Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism Volume II: Lives Editor-in-chief Jonathan A. Silk Editors Richard Bowring Vincent Eltschinger Michael Radich Editorial Advisory Board Lucia Dolce Berthe Jansen John Jorgensen Christian Lammerts Francesco Sferra LEIDEN | BOSTON For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Contents Prelims Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv Section One: Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 3 39 Section Two: South & Southeast Asia: Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 51 60 70 73 81 85 92 95 109 121 125 132 141 156 168 173 179 186 191 196 198 204 209 211 214 218 228 261 264 BEB, vol. II vi Contents Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 269 272 279 286 293 298 302 325 332 335 348 357 363 366 371 374 378 382 383 391 398 409 420 437 443 452 456 458 463 474 479 481 490 492 507 513 East Asia: Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 521 529 540 546 562 571 576 586 591 600 608 612 616 Contents vii China: Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. Huihong (see Juefan Huihong) Huineng (see Shenxiu) Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan) Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben) Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ Shenhui (see Shenxiu) Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang) Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu) Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 623 630 642 648 653 657 662 668 673 679 684 689 700 707 711 722 727 735 741 748 752 759 764 768 777 782 787 791 795 800 806 810 814 818 826 833 839 844 Korea: Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 853 860 864 viii Contents Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ Musang (see East Asia) Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 869 873 877 882 887 891 895 900 903 908 913 918 Japan: Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī) Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... Eisai (see Yōsai) Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen) Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi) Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang) Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 923 930 933 941 944 951 956 961 967 971 976 980 987 991 995 998 1002 1006 1011 1016 1020 1026 1036 1041 1047 1057 1062 1066 1071 1076 1088 Contents Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. ix 1094 1097 1102 1107 1111 1117 1122 1128 1134 1139 Tibetan Cultural Sphere Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1145 1159 1165 1171 1175 1181 1191 1197 1213 1226 1233 1239 1246 1254 Appendix To Volume I: Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1269 1286 1294 Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters The Bka’ gdams Tradition The Bka’ gdams pa emerged as a distinct school of Buddhism in the 11th century in Central Tibet. Their name is explained as referring to those who study the word of the Buddha (bka’) through the instructions (gdams) of the Indian teacher Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna (982–1054) (Vetturini, 2007, 165; for alternative explanations see Iuchi, 2016, 3n1). Atiśa, together with his Tibetan disciple ’Brom ston Rgyal ba’i ’byung gnas (1004–1064), is regarded as the origin of the tradition. The present entry gives a brief general introduction to the Bka’ gdams pa tradition, followed by sketches of the life stories of the founding figures and their students, and assesses their significance within the Bka’ gdams pa tradition itself and for Tibetan Buddhism more broadly. While the beginnings of the tradition can be located in the 11th century, it is less clear when and under what circumstances the Bka’ gdams pas disappeared as a distinct Buddhist school. It is commonly assumed that around the early 15th century they were absorbed into →Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa’s (1357–1419) reform movement of the “new Bka’ gdams pa” (bka’ gdams gsar ma) or Dge lugs pa (not to be confused with the 20th-cent. “New Kadampa Tradition” or NKT – IKBU [International Kadampa Buddhist Union], founded by Geshe Kelsang Gyatso in the UK in the late 20th century). However, this is not entirely certain. It has, for example, been observed that the first fully fledged Bka’ gdams pa lineage history, written by Bsod nams lha’i dbang po (1423–1496) in 1484 (the Bka’ gdams rin po che’i chos ’byung rnam thar nyin mor byed pa’i ’od stong; BDRC W1KG10687. 4:9–196; W1KG9297), does not reflect any major influence of the Dge lugs pa; on the contrary, for the author of this historical work, the Bka’ gdams pas still seem to exist as a distinct tradition. His disciple Las chen Kun dga’ rgyal mtshan (1432–1506), on the other hand, already presents Tsong kha pa’s tradition as the heir to the Bka’ gdams pa (Las chen Kun dga’ rgyal mtshan, 2003, 674ff.), which may indicate that they had been superseded (Vetturini, 2007, 128f., 171). A possible factor leading to their disappearance may have been their apparent lack of involvement with politics and powerful lay patrons in Central Tibet at a time when such patronage became crucial for the success of a tradition. Another unclear issue is the question of which lineages exactly should be included in the Bka’ gdams tradition. Tibetan works are ambivalent in this respect. On the one hand, Atiśa’s disciple ’Brom ston pa is portrayed as the Tibetan founding father of the tradition (bka’ gdams kyi mes po), and some religious histories define the Bka’ gdams pa specifically as the lineages going back to ’Brom ston pa (for instance, that of Bsod nams lha’i dbang po, 1977, fol. 48a; Vetturini, 2007, 164n6). At the same time, histories of the Bka’ gdams tradition also include lineages going back to other students of Atiśa, such as Nag tsho lo tsa ba (1011 – c. 1064), Rnal ’byor pa chen po A mes Byang chub rin chen (1015–1078?), Dgon pa ba Dbang phyug rgyal mtshan (1016–1082), and Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab (b. 10th cent.). The mainstream lineage histories of the late 15th century tend to follow the latter, more inclusive approach, but they devote most attention and space to the lineages originating from ’Brom ston pa. ’Brom ston pa is also the focus of the famous Bka’ gdams glegs bam (Book of the Bka’ gdams [Tradition], compiled in 1302; ed. Mkha’ ’gro tshe ring, 1994; partial trans. Jinpa, 2008), a highly influential work that elevates ’Brom ston to the status of a bodhisattva by identifying him with Avalokiteśvara. It is therefore fair to say that he occupies a place of particular importance for the Bka’ gdams pa tradition. In both Tibetan writing and Western scholarship, the Bka’ gdams pas are usually portrayed as a predominantly sūtra-based tradition that placed emphasis on a monastic Mahāyāna path, rather than tantric and yogic practice. This seems to be largely confirmed by the doctrines and practices considered emblematic of the Bka’ gdams pa tradition, namely, their instructions on lam rim and bstan rim (“stages of the path [to Buddhahood]” and “stages of the teaching”, Jackson, 1996), and their instructions on blo sbyong (“mental purification” or “mind training,” Sweet, 1996; Jinpa, 2006). These two systems have been highly successful in Tibet and have generated a steady stream of related literature, not only in the Bka’ gdams and Dge lugs schools, but © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV BEB, vol. II 1146 Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters also across the other schools of Tibetan Buddhism (Roesler, 2011, 10–11). However, the Bka’ gdams pa legacy is more multifaceted still, as the life stories of the early Bka’ gdams pa masters demonstrate. Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna, known by his honorific title as Atiśa[ya] or Adhīśa (Tib. Jo bo, Jo bo rje; the form *Atīśa is clearly erroneous), is one of the towering figures of the revival of Buddhism in Tibet in the 11th century. Numerous studies have been devoted to him and his works (Mochizuki, 2002, 62–69 provides a now somewhat out of date list). He appears in Tibetan historical writings of various Buddhist denominations, but is most closely associated with the Bka’ gdams pa tradition, which also calls itself the jo bo’i bka’ brgyud (teaching lineage of the Jo bo [lit. lord]). In a way, Atiśa epitomizes the “later dissemination” (phyi dar) of Buddhism in Tibet around the 11th to 13th centuries, just as →Padmasambhava epitomizes the “early dissemination” (snga dar) of Buddhism in the 7th to 9th centuries, but the way they are portrayed is diametrically opposed. In Tibetan art, Padmasambhava appears as a tantric master, wielding a kaṭvāṅga staff and often depicted with a semiwrathful facial expression that shows his tantric power in subduing the spirits hostile to Buddhism (fig. 2). Atiśa, on the other hand, appears as a serene and peaceful figure, wearing monk’s robes and a paṇḍita hat, the embodiment of an Indian monastic scholar (fig. 1). As these depictions suggest, Padmasambhava is mostly associated with tantric Buddhism, while Atiśa is often described as a pious monk who reestablished a “pure” form of Buddhism and strengthened ideas of renunciation, monasticism, and Mahāyāna ethics in Tibet, discouraging the antinomian practices of the higher Tantra classes (Chattopadhyaya, 1997, 14–22). This rather stereotypical image needs to be reassessed in light of the Tibetan sources. No Indian account of Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna’s life is known, but numerous Tibetan sources are available, including biographies, eulogies, and religious histories (Eimer, 1977). Particularly important are three early biographical sources: The 11th-century eulogy Bstod pa brgyad cu pa (Hymn in Eighty [Stanzas], Eimer, 2003), the 12th-century Rnam thar rgyas pa Fig. 1: Atiśa, Brgyad stong pa, fol. 102a (BDRC, W1KG15578). Fig. 2. Padmasambhava, Brgyad stong pa, fol. 276a (BDRC, W1KG15578). (Extensive Biography, Lokesh Chandra, 1982, Eimer, 1979), and the 13th-century Rnam thar rgyas pa yongs grags (Widely Known Extensive Biography, Eimer, 1979; also included in Mchims Nam mkha’ grags’ Snar thang gser phrheng and the Bka’ gdams glegs bam) by Mchims Nam mkha’ grags. These two early prose biographies largely overlap in their contents, but they are structured in different ways (Eimer, vol. I, 1979, 149–150). The life story of Atiśa presented in these works goes back to an oral account by Nag tsho lo tsa ba (Eimer, 1979, episodes 438–443; 2003, For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters 8–11), who must have been intimately familiar with the life of his teacher because he brought Atiśa to Tibet and stayed with him almost without interruption for 19 years. The following sketch of Atiśa’s life is based on these early prose biographies. Birth and Education Atiśa was born in 982 in the city of Vikramapura/ Vikramapuri in Bengal. He was the middle son of a ruling family of Za hor in Bengal (van der Kuijp, 2013, 135f.), and his birth name was Candragarbha. The biographies describe his youth in terms of an upbringing typical for an Indian nobleman, who had to be well-trained in various skills and arts (a feature reminiscent of the hagiography of Buddha Śākyamuni). Tantric Studies As a young man he began to study Tantra at Ri nag po (Skt. Kālaśilā), one of the seven hills near Rājgir (Eimer, 1979, episodes 109ff). From the tantric master Rāhulaguhyavajra he received the initiation into Hevajra and mastered the utpanna- and sampannakrama (generation and completion stage meditations). He received the tantric name Jñānaguhyavajra, and studied for seven years with Avadhūtipā (a designation for a yogin using the channels of the subtle body for meditation; such names with the suffix -pā derive from Skt. -pāda, but are understood by Tibetans as the Tibetan suffix -pa; below the Sanskrit form is followed). For three years he concentrated on yoga, participated in tantric feasts (gaṇacakra) with ḍākinīs (female partners), and learned tantric “vajra songs”. Ordination and Further Studies In his 29th year (i.e. when he was 28, in 1010) he was ordained by Śīlarakṣita at the Mativihāra in Bodh Gayā (Tib. Rdo rje gdan) (Eimer, 1979, episode 129), according to the Vinaya of the Mahāsāṃghika school. He received the ordination name Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna. According to the biographies he could only be ordained into the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya because he practiced Tantra, an interesting remark that deserves further investigation (Eimer, 1979, episodes 129, 334). He spent two or three years studying the scriptures of the “four great schools” of Indian Buddhism (Mahāsāṃghikas, Sarvāstivādins, Sammitīyas, and Sthaviravādins) and for two years he studied Abhidharma with Dharmarakṣita at Odantapuri. 1147 He continued his studies of the Pāramitānaya and Tantra with Kusali, Jetāri, Ḍombhi Heruka, Nāropā, Ratnākaraśānti, and others. His most important teacher of Mahāyāna doctrines, however, became Suvarṇadvīpa Dharmakīrti (Tib. Gser gling pa Chos kyi grags pa), named after his home country of Sumatra (Skt. Suvarṇadvīpa), who is described as Atiśa’s most important instructor on “generating the awakening mind” (Skt. bodhicittotpada) (Eimer, 1979, episodes 132ff.). With Gser gling pa he studied two famous works by →Śāntideva (8th cent.), the Śikṣāsamuccaya and the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra. Later, Atiśa again visited Kālaśilā, which indicates that he continued to study Tantra alongside his training in Vinaya, Abhidharma, and Mahāyāna doctrines (Eimer, 1979, episode 138). Teaching Career Atiśa became a senior scholar (Tib. gnas brtan chen po) at the monastic university of Vikramaśīla, founded in the early 9th century and famous for its monastic studies of Tantra (Eimer 1979, episodes 170ff.; for a comparison of sources see Mochizuki, 2016). According to Atiśa’s biographies, it had no more than about 100 ordained residents in his day (Eimer, 1979, episodes 180, 182). The biographies portray Atiśa as one of the great scholars of the monastery, and as a monk who stood out through his strict adherence to his vows and to Mahāyāna ethics. They also say repeatedly that he was the teacher who was most beneficial for the Tibetans (e.g. Eimer, 1979, episode 222). It is difficult to assess Atiśa’s role within the Indian tradition because neither his Sanskrit works nor any Indian commentaries on his writings have survived. This does not necessarily indicate that he did not have an impact in his day, since it may at least partly be due to the fact that Buddhism declined in India fairly soon after his lifetime. Meanwhile, the Western Tibetan kingdom of Gu ge saw the revival of Buddhism under the royal patronage of King Lha bla ma Ye shes ’od (10th–11th cents.), followed by his nephew Byang chub ’od (984–1078). Ye shes ’od famously criticized antinomian forms of Tantra that he considered corrupt (Karmay, 1998), and aimed to reintroduce what he perceived as a pure form of Buddhism. Two of his missions to invite scholars from India had reached Vikramaśīla, but it was only at the time of Byang chub ’od that a group of Tibetans headed by Nag tsho lo tsa ba succeeded in bringing Atiśa to Tibet (Eimer, 1979, episodes 206–230). For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1148 Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters Journey to Western Tibet It seems that Atiśa’s departure from Vikramaśīla in 1040 was not uncontested. Ratnākara, the abbot of the Vikramaśīla, suspected that he was planning to set out for Tibet. He permitted the journey, but asked Nag tsho lo tsa ba to bring him back to Vikramaśīla after three years (Eimer, 1979, episode 238). The biographies describe an adventurous journey via Nepal, where Atiśa composed the Vimalaratnalekha (D 4566, 4188/ P 5480, 5688; Dietz, 1984, 65–67, 302–319), an epistle to king Neyapāla, which became the model for one of his most popular works in Tibet, the Bodhisattvamaṇyāvali (D 3951, 4471/P 5347, 5384; ed. and trans. Dargyay, 1978; ed. and trans. Sherburne, 2000, 378–385; Eimer, 1981). He also founded a monastery in Kathmandu (Decleer, 1996). In 1042, the party arrived in Western Tibet (Eimer, 1979, episodes 250ff.). After a stay in Nag tsho lo tsa ba’s home region Gung thang they moved on to Mtho lding, the capital of the kingdom of Gu ge. Atiśa gave Buddhist instructions, had an encounter with the famous translator Rin chen bzang po (958–1055) and, most importantly, met King Byang chub ’od, who asked for explanations on the Śrāvakayāna, the Pāramitānaya (i.e., the Mahāyāna), and on Tantra, as well as a handbook on the Guhyasamājatantra (Eimer, 1979, episode 266). To comply with this request, Atiśa composed his famous Bodhipathapradīpa, which defines three categories of Buddhist practitioners and provides step-by-step instructions for the most advanced of these, the followers of the Mahāyāna, including a short section on Tantra (D 3947, 4465/ P 5343, 5378; ed. Eimer, 1978; trans. Sherburne, 2000). This work laid the foundations for later Tibetan literature on the graded path to awakening (lam rim). Atiśa also wrote some shorter works and then set out to return to Vikramaśīla as promised. Activities in Central Tibet While in Pu hrangs, Atiśa met his disciple ’Brom ston pa (Eimer 1979, episodes 278ff.; see below). This was the beginning of a relationship that later was to lead to the emergence of the Bka’ gdams pa tradition. Since the way to India was barred by civil unrest on the Nepalese border, ’Brom ston pa offered a visit to the Buddhist sites of Central Tibet, and Atiśa accepted his invitation. En route, in the province of Gtsang, they met Rnal ’byor pa chen po A mes zhabs and Dgon pa ba (see below), who would later act as abbots of the Bka’ gdams pa monastery of Rwa sgreng. Since they did not have any patrons in Gtsang they moved on to the province of Dbus. In 1047 they stayed at Bsam yas, the famous first monastery of Tibet founded in the late 8th century (Eimer, 1979, episode 300ff.). In Bsam yas Atiśa collaborated in translation projects and gave tantric instructions and initiations. His student Khu ston (1011–1075) invited him to his home region Yar klungs, but did not allow his own students at Thang po che monastery to study with Atiśa, and so Atiśa and ’Brom ston pa left. Their flight across the Gtsang po river, with Khu ston following in hot pursuit and falling into the river, reads like a comic interlude (Eimer, 1979, episode 316). Back in Bsam yas monastery Atiśa was excited to find rare Sanskrit manuscripts (on Atiśa and Sanskrit manuscripts in Tibet, see Kano, 2015). The local lord, Lha btsun Bodhirāja (d.u.), supported the Buddhists, but a noble lady from the Mchims family started spreading slander and paid the children to sing songs in the streets about Atiśa, and so he and his followers left for Lhasa. The early biographies report that he discovered a text containing the story of the foundation of the Jo khang temple by the “Bodhisattva King”, that is, Srong btsan sgam po (7th cent.). They do not mention the title of the text, but describe how a beggar woman indicated a place in the ground near a pillar where Atiśa was to find the text. The protective deity guarding the text allowed them to copy as much as they could within one day (Eimer, 1979, episode 337; see also Roerich, 1949, 258). This text is generally understood to be the Bka’ chems ka khol ma, a famous “treasure text” (gter ma) allegedly discovered by Atiśa in 1048 (Smon lam rgya mtsho, 1989; see Martin, 1997, 24; Eimer, 1983; Sørensen, 1994, 14–22). Atiśa and his disciples spent the summer in the mountain hermitage of Brag Yer pa, which became the setting for the famous Bka’ gdams glegs bam. They then followed an invitation from Bang ston Byang chub rgyal mtshan (d.u.) to Snye thang, not far from Lhasa, where Atiśa stayed until his death. The biographies report that Atiśa spent the last two years of his life meditating, composing spiritual songs, and having visions of his meditation deities. He passed away in the late autumn of 1054, and his funeral rites were performed in a manner similar to the funeral of Buddha Śākyamuni as described in the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (Eimer, 1979, episodes 410f.). For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters After Atiśa’s Death The disciples could not agree on a successor, and the community split after a last joint assembly held in 1055. It seems that the four Vinaya groups of Lhasa and their associated clans became involved with the Bka’ gdams pa movement from this point on (Vitali, 2015). Atiśa’s disciples left Snye thang and went their own ways. The relics were distributed among the disciples, and ’Brom ston took his share with him, keeping the relics in a tent until they were finally enclosed in a shrine at his monastery of Rwa sgreng, which he founded in 1056–1057 Nag tsho lo tsa ba was in Nepal to study with Jñānākara (d.u.) when Atiśa died. When he heard about the death of his teacher, he asked an Indian artist to paint a scroll depicting Atiśa with his meditation deities and scenes from his life, and he wrote the Bstod pa brgyad cu pa of Nag tsho lo tsa ba Tshul khrims rgyal ba (see below) on the back of the painting, thus imbuing the painting with the presence of the master (Eimer, 2003, 8). This, together with Nag tsho’s later oral account, which gave rise to the composition of the early prose biographies (Eimer, 1979, episodes 438–443), may be regarded as the beginning of the biographical tradition. The account of the Rnam thar rgyas pa and Rnam thar rgyas pa yongs grags that has been summarized here differs in some respects from later hagiographical writing. A striking feature is the realistic and down-to-earth tone of these earlier texts, as well as their idiomatic language that presumably points to their oral origins. Unlike much of Tibet’s hagiographical writing, they do not gloss over conflicts and everyday problems. The rivalry between ’Brom ston from the nomad area of Byang and the nobleman Khu ston from Yar klungs is a recurring theme, and the early biographies contain some rather amusing scenes relating to this. They also contain humorous scenes regarding cultural misunderstandings between Indians and Tibetans, for example when the Buddhists from Central Tibet come to greet Atiśa, wrapped up in their fur coats, and Atiśa hides because he thinks demons are coming (Eimer, 1979, episode 288; also in Roerich, 1949, 255). Atiśa himself is described as a learned and generous teacher, an accomplished scholar, and skillful performer of rituals for various purposes, but he is not glorified or attributed superhuman features. A remarkable point in these early biographies is the frequent presence of women. In later literature the Bka’ gdams pas are often depicted as a strict 1149 monastic order that excluded women from their monasteries. No such tendencies are found in the early biographies. In India as well as in Tibet women – be they female bodhisattvas or human yoginīs, nuns, or lay donors – are often part of the scene (e.g. Eimer, 1979, episodes 140f., 152, 225–229, 348, 352f.). In India, yoginīs and female bodhisattvas give advice to Atiśa, and in Tibet, female ascetics and nuns (ban de mo) appear in various episodes, without any indication that Atiśa himself had reservations against their presence; however, it becomes clear that not all of his Tibetan followers were at ease with nuns being part of the travel company (Eimer, 1979, episodes 352f.) Regarding the question of Atiśa’s role in the revival of Tibetan monasticism, it needs to be kept in mind that he himself had been ordained in the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya, while the Tibetans follow the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya. His suggestion that his own tradition be introduced in Tibet was rejected (Eimer, 1979, episode 334), and Atiśa could therefore not take part in ordination ceremonies or teach the Vinaya in Tibet. Strengthening monasticism therefore cannot have been his major contribution (Davidson, 2005, 110); rather, he appears as a gifted teacher who was able to present the essentials of Mahāyāna Buddhism in a clear and coherent manner to his new Tibetan audiences and thus contributed significantly to its success on the plateau. In terms of tantric practice, Atiśa’s Bodhipathapradīpa does outline certain limitations when it states that someone who has taken the vow of celibacy is not allowed to practice sexual yoga physically (Sherburne, 2000, 19; Snellgrove, 1987, vol. II, 482). However, this is not quite the same as prohibiting the antinomian practices of the higher Tantra classes in general. As Snellgrove has observed, this agenda seems to have come primarily from the kings of Western Tibet who had invited Atiśa (Snellgrove, 1987, vol. II, 481–483; see also Tatz, 1988). Atiśa himself, however, had received a thorough tantric training during his early life in India. He was ordained relatively late in life, and taught at Vikramaśīla monastery, famous for its tantric scholarship. In Tibet, he is described as composing tantric songs and performing small-scale rituals whenever asked to do so. Out of his works preserved in the Tanjur, more than two-thirds are tantric and ritual texts, primarily short works such as sādhanas (list in Chattopadyaya, 1967, 445–474). The longest coherent work, the Bodhipathapradīpa, combines For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1150 Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters monasticism, bodhisattva ethics, meditation techniques, and Tantra into a graded path towards awakening. Within this graded path, the Tantra section forms the climax; at the same time, it remains relatively short and warns against wrong tantric practice, thus suggesting both appreciation and caution. The Bka’ gdams chos ’byungs (Bka’ gdams Histories) claim that he passed on the Guhyasamāja- and Cakrasaṃvaratantra as well as other tantric cycles to some of his Tibetan disciples, and they record a wide range of tantric works and transmissions in the early Bka’ gdams pa tradition (Vetturini, 2007, 80ff., 146, 154–159). The Bka’ gdams pa monasteries of Rwa sgreng and Lo dgon are said to be based on the Guhyasamāja maṇḍala (Vetturini, 2007, 113), which demonstrates the ritual relevance of the Guhyasamāja system within the early generations of the Bka’ gdams pa tradition. It therefore seems that Atiśa did promote Tantra, including the higher Tantra classes, but would have discouraged practices that contradict the vows taken. The main focus of Atiśa’s activities in Tibet, however, seems to have been to explain Buddhism as a comprehensive system, with a focus on the Mahāyāna. Among his works, more than 100 of which are preserved in the Tibetan Buddhist canon, we find short treatises on topics such as karma, the pāramitās, the Mahāyāna path, and Madhyamaka philosophy. Some editions of the Tibetan canon contain a collection known as Jo bo’i chos chung rgya rtsa (Over a Hundred Short Treatises of Atiśa; P 5377–5480. Separate editions include BDRC W2CZ6751; W4CZ74320). It is not known how old this compilation is, but since a chapter outline is ascribed to the 11th–12th century scholar Gro lung pa Blo gros ’byung gnas (Roesler, 2011, 25, n.70), it may be regarded as a relatively early testimony of Atiśa’s legacy in Tibet. This collection contains mostly short works, some of them by Atiśa and others by famous Indian authors, explaining topics such as karma, conditioned arising, meditation, the philosophy of the “two truths”, and the ritual for “generating the awakening mind”. The collection includes not only famous Indian didactic works, such as →Nāgārjuna’s Suhṛllekha, but also short ritual texts and spiritual songs (caryāgīti). Taken together, the early biographies and the Jo bo’i chos chung give the impression of a teacher who was able to explain the complexities of 11thcentury Indian Buddhism and adapt to the needs of his Tibetan audiences as required in each specific situation. His skill as a teacher, together with his prestigious tantric pedigree (which includes, e.g., the famous Nāropā), and the work of the dedicated and able translators who traveled with him, must have contributed to his longterm popularity and impact in Tibet. Later Tibetan historiography recounts the story of Atiśa’s life as summarized above, but he also survives in the Tibetan imagination as a larger-than-life figure, emerging from the Bka’ gdams glegs bam. In its fictitious dialogues (zhus len), prophecies (lung bstan), and jātaka stories, Atiśa is portrayed as a visionary who – like the Buddha in the frame stories of the Indian jātakas – knows about the previous lives of his students and can predict the development of the Bka’ gdams pa tradition. At the same time, his disciple ’Brom ston pa is elevated to the rank of bodhisattva, a narrative that seems to have originated in circles related to the ’Brom family (van der Kuijp 2005, 20–31). Here we have left the solid ground of historical writing and entered the imaginary, but not less interesting, realm of a powerful visionary construction of the Bka’ gdams pa tradition (Miller, 2004). ’Brom ston Rgyal ba’i ’byung gnas The earliest full-fledged account of ’Brom ston pa’s life currently known was written by Mchims Nam mkha’ grags (1210–1285), the seventh abbot of Snar thang monastery (Schuman, 2016, 73–108), who included a chapter on ’Brom ston in his biography collection Snar thang gser phreng (BDRC W2CZ7888, fols. 167–202; Eimer, 2008). Some strikingly similar sections on ’Brom ston pa’s life are also found within the two early biographies of Atiśa, the Rnam thar rgyas pa and Rnam thar rgyas pa yongs grags, as well as a work by ’Brom Shes rab me lce (= Gzhon nu blo gros?; 13th–14th cents.) composed around the time when the Bka’ gdams glegs bam was compiled, namely right at the beginning of the 14th century (Iuchi, 2016, 7–12). Accounts of ’Brom ston’s life are also included in the later Bka’ gdams chos ’byungs (summarized in Boussemart, 1999; Rai, 2006, 28–38) and in other religious histories such as the Deb ther sngon po (Roerich, 1949, 251–265). The following account is primarily based on ’Brom ston’s biography in Mchims Nam mkha’ grags’s Snar thang gser phreng; the folio numbers provided refer to this For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters text (BDRC W2CZ7888; also in Bod kyi lo rgyus rnam thar phyogs bsgrigs vol. 62 [khu], Xining: Mtsho sngon mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2012; for a modern edition see Mchims Nam mkha’ grags, 2015). Childhood ( fols. 167b–168a) ’Brom ston was born in Phug rings in the nomad area of Byang Rtswa sgye mo in Stod lung (north-west of Lhasa); according to some sources his childhood name was Chos ’phel (Rai, 2006, 33). Bka’ gdams histories give his year of birth as 1004. Judging from the name (with variant spellings), his father Yag gzher sku gshen may have been a Bon po, although this is not stated explicitly. His mother Khu ’Od bza’ lan gcig died early. The young Chos ’phel did not get on well with his stepmother and longed to leave home. In his 14th year he was sent to Snye mo to trade; he delayed his return and studied reading and writing with a certain G.yung chos mgon (d.u.) instead. Studies in Eastern Tibet ( fols. 168b–170b) He met the scholar Se btsun Dbang phyug gzhon nu (d.u.) and decided to follow him to Khams in Eastern Tibet and study with him. Before setting out to Khams, he took the lay vows from Zhang Sna nam Rdo rje dbang phyug (the founder of Rgyal Lha khang, 976–1060) and received the name Rgyal ba’ ’byung gnas (a detail strangely not mentioned in the Snar thang gser phreng). He then joined a group of traders traveling east. He stayed in Mdo smad to study the Abhidharmasamuccaya with a local household priest called Gru Nam mkha’, and then proceeded to Khams where he studied Abhidharma and the Old Tantras with Se btsun, with whom he stayed for 19 or 20 years. He and two of his fellow students became known as “the triad of Khu, Rngog, and ’Brom” (i.e., Khu Brtson grus g.yung drung, Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab, and ’Brom Rgyal ba’i ’byung gnas). ’Brom ston also studied the “Indian language” with a scholar called Sgra tsher ma (“Language Thorn,” d.u.). Meeting Atiśa ( fols. 170b–180a) ’Brom ston heard about Atiśa, who was about to return to India from Western Tibet, and developed strong devotion to him. Se btsun granted him leave and provided provisions for the way to Western Tibet. In Central Tibet ’Brom ston met his future patron ’Phrang kha ber chung (d.u.), who was 1151 preparing to go to war; ’Brom ston convinced him to dismiss the army and build the temple of Phong mdo bdud ’dul, and promised to return to become his household priest if possible. He paid a visit to his father and to Zhang Sna nam Rdo rje dbang phyug, from whom he had taken the Buddhist lay vows. He also convinced some Buddhist teachers of Central Tibet to invite Atiśa once they received word from him that the conditions were favorable. ’Brom ston then proceeded west (led by an emanation of the deity Pehar, as the biography explains) and in Pu hrangs he met Atiśa, thus fulfilling the prophecies made to Atiśa by Tārā that he would meet a layman (Skt. upāsaka) who would become his most important disciple. Atiśa blessed him and gave him a statue of the six-armed Mañjuvajra, a meditation deity of the Guhyasamāja system, which is said to be that still housed in Rwa sgreng monastery today (Iuchi, 2016, 33; image in Henss, 2014, 285). ’Brom ston invited Atiśa to Central Tibet and accompanied him on his journeys to Bsam yas, Lhasa, Yer pa, and finally Snye thang during the following 13 years. He secured material support for his teacher, and on occasion procured gold from his home region of Byang, where he seems to have been well-connected. After Atiśa’s Death ( fols. 180a–196a) It seems that ’Brom ston’s special relationship with the Indian teacher Atiśa was not uncontested, and the events after Atiśa’s death allude to disputes of authority (Vitali, 2015). About a year after Atiśa had passed away, ’Brom ston pa and Rnal ’byor pa chen po were not welcome in Snye thang any more and left. They first went to Bye ma lung in Gnam, but the local teacher Khyi ston Jo ye (d.u.) did not allow them to build a temple there. Finally ’Brom ston followed an invitation from a son of the abovementioned Phrang kha ber chung to come to Dbu ru Byang and founded his monastery in the Rwa sgreng valley. ’Brom ston examined the place and found auspicious signs (Roesler, 2007), and in 1056 he and his companions performed the rituals for pacifying the ground and began building the monastery of Rwa sgreng, which was consecrated in 1057. The biography describes the buildings and the shrine for Atiśa’s relics in Rwa sgreng at some length. It also talks about ’Brom ston’s main disciples, including the “three [spiritual] brothers” Po to ba, Spyan snga ba, and Phu chung ba (see below). Among the texts and doctrines taught by ’Brom For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1152 Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ston, the biography mentions the Prajñāpāramitā, Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, Bodhipathapradīpa, Bhāvanākrama, and treatises on Cittamātra and Madhyamaka. In particular he is described as a teacher of the “graded path” (lam rim). Occasionally he performed small-scale rituals and consecrations and drew maṇḍalas, but declared that he was not very familiar with Kriyātantra rituals. ’Brom ston passed away in the summer of 1064. ’Brom ston stands out among the Buddhist teachers of his time for two reasons: his role as one of the most influential disciples of Atiśa, and as the founder of Rwa sgreng monastery, where some of the most important early Bka’ gdams pa masters were trained. Both are highlighted in works from the Bka’ gdams tradition, but the exclusive role they attribute to ’Brom ston needs to be treated with caution. Other disciples of Atiśa, such as Nag tsho lo tsa ba or Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab, seem to have been equally important for the transmission of his legacy. Moreover, it is not obvious that Rwa sgreng would have been more influential than the monastery of Gsang phu sne’u thog, founded in 1073 by Rngog (Everding, 2009; van der Kuijp, 1987). With between 60 and 80 monastic residents, Rwa sgreng seems to have been a relatively small, and for some time troubled, institution without a continuous succession of abbots in the decades following Dgon pa ba’s death in 1082 (Iuchi, 2016, 20–23; on Dgon pa ba, see below). ’Brom ston pa’s monastery did produce some important teachers. However, its contribution to the rise of monasticism in Central Tibet must have been limited. Even though he lived as a celibate, ’Brom ston pa remained a lay Buddhist throughout his life, which implies that he could not ordain students or instruct them in the Vinaya. If the Bka’ gdams pa tradition contributed to the spread of monasticism, then it was through the activities of ’Brom ston pa’s disciples and their subsequent lineages rather than through the founding fathers of the tradition (Rai, 2006, 117–122, gives a list of monasteries). It is unclear whether ’Brom ston left any literary legacy. The tradition ascribes several works to him: the Bstod pa sum cu pa (Praise [of Atiśa] in Thirty Stanzas, Eimer, 1997, 22–26) and certain sections of the Bka’ gdams glegs bam, as well as letters (Boussemart, 1999, 105–115), a work on “human norms” (Boussemart, 1999, 157–163), and a work on Bka’ gdams pa doctrines (Lha chos bdun ldan) that are only known from quotations in later Bka’ gdams pa sources. These attributions have not been confirmed by modern scholarship. ’Brom ston’s work as a translator and interpreter is also difficult to assess, since no significant translations by him are included in the Tibetan Buddhist canon (one translation of a short gtor ma offering composed by Atiśa [D 1765/ P 2634], and two revisions produced in collaboration with Atiśa, including a revision of the Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, D 510/ P 218, D 12/ P 734,). Thus it seems that he was more important as a teacher who spread Atiśa’s legacy in Central Tibet than as a prolific writer. This lack of a written legacy seems in line with the largely oral transmission during the first generations of Bka’ gdams pa masters in Central Tibet (see Roesler, 2011, 126–131, on the gradual transition from orality to a written literature). It appears that in the first two centuries after his death, ’Brom ston’s legacy was preserved locally by members of the ’Brom family at Rwa sgreng and Stabs kha in Central Tibet (Ehrhard, 2002, 39ff.). At the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries, however, another member of the ’Brom family, ’Brom Kumāramati (Tib. Gzhon nu blo gros, d.u.), passed this local tradition on to the ninth abbot of the monastery of Snar thang in Gtsang, who compiled and publicized the Bka’ gdams pa narratives in the form of the Bka’ gdams glegs bam, which ensured the longterm popularity of the story of the Bka’ gdams tradition (Ehrhard, 2002; Miller, 2004; Sernesi, 2015; Roesler, forthcoming). Lineages and Teachers The Bka’ gdams pa tradition after ’Brom ston pa is usually mapped out in several main lineages, although there is some degree of variety in the way the teacher–disciple lineages are defined (Roesler, 2011, 107–115, provides a brief survey; for an alternative outline, see Rai, 2006, 133). A common denominator is the definition of three lineages originating with the “three brothers”, the most important students of ’Brom ston pa at Rwa sgreng. Po to ba’s lineage became known as the gzhung pa (scriptural tradition), Spyan snga ba’s as the man ngag pa or gdams ngag pa (tradition of the oral precepts), and Phu chung ba is regarded as a transmitter of the biographical tradition and the meditation system of the “sixteen drops” that were later codified in the Bka’ gdams glegs bam (Ehrhard, 2002). In addition For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters to these lineages originating with ’Brom ston pa, the Bka’ gdams chos ’byungs also provide sketches of the lives of other lineages going back to Atiśa, in particular Nag tsho lo tsa ba and his disciples, Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab and his disciples, and Dgon pa ba and his disciples. These can be introduced only very briefly here. Nag tsho Tshul khrims rgyal ba (1011–c. 1064) Nag tsho lo tsa ba Tshul khrims rgyal ba was a longterm student of Atiśa and author of the Bstod pa brgyad cu pa (Hymn on Eighty [Stanzas]; the version that has come down to us is a composite text, as shown in Eimer, 2003; 1989). As mentioned above in the context of Atiśa’s life, he was from Gung thang in Western Tibet. He traveled to India to invite Atiśa to Tibet and stayed with him almost without interruption as travel companion, translator, and interpreter, translating numerous Sanskrit works together with him. His oral account of Atiśa’s life later led to the first written account, which fed into the earliest available full biographies, the Rnam thar rgyas pa and the Rnam thar rgyas pa yongs grags (see above). Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab (b. 10th cent.) and Rngog Blo ldan shes rab (1059–1109) Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab was the son of a Rnying ma master and became one of Atiśa’s most influential disciples. In 1073 he founded the monastery of Gsang phu sne’u thog in Central Tibet (van der Kuijp, 1987; Everding, 2009). Here, his nephew Rngog Blo ldan shes rab initiated a famous Tibetan school of logic and epistemology, which brought forth such illustrious scholars as Phya pa Chos kyi seng ge (1109–1169; Hugon, 2016). Rngog Blo ldan shes rab also taught the graded path, and a famous work on the bstan rim was written by his student and biographer Gro lung pa (11th–12th cents.) (On the bstan rim, see Jackson, 1996; on the biography of Rngog, Kramer, 2007). Dgon pa ba Dbang phyug rgyal mtshan (1016–1082) ’Dzeng Dbang phyug rgyal mtshan, also known as Dgon pa ba, was born in Khams. When he heard that an important Indian paṇḍita had arrived in Western Tibet, he traveled to meet Atiśa, with whom he studied for nine years. After Atiśa’s death 1153 he accompanied ’Brom ston and stayed with him at the newly founded Rwa sgreng monastery. When ’Brom ston had passed away, the monastery was first headed by Rnal ’byor pa chen po A mes Byang chub rin chen (1015–1077/1078) and then by Dgon pa ba. Several important Bka’ gdams pa masters are listed among Dgon pa ba’s students, including Sne’u zur ba Ye shes ’bar (1042–1118), ’Ban Gung rgyal Tshul khrims rgyal ba, also known as ’Bre Ko de lung pa (b. 11th cent.), and the multifaceted ascetic Kha rag sgom chung Dbang phyug blo gros (11th–12th cents.) (Sørensen, 2002). After Dgon pa ba had passed away, Rwa sgreng went through a period without an organized abbatial succession, which is described as a “religious famine” (chos kyi mu ge) in some Tibetan sources (Iuchi, 2016, 21–23). The Bka’ gdams gzhung pa The “scriptural tradition” of the Bka’ gdams pa (bka’ gdams gzhung pa) goes back to ’Brom ston pa’s student Po to ba Rin chen gsal (1027–1105, according to all available Bka’ gdams pa sources; Roerich, 1949, 269, gives 1031 as his birth year; for his biography, see Roesler, 2011, 136–144). Po to ba was born into a Bonpo family in ’Phan yul near Lhasa. He was ordained at Brag rgyab and studied at Rwa sgreng with ’Brom ston. Later in life he became an influential teacher known for his skill in explaining Buddhism in an accessible manner, and he founded his own monastery, Po to dgon pa, in his home region of ’Phan yul. As the designation gzhung pa indicates, his tradition transmitted Buddhist works including the so-called six Bka’ gdams pa core texts (gzhung drug): the Jātakamālā, Udānavarga, Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra, Bodhisattvabhūmi, Śikṣāsamuccaya, and Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, as well as instructions on the graded path to awakening (lam rim) and “mind training” (blo sbyong). These were passed on by Po to ba’s students, who were also the first to record the instructions on the graded path in writing, thus creating the Dpe chos (Dharma Exemplified, Roesler, 2011) and the Be’u bum sngon po (Blue Compendium, Roesler et al., 2015). The most influential teachers among Po to ba’s disciples were Glang ri thang pa Rdo rje seng ge (1054–1123), who composed the short but influential “Blo sbyong in eight verses” (Rai, 2006, 151–152), and Sha ra ba or Shar ba pa Yon tan grags (1070–1141). The latter became the teacher of ’Chad kha ba Ye shes rdo rje For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1154 Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters (1101–1175), author of the famous Blo sbyong don bdun ma (Mind Training in Seven Points; Sweet, 1996, 249–250). The Bka’ gdams gdams ngag pa The Bka’ gdams pa lineage of the gdams ngag pa, sometimes also called man ngag pa (tradition of the oral instructions) goes back to ’Brom ston’s disciple Spyan snga ba Tshul khrims ’bar (1033–1103) (biography in Vetturini, 2007, 109–114; Roerich, 1949, 284–285). He received Buddhist instructions in his childhood and was ordained at the age of 18. He is described as a skillful adept of yoga and meditation, and the biographies also mention that he received tantric transmissions from ’Brom ston pa. In 1093 he founded the monastery of Lo (Lo dgon) based on the Guhyasamāja maṇḍala, assisted by some of Po to ba’s disciples, and later stayed in Smyug rum, where his teachings continued to flourish. Among his most important students were Smyug rum pa Brtson grus ’bar (1042–1109) and Bya yul ba Gzhon nu ’od (1075–1138). His monastery Lo dgon became an important Bka’ gdams pa seat (Iuchi, 2010). Phu chung ba and the Transmission of the “Book of the Bka’ gdams [Tradition]” The third of the “three brothers” is Phu chung ba Gzhon nu rgyal mtshan (1031–1106; Vetturini, 2007, 105–107; Roerich, 1949, 267–268), who founded a monastery not far from Po to ba’s seat. He is traditionally credited with the transmission of the biographical tradition that is codified in the Bka’ gdams glegs bam (Ehrhard, 2002, esp. 38–41), passed down from Atiśa to Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab, from him to Atiśa’s student Shes rab rgyal mtshan, and from him to Phu chung ba. In the Bka’ gdams chos ’byungs his lineage is also identified as the lineage of the (tantric) blessing (byin rlabs) which he received from ’Brom ston pa. His biographers describe him as someone who preferred to “eat the mutton himself” (Roerich, 1949, 267–268), referring to the idea that he spent his time meditating rather than teaching others. One may wonder whether his small monastery in ’Phan yul was abandoned (Roesler & Roesler, 2004, 50) because he did not initiate a strong teacher-student lineage. Conclusion: the Legacy of the Bka’ gdams pa Masters These brief sketches must suffice to outline the main lineages of the Bka’ gdams pa tradition. Their main longterm impact on Buddhist doctrine and literature lies in the genres of the “graded path” (lam rim) and “mental training” (blo sbyong) which originated in the Bka’ gdams pa tradition, but have led to a prolific literary production far beyond Bka’ gdams pa circles. Another longterm impact is the formation of the Dge lugs pa or “New Bka’ gdams pa” school initiated by Tsong kha pa. The Dge lugs pas continued the propagation of Bka’ gdams pa doctrines such as the lam rim. At the same time, they departed from the largely presectarian environment of the early Bka’ gdams pa period, in which school distinctions had hardly played a role (Roesler, forthcoming). For the Dge lugs pa school, sectarian boundaries became more relevant due to a growing interaction between religion and politics, embodied in such important institutions as that of the Dalai Lamas. This, however, is a development that the early Bka’ gdams pas would not have anticipated. Returning to the early Bka’ gdams pa lineages, it is quite striking that Khu ston, who appears as one of Atiśa’s main disciples and is often mentioned in the triad of “Khu Rngog ’Brom”, is more or less eclipsed in later Bka’ gdams pa historiography. His rivalry with ’Brom ston has been mentioned above, and his marginal role may be related to the fact that the Bka’ gdams chos ’byungs as well as the Bka’ gdams glegs bam put much emphasis on ’Brom ston as the central figure of the tradition. The Bka’ gdams glegs bam promotes the idea of ’Brom ston pa being a manifestation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. This identification laid the groundwork for establishing a longer reincarnation line, that became highly influential in later centuries. It begins with an earlier manifestation of Avalokiteśvara, namely Tibet’s first Buddhist king Srong btsan sgam po (7th century), followed by his later incarnation ’Brom ston pa, and finally the chain of Dalai Lama incarnations beginning with Dge ’dun grub (1391–1475), a student of Tsong kha pa, who was himself regarded as an incarnation of Atiśa. ’Brom ston pa was thus retrospectively For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters incorporated into the most prestigious and influential incarnation lineage of Tibet, that of the Dalai Lamas (van der Kuijp, 2005, 20–31; Sørensen, 2005, 244–248). This narrative inspired numerous later teachers and authors, including the fifth Dalai Lama and his regent Sde srid Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho (1653–1705), who employed this continuous line from Srong btsan sgam po to ’Brom ston pa and to the Dalai Lamas to underpin the role of the Dalai Lamas as manifestations of Avalokiteśvara, the patron bodhisattva of the Tibetan people. The soteriological framework created in the Bka’ gdams glegs bam was centered around Atiśa and ’Brom ston pa, but it also included his three main disciples, known as the “three brothers” (sku mched gsum) and established their role within a new human “pantheon” of the tradition. In this process, ’Brom ston pa’s disciples were portrayed as manifestations of the rigs gsum mgon po (bodhisattvas of the three “families”), with Phu chung ba as an emanation of Avalokiteśvara, Po to ba as an emanation of Mañjuśrī, and Spyan snga ba as an emanation of Vajrapāṇi (Ehrhard, 2002, 29–30). They were also identified with three famous ’Phags pa statues representing these bodhisattvas (Ehrhard, 2004, 72–73), and came to be regarded as representing the three jewels (Roesler, 2011, 108) and to be reincarnations of 3 of the 16 sthaviras (direct disciples of the Buddha; for Po to ba this idea is already attested in the 12th century, Roesler, 2011, 108, 141). These identifications were codified in the Bka’ gdams glegs bam, which weaves these ideas into an impressive literary composition (Miller, 2004). The Bka’ gdams glegs bam thus aims to create a picture that links the real teachers with a more visionary level of Buddhist identity and soteriology. Later, from the 15th century on, more historically minded authors began compiling largescale school histories (chos ’byung) outlining the teacher–disciple lineages described above. Four large-scale Bka’ gdams chos ’byungs were written within decades of one another in the late 15th to early 16th centuries, about 100 years after Tsong kha pa had initiated what became the New Bka’ gdams pa or Dge lugs pa school of Tibetan Buddhism. The emergence of this type of literature is arguably related to the consolidation of the tradition in the form of influential lineages and monastic institutions at a time when the different monastic centers and their respective lay patrons across the plateau were competing for prestige and power. Under these circumstances it may have seemed desirable to define the history 1155 and identity of one’s own lineage in writing. At the same time, it may also have been the simple desire to preserve the memories of one’s past at a time when the generations of the founding fathers were long gone, and the testimonies may have been rare and scattered and all too easily lost if not recorded in writing. While ’Brom ston is elevated above all others among Atiśa’s students in Tibetan sources, his figure remains frustratingly elusive since we do not seem to have much reliable literary evidence for the instructions he gave or the transmissions he passed on, and his persona is heavily overlaid with layers of legendary embellishment. Thus, it is mainly through his influential disciples that we can infer what his personal legacy may have been. But for the Bka’ gdams pa tradition itself, he and his monastery Rwa sgreng remain the origin and focal point of the tradition. The tradition radiated out from Rwa sgreng, first transmitted locally in circumscribed regions of Central Tibet, and from the 13th to 14th centuries onwards at larger centers of Buddhist learning, most importantly Snar thang monastery (Schuman, 2016). In the 16th century some of the Bka’ gdams pa key texts were disseminated through blockprinting in Mang yul Gung thang, alongside such important works as →Mi la ras pa’s Mgur ’bum and Padmasambhava’s biography. This highlights the prominence given to these Bka’ gdams pa works within the Tibetan Buddhist literary corpus (Sernesi, 2015). By the time of these printing projects, however, the Bka’ gdams pas were already absorbed into the Dge lugs pa tradition, and Bka’ gdams pa histories were largely understood as describing the precursors of the Dge lugs pa school. While ’Brom ston pa remains slightly enigmatic, the Indian teacher Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna is fairly well documented through his own writings and his early Tibetan biographies, even if in a few cases the authorship and textual transmission of the works attributed to him seem unclear (e.g. Mochizuki, 2004). His impact reaches far beyond the Bka’ gdams pa tradition itself, and his way of summarizing the complexities of 11th-century Indian Buddhism into a manageable and structured graded path has influenced various strands of Tibetan Buddhism, and numerous Tibetan authors of subsequent centuries. His preeminence as the “teacher who was most beneficial for the Tibetans” makes him a unique figure in the revival period of Buddhism in Tibet, far beyond the circles of the Bka’ gdams pa tradition itself. For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1156 Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters Bibliography Boussemart, S., 1999. Dromteunpa, l’humble yogi, Marzens: Editions Vajra Yogini. Bsod nams lha’i dbang po, 1977. “Bka’ gdams rin po che’i chos ’byung rnam thar nyin mor byed pa’i ’od stong,” in: Two Histories of the bKa’-gdams-pa Tradition from the Library of Burmiok Athing, Gangtok: Gonpo, 207–393. Chattopadhyaya, A., 1967. 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For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1158 Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters Vetturini, G., 2007. “The bKa’ gdams pa School of Tibetan Buddhism,” diss., SOAS, University of London. Vitali, R., 2015. “Bka’ gdams pa Religious Politics in Dbus: The One Hundred Years after A ti sha’s Death, in: O. Czaja & G. Hazod, eds., The Illuminating Mirror: Tibet- an Studies in Honour of Per K. Sørensen on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday, Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 511–525. For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Ulrike Roesler