不得過度解脫憂苦。
After that, the bodhisattva Dharmākara himself attained Buddhahood and was
named Amituo (Amitābha) Buddha who is foremost in sublime wisdom and
courage, and measureless in brilliance. The land where he is living is possessed of
the utmost excellence. He is teaching the Dharma to devas and humans now as
well as to all species that flit and wriggle in the immeasurable Buddha-lands of
the eight quarters, as well as in realms above and below, to lead them all to
emancipation and deliverance from anxieties and sufferings.
Additionally, one of the most crucial features is that the doctrine of rebirth in the land
of Amitābha is purposely highlighted in the Da Amituo jing. For example, the 2nd, and
the 4th ~7th vows in the Da Amituo jing are all related to rebirth in Amitābhaʼs land,40⎠
38⎠ See XIAO 2017b, 2-13.
39⎠ See XIAO 2018b.
40⎠ The 2nd vow concerns womenʼs rebirth; the 4th vow concerns rebirth by hearing Amitābhaʼs name;
the 5~7th vows concern the aspirantsʼ rebirth, classified into three grades based on their different
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仏教学会紀要
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a special way of saving beings in the Pure Land School (guodu rendao).
Although the Da Amituo jing is also labelled as the Amituo jing 阿彌陀經, it is
hard to believe that there was a title like *Amitāha -vyūha or *Amidāha-vyūha (<
Amitābhavyūha) as reconstructed by KARASHIMA.41⎠ It is noteworthy that only the title
of the Da Amituo jing is labelled by this Buddhaʼs name, Amituo, among the twelve
Chinese translations listed above and the Foshuo Amituo jing 佛說阿彌陀經 (T366),
the Chinese translation of the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra, which was translated by
KUMĀRAJĪVA in 402. That is to say, the Amituo jing 阿彌陀經 (T366) must have become
very popular during the period when the Chu sanzangji ji was compiled. This is why
the Da Amituo jing was labeled as 阿彌陀經.
In sum, the intention of the Da Amituo jing is to explain (i) that Dharmākara
bodhisattva attained Buddhahood by cultivating the bodhisattva path to perfection, and
(ii) the salvation of all beings that are reborn in the land of Amituo Buddha. The
cultivation of the bodhisattva path to perfection is the method and process, and to save
all beings that are reborn in the land of the Buddha is the ultimate purpose. Concerning
the diverse forms of the title of this version, they could be divided into three stages in
general. In the first stage, in the earliest Chinese translation, the title could be 阿彌陀
三耶三佛薩樓檀過度人道經 as recorded in the Chu sanzangji ji. It is likely that with
the popularity of 佛 說 阿 彌 陀 經 (T366, the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtra by
KUMĀRAJĪVA), the title is also labeled as Amituo jing 阿彌陀經 by somebody in a later
period. Undoubtedly, this long title, 阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓檀過度人道經, does not
represent a genuine translation of the original Indian text, but was rather purposely
edited by the translator. This title can be translated as “The perfectly enlightened
levels of success in abiding by the percepts. Regarding the formation of these vows, see XIAO
2017b, 2018b. For a discussion in detail about the characteristics of rebirth in Amitābhaʼs land that
are purposely highlighted in the vows of the Da Amituo jing, see XIAO forthcoming b. On the other
hand, the term guodu rendao 過度人道 is vivid evidence indicating that the Da Amtiuo jing might
be one of the earliest sūtras closely related to 人間佛教 “Humanistic Buddhism,” a significant issue
which needs to be discussed in detail in a separate paper.
41⎠ See KARASHIMA 2009, 125.
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Amituo
A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
Amitābha Buddha who cultivated the bodhisattva path to perfection to save all
beings in the human world (that desire to be reborn in his land).” Secondly, with
the passing of time, this sūtraʼs title was misprinted, and some terms had been added
by somebody in a later period, and it was recorded as 佛說諸佛阿彌陀三耶（邪）
三佛
薩
檀過度人道經 in SENGYOUʼs catalogue.42⎠ This probably happened at a period
slightly later than the first stage but preceding the compilation of SENGYOUʼs catalogue.
The original model of the Da Amituo jingʼs manuscript in the Japanese ancient
manuscript scroll preserved in Kongō-ji should have some relationship with this
system. Thirdly, in the period preceding of the Kaiyuan shijiao lu, the title of the Da
Amituo jing was revised as 佛說諸佛阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓
【佛】檀過度人道經.
佛
3. The second popular title: the Wuliang qingjing pingdengjue jing
The title of the second oldest version of this sūtra, the Pingdengjue jing (T361), is
another pivotal issue in the field because the Buddhaʼs name, Wuliang qingjing 無量清
淨 “Measureless Purity” was an uncertain term which puzzled scholars for nearly a
dozen of decades.43⎠ Among the twelve Chinese translations listed above, the titles of
three translations (Nos. 2, 5, 6) were labeled as the Wuliang qingjing pingdengjue jing
無量清淨平等覺經. That is to say, this title is the second most popular among the
twelve Chinese translations.44⎠ In 2007, I firstly indicated that there is no original
Indian term equivalent with the Chinese term Wuliang qingjing, but it was created by
the translator of the Pingdengjue jing based on a Taoist term, qingjing wuwei 清淨無
為. With the deepening of my research, I discovered that it is not merely a linguistic
issue, but rather a key point of the formation of early Pure Land sūtras, which might be
42⎠ For the evidence, see the record in the Chu sanzangji ji, which it reads in the Kaiyuan shijiao lu:
阿彌陀經二卷（內題云：佛說阿彌陀三邪三佛薩 檀過度人道經第三出亦名無量壽經見竺道
祖僧佑二錄與世高等小異）(T2154, 487c27-28).
43⎠ See HIARAKWA 1985, 23; and FUJITA 2007, 243-248, etc.
44⎠ The most popular title is the Wuliangshou jing 無量壽經. All versions, including the three
labeled as the Wuliang qingjing pingdengjue jing and the Da Amituo jing, are recorded as the
Wuliang shou jing in the Chu sanzangji ji.
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仏教学会紀要
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directly related to all of the significant issues in the field of Mahāyāna Buddhism, such
as: (i) the chronological order of other Mahāyāna sūtras, such as the Smaller
Sukhāvatīvyūha, the Akṣobhya sūtra, etc.;45⎠ (ii) the early Chinese Mahāyāna
translations;46⎠ (iii) the precepts in the early Mahāyāna sūtras;47⎠ (iv) the bodhisattva
thought in early Mahāyāna sūtras;48⎠ (v) the vows in the Mahāyāna sūtras;49⎠ (vi) the
theory of practice in early Mahāyāna Buddhism;50⎠ (vii) the verses in early Mahāyāna
sūtras;51⎠ (viii) gender studies,52⎠ etc. The formation and development of this term are as
follows.
Firstly, almost all of the usages of the term 齋戒清淨, as the essential prerequisite
for rebirth to Amitābhaʼs land found in the Da Amituo jing have been adopted by the
translator of the Pingdengjue jing. In this case, qingjing is also a significant doctrine
for rebirth in the Wuliang qingjing Buddhaʼs land.
Secondly, in addition to 須阿提 (15) and 須摩提 (21), the Buddha-land was also
labelled as（清）
浄処 (15), 厳浄国 (16), 安楽国 (20) in the Tōhō-ge of the Pingdengjue
jing. Accordingly, we can clearly understand that the translator of the Pingdengjue jing
has the willingness to stress the feature of “purity” of the Buddhaʼs Land.53⎠ On the
other hand, because the counterpart of the term qingjing found in the 9th stanza of the
Tanbutsu-ge in the Pingdengjue jing has no counterpart with vyūha, Nattier and
Karashimaʼs suggestion that the origin of the term qingjing is a misunderstanding of
vyūha by Zhi Qian is incorrect.54⎠ The changing process of the term Jingtu 淨土 is:【大
45⎠ See XIAO forthcoming a.
46⎠ See XIAO 2008b.
47⎠ See XIAO 2017a.
48⎠ See Xiao 2014b and 2015, and2017b.
49⎠ See XIAO 2018a, d; 2019a; and forthcoming b.
50⎠ See XIAO 2017c, and 2018b, c.
51⎠ See XIAO 2019b and 2020.
52⎠ See XIAO 2014a.
53⎠ The numbers in the brackets respectively describe the numbers in the Tōhō-ge 東方偈 in the
Pingdenjue jing. For a critical English translation of the Tōhō-ge in the Pingdenjue jing, see XIAO
2020.
54⎠ Cf. Xiao 2012b, 54-55, and 2020, 126-128. Additionally, both NATTIER and KARASHIMA did not
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A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
阿】齋戒清淨➡【清淨】齋戒清淨、無量清淨、安樂、無量清淨佛國土、
（清）
浄処、厳浄国➡淨土.
Thirdly, it is noteworthy that in the short fragments of the KUDARA manuscript,
with only 615 characters, the term qingjing appears 9 times, and can help us determine
the position of the KUDARA manuscript. Moreover, the term zhuangyan 莊嚴
“solemnity” appears 6 times, and all of these usages are in combination with its
synonym, qingjing, as qingjing zhuangyan 清淨莊嚴. Accordingly, it is beyond doubte
that the term qingjing must be one of the most significant terms in the KUDARA
fragment. Even though FUJITA suggested that the KUDARA manuscript could be
attributed to No. 10 by Tan mo mi duo 曇摩蜜多 listed above,55⎠ I would like to infer
that these fragments might be connected with the one labeled as Wuliang qingjing
pingdengjue jing (No.5, or 6) at the present stage.
4. The most popular phrase: Wuliangshou ( 無量壽 )
Regarding the three titles (Nos. 4, 11, 12 listed above), the common feature they share
is the fact they all contain the phrase, Wulliang-shou, 無量壽 “measureless life, ” No.
4 is 佛說無量壽經 (T360); No. 11 is 無量壽如來會 (T310.5); No.12 is 大乘無量壽莊
嚴經 (T363). On the other hand, all twelve versions listed above were also labeled
with the phrase Wuliangshou 無量壽 (cf. Nos. 3, 4, 6). Firstly, I cannot agree with
KARASHIMAʼs suggestion that (i) the original Indian title of no.4 ( 佛說無量壽經 )
might be restored as *Amitābha-vyūha; (ii) the original Indian title of No. 11 ( 無量壽
如來會 ) can be restored as *Amitābhasya tathāgatasya-vyūha-parivarta; (iii) the
original Indian title of No. 12 ( 大乘無量壽莊嚴經 ) can be restored *Amitābhasya
vyūha-mahāyānasūtra (KARASHIMA 2009, 125-126). KARASHIMA did not consider: (a)
the relationship between each of these versions and the extant Sanskrit version; (b) the
relationship between the two earliest versions (nos. 362, 361) and the later versions,
realize that the term qingjing had become very popular during the period when the Pingdengjue jing
was translated into Chinese, cf. NATTIER 2017, and KARASHIMA 2009.
55⎠ See FUJITA 1994, 12-17; and 2007, 36-39. Cf.KUDARA
─ 121 ─
仏教学会紀要
第26号
including the extant Sanskrit version. The original Indian text of these three versions
might all be Sukhāvatīvyūha, which is the same with the extant Sanskrit version.
Obviously, this issue needs more discussion in connection with the common feature
respectively found in these three versions in a subsequent paper. Secondly, all the
usages of the Buddhaʼs name in No. 4 ( 佛說無量壽經 ) use Wuliang-shou, and this
version has a close relationship between the Sanskrit version, for example, the fortyeight vows are quite parallel both in content and order with those forty-seven vows
found in the extant Sanskrit version. Accordingly, the translator purposely rendered
Buddhaʼs name as Wuliangshou “Measureless Life”in the Wuliangshou jing, and this
name for the Buddha had become very popular during that period, or earlier. In this
case, the titles of Nos. 11 and 12, even all the twelve versions, including T362 and
T361 were also labelled as Wuliangshou jing in the Kaiyuan shijiao lu.
Conclusions
In light of the discussion, regarding the titles of the Da Amituo jing and the
Pingdengjue jing, the following conclusions can be reached.
Firstly, for the diverse forms of the title of the Da Amituo jing, they could be
divided into three stages in general.
(i) In the first stage, in the earliest period of the Chinese translation of the Da
Amituo jing, its title could be (a) 阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓檀過度人道經 as recorded in
the Chu sanzangji ji. With the popularity of 佛說阿彌陀經 (T366, the Smaller
Sukhāvatvyūha sūtra by KUMĀRAJĪVA) and the Wuliangshou jing 無量壽經, the title of
this sutra is also labeled as Amituo jing 阿彌陀經 and Wuliangshou jing. Undoubtedly,
all of them do not represent a genuine translation of the original Indian text, but were
rather an abbreviation for convenience purposely edited by the translator, and
somebody in a later period (Amituo jing 阿彌陀經 and Wuliangshou jing). This title
（阿彌陀三耶三佛薩樓檀過度人道經） can be translated as “The perfectly
enlightened Amitābha Buddha who cultivated the bodhisattva path to perfection
to save all beings in the human world (that desire to be reborn in his land).” (ii) In
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A Study of the Titles of the Chinese Translations of he Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra
the second stage, with the passing of time, this sutraʼs title was misprinted, two terms
（佛說 and 諸佛）had been added in the beginning of the title, and 三耶三佛 and 薩
樓檀 were respectively misprinted as 三邪三佛 and 薩 檀 by somebody in a later
period and it was recorded as 佛說諸佛阿彌陀三耶
（邪）三佛薩捿檀過度人道經 in
the Kaiyuan shijiao lu, which is a record of SENGYOUʼs catalogue T2145, 487c 26-27.
This probably happened at a period slightly later than the first stage but preceding the
compilation of SENGYOUʼs catalogue. The origin of the Da Amituo jingʼs manuscript
found in the Japanese ancient scroll preserved at Kongō-ji should be attributed to this
period. (iii) In the period of the Kaiyuan shijiao lu, the title of the Da Amituo jing was
revised as 佛說諸佛阿彌陀三耶三佛薩薩【佛】檀過度人道經, as recorded in the
Kaiyuan shijiao lu. In this case, the Sanskrit title of the Da Amituo jing inferred by LI
should be an over-interpretation.
樓佛
Secondly, concerning the origin of the title of the Pingdengjue jing, it might be a
creation by the translator of the Pingdengjue jing based on his own influences, such as
Chinese Taoist doctrine and his tendency towards purity as expressed the contents of
the sūtra, as well as the Da Amituo jing. The term wuliang qingjing has a close
relationship with the formation of the term Jingtu 淨土.56⎠ Regarding the fragment of
the KUDARA manuscript, at present, I infer that this fragment is probably attributed to
No. 4, or, No. 5 listed above, whose title is also Wuliang qngjing pingdengjue jing.
Undoubtedly, this issue needs to be more carefully considered in combination with the
issues of the authorship of the two earliest versions of the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha.
Thirdly, regarding the titles of Nos, 4, 11, 12, I generally agree with FUJITAʼs
suggestion that the original Indian titles of the Wuliangshou jing and the Wuliangshou
rulai hui (No. 10) are the same, and can be reconstructed as Sukhāvatī-vyūha or
Amitābha[sya Sukhāvatī]-vyūha.57⎠ However, according to my research on the three
56⎠ For the two kinds of Jingtu 淨土，one is a verb which is equivalent with Purified the Land, the
other is a adverb which can be translated as Pure Land, see XIAO 2009, 256-280; and 2020, 127129.
57⎠ FUJITA 1970, 32. Cf. KARASHIMA 2009, 125.
─ 123 ─
仏教学会紀要
第26号
verses in the Pingdengjue jing translated into Chinese in the third century, or earlier,
the original Indian text of the Pingdengjue jing probably corresponds with the extant
Sanskrit version, which is recognized as written in the middle of the twelfth century.58⎠
I would like to infer that the original Indian titles of the Wuliangshou jing (No. 4) and
the Wuliangshou rulaihui (No. 11) are the same as the extant Sanskrit version,
Sukhāvatī-vyūha. In fact, the original Indian titles of the Da Amituo jing and the
Pingdengjue jing are also Sukhāvatī-vyūha.
Abbreviation
HD ＝ Hanyu dacidian 漢語大詞典 , 13 vols. Shanghai: Hanyu dacidian chubanshe 漢語大辭典出版
社 , 1989–1994.
JDJT ＝ Shinsan Jōdoshū daijiten 新纂浄土宗大辞典. Ed. Jōdoshū daijiten henshū iinkai 浄土宗大
辞典編集委員会. Kyoto: Jōdoshū, 2016.
JDKC= Jōdo Kyō Tenseki Mokuroku 浄土経典籍目録
日＝Data of the Japanese ancient manuscripts preserved at Kongō-ji 金剛寺 , preserved at the Research
Institute for Old Japanese Manuscript of Buddhist Scriptures, the International College for
Postgraduate Buddhist Studies.
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── . 2017a. “A Study on the Ascetic Precepts in the Pure Land Sūtras.” Bulletin of the Research
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── . 2018a. “An Annotated English Translation of the Twenty-four Vows in the Earliest Version of
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Buddhist Culture, Ryūkoku University.
── . (Forthcoming a) “Muryōjukyō to amidagyō no seiritsu no kankei ni tsuite”〈無 量 寿 経〉 と
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─ 130 ─
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