Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

Dr. Uday Dokras

Beginning with humble caves and squat flat-roofed temples, Hindu architecture, then, evolved over the centuries and, despite some regional variation, arrived at a standard arrangement which involved a huge walled complex with massive decorative gateways giving entrance to a sacred space of lesser shrines dominated by the main temple and its monumental series of towers. The design has become so standard that it is copied even today in temples across the world from New Delhi to Malibu, California. Hindu architecture evolved over the centuries from simple rock-cut cave shrines to massive and ornate temples which spread across the Indian sub-continent and beyond, forming a canonical style which is still adhered to today in modern Hindu temples across the globe. Essential elements of the style are precise and harmonious geometry when viewed from all four sides and above, the square form and grid ground plans, soaring towers, and elaborate decorate sculpture which includes gods, worshippers, erotic scenes, animals, and floral and geometric patterns.

Local traditions govern temple architectural typologies; often, structural styles and building methods were progressively blended depending on congregation of experts and promotion of construction activity. While the texts enumerate many nuances in temple architectural styles, only about twenty-odd types dominate the landscape. Early natural caves and frescoed caverns, inspired by Buddhist prayer halls, evolved to rock-cut caves, which progressively incorporated iconographic objects and sculptures. The form evolved from simple, functional structures to imposing, magnificent buildings, which indicate progression of elaboration of and opulence in rituals― it reflects complexities in symbolism too. Local materials and influences determined regional preferences for designs, which evidence mutual inductance and overlapping of styles. This paper documents the diverse and numerous Hindu temple architecture styles based on not only the designs and traditions that are more recurrently featured in ancient texts, but also the exemplars and archetypes that are most commonly observed in ancient temple structures.

ELEMENTS OF INDIAN TEMPLES Part 7 Amalaka } Paper 7 • Kalasha } Paper 7 • Antarala } Paper 7 • Vahana } Paper 7 • Jagati: Covered in Paper 7 a

Building Materials of the Hindu Temples in Cambodia, Indonesia & India Dr UDAY DOKRAS Phd Stockholm Architect Srishti Dokras Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Tampere,Stockholm,Nagpur 1 Building Materials of the Hindu Temples in Cambodia, Indonesia & India CONTENTS CHAPTER I Building Materials of the Hindu Temples In Cambodia, Indonesia & India-Stone-Rocks & Granite 4 India & Angkor 12 As an example let us study the Brihadeeswarar Temple Tamil Nadu 14 CHAPTER II The spread of Hindu Culture and Religion 21 The temple at Mahabalipuram 21 Origin of Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple 25 CHAPTER III-What does it mean? How Sublime Vishnu Temple At Angkor Wat Is An Expression Of Vedic Astronomy- Subhash Kak 30 CHAPTER IV-The Cambodian temples are also ‘Rock” temples 44 CHAPTER V-Sectional Perspective of Angkor Wat and Indian temple 51 CHAPTER VI Ancient Stone temples 54 By DAMIEN GAYLE article 64 Chapter VII Sandstone Stories 77 Tamil Influence 89 Chapter VIII INDONESIAN HINDU TEMPLE OF ROCK The Hindu Masterpiece – Prambanan Temple 92 CHAPTER IX Oldest Hindu Temple is made of sandstone 107 CHAPTER X Building the Stone Pyramids 115 CHAPTER XI Stone Carvings Chapter XII Erotic sculptures PART II COSMOLOGY of the STONE STRUCTURES 159 CHAPTER XII Cosmology 160 PART III-STONE FRACTALS 170 2 Building Materials of the Hindu Temples In India & Cambodia Comparison of Angkor Wat with other Hindu Temples Dr Uday Dokras Architect Srishti Dokras Dr. Uday Dokras SRISHTI DOKRAS B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), BGL( Mumbai University) LL.B., Nagpur University, India Certificat' en Droit, Queens University, Canada, MBA CALSTATE, USA, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Management and Efficacy Consultant, India Interested in Astrology and predictive Sciences B. Arch (IDEAS) India Visiting Architect DUBAI, USA & AUSTRALIA Consultant Design & Architecture 3 PART I Building Materials of the Hindu Temples In Cambodia, Indonesia & India Stone-Rocks & Granite 4 CHAPTER I Building Materials of the Hindu Temples In Cambodia, Indonesia & India Stone-Rocks & Granite x 5 1. Sailors named this Shore Temple as Seven Pagodas due to its tall structure In short, Ancient Indian temples were built by quarrying and sculpting huge stones often granites with huge manpower and animal power for logistics and building. 1. Quarrying Granites: - In ancient times, quarrying granites without steel was the toughest task. But there was a solution which were prevalent among the whole of the ancient world. That was to cut a series of pockets along the surface of the stone, and filling them with wood, watering the woods regularly. As a result, wood swells and makes a crack along the holes. Now as we've quarried the stones. 2.Splitting Granite: In Hampi for example the the whole city was craved out of rock, not just a few sculptures. The question is how did they manage to do such a mammoth task in those days A time when there were no machines, no sophisticated tools…. That speaks of another story about human ingenuity and dedication. Gigantic slabs of rocks were precisely cut from the boulder mountains and hills. They were then moved to the construction sites. Well even today you would find it a bit difficult to access most of these places. And we are talking about moving huge pieces of rocks weighing many tons.As anywhere in the ancient India elephants were the power machines of the times. They used hundreds of them -in construction sites, in battlefields. No wonder so many of the elephants got its place in the carvings not only in Hampi bit many temples in India and abroadalong with gods and kings! 6 Cutting huge blocks of slabs itself was an art and science. What did they use to do that - Two lest suspected items- wooden pegs and water!A series of holes were made on the surface of the rock (along the line of cut). Then they pegged dry wooden pieces into it. Over these pegs water is poured to soak it.The wood expands slowly by absorbing water and the shear force of these tiny peg in a row made the rock crack apart. Once the crack was developed and the rock split, it was the job of elephants and men to move them the construction site. See the picture of the peg holes made on the rock surface. The left side of the rock is flat, means they have had cut away a slab out of it. 7 At times, the quarrying place and place where the temple was built, were far from each other, as temples were usually built at the center of a kingdom's capital city. The practice of breaking of rocks during rainy season by inserting wooden pegs in them is based on the phenomenon of Imbibition pressure generated during germination of seeds and spores is so enormous that it can break asphalt roads and concrete pavements. In older times, the imbibition pressure was used in breaking the rocks and stones. Dry wooden stakes, if driven into a small crack in a rock and then soaked, can develop enough pressure to split the rock. 3. Moving the cut stones:- Stones were often huge to carry them manually. So ancient people needed more power than normal manpower. And, What is the biggest animal found in the jungles of Cambodia or India? Elephants. Men captured Elephants using wooden traps in the forests and trained the strongest and huge elephants to move the quarried stones. Elephants were used for various purposes in India and mainly for war since 6the century BC. Nowadays, the conditions of domestic elephants in India have improved a lot. Also few temples as you see, has caps of large stones (as big as 80 tonnes) placed on its vimana (central tower). They would have been moved on a mud slope elevated at an angle for a length of 2 or 3 kms using circular wooden logs. I particularly refer to the 'Big Temple' in Tanjore India which has a 80 tonnes granite cap (Kumbam) on top of it. It took just five years for the King to complete the temple. It is hard to imagine now, even with the advent of modern techniques and machine power. 4. Sculpting and carving:- Then comes the sculpting and the intricate carvings in the temple. That was done by people who belonged to a particular Hindu community of sculpting and building. 8 Elephant From the temple of 'Darasuram', nealry 800 years old. There are also inscriptions around the temple which tells us about the King paying money and giving land for people who lost their life in the accidents, during the construction activity. Also what I heard is, In general, idle army men were used to work for the construction of a temple in a kingdom. So a huge temple typically depicts the military might of the king. Pradeep Alagarsamy, QUORA Horizontal tie member Timber posts up to lintel Floor level Beam at first floor level Plinth in stone and brick masonry Timber Brick masonry Outer veneer- with mud mortar infill inside fired clay brick Brick masonary temples such as in Nepal with wooden beam support. Material used to make temples (ABOVE) 9 1. MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION Rubble: In prehistoric and early historic times rubble, naturally fragmented or deliberately chipped rock of no specific shape, was the most frequent building material. Stones: It possesses good resistance against abrasion. It is quite strong and durable building material. Wood: Another building material was wood, from both coniferous and deciduous trees, especially poplar; for supports and roof construction in the traditional architecture of India. Mud: Frequent building material in Indian cultural areas which was available everywhere. It is used for plastering and even as a cooling material. 2. TECHNIQUES USED Operating on Rocks: The stones were split using wooden wedges and water to create thermal expansion during the day and then iron tools were used to chip and form the stones into blocks. Method of Lifting Stones through the Ramp: Always top level of 10 Ramp will match with the height of Temple Structure. Stones to be lifted will be shifted to the plane area near the Ramp by using the Traditional Old technology used by Khalaasi Team. Quarrying Granites: cut a series of pockets along the surface of the stone, and filling them with wood, watering the woods regularly. As a result, wood swells and makes a crack along the holes. Means of transportation: (Animals) castrated bull, dogs, elephants, horses, donkeys and other cattle along with man power. THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS Trabeated System: In the trabeated system, the various arrangements between vertical elements (pillars and pilasters) and horizontal elements (cross beams and lintels) are used to provide the stability to the system. The roofing was done by laying horizontally the slabs of stone from one supporting beams or walls to another. . Corbelling System: Each horizontal course is constructed in such a way that stone or bricks in each layer are projected out to bridge the gap between the two walls. It was primarily used to create interiors of the temple and stone shells of super structure above the sanctuary. THE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY 1. The available information of temple construction was collected from stone slabs, metal plates, palm leaves and manuscripts. 2. It started with the selection of team headed by chief architect 3. The construction team consisted of four, Sthapati -Main architect Sutragrahin who did the work assigned by sthapati,Taksaka who did the carving and cutting of stone, Vardhakin is the mason. 4. The first stage was the planning of the temple, The second stage was the craving of different parts of the temples. 5. The third and the final stage consisted of assembling of the parts of temple which consisted of the actual construction of the temple. 6. The tools required such as hammers, chisel was locally made and sharpened regularly. STRUCTURAL PLAN AND EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE Symmetrical forms are always preferred from earthquake resistance as asymmetrical forms produces eccentricity between the centre of mass and centre of rigidity which results in the torsion and tends to stress the concentration. The ground story has dual purpose as apart from carrying its own lateral loads it also carries the shear force of the upper floors which is similar to the downward building of vertical gravity loads. DISADVANTAGES OVER MODERN CONSTRUCTION 1. much slower 2. Limited choices of materials 3. More Weight 4. Occupies more Space 11 5. Limited height 6. Expensive 7. No commercial usage If we visit Siem Reap, Cambodia or our very own Holy Temples at Mamallapuram, Hampi, Khajuraho, KanchiPuram, Thanjavur or any such Holy place, what one gets to witness is sheer brilliance of knowledge of human endeavours as learned and imbibed by the Indians; more particularly those from the peninsular regions of our Country. The examples of that brilliance are too numerous to be known to most of us. The Pallavas, Chalukyas or the Chola Kings were great patrons of the elaborately knowledgeable Seers of the long bygone era. What was passed down in oral tradition was pure intimate knowledge of human life, societal interactions and spiritual wisdom. The so produced Yogis were consummate artists in Sacred Architecture, sculpting and engineering. They had no sophisticated tools to work with as we might have today, but they possessed dedication and courage to transfer onto stone the true feelings of human endeavours. One example can here be cited with absolute certitude is that of the Temple of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia. Brought from the Phnohm Kulen (mount Kulen) about 40 km from the Angkor Wat, they employed over 4000 elephants and 300000 men to shape, sculpt and stack the stone pieces to create this peerless monument over 37 years (only the Holy Temple of Angkor Wat). And what monument??? It is where one feels electric divine energy in the air pervading the entire thousands of square kilometers of those tropical forests. And Angkor Wat is just one… There are well over four dozen masterpieces of their efforts in that region; one more astonishing than the other. Destruction: Joints at many places have opened up in most Temples; many temples have been reduced to ruins by the savagery of human being (1976-77) and onslaught of natural forces. But at numerous places one has to concentrate hard to locate a joint. Such was their perfection in working on stone. In absence of upkeep and maintenance, algae and moss have dried up making way into the tiny crevasses and stuck to the surfaces of stones. But, that hasn’t reduced any of the liveliness of the sculptures and magnificence of the structures. The figures are as lifelike as we humans are. The entire Temple structures are fully sculpted works of art. And even today, these appear as divine and full of life, as might have been in 1296 AD when the first outsider (as per available records), Zhou DaGuan, a Chinese diplomat went there (well 150 years after these were created) only to get mesmerized at the magnificence of those Temples. 12 ‘Now onto the Civil Engineering part. Civil Engineering isn't only what we have studied now. It in fact is the way human being has lived since evolution of this creed. They, the YogiSculptors, knew the nuances as refined as the least count of measurement, the interplay of water and soil, the dynamics of friction, strength of materials and the like to perfection. One need to visit there to fathom the enormity that almost overwhelms one’s senses.If one reads the two Books by Ms Stella Kramrisch on the Hindu Temples, one could fathom the depth of knowledge of Civil Engineering, Sacred Architecture and the like entailed in our Shastras. That knowledge was mastered by those men (and women) and then translated into such perfect monuments. Therefore, wondering that ancient Indians might not have possessed such knowledge, is, at best a flawed view. Our Vedas and our Shastras are unparalleled repositories of knowledge and wisdom of all human endeavors. The only related aspect is that we the people of modern era aren’t aware of such richness and thence not making use of that knowledge. Presently, some work, based upon Vedas is being practiced, say, by practitioners of Vedic Architecture.eIndian temple builders knew civil Engineering, Architecture, City planning, Water management etc from long ago,say, 6000 BP. This can be seen in Cambodia, Angkor Wat, a city bigger than Rome with efficient hydraulics, built by Raja Raja’s descendants.The knowledge on Civil engineering was far superior. We are unable to build such a marvelous temples which stands for thousands of years. Our recently constructed bridge or any other buildings are not lasting for few hundred years.We are constructing buildings and other structures without having complete knowledge on Civil engineering and not our ancestors! India and Angkor: It is said that the sculpture in Mahabalipuram and that of Angkor Wat in Cambodia have striking resemblance. The marvel of the sculptures within the temple complex is that with just a chisel & a hammer, workers of that time carved not only beautiful statues and more but also tried to narrate the stories of Gods & Goddess. This temple was constructed by the most famous rulers of this region, Pallavas around 600-700 A.D. Theyused Mahabalipuram as a trading sea port and this temple also acted as the landmark for navigation. This is also the reason that artisans from many foreign lands worked on building of this temple and other monuments in Mahabalipuram. 13 Their cultural influence is quite evident here like the carvings of lion & dragon which is characteristic of Chinese & other South-East Asian countries. It is one of the oldest stone temples in South India. When seen from a distance it resembles the Dharamraja rath (Chariot). The shore temple is a collection of seven temples or seven pagodas as popularly known. Out of these seven temples five temples are still visible while two temples are submereged in the water. The tip of one such temple can be seen inside the water during a ferry ride which is available near to the beach area. According to the legends and history books, Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram was called ‘Kadalmalai’ meaning the land of sea and mountain. Later it got its popular name Mahabalipuram after the the kind-hearted asura king Mahabali. However, when the Pallavas started ruling the place, the name was changed again and kept after the name of one the first powerful kings from this dynasty namely Narasimhavarman-I who was also known as Mamallan. Here are the interesting facts about Mahabalipuram and the must visit places when in this coastal town: In the case of Angkor also, the five stone towers are intended to mimic the five mountain ranges of Mt. Meru—the mythical home of the gods, for both Hindus and Buddhists. The temple mountain as an architectural design was invented in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian architects quite literally envisioned temples dedicated to Hindu gods on earth as a representation of Mt. Meru. The galleries and the empty spaces that they created between one another and the moat are envisioned as the mountain ranges and oceans that surround Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is not only home to the gods, it is also considered an axis-mundi. An axis-mundi is a cosmic or world axis that connects heaven and earth. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King Suryavarman II and his architects intended for the temple to serve as the supreme abode for Vishnu. Similarly, the symbolism of Angkor Wat serving as an axis mundi was intended to demonstrate the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s central place in the universe. In addition to envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the temple’s architects, of whom we know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that embedded in the temple’s construction is a map of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical record of the temple’s patron. 14 Kedarnath destruction after floods As an example let us study the Brihadeeswarar Temple Tamil Nadu 15 Tag : Cultural UNESCO World Heritage Site. Built in : 1003-1010 AD. Year of Inscription 1987 Reasons for Inscription : It is a peerless piece of architecture and represents the culture PreChola Dynasty in India. Moreover, it is a significant Hindu Temple built in ancient times. Peruvudaiyar Kovil, well known as Brihadeeswarar Temple, RajaRajeshwara and Rajarajeswaram Temple, was edified by Raja Raja Chola I in the year 1010 AD. This ancient shrine is situated at Thanjavur district in Tamil Nadu. Brihadeeshwara Temple is a revered temple for Hindus, which they bestow to Lord Shiva (The God of destruction). This temple is one of the largest temples of India, and one of supreme brilliances of Indian architecture. Category : Archaeological site and Southeastern Asian Religious structure of Hindus. The Nandi(sacred bull) facing the sanctum is also 13 feet in height and 16 feet in length which is the dwarapalaks (the guardians deities of temple) and deities around the main shrine look elegant. The main attraction here is the huge tower above the sanctum which is about 216 feet(66 meter). The tower stands tall and one can see this fabulous structure even as one enters Tanjore. MYSTERY OF THE TEMPLE: 16 The whole construction procedure of theTanjore big temple is that of a great mystery to the archeologists. The great legends who made research on the Tanjore big temple couldn't find out what is the actual fact behind the construction of the Tanjore big temple. Some of the edible mysteries of the Tanjore big temple are • Underground passages in Tanjore big temple • Huge cap stone at the top of Tanjore big temple • Painting in Tanjore big temple • Granite stones used for the temple construction UNDERGROUND PASSAGES: The Tanjore big temple contains more than 100 underground passages to various places. The underground passages also contain some secret passage that leads to various places like thePalace of Raja Raja chola and also to other important places. The underground passages lead to the other temples and also to the other places in and around Tanjore. Most of the underground passages were sealed and if the people choose the wrong passage then there are possibilities that the path may also lead to the dangers. This can also be a trap for the kingdom safety of Raja Raja. HUGE CAP STONE: The biggest mystery of all the other mystery in Tanjore big temple is the huge cap stone in the top of the Tanjore big temple. The weight of the cap stone at the top of Tanjore big templeweighs 80 tons. The main exclamation about the cap stone is that how come the builders of Tanjore big temple were able to place the cap stone at the top of the Gopuram in Tanjore big temple. There were no cranes or any high end equipments used in those days to do these works. The only thing that can help is the elephants. The huge cap of Tanjore big temple is constructed such a way that the shadow of the Tanjore big temple Gopuram will not fall on the ground. It in will just fall on itself. This particular planning and type of construction is not an easy task to go with. The amazing construction in STONE 17 PAINTING:Painting in Tanjore Big temple 18 There are lots of high quality paintings in the Tanjore big temple that explain many things about the kingdom of Raja Raja Chola and also the greatness of the Raja Raja Chola. Some paintings also explain about the Raja Raja Chola's favorite God Shiva. There were also some stories present in the painting present in Tanjore big temple. In the secret passage from Tanjore big temple there were great paintings present that explain about many great things. The most admiring part of thepainting in Tanjore big temple is the painting of Raja Raja Chola offering his respect to his Guru. The colors chosen for the painting are great such that the paintings are still good and healthy to see. 19 GRANITE STONES USED FOR CONSTRUCTION: Granite stones are one of the strongest stones in the world. With the strength of the granite stone the stone is also equally heavy enough that it cannot be carried from one place to other place in the easy way. The stones that are used in Tanjore big temple were brought from a place that is 50 miles away from the Tanjore big temple. Without elephants the work might not be possible for the transportation of the rocks from that place. It is said that more than 1000 elephants were used for the construction of the Tanjore big temple. The ancestors of Chola kingdom were good enough to build temples with the granite stones. 20 CHAPTER II The spread of Hindu Culture and Religion we have harnessed the knowledge that Tamilians and their trade reached Cambodia amongst other countries. Hence it would not be difficult to assume that the Temple architects of Chola kings also participated in the construction of the Angkor complex. In The Indian twin of Angkor Wat Cambodia, world's largest religious monument - it is mentioned that the temple at Mahabalipuram resembles the Angkor temple. The temple at Mahabalipuram 1. Sailors named this Shore Temple as Seven Pagodas due to its tall structure 21 2. A miniature shrine with the Bhu Varaha (Vishnu) image in a well type enclosure of the Shore Temple/3. Durga on a lion with small carved shrine in the Shore Temple 4. Sivalinga with Shiva, Uma and their son Skanda in the Shore Temple complex 5. Pancha Rathas (Pandava Rathas) which is popular for its rock-cut architecture 6. Architectural feature on the Arjuna Ratha in the Pancha Rathas complex 22 7. Carvings on the Bhima Ratha, Pancha Rathas 8. Olakkannesvara Temple above the Mahishasuramardhini Cave Temple and view of the lighthouse from there 23 9. Krishna Cave Temple is a testimony to the ancient art of Vishwakarma Sthapathis (wooden sculpture) 10. Pictorial description of the descent of the Ganges and Arjuna's Penance, Krishna Cave Temple 24 11. Lord Krishna lifting Govardhan Hill in the Krishna Cave Temple 12. Re-incarnation of Lord Vishnu, Varaha (boar) lifting Bhudevi, the mother earth from the sea, Varaha Cave Temple Another temple that is said to resemble Angkor Wat is the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple Origin of Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple A rare old aerial view of Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple RIGHT) Angkor is at left 25 Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple. Of all the Hindu temples in India, the wealthiest by far is the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple. According to Guinness World Records, this temple replaced the Tirupati Temple (also in India) as the richest Hindu temple in the world in 2011 due to the discovery of secret cellars containing a vast treasure of gold, silver and precious stones.It is also said to resemble Angkor and also is a temple built for Vishnu. One of the Holiest Abodes of Vishnu The Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple is located in Thiruvananthapuram, which is situated in the south-western Indian state of Kerala. The principal deity worshiped at this temple is Vishnu. According to one source, the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple is one of the 108 Divya Desams in India. These 108 temples are mentioned by the Hindu Azhvars (saints) between the 6th and 9th centuries AD as the holiest abodes of Vishnu. Therefore, the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple has been occupying an important place in the Hindu religion for a very long time. Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple is located in Thiruvananthapuram on LEFT Angkor at right 26 Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple during ‘Lakshadeepam’ There is a blurring of lines between fact and myth, between faith and reason, but it remains an enigma to the believer and non-believer alike, offering a protective carapace to the faithful. 27 Who constructed the temple and when? Answers to both cannot be retrieved from the mists of time. References in old chronicles, allusions in a few important Sanskrit, Tamil and Malayalam verse narratives, as well as popular legends, have together created a distinct and unmistakable chronicle of its antiquity. Anything connected to the temple was regarded in high esteem and was seen as a symbol of divinity. The Lord’s was the last word! Sage Vilwanangalam and Divakara Muni Legends have woven dramatic and interesting tales about how it all came into being. Among the lores associated, two stories run on parallel lines and are related to two saintly and devout figures from different eras — Sage Vilwamangalam and Divakara Muni — the former a Namboothiri by birth, and the latter a Tulu Brahmin from the northern end of Kerala. What they shared in common was their intense devotion to Lord Krishna. The Playful Krishna It is said that Krishna assumed the form of a human child and was his playful self in the hermitage, often a nuisance during their prayers. When this became a routine, the normally patient sages scolded and punished the prankster. The child vanished, reminding them they would have to travel long and hard to see him again at Ananthankadu. Journey to Ananthankadu The repentant mendicants are said to have been on a difficult journey of self-realization and discovery, and it is believed that they reached the spot where the present temple stands, presumably the densely wooded Ananthankadu. Both versions make mention of a pariah woman ho was instrumental in helping the 28 mendicants identify the place. ‘Ananthashayanam’ The vision of the child returned, manifesting as Sree Padmanabha, or Mahavishnu, the Preserver. Unable to internalize this extremely huge form, he pleaded that the vision shrink to just three times the size of his ‘yogadand’ or staff which would mean 18 feet in length. When the transformation took place, the presence of the God made the sage perform three circumambulations and make an offering of raw mango (the only thing available on the spot) in a coconut shell. And to this day every ritual offering to the deity consists of the salted raw mango in the original coconut shell (now covered with gold) used by the hermit. Presence of a Pariah Woman The third legend has a leitmotif that combines a human story with an element of the miraculous. A pariah woman working near the woods saw a lovely infant, protected by a hooded serpent. She immediately alerted the villagers who reported it to the ruler. Court astrologers confirmed the presence of divinity and a temple was built at this spot, where the ruler of the land subsequently built the present edifice. The Virupaksha temple (originally called Lokesvara temple) at Pattadakal in Karnataka 29 CHAPTER III What does it mean? How The Sublime Vishnu Temple At Angkor Wat Is An Expression Of Vedic Astronomy By author Subhash Kak- 2016 https://swarajyamag.com/culture/how-the-sublime-vishnu-temple-at-angkor-wat-is-an-expression-of-vedicastronomyThis piece was first published as a paper titled ‘The Solar Numbers in Angkor Wat’ The other two works brilliantly written by the author and quoted ad verbatim here are: The Classical Hindu Temple: An Embodiment Of The Astronomical Knowledge Of The Time/The Hindu Temple Is A Representation Of The Cosmos And The Mystery Of Time The Classical Hindu Temple: An Embodiment Of The Astronomical Knowledge Of The Time,bySubhash Kak2016 https://swarajyamag.com/culture/the-classical-hindu-temple-an-embodiment-of-the-astronomical-knowledgeof-the-time Śāstric ( holy hindy) texts describing the plan of the Hindu temple allude to its astronomical basis, and in this, Indian sacred geometry is not different from the sacred geometry of other ancient cultures. If astronomical alignments characterise ancient temples of megalithic Europe, Egyptians, Maya, Aztecs, Javanese and Cambodians, they also characterise Indian temples. For example, the garbhagriha of certain temples is illuminated by the setting sun only on a specific day of the year, or the temple may deviate from the canonical east-west axis and be aligned with a naksatra that has astrological significance for the patron or for the chosen deity of the temple. A part of the astronomical knowledge coded in the temple layout and form is canonical or traditional, while the rest relates to the times when the temple was erected. The astronomy of the temple provides clues relevant not only to the architecture but also the time when it was built. The Agnicayana altar, the centre of the great ritual of the Vedic times that forms a major portion of the narrative of the Yajurveda, is generally seen as the prototype of the Hindu temple and of Vāstu. The altar is first built of 1,000 bricks in five layers (that symbolically represent the five divisions of the year, the five physical elements, as well as five senses) to specific designs. The Agnicayana ritual is based upon the Vedic division of the universe into three parts, earth, atmosphere, and sky (Figure 1), which are assigned numbers 21, 78, and 261, respectively; these 30 numbers add up to 360, which is a symbolic representation of the year. These triples are seen in all reality, and they enlarge to five elements and five senses in a further emanation. The householder had three altars of circular (earth), half-moon (atmosphere), and square (sky) at his home (Figure 2), which are like the head, the heart, and the body of the cosmic purusa. In the Agnicayana ritual, the atmosphere and the sky altars are built afresh in a great ceremony to the east. The numerical mapping is maintained by placement of 21 pebbles around the earth altar, sets of 13 pebbles around each of the 6 dhisnya (atmosphere for 13×6=78) altars, and 261 pebbles around the great new sky altar called the Uttara-vedi. The Uttara-vedi is equivalent to the actual temple structure. Vāstu is the remainder that belongs to Rudra, and Vāstupurusa, the temple platform, is where the gods reside, facing the central square, the Brahmasthāna. Given the recursive nature of Vedic cosmology, we know that the Uttara-vedi also symbolised the patron in whose name the ritual is being performed, as well as purusa and the cosmos. The underlying basis of the Vedic representation and ceremony are the notions of bandhu (equivalence or binding between the outer and the inner), yajña (transformation), and paroksa (paradox). To represent two more layers of reality beyond the purely objective, a sixth layer of bricks that includes the hollow svayamātrnnā brick with an image of the golden purusa inside is made, some gold chips scattered and the fire placed, which constitutes the seventh layer (ŚB 10.1.3.7). The five layers are taken to be equivalent to the Soma, the 31 Rājasūya, the Vājapeya, the Aśvamedha and the Agnisava rites. The two layers beyond denote completion, since seven is a measure of the whole. The meaning of this is that the ceremonies of the great altar subsume all ritual. According to ŚB 7.4.1, within the hollow brick in the navel of the Uttara-vedi, a lotus-leaf is placed upon which is then placed a gold rukma (a disk, with 21 hangings), which symbolises the sun. The golden purusa (representing Prajāpati as well as the Yajamāna himself) is laid on the back with the head towards the east on top the rukma. On the sides of the golden purusa are two offering spoons, like two arms. Upon this image is placed the already-mentioned svayamātrnnā (self-perforated) brick. In total, there are three such bricks, in the centre of the first, the third, and the fifth layers. There are seven more bricks placed to the east of the svayamātrnnā brick in the fifth layer. Next is a wooden mortar, and on top of the mortar is placed the ukhā, the firepan which becomes the focus of the fire ceremony. The “sixth layer is the heavenly world, and the seventh layer is immortality” (ŚB 8.7.4.17-18). That the worship of Śiva, Visnu, and Śakti emerged from Agnicayana is described at length by Viśvambharanātha Tripāthī in his Agnicayana, which was published by Sampurnand Sanskrit University in Varanasi in 1990. The temple is not merely the buildings, the deity, but also the complex of the yajña, pūjā, or ceremonies performed there so that in totality it represents both the being as well as the becoming. The becoming, or the transformation, requires the use of a special vocabulary related to inner processes. Briefly, Rudra is one of the names of Agni. 32 According to Vājasaneyi S. 16.2, Agni has two forms, the auspicious Śiva and the fierce Rudra. During the building of the altar, Agni appears in its raudra manner, and to propitiate it, the Śatarudriya homa is performed. This propitiation of Agni-Rudra is also done literally by a stream of water that drops out of an earthen pot hung over the linga. In one of the constructions of Nāciketa Agni, 21 golden bricks are placed one top of another to form the linga (Taittirīya Br. 3.1.1.6). In the Vaisnava tradition, the visualised golden purusa is Visnu-Nārāyana, who emerges from the navel of the lotus on the Uttara-vedi that represents the waters, and for this reason is also called Padmanābha. The golden disk upon the lotus is then the sudarśana cakra of Visnu. In the building of the Uttara-vedi, seven special krttikā bricks (named ambā, dulā, nitatni, abhrayantī, medhayantī, varsayantī, cupunīkā) together with asādhā, which is the eighth, are employed. The firepan (ukhā), which symbolises Śakti, the womb of all creation, is taken to constitute the ninth. Nine represents completion (as well as renewal, as in the very meaning of the Sanskrit word for nine, nava, or “new”) and symbolises the power of the Goddess. In later representation, which continues this early conception, the nine triangles of the Śri-Cakra represent Prakrti (as a three-fold recursive expansion of the triples of earth, atmosphere, and the sky). The ritual is a sacred theatre that describes dualities to help one transcend them. Rather than the indirect reference to two golden birds of the Rgveda, ŚB 10.5.2.9- 11 says directly that there are two individuals within the body: the one in the right eye is Indra (representing articulated force) and the one in the left eye is Indrānī (Indra’s consort representative of Prakrti). “These two persons in the eyes descend to the cavity of the heart and enter into union with each other, and when they reach the end of their union, the individual sleeps.” But our objective here is not on the connections between Agnicayana and the traditional Śaiva, Vaisnava, or Śākta systems. Rather, we wish to focus on the narrow question of the layout of the Agnicayana structures and relate it to the specifics of the dimensions of the axis and the perimeter of the classical Hindu temple. I have described the astronomy underlying Vedic ritual earlier in several books and papers and it will not be further mentioned here.1 33 Photo: Wikimedia Commons The Śatapatha Br. informs us that the altar is to represent the mystery of time. Its dimensions are to represent earth. “As large as the altar is, so large is the earth” (ŚB 3.7.2.1) indicates that it symbolically represents objective knowledge. The Śatapatha Śāndilya says: — Prajāpati is the year, and the bricks are the joints, the days and nights. The altar is the earth, the Agnicayana the air, and the mahad uktham the sky. The altar is the mind, the Agnicayana the air, and the mahad uktham the speech (ŚB 10.1.2.2-3). — The Year, doubtless, is the same as Death. Prajapati said: “You do not lay down all my forms, making me either too small or too large. That is why you are not immortal... Lay down 360 enclosing stones, 360+36 yajusmati (special) bricks, and 10,800 lokamprnā (ordinary) bricks and you will be laying down all my forms, and you will become immortal.” (ŚB 10.4.3.8) The 10,800 count represents the number of muhurtas (48-minute interval) in a year. The special yajusmati bricks are placed 98 in the first layer, 41 in the second, 71 in the third, 47 in the fourth, and 138 in the fifth layer. These add up to 395; the earth filling between the bricks 34 is taken to be the 396th brick. The sum of the bricks in the fourth and fifth layers together with one space filling is 186 (half the tithes in the solar year), the number of bricks in the third and the fourth layers equals one third the number of days in the lunar year, and so on. Clearly, the objective is to represent the fact of the 360 divisions of the year (the additional 36 days represent the intercalary month) as well as other astronomical facts. The bandhurelationship of the outer with the inner cosmos of the individual required an accurate representation of the outer so that a correspondingly accurate measure of the inner would become possible. To understand how 10,800 lokamprnā bricks can fit the Uttara-vedi altar when the total number of bricks in the construction of the five-layered altar of 7½ square purusa altar is only 1,000, note that the ritual concludes at the end of the 95-year progressive enlargements of the altar by one square purusa per year. When we reach the altar of area 101½ square purusa at the end, the number of bricks it will require is: 1,000 × 2/15 × 203/2 = 13,533 Since not all the bricks are of the same size, it leaves room to place more than 3,000 smaller, suitably marked bricks on the fifth layer (ŚB 10.2.1.9-11). When the size of the altar was smaller, chanted meters could have substituted for the missing bricks. Some of the ritual directly presents astronomical information as in the arrangement shown below which is described in the Śatapatha as representing the motion of the sun around the earth (the nākasads, ŚB 8.6.1). It is striking that this arrangement sees (accurately) the two halves of the year as being unequal by the use of 29 special bricks in the fifth layer of the altar. Figure 3: The representation of the sky in the fifth layer 35 In the Agnicayana ritual, the ritual was performed in a special area where first the three fires of the yajamāna are established in the west in an area called Prācinavamsa, “Old Hall”, or Patnisālā, “Wife’s Hall”, whose dimensions are in the canonical ratio of 1:2. Figure 4: The ritual ground The Prācinavamsa (also called Prāgvamsa) has dimensions of 20×10 (Figure Four). Three steps (three purusa) from it to the east (ŚB 3.5.1.1) is the Mahāvedi, which is an isosceles trapezoid of spine 36 and the two sides of 30 and 24 units. The perimeter of the Mahāvedi is 126.25 whereas that of the Prācinavamsa, taken separately, is 60. But the Prācinavamsa and the Mahāvedi are two components of the larger sacred ground and, therefore, they should be taken together. This unitary representation, in my view, is the plan of the prototype temple. To see the significance of the plan, we now draw the Agniksetra within a rectangular area. It is appropriate here to be guided by the proportions that are clearly spelt out, such as that of 1:2 for the Prācinavamsa, as also by numbers that are in terms of the metre numbers, which are used in a parallel representation of the altar. Amongst the metres, gāyatri (24) is the head, usnih (28) the neck, anustubh (32) the thighs, brhati (36) the ribs, pankti (40) the wings, tristubh (44) the chest, and jagati the hips; virāj (30) is invoked in the description of the Mahāvedi. 36 I think for accord with the measures which are multiples of six, the left area was increased by an additional 1 purusas to the west to become 24×30 as in Figure Five, which is described as an appropriate proportion for a house in later texts such as Varāhamihira’s Brhat Samhitā (53.4) indicating that it is an old tradition. The Prācinavamsa’s share to the perimeter is 24+30+24=78, which is the atmosphere number. This is also in accord with the notion that the Prācinavamsa is tripled in size in the completion of the Mahāvedi, going from 10×20 to 30×60. Figure 5: The temple plan This is the basic temple plan, and it has the overall dimensions 60×30, with a perimeter of 180. The overall temple proportion of 1:2 is attested in later texts such as the Brhat Samhitā and Śilpa Prakāsa. In the Mahāvedi, first an area to make the six dhisnya hearths under the Sadas, the shed or the tent, is marked at six purusa from the left (ŚB 3.6.1.3). To further east is Havirdhāna, the cart shed, and still further east, the Uttara-vedi, the great altar, in a square shape. One is enjoined to make the altar with each side the size of the yoke (ŚB 3.5.1.34), which is 86 a¡gulas (120 angulas = 1 purusa), or in a measure of 10 feet. Eggeling explains that there is disagreement regarding the location and size since there is another option “between four other measurements, viz. he may make it either one third of the area of the large altar, or of unlimited size, or of the size of the yoke or of tem of the sacrificer’s feet”. (Eggeling, Vol II, page 119) I believe this ambiguity is deliberate since the location of the Uttara vedi would depend on its size, which is going to vary from 7½ square purusa to 101½ square purusa. In its basic 37 placement, one would expect the determining factor to be the symmetry with the Sadas of six purusa width. This means that the Uttara-vedi will be built 54 purusas from the west, or six purusas from the east. Thus, the great square altar at the extreme east end of the Mahāvedi is marked off at a point which is 54 units away from the west end. As the Agnicayana altars are made progressive larger by one square purusa each year in a 95year sequence, symmetry requirements imply that the centre of the Uttara-vedi will come closer to the west. Therefore, in advanced constructions, the measure of 54 purusa separating the centre of the Uttara-vedi from the western edge will not hold. A few examples of the shapes of the Uttara-vedi are given in Figure Six. Kurmacit-----------------------------------------------------Syenacit Kankacit ------------------------- Caturascit Figure Six: Four examples of Uttara-vedi: Kurmacit, Śyenacit, Kankacit, Caturscit ABOVE 38 Three of these represent time as turtle, eagle, and kite; in the later Caturascit, the representation is square, in the shape of the Vāstupurusa mandala, and it is easy to see how that could be the prototype for the traditional temple plan. The Vāstupurusa is usually of 64 (or 81) squares in which the outer squares symbolise the 28 (or augmented 32) naksatras. The eight directions of space are presided over by eight planets and eight divinities of the naksatras; these squares, therefore, preside over the daily and the annual motions of the sun and the moon. Within the Vāstupurusa mandala, 12 more assignments are made in the case of the 81-square plan for a total of 45 divinities. Utpala’s commentary on the Brhat Samhita 53.75 speaks of how the building should not face the corners of the square (of the cardinal directions) and how the direction chosen is related to the remainder when the perimeter is divided by eight, indicating the importance given to the perimeter. The Axis And The Perimeter The Agniksetra or the later temple plan of the Vedic ritual represents two significant numbers, 180 and 54, which, when doubled, correspond to astronomical knowledge related to the 360 days of the year (attested in the Rgveda) and the ubiquitous number 108, which shows up as the number of beads in the rosary (japamālā), the number of dance movements (karanas) of the Nātya Śāstra, the names of the God and the Goddess, the number of pithas, the number of dhāms, the number of arhats, and so on. This number 108 has traditionally been derived from the auspicious number nine when written as 1 + 8, from where it also become the auspicious number 18 of the number of Purānas, or the chapters of the Bhagavad Gita. The number 108 is further seen as being auspicious since it is 27×4 where 27 is the number of naksatras. Some have pointed to its noteworthy number theoretic properties such as the symmetry in its representation as the product of the square of two with the cube of three. The number 1,008, also considered auspicious, is viewed as the enlargement of 108 with the interposition of a zero, but this argumentation is incorrect since 10,008 is not an auspicious number. In truth, the auspiciousness of 1,008 is related to the fact that the Kalpa has 1,008 mahāyugas, and thus this number symbolises completion of time. 39 In my Astronomical Code of the Rgveda, I argued that the correct interpretation of 108 is the distance to the sun and the moon from the earth in sun and moon diameters. This number codes a fundamental measure related to our physical universe. Figure Seven presents these proportions. Figure 7: The earth, sun, moon system The currently estimated mean diameter of the sun, Ds, is 1,392,000 km; the mean diameter of the earth, De, is 12,742 km; and the diameter of the moon, Dm, is 3,476 km. The estimated average distance between the earth and the sun is 149,600,000 km, so that Average Distance to Sun/ Sun diameter ≈ 107.5 The distance between the earth and the moon varies considerably from the average perigee of 363,300 km to the average apogee of 405,500 km, for a mean of 384,400 km. Average Distance to Moon/ Moon diameter ≈ 110.58 Diameter of Sun/ Earth diameter ≈ 109.24 It is, thus, correct for these distances to be approximated by the figure of 108. The origin of this number in ancient India may be the discovery that a pole of a certain height removed to a 40 distance of 108 times its height has the same angular size as the sun or the moon. Therefore, the knowledge of the astronomical significance of this number in ancient India is not to be taken as anomalous. But since such a comparison made by the naked eye can only be correct to one or two percent, it seemed logical to take the number to be the round number 108. This interpretation of 108 cannot be taken to be a coincidence since we also have the numbers 261 and 78 explicitly associated with the atmosphere and the sky. Taken together, they add up to 339, which is approximately equal to 108×π, in accord with the notion that the sun, 108 units away from the earth, will inscribe 339 disks from rising to setting. These numbers also show up in the very organisation of the Rgveda and other texts, as I have explained elsewhere, confirming their centrality in Vedic cosmological thinking. This measure is also at the basis of the estimated distance to the sun in ancient Siddhāntic treatises. On the other hand, there is no evidence for the correct estimate of the size of the sun. Discussion The plan of the Hindu temple, as seen in its earliest form in the Agnicayana rite, is a representation of the cosmos. Its axis, from the western gateway to the garbhagrha in the east, represents the distance to the sun (or the moon), and its perimeter represents the duration of the year in terms of the number 360. Specifically, the ratio 360/108 would characterise the standard temple in the proportions related to perimeter and axis. Some later temples deviate from this standard in a variety of ways; in some, the perimeter is not the lunar year of 360 tithis (or civil year of as many days) but rather its count of 354 days. In others, the representation of the axis and the perimeter is not in linear measure but rather expressed symbolically. Eight such deviations from the prototype make the layout unique and interesting and can tell us much about the cosmological ideas of its times. The temple itself, in its three-dimensional form, codes several rhythms of the cosmos and specific alignments related to the geography of the place and the bandhu of the deity and the yajamāna. The architecture may also incorporate themes related to royal power if it was built at the behest of a king. But this does not mean that the relationship of the Hindu temple is to the physical cosmos alone. The Vedic philosophy of bandhu takes the numbers 360 and 108 to be central to the inner cosmos of the individual also. Therefore, walking 108 steps to the sanctum, or doing the 108 41 beads of the rosary, is also a symbolic journey from the body to the heart of consciousness, which is the inner sun.( - https://swarajyamag.com/culture/the-hindu-temple-is-a-representationof-the-cosmos-and-the-mystery-of-time 2016 ) Eleanor Mannikka also explains in her book Angkor Wat: Time, Space and Kingship that the spatial dimensions of Angkor Wat parallel the lengths of the four ages (Yuga) of classical Hindu thought. A yuga or 'age' in Sanatan Dharma (Hinduism), is a large period of time, as it relates to the past, present and future. It is mostly used to describe one of the four dharmic ages - Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga or Kali Yuga -, or a cycle of the four ages, Chatur Yuga.Depending on context, it can refer to one of the seasons, generations, reigns, kalpas (days of Brahma), stages of creation (manifest, maintain, unmanifest), or 1,000 year periods.The archaic form of the Sanskrit word "yuga" is "yug". Other forms are "yugam", "yugānāṃ" and "yuge". In latin language, "juga", or "jug", is used from "jugum", meaning "yoke", used to connect two oxen (e.g. cali-juga = kali-yuga). The word "yuga", as well as "yoga", is derived from Sanskrit: युज्, romanized: yuj, lit. 'to join, or yoke', believed to be derived from proto-IndoEuropean language yeug, 'to join or unite'. There are a total of four yugas: Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga, each having 1/4th less duration and dharma than the previous (Satya most, Kali least). The descending yugas see a gradual decline of dharma, wisdom, knowledge, intellectual capability, lifespan, emotional and physical strength. 1.Thus the visitor to Angkor Wat who walks the causeway to the main entrance and through the courtyards to the final main tower, which once contained a statue of Vishnu, is metaphorically travelling back to the first age of the creation of the universe. 2. Like the other temple-mountains of Angkor, Angkor Wat also replicates the spatial universe in miniature. The central tower is Mount Meru, with its surrounding smaller peaks, bounded in turn by continents (the lower courtyards) and the oceans (the moat). The seven- headed naga (mythical serpent) becomes a symbolic rainbow bridge for humankind to reach the abode of the gods. 42 3. While Suryavarman II may have planned Angkor Wat as his funerary temple or mausoleum, he was never buried there as he died in battle during a failed expedition to subdue the Dai Viet (Vietnamese). It has long been known that the Angkor Wat temple astronomy is derived from Puranic and Siddhantic ideas. The Vedic roots for the division of the solar year in Angkor Wat run into two unequal halves. This division is across the equinoxes and that number has not changed very much during the passage of time from the Brahmanas to the construction of the Angkor Wat temple, so it is not surprising that it figures so prominently in the astronomy. It also appears that the count of 189 days may have been obtained by doubling the measured period for the spring season. 4. The astronomy of Angkor Wat has the lesson that the medieval and ancient Indian temple complexes, which were also built with basic astronomical observations in mind, should be examined for their astronomical bases. Read my papers on the subject them on academia.edu,researchgate.net and scribd 43 CHAPTER IV The Cambodian temples are also ‘Rock” temples Angkor Wat as a Mandala According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should also be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples become spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in other words, intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas. In our paper Angkor Wat, the front side of the main complex (Bjørn Christian Tørrissen/Wikimedia Commons) The great Visnu temple of Angkor Wat was built by the Khmer Emperor Suryavarman II, who reigned during AD 1113-50. This temple was one of the many temples built from AD 879-1191, 44 when the Khmer civilisation was at the height of its power. The Visnu temple has been called one of humankind’s most impressive and enduring architectural achievements. More than 20 years ago, Science carried a comprehensive analysis by Stencel, Gifford and Morón (SGM) of the astronomy and cosmology underlying the design of this temple. The authors concluded that it served as a practical observatory where the rising sun was aligned on the equinox and solstice days with the western entrance of the temple, and they identified 22 sighting lines for seasonally observing the risings of the sun and the moon. Using a survey by Nafilyan and converting the figures to the Cambodian cubit or hat (0.435 m), SGM demonstrated that certain measurements of the temple record calendric and cosmological time cycles. In addition, SGM showed that the west-east axis represents the periods of the yugas. The width of the moat is 439.78 hat; the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to balustrade wall at the end of causeway is 867.03 hat; the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to the first step of the central tower is 1,296.07 hat; and the distance from the first step of bridge to the geographic center of the temple is 1,734.41 hat. These correspond to the periods of 4,32,000, 864,000, 1,296,000, 1,728,000 years for the Kali, Dvapara, Treta, and Krta yuga, respectively. SGM suggest that the very slight discrepancy in the equations might be due to human error or erosion or sinking of the structure. In the central tower, the topmost elevation has external axial dimensions of 189.00 hat east-west, and 176.37 hat north-south, with the sum of 365.37. In the words of SGM, this is “perhaps the most outstanding number” in the complex, “almost the exact length of the solar year.” But SGM were not able to explain the inequality of the two halves, which is the problem that we take up in this paper. We will show that these numbers are old Satapatha Brahmana numbers for the asymmetric motion of the sun. The Historical Background of Angkor Wat The kings of the Khmer empire ruled over a vast domain that reached from what is now southern Vietnam to Yunan, China and from Vietnam westward to the Bay of Bengal. The structures one sees at Angkor today, more than 100 temples in all, are the surviving religious remains of a grand social and administrative metropolis whose other buildings - palaces, public buildings, and houses - were all built of wood and are long since decayed and gone. As in most parts of India, 45 where wood was plentiful, only the gods had the right to live in houses of stone or brick; the sovereigns and the common folk lived in pavilions and houses of wood. Over the half-millenia of Khmer rule, the city of Angkor became a great pilgrimage destination because of the notion of Devaraja, which has been explained by Lokesh Chandra as a coronation icon. Jayavarman II (802-850) was the first to use this royal icon. According to Lokesh Chandra, Devaraja means ‘King of the Gods’ and not ‘God-King’. He is Indra and refers to the highly efficacious aindra mahabhiseka of the Rgvedic rajasuya tradition as elaborated in the Aitareyabrahmana. It was not a simple but a great coronation, a mahabhiseka. It was of extraordinary significance that Jayavarman II performed a Rgvedic rite, which lent him charismatic authority. The increasingly larger temples built by the Khmer kings continued to function as the locus of the devotion to the Devaraja, and were at the same time earthly and symbolic representations of mythical Mt Meru, the cosmological home of the Hindu gods and the axis of the world-system. The symbol of the king’s divine authority was the sign (linga) of Siva within the temple’s inner sanctuary, which represented both the axes of physical and the psychological worlds. The worship of Siva and Visnu separately, and together as Harihara, had been popular for considerable time in southeast Asia; Jayavarman’s chief innovation was to use ancient Vedic mahabhiseka to define the symbol of government. To quote Lokesh Chandra further, The icon used by Jayavarman II for his aindra mahabhiseka, his Devaraja = Indra (icon), became the symbol of the Cambodian state, as the sacred and secular sovereignty denoted by Prajapatısvara/Brahma, as the continuity of the vital flow of the universal (jagat) into the stability of the terrestrial kingdom (raja = rajya). As the founder of the new Kambuja state, he contributed a national palladium under its Cambodian appellation kamraten jagat ta raja/rajya. Whenever the capital was transferred by his successors, it was taken to the new nagara, for it had to be constantly in the capital. Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions of the temple fall far short of communicating the great size, the perfect proportions and the astoundingly beautiful sculpture that everywhere presents itself to the viewer. 46 As an aside, it should be mentioned that some European scholars tended to date Angkor Wat as being after the fourteenth century. The principal reason was that some decorative motifs at Angkor Wat show a striking resemblance to certain motifs of the Italian Renaissance. This argument, which is similar to the one used in dating Indian mathematical texts vis-a-vis Greek texts, has been proven to be wrong. In the words of Cœdes, “If there is some connexion between the twelfth-century art of the Khmers, the direct heirs to the previous centuries, and the art of the Renaissance, it must have been due to a reverse process, that is to the importation of oriental objects into Europe.” Astronomy of Altars and Temples To understand the astronomical aspects of Angkor Wat, it is necessary to begin with the Indian traditions of altar and temple design on which it is based. And since the Angkor Wat ritual hearkened to the Vedic past, it stands to reason that its astronomy was also connected to the Vedic astronomical tradition. In a series of publications I have shown that the Vedic altars had an astronomical basis. In the basic scheme, the circle represented the earth and the square represented the heavens or the deity. But the altar or the temple, as a representation of the dynamism of the universe, required a breaking of the symmetry of the square. As seen clearly in the agnicayana and other altar constructions, this was done in a variety of ways. Although the main altar might be square or its derivative, the overall sacred area was taken to be a departure from this shape. In particular, the temples to the goddess were drawn on a rectangular plan. In the introduction to the Silpa Prakasa, a ninth-twelfth century Orissan temple architecture text, Alice Boner writes, “[the Devı temples] represent the creative expanding forces, and therefore could not be logically be represented by a square, which is an eminently static form. While the immanent supreme principle is represented by the number ONE, the first stir of creation initiates duality, which is the number TWO, and is the producer of THREE and FOUR and all subsequent numbers upto the infinite.” The dynamism is expressed by a doubling of the square to a rectangle or the ratio 1:2, where the garbhagrha is now built in the geometrical centre. For a three-dimensional structure, the basic symmetry-breaking ratio is 1:2:4, which can be continued further to another doubling. 47 The constructions of the Harappan period (2,600-1,900 BC) appear to be according to the same principles. The dynamic ratio of 1:2:4 is the most commonly encountered size of rooms of houses, in the overall plan of houses and the construction of large public buildings. This ratio is also reflected in the overall plan of the large walled sector at Mohenjo Daro called the citadel mound. It is even the most commonly encountered brick size. There is evidence of temple structures in the Harappan period in addition to iconography that recalls the goddess. Structures dating to 2000 BC, built in the design of yantras, have been unearthed in northern Afghanistan. There is ample evidence for a continuity in the religious and artistic tradition of India from the Harappan times, if not earlier. These ideas and the astronomical basis continued in the architecture of the temples of the classical age. Kramrisch has argued that the number 25,920, the number of years in the precessional period of the earth, is also reflected in the plan of the temple. According to the art-historian Alice Boner, [T]he temple must, in its space-directions, be established in relation to the motion of the heavenly bodies. But in as much as it incorporates in a single synthesis the unequal courses of the sun, the moon and the planets, it also symbolises all recurrent time sequences: the day, the month, the year and the wider cycles marked by the recurrence of a complete cycle of eclipses, when the sun and the moon are readjusted in their original positions, anew cycle of creation begins. It is clear then that the Hindu temple is a conception of the astronomical frame of the universe. In this conception, it serves the same purpose as the Vedic altar, which served to express the motions of the sun and the moon. The progressive complexity of the classical temple was inevitable given an attempt to bring in the cycles of the planets and other ideas of the yugas into the scheme. A text like the Silpa Prakasa would be expected to express the principles of temple construction of the times that led to the Angkor Wat temple. Given the prominence to the yuga periods in Angkor Wat and a variety of other evidence, it is clear that there is a continuity between the Vedic and Puranic astronomy and cosmology and the design of Angkor Wat. Solar and lunar measurements Some of the solar and lunar numbers that show up in the design of the Angkor Wat temple are the number of naksatras, the number of months in the year, the days in the lunar month, the days of the solar month, and so so. Lunar observations appear to have been made from the causeway. 48 SGM list 22 alignments in their paper, these could have been used to track not just the solar and lunar motions but also planetary motions. The division of the year into the two halves: 189 and 176.37 has puzzled SGM. But precisely the same division is described in the Satapatha Brahmana. In layer 5 of the altar described in the Satapatha, a division of the year into the two halves in the proportion 15:14 is given. This proportion corresponds to the numbers 189 and 176.4, which are just the numbers used at Angkor Wat. Consider the physics behind the asymmetry in the sun’s orbit. The period from the autumnal equinox to the vernal equinox is smaller than the opposite circuit. The interval between successive perihelia, the anomalistic year, is 365.25964 days, which is 0.01845 days longer than the tropical year on which our calendar is based. In 1,000 calendar years, the date of the perihelion advances about 18 days. The perihelion was roughly on 18 December during the time of the construction of Angkor Wat; and it was on 27 October during early second millennium BC, the most likely period of the composition of the Satapatha Brahmana. In all these cases, the perihelion occurs during the autumn/winter period, and so by Kepler’s 2nd law we know that the speed of the sun in its orbit around the earth is greater during the months of autumn and winter than in spring and summer. During the time of the Satapatha Brahmana, the apogee was about midway through the spring season, which was then somewhat more than 94 days. The extra brick in the spring quadrant may symbolically reflect the discovery that this quarter had more days in it, a discovery made at a time when a satisfactory formula had not yet been developed for the progress of the sun on the ecliptic. It is possible that the period from the spring equinox to the fall equinox was taken to be about 189 days by doubling the period of the spring season; 176 days became the period of the reverse circuit. 49 Why not assume that there was no more to these numbers than a division into the proportions 15:14 derived from some numerological considerations? First, we have the evidence from the Satapatha Brahmana that expressly informs us that the count of days from the winter to the summer solstice was different, and shorter, than the count in the reverse order. Second, the altar design is explicitly about the sun’s circuit around the earth and so the proportion of 15:14 must be converted into the appropriate count with respect to the length of the year. Furthermore, the many astronomical alignments of the Angkor Wat impress on us the fairly elaborate system of naked-eye observations that were the basis of the temple astronomy. But since precisely the same numbers were used in Angkor Wat as were mentioned much earlier in the Satapatha Brahmana, one would presume that these numbers were used as a part of ancient sacred lore. We see the count between the solstices has been changing much faster than the count between the equinoxes because the perigee has been, in the past two thousand years, somewhere between the autumn and the winter months. Because of its relative constancy, the count between the equinoxes became one of the primary ‘constants’ of Vedic/Puranic astronomy. The equinoctial half-years are currently about 186 and 179, respectively, and were not much different when Angkor Wat temple was constructed. Given that the length of the year was known to considerable precision, there is no reason to assume that these counts were not known. But it appears that a ‘normative’ division according to the ancient proportion was used. As it was known that the solar year was about 365.25 days, the old proportion of 15:14 would give the distribution 188.92 and 176.33, and that is very much the Angkor Wat numbers of 189 and 176.37 within human error. In other words, the choice of these ‘constants’ may have been determined by the use of the ancient proportion of 15:14. How The Sublime Vishnu Temple At Angkor Wat Is An Expression Of Vedic Astronomy.(Subhash Kak- 2016,https://swarajyamag.com/culture/howthe-sublime-vishnu-temple-at-angkor-wat-is-an-expression-of-vedic-astronomyThis piece was first published as a paper titled ‘The Solar Numbers in Angkor Wat’ 50 CHAPTER V Sectional Perspective of Angkor Wat and Indian temple Sectional Perspective of Angkor Wat and Indian temple at RIGHT Indian Temple Comparison between Angkor Wat and an Indian Buddhist temple at Paharpur Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur, is among the best known Buddhist Viharas in the Indian Subcontinent and is one of the most important archeological sites in the country. Somapura Mahavihara, an ancient Buddhist monastry was built between 700-800 A.D during the reign of a Buddhist empire According to the Bengali Vocabulatory, the name Paharpur (Pahar = hill, pur = 51 locality) means a locality of hill. World-famous Angkor Wat temple of Cambodia was inspired by this Somapura Mahavihara Paharpur.Comparative Analysis of Paharpur Temple and Angkor Wat.      Within the walls is a courtyard containing the remains of a traditional Buddhist stupa. Each side of the monastery measures some 900 feet (270 metres) in length and is composed of monks' cells; Each worshipping point, excepting the southern one, has a staircase connection with the monastery courtyard in front. The monastery is square in plan, being 281m on each side. The structure holds more than 170 such cells and 92 altars of worship. Two entrance provisions on the north and one in the east. Temple plan of Paharpur The central shrine is a terraced structure springing from a cruciform ground plan and expanding from a mid-pile of square configuration. The unflustered wall surfaces of the lower two terraces are decorated with friezes containing terracotta plaques showing different scenes. The courtyard around the central shrine is dotted with several units of straggling structural ruins. Of them, Panchavede , a group of five votive stupas. Evidence of other sacred objects and shrines is found throughout, including the Jaina chaturmukhar structure, which displays the artistic and religious influences of the monastery's three main residential groups: images of Jaina deities abound on its main walls, and Buddhist terra-cotta artwork and sacred Hindu sculptures are found on its base walls.  During rain, the excavated place becomes a lake, completely placing the lower areas of the underground room wall together with their unique rock and clay relieves, resulting in 52 damage by the activity of salt and dangerous plants growth, while water increasing by capillary activity impacts the higher areas.  Entrance in Paharpur is from north and east whereas in Angkor Wat it is from the west.  Sikhara of Angkor Wat ws terraced wheres in Paharpur it could have been terraced but it is still unknown.  Paharpur was of brick and Angkor Wat was of stone.  Paharpur monastery is much older than those and more importantly Buddhism spread to south-east asia via bengal, so is the architecture and its not the whole monastery, only it's ruins.  The 3d image of assumed Paharpur compared with Angkor Wat could have been like this- Paharpur complex is similar but much smaller in scale to Angkor Wat.The basic idea is the same, massive central stupa surrounded by smaller and more and more numerous stupas. Some other diffrences we get are – Bas reliefs speak of Hindu God Vishnu in Angkor Wat and in Paharpur it speaks of more or less Buddhist culture. Comparative Analysis  Angkor wat has a huge water moat for protection whereas Paharpur does not have it. REFERENCES 2https://swarajyamag.com/culture/the-hindu-temple-is-a-representation-of-the-cosmos-and-the-mystery-of-time 2016 3. Eleanor Mannikka explains in her book Angkor Wat: Time, Space and Kingship Angkor Wat: Ars Orientalis, Published By: The Smithsonian Institution 4.Read them on academia.edu,researchgate.net and scribd 5 https://in.musafir.com/Blog/the-indian-twin-of-angkor-wat-cambodia-worlds-largest-religious-monument.aspx 6. How The Sublime Vishnu Temple At Angkor Wat Is An Expression Of Vedic Astronomy Subhash Kak- 2016,https://swarajyamag.com/culture/how-the-sublime-vishnu-temple-at-angkor-wat-is-anexpression-of-vedic-astronomyThis piece was first published as a paper titled ‘The Solar Numbers in Angkor Wat’ The other two works brilliantly written by the author and quoted ad verbatim here are: The Classical Hindu Temple: An Embodiment Of The Astronomical Knowledge Of The Time The Hindu Temple Is A Representation Of The Cosmos And The Mystery Of Time 53 CHAPTER VI The temple of Angkor Wat, the Egyptian pyramids, Stonehenge, and the famous statues on Easter Island were all built without the conveniences of modern technology. Ancient peoples didn't have access to forklifts, hydraulic cranes, or flatbed trucks. So how did they build the temples and statues that we admire today? In some cases, all they needed was rope, a little manpower, and some ingenious carving. Other construction projects required harnessing the seasons, people, and animals to transport stone blocks weighing many tons to construction sites.A new study published this week in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences finds that ice roads lubricated with water enabled workers in 15th- and 16th-century China to slide stone blocks to Beijing in order to build palaces in the Forbidden City. (See "Beijing's Forbidden City Built on Ice Roads.") Making nature work for them is a common theme in the techniques experts think ancient peoples used to build their monuments and temples."We forget that ancient people are just as smart as we are," said Terry Hunt, an archaeologist at the University of Oregon who studies the Polynesian culture of Easter Island. "In fact, they may have been better focused because they didn't have our distractions."Here are some of the ingenious ways in which ancient workers hauled, slid, and walked the huge stone pieces needed for their big engineering projects from quarries to construction sites. Easter Island Statues Harnessing physics and gravity may help explain an enduring Polynesian myth about how the stone statues of Easter Island (map), otherwise known as moai, "walked" from the quarries to the coast.Erecting stone statues is common in Polynesian cultures as a way of paying respects to the ancestors..When Polynesians first arrived on Easter Island—or Rapa Nui—in the 1200s, they brought the practice with them. They carved and erected the moai pretty much from the time they arrived on the island until sometime between 1722, when Europeans first arrived, 54 and 1774, said Lipo.But how they managed to move statues carved from volcanic rock— weighing 5 to 80 tons (4.5 to 73 metric tonnes)—the 6 to 8 miles (10 to 12 kilometers) from a quarry to their resting places has been a contested subject for some time.Theories range from simply dragging the moai to a display area, or ahu, to mounting them on a kind of sled and rolling them on tree trunks. One hypothesis, put forth by noted researcher, author, and National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence Jared Diamond, posits that Easter Island residents used a kind of "ladder" to help transport their statues.First suggested by Jo Anne Van Tilburg at UCLA, the ladders consisted of two wooden rails attached by fixed crosspieces that were laid down on the ground. In Diamond's book Collapse, he describes how the Rapanui would lash a statue to a wooden sled and then slide the entire package along the ladder to the display areas. Norwegian Thor Heyerdahl and Czech engineer Pavel Pavel have both suggested the moai walked from the quarries to the ahu in the mid-1900s and in 1990. But in 2011, Lipo and Hunt published a fleshed-out explanation of their hypothesis about how, rather than being dragged in one way or another, the statues of Easter Island were walked to their destinations.In their book The Statues That Walked: Unraveling the Mystery of Easter Island, they argue that the shape of unfinished statues—with their forward-leaning bellies and D-shaped bases—would have allowed people to rock a statue from side to side as it tipped forward. It's similar to how one might rock a refrigerator across the floor, said Lipo. In 2011, funded by a grant from National Geographic's Expeditions Council, Lipo and Hunt demonstrated this movement with a ten-foot-tall, five-ton replica statue and a team of 18 people.They were able to walk their statue 330 feet (100 meters) in 40 minutes. The Rapanui probably could have gone across the island with a statue in a matter of weeks in this fashion, said Lipo.Once a statue arrived at an ahu, Hunt and Lipo believe workers would refashion the base so that the monolith could stand on its own. They would also add eyes and, on some of the statues, a headpiece.One of the more surprising things, according to Hunt, was how easy it was once the team of people got the statue rocking. "It sort of starts walking itself," he said. "It's a little eerie—this multi-ton thing is walking and we're not trying very hard to make it move." Temple of Angkor Wat 55 The seat of the Khmer kingdom from the 9th to the 15th centuries, the ancient city of Angkor—in what is now Cambodia—is perhaps best known for the temple of Angkor Wat. (See the city of Angkor in 3-D.)"Angkor Wat is only one temple among others," said Christophe Pottier, an archaeologist and architect with the French Institute for Asian Studies in Bangkok and an expert on the ancient city.But it is the largest temple, and its design is heavily influenced by Indian and Chinese cultures, he explained.Trade relations with India and China ensured they left their mark on the Khmer, said Pottier. "Angkor is really at the crossroads of two giant civilizations, and [the Khmer] benefited from both."Indian religion played a prominent role in the design of many of Angkor's temples, Pottier said. "They are not palaces; they are not places for the living. They were houses for gods."The Khmer gods lived on top of a mythical mountain called Mount Meru. And so Angkor's temples were built as monoliths to symbolize that mountain.The city is situated in an alluvial plain, said Pottier. So when the Khmer first started building their temples in the ninth century, they used bricks made of clay dug up from the surrounding areas. But starting in the tenth century, they began to use stone blocks in their construction.The quarries that produced those blocks were about 31 to 43 miles (50 to 70 kilometers) away in a sandstone plateau.Of the blocks used in Angkor's temples, 90 to 95 percent were between 440 and 660 pounds (200 to 300 kilograms), said Pottier. And initially, experts thought ancient workers used roads to transport the stones to the city.But about 30 to 40 years ago, researchers identified canals linking Angkor to the quarries, Pottier explained. Most likely, the Khmer u sed rafts to float the blocks down to the city, especially during the rainy season, he said."During the dry season, [they] would have concentrated more on carving the blocks and assembling them." Once the blocks reached construction sites in Angkor, workers could have rolled the stones on wooden rollers for short distances, the archaeologist explained. A system of scaffolding, levees, and pulleys likely enabled the Khmer to position the blocks while constructing their temples, Pottier added. (Learn more about the city of Angkor in National Geographic magazine.) Stonehenge It seems the mysteries surrounding this Stone Age monument are endless. But one of the more down-to-Earth questions that has tugged at the imagination of experts, and the public, is how 56 early Britons managed to move the monument's enormous stones into place.Two main kinds of stone were used to build Stonehenge: bluestones, which make up the monument's inner ring, and sarsen stones, which populate the outer ring. The sarsens have been moved about 40 to 50 kilometers [25 to 31 miles] from essentially local sources. They were most likely moved over land routes mounted on sleds, which then slid across rollers or rails, he explained. Some of the bigger sarsens weigh about 40 tons (36 metric tonnes) and would need about 150 people to pull them along, Darvill added. Stonehenge sarsens weigh about 20 tons [18 metric tonnes] or more, and sliding the stones on rails can be slightly unstable. The favorite theory is that stone-carrying sledges slid along logs lubricated with water. Such a method appears in Egyptian and Mesopotamian depictions, although Pearson doesn't think there is any connection between Stonehenge and Egypt or Mesopotamia.The bluestones, sourced 155 miles (250 kilometers) away in Wales, needed to travel much farther along different routes to Salisbury Plain (map)"There are various route options, but all involve crossing major rivers or using the sea routes around the coast," he said. Experiments show that even the largest bluestones, which weigh in at 4 tons (3.6 metric tonnes), could travel waterways via rafts. Egyptian Pyramids Theories abound on how ancient Egyptians moved the enormous limestone and sandstone blocks into place for their pyramids. But how did they transport these blocks, some weighing hundreds of tons, from the quarries to the construction sites? The use of Nile whenever possible enabled the stone movement from mainly quarries in ancient Egypt were located along the Nile, so the transportation distances were relatively short. But for quarries located tens to hundreds of miles from construction sites, ancient Egyptians probably used a combination of manpower, sleds and rollers, and waterways to transport their building materials, Basalt quarries in Egypt's northwestern Faiyum desert (map), about 31 to 37 miles (50 to 60 kilometers) southwest of Cairo, produced blocks that weighed up to ten tons (nine metric tonnes).In the Old Kingdom, about 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, workers would wedge a block out of the side of a Faiyum quarry and let it fall onto a paved road, explained Storemyr. The road wended its way southward for seven miles (12 kilometers) until it reached a nowdried-out lake that connected to the Nile River.Workers would then take their stone block up the Nile to the intended construction site.Some sort of railway could have been made with 57 some type of wood with fixed beams that a sledge that the stone is mounted on could be dragged on with lots of people, lots of rope, lots of animals.The railway, mounted on top of the paved road, would enable workers and animals to lug a stone on top of its sled to the lake and, eventually, up the Nile to the emerging pyramids. 1 Once upon a time, or around 1580, while cutting a path through the thick Cambodian jungle, Portuguese missionaries came upon huge towers carved into rocks that were in ruins and covered in roots and vines. Continuing on, they discovered an ancient lost city that was twice as large as Manhattan and that nature was trying to swallow. The missionaries had discovered abandoned Angkor Wat—the 500-acre site is one of the world’s largest religious monuments and the most elaborate of the Angkor’s temples. There are more than 1,000 Temples of Angkor which were built from the 9th to 13th centuries during a time when the Kingdom of Cambodia was one of the most powerful civilizations on the planet. There were rarely any inscriptions found in later centuries after 1431, when Angkor was seized by the Thai army. During its prime, as many as 750,000 – one million people lived in Angkor, making it one of the greatest vanishing acts of all time. Archaeologists now know that Angkor Wat and many of its surrounding structures were built to appease “devas” and “asuras” which are angelic demi-Gods of the Hindu religion. Thousands upon thousands of these demi-god beings are carved into every single rock temple at the site. Both Tomb Raider and Indiana Jones Temple of Doom were filmed here. Angkor Archaeological Park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1992. New research claims to have solved the mystery of how the huge stones of Angkor Wats were moved. “The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals. The findings shed light on how the site’s 5 million to 10 million bricks, some weighing up to 3,300 pounds, made it to the temple from quarries at the base of a nearby mountain.” The mystique of Angkor may cry out to the adventurer in us all, but the roots and trees are now being cut back as Angkor is being restored. So many people come here, about 2 – 3 million a year; all that walking and climbing on the (mostly) sandstone monuments caused additional damage to the archaeological sites at Angkor. These photos -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.From Angkor Wat to Stonehenge: How Ancient People Moved Mountains. From temples to pyramids to statues, ancient techniques moved giant blocks. J A N E J . L E E , N A T I O N A L G E O G R A P H I C ,2013. 58 https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/11/131106-how-ancient-people-moved-huge- structures-archaeology/ hearken to ancient Angkor as the Temples of Doom for a Tomb Raider to explore. “Echoes of Silence; the beauty and mystical ambiance of Ta Prohm. Angkor, Cambodia,” the photographer wrote. Photo #1 by Peter Nijenhuis Buddhist monks in front of the reflection pool at Angkor Wat, Cambodia, the city’s most notable edifice. It was built to represent the Hindu “Mountain of the Gods,” and served as a funerary temple. The main temple of Angkor Wat was built between 1113 and 1150 “by King Suryavarman II.” Suryavarman ascended to the throne after prevailing in a battle with a rival prince. An inscription says that, in the course of combat, Suryavarman leapt onto his rival’s war elephant and killed him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays a serpent.” Photo #2 by Sam Garza 59 Aerial of Angkor Wat. The Earth Observatory explains, “Tucked deep in the Cambodian rainforest, the ancient Angkor Wat temple is considered one of the most valuable architectural sites in Asia. Angkor Wat is the pinnacle of the city of Angkor, capital of the once-powerful Khmer Empire of Southeast Asia. The temple was built by Suryavarman II between 1113 and 1150 AD. Dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat is a representation of Mount Meru, home of the gods and the center of the Hindu universe. In addition to its unique pyramid temple architecture, Angkor Wat is covered with intricate bas-relief carvings of Hindu epics. At the center of Angkor Wat are five towers that represent the five peaks of Mount Meru. The round towers mark out the corners and the center of the innermost square of the complex. Like the mountain peaks they represent, the towers are pointed on top. The pinnacle of each tower is slightly lighter than the surrounding black stone in this image 60 The Iconic tree at Ta Prohm, Siem Reap, Cambodia. According to Wikitravel, “Built during the time of king Jayavarman VII and is best known as the temple where trees have been left intertwined with the stonework, much as it was uncovered from the jungle. It might be considered in a state of disrepair but there is a strange beauty in the marvelous strangler fig trees which provide a stunning display of the embrace between nature and the human handiwork. This is one of the most popular temples after Angkor Wat and the Bayon because of the beautiful combinations of wood and stone.” The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals, according to new research. The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some weighing up to 3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms), made it to the temple from quarries at the base of a nearby mountain. "We found many quarries of sandstone blocks used for the Angkor temples and also the transportation route of the sandstone blocks," wrote study co-author Estuo Uchida of Japan's Waseda University, in an email. In the 12th century, King Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire began work on a 500-acre (200 hectare) temple in the capital city of Angkor, in what is now Cambodia. The complex was built to honor the Hindu god Vishnu, but 14th-century leaders converted the site into a Buddhist temple. One of the big questions about the construction of Angkor is how the stones were transported to the building sites from quarries in the Kulen hills to the north. For years there’s been a theory that the blocks took a rather round-about route, moving by water southward to the Tonle Sap, 61 Cambodia’s great lake, then along the lake’s shoreline, then up the Siem Reap River (against the current, no less) to Angkor. Now comes a study that concludes the route may have been much more direct, and made no use of the lake. Geologist Estuo Uchida of Japan’s Waseda University, co-author of the study, says that analysis of satellite images suggests the presence of an ancient canal that connected Kulen quarries pretty much straight to the Angkor area. During the Angkor period, there were five Royal Roads linking the capital city of Angkor with provincial principal cities. Seven Temples d'étape, six Fire Shrines, and 25 masonry bridges were constructed along the East Royal Road to Preah Khan of Kompong Svay.Most of the sandstone blocks for the bridge balustrades were supplied from quarries in the southeastern foothills of Kulen Mountain, but that the bridges close to Preah Khan of Kompong Svay have sandstone balustrades supplied from nearby quarries. There were five sources of supply of ranges of laterite blocks were narrower than those of the sandstone blocks. Judging from magnetic susceptibilities, supply ranges, shapes, orientations of bedding planes, and stacking methods of the stone blocks, it was concluded that the construction age of the bridges is highly likely to have been in the early Angkor Wat period. Supply ranges of stone blocks used in masonry bridges and their construction period along the East Royal Road in the Khmer Empire, Cambodia,Etsuo Uchida's Lab,Heritage Science 8(38):1-16, April 2020 Over the years, quite a lot of academic brainpower has gone into trying to answer questions of which stones came from where. Have a look at the website of the Cambodia Stone Project, a fascinating consortium of experts from many countries of the world. Their job requires both a lot of field research and skill at theorizing and connecting dots. There are no records from the era to tell how stones were transported the long distances, and the temples’ bas reliefs of daily life aren’t much help, including only a few scenes that appear to show construction workers. A stream-bed quarry near Beng Mealea temple 62 The skills of Khmer sculptors and master masons were remarkable, but I’ve always been moved too by the handiwork of the less celebrated people who birthed the stones. A great place to see that is a humble little quarry on the banks of a stream near Beng Mealea temple. Over the centuries, the flow of water softened sharp edges, but you can still see what resembles a ghostly staircase leading down to the stream, where block after block were removed in sequence. Here and there individual chisel strokes are visible. Probably the blocks were floated downstream to Beng Mealea to take their allotted places as the great monument rose in the 12th Century. The quarry’s easy to reach if you’d like to take a look. About a kilometer past Beng Mealea on the road to Koh Ker, you come to a bridge across the stream. The quarry’s right beneath it.1 Floating stones-(Image: Richard Nowitz/NGS) ___________________________________________________________________ Mystery of Angkor Wat Temple's Huge Stones Solved, Tia Ghose, LIFE IT IS never too late to find a shortcut. Centuries after the construction of Cambodia’s Angkor Wat, archaeologists have uncovered traces of a series of canals that suggest the 5 million tonnes of sandstone used to build the temples took a far shorter route than previously thought. The sandstone blocks each weigh up to 1.5 tonnes and originate from quarries at Mount Kulen. It was thought they were taken 35 kilometres along a canal to Tonlé Sap Lake, rafted another 35 km along the lake, then taken up the Siem Reap River for 15 km, against the current. Thinking this was unlikely, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan, used satellite images to search for a shortcut. The canals they discovered led from the foot of Mount Kulen to Angkor – a gentle 34-km route, as opposed to the arduous 90-km trek 63 previously suggested. The pair also uncovered more than 50 quarries at the foot of Mount Kulen and along the route. The stones they found matched those in the temples (Journal of Archaeological Science, doi.org/jhf). It is believed by researchers like Uchida that all the stone used for the monuments was probably transported along these canals.However, Some others believe the canals were used for several purposes, including the transportation of important minerals such as iron.1 The huge stones from which the Cambodian temple complex Angkor Wat is built were carried to the area by a series of since-filled in canals, a new study claims.The 12th century temple complex is built from five to ten million sandstone blocks weighing up to 1.5 tons that were hewn from quarries at the base of nearby Mount Kulen.It was built during the reign of just one king, raising the question of how so many stones where transported from the sacred mountain to the temple site in just a few decades. Mystery of the Khemer stones solved - they were 'brought to the area by a massive network of canals'-Findings reveal how 12th century temple complex was built out of millions of stone blocks weighing up to 1.5tons in just a few decades.By DAMIEN GAYLE The Sandstone Quarries of the Angkor Monuments in the Southeastern Foothills of Kulen Mountain. More than 50 sandstone quarriethe were discovered on the southeastern foot of Mt. Kulen, which is approximately 35 km northeast of the Angkor monuments quarried at different times. A canal 64 was identified by satellite images, connecting quarry sites at the foot of Mt. Kulen to the Angkor monuments and there is a high probability that the canal was used for the transportation of sandstone blocks from Mt. Kulen. This lithotype,( an etched stone surface for printing a design in reliefalso : an imprint made from it ) which has also been called grey or green sandstone, arkose, or gray to yellowish brown sandstone, is occurring extensively in architectural elements and stone blocks of the Angkor period and has been also identified in most of the decorative sculptures of Angkor styles collected in the Musée Guimet and at the National Museum of Cambodia. This stone, which constitutes the main subhorizontal tablelands of Northern Cambodia, was the preferred building material during the highly centralized Angkor kingdom. A specific role in the Angkor sculptural production is played by a volcanic-rich graywacke According to the existing data, the stone used for the images of deities placed inside the sanctuaries continued to be different from building and decorative stone material also during the Angkorian period- graywacke green to bluish greywacke, very fine, compact, feldspar-rich sandstone.. This sandstone, markedly immature and rich in volcanic rock fragments, was predominantly used during the reign of Jayavaraman VII for Bayon style statuary (ca. 1180–ca. 1230).Finally, quartz arenite of different color and grain size is found predominantly in decorated architectural elements of pre-Angkor and Angkor period and this particular lithotype represents the favorite stone material for the architectural element of intricate details. In this case, the choice of a specific stone seems to have been influenced mostly by technical motivations rather than geographical or historical reasons. The 2009 Survey of Khmer Quarries in Siem Reap and Preah Vihear Provinces to acquire and analyze rock samples shows where this stone is used in architectural elements, lintels and columns of different periods2 Restoration of the Angkor monuments by Japanese Government Team for Safeguarding Angkor, Etsuo Uchida Et al. JOURNAL OF MINERALOGY PETROLOGY AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 93(11):411-426,998 2.Federico Carò, "From Quarry to Sculpture: Understanding Provenance, Typologies, and Uses of Khmer Stones." New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–, http://www.metmuseum.org/research/conservation-andscientific-research/scientific-research/khmer-stones (June 2009, updated January 2014) 65 Buddhist or Hindu temples built mainly of sandstone and laterite.Angkor was built from sandstone quarries from 145 locations in an area around a 2 km east-west bank in Kulen Mountain's southeastern foothills. Seven Angkor quarrying areas (Areas A to G) which pointed towards the fact that in the Angkor period , sandstone block quarrying began near the bank's eastern end, then moved counterclockwise to the north side of the bank. 1 A 2012–2013 pilot archaeological excavation by the École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) and University of Sydney in the World Heritage Site of Angkor has discovered the location of the first historical bronze workshop in all Southeast Asia. Located next to the Royal Palace of Angkor Thom, the first identified royal workshop of Angkor and the region was of considerable importance to the political elite who commissioned its products to furnish its palaces and temples with objects, and to legitimize its rule with images of the gods. The Artisans: Between the 9th and 15th centuries CE the builders and artisans of Angkor and its territories furnished their landscapes with thousands of temples and tens of thousands of sacred sculptures, yet the operational behaviour of these craft specialists is little known. Appraisal of the procurement of raw materials, manufacturing methods, and sites of production for the makers 66 of temples and sculptures reveal that a production site associated with the temple of Bakong was identified by surface remains of sandstone debitage and unfinished sculptures. Excavation revealed a 9th-century building associated with large-scale sandstone waste deposits and another phase of sculpture production in the 12th and 13th centuries. The site was likely used as a dump for construction of nearby temples and later to produce images of the gods destined for veneration. Moreover, the workshop was part of a network of craft specialists who sourced many thousands of tons of specific sandstone across the Angkorian landscape. Quarries and transportation routes of Angkor monument sandstone blocks The Angkor monuments are the World Cultural Heritages constructed in the 9th century to the 13th century. Sandstone, laterite and brick are the main stone materials used in the monuments. In a study, the sandstones used in the 28 main monuments were investigated and compared to each other. the quarry of the sandstones changed with the times. For the grey to yellowish brown sandstones, there is however no significant difference in regard to the constitutent mineral, bulk chemical composition and chemical compositions of plagioclase and garnet. The percentage of the sandstone blocks with the vertical bedding plane decreased abruptly after West Mebon construction. This fact means that the monuments have began to be constructed with taking account the orientation of the bedding plane of the sandstone after West Mebon construction. The sandstones can be divided into three types : (1) grey to yellowish brown sandstones, (2) red sandstone and (3) greenish greywacke. The grey to yellowish brown sandstone is most popular and used in almost all monuments. Based on the magnetic susceptibility of the grey to yellowish brown sandstone, the investigated monuments can be divided into 8 groups except for Banteay Srei. From the ninth to the thirteenth century, Angkor was one of the most advanced urban centres in the world. Some estimates suggest that the population numbered close to a million people, making Angkor by far the largest city in this period. Water was the lifeblood of the Khmer Empire and sustained the great metropolis of Angkor. The Khmer people that inhabited Angkor had a complex and multi-dimensional relationship with water. As their empire grew, so did its thirst for water. Alongside its importance in sustaining agriculture and thus the expansion of the Khmer Empire, the Khmers had a more immediate interaction with water on a daily basis. 67 “hydraulic city”: In the 1950s, the French archaeologist Bernard-Philippe Groslier introduced the “hydraulic city” hypothesis, arguing that Angkor was built on a vast water management system of canals, reservoirs and tanks that provided a constant supply of water for crops.  Carving at the Capital: A stone workshop at Hariharālaya, Angkor, Martin Polkinghorne,January 2015-Bulletin de l Ecole française d Extrême-Orient 101(1):55-90  The Sandstone Quarries of the Angkor Monuments in the Southeastern Foothills of Kulen Mountain, Etsuo Uchida,Ryota Watanabe,Motoki Murasugi et al Archaeological Discovery 8(03):207-227 May Author links open overlay panelEtsuoUchidaaIchitaShimodaJournal of Archaeological Science.Volume 40, Issue 2, February 2013, Pages 1158-1164  Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda, “Quarries and transportation routes of Angkor monument sandstone blocks,” Journal of Archaeological Science 40, no. 2 (2013): 1158-1164.  B.P. Groslier, “The Angkorian Hydraulic City: Exploitation or Over-Exploitation of the Soil?” trans. Terry Lustig and Cristophe Pottier, Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient 66 (1979): 161-202 Groslier suggested that the Khmers had established an agricultural system that was capable of sustaining a population of over a million who in turn served as the labour force that constructed the massive symbols of Khmer power in the form of the grand temples of Angkor. After he presented his theory, a fierce debate erupted over the validity of the “hydraulic city” hypothesis. Groslier’s opponents argued that Angkor’s canals and reservoirs were not part of an elaborate irrigation system but were designed purely for religious purposes. The debate raged for decades up to the twentieth century and was only settled when researchers, using advanced mapping and remote sensing technology, were able to demonstrate that Angkor was indeed a “hydraulic city” served by an advanced water management system that stretched across much of Cambodia. The work of the Japanese Government sponsored team lead by Etsuo Uchida in Determining the construction sequence of the Preah Vihear monument in Cambodia from its sandstone block 68 characteristics,Etsuo Uchida et alHeritage Science volume 5, Article number: 42 (2017) and I am quoting adverbatim: “The Preah Vihear monument in Cambodia, located close to the border with Thailand consists of masonry buildings constructed of siliceous sandstone blocks. Five construction stages were identified to reveale that the Western Annex Hall (N2) is the oldest edifice in the Preah Vihear monument. We also reconfirmed that the Preah Vihear monument was constructed over a range of years, spanning the Bakheng style period to the Angkor Wat style period (the end of the 9th century to the end of 12th century). It was clarified that during the construction of Preah Vihear, the style of pediment ends changed from pediments ending in scrolls made from one block, to pediments ending in scrolls made from two blocks, and finally to pediments ending in fiveheaded nagas. Over the same time span, the size of the sandstone blocks used in construction Plan view of the Preah Vihear showing the name and symbol of each building. The five construction stages established in this study based on sandstone characteristics and pediment end style are shown as different colors, grading from blue to red, corresponding to oldest to newest edifices. Arrows indicate the construction sequence with respect to adjacent buildings. Location of the representative Khmer monuments, including the Preah Vihear monument The provenance of sandstones used for constructing the Khmer monuments is also shown in this increased markedly. Photograph of the southern face of the Western Annex Hall (N2) showing sections constructed during various stages. The central part (the platform and upper structure), the lower platform of the eastern part, and the platform of the western part were constructed first (first stage); the upper 69 structure and upper platform of the eastern part followed (second stage); and finally, the upper structure of the western part was constructed (third stage) 70 71 Using sandstone block chemical and magnetic characteristics, as well as stone arrangement and decoration, a construction sequence for the buildings in the Preah Vihear monument was established comprising five stages. The buildings and their distinctive stone characteristics are outlined below in order of their construction: 1. First stage (the Bakheng style period:the end of the 9th century to the beginning of the 10th century): initial construction of the upper structure of the central part and platform of the Western Annex Hall (N2) took place to form the oldest edifice in the Preah Vihear monument. The sandstone blocks in this stage are characterized by low magnetic susceptibilities, small block size, with a high percentage of vertical bedding planes. The stone block characteristics of the Western Annex Hall (N2) are completely different from the other buildings in the Preah Vihear monument. Previous works by Parmantier [9] and Sahai did not recognized that this building was the oldest one in the construction sequence of the Preah Vihear monument. 2. Second stage (the middle Khleang style period:the early 11th century): ongoing construction of the upper structure of the eastern part of the Western Annex Hall (N2), Eastern Annex Hall (N1) (around AD 1024 or AD 1026), Western U-shaped Extension (O2), and the platform of the Western L-shaped Gallery (K2) took place. The sandstone blocks used in this second stage are relatively enriched in K, Ti, Fe, Zn, Rb, and Zr and have high magnetic susceptibilities. 3. Third stage (the late Khleang style period:the early 11th century to the mid-11th century): construction of the upper structure of the western part of the Western Annex Hall (N2), Eastern U-shaped Extension (O1), the upper structure of the Western L-shaped Gallery (K2), and Gopura V (W) took place. All buildings, except for the Western L-shaped Gallery (K2) constructed during the second and third stages, have pediments that end in scrolls made from one block. The sandstone blocks in the third stage are relatively depleted in K, Ti, Fe, Zn, Rb, and Zr. They also have low magnetic susceptibilities. 4. Fourth stage (the end of the Khleang style period to the Baphuon style period:the mid11th century to the end of the 11th century): construction of the Gopura III (P), Eastern L-shaped Gallery (K1), Gopura II (L) (around AD 1038 or AD 1049), Hall (J), Gopura I (G), and Mandapa (C) took place. The sandstone blocks used for these buildings are 72 characterized by high magnetic susceptibilities and high K, Ti, Fe, Zn, Rb, and Zr contents. The pediment terminations changed from scrolls to five-headed nagas. 5. Fifth stage (the Baphuon style period to the Angkor Wat style period:the mid-11th century to the end of the 12th century): construction of the Western Building (E), Eastern Building (F), Gopura IV (T), Libraries (H1 and H2), South Gopura (A), Central Sanctuary (B), Gallery (D), Walls (Z1 and Z2) near Libraries, and Tower (Q) took place. Fifth-stage buildings are characterized by large sandstone blocks and pediments with five-headed nagas.1 The construction sequence described above is almost in harmony with the change of pediment end styles from pediments ending in scrolls made from one block, to pediments ending in scrolls made from two blocks, and finally to pediments ending in five-headed nagas. In addition, the construction sequence suggests that the sandstone block size increased over time. The Angkor monuments in Cambodia are mainly constructed of grey to yellowish‐brown sandstones. No differences in the constituent minerals and in the chemical composition of the sandstones have been confirmed among the monuments. However, we have found their magnetic susceptibility a useful parameter by which to distinguish them. The principal monuments of Angkor Wat, Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Banteay Kdei and Bayon, constructed from the Angkor Wat period to the Bayon period (from the beginning of the 12th century to the beginning of the 13th century AD), were investigated in detail using a portable magnetic susceptibility meter. We succeeded in dividing the periods of construction into stages. This elucidated the enlargement process of the monuments and correlated their construction stages. ___________________________________________________________________________  Determining the construction sequence of the Preah Vihear monument in Cambodia from its sandstone block characteristics,Etsuo Uchida et alHeritage Science volume 5, Article number: 42 (2017)  Uchida, E., Mizoguchi, A., Sato, H. et al. Determining the construction sequence of the Preah Vihear monument in Cambodia from its sandstone block characteristics. Herit Sci 5, 42 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-017-0155-0  The Construction Process of the Angkor Monuments Elucidated by the Magnetic Susceptibility of Sandstone. E. Uchida et al, 2003https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Voyage%20au%20Cambodge.%20L%E2% 80%99architecture%20khm%C3%A8re&publication_year=1880&author=Delaporte%2CL 73 The 12th century temple complex is built from five to ten million blocks sandstone blocks weighing up to 1.5 tons - with their means of transportation to the site a long-standing enigma.King Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire started work on the 500-acre temple in the 12th century and work ended just after his death in circa 1150.Situated in the imperial capital Angkor, the complex was initially intended to honour the Hindu god Vishnu but by the 14th century later rulers had converted the site into a Buddhist temple, in which use it continues today.It is so deeply engrained in the Cambodian national consciousness it appears on their national flag and a rumour that a Thai actress had claimed the temple belonged to Thailand sparked riots in 2003. Scholars had previously assumed the Khmers must have floated the stones used to build Angkor Wat 22 miles down a canal to Tonle Sap Lake, carried on rafts another 22 miles to the Siem Reap River, then arduously rowed upstream the final 10 miles to the site.But the difficulty of moving so many stones via this 56 mile route led Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan, to scour satellite images to see if there could have been a shortcut. Ancient artisanship: Angkor Wat is situated in the capital of the once great Khmer empire, which held sway over huge parts of south-east Asia for hundreds of years 74 The Khmer empire was noted for its use of canals as a means of transportation, and the archaelogists discovered traces of a network leading directly from the foot of Mount Kulen to Angkor. Field surveys confirmed their findings, and the pair now believe this gentle 21 mile route was a far more likely proposition than the journey of more than twice that length previously suggested.They also discovered a series of quarries along the way with stones that matched those of the temples.Mike Hendrickson of the University of Illinois, Chicago, told New Scientist that the Japanese researchers' could be confirmed by hunting down any blocks that may have fallen overboard while in transit on the canals. 75 This locator map shows the relative locations of Angkor Wat and Cambodia: Archaeologists scoured satellite images to discover traces of a network of canals linking the two sites In its day, the Khmer Empire was one of the most powerful empires in south-east Asia, at its height spreading across parts of modern day Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Burma and Malaysia. Angkor, the imperial capital, is its greatest legacy and bears testament to the Khmer empire's immense power and wealth with recent satellite imaging revealing it to be the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.After a series of wars and invasions, the story of Angkor faded from historical accounts from about 1350, with the capital of the Khmers moving south and east to the site of the modern Cambodian capital, Phnom Penh.Ecological failure is the latest theory as to the final fall of the Khmer kingdom, with population growth placing the society's elaborate system of canals, reservoirs and paddy fields under massive strain.To adapt to the growing population, trees were cut down from the Kulen hills and cleared out for more rice fields. That created rain runoff carrying sediment to the canal network, stifling their civilisation's lifeline.Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was somewhat neglected after the 16th century it was never completely abandoned.Archaeologists believe it's remarkable state of preservation is partly due to to its moat which provided some protection from the encroachment of the surrounding jungle. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2226195/Mystery-Angkor-Wats-massive-stones-solved--brought-areamassive-network-canals.html3.Icon of Khmer civilization, Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Building blocks of Angkor Wat were shipped in by canal- P H O T O G R A P H B Y R O B E R T C L A R K , N A T I O N A L GEOGRAPHIC 76 CHAPTER VII Sandstone stories Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mostly of quartz sand, but it can also contain significant amounts of feldspar, and sometimes silt and clay. Sandstone that contains more than 90% quartz is called quartzose sandstone. When the sandstone contains more than 25% feldspar, it is called arkose or arkosic sandstone. When there is a significant amount of clay or silt, geologists refer to the rock as argillaceous sandstone. The color of sandstone varies, depending on its composition. Argillaceous sandstones are often gray to blue. Because it is composed of light colored minerals, sandstone is typically light tan in color. Other elements, however, create colors in sandstone. The most common sandstones have various shades of red, caused by iron oxide (rust). In some instances, there is a purple hue caused by manganese. Type Rock Description Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mostly of quartz sand, but it can also contain significant amounts of feldspar, and sometimes silt and clay. Sandstone that contains more than 90% quartz is called quartzose sandstone. When the sandstone contains more than 25% feldspar, it is called arkose or arkosic sandstone. When there is a significant amount of clay or silt, geologists refer to the rock as argillaceous sandstone. The color of sandstone varies, depending on its composition. Argillaceous sandstones are often gray to blue. Because it is composed of light colored minerals, sandstone is typically light tan in color. Other elements, however, create 77 colors in sandstone. The most common sandstones have various shades of red, caused by iron oxide (rust). In some instances, there is a purple hue caused by manganese. Relation to Mining Loosely consolidated material can be mined using a high-pressure hydraulic monitor. Sand washed from the working face is collected in a sump, from which it is usually pumped to a dewatering/surge pile, where the material is allowed to free drain. Once drained, the sand reports to a plant. Well-consolidated deposits can be mined using conventional drill-and-blast methods. Once blasted, the sandstone is “mucked” using a front-end loader, placed into haul trucks, and transported to a primary crusher. Following crushing, the material may report to a secondary or tertiary crushing plant. The sized material is then transported to a processing plant, usually by a conveyance system. Uses Sandstone has two major applications, as crushed stone and as dimension stone. Dimension stone is any rock material that is cut into specific sizes, typically as blocks and slabs. Crushed stone is used in the construction of roadways and road structures such as bridges, and in buildings, both commercial and residential. Related topics: Silicon Element Quartz/ Limestone Shale,Silica 78 The Angkor monuments are the World Cultural Heritages constructed in the 9th century to the 13th century. Sandstone, laterite and brick are the main stone materials used in the monuments. In this study, the sandstones used in the 28 main monuments were investigated and compared to each other. the quarry of the sandstones changed with the times. For the grey to yellowish brown sandstones, there is however no significant difference in regard to the constitutent mineral, bulk chemical composition and chemical compositions of plagioclase and garnet. The percentage of the sandstone blocks with the vertical bedding plane decreased abruptly after West Mebon construction. This fact means that the monuments have began to be constructed with taking account the orientation of the bedding plane of the sandstone after West Mebon construction. The sandstones can be divided into three types : (1) grey to yellowish brown sandstones, (2) red sandstone and (3) greenish greywacke. The grey to yellowish brown sandstone is most popular and used in almost all monuments. Based on the magnetic susceptibility of the grey to yellowish brown sandstone, the investigated monuments can be divided into 8 groups except for Banteay Srei. This may suggest that From the ninth to the thirteenth century, Angkor was one of the most advanced urban centres in the world. Some estimates suggest that the population numbered close to a million people, making Angkor by far the largest city in this period. Water was the lifeblood of the Khmer Empire and sustained the great metropolis of Angkor.The Khmer people that inhabited Angkor had a complex and multi-dimensional relationship with water. As their empire grew, so did its thirst for water. Alongside its importance in sustaining agriculture and thus the expansion of the Khmer Empire, the Khmers had a more immediate interaction with water on a daily basis. The Angkor monuments in Cambodia are mainly constructed of grey to yellowish‐brown sandstones. No differences in the constituent minerals and in the chemical composition of the sandstones have been confirmed among the monuments. However, we have found their magnetic susceptibility a useful parameter by which to distinguish them. The principal monuments of Angkor Wat, Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Banteay Kdei and Bayon, constructed from the Angkor Wat period to the Bayon period (from the beginning of the 12th century to the beginning of the 13th century AD), were investigated in detail using a portable magnetic susceptibility meter. We succeeded in dividing the periods of construction into stages. This elucidated the enlargement process of the monuments and correlated their construction stages. 79 Angkor wat is shrouded in mystery- however much one may deny that. As archaeologist and anthropologist Charles Higham explains, “Curiously, there are no direct references to it in the epigraphic record, so we do not know its original name and controversy remains over its function and aspects of its symbolic status.” Originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, the complex was later converted to Buddhist use (the word “wat” typically refers to Buddhist monasteries), and continues to be a site of religious pilgrimage today. Symbolically, west is the direction of death, which once led a large number of scholars to conclude that Angkor Wat must have existed primarily as a tomb. This idea was supported by the fact that the magnificent bas-reliefs of the temple were designed to be viewed in an anticlockwise direction, a practice that has precedents in ancient Hindu funerary rites. Vishnu, however, is also frequently associated with the west, and it is now commonly accepted that Angkor Wat most likely served both as a temple and as a mausoleum for Suryavarman II. Wall detail of apsara figures, Angkor Wat © Felix Hug / Lonely Planet Celestial nymphs Angkor Wat is famous for having more than 3000 beguiling apsaras (heavenly nymphs) carved into its walls. Each of them is unique, and there are 37 different hairstyles for budding stylists to check out. Many of these exquisite apsaras were damaged during efforts to clean the temples with chemicals during the 1980s, but they are being restored by the teams with the German Apsara Conservation Project. Bat urine and droppings also degrade the restored carvings over time. These 1,200 square meters of carved bas reliefs at Angkor Wat, representing eight different Hindu stories. Perhaps the most important narrative represented at Angkor Wat is the Churning 80 of the Ocean of Milk , which depicts a story about the beginning of time and the creation of the universe. It is also a story about the victory of good over evil. In the story, devas (gods) are fighting the asuras (demons) in order reclaim order and power for the gods who have lost it. In order to reclaim peace and order, the elixir of life (amrita) needs to be released from the earth; however, the only way for the elixir to be released is for the gods and demons to first work together. To this end, both sides are aware that once the amrita is released there will be a battle to attain it. The level of detail Visitors to Angkor Wat are struck by its imposing grandeur and, at close quarters, its fascinating decorative flourishes. Stretching around the outside of the central temple complex is an 800mlong series of intricate and astonishing bas-reliefs – carvings depicting historical events and stories from Hindu mythology. Henri Mouhot’s etching from 1804 81 Eleanor Mannikka explains in her book Angkor Wat: Time, Space and Kingship that the spatial dimensions of Angkor Wat parallel the lengths of the four ages (Yuga) of classical Hindu thought. Thus the visitor to Angkor Wat who walks the causeway to the main entrance and through the courtyards to the final main tower, which once contained a statue of Vishnu, is metaphorically travelling back to the first age of the creation of the universe.3 Like the other temple-mountains of Angkor, Angkor Wat also replicates the spatial universe in miniature. The central tower is Mount Meru, with its surrounding smaller peaks, bounded in turn by continents (the lower courtyards) and the oceans (the moat). The seven- headed naga (mythical serpent) becomes a symbolic rainbow bridge for humankind to reach the abode of the gods.While Suryavarman II may have planned Angkor Wat as his funerary temple or mausoleum, he was never buried there as he died in battle during a failed expedition to subdue the Dai Viet (Vietnamese). How was Angkor Wat built? The sandstone blocks from which Angkor Wat was built were quarried from the holy mountain of Phnom Kulen, more than 50km away, and floated down the Siem Reap River on rafts. The logistics of such an operation are mind-blowing, consuming the labour of thousands. According to inscriptions, the construction of Angkor Wat involved 300,000 workers and 6000 elephants. It was not fully completed. Moat The outermost boundary of a Khmer temple was often surrounded by a moat, a body of water symbolic of the Cosmic Sea (blue highlights above).This is the Moat. Angkor Wat is surrounded by a 190m-wide moat, which forms a giant rectangle measuring 1.5km by 1.3km. From the west, a sandstone causeway crosses the moat. For Hindus, the Cosmic Sea is the source of creative energy and life, the starting point for the journey toward salvation.The temple visitor begins his journey by crossing the sea on causeways lined with serpents, beasts similarly intimately associated with both Hindu and Khmer myths of creation (we explore the serpent in detail in our guidebook to Angkor). 82 Outer wall- Enclosure Walls as Sacred Mountain Ranges Angkor Thom was the capital and walled city built in the late 12th to early 13th century by Jayavarman VII, the greatest of the Khmer rulers. Within its boundaries are enclosed temples such as Bayon and Ta Prohm. From the quite intact and vast environs of Angkor Wat to the tree coiled ruins of Ta Phrom is a simple journey in terms of miles. But a much more intense one in terms of atmosphere and mood. Huge trees have the late 12th century temple built by Jayavarman VII, who was a Mahayana Buddhist, in their octopus like grip. It is a combat once again here — between the gigantic roots and the crumbling stones. The ruins look eerie yet picturesque which is why they are the scenic locales for films. For Indians this temple with its many apsaras and branches torn-asunder walls, has a special significance: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)has helped restore the temple, and conserve it. Continuing on his way to the center of the temple, the visitor passes through a series of massive enclosure walls; these walls recreate sacred mountain ranges, symbolic of obstacles that must be overcome on the path to enlightenment (green highlights in Fig. 1below ). Monumental tower gateways, called gopurams, grant the visitor passage through the walls, each successive one revealing a more sacred area, farther removed from the outside world. The combination of concentric enclosure walls with large gateways was derived directly from South Indian Hindu architectural precedent. Enclosure walls make their first appearance very early in the Khmer building tradition — at the late 9th century pre-Angkor site of Roluos in the temples of Preah Ko, Bakong and Lolei — and are a constant feature in all subsequent temples. The rectangular outer wall, which measures 1025m by 800m, has a gate on each side, but the main entrance, a 235m-wide porch richly decorated with carvings and sculptures, is on the western side. There is a statue of Vishnu, 3.25m in height and hewn from a single block of sandstone, located in the right-hand tower. Vishnu’s eight arms hold a mace, a spear, a disc, a conch and other items. You may also see locks of hair lying about. These are offerings both from young people preparing to get married and from pilgrims giving thanks for their good fortune. Bas reliefs Bas reliefs of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, hundreds of metres long and adorned by hundreds of delicately carved devas, asuras and apsaras that are so varied in their poses, 83 expressions and attire. Thus, while Angkor Wat’s architecture is distinctly Khmer, its inspiration is essentially Indian. A section of the outer wall at Angkor Wat © Tushar Dayal / CC BY 2.0 Avenue The avenue is 475m long and 9.5m wide and lined with naga balustrades, leading from the main entrance to the central temple, passing between two graceful libraries and then two pools, the northern one a popular spot from which to watch the sun rise. Central complex The central temple complex consists of three storeys, each made of laterite, which enclose a square surrounded by intricately interlinked galleries. The Gallery of a Thousand Buddhas (Preah Poan) used to house hundreds of Buddha images before the war, but many of these were removed or stolen, leaving just the handful we see today. 84 85 Towers The corners of the second and third storeys are marked by towers, each topped with symbolic lotus-bud towers. Rising 31m above the third level and 55m above the ground is the central tower, which gives the whole grand ensemble its sublime unity. Five Sanctuary Towers as Mount Meru At the center of the temple stand sanctuaries with tower superstructures (red highlights above picture ).  The mountain residence of the gods. Under Hindu cosmology, the gods have always been associated with mountains. The sanctuary’s form, dominated by its large tower, recreates the appearance of the gods’ mountaintop residence, Mount Meru. The mountaintop residence of the gods carried particular symbolic resonance for the Khmer people.  God’s cave. The sanctuary proper, located directly under the tower, is where an image of the deity resides (see exhibit at right). Its dark interior is designed to represent the cave into which god descends from his mountain home and becomes accessible to human beings.  The sacred intersection. At the Hindu temple’s sanctuary, the worlds of the divine and living connect: the god’s vertical axis (mountaintop to cave) intersects with the visitor’s horizontal axis (temple entrance to cave). The entire universe emanates from this intersection, as unity with god is the goal of earthly existence. In Hinduism, god is believed to temporarily physically inhabit his representation in the sanctuary; the Hindu temple is arranged to enable the direct devotee-to-deity interaction that necessarily follows. Unlike other faiths, there is no religious intermediary and no abstraction; god is manifest before the devotee’s eyes, a profound encounter. It is here, among the peaks of Mount Meru, that the visitor’s symbolic journey ends in nirvana: the pairs of opposites characteristic of worldly existence (e.g., good versus bad, right versus wrong) fuse into a single infinite everythingness beyond space and time. Upper level The stairs to the upper level are immensely steep, because reaching the kingdom of the gods was no easy task. Also known as Bakan Sanctuary, the upper level of Angkor Wat is open to a limited number per day with a queuing system. 86 There is very little direct historical evidence of Angkor Wat complex in Kampuchea having any links with Southern India. The links, however, are part of a larger cultural flora and fauna as will be discussed below. There is evidence that Angkor Wat, the intriguing temple complex of Cambodia was inspired by Mahabalipuram sculptures. When one compares the sculptures of Angkor Wat and the ancient temples of Mahabalipuram, one can find a number of similarities. The ancient, Indian traders sailed to the South-East Asian countries from the seaport of Mahabalipuram- interacting socially and commercially with people of many countries in IndoChina and south East Asia. Khmer King Suryavarman II who was a descendant of the Tamil Kings Cholas, the rulers of Tamil Nadu is supposed to be responsible for building this huge complex in the 12th century. Tamil-Brahmi Inscription and sacred prayers in Sanskrit on the walls of these unique temples are still the “writing on the wall” literally to bear testimony to this. 87 From the historical perspective, it is widely acknowledged by everyone that the Angkor Wat temple is uniquely Cambodian heritage.”Khmer king Suryavarman II began construction on Angkor Wat shortly after ascending to the throne in 1113. Although the names of any architects or designers are lost to history, it is likely that Suryavarman’s chief priest and spiritual advisor Divakarapandita was highly influential in the temple’s construction”. AD Classics: Angkor Wat Hindu temple architecture is governed by ‘Vaastu Shastra’ written in Sanskrit. Hindu temples are consecrated by following Vedic rituals, which are basically Indo-Aryan in its core. There is nothing Dravidian or South Indian about Vaastu Shastra and Vedic rituals. The principles of Vaastu Shastra allows some variation in the architectural styles. So there are various regional styles of Hindu temples. Angkor Wat is an example of Khmer architecture, which is different from the Southern Indian temple architecture. This aspect has been already acknowledged by UNESCO experts, “Khmer architecture evolved largely from that of the Indian sub-continent, from which it soon became clearly distinct as it developed its own special characteristics, some independently evolved and others acquired from neighboring cultural traditions. The result was a new artistic horizon in oriental art and architecture”. From UNESCO site, Angkor The old name Kambojadesa (Kampuchea) is itself is derived from Sanskrit.According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “the ancient Kingdom of Cambodia is known as Kambujadesa”. Kambuja-desa | ancient kingdom, Cambodia. There is a Khmer legend, - Hindu prince of unknown origins, Kambu Swayambhuva, married a Naga princess named Mera. The combination Kambu and Mera became Khmer. In Sanskrit the descendants of Kambu became Kambu’ja’ (meaning born of Kambu), their country became Kambujadesa. Kambojadesa Khmer and South Indian Temple Architecture Styles have many glaring differences, obvious even to a casual tourist. Just compare the South Indian on the left and Khmer on the right. 88 1. Angkor Wat has five central towers in ‘quincunx’ pattern that symbolises the five peaks of Meru Mountain, unlike the single pyramid shaped tower in South Indian temples. 2. South Indian temples have characteristic gate towers (gopurams), not found in Khmer temples (see the photo above). 3. Angkor Wat is surrounded by a water-filled moat, without a central water tank, while South Indian temples have central water tank. 4. The most glaring difference being Angkor Wat has mountain like towers (gopuram) representing Hindu mythological Meru Mountain. Unlike the pyramid shaped towers (gopuram) of South India. Tamil Influences: There's Tamil brahmi scripture in Anghor wat . There's history of a Tamil king who went to East Asian countries for trading and to be correct in cholan period . He ruled Cambodia under a Cambodian king . There's a similar building knowledge and influence it mixed with another culture and their knowledge of building . ofourse Tamil can't take the full credits for the temple. But its influence undeniable. Tower looks different but the way if building it's the same technology unlike pyramid. Carved or moulded it maybe melting . Who knows but the truth we know is just after the cholan's in the Cambodia the anghorwat was built. That's the same period as the most of the south Indian temples built which is similar to that . It could have been built by khemer people but the technology came from south India and mixed with local or other technology of building. There's still words of old Tamil And culture.In conclusion, Angkor Wat was built by Jayavarman-II, a Khmer king, a fact that is well attested by history. There is nothing to suggest otherwise. Hindu temple architecture including that of Angkor Wat is governed by ‘Vaastu Shastra’ written in Sanskrit text, and consecrated according to Vedic rituals, which are basically Indo-Aryan in its character. Angkor Wat follows the same principles of Indo-Aryan temple architecture but it has uniquely Khmer style, unrelated to Southern India. There are several glaring differences between South Indian and Angkor Wat architecture, obvious even to a casual tourist.For more on tamil Influences read our books-4 1. Hindu temples of Bharat Cambodia and Indonesia 89 2. Ancient Maritime Trade of the Tamilians & Kalingans 3. DEVRAJA Parts I,II & III 90 The gates with or without gopurams or towers just denotes entries or opening , which also denotes 9 opening in a human body. The above picture shows 4 openings in the external compound, 4 on the inner compound and 1 entry to the central body . ( garbhagraha ) Water around the temple for defence . There are quite of few temple in india in such style especially south india ( For eg. Ananthapura Lake Temple). More over water around the temple is more of an convenience, if you see none of the other khmer or angkor dynasity temples has water around it.During Raja raja and rajendra chola period their rule were from Srilanka to Malayasia and their influence even further. Just in Tamilnadu there are 4 types of different types of temple architecture. Vaastu shastra itself is from pranava veda a Tamil text which is sources of all 4 vedas which is mentioned in bhavadam and few upanishads and veda vyasa himself has mentioned in his works . Ofcourse angkor wat can be said built by Jayavarman-II but by the influence of cholas Cause 91 the khmers were shaivites and cholas were both shaivites and vaishnavites. Though theTamil rulers did not build Angkor Wat. it was built under Tamil (Chola) rule. Suryavarman II built the Angkor Wat. Like many other expeditions, Rajendra Chola decimated Sri Vijaya empire (modern day Indonesia) at the request of Sailendra . Sri Vijaya was a mightly empire controlling the Strait of Malacca (present day Chinese nightmare, Lol!). They started monopolizing the trade route which Cholas and the surrounding kingdoms found difficult to trade. Though Cholas were friendly with Srivijaya during the Raja Raja chola rule, relationship deteriorated when they started controlling the trade route impacting Chola trade with China. The decimation of Sri Vijaya and the successful expedition and conquest of Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, some parts of Cambodia and Vietnam earned Rajendra Chola the title ‘Gadaram vendran (one who conquered Gadaram)’ and also made all the kings his vassals. Like most other far off expeditions, Cholas did not rule the areas directly, rather installed vassals and collected tributes. This continued for the next 150 or so years though it slowly went down. It was during the reign of Kulothunga I (Rajendra Chola’s son) that Suryavarman II ascended the throne in Cambodia. He too maintained friendly relations and had lot of trade relationships. The South east Asia was abundant with Tamils reining control in trade and polity by and large. Though all the kingdoms were Saivists (followed God Shiva), the Khmer king Suryavarman II however, followed Vishnu. The architecture of Angkor Wat is therefore heavily influenced by and resembles the South Indian Temple architecture. Like all temples in South India, Angkor Wat also was built to function as a garrison. The temples are all built like a city in themselves. They provided shelter and protection for the people during emergencies like war or calamities. That is the reason they have layered defense structures (wall inside wall inside wall with water and other obstacles in between) similar to forts. However, Angkor Wat was built as a city in itself to celebrate the victory of Suryavarman II over the expeditions. This is also characteristic of the chola empire (Rajendra chola II built Gangai konda cholapuram to celebrate his victory over the Ganges country). It is a fusion of Chola and Khmer architecture. Before the Cholas, the Pallavas were quite influential in the South east Asia. Towards the end of 12th century, it was transformed into a Buddhist temple. See our paper on 92 CHAPTER VII INDONESIAN HINDU TEMPLE OF ROCK The Hindu Masterpiece – Prambanan Temple by Maria Wulff Hauglann WHAT IS PRAMBANAN? Prambanan is the biggest and most complete remains of Java`s period of Hindu culture, built in the middle of the 9th century AD, around 50 years later than Borobudur. Little is known about its early history, but it is believed that it was built by king Rakai Pikatan to mark the return of a Hindu dynasty in Java after decades of Buddhism. Prambanan was completely in ruins for years until 1937 when the reconstruction started, and it is still far from complete.Many piles of rocks still surround the reconstructed temples. All of these piles are the remains of 224 (!) temples in the outer compound. 93 The highest central courtyard consists of eight minor and eight main shrines (or candi) each with beautiful carvings, containing religious statues inside. 1. The three biggest temples, called Trimurti (“three forms”), are dedicated to the three Hindu Gods: 2. Shiva the Destroyer 3. Vishnu the Keeper 94 4. Brahma the Creator SHIVA MAHADEVA TEMPLE The Candi Shiva Mahadeva temple, dedicated to Shiva, is not only the larges of the temples of Prambanan but also the finest. The main spire is incredibly 47 m high and it`s rocks are beautifully carved. The Shiva temple contains five chambers, four small chambers in every cardinal direction, and one bigger main chamber in the central part of the temple. Its base is decorated with small lions flanked by kalpatura (trees of heaven), as well as stylized half-human and half-bird kinnara (heavenly beings). Map showing the temples of Prambanan The 47 m high Shiva Temple 95 96 Vishnu Temple as seen from the top level of Shiva Temple As we walked further up into the temple, vibrant scenes from the story of Ramayana are carved onto the inner wall of the gallery encircling the temple. Our guide told us the main parts of the story, how Lord Rama`s wife Sita is abducted and how the monkey god (Hanuman) and the white-monkey general (Sugriwa) find her and set her free.While the carvings on the inner wall are impressive and interesting, the icing on the cake is inside the main chamber at the top of the eastern stairway which contains a four-armed statue of Shiva the Destroyer. The notable thing about the Shiva statue is that the Hindu god stands on a gigantic lotus flower, which is a symbol of Buddhism. So the Shiva temple is a mix of Hindu and Buddhism, which is very rare and a bit odd. Scientists believe that the reason for this is that Prambanan was built when the princess of the Buddhist Sailendras dynasty (ruling the south of Java) and the prince of the Hindu Sanjayas of Old Mataram (ruling the north of Java) were married, uniting the two dynasties into one. This may be one reason why the Prambanan temple complex has architecture elements of both Hindu and Buddhism. This big temple also has three smaller cells, each containing a statue:  An incarnation of Shiva as a divine teacher  A fine image of the elephant-headed Ganesha, Shiva`s son  Durga, Shiva`s consort, killing the demon buffalo 97 The other two main temples of Prambanan are the Vishnu temple on the north side of Shiva temple, and the Brahma temple on the south. Both of them contain only one large chamber with a statue inside. Brahma temple contains the statue of Brahma, and Vishnu temple houses the statue of Vishnu. Brahma and Vishnu temple both measures 20 meters wide and 33 meters tall. VISHNU TEMPLE The Candi Vishnu temple is smaller than the impressive Shiva Mahadeva temple and sits just north of it, reaching 33 m in height. Of course, we had to walk the steep stairs up to the top plateau. And it was totally worth the climb as the temple is magnificent containing reliefs telling the story of Lord Krishna who is the hero of the Mahabharata story. The most impressive part of this temple is, in my opinion, the statue of a four-armed Vishnu the Preserver in the inner chamber. It is so really big and beautifully carved. BRAHMA TEMPLE This temple is the twin temple of Candi Vishnu, as they are exactly similar! It is situated just south of the big Candi Shiva Mahadeva temple, so the two twin temples make a nice symmetric scene. 98 Brahma temple is beautifully carved with the final scenes of the story of Ramayana (starting in the Candi Shiva Mahadeva temple).When you enter this temple, look up and admire the spectacular “monster mouth” doorway, which is beautiful. The monster mouth doorway of Brahma temple Brahma temple has the most impressive statues of them all, in my opinion, a four-headed statue of Brahma – the God of Creation. This is my favorite of all the Hindu god statues of Prambanan. Isn`t she beautiful? In front of the big Shiva temple are three smaller temples dedicated to vehicle (vahana) of the respective Gods: 99  Nandi temple – Contains a statue of bull Nandi belonging to Shiva, as well as the statue of Chandra the god of moon and Surya the god of sun. Chandra stands on his carriage pulled by 10 horses, and the statue of Surya is also standing on a carriage pulled by 7 horses. The Nandi temple  Hamsa/ Angsa temple – Contains no statue, but it probably once housed a statue of the sacred swan Hamsa for the god Brahma.  Garuda temple – Neither this temple contains a statue. Probably this temple once contained the statue of kite Garuda belonging to god Vishnu. Garuda holds an important role for Indonesia, as it serves as the national symbol of Indonesia, and also as the name of the airline Garuda Indonesia. There are also small groups of temples in the outer area of Prambanan, like Plaosan Temples (3 km northeast of Prambanan), Kraton Ratu Boko (palace of King Boko) south of Prambanan, and a group west of Prambanan containing three temples.. https://nerdnomads.com/hindumasterpiece-prambanan-temple Many Hindu and Buddhist temples were built between 8th to 10th centuries in the south of Merapi volcano, Yogyakarta, Indonesia [6]. Mundardjito reported that there are 218 temples distributed at the flank and plain of the Merapi volcano, including the Prambanan and Sambisari 100 temples. Prambanan and Sambisari temples are situated at about 25 km south of the Merapi volcano peak and approximately 3-7 km north west of the small hill of the Tertiary age volcaniclastic rocks of Semilir Formation. The temples are composed by mostly basaltic to andesitic lavas but some of their ornament are made of volcaniclastic rocks of the Semilir Formation. Prambanan Temple is the biggest Hindu temple within Prambanan Temple compounds, other temples are Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple and Lumbung Temple. These compounds are located on the border between Yogyakarta and Central Java provinces on the central part of Java Island (Figure All the temples mentioned above were built in the 8th- 9th century AD. Prambanan Temple Compounds were built in the 9th century AD, and collapsed due to the earthquake and eruption of Merapi volcano were rediscovered in the 17th century. Restoration have been conducted since 1918, using both original traditional as well as modern method. The location map of the Prambanan and Sambisari temples. The Sambisari temple stands 6,5 meters below the surrounding land in Sambisari Village, Purwomartani Sub-District, Kalasan District, Sleman Regency. The temple is situated at about 2 kilometers west of Prambanan temple and 10 kilometers away from Yogyakarta city center. Sambisari temple believed to be constructed between 812 - 838 AD, consists of 1 main temple and 3 supporting temples. There are 2 fences surrounding the temple complex mostly composed by volcaniclastic rock. . Geochemically and or petrographycally, the basalt-andesite lavas and pumice breccia rocks of the Prambanan and Sambisari temples are relatively similar with those of basalt-andesite lavas of the Merapi volcano and pumice breccia of the Semilir Formation. 2. Most the basalt to andesite lavas which were used to build the Prambanan and Sambisari temples are mostly showing high vesiculer, although there are massive or low content vesicular lavas in the flank of Merapi volcano may stronger in physical properties. These lavas were chosen may be caused : a. It is relatively not hard, therefore easy to be form b. It is lighter rather than massive lavas, therefor easy to be lift to the top of the temple. ased on petrographic and geochemical observations, both temples are built using basaltic to andesitic lavas and pumice breccias. The rock types are relatively similar to those the basaltic to andesitic lavas around the Quaternary age Merapi volcano, and the pumice breccia of the Tertiary age Semilir Formation in the Piyungan area situated at the south of the Prambanan temple. Selected rocks samples were analized using petrographic and X-ray fluorescence 101 methods to identify minerals, textures and geochemical characteristics. Petrographic observations show that the rocks used to build Prambanan temple are hornblende-pyroxene andesite and pyroxene basalts, while the rocks of Sambisari temple consist of hornblendepyroxene andesites and pumice breccias. Hornblende-pyroxene andesite is generally gray, showing porphyritic texture, 1-3 mm crystal size; phenocrysts are composed by plagioclase, hornblende, pyroxene, and opaque minerals set in groundmass of plagioclase microcrysts and volcanic glass. Pumice breccia, showing a light gray colour, moderate sorting, fragments, consist of andesite and pumice clasts in size range 2-6 cm, embedded in sandy to clay matrix. Most of the rocks are generally weathered or oxidized, which is reflected by the presence of secondary iron oxide. This is probably most of the basaltic to andesitic lavas used had a high vesicular texture, and that Yogyakarta has a tropical climate. ______________________________________________________________________________ Rock types characteristics of Prambanan and Sambisari Temples, Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia, Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science 212(1):012048,Sutarto et alhttps://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/17551315/212/1/012048/pdf#:~:text=Field%20observation%20show%20that%20rocks,pumice%20br eccia%20(Figure%205). IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science S Rock types characteristics of Prambanan and Sambisari Temples, Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia To cite this article: Sutarto et al 2018 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 212 01204 102 According to ancient Khmer sources, King Jayavarman II (r. 802-835 CE), the founder of the Khmer Empire (802-1431 CE), spent much of his life in Java, and was appointed by Samaratungga as the governor of Indrapura, which later became the capital city of Champa around c. 875 CE. It is said that Jayavarman visited both Borobidur as well as Prambanan, which inspired him to build the city of Angkor Wat on a grand scale. This is quite possible as the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties exerted much political and cultural influence through their thalassocracies in what is present-day Java, Sumatra, Malaya, and southern Cambodia in the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries CE. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS FROM MOUNT MERAPI IN THE 10TH CENTURY CE & COUNTLESS EARTHQUAKES MAY HAVE IMPACTED PRAMBANAN’S APPEAL AS A PLACE OF WORSHIP & PILGRIMAGE. Prambanan's abandonment mirrors that of nearby Borobudur. As the center of political power shifted from central to eastern Java under the reign of King Mpu Sindok (fl. 928 CE), Prambanan became less important politically and culturally to the ancient Javanese. The Sanjaya dynasty had successfully usurped power from the Sailendra dynasty, leaving the island of Java under their near complete suzerainty. Volcanic eruptions from Mount Merapi in the 10th century CE and countless earthquakes may have impacted Prambanan’s appeal as a place of worship and pilgrimage as well among the Hindu faithful. Over time, Prambanan deteriorated and became surrounded by a dense jungle. The Dutch explorer C. A. Lons reported his “rediscovery” of Prambanan in 1733 CE to Dutch colonial officials, but the temple was never completely forgotten by the Javanese in their histories, myths, and legends. A very popular Javanese legend is that of Rara Jonggrang, which is set in Prambanan and its neighboring temples. In the legend, a Javanese princess is turned to stone by her cruel husband. The princess is said to be beautiful image of the Hindu goddess Durga located within the north wing of Shiva’s temple at Prambanan. Restoration work began in 1885 CE, but accelerated in 1918 CE. These efforts were halted when Indonesia was invaded in 1941 CE by the Japanese during World War II. In 1953 CE, the Temple of Shiva was reconsecrated to Hindu believers, and Prambanan was restored once again following the 2006 CE Yogyakarta earthquake. Intermittent archaeological excavation and restoration continue in and around Prambanan today. 103 A statue of the Hindu goddess Durga from the Shiva temple at Prambanan, Java, Indonesia, c. 750 - c. 950 CE. According to legend, the statue is a result of the transformation into stone of a local princess. by her cruel husband. Art & Architecture Set in the fertile Prambanan Plain, Prambanan is but one of 30 temples built between c. 750-950 CE in a 30 square km (11.5 square miles) area. Lying just a few kilometers to Prambanan's north are three ancient Buddhist Temples built in the 8th century CE -- Lumbung, Bubrah, and Sewu -while 2.5 km to Prambanan's south and southeast lie the ruins of the 9th-century CE Buddhist temples of Ratu Boko and Sojiwan, respectively. Some 3 km to Prambanan's west are also the 8th-century CE Buddhist Sari Temple, the Kalasan Temple, which dates to c. 778 CE, and the Sambisari Temple, which dates from the 9th century CE and is dedicated to Shiva. Prambanan consists of six temples all situated in an elevated courtyard, which is in turn encompassed by 224 minor temples now ruined. The greater the distance a temple is from the main complex, the smaller it is in height and space. A small wall surrounds the smaller temples, just as a large wall encompasses the main complex. Prambanan has a 47 m (154 ft) tall central temple -- dedicated to Shiva -- which sits inside a complex of other temple structures in a concentric mandala layout. Prambanan, in ways similar to Borobudur, delineates the celestial 104 hierarchy and transposes them to three distinct temple zones. Horizontally and vertically, Prambanan exudes Hindu conceptions of heaven. The largest three temples, the holiest sites within the main complex, are dedicated to the triad of Hindu gods. Shiva's temple is the most prominent with Brahma's temple lying to the south of Shiva's temple, and Vishnu's temple lying to the north of Shiva's temple. Directly parallel to these magnificent temples are three smaller temples, each dedicated to mythological animal figures that provide protection, companionship, and transportation to the aforementioned gods: Garuda, a mythical winged creature, Hamsa the swan, and Nandi the bull. The Temple of Shiva is the most ornate of the three massive temples, containing a series of elegant carvings along the inner wall, which depict the scenes from the ancient Indian epic The Ramayana. This temple contains four rooms, including an inner sanctuary with a statue of Shiva, while another chamber near the inner sanctuary contains a large statue of Shiva's son, Ganesha. The southern room of Shiva’s temple is dedicated to Batara Guru who, according adherents of Javanese Hinduism, is an avatar of Shiva that gives prophecy, presents, and other human abilities. There is also a statue of the sacred bull calf, gatekeeper, and vehicle (vahana) of Shiva, Nandi, which sits in front of the Temple of Shiva. The walls in the Temple of Brahma continue the narration of The Ramayana, while the Temple of Vishnu is decorated with carvings retelling the epic battles of Krishna along its terrace. By the end of the thirteenth century, the Khmer Empire began a slow decline which would come to a head in the fifteenth century. While the precise factors that underpinned this collapse continue to be debated, recent archaeological and climatic research suggests that variations in climate played a significant contributing factor in Angkor’s downfall. A change in the weather systems that regulated monsoon rains resulted in a severe drought that dried up the barays (reservoirs) around Angkor and put intense pressure on the Khmer Empire’s primarily agricultural economy. For much of its existence, Angkor depended heavily on monsoonal rains and the use of water captured during the monsoon season and stored in barays to irrigate their crops. To alleviate the droughts brought on by this change in climate, Khmer engineers undertook large-scale modifications of their existing water management system and embarked on an ambitious water diversion project. This proved, 105 however, a costly mistake as they were eventually caught unprepared by unusually intense monsoon rains that overwhelmed the water management infrastructure and caused severe erosion and flooding across Angkor. Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitis, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong, “Climate as a contributing factor in the demise of Cambodia”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(15):6748-6752. 106 Angkor, CHAPTER VII The oldest Hindu temple in India is also made or Sandstones Stone Architecture: The temple, built of stone, is on an octagonal plan which is rare. It is the earliest specimen of the Nagara style of temple architecture in Bihar. There are doors or windows on four sides and small niches for the reception of statues in the remaining four walls. The temple shikhara or tower has been destroyed. However, a roof has been built, as part of renovation work. The interior walls have niches and bold mouldings which are carved with vase and foliage designs. At the entrance to the temple, the door jambs are seen with carved images of Dvarapalas, Ganga, Yamuna and many other murtis. The main deities in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple are of the Devi Mundeshwari and Chaturmukh (four faced) Shiva linga. There are also two stone vessels of unusual design.[10] Even though the Shiva linga is installed in 107 the centre of the sanctum, the main presiding deity is Devi Mundeshwari deified inside a niche, which is seen with ten to Mahishasuramardini. The hands temple holding also symbols riding has murtis of other a buffalo, popular attributed gods such as Ganesha, Surya and Vishnu. A substantial part of this stone structure has been damaged, and many stone fragments are seen strewn around the temple. However, under the jurisdiction of ASI, it has been the subject of archaeological study for quite some time. The temple was declared oldest Hindu temple of the country by the scholars with 2000 years of live worship having its past in pre historic age The Mundeshwari Devi temple is located on the Mundeshwari Hill at an elevation of 608 feet (185 m.Located on Kaimur plateau near Son River,(and Survuwara(suvara) river) there are many archaeological relics on the Mundeshwari Hill.It can be reached by road via Patna, Gaya, or Varanasi. The nearest railway station is at Mohania - Bhabua Road railway station from where the temple is 22 km by road. More details: The Mundeshwari Devi Temple (also spelled as Mundesvari) is located at paunra pahad, Ramgarh village in Kaimur district in the state of Bihar, India on the Mundeshwari Hills. It is an ancient temple dedicated to the worship of Lord Shiva and Shakti and is considered one of the oldest Hindu temples in India. It is also considered as the oldest functional Hindu temple of India. The information plaque erected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at the site indicates the dating of the temple to 625 CE. Hindu inscriptions dated 635 CE were found in the temple. The temple is a protected monument under ASI since 1915. Local folklores say that Chanda and Munda who were full brothers and chieftains of demon Mahishasura were rulers of the area. Mahishasura fought decisive battle with Gooddess Durga as mentioned in Durga Shaptshati. Munda made goddess Mundeshwari Bhawani temple while his younger brother Chanda made Chandeshwari temple at top of Madurana hill near Chainpur. But historical facts better explain its origin and its creators. After a study of broken Mundeshwari inscription of Brahmi script and its two parts found in 1891 and 1903 by Bloch (Now joined and kept in National Museum, Kolkata), Dr NG Majumdar and Dr KC Panigrahi stated to be the temple to be earlier than 4th century AD. 108 But recovery of a royal seal of great Shri Lankan emperor Maharaju Dutthagamani (101-77BC) from the place in 2003, changed the history. It established that a royal pilgrims group or monks from Shri Lanka visited the place during their journey to Sarnath from Bodh Gaya through famous Dakshinapath highway sometime between 101BC to 77BC and lost the seal here. The existence of Naga (serpent) on four faced shivalingam, Naga janeu (sacred thread) on Ganesha idols not found anywhere in India and also on broken pieces scattered around the hill clearly indicated that it was a construction by rulers of Naga dynasty (110BC to 315AD) who used serpent as their royal sign. Mahabharata mentioned that Guru Dronacharya has been made the ruler of Ahikshatra (region of serpents) spead over Ahinaura, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra and Kaimur region of present times, as a fee for educating Kaurava and Pandavas. Udaysena, the ruler mentioned in the inscription had similarity with Naga dynasty rulers Nagsen, Veersen etc. The existence of 52 Pur (villages) of Nagvanshi Rajpoots also indicate about their long control over the area. Later the area came control of Gupta dynasty and the impact of their specific Nagra style of architecture and Ramgarh Fort and Ramgarh village near the hill probable on famous Gupta ruler Ramgupta are evidence of the fact. After revelation of new facts, Bihar State Religious Trust Board (BSRTB) organized a national seminar of eminent experts at Patna in 2008 and the date of Mundeshwari inscription was unanimously fixed 108 AD. The findings also established that here was a religious and educational center spread over the hillock and Mandaleshwar (Shiva) temple (present temple residing Shiva in middle of sanctum sanctorium) was the main shrine. The temple of Mandaleshwari (Parvati, better half of Shiva) was on southern side. The temple was damaged and the idol of Mandaleshwari (degenerated Mundeshwari and later connected with the mythical demon Mund) was kept in the eastern chamber of main temple. TIME LINE  636-38AD - Chinese visitor Huen Tsang writes about a shrine on a hill top flashing light, at about a distance of 200 lee south west to Patna- The location is only of Mundeshwari. 109       1790 AD - Daniel brothers Thomas and William visited Mundeshwari temple and provided its first portrait. 1888 AD – Buchanan visited the region in 1813.. 1891-92 AD – First part of the broken Mundeshwari Inscription was discovered by Bloch during a survey by East India Company. 1903 AD – Second part of the inscription was discovered while clearing the debris around the temple. 2003 AD – Brahmi script royal seal of great Shri Lankan emperor Maharaju Dutthagamani (101-77BC) was discovered by Varanasi based historian Jahnawi Shakhar Roy which changed the earlier findings about history of the place. 2008 AD - The date of the inscription was established 30th year of Saka era (108AD) by the scholars in a national seminar organized for the purpose by Bihar State Religious Trust Board (BSRTB) at Patna. The plate at the site of the Temple gives a dates of 625 CE for the Temple. Hindu inscriptions dated 635 CE were found in the temple It is believed that rituals and worship have been performed here without a break, hence Mundeshwari is considered one of the most ancient Hindu temples in India. The temple is visited by a large number of pilgrims each year, particularly during the Ramnavami, Shivratri festivals. A big annual fair (mela) is held nearby during the Navaratra visited by thousands. The worship of shakti in the form of Devi Mundeshwari in the temple is also indicative of tantric cult of worship, which is practiced in Eastern India. Restoration: The Archaeological Survey of India has restored the temple under instruction from the Union Ministry of Culture. Restorative works included the removal of soot from the temple interior via a chemical treatment, repair of damage to religious murti (idol) and cataloging and documentation of scattered fragments for later reuse. Other works included installation of solar powered lighting, displays for antiquities and provision of public amenities. The Government of Bihar has allocated Rs 2 crore to improve access to the temple. The inscription of an information 110 plaque erected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at the site indicates the dating of the temple to 635 AD. However, there are other versions for the dating stating the Saka era, prior to Gupta dynasty rule (320 AD) in India, and specifically to 105 AD according to the Administrator of the Bihar Religious Trust Board In this article we will discuss about the views of the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang on India during the rule of emperor Harsha Vardhana. The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited India during the period of emperor Harsha. When he went back to China, he wrote a detailed description of India during the reign of Harsha in his book ‘Si-yu-ki’ or ‘Record of the Western Countries’. His description has been accepted as the best available source of knowing the administrative, social and cultural condition of India at that time. However, his account of India is not entirely dependable. At several places it is confused, while mostly it is biased because Hiuen Tsang used his description as a means to glorify Buddhism and Harsha as its follower. The primary aim of the visit of Hiuen Tsang to India was to gain knowledge of Buddhism and collect its religious texts. As he did not get the permission of the Chinese emperor to visit India, he slipped away from there in 629 A.D. He crossed the desert of Gobi, visited several places in Central Asia like Kashagar, Samarkand and Balkha and reached Afghanistan. He met and found worshippers of the Sun, a large number of Buddhist monks and followers, Stupas and monasteries at different places. From Afghanistan he reached Taxila via Peshawar. The journey from China to India was covered by him in about a year. Then he stayed in India for nearly fourteen years. From Taxila, he went to Kashmir and then visited several places in India like Mathura, Kannauj, Sravasti, Ayodhya, Kapilvastu, Kusinagara, Sarnath, Vaisali, Pataliputra, Rajagraha, Bodha-Gaya and Nalanda. He remained at the University of Nalanda for about five years. He, then, proceeded to Bengal and visited South India as well, as far as Kanchi. He had been a guest to Bhaskara Varman, ruler of Kamarupa. From there he was called to the court of Harsha. Harsha called a religious assembly at Kannauj to honour him. Hiuen Tsang presided over that assembly. He also participated in one of the religious assemblies called by Harsha at Prayag after that. He left India in 644 A.D. through the same route by which he had entered. He took back many images of Buddha and copies of different Buddhist religious texts. When he reached back China 111 he was received with honour by the Chinese emperor. Then he wrote the description of India at the instance of the Emperor. Hiuen Tsang described the city-life of India. The information we gather from his account is that the houses were of varied types and were constructed with wood, bricks and dung. The citystreets were circular and dirty. Many old cities were in ruins while new cities had grown up. Prayag was an important city while the importance of Pataliputra was replaced by Kannauj. Sravasti and Kapilvastu had lost their religious importance. Instead, Nalanda and Valabhi were the centres of Buddhist learning. Hiuen Tsang described Kannauj as a beautiful city. He described that Indians used cotton, silk and wool for their garments and these were of varied types. He described Indians as lovers of education, literature and fine arts. According to him, Indians received education between nine and thirty years of age and, in certain cases, all their lives. Mostly the education was religious and was provided orally. Many texts were put in writing and their script was Sanskrit. Debates and discussions were the most important means of providing education and also that of establishing superiority over rivals in knowledge. Hiuen Tsang praised emperor Harsha and his administration very much. He described him as a laborious king who travelled far and wide and contacted his subjects personally to look after their welfare and supervise his administration. According to him, Harsha used to spend 3/4th of the state-income for religious purposes. He described that the kingdom was well-governed; it was- free from revolts; there were a few cases of law-breaking; offenders were given physical punishments and tortured as well to extract the truth from them while the traitors were given death sentence or turned out of the kingdom. The burden of taxation was not heavy on the subjects; they were free from the oppression of the government servants and were, thus, happy. The state used to record its every activity. He, however, described that travelling was not very much safe at that time. The main source of income of the state was land-revenue which formed 1/6th of the produce. Hiuen Tsang described that Harsha divided his income into four parts. One part of it was spent on administrative routine of the state; the second part of it was distributed among government employees; the third of it was given to scholars; and the fourth part of it was given in charity to Brahamanas and the Buddhist monks. 112 Hiuen Tsang wrote that the army of Harsha consisted of 60,000 war-elephants, 50,000 strong cavalry chariots and a 1,00,000 strong infantry. He described Harsha as a perfect devotee of Buddha. He agreed that Hinduism was more widely popular in India at that time as compared to Buddhism. Hiuen Tsang described the social condition of India in detail. He wrote that caste-system was rigid. There was no purdah-system and women were provided education. However, the practice of sati prevailed. In general, the common people were simple and honest. They used simple garments and avoided meat, onions and liquor in their food and drinks. They observed high morality in their social and personal lives. The rich people dressed well, lived in comfortable houses and enjoyed all comforts and amenities of life. Hiuen Tsang also wrote about the economic condition of India at that time. He gave a long list of Indian fruits and agricultural products. India produced the best cotton, silk and woolen cloth at that time and prepared all sorts of garments from them. He praised very much the quality of Indian pearls and ivory. The Indians prepared and used all types of jewellery and ornaments. He wrote that India had a brisk trade with foreign countries and there were prosperous city- ports on its sea-coast both in the East and the West. India exported cloth, sandalwood, medicinal herbs, ivory, pearls, spices etc. to foreign countries and imported gold, silver and horses. Hiuen Tsang described India as a rich and prosperous country. Hiuen Tsang wrote about the religious condition of India as well. He described that Brahamanism, Buddhism and Jainism were all popular religions in India. There was complete tolerance among people of all religious faiths and people changed their religions voluntarily. Though he did not write that Buddhism was on decline, yet, his description of cities indicates that Buddhism was, certainly, on decline and Brahamanism was progressing. Hiuen Tsang gave description of religious assemblies also which were organised by Emperor Harsha at Prayag (Allahabad) and Kannauj. Thus, Hiuen Tsang has given such a detailed description of political, social, religious and economic life of India as has not been given by any other Chinese traveller. The description, certainly, helps us in making an assessment of the conditions of India during the reign of emperor Harsha. However, historians do not accept his description as entirely dependable 113 because he wrote with a positive favour for Buddhism. Therefore, it needs to be corroborated and checked with the help of other contemporary sources. 114 CHAPTER VIII Building the Stone Pyramids The building of a pyramid was a massive undertaking, employing thousands of workers for 20 years or more. We do not know for sure exactly how the pyramids were built. Our best guess is that, first, the plan of the pyramid was marked out on the ground. Then the ground was levelled and the pyramid built up layer by layer from giant limestone blocks like a massive staircase. The blocks were perhaps then hauled up the pyramid on a spiral ramp built of earth and rubble. The outside of the pyramid was faced with triangular blocks, called casing stones, made of a finer limestone than the building blocks. They were polished by hand until they were completely smooth. If limestone blocks were dragged up a mud brick ramp to be placed at the top of the Great Pyramid, where is the evidence of this huge ramp? How could materials such as wooden rollers and mud bricks take the strain put on them by tons of stone? housands of men are supposed to have dragged the building blocks across the desert in the searing heat – how did the ancient project managers keep morale up amongst the dusty and tired workforce? 115 The weight of water dictates that the water shaft/lift (seen in the theory video) has multiple gated locks at 50 foot intervals, which keeps the pressure to within 2 bar pressure, within each segment.When construction project manager Chris Massey set off on a surprise trip to Egypt, wherever he looked, he saw problems with the perceived wisdom on how the pyramids, temples and tombs of the pharaohs were built: A vast army of workers were needed to build the pyramid. A large proportion of the work-force were peasants. Around 25,000 or so at a time would be drafted in to serve three months’ work on the site, before they were replaced by another workforce. The workers were organized into small teams of 20-25 men. With one of their number as foreman, they hauled the stones and set them in place. A team could be expected to move an average of 10 stones a day from quarry to pyramid. 116 117 Mystery of how the pyramids were built SOLVED? Genius ancient building hack revealed A clever construction technique designed more than four millennia ago has been unearthed EGYPT'S mysterious pyramids have always baffled scientists – but an ancient construction hack may reveal how they were built. Egyptologists have made a surprise discovery in an ancient quarry that suggests pyramid builders used a modified ramp that made hauling enormous rocks far easier. 118 Scientists believe pyramid builders used a modified ramp that made hauling enormous rocks easier. The Great Pyramid of Giza is one of the ancient wonders of the world, and with good reason.The enormous structure was built around 4,500 years ago, made from enormous granite stones supposedly cut by wooden wedges.What confuses archaeologists is how ancient Egyptians managed to haul these stones up onto the pyramid's structure – with the biggest stones weighing between 25 and 80 tonnes.Now scientists believe that these millennia-old builders used specialised ramps with wooden posts in, allowing teams of men to haul rocks upwards using a pulley-style system. A ramp with two staircases and several post holes was discovered by complete chance Credit: University of Liverpool / Yannis Gourdon With 2.3million blocks making up the Great Pyramid, simply dragging rocks upwards from above required huge amounts of effort.But scientists investigating inscriptions at the ancient Hatnab quarry accidentally unearthed a ramp with a 20% incline.It was previously believed to be impossible for Egyptians to have pulled heavy blocks up ramps at more than a 10% incline – but this ramp was double the steepness. The Great Pyramids at Giza have confused scientists with their enormous size – the biggest is 146.7 metres tallCredit: Alamy The ramp had a surprising feature, however: post holes set alongside the steps on the side. According to Roland Enmarch, from the University of Liverpool, these holes would've been filled with thick wooden posts. 119 Teams of builders would then have wrapped ropes around the posts to create pulleys that allowed blocks to be pulled upwards from below. This, when combined with a team of men pulling upwards, made it possible to have a steeper and more compact ramp. Dr Roland Enmarch pictured filming with a documentary crew at the Hatnab quarry, where the discovery was made Credit: University of Liverpool 120 Gigantic void discovered inside the Great Pyramid of Giza "The arrangement allows people to be spaced up and down the ramp, and all the force to be exerted in the same direction," said Enmarch, as quoted by The Times.Yannis Gourdon, of the French Institute for Oriental Archaeology, said the stones lifted from the quarry would've been a similar size to those used in the Great Pyramid.Part of the problem for scientists, however, is that the ramps used to build the Great Pyramid were removed after construction.That means it's impossible to know whether the exact same system was used at Giza.But Dr Enmarch described it as a "plausible inference".He added: "This shows that at the time the Great Pyramid was being built, this technology was also being used." 121 The Great Pyramid took 20 years to build, with an estimated 12 blocks moved into place each hour for 24 hours a day on average .What makes the discovery exciting is that it was a complete accident. Scientists were only there to record ancient subscriptions. "When we were working on that, we did some cleaning," said Mr Gourdon. "We had to remove stones and debris against walls to find the inscriptions." During that process, they found a three-metre-wide ramp that had steps either side of it. And the built-in holes were capable of being filled by posts measuring half a metre across. "That means that when [Pharoah] Cheops made the pyramid in Giza they had the technology to transport huge stones on the huge steep slopes," said Gourdon. 122 There would be deaths from accident and disease (and old age as well, among the overseers) but in general the rate of death was probably not much higher than normal.The pyramids were built using corvee labor (drafting people from up and down the Nile) and the bulk of the construction took place during the rainy season, when farms were flooded and people couldn’t work the fields. It was common for pharaohs to use this time period for national construction projects (temples, etc) and to pay the people in food and clothing (there was no money at this time and the pharaoh used goods brought in (in the form of taxes) to pay the laborers for their services. 123 This was not unskilled corvee labor - by the time that Khufu started on the Great Pyramid, Egyptians had been building pyramids for several decades. Djoser had the first true pyramid, but his son, Sneferu, developed a kind of “pyramid mania” and built three (and possibly four, though that’s debatable) pyramids of his own. By the time that Khufu (who was the son of Sneferu) started, the quarries were well established and the project managers knew how to move big blocks of stone around and transport them. Before that, kings and nobles had mastaba tombs which also required a lot of experience in cutting and moving stone around and constructing large monuments.Egyptian religious thought also mandated good treatment of the workers. To abuse another violated the principle of “ma’at” (harmony/justice) and a pharaoh who violated ma’at brought disaster to the country, according to their beliefs. So the workers weren’t starved or abused. There are over 700 known tombs of workers at Giza, and while this may seem like a lot, remember that the entire area was a gigantic building project for around 100 years (G1 through G3 plus all the temples and walls and other structures like boat pits). We really don’t know how or exactly who built the pyramids, but they were massive construction projects and the people who worked them would have been valuable as highly skilled labor. Still, they were using what was probably cutting-edge tech for their day and moving massive blocks of stone. There were no doubt accidents, but any long-term labor force would require that basic safety measures be in place to minimize such accidents (never mind the cost of replacing a huge block of stone that gets dropped and damaged!) or it wouldn’t function well. So, just based on that, I doubt there were massive casualties in building the pyramids. As for how many actually died? No way to know, unfortunately. If such records were kept, they have long been lost. One thing that many people don’t seem to understand about ancient Egypt is that we really don’t know that much. We have maybe 1% of the written records from those times, and some of that is damaged. Imagine how hard it would be to reconstruct the history of the USA over the last 250 years if all you had to go on were the surviving inscriptions from several damaged monuments and buildings in DC, New York, Boston and LA, with no written records or libraries or any paper or other mediums surviving. Oh, except 3% of 8 books chosen at random from the Library of Congress. :-) Then try to reconstruct from that how the Empire State 124 Building was constructed. Very few people died of accidents when building the Great Pyramids of Egypt. It was quite safe to work on them … except for the earliest ones! I will explain. Work at Height - nearly all the work was done at grade if you consider the pyramid to be a slowly growing hill with ramps encircling it. 125 There was little scaffolding. Just ramps with slowly moving blocks being dragged along by thousands of workers. There was virtually no opportunity to fall or for blocks to fall on anyone. 126 Training - some scholars believe the pyramids were built by a dedicated work force. Your father's father could be builders full time. Your son and grandson would be builders too. So you would be trained in your craft from a very early age. There would be little opportunity for accident or error in a professional experienced work force like this. 127 Site Traffic Control - the pyramid construction site had to be well organized to cut then move over 2 million blocks of stone into position. Material traffic and movement of workers had to be well planned and controlled. Speed of Construction - most material movement was likely at walking speed. The Egyptians did not have to be worried about being run over by trucks or bulldozers! The workers still had to be alert and watchful. You would not want to get your fingers pinched when two 3 ton blocks of limestone came together! But the earliest pyramids were a more dangerous environment. The Egyptians had to learn the art of pyramid building … and sometimes there were mistakes … and disasters! 128 The rubble around this pyramid has never been fully excavated. But it appears the collapse was sudden. Hundreds of workers may lie crushed below. But once the Egyptians became experienced builders, there were very few accidents. This should be contrasted to our more modern projects. For example, the Firth of Forth bridge in Scotland had a hospital on one shore during construction. The daily dead and injured were brought there. Now the hospital is a pub where I was able to hoist a pint to honor the fallen!The ancient Egyptians would likely have been appalled at the number of deaths and injuries recorded on our modern projects. Just think of the potential safety recor 20,000 people working at least 2,000 hrs per year for 20 years. That adds up to 800 million safe manhours without a lost time injury! Egyptians can be justly proud of their past achievements!The Great Egyptian Pyramids are some of the most mysterious structures on earth and have been the topic of countless debates throughout history. The question of how they were built, when they were built, and who they were built by, and for what purpose they have to this day have garnered endless theories and speculations. HERE’S WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW: Archaeologists believe that the Great Pyramids in Egypt were constructed by the old kingdom society around 2500 BC. They believe that the main purpose of these pyramids was to act as 129 tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. That would make sense considering the sheer size of the pyramids. They are huge with the largest, the great pyramid of Giza incorporating around 2.3 million stone blocks, with an average weight of 2.5 to 15 tons each. But besides what we can measure, the rest of what we think we know about the pyramids are mostly just theories. The fact is, we really don’t know for sure why the pyramids were created, we don’t know who created them, we really don’t know exactly how old they are and we for sure have NO clue how a Bronze Age society that we perceive to be primitive was able to create them. Not only that, there are a few unbelievable facts about the dimensions of the Great Pyramid in relationship to the earth: Did you know that if you take the height of the pyramid and multiply it by 43,200 you get the polar radius of earth? Not only that, If you take the base perimeter of the pyramid and multiply it by 43,200 you get the equatorial circumference of the earth. Why 43,200? The number isn't random. It comes from a key motion of the earth called the precession of the earth’s axis. Pyramids were built and encoded with the exact dimensions of the earth at a scale of 1 :43,200. GENERAL AGREEMENT ON HOW THE PYRAMIDS WERE BUILT: It seems that archaeologists generally agree that the granite from the pyramid’s internal chambers was somehow quarried 533 miles south of Giza in Aswan, and the limestones used as casings were from Tura a few miles away, but because these stones were so massive, everyone had varied opinions about how they were transported. Every once in a while, a new theory will come out and claim to solve the mind-boggling mystery of how the pyramids were constructed. The last big theory was proposed in 2014 by a Dutch engineer who claimed that the stones were transported using sand, water, and a wooden sled. NEW FINDING: Now, according to a new British documentary called Egypt’s Great Pyramid: The New Evidence, there is apparently new evidence that two tonne blocks of limestone and granite were transported by thousands of laborers along the Nile river in wooden boats held together by ropes. Special canals were also used to bring them to an inland port which was in close proximity to the base of the Great Pyramid of Giza. 130 The scroll that provided evidence of such a procedure was written by an Egyptian overseer named Merer and is apparently the only first-hand account of how the great pyramid was constructed. In the papyrus scroll found in the seaport Wadi Al-Jar, it is written that Merer and his team of 40 workmen were in charge of using wooden boats along the Nile River to carry 150,000 tonnes of limestone in order to build Pharaoah Khufu's tomb in 2600BC. He explained that the boats were tied together by ropes, which helped to keep them secure. Besides the scroll, researchers also uncovered a system of canals and a ceremonial boat, which lends truth to what Merer wrote, detailing that his team of 40 skilled workers dug canals to channel the water from the river to the pyramid. 131 CHAPTER XI From Rocks to Masterpieces- Art of Stone Carving: Pertaining to the abundant availability of stones, civilizations dating back to as far as Mesolithic age saw the usage of these rocks for creating some exquisite works for various purposes. Some of the earliest stone works include The Stonehenge, Moai and some sculptures recovered from excavating caves and historic civilizations such as the Indus Valley Civilization- each having their own unique style, purpose, and characteristics. Formation of rocks: Millions of years ago, the Earth was simply a huge ball of mineral gases. As these gases began to cool down, they got compressed and took on a solid form to become what we call natural rocks. There are a variety of rocks on Earth such as metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary, etc. Their variety depends on the minerals that went into their formation and their origins. What is stone carving? Stone carving is essentially a process by which objects are sculpted out of a piece of rock or stone. It has been a very common yet difficult form of art for quite a few centuries now. Over time, sculptors began taking keen notice of details, beautifying their stone sculptures and creating truly realistic masterpieces out of them. Limestone, granite, sandstone, marble, soapstone, black stone, etc. are some of the commonly chosen rocks/stones for sculpting- each having their own unique characteristic and quality. The process of carving stones: Carving sculptures out of stone begins with the sculptor choosing a stone for his/her work. They then usually create a replica of their design or sculpture using another medium such as Plaster of Paris. This makes it easier for them to copy exact details. Some artisans, however, prefer directly carving the stone. Carving of the stone involves chiseling out the excess or unwanted parts of the stone using a pointed chisel to create a basic structure. Once that structure is ready, the sculptor then begins to refine his sculpture, carving out details and bringing out a more defined structure. 132 After all the carving is done, he then finishes off by smoothening the surface and giving it a polish. Usually, a sandpaper is used for this purpose but it depends on the rock or stone used. Black stone sculptures: Black stone is a very commonly used rock for creating sculptures because of its beautiful color that gives an elegant finish to the sculpture. Different types of black stones can be used depending on the sculptor and his needs. Black Onyx is a variety that is often used for sculpting purposes. Our exquisite Black Stone collections: Dharma: The Symbolic SermonSimple but professionally crafted, this sculpture shows Lord Buddha seated on a throne and demonstrating the Dharma Chakra Mudra. Kama: Uncontrollable DesireHindu scriptures define Kama as a physical desire for intimacy between two people. It is this desire that is said to drive all the creatures into reproducing and hence keeping evolution going. 133 This sculpture is a fine example of one that depicts this enigma by being carved to look like a question mark with different creatures engraved on it, conveying that everything that walks the Earth is an eternal part of this question.This polished, black stone sculpture depicts the same passion between a man and a woman. Praheli: The Enigma That Is LifeScholars, yogis, and philosophers were forever faced with failure trying to understand the mysteries of life. This secrecy of life hence became an interesting subject for artists and artisans to explore. A Stone sculpture is an object made of stone which has been shaped, usually by carving, or assembled to form a visually interesting three-dimensional shape. Stone is more durable than 134 most alternative materials, making it especially important in architectural sculpture on the outside of buildings. Stone carving includes a number of techniques where pieces of rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal of stone. Owing to the permanence of the material, evidence can be found that even the earliest societies indulged in some form of stonework, though not all areas of the world have such abundance of good stone for carving as Egypt, Persia(Iran), Greece, Central America, India and most of Europe. Often, as in Indian sculpture, stone is the only material in which ancient monumental sculpture has survived (along with smaller terracottas), although there was almost certainly more wooden sculpture created at the time. Petroglyphs (also called rock engravings) are perhaps the earliest form: images created by removing part of a rock surface which remains in situ, by incising, pecking, carving, and abrading. Rock reliefs, carved into "living" rock, are a more advanced stage of this. Monumental sculpture covers large works, and architectural sculpture, which is attached to buildings. Historically, much of these types was painted, usually after a thin coat of plaster was applied. Hardstone carving is the carving for artistic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate, onyx, rock crystal, sard or carnelian, and a general term for an object made in this way. Alabaster or mineral gypsum is a soft mineral that is easy to carve for smaller works and still relatively durable. Engraved gems are small carved gems, including cameos, originally used as seal rings. 135 Boundary wall featuring a dry stone sculpture, in the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, UK/Egyptian/Unakoti group of rock reliefs of Shiva, Tripura, India. 11th century Ancient Egyptian triple portrait in greywacke, a very hard sandstone that takes a fine polish Carving stone into sculpture is an activity older than civilization itself, beginning perhaps with incised images on cave walls.[1] Prehistoric sculptures were usually human forms, such as the Venus of Willendorf and the faceless statues of the Cycladic cultures of ancient Greece. Later cultures devised animal, human-animal and abstract forms in stone. The earliest cultures used abrasive techniques, and modern technology employs pneumatic hammers and other devices. But for most of human history, sculptors used a hammer and chisel as the basic tools for carving stone. Stone Types: Soapstone, with a Mohs hardness of about 2, is an easily worked stone, commonly used by beginning students of stone carving. Alabaster and softer kinds of serpentine, all about 3 on the Mohs scale, are more durable than soapstone. Alabaster, in particular, has long been cherished for its translucence. Limestone and sandstone, at about 4 on the Mohs scale, are the only sedimentary stones commonly carved. Limestone comes in a popular oolitic variety, about twice as hard as alabaster, that is excellent for carving. The harder serpentines can also reach 4 on the Mohs scale. Marble, travertine, and onyx are at about 6 on the Mohs scale. Marble has been the preferred stone for sculptors in the European tradition ever since the time of classical Greece. It is available in a wide variety of colors, from white through pink and red to grey and black.[3] The hardest stone frequently carved is granite, at about 8 on the Mohs scale. It is the most durable of sculptural stones and, correspondingly, an extremely difficult stone to work.[2] Basalt columns, being even harder than the granite, are less frequently carved. This stone takes on a beautiful black appearance when polished. Rough and Finished Statutes: Rough block forms of unfinished statuary are known and are in museums. Notable are the Akhenaten, Amarna Period statuary found at Akhetaten. One known sculptor, Thutmose (sculptor), has his entire shop excavated at Akhetaten, with many unfinished block forms. 136 different mallets and pitching tool/Roughed out carvings This shows the process of "pointing", the traditional method of making exact copies in stone carving. A point machine is used to measure points on the original sculpture (seen on the right) and transfer those points onto the stone copy (left). Here we see the very early stages, where points have been measured and marked on the stone copy. These markings point out the high points of the surface so that the stone carver knows which surfaces to sink and which to leave alone. In the direct method of stone carving, the work usually begins with the selection of stone for carving, the qualities of which will influence the artist's choices in the design process. The artist using the direct method may use sketches but eschews the use of a physical model. The fully dimensional form or figure is created for the first time in the stone itself, as the artist removes material, sketches on the block of stone, and develops the work along the way.[4] On the other hand, is the indirect method, when the sculptor begins with a clearly defined model to be copied in stone. The models, usually made of plaster or modeling clay, may be fully the size of the intended sculpture and fully detailed. Once the model is complete, a suitable stone must be found to fit the intended design.[4] The model is then copied in stone by measuring with calipers or a pointing machine. This method is frequently used when the carving is done by other sculptors, such as artisans or employees of the sculptor. Some artists use the stone itself as inspiration; the Renaissance artist Michelangelo claimed that his job was to free the human form hidden inside the block.[1] Copying by "pointing” The copying of an original statue in stone, which was very important for Ancient Greek statues, which are nearly all known from copies, was traditionally achieved by "pointing", along with more freehand methods. Pointing involved setting up a grid of string squares on a wooden frame 137 surrounding the original, and then measuring the position on the grid and the distance between grid and statue of a series of individual points, and then using this information to carve into the block from which the copy is made. Robert Manuel Cook notes that Ancient Greek copyists seem to have used many fewer points than some later ones, and copies often vary considerably in the composition as well as the finish.[5] Roughing out When he or she is ready to carve, the carver usually begins by knocking off, or "pitching", large portions of unwanted stone. For this task, he may select a point chisel, which is a long, hefty piece of steel with a point at one end and a broad striking surface at the other. A pitching tool may also be used at this early stage; which is a wedge-shaped chisel with a broad, flat edge. The pitching tool is useful for splitting the stone and removing large, unwanted chunks. The sculptor also selects a mallet, which is often a hammer with a broad, barrel-shaped head. The carver places the point of the chisel or the edge of the pitching tool against a selected part of the stone, then swings the mallet at it with a controlled stroke. He must be careful to strike the end of the tool accurately; the smallest miscalculation can damage the stone, not to mention the sculptor’s hand. When the mallet connects to the tool, energy is transferred along the tool, shattering the stone. Most sculptors work rhythmically, turning the tool with each blow so that the stone is removed quickly and evenly. This is the “roughing out” stage of the sculpting process. Refining Once the general shape of the statue has been determined, the sculptor uses other tools to refine the figure. A toothed chisel or claw chisel has multiple gouging surfaces which create parallel lines in the stone. These tools are generally used to add texture to the figure. An artist might mark out specific lines by using calipers to measure an area of stone to be addressed and marking the removal area with pencil, charcoal or chalk. The stone carver generally uses a shallower stroke at this point in the process. Final stages. Eventually, the sculptor has changed the stone from a rough block into the general shape of the finished statue. Tools called rasps and rifflers are then used to enhance the shape into its final form. A rasp is a flat, steel tool with a coarse surface. The sculptor uses broad, sweeping strokes to remove excess stone as small chips or dust. A riffler is a smaller variation of the rasp, which can be used to create details such as folds of clothing or locks of hair. 138 The final stage of the carving process is polishing. Sandpaper can be used as a first step in the polishing process or sand cloth. Emery, a stone that is harder and rougher than the sculpture media, is also used in the finishing process. This abrading, or wearing away, brings out the colour of the stone, reveals patterns in the surface and adds a sheen. Tin and iron oxides are often used to give the stone a highly reflective exterior. Today, modern stone sculptors use diamond abrasives to sand in the final finishing processes. This can be achieved by hand pads in rough to fine abrasives ranging from 36 grit to 3000 grit. Also, diamond pads mounted on water-cooled rotary air or electric sanders speed the finishing process. Stone carving is an activity where pieces of rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal of stone. Owing to the permanence of the material, stone work has survived which was created during our prehistory. Work carried out by paleolithic societies to create stone tools is more often referred to as knapping. Stone carving that is done to produce lettering is more often referred to as lettering. The process of removing stone from the earth is called mining or quarrying. Stone carving is one of the processes which may be used by an artist when creating a sculpture. The term also refers to the activity of masons in dressing stone blocks for use in architecture, building or civil engineering. It is also a phrase used by archaeologists, historians, and anthropologists to describe the activity involved in making some types of petroglyphs. History: The earliest known works of representational art are stone carvings. Often marks carved into rock or petroglyphs will survive where painted work will not. Prehistoric Venus figurines such as the Venus of Berekhat Ram may be as old as 800,000 years and are carved in stones such as tuff and limestone. These earliest examples of the stone carving are the result of hitting or scratching a softer stone with a harder one, although sometimes more resilient materials such as antlers are known to have been used for relatively soft stone. Another early technique was to use an abrasive that was rubbed on the stone to remove the unwanted area. Prior to the discovery of steel by any culture, all stone carving was carried out by using an abrasion technique, following rough hewing of the stone block using hammers. The reason for this is that bronze, the hardest available metal until steel, is not hard enough to work any but the softest stone. The Ancient Greeks used 139 the ductility of bronze to trap small granules of carborundum, that are naturally occurring on the island of Milos, thus making a very efficient file for abrading the stone. The development of iron made possible stone carving tools, such as chisels, drills and saws made from steel, that were capable of being hardened and tempered to a state hard enough to cut stone without deforming, while not being so brittle as to shatter. Carving tools have changed little since then. Modern, industrial, large quantity techniques still rely heavily on abrasion to cut and remove stone, although at a significantly faster rate with processes such as water erosion and diamond saw cutting. One modern stone carving technique uses a new process: The technique of applying sudden high temperature to the surface. The expansion of the top surface due to the sudden increase in temperature causes it to break away. On a small scale, Oxy-acetylene torches are used. On an industrial scale, lasers are used. On a massive scale, carvings such as the Crazy Horse Memorial carved from the Harney Peak granite of Mount Rushmore and the Confederate Memorial Park in Albany, Georgia are produced using jet heat torches. Stone sculpture and Architectural sculpture The Tang Dynasty Leshan Giant Buddha, near Leshan in Sichuan province, China. Construction began in 713, and was completed in 803. It is the largest stone-carved Buddha in the world. Bas-Relief, late 19th century CE. Limestone. Brooklyn Museum Carving stone into sculpture is an activity older than civilization itself. Prehistoric sculptures were usually human forms, such as the Venus of Willendorf and the faceless statues of 140 the Cycladic cultures. Later cultures devised animal, human-animal and abstract forms in stone. The earliest cultures used abrasive techniques, and modern technology employs pneumatic hammers and other devices. But for most of human history, sculptors used hammer and chisel as the basic tools for carving stone. The process begins with the selection of a stone for carving. Some artists use the stone itself as inspiration; the Renaissance artist Michelangelo claimed that his job was to free the human form trapped inside the block. Other artists begin with a form already in mind and find a stone to complement their vision. The sculptor may begin by forming a model in clay or wax, sketching the form of the statue on paper or drawing a general outline of the statue on the stone itself. When ready to carve, the artist usually begins by knocking off large portions of unwanted stone. This is the "roughing out" stage of the sculpting process. For this task they may select a point chisel, which is a long, hefty piece of steel with a point at one end and a broad striking surface at the other. A pitching tool may also be used at this early stage; which is a wedgeshaped chisel with a broad, flat edge. The pitching tool is useful for splitting the stone and removing large, unwanted chunks. Those two chisels are used in combination with a masons driving hammer. Once the general shape of the statue has been determined, the sculptor uses other tools to refine the figure. A toothed chisel or claw chisel has multiple gouging surfaces which create parallel lines in the stone. These tools are generally used to add texture to the figure. An artist might mark out specific lines by using calipers to measure an area of stone to be addressed, and marking the removal area with pencil, charcoal or chalk. The stone carver generally uses a shallower stroke at this point in the process, usually in combination with a wooden mallet. Eventually the sculptor has changed the stone from a rough block into the general shape of the finished statue. Tools called rasps and rifflers are then used to enhance the shape into its final form. A rasp is a flat, steel tool with a coarse surface. The sculptor uses broad, sweeping strokes to remove excess stone as small chips or dust. A riffler is a smaller variation of the rasp, which can be used to create details such as folds of clothing or locks of hair. The final stage of the carving process is polishing. Sandpaper can be used as a first step in the polishing process, or sand cloth. Emery, a stone that is harder and rougher than the sculpture 141 media, is also used in the finishing process. This abrading, or wearing away, brings out the color of the stone, reveals patterns in the surface and adds a sheen. Tin and iron oxides are often used to give the stone a highly reflective exterior. Sculptures can be carved via either the direct or the indirect carving method. Indirect carving is a way of carving by using an accurate clay, wax or plaster model, which is then copied with the use of a compass or proportional dividers or a pointing machine. The direct carving method is a way of carving in a more intuitive way, without first making an elaborate model. Sometimes a sketch on paper or a rough clay draft is made. 'Arabic' style carving on ashlar building blocks, Beith, Scotland Stone has been used for carving since ancient times for many reasons. Most types of stone are easier to find than metal ores, which have to be mined and smelted. Stone can be dug from the surface and carved with hand tools. Stone is more durable than wood, and carvings in stone last much longer than wooden artifacts. Stone comes in many varieties and artists have abundant choices in color, quality and relative hardness. Soft stone such as chalk, soapstone, pumice and Tufa can be easily carved with found items such as harder stone or in the case of chalk even the fingernail. Limestones and marbles can be worked using abrasives and simple iron tools. Granite, basalt and some metamorphic stone is difficult to carve even with iron or steel tools; usually tungsten carbide tipped tools are used, although abrasives still work well. Modern techniques often use abrasives attached to machine tools to cut the stone. Precious and semi-precious gemstones are also carved into delicate shapes for jewellery or larger items, and polished; this is sometimes referred to as lapidary, although strictly speaking lapidary refers to cutting and polishing alone. When worked, some stones release dust that can damage lungs (silica crystals are usually to blame), so a respirator is sometimes needed. 142 Basic stone carving tools fall into five categories:  Percussion tools for hitting - such as mallets, axes, adzes, bouchards and toothed hammers.  Tools for rough shaping of stone, to form a block the size needed for the carving. These include feathers and wedges and pitching tools.  Chisels for cutting - such as lettering chisels, points, pitching tools, and claw chisels. Chisels, in turn, may be handheld and hammered or pneumatic powered.  Diamond tools which include burrs, cup wheels, and blades mounted on a host of power tools. These are used sometimes through the entire carving process from rough work to the final finish.  Abrasives for material removals - such as carborundum blocks, drills, saws, grinding and cutting wheels, water-abrasive machinery and dressing tools such as French and English drags. More advanced processes, such as laser cutting and jet torches, use sudden high temperature with a combination of cooling water to spall flakes of stone. Other modern processes may involve diamond-wire machines or other large scale production equipment to remove large sections of undesired stone. The use of chisels for stone carving is possible in several ways. Two are:  The mason's stroke, in which a flat chisel is used at approximately 90 degrees to the surface in an organized sweep. It shatters the stone beneath it and each successive pass lowers the surface.  The lettering stroke, in which the chisel is used along the surface at approximately 30 degrees to cut beneath the existing surface. There are many types and styles of stone carving tools, each carver will decide for themselves which tools to use. Traditionalists might use hand tools only.  Lettering chisels for incising small strokes create the details of letters in larger applications.  Fishtail carving chisels are used to create pockets, valleys and for intricate carving, whilst providing good visibility around the stone.  Masonry chisels are used for the general shaping of stones.  Stone point tools are used to rough out the surface of the stone.  Stone claw tools are used to remove the peaks and troughs left from the previously used tools. 143  Stone pitching tools are used to remove large quantities of stone.  Stone nickers are used to split stones by tracing a line along the stone with progressive strikes until the stone breaks along the line. Today Powered pneumatic hammers make the hard work easier. Progress on shaping stone is faster with pneumatic carving tools. Air hammers (such as Cuturi) place many thousands of impacts per minute upon the end of the tool, which would usually be manufactured or modified to suit the purpose. This type of tool creates the ability to 'shave' the stone, providing a smooth and consistent stroke, allowing for larger surfaces to be worked. Among modern tool types, there are two main stone carving chisels:  Heat treated high carbon steel tools - Generally forged  Tungsten carbide tipped tools - Generally forged, slotted, and carbide inserts brazed in to provide a harder and longer-wearing cutting edge. 144 CHAPTER XII Erotic Sentiment in Indian Temple Sculptures Both in India and in Angkor there are erotic sculptures on the walls of the stone frescos depicting nude nymphs. Though in Angkor no copulative activity id denoted Most of the Apsara sculptures are based on different aspects of Shringara rasa, adhering to the rules prescribed in the treatise of Indian theatrics- Natyashastra. Shringara is the rasa used to portray on stage mutual desire and romantic love as primary emotion between a man and Abstract Shringara rasa – the sentiment of erotic love, and first of the nine rasas / navarasas as they are called are the natural states of mind experienced by humans. Of the nine sentiments -nava rasas, shringara occupies an important place in the history of ancient Indian literature and fine arts. Indian temples show the figures of apsaras depicting the sentiment of love, both in the theoretical aspects relating to theatrics (as described in Natyashastra by Bharata Muni around 2nd century AD) as well as in the practical side of life with Kamasutra of Vatsyayana (by sage Vatsyayana, around 2-3 century AD) as its base. Many erotic sculptures depicting union also involve dwarf figures at the base as secondary figures which are in pranayama variations with hatha yoga mudras and are tantra based union figures. (Though based on Patanjali Yoga sutra assigned between 3-4th century AD, Hatha yoga gained prominence beyond 5th century AD). Several commentaries on these topics were written in the subsequent periods and by medieval period the kings who sponsored the construction of temples, the sthapatis and sculptors were all well versed on these topics along with religious and philosophical aspects. The outcome was the inclusion of these topics in a permanent medium of stone in temples for mass communication. This article focuses on how to understand the shades of shringara rasa that are depicted on the outer walls of Indian temples and how tantric themes are different from non-tantric ones as they are based on different ancient texts. 145 Introduction to Shringara Rasa The depiction of a happy state of mind elevating the state of mind of the performer and the viewer to shringa- meaning a peak is called Shringara rasa and is called the “King of Rasas”. It is categorized as chitta vikasa (blooming of the mood) – which blossoms or opens out the mind leading to a pleasant state. Rasa means the essence, pith – the juicy and the best part of Indian fine arts like dance, music, painting, sculptural art and literature. In colloquial terms, it means beautification, pure and clean leading to attractive appearance and is related to the love theme of youthful enthusiastic hero and heroine. Feminine grace in youth, is the support of Shringara in sculptures too, and they show joyful facial expression with befitting actions through limbs. Most of the Apsara sculptures are based on different aspects of Shringara rasa, adhering to the rules prescribed in the treatise of Indian theatrics- Natyashastra. The chapter on sentiments is about the rules of theatrical aspects giving a detailed account of how the Shringara rasa has to be enacted by the heroine of the play, how the state of mind has to be communicated to the audience with befitting body and facial movements, accessories that can be used or the stage setting to invoke Shringara. The heroine depicted as an apsara on a lotus pedestal (considered as semi divine for her insight into fine arts) exhibits all the rules of Natyashastra to be followed for depiction of Shringara. Shringara is the rasa used to portray on stage mutual desire and romantic love as primary emotion between a man and woman. The permanent mood – Sthayibhava of Shringara is Rati, meaning physical attraction and pleasure. Dasharupaka, (an ancient commentary on some chapters of Natyashastra, compiled by Dhananjaya, around 10th century) in Part IV, Ch. 58, in relation to the state of mind of the hero and the heroine, states that Shringara is of three stages – “Aayogo viprayogascha sambhogascheti sa tridha” 1. Aayoga stands for acceptance of each other in love, are in a pleasant state of mind, though yet to meet, are ambitious of the meet as a precursor to union. Most of the Apsara sculptures depict the anxiety of Aayoga Shringara- as she is interested in the hero and is preparing herself for the meet. But the hero is not physically depicted in this group of Apsara sculptures and hence are classified as Aayoga phase. 2. Viprayoga – where the hero and heroine had united before, but are currently apart, in nonharmonious state, separated or quarrelling for the hero has missed the promise of coming in time 146 to meet the heroine. The sculptural representations are rare but are more in paintings and literature. 3. Sambhoga – where hero and heroine are in a harmonious state of mind and united. Sambhoga Shringara is the core theme of the treatise Kamasutra. While the heartache and pain of separation from the loved one is conveyed through Viprayoga, the intense desire for uniting with the lover is conveyed through Sambhoga. 1. Aayoga Shringara in Sculptures of Apsaras of Belur Chennakeshava Temple ‘Aa’, is the second letter of alphabet in Sanskrit and is used as a prefix to verbs and nouns to express a sense of nearness. Yoga means joining or union. Aayoga also means an appointment (for yoga-joining), action or performance, and offering flowers, perfumes, etc., as a sub division of Shringara. It is easier to express emotions in literature or dance, but to bring it out in a sculpture is difficult because the sculptor is the non-performer and yet has to know the intricacies involved in dance of both pure and emotive aspects, to bring out a state of pleasure in the stone medium. In other words, the sculptor had to know thoroughly all the aspects related to the chapters of Natyashastra as well as physical body because Shringara is expressed through body movements as frozen (aangika abhinaya) postures along with facial expressions and supported by other hand accessories. The aesthetic pleasure of Apsara sculptures is determined by how successful the sculptor is in expressing a particular emotion and evoking the rasa. “Ramya desha, kalaa, kaala, Veshabhogadi Sevanai…” Dasarupaka, part 4.56 quotes that Shringara is evoked and depicted when the hero or heroine is enjoying in the following context.  Ramya desha – A pleasant place like garden and enjoying nature  Ramya kalaa – Involved in fine arts such as music, dance and the instruments.  Ramya kaala – Pleasant time like pleasure of seasons or festivals. It could also be playing with pet parrot and hearing words about the hero from her pet parrot, etc.  Vesha bhoga – Use of garlands, ornaments, food that elevates the mood to a pleasant state. The context in sculptures is determined by the behaviour of the character of heroin – the Apsara. Ramya Desha – Ramya means pleasant and desha means a place. A pleasant state of mind, Shringara rasa is evoked in a beautiful place like a garden or a palace when the heroine is 147 enjoying the beauty of flower or a fruit. Garden is also a meeting place with her beloved. She holds the branch of a plant, and looks for the arrival of her beloved. Picture 1 (left): From Belur. Depicts Apsara in a garden, trying to know the texture of a fruit. Picture 2 (right): From the same temple shows Apsara trying to ask the attendant to examine her foot. She holds the branch for support and looks if the hero has arrived or not. Ramya Kalaa – Kalaa means fine arts. Apsara is immersed in playing instrumental music and enjoying a pleasant state of mind. Shringara is evoked by actions depicting enjoyment in art forms. The face depicts a joyous state with a smiling face. Head and glances in sama (normal) position. Apsara is involved in music or dance, and the attendants with instruments belong to the Kushilava group of accompanying artists. When the hero or heroine is involved in enjoying any art form like dance and music – the Gandharva Kalaa – they are depicting Shringara rasa – as it is categorized under blooming of the mind – citta vikaasa. Natyashastra defines Gandharva Kalaa as music and dance based on svara, taala and pada (melody, rhythm and words respectively) executed with various musical instruments. This was the art loved by Devas and Gandharvas who were proficient in music. Ramya Kaala – Kaala is time, a pleasant or private time. The Apsara is speaking to her pet parrot and listening about the hero or enjoying Utsava kaala – a festive time. These are well depicted in figures of Belur. 148 Picture 5 (left): Apsara playing game of colours. Picture 6 (right): Apsara with her pet parrot. Picture 5 depicts how the lady is enjoying the game of colours in Vasantotsava. She is in an enthusiastic game of playing with a pot full of perfumed or coloured water and also using a syringe to spray colours. In Picture 6, the Apsara is associated with a pet parrot in a dramatic situation in sculpture. Parrot is the vehicle of Kamadeva- the God of love, hence, it is a symbolic gesture of love and a carrier of love messages. It may also be a friend and a soul mate with whom she shares her love for the hero. In this panel, the Apsara is either listening to its words about the hero or she is trying to receive or send a message through it. It is a frozen posture of a dialogue – vachikaabhinaya, and the dwarf figures depicted as encouraging the bird with fruits to speak repeatedly. Vesha Bhogadi Sevanai: Apsara is deriving pleasure from personal decoration like a dress, ornaments or enjoying food etc., which elevates the mind to a pleasant state. Bhoga – the experience of enjoyment is possible through the help of manas – the mind in a pleasant state and not otherwise. Shringara through dress means and elegant decoration suited to an amorous interview. 149 Picture 7 (left) and Picture 8 (right): Apsara is decorating herself to look good. These two pictures show her desire to look good before meeting her beloved. She carefully looks at herself in the mirror, arranging her adornment for final touches. The attendants are offering bangles for extra adornment. In Picture 8, she is trying to know which type of earrings suits her. The attendants are showing her the mirror and other ornaments. Feminine grace in youthful period, supports the sentiments of Shringara. The natural physical graces are called Haava, Bhaava and Hela, (feminine coquettish gesture to excite love, emotion, and intensifying sexual desire, respectively) – which arise from one another and are aspects of natural character. The erotic emotion manifests itself in the change in position of eyes, eyebrows and the neck and graceful body movements, indicative of erotic sentiment. The various natural graces which a lady exhibits like amorous gesture, graceful hand movements, confusion, manifestation of affections and pretended anger are the outcome of the three inborn qualities of youthful period. Adorned with these natural graces a lady exhibits involuntary (without effort) graces – some of them which are seen in Apsara images. In her expression of love, the Apsara’s efforts are based on longing (abhilasha – as said in Sanskrit) to meet her beloved. She tries to decorate herself and exhibits anxiety before the meet. The analysis of sculptures in Shringara 150 rasa is also supported by the actions of the dwarf figures who are depicted on either side of the main figure. 2. Viprayoga Shringara in Sculptures ‘Vi’– is a prefix in Sanskrit to verbs and nouns or adjectives, with a meaning of separation, a reverse of action, an opposite of a verb of any action and prayoga means use or performance. Viprayoga, a subdivision of Shringara is separation after union. Due to emotional disturbances like forgetfulness of hero, when the hero is abroad due to work or jealousy felt by either of them, the hero and heroine are separated. The expression comes out as harsh vak-words or disinterest in dress and action. The lady in Viprayoga is depicted as removing her decorations, and in a bad mood of crying, breathless exhalations or writing a message about her state. Even when there is lot of love in their hearts, they are in angry mood and hence in Viprayoga state. Pictures 7, 8, 9, 10 from left depicting Viprayoga Shringara . Picture 7 is a panel from Chalukyan temple that depicts a lady to be removing her adornment of the waist band. She appears to be disinterested in costume. The posture of crossing legs in the thigh region (Baddha swastika) is used to depict an unpleasant situation. Picture 8 from Belur Chennakeshava temple of Hoysala art depicts a heroine in a disappointed mood after opening the message or the letter. The dwarf figure of a young girl helps in opening the message. The lady depicts her disappointment in downward head and glances without enthusiasm in her action. Picture 9 and 10 are from Chalukyan temple. The lady is writing a letter to her beloved about her agony as he is away from her. The legs are crossed at a lower region which hints that she is in love but is separated from the hero. 3. Sambhoga Shringara in Sculptures 151 Sambhoga Shringara – a sub division under Shringara, it refers to enjoyment in general, and to sexual love, erotic love, coitus, romantic mood highlighted by physical intimacy in particular. Bhoga is consuming, pleasure or enjoyment. Sambhoga is the central theme of Shringara, literally leading to union. It is reverse of Viprayoga separation or indifference of loved ones. Sambhoga is synonymous with ratikride, surata and maithuna that are expressed in sculptures through suitable actions like a hug, loving glance, inter twining of the body, etc. The sculptures depict male and female figures in a state of enjoyment in a relaxed state. Some depictions are according to the postures detailed in Kamasutra. Release of the creative sexual energy and procreation is the result of Sambhoga Shringara. The pictures 11 (left) and 12 (middle) are from Khajuraho group of temples. Picture 13 (right) is from Konark temple. The conclusion is that the variation in rasas offer a unique mode and testimony to the enduring beauties carved in these temples. It is truly beauty frozen in time. The depiction of Rasa in Apsara sculptures bear no relation to any Pauranic or mythological episodes, as there is no proof in support of this. Hence, it is viewed for a demonstration of how a particular Rasa is to be conveyed through angika, aharya and satvika modes. It is a demonstration of how a lady has to enact, for a particular situation. The emotions of love are natural human instincts and its various stages or shades are documented in the sculptures of temples. 152 Erotic sculptures: Depiction of Union in Tantra based Images Many figures despite being adorned with garments and jewels appear nude with a bold display of genital organ and hence popularly addressed as erotic figures. The term erotic is related to sexual desire and is a part of Sambhoga Shringara. A study of such figures revealed that even though there is a bold display of body or intimacy between the male and the female, Shringara- the sentiment of love or physical attraction did not appear to be the key theme. The figures depicted hand gestures or yoga mudras, auspicious accessories along with the presence of secondary figures in hatha yoga postures. Such figures, when approached for the esoteric or the inner secretive information, lead to the understanding of hidden information. They were related to the profound matters of the fundamental reality of tantric practices, classified as Tantra yoga and its branches. The aspects of Raja yoga and Tantra philosophy were an integral part of the temple sculptures very much like the depiction of Pauranic or religious episodes that adorned the outer walls of the temple. These figures were carved out in temples so that people could know the different reality. The Apsara Figure with a Scorpion on Her Thigh Figures with this theme are depicted in almost all big temples. Though called erotic, she does not show the pleasantness of Shringara rasa, but pain or fear on her face and actions. A detailed study revealed that this bold exposure is due to the presence of scorpion and not intended to expose herself for sex. The symbolism of scorpion relates to the six negative or impure qualities like lust, anger, greed, envy, etc. and in particular to lust, which is depicted as a scorpion (Vruschika in Sanskrit). As per ancient literature, scorpion carries an ever-present aura of passion, lust, attraction. In sculptures, scorpion is always depicted as approaching the sex organ. Being a large poisonous insect, its danger is depicted through the large fangs that are like swords. In almost all figures, the celestial beauty is depicted to be opening her costume out of fear to throw away the scorpion, thus resulting in the exposure of the genital organ. Sculptures with selfexposure, though called erotic, convey a message of over power of lust and its implications. Usually, scorpions are associated with only a female figure in order to convey the silent approach of lust. A woman must be careful as it turns out to be a physical and social problem when ignored. 153 Pictures 14 (left most) and 15: From Khajuraho temples. Picture 16 is from Rani ki Vav and Picture 17 (right most) from Belur. The figures of celestial beauties in the temples of medieval period like the Khajuraho temple, the step well of Rani ki vav and Belur temple of Hoysala art all have an Apsara figure associated with a scorpion. The scorpion is usually depicted as climbing up towards the genital region. Every movement of it is adversary. It makes a stealthy, silent approach without making a bold display of its arrival and hides in thick layers. It strikes quickly and decisively and injects poison which paralyzes consciousness. This is depicted as the lady showing pain on her face. Since pain or fear are not in Shringara rasa, these sculptures though called erotic, are not depictions of erotic love. The intended message is that sexual energy can be harnessed to progress spiritually or excel in any other field. Tantric Coupling The sculptures depicting tantric coupling are focused more on highlighting the ecstatic state as the key expression rather than mundane pleasure. Ecstasy is essentially a stepping into an alternate reality in which the present reality disappears. The sculptures depicting union had secondary figures not only depicting hatha yoga asanas or mudras in hands but also showed instruments held in hand. This led to the understanding that Tantra used body as the best medium to explain its philosophy. The body was adopted as a symbol or an instrument through which 154 truth and reality of Tantra could be realized. The aim of tantric coupling is not to discharge the creative sex energy, but to divert it to a path of spiritual evolution. They look like love sculptures from an optical view, but a rationalistic approach of the other figures in the panel leads to an understanding of the hidden philosophical concept. This could also be due to the fusion of the sambhoga postures of Kamasutra mixing with the thoughts of Tantra yoga to explain what the stages of union means, and how tantric union can be achieved. Probably the intention for a reallife depiction was to explain the term “union” because Tantra yoga refers to many unions:  Ida – pingala nadis in union in Kundalini yoga  Prana and apana aspects of pranayama in harmony in Hatha yoga or  Mind and intellect in perfect harmony for spiritual progress in Nada yoga. The two forces in each group were personified into male and female figures to explain or highlight union at different branches of Tantra yoga. Graphic images were used to carry a stronger and dramatic impact on the psyche of the humans. Realities of Tantra were conveyed both in its theoretical and practical aspects. Though all the pictures from the Khajuraho group of temples provided below show the hero and heroine in loving embrace or union, the secondary figures that are carved along with the main figures convey the hidden information about different branches of Tantra yoga. The male and female figures are to be viewed as personifications of the union of either the ida-pingala nadis, prana-apana vayu, upaya and prajna of Buddhist Tantra, union of jivatma with paramatma or union of mind and mantra. Spiritual progress is the intention in Tantric union, and not procreation or physical pleasure of sambhoga. Pictures 18 (left), 19 and 20 from left: Depiction of pairing from Khajuraho temples. 155 Picture 18 shows Viparita Baddha Konasana and head stand depicted in sculptures of tantric coupling represent Yoga Nadis in Kundalini Yoga. The head stand, viparita baddha konasana by male figure is at the base and konasana by female figure is on the top. The two- male and female figures are the personification of the Ida – Pingala Nadis, (the motor and sensory nerves in physiological terms) uniting at the central Sushumna canal. The side figures are the peripheral Nadis, the nerves in personification. Picture 19 shows four big figures and two small figures in sitting posture depicting hatha yoga mudras. The central male and female figures are the personification of prana and apana forces. The first female figure depicts absolution of slapping the nerves of the cheek in left hand before the commencement of hatha yoga and holds dhyana mudra in right hand, hinting about focus of mind. The last female figure depicts mula bandha in left hand and naadi shodha pranayama in right hand. The sitting figure between the legs show bhastrika pranayama with shakti chalana mudra of hatha yoga. Picture 20 shows four big figures and three dwarf figures as Gandharvas holding flute and garland. The central figures gazing affectionately are about the depiction of the state of mind (mantra as female) under the control of prana (male) in total harmony. It is the state of uninterrupted bliss of nada yoga, a branch of Tantra yoga. At the culmination of this yogic practice, the yogi hears the anahata nada – unstruck and internal sound vibrations like that of flute and lute of immense bliss. The figures holding flute and the lute are as tall as the main figures indicate the soulful vibrations of the string and wind instrument, the flute and veena. This stage is depicted in the panel as the prana and mantra, personified as deities in embrace gazing at each other in harmony and other figures reverberating with the sound of flute are conveying the beauty of harmonious state union of mind with the intellect in Nada yoga. The Veena of Goddess Saraswati, the flute of Lord Krishna and the Damaru nada of Lord Shiva are the symbolic sounds, which are the source of revelation to Naada-yogis. At this level of yoga, samadhi can only be an experience rather than a discussion. References The following books by the author provide detailed analyses of the topics covered  Apsaras in Hoysala Art: A New Dimension.  Erotic Sculptures in Indian temples: A New Perspective.  Rekha Raohttp://indiafacts.org/erotic-sentiment-in-indian-temple-sculptures/ 156 Part II COSMOLOGY of the STONE STRUCTURES 157 CHAPTER XIII COSMOLOGICAL INFERENCES Stone temples designed as mandalas had square nested walls forming processional pathways, corridors and passages carved with stories about the adventures and challenges of deities. At the centre of the temple was the axis mundi (world axis) – an invisible column of sacred energy connecting the heavens with earth, down which the gods were thought to pump spiritual energy into the earthly kingdoms, assuring prosperity. Thus, when a ruler announced the construction of a capital city they were essentially creating a new “exemplary centre” – a prosperity generator – assuring a continued emanation of divine energy from the centre of the temple into the capital city and outwards across the kingdom. For thousands of years mandalas were expanded horizontally in two dimensions in attempts to bring the astronomical frame of the universe into a cosmological scheme. Khmer temple designers and builders introduced a third dimension by vertically expanding squares into stepped pyramids with central towers. 158 The concentric squares of the central 5 towers at Angkor Wat. ©ashleycowie.com This evolutionary step in sacred architecture refocused the point of divine contact from the horizontal plane beneath our feet to the highest point in a structure which better expressed the Hindu-Buddhist belief that mountains, mountain ranges and caves were the sacred homes of the Gods. The mandala underlying Angkor Wat causes the entire temple complex to rise up forming a perfect square of four towers, which frame a centre tower, symbolising Mount Meru – the home of the gods. We will examine the mythological aspects of Mount Meru and Angkor Wat in greater detail in the next article. Angkor Wat Apsarasas (500K) Around the Temple (15) The Bas-Reliefs (31) Built by Suryavarman II (1113-1150) as his capital, Angkor Wat is a moated city (the city buildings have long since disappeared) that is centered on his State Temple. The temple is oriented to the west, an unusual direction that most authors ascribe to its dedication to Vishnu. This can't be the whole story, though, because most temples in Southeast Asia, with only a few exceptions, face east, regardless of their dedications. Most likely the explanation in this case is astronomical; Angkor Wat's western gopura brackets the rising sun's position between the summer and winter solstices (Mannikka, pp. 3742). The outer dimensions of the city, excluding the moat, are 1025m by 802m (.6mi x .5mi); the temple's outer wall measures 332m x 258m (1100' x 850') (Freeman and Jacques, p.47). 159 The temple itself is approached by a long causeway which terminates in a cruciform platform (naga bridge). From thence it ascends in three levels to a quincunx of towers. Only the five central towers remain, the others (at the corners of each enclosure) having collapsed. Bridging the third and second enclosures on the western axis is a unique structure, the so-called cruciform cloister, which replicates in plan the temple's third level platform. The third (outer) enclosure of the temple is a cloister that faces outwards. Its sandstone walls - over a third of a mile in total length, and about six feet high - are carved with bas-reliefs that depict Cambodian mythology and history. Most date from the time of Suryavarman, but the reliefs on the northeast corner (Krishna defeats Bana, and Vishnu defeats Asuras) date from a mid-16th century reoccupation of Angkor by king Ang Chan. The reliefs may originally have been painted, but any color remaining today is from a later time. The general theme of the bas-reliefs, as can be seen from the temple plan above, is the triumph of good - represented by Vishnu and his avatars, especially Krishna - over evil. Because Suryavarman could be regarded symbolically as an avatar, or at least an earthly representative of Vishnu, such a scheme seems appropriate to celebrate Suryavarman's reign. Further, as Mannikka (p.177) points out, the Battle of Lanka and the Battle of Devas and Asuras may have symbolized actual historical battles in which Suryavarman took part. The specific arrangement of the reliefs has been a matter of some debate. For one thing, their placement suggests a counterclockwise rather than the more usual clockwise circumambulation; the order of subjects is also difficult to understand. Recently, Eleanor Mannikka (pp.125 ff.) has 160 found astronomical significance in this arrangement: the spring equinox happens in the east and corresponds to the Churning (beginning of things), the summer solistice in the north (Mt. Meru, Battle of Asuras and Devas), the autumn equinox in the west (end of things, Battle of Kurukshetra), and the winter solistice in the south (realm of Yama, Heavens and Hells). While not all of Mannikka's proposals have been accepted in detail, it does seem that astronomy was a significant consideration in planning the temple (Coe, pp.120-121). CAMBODIA’S EXEMPLARY CENTRE OF TIME AND SPACE March 28, 2017 by Ashley Cowie Between 879 – 1191 AD the Khmer empire extended from what is now southern Vietnam to Yunan, China and westward to the Bay of Bengal. The great Hindu temple complex of Angkor Wat in Cambodia was built by Emperor Suryavarman II who reigned between AD 1113-50 on a scale repeated nowhere else on the planet, making Angkor Wat the largest religious monument in the world, with the site measuring 162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m2; 402 acres). At that time London, England, housed around 18’000 people while Angkor Wat was a grand social and administrative metropolis, the largest city in the world, with over a million inhabitants. Angkor Wat can be conceptualised as a heavenly portal on earth. At the very centre of the temple is the most sacred place in the complex, where humans and universal polar opposites 161 united as a perceived column of creation energy flowing from the heavens and emanating from the temple outwards across the kingdom, thus effecting the fate of fields and humans. Buddha busts lining the south entrance to the Angkor Wat complex. ©ashleycowie.com CONTRASTING COSMOLOGIES Followers of mainstream western religions worship an omnipotent creator who, standing outside of His creation, designed and built the universe within a week. The sacred architecture required to pay homage to this god demands open congregational spaces where groups of people gather, pray and to listen to clergymen delivering sermons. In stark contrast to this the Hindu timeline expressed in myths and temple architecture resonates closer with the modern scientific idea that the Big Bang was not the beginning of everything, but the start of a present cycle which was preceded by an infinite number of universes, and will be followed by an infinite number of universes. Thus, the Khmer temple was a microcosmic expression of the Hindu cosmological universe. The daily worship of Hindus and Buddhists required pilgrimage to a temple culminating with praying and/or meditating at the centre of the temple where the human soul experienced transcendence from the endless suffering and repetition of birth and rebirth. Angkor Wat is arranged around a series of mandala’s interlinked to represent ever more complex cosmological and esoteric themes. ©ashleycowie.com 162 The “heavenly” state experienced at the centre of the temple was known as Nirvana in Buddhism and as Moksha in Hinduism. To enable and enhance the percieved spiritual experience Southeast Asian temples were designed first as mandalas – deeply spiritual symbols blending cosmological, religious and psychological motifs, which together represent the microcosmic and macrocosmic levels of the universe. MANDALAS IN THE SKY Mandala’s were designed so that every proportion, space, area, ratio, length, breadth and height meant something deeper relating to Hindu cosmology. The fundamental/governing shape in all mandalas was a square, with concentric circles and T shaped gates on each face, all framing the mysterious centre point. Khmer Architects enlarged and reduced concentric squares, circles and triangles to achieve radial balance and to assure their designs were harmonically balanced, in all parts. A mandala is a spiritual and ritual symbol in Hinduism and Buddhism, representing the universe. In common use, “mandala” has become a generic term for any diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically. ©ashleycowie.com UPON COMPLETION, MANDALAS PRESENTED OBSERVERS WITH A RANGE OF POSSIBLE INTERPRETATIONS. They were infinite libraries of esoteric and religious data, tools to aid meditation and geometrically sound plans for designing temple. Sometimes Mandalas were created by large teams of priests brushing multi-coloured sand into place, but they were most often designed on paper or fabric and pinned on walls to help worshipers induce deep-state meditational traces. 163 At a rudimentary level within mandala design geometers faced a perplexing occurrence. No matter how large or small they expanded or contracted a concentric design, the centre point remained the same. The fixed centre point and this entire geometric organising principle was seen as highly esoteric and perfectly expressed Hindu cosmological ideas of how humans interact with the greater universe. From the largest outer square to the smallest inner square, mandalas, therefore cities and temples symbolically embodied the universe, the world, the kingdom, the capital city, the temple, the individual and the soul. THE ORIGINS OF KHMER COSMOLOGY Over the following articles we will see how the Khmer rulers extended their cosmology across the greater landscape, but before doing so we must first appreciate the essential hands on skills of the designers, architects, engineers and builders. The cosmological and astronomical aspects of Angkor Wat originated in the ancient Indian Vedic traditions of altar and temple design. To truly understand the astronomical formats, and resulting rituals, at Angkor Wat we must first unravel ancient rope crafts and measuring skills of ancient Vedic Indian altar and temple builders. The first layer of a Vedic sacrificial altar is shaped like a falcon Determining a location for constructing an altar (vedi) and the orientation and alignment of sacrificial fires, as well as their shapes and areas, were strictly managed in order that they “made effective instruments of sacrifice.” Unique fire-altar shapes were associated with gifts from the Gods. For example; he who desires heaven is to construct a fire-altar in the form of a falcon; a fire-altar in the form of a tortoise is to be constructed by one desiring to win the world of Brahman and those who wish to destroy existing and future enemies should construct a fire-altar in the form of a rhombus. 164 The Sulba Sutras were written mainly for the benefit of rope craftsmen laying out sacred buildings and altars, but they also contain a general statement of the Pythagorean Theorem. In addition to this they contain an approximation procedure for obtaining the square root of two, correct to five decimal places, an approximate squaring of the circle with rope. And, how to create rectilinear shapes whose area is equal to the sum or difference of areas of other shapes. The Bodhayana version of the Pythagorean Theorem is illustrated in the opposite diagram. ( The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square.) There were three principal types of cosmic fire-altars which were surrounded by 360 enclosing stones. The earth was represented by a circular altar surrounded by 21 enclosing stones, the sky was a square altar surrounded by 261 stones and the space altar was surrounded by 78 stones. The ancient mathematical problem of squaring the circle was regarded as a deeply esoteric exercise where the sacred geometer spent sometime a lifetime attempting to unite the earth and the sky in geometric formats. The above listed sacred numbers all appear at a fundamental level at Angkor Wat and in most Hindu temples. SACRED LENGTHS AND BUILDING MODULES Angkor Wat’s foundational geometry expresses Vedic ideas relating to not only the microcosm and macrocosm but also to calendric time and cosmological concepts. Adhering to ancient principles of sacred architecture temple designers took numbers from natural cycles and cosmological ideas and converted them into lengths and building units, which were regarded as sacred measurements and divine building modules, respectively. Angkor Wat’s sacred measurements were based on multiplications and divisions of the Cambodian cubit or hat (0.43545 m). Traditional Khmer calendars, Chhankiteks, were lunisolar – based on the movement of the moon but synchronising with the solar year to avoid seasonal drift – which was accomplished by adding an additional month or day to a particular year. The days in a solar year were represented 165 by lengths of 360, 365, or 366 units. Days in lunar months (naksatras) were lengths of 27, 28, 29 units and a lunar year was 354 days. Two good examples of lunar and solar day counts being converted into lengths and integrated into the architecture of Angkor Wat are; LUNAR GEOMETRY The number of days in a lunar year was 354 and the distance between the Naga balustrade and the first step at the end of the walkway, to the upper elevation, is 354 meters. SOLAR GEOMETRY Solar numbers are present in the external axial dimensions of the topmost elevation of the central tower, which is 189.00 cubits east to west and 176.37 cubits north to south. Together they have a the sum of 365.37 almost exactly the length of the solar year. CONCLUSION Only a handful of academic and amateur historians have studied the complex relationship that existed between the Khamer conception of the world and how the rulers, priests and architects organised the greater landscapes surrounding their ‘exemplary centres’. This is the focus of article 3, but next, in article 2, we will unfold the influence of Hindu creation mythologies on the iconography and architecture of Angkor Wat. References: 1. Stencel, R., Gifford, F., Moroan, E., “Astronomy and cosmology at Angkor Wat”, Science, 193, (1976), 281-287. 2. Millar, F.G. and Kak, S., “A Brahmanic fire altar explains a solar equation in Angkor Wat,” Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, vol. 93, 1999, pp. 216-220 3. Mannikka, Eleanor, Angkor Wat: Time, Space, and Kingship. Univ of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1996. Mannikka is the Moro ?n of the paper listed above. 4. Kramrisch, S., The Hindu Temple. The University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1946; Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1991, page 35-36. https://blog.world-mysteries.com/mystic-places/cambodias-exemplary-centre-time-space/ Part 3/5 The first article in this series demonstrated how the Khmer builders of Angkor Wat created a vast religious complex to serve a greater purpose than the worship of deities. The religious symbolism associated with mythological and cosmic order is reflected in the orientations of ancient buildings worldwide (e.g. Magli 2015) and Angkor Wat is no exception. Its measurements, orientations and alignments are near perfect expressions of greater cosmic order, the passage of time, the ever moving rays of the sun and their influence on agricultural. Now we will learn how Angkor wat 'worked' in the greater sacred landscape. 166 PART III STONE FRACTALS ARAMETRY IN INDIAN TEMPLES 167 CHAPTER XIV PARAMETRIC DESIGN AND FRACTAL GEOMETRY OF ANCIENT by Yashasri Yalagandula INDIAN TEMPLES Fractals are found in all Hindu temples regardless of the geography> The majority of earlier research on Indian temple was focussed on descriptive approach in terms of its evolution, distinct typological variations with respect to region to region and to note the various other factors that governed the evolution.Hindu temples and their interrelationship has renewed to their understanding of Hindu temple architecture. Study of fractals and link it to the formation of temple make the process easier of understanding the temples. It reveals the mystery of this gigantic structures fold by fold. In every element of these temples, there is a touch of fractal. A study undertaken by Yashasri Yalagandula titled PARAMETRIC DESIGN AND FRACTAL GEOMETRY OF ANCIENT INDIAN TEMPLES examines a group of temple complexes belonging to Kalyani chalukya period for understanding the general principles of composition and a precise possible method of conceptualisation to a precise constructional instruction methods with a specific focus on the temple geometry. The definitions of the nomenclature of various elements and the configuration of them in terms of vertical and horizontal layers also done. The broad classification of the temple based on its mode and architectural vocabulary was understood by the scholarly works of Hardy and others as it has given a conceptual clarity for general composition with the elements of sala kuta and panjara. A major amount of works has tried to explore the canonical texts and their interrelation to actual temples. Most of these approaches also clearly accept that the there are differences between the theory and actual practice. There is a considerable gap in terms of identifying the precise constructional method that can eliminate any ambiguity of conceptualisation to actual unambiguous simplified instructional level tools, which has to be consistent and free from interpretational bias. Especially when a number of people from stone cutters to fine finishing artisans are involved in the various stages of construction process over a long period of time. The marked difference of this research approach is a deviation from the study of temples through static 2 dimensional drawings as deciphered later to a 3D approach and consider architecture as a product of dynamic movement of two basic parameters called path and profiles. This research has not investigated the generation of plan geometry and this aspects are discussed by earlier researchers such as Hardy and this has been referred earlier and Hardy's proposition of square, expanding squares, and the other ideas of rotated squares to generate stellate and the ideas of breaking lengths into largely even divisions has been adapted as base idea. It is also 168 taken that the squares and arcs of circles were the larger geometry from which the temples derived various forms by experimentations and modifications. It is also to be noted that when paths are generated using square or stellar or circular geometry experimentation (even more and more sides of stellar paths). The vertical profile is decided by tala basis in fragments of a large profile. This large overall profile as we have seen could be either straight line or even be curvilinear. It is clear that overall profile was determined by the idea inward staggering or that of pyramidical side to follow the forces of gravity. The fragmented profile could be used as templates at each tala and it is also possible for later sthapathis to vary the profile somewhat. Only thing that was to be followed is the 'kampa' that was left behind which will be used by later talas and its artisans and sthapathis. From all the case examples, which represent a variety of temple forms when analyzed from the point of path and profile parametric design approach show a high degree of consistency of identical results when compared with actual temples forms. The degree of precision has been remarkable right from the smallest component of a single course of temple, columns of varying designs, plinths, super structures of distinctly different genre. The variants and possible hybrids that can be achieved by making subtle changes that are done in these parameters can be seen in different examples. From the consistency of these results it can be concluded that the principle of path and profile is one of the dominant principle that is present in Indian temples. However whether the artisans used exactly the same computational method as developed in this study cannot be claimed from this study alone (because we are very far removed in time by almost 1000 and the methods of construction moved from material and hardly we find the continuity in several centuries). We have seen in previous chapters chapter possibility of how simplified tools of p n-p could have been very useful in conceiving and executing the varied geometry. It is mainly possible because temples had been conceived in perfect symmetry on all sides. However it may be argued that the investigation with computational graphics that showed the ease of conceiving forms as shown in the thesis may not be possible in 9- 11th century CE when these were constructed. It is to be noted that it was the re discovery of the idea which was possible through these graphics. The idea would have generated over a long and by many generations, and can be conceived as a template moving around the details filled in as offsets. REASON BEHIND THE USE OF FRACTAL GEOMETRY The following are some probable reasons behind the use of Fractal Geometry in Hindu temple architecture.It can be argued that, practicing fractals is none other than the implication of the sense of completeness since the concept of fractals is that of the part to whole and whole to part.The fractal theory fully supports the Hindu philosophical concept of „one among all, all is one‟. It brings the feeling of oneness (the concept of Atman).It can bring a sense of strength, both structurally as well as visually.Self-similar elements in the design, seek the attention of the visitors and pilgrims repeatedly and gradually entice them to think about it and create a clear state of mind with a holistic perception. 169 Self-similar repetition in structure generates an identity of elements as well as form.Experimentation can also be a reason behind the evolution and realisation of fractal theory in Hindu temple architecture through the ages.The term, „Self-similar‟ brings a sense of modularity. Therefore, it generates the same style of work using the same modules, which saves resources. Local materials, workmanship and time offer ease of execution across huge structures, such as temples within the same region.Making of similar kind of elements repeatedly generates a habit and practice and practice perfects the execution.From an aesthetical viewpoint, a fractal geometry brings about „order in chaos‟ and thereby „a beauty in complexity‟.The above study gives a brief idea about the relationship between fractal theory and Hindu cosmology, role of fractal geometry in Hindu temple architecture, behavioural attributes of action of fractals and possible reason behind them. It endeavours to prove the essential role of fractals in Hindu temple architecture. Ancient Indian mathematicians were very skillful in geometry. They used the knowledge in other disciplines also. They derived many of the comprehensive conclusions with the help of geometry. The Indian old scripts are the evidences of those practices. They observed that the nature also follows the principles of geometry. This discussion is a trial to reveal those process in which the ancient builders incorporate the basic principles of parametric design. The parametric designs are now a part of modern architecture. Parametric principles are used in public arts, furniture, modern buildings, etc.. and can be rarely seen in India. But this parametric design was followed hundreds of years ago by Indians in temple architecture. The predominantly stone constructions during the period of Kalyani Chalukya period exhibit a highly sophisticated form generative logic in its visibly complex geometry. This so not only of the form at the micro level elements but also at the macro level elements and even in the overall form generation of its sikharas. This research investigates the possibilities of these parametric form generative principles embedded in the temple designs. The term fractal comes from Latin word ‘Fractus’ which means ‘broken’. Fractal means the recursive geometric forms, bearing self-similarity on different scales. According to fractal foundation – ‘A fractal is a never ending pattern. Fractals are infinitely complex patterns that are self-similar across different scales.They are created by repeating a simple process repeatedly in an ongoing feedback loop. Fractals are images of dynamic systems – the pictures of chaos. Geometrically they exist in between our familiar dimensions. Fractal patterns are extremely familiar as the nature is full of fractals. For instance – rivers, mountains, shells etc.Fractal geometry has different roles in different sectors. In architecture, it acts as a mode of expression to reveal the beauty of complexity. It gives wings to the ideas of an architect and reflects the process of energy flow of the universe through buildings and monuments. Hindu temples are one of the best examples of buildings with fractal phenomenon, which were constructed in the past, long before the evolution of fractal theory. Geometry’s major role and contribution according to various literary works, such as the Samaranganasutradhara, was in establishing a relationship between width of the innermost shire and elevation of the temple. A mathematical relation was inferred from the existing designs between the width of the garbhagriha, the total height of the vimana and the individual heights of various independent components composed together to form the vimana. Though, not concretely 170 justifying its role in the evolution, the inferred relation would act as a boon in the restoration and reconstruction of Karnata-Dravida temples. Hence, application of geometry and its computation can open a plethora of opportunities in not only studying the existing but also in creating a new paradigm. The interesting factor that can be derived from the above statement is that the study of the elevation shouldn’t be confined to its elevation characteristics, but should be studied in conjunction with the plan, of which it is a translation. Therefore, the question or the possibility that needs to be explored is the effectiveness of the parametric model in the restoration of FRACTAL PATTERNS IN NATURE “Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles and barks are not smooth, nor does lightening travel in a straight line”- Benoit Mandelbrot.Morphology of the ‘amorphous’- The many patterns of nature are so irregular and fragmented, that compared to Euclid – nature exhibits not simply a higher degree, but an altogether different level of complexity. Types of fractals in nature: 1. 2. 3. 4. Invariance under scaling Self-similarity Recursive procedures Space-filling FRACTAL THEORY AND HINDU COSMOLOGY ‘Self-similarity is the phenomenon of each part being geometrically similar to the whole. It is the core concept of the fractal theory. Interestingly, self-similarity is one of the basic principles of organization in the Hindu temple architecture. The Hindu temple is designed and constructed as miniature forms of the cosmos as envisioned in Hindu philosophy and beliefs. Hindu philosophy describes the cosmos and holonomic. The holonomic character implies the virtue of self-similarity, homogeneity, isotropy and symmetries of various kinds. Like a hologram, each fragment of cosmos is considered to be whole in it and to contain information similar to the whole. 171 2. ANALYSIS OF INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND GEOMETRY-Simple to complex 172 173 2.1. FRACTALS IN THE FORMATION OF TEMPLES The history of evolution of the Indian Hindu temples is a very vast field of study. Starting from the cave temples to the palatial temple complexes, all styles have followed an exhaustive path of evolution through experimentation. 4 During Gupta period the temple architecture in India flourished in a much disciplined manner. The architects, artisans gradually developed the aesthetic scene of complexity. As a result, the formation of Hindu temples became more complex and embodied an inherent sense of fractal geometry. PLAN FORM Application of Vastumandala: A suitable grid is selected from the thirty-two mandalas available of 4, 9, 16, 25…1024 squares or padas. 174 Ad-quadratum: The method to determine the walls and its thickness around the garbhagriha where the length of wall is M and length of exterior wall is √2M. Determining thickness of walls Projections on Aditala: Different possible arrangement of aediculer arrangements with three types of aedicules Sala, Kuta and Pajara. Aedicular projections ORGANISATIONAL COMPOSITION Proportioning the mandapa 175 The size of antarala, mandapa, Nandi mandapa etc, are all proportional to the cella length (M). VIMANA COMPOSITION The typology was fundamentally complete by the construction of Sangameshwara temple therefore it forms the proto model definition to be parametrized. Parametrically developed parts of the adisthana of Sangameshwara temple, Pattadakal. METHOD OF PATH AND PROFILE (p-n-p): Using these two parameters the entire geometry of elements like columns, sikharas, plinths and the entire temple geometry is generated by making the profile to move in horizontal direction following a path (The terms path and profile are not traditional terms used in texts, but are used in popular CAD softwares to generate/or simulate 3dimensional forms by extrusions) as explained in the following graphics.The parametric design development is restricted to the overall geometry only and not applicable to the various sculptural, figurative, surface treatments.Many of such surface details or the sculptural embellishments are finished in-situ and during the assembly of the stone blocks that are left as blobs and fine finishing done at a later stage. For instance, it is noticed that the details of vyalis in vyala mala, termination of capping details of kuta roof/ saala roof/ panjara are left as rough rectangular blocks in many semi finished temples. P-N-P METHOD OF GENERATING IN COLUMNS To understand the p-n-p method explained in the previous chapter and its application from the elemental level to overall form generation, a series of components of temples were taken up for test. Professor Adam Hardy’s explanation of the means of expressing movement which describes the form generative approaches holds good to understand various methods of thinking processes in form generation. The principles of projection, staggering, splitting and bursting of boundaries (Hardy, Indian temple Architecture) can be applied for form generative logic at an element level. Principles of progressive multiplication, expanding repetition, pictorial representation and gyration can be understood as overall compositional principles of a total form of a temple. Karnataka Dravida temples demonstrate innumerable variants including the popularly known “lathe turned” columns of which were very popular from Kalyani Chalukya period to Hoyasala period. Many of the micro parts of these columns resemble the mouldings of temple 176 superstructure. A wide range of foot prints of them resemble the plans of full-fledged temple's mulaprasada including staggered orthogonal, and stellate variants. The traditional Shilpa sastras prescribe 30 different types of column designs that are found in Karnataka (Anuradha). Many of the names mentioned are of the orders like Rudrakantha, Eeshakantha, Chandrakantha, Suryakantha, SimhaKantha, Gajapada, Vyalapada etc., whereas many of these refer to certain deity or mythical animal and one may vary from dynasty to dynasty and guild to guild in interpretation of the components/dimensions. Wherein some of the typologies like vruttha pothika, taranga pothika, pushpa pothika can be related with possible geometrical connotation of the column. The term "Taranga" means waves and in graphical equivalent terms to match are offsets. The terms like pushpa can be attributed to stellate configuration where as vruttha to circular configurations. The other terms which refers to the vertical segments of the columns are described as adhistana/ peetha, danda, kumbha, mandi, phalaka, pothika. The subcomponents of these and the geometrical or figurative components vary from style to style or even from temple to temple. However these verbal descriptions may not be sufficient for a definite form connected to the said typology. The interpretation of these terms may give a generic description but not unambiguous instructions to derive a form. To examine these process of form creation with reference to definite parameters that give a very unambiguous instructions that can create a variety of columns exclusively different shapes are selected. These columns were 3D scanned and very accurate three dimensional data is obtained. After obtaining the precise 3D data the path are derived by slicing them at various horizontal levels and vertically through the centre to arrive at profiles. A careful observation and comparison of these profiles reveal that the generic pattern of all these columns are same irrespective of their total shape. These different shapes are achieved by employing the different paths for profile movement. The analysis restricted only to primary geometry of the columns, and figurative sculptures and surface details like floral pattern, were not taken into consideration. This study does not claim that all the components of a temple are achieved by this process alone but majority of the forms can be derived using this method in combination with other form generative approaches. This method gives only the basic geometrical configuration. The additional details like figurative sculptures, surface level treatments etc. have to be omitted. In a given element, the paths may vary from one level to other level generating different configurations. Columns of Galageswara temple of Galaganatha village 9 A three dimensional scan of the internal columns of the mantapa are acquired using state of art three dimensional scan technology. By slicing it vertically, the profiles were extracted and by slicing horizontally at various levels, different paths are extracted. 177 (a) Profile extraction (b) path and profile (c) generated form by p-n-p method 3.2. Nanneshwar temple of Lakkundi To check the consistency of the results obtained using the same process, another example of the temple of Naneswara at Laukkundi has been taken. The internal columns of the temple are scanned to form a dense mesh. The distinctly different looking shapes of the columns are deduced to paths and profiles. All the profiles of the column are exactly the same where as the paths vary from stepped square, circular and staggered square in diagonal pattern to stellar 178 pattern combined with circular edges. Mesh data of cluster of columns in the outer mantapa of Nanneswara temple of lakkundi is acquired. The dense mesh is then converted to planar level data, from which vertical profiles and horizontal paths are extracted. Using the extracted path profile, the column forms are generated. These are then compared with the existing columns. It has been found that the results are almost identical. Include stellar configurations. Extraction of paths and profiles for individual column and identification of points of intersection. Columns in Gadag Trikuteswara temple & Mahadeva temple of Ittagi 179 The Mahadeva temple of Ittagi has some of the most exquisite columns of a finest finish. The central four columns demonstrate supreme artistic exploration of a multi cusped stellar geometry. This extreme example with a very high degree of variations in vertical profile with 16 sided primary star shaped plan, each one further offseted into two more segments of staggering resulting into 64 corners. The central columns of Ittagi, Mahadeva stands as a supreme example of Karnataka Dravida column examples as a highly complex three dimensional forms which encompasses logical derivation, advanced mathematical and geometrical precision and fineness of finish. Such geometry may not be possible without parametric based form generative understanding. The entire configuration can be explained with two basic parameters – path and profile.Cave 3, Badami Though this parametric form generations were not only late Chalukyan period phenomenon, but the seed ideas can be seen in many earliest examples of early Chalukya architecture. In the example of cave number three dated by archeologists as 578 AD shows the early column development using parametric design.Acquired 3-D data and generated form of the columns through parametric method and comparison shows the consistent similarities in shapes, dimensions and proportions of the two columns generated with the same profile with variations in paths indicated at various stages. 180 INFERENCES From all above case examples it is very clear that the core idea of form generation is by a process close to the idea of parametric design in the making of columns of Kalyani Chalukya period. The process is generative when it comes to the core geometry concerned. The consistency with which the same/ similar profile is used to generate visually distinct forms that inherently have one running idea in common. The exact process of construction or even conception might not have been the same as used with advanced computational system that are employed here. But the striking similarity between the actual forms and the generated forms indicate a possible link of similarity of thinking process. A further investigation of all other components can throw more light on these aspects. The simplicity of the instructional details of moving of two simple parameters makes the method as a possible medium of communication of a viable instruction system. In all the above cases of analyses of column creation show a very high degree of probability of using a parametric method of design, communication and execution of a highly prominent structural and decorative component of temple. P-N-P METHOD IN SUPER STRUCTURE OF TEMPLES WITH STELLAR BASE. Stellar form is based on star shaped base. All the adjoining sides of the plan (periphery that may be the path) are not orthogonal to each other i.e. do not meet at right angles. Many of the stellate geometries of base seems to be derived from rotating squares from the centre and have a high symmetricity and segments of corners of squares radiating from a centre. Therefore they fall into a typology of circular base with radial expanding boundary projections. To test the applicability of path profile approach of form generation some unique examples of stellate configuration from Kalyani Chalukya period are selected. Doddabasappa temple of Dambala View of Doddabasappa temple Dambala, Gadag district. 181 Dambal is a village 25kms to the south-east of Gadag. The Doddabasappa-temple is situated immediately to the north of the village. The plan of the Doaddabasappatemple is simple: the monument consists of a vimana-cum sukanasa and a closed hall with two entrances. The outside of the vimana is a star with 24 star-points or corners and the outside of the hall a star with 32 star-points or corners. Its first tala has a 45 degree rotated kuta-pillar-aedicule between two recesses. The topping sala roof is incomplete and has no circular barrel but a number of stylised kapotas, as is quite common. Its front has no window but a slab with only a large kirttimukha. The character of the architectural components and most decorations suggest a date of AD 11001150.This example of Dambala Doddabasappa temple is taken to test the applicability pnp to a rather unusual 24 sided stellar geometry and a distinctly different profile of elongated plinth and superstructure. Dambala Doddabasappa temple perhaps is the real star attraction of Kalyani Chalukyas. The design is most faithful in approach from its concept to complete form generation. The design of this temple is strikingly singular and made it one of the most well-known Chalukya monuments. Both vimana and the hall are stellate with the number of star points so large that the wall panels become very narrow and elongated. As a consequence of these narrow wall-panels the roofs are small and the number of talas is large. 182 Extraction of coursewise geometry from and plan 3D mesh data. The variations in dimensions shapes and the configurations were carefully examined to establish relevant levels that significantly change the form generation. Features like figurative sculptures ornamental treatment features were not considered for evaluation of geometrical configuration. Data has been divided into plinth superstructure parapet of ground level and different talas separately. Features like kuta stambha, corner pilasters, miniature wall shrines were analysed separately. The primary focus is restricted to the shikara. Series of orthographic drawings and sections were extracted. From the data analysis two distinct parameters of path and profile have been identified. Path has been identified as the uppermost line at the shikara of the first tala that defines the overall form and a section which passes through perpendicular to one of the kuta that forms the 24 sided stellate configuration.Deduction of template parameters from dense mesh data from one of the 24 kutas of lower tala (perpendicular to path line). An exploded view of 3d model showing lower tala templates (represented in blue colour) Perpendicular to one of the kuta aedicule. The upper talas profiles and paths are in scaled down Versions of lower tala. Using these path and profile the plinth and the superstructure and parapet of the lower base level is generated. Using the offset distance after the first parapet as a path and the sectional profile of the first tala as the profile the first tala is generated. 183 The exercise is repeated by using subsequent path and profile of the other talas generating their forms. From the field data and 3D scans it is observed that the percentage of reduction from tala to tala is between 0.83 to 0.93 i.e., between the range of 8/10 to 9/10. It is also observed that the subtle variations are from kuta to kuta are done to nullify any manual errors or minor execution errors. Using top most line of the third tala as a path and the assumed section of shikara from similar examples (as the shikhara is missing) as profile the form is a shikara is generated. The geometries of pilasters and kutas were generated separately and added to the overall form. While creating the haras and vyalamalas generic rectangular outer block profile is used rather than sub detailing of vyalas.Isometric view of the Doddabasappa Temple of Dambala generated through Path and profile form generative approach and roof plan of generated model. The Gauramma temple of Hiresingangutti This example of Gauramma temple of Hiresingangutti is taken verification of applicability of p-n-p method to a rather unusual 16 sided stellate temple with highly peculiar configuration of kutas. The vimana of this temple has a stunning stellate design based on a 16-pointed star. 184 Hiresingangutti is a village 10km East of Hungund and Ilkal, South of the road branching off from the NH13 to Raichur. On the eastern slope of the hill these small temples are found side by side all facing east. There is an architecturally exciting ruin standing between them. The villagers call this temple gorama or gauramma or also gauri. The Gauramma temple is an ekakuta facing east. Only the first tala of the vimana is complete. Traces of the second tala show that it repeated the first tala in the usual way. In front of the vimana the sukanasa still remains, but of the hall only the northern back corner is left. The vimana measures 5.50/6.00m and has a complicate design. In its plan is a 16 pointed star with each star-point consisting of a sala-aedicule with a 45degree rotated kutaaedicule added to and partly embedded in the centre. There are no recesses. The result is wonderful: the corners of the vimana consist of 45-degreerotated salas with 45degreerotated kutas, thus the kutas at the corner are simply octagonal. Generated plan 185 18 Features like figurative sculptures ornamental treatment features were not considered for evaluation of geometrical configuration. Data has been divided into plinth superstructure parapet of ground level and different talas separately. Features like kuta stambha, corner pilasters, miniature wall shrines were analysed separately. The primary focus of the analysis is restricted to the shikara alone as the details of columns and other features are discussed in other chapters. Series of orthographic drawings and sections were extracted for proportion analysis. From the data analysis two distinct parameters of path and profile have been identified. Path has been identified as the uppermost line at the shikara of the first tala that defines the overall form of the and a section which passes through the centre of the stellar projections excluding the ornamental details and the additional features is taken as the profile. Using these p-n-p method the plinth and the superstructure and parapet of the lower base level is generated. Using the offset distance after the first parapet as a path and the sectional profile of the first tala as the profile the tala #1 is generated. As the subsequent talas are missing, a conjectural extrapolation of line joining the top of the first tala to the top of the second tala is extended to the central vertical axis of the temple. The subsequent talas are created in a generic fashion based on the earlier understandings. The geometries of pilasters and kutas were generated separately and added to the overall form. While creating the haras and vyalamalas generic rectangular outer block profile is used rather than sub detailing of vyalas. A wire mesh drawing showing the complex geometry of lines hidden in the Gauramma temple, Hiresinganagutti. P-N-P IN SUPERSTRUCTURE OF TEMPLES WITH ORTHOGONAL BASE. In this chapter we will look into the applicability of p-n-p method in generating of the form of super structure of temples with orthogonal base such as near rectangle or square with adecular and offsets projections developed as extended boundaries by. Many of these temples are of similar configuration based on rectangle. But when extended boundaries increase the base form extends to a multi sided polygon but the orthogonal geometry is maintained as two adjoining sides of plan meet at right angles always. When they do not at right angles always and has a radial configuration from the centre it is termed 'Stellate' and the combination of both orthogonal and stellate as hybrid or part stellate. Dr. Hardy has elaborated on various configuration. Here we take two cases 1. Siddeswara temple at Haveri 2. Galaganatha temple at Galagageswar of Haveri district. 186 5.1 Siddeshwara temple of Haveri This example of Siddeshwara temple at Haveri, is chosen primarily for a typical representative of Kalyani Chalukya period as an orthogonal plan typology. This small and exquisite temple is one of the better known Kalyani Chalukya monuments and is often dated as mid-11th century. Its inscriptions go back to 1067 AD (Foekema). Haveri is a small town on NH 4 main road, about 70km south-east of Hubli. This is a small and very ornate ekakuta with open hall mandapa. Its decorations are sophisticated. The main temple faces the west, the opposite direction to the norm. The vimana measures 4.65/5.15m. There are four talas. In the first tala a chadya is added and this addition divided the vimana into a wall and a superstructure. The centre of each tala is emphasized very much by an additional second panjara-roof and by the heavy framing of each panjara-roof. The frames are decorated with scrolls, as are the sides of the tala ends. The adecular composition of this vimana is a common one, only the numbers of 5 projections and 4 talas are large for its modest size. The shapes and decorations of many architectural components are elegant and elaborate in a way that suggests a date well after 1100 AD. All the kapotas are flat. Apart from their shapes, the architectural components of the Siddesvara temple have a special character because of their sharp chiselling. The upper parts of the framing pilasters, and their elegant bells, high lasunas, square ghatas and high phalakas, all these parts indented, are cut so sharply that they acquire a metallic look. Also the wall-pillars of the pillar-aedicules are very sharp and smooth. 20 Course wise geometry is retrieved from this scanned data by slicing the virtual model into number of horizontal layers. The variation in dimensions, shapes and configurations were carefully examined to establish relevant levels that significantly affect form generation. Features like figurative sculptures and 187 ornamental treatment were not considered for evaluation of geometric configuration. Data has been divided into plinth, superstructure, parapet of ground level and different talas. Features like kuta stambha, corner pilasters and miniature wall shrines were analysed separately. The primary focus of the analysis is restricted to the vimana alone as the details of columns and other features are discussed in other earlier chapters. Series of orthographic drawings and sections were extracted for proportion analysis. From the data analysis two distinct parameters of path and profile were identified. Path that defines the overall form of the building is identified from the outer line of the vedi platform. A section which passes through the centre of the shikara along the cardinal directions, excluding the ornamental details and the additional features, is taken as the profile. Using this path and profile, the plinth, the superstructure and parapet of the lower base level is generated. Above the superstructure, the first parapet’s offset is used as Path and the sectional profile of the tala at the same level is taken as Profile. Using this path and profile, the three dimensional form of the first tala is generated. 21 The exercise is repeated by using subsequent path and profile of the other talas to generate their forms. Using the top most line of the third tala as path and section of shikara as profile, the three dimensional form of the shikara is generated. The geometries of pilasters, kuta stambha, panjara and salas were generated separately and added to the overall form. While creating the haras and vyalamalas, a generic rectangular outer block profile is used for generic representation of vyalas. 188 Path and profile of tala to tala of Siddeswar temple of Haveri. A point to note is that entire profile (top of sikhara to vedi is not used to make a pnp model as it generates in accurate object. profiles are cut into different tala levels and then the p-n-p models of each tala are generated up to sikhara. The overall form is made by placing the individual tala models over each other. The process is similar to stacking or layering process of construction of these temples. It is found that the horizontal parameter (the path) is at topmost course of each 'tala'. and vertical parameter is profile through cardinal direction. As the progression of tala's from lower level to upper level in ascending order each of these upper talas are identified as scaled down version of lower tala excluding the plinth and part of superstructure. 22 These upper talas can be expressed in terms of percentage reduction or number of bhaga's parts for mathematical expression. For example second tala is 8:10 to first tala and so on (though it could also be expressed as 4:5 but it is easier to divide in multiples of 2 in the process of stone marking from the practical point of view). As the objective of this research is not to establish the proportion system practiced but to understand the derivative logic, and thesis is not focussing on the changing proportion system of various temples of the era. However it is to be noted that by making subtle changes to these proportions each temple explore and create variety of form configurations. Geometrical form generated from path and profile parameters of Siddeswara temple of Haveri. 23 Orthographic images of the basic geometry of temple of Siddeswara temple of Haveri. 189 INFERENCES Form generation using path and profile method shows a conclusive evidence of validity of this p-n-p approach for orthogonal configurations in the similar temple of orthogonal base like Bhankapur, Chowdadanapura, Tarakeshwara of Hanagal, Ittagi Mahadeva, Kubbattur Kaitabeswara, Koteshwar, Lakkundi Brahmajinalata. The Galageswara temple of Galaganatha This example of Galageswara temple of Galaganatha is taken primarily for the reason of investigation of a very unusual plinth which is not found elsewhere. This buttress looking plinth and its geometry responds in a manner which reinforces the idea p-n-p method. Galaganath is a tiny village on the left bank of the Tungabhadra, about 10kms north of Guttal. The river here flows from south to north, thus the temple faces the east as well as the river. It does so in a very commanding way, because the bank is fairly high and the dimensions of the temple are large. From its open hall the view over the river is majestic. The vimana is complete and consists of four talas and of a closing vedika-cumkutaroof. The superstructure consists entirely of undecorated architectural components, with a giant crowning kuta roof received foliage and decorated nasis. All kapotas are of the same type, flat with shallow flexures. The pedestal here is formed by the pyramid, which is topped by a vedika and which has a pedestal of its own. This pedestal is without kumuda, between plinth and topping kapota it has a wide recess with diamond shaped flowers. At the back corners of the hall only the corners themselves have a framed aedicule, all other projections are pillar-aedicules. The hara continues seamless above the open part of the hall. The parapet wall of the open part is striking due to its simple execution. All in all this hall is fairly common except for its size. In particular it is higher than any other open hall. The Dravida towers on two pilasters are detailed and sharp and consist of two talas and a crowning. The interiors of the temple is exciting. The open hall is very spacious and offers a view over the river. Besides that, exceptionally fine images are found in four niches. The variations in dimensions, shapes and the configurations were carefully examined to establish relevant levels that significantly change the form generation. Features like figurative sculptures ornamental treatment features were not considered for evaluation of geometrical configuration. Data has been divided into plinth superstructure parapet of ground level and different talas separately. Features like kuta stambha, corner pilasters, miniature wall shrines were analysed separately. The primary focus of the analysis is restricted to the shikara alone as the details of columns and other features are discussed in other chapters. Series of orthographic drawings and sections were extracted for proportion analysis. From the data analysis two distinct parameters of path and profile have been identified. Path that defines the overall form of the building is identified as the profile of the top of the first tala and a section which passes through the centre of the cardinal direction of the shikara excluding the ornamental details and the additional features is taken as the profile. Using these path and profile, the plinth and the superstructure and parapet of the lower base level is generated. Using the offset distance after the first parapet as a path and the sectional profile of the first tala as the profile, the tala #1 is generated. The exercise is repeated by using subsequent path and profile of the other talas generating their forms. 190 Using top most line of the third tala as a path and section of shikara as profile the form of a shikara is generated. The geometries of pilasters and kuta stambha and panjara and saalas were generated separately and added to the overall form. While creating the haras and vyalamalas generic rectangular outer block profile Is used rather than sub detailing of vyalas. It is a conclusive evidence of the validity of the p-n-p form generation method even for a completely uncommon feature like the buttressed base of the temple. Though it looks like a later addition, the principle of form generation has led to a conclusive termination of this additional feature in a predictable manner that has been generated using p-n-p. The method is adequate the universal applicability for the form generation of exterior. From both the examples deciphered above, we can see the similarity between the actual built temple's basic geometry and the models generated by p-n-p method. In the case of temples built over a long periods possibly without complete drawings and with no examples for reference, the possibility of geometry of scheme of p-n-p into different talas make sense and each tala is a 191 simple enough to be integrated at the same time to be continued in a similar way later time by later builders without affecting the grammar of the composition. 6. EVOLUTION OF PLANS AND ELEVATIONS. EVOLUTION OF PLAN FORMS THROUGH ITERATION In keeping with the site plan, the plan of the main temple structure also follows the rule of fractals. At the very beginning, the steps are the simplest form of fractals from which the halls or mandapas grow expansively. First, the Mukhamandapa or the hall of entrance and then the Ardhamandapa, the half-heighted hall and finally the Maha Mandapa, the grand hall are positioned. After the mandapas, comes the Mulaprasada, which encloses the Garbhagriha, the inner sanctum. The enclosures of these halls and the spaces gradually take the shape following the fractal theory. a.Shrine alone, b.Shrine with porch, c.Shrine with Antarala and porch, d.Sarvatobhadra shrine with four entrances. The basic plan form also followed the iteration and gradually became more complex from a simple quadrangle or square plan. It follows the repetition in recesses or in projections. However, these repetitions followed a discipline. It is maintaining an axis. In the figure below one can see how one formation is evolved from a simple square „a‟ to „e‟. It only creates basic projections in between cardinal points. Figure „f‟ to „i‟ follow the repetition of recesses. Figures „j‟ to „m‟ are the amalgamated formations. Accordingly, the others also follow certain geometric rules for iteration. a. Simple square plan, (b-e).Square plan with simple projections, (f-i).Staggered square plan without recesses, (j-m).Staggered square plan with recesses, (no).Stepped diamond plan, (pq).Stellate plan with orthogonal central projection, (r-s).Special stellate plans, (t-v).Uniform stellate plans based on rotated-square star. Of the figure below. 27 192 Silhouette of Kandariya Mahadev Temple ELEVATION OF THE TEMPLES Fractal also has a great impact on temple elevations. As is the case of two dimensional plans, fractal also controls the formation of the elevations in three dimensions. Elevation treatment of temple differs according to regions in India. Therefore, tracing out typical examples, can be exhaustive. The following divisions are almost common to all temples throughout India. Overall, the whole temple structure in three dimensions form expresses the selfsimilarity in the structure. On consideration of silhouettes of temple structures, a visual language of gradual progression starting from the base to the spires is prominent. One can divide the temple into several parts like Pitha, Vedibandha, Jangha, Varandika, Sikhara and Ghanta. Ghanta is actually a part of Shikhara but its features are so distinct, one can consider it as a separate entity. The abovementioned parts are similar in all Nagara temples, but they have different denominations in different places. PITHA Pitha is the base or the altar on which the structure grows along the central axis. Pitha is also divided into several parts founded on the – Khura, Kumbha, Antarpatrika, Kalasha and kapotali. All the fragments are basic moulds and repetitive in form. In the figure below, the fractals of the central mould repeat in numbers around the plan in different scales. Pitha of a typical North Indian Temple VEDIBANDHA Vedibandha is the next upper part of the pitha. It is mainly a connection between pitha and jangha. It has almost the same character of that 193 of pitha. The mouldings and the typical parts are mostly similar in both the cases. The only difference in this case is that the sculpting of moulds is more decorative. One can find similar type of small repetitive ornamental mouldings at the central space of every wall section. Vedibandha of a typical North Indian Temple JANGHA Jangha is the walled section of the shrine acting, as the enclosure of the mandapas and Garbhagriha. Fractals are worked in two different ways in its formation. Initially it is generated from the folds at the very base layer, which follow the iteration. 29 The types of decorative works on the Jangha at the outer level are also self-similar and repetitive. VARANDIKA Varandika is the cornice part of the temple. Huge long chunk of stones are placed along the inner side to form the cornice. However, on the outside, it is quite decorative and it also forms the connection between the Jangha and the Sikhara, the two most important parts of a temple. SIKHARA Sikhara is the identity of a temple. All the variations in temple architecture are mainly because of the variation in its formation. 194 GHANTA Ghanta is the topmost part of the temple. It is a part of the Sikhara. It also has separate parts with Kantha or Griva as the base and gradually Amlaka, Padmashirshaka, Kalasha, etc. The connector of Sikhara and Ghanta is known as the Kantha or the Griva. In this section of the temple, fractal mainly works in the Amlaka part by creating self-similar ribs. The formation of Jangha also depends upon the formation and style of the Sikhara as shown in the figure below. It is similar to the head and the structure. One fold is added to the Jangha for every additional fold in the Sikhara. Image to RIGHT showing the interdependent formation process of Jangha and Sikhara. THE BEHAVIOURAL ATTRIBUTES OF ACTION OF FRACTALS IN TEMPLES: From the above discussion about the role of fractal geometry in the formation of the Hindu temple, one major observation, which can be drawn, is that all the progression and iteration have some specific behavioural attributes of action. According to Professor Adam Hardy, the movements and the behaviour of action are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Projection Staggering Splitting Progressive Multiplication and Expanding Repetition . Staggering, multiple projection, or progressive stepping- out, suggests expansion in stages on a serial emanation. Closely bunched offsets can also create the impression of vibration from an inner energy. A staggered sequence of forms, embedded one within the other, can be entirely at one level (in which case the elements slide out like an unfolding telescope), or step down as they step out. https://issuu.com/yashasri/docs/parametric_design.docx/s/157983 195 About the Author-Dr Uday Dokras The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and Research, Nagpur. In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore. A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years. In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles. Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.” BOOKS written by Dr Uday 1. Act on Co-determination at work-an efficacy study - 1990 Doctoral thesis published by Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm,Sweden This is a first of a kind empirical study of both employees and business owners reactions of how efficiently a labour law was functioning in a country(Sweden).Adorns Stanford and Harvard University Libraries and granted Copyright by the Library of Congress,USA in 1990. 2. Health Human Resource Management- 2006 A to Z of the Management of health workers starting from recruitment to training, development and enhancing their efficacy. Good book for all health care institutions as well as medical and nursing staff and students. 3. Theme Park Human Resource Engineering- 2007 How the workers in theme parks deal with a complex environment and need to be managed in order to being out superior delivery of customer focused services helping in more footfalls at the same time not compromising on safety. 4. Project Human Resource Management- 2008 Projects are cumbersome and their success rests not on the material but on the men who move it. Book deals with management ideas to spur project workers and staff to greater delivery parameters. 196 5. Creativity and Architecture -2009 Co-authored with Srishti Dokras, examines the parameters of creativity and how it will raise design quotients. 6. Diffusion – Management and Design- 2009 Co-authored with Karan Dokras deals with a new and little known subject of Diffusion or how predator ideas enhance own value in a market where dominant players call the shots. 7. Hindu Temples of Bharat,Cambodia and Bali- 2020 Enigmatic designs, huge structures, massive projects all done before the invention of cranes or bulldozers- the how and why of temples in Bharat,Nagpur,and the Far East. Biggest and most comprehensive book on the subject -452 pages. 8. Win Diet 2020 Diets and fads come and go but not this one-A diet and exercise plan that will help you to win over obesity,unhealthy lifestyles and make a dynamic YOU .Written by a 68 year old who has been diagnosed with a 26 year old’s heart. 9. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple of Java- 2020 This amazing biggest in the world Buddhist temple was built with technology and ideas from India 1500 years ago using fractal geometry, Algorithms, Hindu temple technology and archeoastronomy. Read HOW it was done. 10. LOTUS the Celestial Flower 11.Light house at Alexandria 12. Lighthouses in words and Pictures 13.Vayu- Man’s taming of the Winds 14. My Best Foot Forward- story of the Footware Industry in India 15.16,-- DEVARAJA- TRILOGY. The Celestial King and the Mysteries of South Asian Hindu Temples -3 Volumes 1200 pages 18. VARDHAMAN- Jainism- for not the layman 19. ATIVIR- The saga of Vardhaman the Prince and Mahavir the Saint. 20.Hindu Temple Architecture- A panorama 21.Randezvous with Sri Ram- quintessentials of Hinduism-ESSAYS. 22. My Bouquet of Essays- Essays on various topics And 12 other books including HINDU CAMBODIA and HYDROLOGY OF ANGKOR RESEARCH PAPERS- 280+ in Researchgate and academia.edu Followers(readers) 30,000 consolidated as on 28 th July,2020. 197 Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada, MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Management and Efficacy Consultant, India 198 199 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace. Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018 200 Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras 201 Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA gimes( May 2010) 202 203 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Srishti Dokras, Architect IDEAS,India Visiting Architect, Dubai,Australia and USA Renowned writer on Temples and highly followed author on academia.edu B.Arch. (Institute for Design Education and Architectural Studies) Nagpur India Visiting Architect, Dubai Australia & USA Consultant - Design and Architecture, EsselworldGorewada International ZooLargest in ASIA 204 Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Stockholm(Sweden),Nagpur & Gurugram(India) and Tampere (Finland 205 206 Building Materials of the Hindu Temples in Cambodia, Indonesia & India Dr Uday & Ms. Srishti DOKRAS Indo Nordic Author’s Collective 207

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Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

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