Cambodian Hindu Temple Architecture -Mystery of Architecture and Science. Most Comprehensive paper existing Ms.SRISHTI DOKRAS B.Arch. (Institute for Design Education and Architectural Studies) Nagpur India Visiting Architect, Australia & USA Consultant - Design and Architecture, Esselworld Gorewada International Zoo- Largest in Asia Dr Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A.(Managerial Economics), LLB. Nagpur University,India Graduate Studies,Queen’s University, Canada MBA (CALSTATE,USA) Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University,Sweden Ph.D (Management) Stockholm University, Sweden Currently- CONSULTANT- Gorewada International Zoo, Nagpur,India- Largest Zoo and Safari in Asia visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and Research,Nagpur "The general appearance of the wonder of the temple is beautiful and romantic as well as impressive and grand..." - Frank Vincent, 1872 describing Angkor Wat Khmer people, believed themselves to be descended from the union of an Hindu Brahman and a serpent princess from Cambodia “By restoring Angkor Vat, the Indian team is in fact healing our souls”-Cheng Phon, Cambodia’s thenminister of culture -1988- addressing the restoration work done by the Archeological Survey of India 1 F O R E W O R D & ABSTRACT ABSTRACT Cambodia also Kampuchea or Royaume du Cambodge is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia hosting the biggest Hindu Temple complex in the world, but more than 4000 Hindu temples are spread all over the country. Cambodian architecture is very diverse in style, design and features-illustrating that Hindu temple architecture was in its formative stage and was yet to arrive at the standardised situation of later centuries. Nevertheless, the influence of Guptaera buildings on later Cambodian temple architecture is indisputable and continued right through to the medieval period. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of first Hinduism(and later Buddhism) and the construction of numerous temples- on a gigantic scale and magnificence. The How, Why and What is explained in this paper. How the biggest and most intricate temple complex on the face of this earth which is also its largest religious building- in the construction of which it is estimated that 5 million tonnes of Sandstone were used and that too without any machinery is a scientific and historical mystery. I have used the following techniques to make this a comprehensive paper which is a scopic review of knowledge found on the WWW as well as the following techniques to determine the validity of my hypotheses. 1. 2. 3. • • • • Deduction: I arrived at (a fact or a conclusion) by reasoning; I drew as a logical conclusion. Inference: A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning Study and compilation of all research on the Net on Cambodia in order to answer the following questions: How Cambodia became a Hindu nation is explained in this paper. How Hinduism reached Cambodia and then the Cambodians seesawed to Buddhism and why is explained. How could such gigantic structures representing Hindu temple Art and architecture be built so far away from India-(Hindusthan), so as to have more inscriptions that in India itself. What Architecture and style was used and why? Introduction: History of Temples In the Indian Vedic period, there were no temples. The main object of worship was the fire that stood for God. This holy fire was lit on a platform in the open air under the sky, and oblations were offered to the fire. It is not certain when exactly the Indo-Aryans first started building temples for worship. The scheme of building temples was perhaps a concomitant of the idea of idol worship. As the race progressed, temples became important because they served as a sacred meeting place for the community to congregate and revitalize their spiritual energies. Large temples were usually built at picturesque places, especially on river banks, on top of hills, and on the seashore. Smaller temples or open-air shrines can crop up just about anywhere - by the roadside or even under the tree. 2 Holy places in India are famous for its temples. Indian towns — from Amaranth to Ayodhya, Brindavan to Banaras, and Kanchipuram to Kanya Kumari— are all known for their wonderful temples. The architecture of Hindu temples evolved over a period of more than 2,000 years and there is a great variety in this architecture. Hindu temples are of different shapes and sizes — rectangular, octagonal, and semicircular — with different types of domes and gates. Temples in southern India have a different style than those in northern India. Although the architecture of Hindu temples is varied, they mainly have many things in common. The temples of ancient India have also received substantial treatment with regard to their cosmic meaning, but the interpretation of sacred architecture in India has been influenced by the significant body of ritual and architectural texts known as ãstras, which provide detailed rules and conventions for all aspects of planning and construction and ritual practice. The use of these texts has not only supplemented understanding of the symbolism of temple architecture, but encouraged research into the meaning of plans, proportions, and architecture as science. The question of the interrelationship between cosmos and architecture has also been investigated in ancient Greece, where the use of proportion and geometry is considered vital to this topic. The question of whether similar constraints existed in other cultures, such as the example of Mesopotamia, also arises, with the possibility that they were perhaps articulated in the form of metrological texts.1 The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianise architecture of Cambodian, Annamese (Khmer) and Javanese temples. Therefore in any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis will necessarily be on Hindu religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature-the religion being Hinduism.2 Cambodia also Kampuchea or Royaume du Cambodge as the French called it, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia. Today it is 181,035 square kilometres (69,898 square miles) in area, bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the northeast, Vietnam to the east and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest. In 802 AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes of Chenla under the name "Kambuja. This marked the beginning of the Khmer Empire, which flourished for over 600 years, allowing successive kings to control and exert influence over much of Southeast Asia and accumulate immense power and wealth. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of first Hinduism and then Buddhism to much of Southeast Asia and undertook many religious infrastructural projects throughout the region, including the construction of more than 1,000 temples and monuments in the city of Angkor alone. Name: The Khmer endonym of Cambodia- Kampuchea derives from the Hindu Sanskrit name कम्बोजदे श kambojadeśa, composed of दे श deśa ("land of" or "country of") and कम्बोज kamboja, which alludes to the foundation myths of the first ancient Khmer kingdom. This itself alluding to its Hindu Origins. The term Cambodia was already in use in Europe as early as 1524. 3 HINDU Date Name Notes 50/68 AD – 550 AD Funan Empire Nokor Phnom – (alternate name) 550–802 Chenla Empire Division of Land Chenla and Water Chenla in the 8th century AD. 802–1431 Khmer Empire One of the most powerful empires in Southeast Asia. 1431–1863 Cambodia Middle Period (Chaktomuk era, Longvek era, Oudong era) 1863–1941, 1945–1953 Kingdom of Cambodia (French Protectorate) CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 300 CBE Chola Empire 100 CBE evidence of contact between India and Cambodia 100AD potteries state merchant contacts between the two AD 314-543 Gupta empire 300- 400 AD - Inscriptions in Sanskrit in Pallava grantha, relate to a Cambodian queen, Kula Prabhavati, who established a temple to Vishnu in the kingdom. 400AD Inscriptions testified to Vedic sacrifices by Brahmans 600 AD onwards, both Sanskrit and Tamil were used in government documents in Khmer. Bilingual inscriptions are seen in Khmer and in Sanskrit 690 AD Jayavarman I of Chenla empire in Cambodia died around 690 790-850 AD Jayavarman II reigned; declares independance from Java 802 AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes of Chenla 802 Cambodia formed by name Kampuchia 881 AD Bakong built by Indravarman I 900 AD to1400 splendid temples built in Cambodia 900 Ninth Century.The Capital city of Yashodharpur established by Yashodharman I AD 890, King Yashodharman I moved his capital to Angkor, till 1210, Trilogy of temples built a) 889-910 Phnom Bok b) 889- 910 Phnom Krom between c) end of 900 Phnom Bakeng 900AD The 500 Lords of Ayyavole- Tamil merchants associations that sailed to cambodia 4 18. 900 AD-1500AD period of temple construction in Cambodia 19. 900 to 1400 successive kings built splendid temples to Siva and Vishnu. 20. 928 Reign of King Isanavarman II 21. 921 to 928 AD. Angkor and Koh Ker, existed simultaneously as 2 capitals 22. AD 921-944 Koh Ker temples 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 1000 AD. Banteay Srei, temple built by Yagnavaraha, priest to Rajendravarman II 1000 Shaivanism 1002 Maritime conquests of Rajendra Chola 985- 1014 Rajaraja Chola reign Rajendra chola1014 son of Rajaraja Chola reign starts 1025 CE, Rajendra led Chola forces across the Indian Ocean and invaded Srivijaya 1070 – 1122 AD. Kulothunga I Son of Rajendra Chola In India and Suryavarman II in Cambodia 1000 AD YashovarmanI in Angkor 1025,Gangaikonda Cholapuram capital of the Chola dynasty during the reign of Rajendra Chola I, and served as the Chola capital for around 250 years. 1025 Chola Invasion of Sri Vijaya in South Sumtra. Cptured by Rajendra Chola 1116-1150 timeline for Angkor wat construction 1181-1218AD Yasodharapura a parallel capital set up by King Jayavarman VII 1181-1218AD King Jayavarman VII Angkor being build. 13th to 14th century, some Brahmanas went from Rameswaram to Cambodia 1113 AD to 1145-1150 AD Khmer King Suryavarman II who built Angkor was a descendant of Cholas 1300 ADS monks from Sri Lanka introduced Theravada Buddhism to Southeast Asia. 1295 Buddhism Official state religion when Indravarman III took power. 1200 Angkor Thom established by King Jayavarman VII To understand the ancient architecture of Cambodia, we must focus on two Indian dynasties-both of which extraordinarily influenced Cambodia. I.The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty of southern India, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the world's history. The earliest datable references to the Chola are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE. The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia- probably even to Cambodia. The market structure and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty. It is believed that the Cholas went to Cambodia and the Hindu Kingdoms were formed with unions of the cholas and Cambodians. The prolific temple building activity of the Cambodian kings bears heart to exactly similar ones of the Cholas yet the temple architecture is of the Guptas because the Gupta designs and temple building techniques were the best and adopted not only in Chola temples of India but Cambodia. 5 II. The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire existing from the mid-to-late 3rd century CE to 543 CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 543 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by some historians. The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art. The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style.The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I. Many of the literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, were canonised during this period. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields. Earliest temples of Cambodia resemble both Chola and Gupta architecture. From the 8th century arose granite structures that look like South Indian temples. There is definite evidence of the South Indian style of architecture morphed to the Cambodian surroundings-the Meru system of temple construction. The form, dress and expressions of the deities and figures give the temples a local flavour. The Guptas were Brahmanical by religion with special devotion to Vishnu, but they showed exemplary tolerance for both Buddhism and Jainism. They were the first architects of purpose-built Hindu temples (but also Buddhist) which evolved from the earlier tradition of rock-cut shrines. Adorned with towers and elaborate carvings, these temples were often dedicated to all the Hindu gods. Unfortunately, relatively few of the large number of Gupta temples built have survived. The Gupta period may be described as ‘classic’ in the sense of the degree of perfection it achieved-something that was never achieved before and has seldom been achieved since-and in the perfect balance and harmony of all elements in style and iconography. Cambodian temples worship Shiva. Puranic Hinduism with its three deities-Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti, as the consort of Shiva- came to the forefront. While Shaivism developed in the south and south-east and Shaktism in eastern India and in some parts of south-west Malabar, Vaishnavism, with its emphasis on Krishna as its main exponent, flourished mostly in the northern and central parts of India. Popular worship was given formal sanction and temples and images dedicated to each of these cults came up everywhere. Krishna worship is not found in the Cambodian culture though Krishna as a God is depicted in the sculptures there. III. Arrival of Shaivism in Cambodia: Shaivanism शैव संप्रदाय is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that venerates Shiva as the Supreme Being. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming the dominant religious tradition of many Hindu kingdoms. It arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands of 6 Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the major aspects of Hinduism. The followers of Shaivism are called "Shaivites" or "Saivites". It is one of the largest sects that believe Shiva, worshipped as a creator and destroyer of worlds, is the supreme god over all. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology. The origin of Shaivism may be traced to the conception of Rudra in the Rig Veda Virabhadra devotional plaque Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. The ancient text Shvetashvatara Upanishad dated to late 1st millennium BCE mentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva and Maheshwaram. In the early centuries is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the Atman (self, soul) within oneself and every living being. It is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, and like other Hindu traditions encourages an individual to discover and be one with Shiva within. Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. This aspect of Hinduism was brought to Cambodia by the Tamils- either as merchant-explorers or missionaries or due to their forceful interpretations and discussions with the Cambodians. Tamil rule of the Cholas: Their maritime conquests meant that the Cholas exacted tribute from Thailand and later on the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia as is explained below. It is now known that Cholas did not rule the areas they conquered directly, but installed vassals and collected tributes. This continued for the next 150 or so years. (3rd century BCE onwards). At the time, Sri Vijaya was a mightly empire controlling the Strait of Malacca who began monopolizing the trade route which Cholas 7 had taken and caused impediments in the path of the Chola vessels. During the rule of Raja Rajendra Chola, relationship with Sri Vijaya deteriorated. Sri vijaya battled with Rajendra Chola but was defeated and Rajendra Chola went on to put out successful expedition to conquer parts of what today is Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, some parts of Cambodia and Vietnam. This earned Rajendra Chola the title ‘Gadaram vendran (one who conquered Gadaram)’ and also made all the kings his vassals. Like most other far off expeditions vassals were duly appointed to collect revenue from conquered territories. It was during the reign of Rajendra Chola’s son - Kulothunga I, that Suryavarman II ascended the throne in Cambodia( AD 1113) . He too maintained friendly and trade relations with the Cholas. The Southeast Asia was abundant with Tamils reining control in trade and polity by and large. Though all the kingdoms were Saivists (followed God Shiva), the Khmer king Suryavarman II however, followed Vishnu but there is some ambiguity about this. Chola Conquests: Like all temples in South India, Angkor Wat also was built to function as a garrison. The temples of South India that stand today and which are from the Chola dynasties are all built like a city in themselves. They provided shelter and protection for the people during emergencies like war or calamities. That is the reason they have layered defence structures (wall inside wall inside wall with water and other obstacles in between) similar to forts. The architecture of Angkor Wat is therefore heavily influenced by and resembles the South Indian Temple architecture. However, Angkor Wat was built as a city in itself to celebrate the victory of Suryavarman II over the expeditions. This is also characteristic of the Chola Empire. Rajendra chola II built Gangai konda Cholapuram to celebrate his victory over the Ganges country. Angkor Wat It is a fusion of Chola and Khmer architecture. Srivijaya was a kingdom centered on Palembang in Sumatra, ruled by the Sailendra dynasty. Khmer was ruled by Emperor Suryavarman I who desired a war on the kingdom of Tambralinga (in the Malay Peninsula). Suryavarman I requested aid from Rajendra Chola who had now assumed power of the chola dynasty. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, Tambralinga requested aid from Srivijaya. This eventually led to the Chola expedition against the Srivijiya Empire. This alliance somewhat also had a religious nuance, since both the Chola Empire and the Khmer Empire were Hindu Shivaist, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were Mahayana Buddhist. In 1025 CE, Rajendra led Chola forces across the Indian Ocean and invaded Srivijaya, attacking several places in Malaysia and Indonesia. The Chola sacked Kadaram (the capital) and Pannai in Sumatra and Malaiyur in the Malay Peninsula. Rajendra also invaded Tambralinga and the Langkasuka Kingdom in modern Malaysia and south Thailand. The Chola forces captured the last ruler of the Sailendra Dynasty Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman bringing an end to Srivijaya conquering large portions of Srivijaya, including its ports of Ligor, Kedah, and Tumasik (now Singapore).This is how Cholas entered Cambodia. 8 Tamil Merchant associations: For the next century, Tamil trading companies from southern India dominated Southeast Asia. The Chola invasion had furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Manigramam. Manigiramam, or manigramam, typically referred to a medieval merchant guild, organised by itinerant ethnic Indian traders, primarily active in south India. Along with the ainurruvar (the Ayyavole Five Hundred) and the anjuvannam (the anjuman), the manigiramam played a major role in the commercial activities of the region. Unlike the anjuvannam which was confined to the port-towns of south India, the manigramam is found both in the port-towns and in the hinter-land trade centres. Establishing trade contacts with merchants of the Khmer, these associations and representatives are said to have made extensive contacts into Southeast Asia. The Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavole were a merchant guild from Aihole in now Tamilnadu that provided trade links between trading communities in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. They have been mentioned in inscriptions from the 9th century. Aihole was formerly a major city of the Chalukyas of Badami and a place with many temples and brahmans, some of whom seem to have become involved in the trading activities of the Five Hundred. But most of the Ayyavolu Lords were merchants, especially those engaged in long-distance trade. They became more powerful under the Cholas. They were protectors of the Veera-Banaju-Dharma, that is, law of the heroic or noble merchants. The Bull, the symbol of the Saivaites was their symbol which they displayed on their flag; and they had a reputation for being daring and enterprising. t would seem that when the Ayyavole-500 guild became a big overreaching guild of Southern India, most of the existing indigenous and local trade guilds became associated with it. Due to the various Chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia and the support provided by the Cholas to the Ayyavole guild, the Ayyavole guild emerged as a maritime power and continued to flourish in the kingdom of SriVijaya (a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia). This is well documented in an inscription of the Ayyavole guild of the year 1088 AD found in Barus of West Sumatra, Indonesia. South Indian merchants were also active in Burma and the Thai peninsula. IV. Contact with India: There is reason to believe that there was contact between the Hindu Kingdoms of “India” and Cambodia from the 1st century BCE. Chinese travellers who came to Cambodia then, found a significant colony of Brahmins there. From Cauvery and the Krishna, people sailed along the coast to the Gulf of Thailand and landed in the country. Merchants from India came to Cambodia - attested by potteries belonging to 1st century AD from India. They carried the Brahmi script from India to Thailand, Cambodia and other South East Asian countries. Some of the interesting inscriptions pertain to Kaundinya a Brahmin who went to Cambodia and married the ruling princess; their progeny became the rulers later. Whether it is history or legend we do not know. In Tamil Nadu, Kaundinya was known as “Chozhiyan” (from the Chola Nadu) during the Sangam period. Kaundinya belonged to a family of Vedic scholars and was a staunch Saivite. 9 Saivism, Buddhism and Vaishnavism integrated in Cambodia and a composite culture came to be: Saiva-Vaishnavite-Buddhism. From the ninth to the 14th centuries, successive kings built splendid temples to Siva and Vishnu. Banteay Srei, 20 km from Bayon was built in the 10th century by Yagnavaraha, priest and counsellor to Rajendravarman II. The emaciated figure of Karaikal Ammaiyar in one of the carved panels of the temple shows its strong Tamil influence. The earliest inscriptions in Cambodia are from 3rd and 4th century AD -are in Sanskrit in Pallava grantha. The earliest written inscriptions relate to a Cambodian queen, Kula Prabhavati, who established a temple to Vishnu in the kingdom. The maximum number of Sanskrit inscriptions is to be seen in Cambodia rather than in India. Siva linga pratishta is seen in almost every village. A 500-year old inscription shows how the same astronomical calculation practised in India was also practised in the Khmer empire. In Khmer, Ramayana and the Mahabharata chapters were recited daily in the temples. Sanskrit and Tamil: In the literary sphere, the works of Kalidasa, Bhairavi, Patanjali, and the Natya Sastra all travelled to Cambodia. From the sixth century onwards, both Sanskrit and Tamil were used in government documents in Khmer. Bilingual inscriptions are seen in Khmer from the 6th century - in the regional language of Khmer and in Sanskrit. The regional language became classical because of contact with Sanskrit. Dharmashastra: The architecture, sculpture, grammar, literature and lifestyles of Cambodia were controlled by the Dharmasastra (Manu dharma). The iconography too was influenced by Hindu culture. The kings were called Rajendravarman, Jayavarman, Indravarman — Varman is traditionally Sanskrit. Vastu Sastra and astronomy were followed in the Khmer kingdom. And just as in the Big Temple in Thanjavur, hundreds of dancers were dedicated to the temples in the Khmer empire.After the 14th century, however, the land turned to Buddhism owing to the influence of Sri Lanka. Somewhere around the 13th to 14th century, some Brahmanas went from Rameswaram to Cambodia. They took the Thevaram, Divya Prabhandam and Pooja Vedas from here to Cambodia -some people say that they came from Chidambaram. In Cambodia there are still such priests. Our connection with South East Asia is documented from the third century BCE, the time of Emperor Ashoka. He sent his Buddhist emissaries to Thailand and also to Cambodia, which had by then become a great power. 3 Hindu Influences: For more than 2,000 years, what was to become Cambodia absorbed influences from what was Hindu Kingdoms of the now India, passing them on to other Southeast Asian civilisations that are now Thailand and Laos. It is said that Khmer King Suryavarman II who built Angkor was a descendant of Cholas, the rulers of Tamil Nadu hence the similarities of Angkor temples with temples of Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu buttressing the migration of architectural trends from” 10 India” to Cambodia. During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, the states of Funan had become principally Hindu. This State and its successor, Chenla, coalesced in present-day Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. Little else is known for certain of these polities. Some Chinese chronicles suggest that after Jayavarman I of Chenla died around 690, turmoil ensued which resulted in division of the kingdom into Land Chenla and Water Chenla which was loosely ruled by weak princes under the dominion of Java. The Khmer Empire grew out of these remnants of Chenla becoming firmly established in 802 when Jayavarman II (reigned c790-850) declared independence from Java and proclaimed himself a Devaraja- Sanskrit word for GODLY KING. He and his followers instituted the cult of the Godking and began a series of conquests that formed an empire which flourished in the area from the 9th to the 15th centuries. Around the 13th century, monks from Sri Lanka introduced Theravada Buddhism to Southeast Asia. The religion spread and eventually displaced Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism as the popular religion of Angkor; however it was not the official state religion until 1295; when Indravarman III took power. The Khmer Empire was Southeast Asia's largest empire during the 12th century. The empire's centre of power was Angkor, where a series of capitals were constructed during the empire's zenith. In 2007 an international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern techniques concluded that Angkor had been the largest pre-industrial city in the world with an urban sprawl of 2,980 square kilometres (1,151 square miles). The city, which could have supported a population of up to one million people and Angkor Wat, the best known and best-preserved religious temple at the site, still serves as a reminder of Cambodia's past as a major regional power. The empire, though in decline, remained a significant force in the region until its fall in the 15th century. The Khmer temples, also known as the Khmer monuments, were constructed by the Khmer people between the 9th and 15th centuries AD. These temples are distributed throughout Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. The center of the Khmer Empire was located around Siem Reap, close to the northern coast of the Tonle 11 Sap Lake. The Khmer monuments around Siem Reap are called the Angkor monuments. Koh Ker, one of the provincial cities of the Khmer Empire, was located approximately 85 km northeast of the Angkor monuments, along the north east royal road continuing on to Wat Phu. The temples in the Koh Ker monuments were constructed between 921 and 944 AD, when the capital was moved from the Angkor area to the Koh Ker area. During this time, Koh Ker was under the reign of Jayavarman IV, while the Angkor area was under the reign of Isanavarman II until 928 AD. The two capitals, Angkor and Koh Ker, existed simultaneously from 921 to 928 AD. Yasodharapura यशोधरपुर in Sanskrit, also known as Angkor was the second capital of the Khmer Empire, established by King Yasovarman I in the late 9th century and centred on the temple of Phnom Bakheng. Yasodharapura was referred to in the inscriptions as Phnom Kandal (Central Mountain). Phnom Bakheng ( See Later) was a Hindu Temple- one of a trinity of temples constructed just before the foundation of Yasodharapura due to Yasovarman's belief that the mountain was among the holiest of places to worship the Hindu deities. Yashodharapura was linked to an earlier capital, Hariharalaya, by a causeway. The urban complex included the Yashodharatataka. The succeeding capitals -Angkor Thom, built in the same area were called Yasodharapura by King Jayavarman VII (1181-1218AD). The city of Angkor (ancient name: Yasodharapura) was the royal capital from which Khmer kings ruled one of the largest and most sophisticated kingdoms in the history of Southeast Asia. From 890, when King Yasovarman I moved his capital to Angkor, until about 1210, the kings of Angkor controlled an area that extended from the southern tip of the Indochina peninsula northward to Yunnan and from Vietnam westwards as far as the Bay of Bengal. During this era, these kings implemented a series of 12 massive construction projects designed to glorify both themselves and their dynastic capital. After the death of King Jayavarman VII (1181-1215), the Angkor Empire went into decline, although as late as 1280 Angkor was still a thriving metropolis and one of the most magnificent cities in Asia. However, the great construction boom was over, Angkor Wat had been turned into a Buddhist shrine, and Thai armies were watching. In 1431 they sacked the city which was then abandoned. From the early 15th century to the late 19th century, interest in Angkor was limited almost entirely to the Angkor Wat temple complex which, having been maintained by Buddhist monks. Temples of Cambodia Royal arms of Cambodia with the 2 Lions called Gajaraja which is Sanskrit for Lion King( on Right) Flag is left showing Angkor Wat temple Religion The main religion of Cambodia was Hinduism, followed by Buddhism later on. Initially the kingdom revered Hinduism as the main state religion. Vishnu and Shiva were the most revered deities, worshipped in Khmer Hindu temples. Temples such as Angkor Wat are actually known as Preah Pisnulok (Vara Vishnuloka in Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honour the posthumous King Suryavarman II as Vishnu. Hindu ceremonies and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), usually only held among ruling elites of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class. The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism until Theravada Buddhism prevailed, even among the lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the 13th century. The civilizations of Southeast Asia developed forms of Hinduism and Buddhism that incorporated distinctive local features 13 and in other respects reflected local cultures, but the framework of their religious life, at least in the upper classes, was largely Indian. Stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata became widely known in Southeast Asia and are still popular there in local versions. In Indonesia the people of Bali still follow a form of Hinduism adapted to their own genere. Versions of the Manu-smriti were taken to Southeast Asia and were translated and adapted to indigenous cultures until they lost most of their original content. As early as the 5th century, Kulaprabhavati, a Cambodian queen, endowed a Vishnu temple in her realm. 4 Pre Angkor Hindu Architecture: Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful Kingdom of Khmer Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region. At that time, Cambodia was known as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of Khmer empire. Chenla or Zhenla is the Chinese designation for the successor polity of the Kingdom of Funan preceding the Khmer Empire that existed from around the late sixth to the early ninth century in Indochina. The name was still used in the 13th century by the Chinese envoy Zhou Daguan, author of The Customs of Cambodia. It appears on the Mao Kun map. However, modern historiography applies the name exclusively to the period from the late 6th to the early ninth century. It is dubious if "Chenla" ever existed as a unitary kingdom or if this is a misconception by Chinese chronologists. Most modern historians assert that "Chenla" was in fact just a series of loose and temporary confederations of principalities. Chenla started falling during the 700s as a result of both internal divisions and external attacks by the Shailendra dynasty of Java, who eventually took over and joined under the Angkor kingdom of Jayavarman II. Individually, historians reject a classical decline scenario, arguing there was no Chenla to begin with, rather a geographic region had been subject to prolonged periods of contested rule, with turbulent successions and an obvious incapability to establish a lasting centre of gravity. Historiography discontinues this era of nameless upheaval only in the year 802, when Jayavarman II establishes the appropriately named Khmer Empire, which explains the later design journeys. There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles. 1. Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk also known as Isanapura where was the capital of Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor Prei Kuk were built in round shape, plain colonettes with capitals that include a bulb. 2. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture but architecture scarce. Colonettes are larger than previous style. Buildings were more heavily decorated but they had general decline of standards. 3. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on colonettes which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued 14 How Hinduism reached Cambodia: Is still a mystery with scholarly disagreements. But the fact is that Hinduism reached Far East the same way that Buddhism followed Hinduism- by Conversion of people not so firmly entranched in their own concepts of religiosity. Indian merchants of the Chola kingdoms may have settled there, bringing Brahmans and Buddhist monks with them. These religious men were patronized by rulers who converted to Hinduism or Buddhism. The earliest material evidence of Hinduism in Southeast Asia comes from Borneo, where late 4th-century Sanskrit inscriptions testify to the performance of Vedic sacrifices by Brahmans at the behest of local chiefs. Chinese chronicles attest an Indianised kingdom in Vietnam two centuries earlier. The dominant form of Hinduism exported to Southeast Asia was Shaivism, though some Vaishnavism was also known there. Later, from the 9th century onward, Tantrism, both Hindu and Buddhist, spread throughout the region. Beginning in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many of the early kingdoms in Southeast Asia adopted and adapted specific Hindu texts, theologies, rituals, architectural styles, and forms of social organization that suited their historical and social conditions. The history of Angkor Wat dates back to the kingdom of Funan. This kingdom was established by an Indian Brahmin, and in AD 200, the country was peacefully settled by Indian traders. Four hundred years later, the kingdom had become a prosperous trading region. As the area was located on the Pilgrim rout between China and India, Hinduism and Chinese Buddhism was adopted by the new settlers. The Indian and Chinese influence can still be felt in Cambodia, and the temples of Angkor Wat closely resembles Hindu and Buddhist temples that can be found in Northern India and in Nepal. In the end of AD600, the Funan Empire lost much of its power to the kingdom of Chenla. The capital of this new empire, Sambor, was located about 40 miles to the Southeast of Angkor. During this time, beautiful sculptures and carvings in sand-stone was popular. In AD750, a king with a reputation of being a war-like person, who was able to expand the Chenla kingdom. However, trade with India stopped, and the Indonesian Empire rose to power. Power and prestige of Hindu traditions in the region: Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and, occasionally, princes travelled to Southeast Asia from India in the first few centuries of the Common Era and eventually settled there. Enormous temples to Shiva and Vishnu were built in the ancient Khmer empire, attesting to the power and prestige of Hindu traditions in the region. Angkor Wat, built in the 12th century in what is now Cambodia, was originally consecrated to Vishnu, although it was soon converted to (and is still in use as) a Buddhist temple. One of the largest Hindu temples ever built, it contains the largest bas-relief in the world, depicting the churning of the ocean of milk, a minor theme of Indian architecture but one of the dominant narratives in Khmer temples. 15 Southeast Asia is full of Hindu temples and iconography as well as Sanskrit inscriptions, the nature and extent of Hindu influence upon the civilizations of the region can be debated but it definitely stands out to scholarship. Divinity and Royalty of the monarch: Classical Khmer kings promoted the idea (known as "devaraja") that there was an intersection of the ruling king and a validating god. Usually the Hindu god chosen for this personal identification was Siva, but sometimes it was Vishnu, or, for some, a godly image of Buddhist origins. Khmer temples thus often portray the ruling king incarnated as the god, whose shrines are within a monument on earth that models the design of the cosmos and heavens. The faces depicted on the Bayon temple towers (see below) clearly resemble faces on known portrait statues of Jayavarman VII. Given his Buddhist leanings, it is thought that the huge faces portray him in semi-divine form as a "boddhisattva," an enlightened being conceived in Mahayana Buddhism who postpones entering Nirvana in order to remain on earth helping others towards salvation Angkor temples modelled on traditional Indian cosmology, were built in order to provide a means whereby Khmer kings could be assured of immortality by becoming closely identified with Shaiva or one of the other important deities of the realm. Angkor Wat, for instance, was built by King Suryavarman II as a huge funerary temple and tomb to serve as a home for his earthly remains and to confirm his immortal and eternal identitification with Vishnu. Interestingly, claims of early Hindu contacts farther east are more doubtful. There is little evidence of direct influence of Hinduism on China or Japan, which were primarily affected by Buddhism. Boddhisattvas are somewhat like Mahayana Buddhist saints. According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga housed in the central sanctuary which served as a templemausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centers of ancestor worship.”5 16 Why build temples? The building of temples by Khmer kings was a means of legitimizing their claim to political office and also to lay claim to the protection and powers of the gods. Hindu temples are not a place for religious congregation; instead; they are homes of the god. In order for a king to lay claim to his political office he had proved that the gods did not support his predecessors or his enemies. To this end, the king had to build the grandest temple/palace for the gods, one that proved to be more lavish than any previous temples. In doing so, the king could make visible his ability to harness the energy and resources to construct the temple, and assert that his temple was the only place that a god would consider residing in on earth. However, there are around 4000 temples in Cambodia, out of which most of them are located at Siem Reap, Battambang, Preah Vihar, and Kampong Thom. The 72 major and several hundred additional temples spread over 500 acres of land known as Angkor Wat were discovered by French missionaries in 1860, and have typical Hindu Architectural designs. We use the word HINDU because at the time they were built, there was no India. Cambodian architecture is very diverse in style, design and features. This very diversity illustrates that Hindu temple architecture was in its formative stage and was yet to arrive at the standardised situation of later centuries. Nevertheless, the influence of Gupta-era buildings on later Cambodian temple architecture is indisputable and continued right through to the medieval period. The Khmer empire produced numerous temples and majestic monuments to celebrate the divine authority of Khmer kings. Khmer architecture reflects the Hindu belief that the temple was built to recreate the abode of Hindu gods, Mount Meru, with its five peaks and surrounded by seas represented by ponds and moats. The early Khmer temples built in the Angkor region and the Bakong temple 17 in Hariharalaya (Roluos) employed stepped pyramid structures to represent the sacred templemountain. Temples of Hariharalaya: Hariharalaya was an ancient city and capital of the Khmer empire located near Siem Reap, Cambodia in an area now called Roluos .All that remains of the city are the ruins of several royal temples: Preah Ko, the Bakong, Lolei. This 7th century sculpture of Harihara is from Phnom Da in Cambodia. The name "Hariharalaya" is derived from the name of Harihara, a Hindu deity prominent in preAngkorian Cambodia. The name "Harihara" in turn is a composite of "Hari" (one of Vishnu's names listed in Vishnu sahasranama) and "Hara" (meaning the Hindu god Shiva). Cambodian representations of Harihara were of a male deity whose one side bore the attributes of Vishnu and whose other side bore the attributes of Shiva. For example, the deity’s head-covering consisted of a mitre-type hat (the attribute of Vishnu) on one side and as twisted locks of hair (the attribute of Shiva) on the other. Alaya is a sanskrit word meaning "basis," or "home," so Hariharalaya is home of Harihara or home of the deity representing both Hari (Vishnu) and Hara (Shiva). 18 The Bakong is the royal temple mountain founded by King Indravarman I at Hariharalaya. Toward the end of the 8th century A.D., the Cambodian king Jayavarman II conquered vast territories near the great lake Tonle Sap. For at least part of this time, he established his capital at Hariharalaya. However, when he declared himself the universal monarch of the country in 802 A.D., he did so not at Hariharalaya, but at Mahendraparvata on the Phnom Kulen Plateau. Later, he returned the capital to Hariharalaya, where he died in 835. Jayavarman II was succeeded by Jayavarman III and then by Indravarman I, who were responsible for the completion of the royal temple mountain known as the Bakong and the construction of Indratataka baray. Indravarman I consecrated the temple’s dominant religious symbol, a lingam called Sri Indresvara (the name is a combination of the king’s name with that of Shiva), in 881. Indravarman I also constructed the much smaller temple today called Preah Ko ("Sacred Bull"), dedicated in 880. In 889, Indravarman I was succeeded by his son Yasovarman I, who constructed the temple of Lolei (the name may be a modern corruption of "Hariharalaya") on an artificial island in the middle of Indratataka. Yasovarman also founded a new city at the site of Angkor Thom north of modern Siem Reap and called it Yasodharapura. Yasovarman made the new city his capital and constructed a new royal temple mountain, known as the Bakheng. Yasodharapura was to survive until the 1170s when it was sacked by invaders from Champa. However, after the construction of many such temples over several centuries and now perfecting the art of temple building-art, design, architecture and construction methods, the flight of fancy of the Angkor kings took off in successive generations. Khmer art and architecture can be said to have reached their aesthetic and technical peak with the construction of the majestic temple Angkor Wat. Other temples are also constructed in the Angkor region, such as Ta Phrom and Bayon. The construction of the temple 19 demonstrates the artistic and technical achievements of the Khmer Empire through its architectural mastery of stone masonry. The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, 6 a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors. Religious Architecture: In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source Temple complexes Although early temples in south India may have been made of disposable materials as early as the first few centuries of the Common Era, permanent temple structures appear about the 3rd and 4th centuries, as attested in early Tamil literature. From the Gupta period onward, Hindu temples became larger and more prominent, and their architecture developed in distinctive regional styles. The 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat is based on Dravidian architecture, it was designed as a pyramid representing the structure of the universe: the highest level at the center of the temple represented Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods, with the five towers on the highest level representing the five peaks of the mountain. The broad moat around the complex represented the oceans that surround the world. It is also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and 20 spiritual universes.Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" xūmízuò style base is a common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multitiered roof, represents Mount Meru. The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture of Cambodian, Annamese (Khmer) and Javanese temples (of the Greater India. of evidence for dating the remains. Khmer architecture known also as Angkorian architecture is the architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of the Khmer Empire from approximately the latter half of the 8th century CE to the first half of the 15th century CE. But is basically the same architecture as visualized by the designers of temples in the Chola and Gupta dynasties. The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II as a temple complex dedicated to Vishnu in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Its architecture takes a break from the earlier Shaiva tradition of previous kings. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its foundation. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls. Angkor Wat is said to be a ‘miniature replica of the universe in stone’ and represents an earthly model of the cosmic world. Astronomical designs: Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka 7 argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above. Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco.8 Draco is a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name is Latin for dragon. It was one of the 48 constellations 21 listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. The north pole of the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco is circumpolar (that is, never setting), and can be seen all year from northern latitudes. The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of the Spring Equinox. Angkor Wat as a Mandala. Mandala: According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should also be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples become spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in other words, intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—diagrams of the universe.9 Concentric galleries: Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E, is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric galleries. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east-west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the sunrise on a solstice. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west. Mount Meru: Mount Meru (Sanskrit: मेरु), also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain Hindu cosmology and is considered to be the center of all physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" style base is a common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof, represents Mount Meru. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru to which is added the approbatory prefix su, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". Meru is also the name of the central bead in a mālā. The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru, all references to it being as a part of the Cosmic Ocean, with several statements that say, "The Sun along with all the planets circle the mountain," make determining its location most difficult, according to most scholars. Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs, northwest of Kashmir. 8 22 There exist several versions of cosmology in existing Hindu texts. In one of them, cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara , a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath Temple of the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers of Hindu temples.9 Indigenous to the Cambodian architecture and not at all the Gupta or Chola forms the Angkor, and other temples in Cambodia were built as a symbolic representation of Mount Meru. Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high (about 1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun along with all the planets in the Solar System revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit. One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles) though its magnitude seems to differ over time periods, e.g. the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Vārāhamihira and slightly less so in the Āryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya Purana and the Bhāgvata Purāna along with some other Hindu texts consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers. Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity. 10 According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru. One description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.In Buddhist temples the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is an earliest example of the 5th-6th century. Many other 23 Buddhist temples took on its form such as in Thailand the Wat Arun and in Myanmar the Hsinbyume Pagoda.4 The temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a passageway running along the length of the temple) with a central sanctuary, marked by five stone towers.The five central towers of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru, which according to Hindu mythology is the dwelling place of the gods. The mountain is said to be surrounded by an ocean, and the complex's enormous moat suggests the oceans at the edge of the world. 10. Chaturmukha-type Jain Influences: Angkor designs copied by Jains? Jainism: n South East Asia, magnificent temples were projected as Borobudur and Loro Jonggrang in Java (Indonesia), from Phnom Bakheng to Bayon in Khmer (Cambodia). However,built during the 11th to 12th centuries, that is comparable with the temple at Ranakpur and has similarities with the ideal plan of Jaina temple, not only in the large scale of the grounds but also in terms of the architecture. The main building of Angkor Wat is surrounded by threefold cloisters. The scale of the 2nd cloister is about 100m x 120m.Though this is a plan of inside of the 2nd cloisters, there is a larger 1st cloisters. As the temple is modeled on Mt. Meru, the central part is separated from the 2nd cloisters and on the height of 13m. So the space of central shrine is connected with the 3rd cloisters only. Although the plan is a type of "Panchayatana," it is not "Mandapa" (hall) but linear corridor that connects five shrines. That is the biggist difference from Jaina Temples. 24 PLAN 3 shows the premises inside the 2nd cloisters of Angkor Wat, and outside this plan there are the 1st cloisters. The scale of the 2nd cloisters is about 100m x 120m, and the composition has so much in common with the Jaina ideal plan. And we get to know the central shrine of Angkor Wat is also fourfaced-type. That is, in making a plan of large-scale temple spreading to its four directions, it invariably requires that the central shrine is the chaturmukha-type.11 A piece of architecture that mediates the chaturmukha of Jaina temple and Angkor Wat is the Buddhist tempele Somapura Mahavihara from 8th to the 9th centuries which is a ruin in Paharpur, Bangladesh. Thus through the temple of Paharpur, which was the only example among Buddhist temples in India that had a plan of chaturmukha-type, this planning method was introduced to South East Asia. It evolved finally into the plans of Mandala-like large temples in Khmer and Java. Although Hindu temples in India did not develop chaturmuka-type. Temples to God Brahma: As far as names go this is as generic name- city of temples- but Angkor Wat was not the original name given to the temple when it was built in the 12th century. There is no knowledge of how this temple was referred to during the time of its use, as there are no extant texts or inscriptions that mention the temple by name—this is quite incredible if we consider the fact that Angkor Wat is the greatest religious construction project in Southeast Asia. One of the main temples in Angkor Wat was dedicated to Brahma. Brahma is the Hindu God of Creation – without him, there would be no Universe and no people. In mythology, He is the first of the Trimurti or holy trinity of Hinduism - Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver) and Shiva (the Destroyer). Yet there are very few temples dedicated to him in India? Also,they are scattered in hard-to-reach locations. Not far away, in Java, Indonesia, is Prambanan, another massive Hindu temple built in the 9th century CE. There is a Brahma temple here with a magnificent statue of Brahma; the walls are carved with detailed stories from the Ramayana. The hamsa or vehicle of Brahma gets a shrine for itself! 12 Periodization of Angkorean architectural styles: Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. All of these,no matter what period, show extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style. 1. Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a period of innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear. 2. Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of the Khmer empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers 25 southeast of the modern city of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko style are known for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their lintels. 3. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the state temple of King Yasovarman, who built his capital of Yasodharapura around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the most endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor. 4. Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital of Khmer empire was removed from Angkor region through the north which is called Koh Ker. The architectural style of temples in Koh Ker, scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main material but sandstone also used. 5. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup. 6. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology. 7. Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas. 8. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed the Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of the 13th century. Its unique relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures typical of some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot currently be appreciated in its full magnificence. 9. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and perhaps the mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the Angkorian temples and defines what has come to be known as the classical style of Angkorian architecture. 10. Other temples in this style are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. 11. Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he began a massive program of monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the state temple called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the style of the Bayon, 26 and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom, and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated, the temples exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat. 12. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline. The 13th century Terrace of the Leper King is known for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings, dancers, and nāgas. Angkorian temples evolved from modest structures consisting of a few basic sanctuaries to the masterpieces we know as Angkor Wat and the Bayon from the very beginning up though the ‘Banteay Srei’ style of art and architecture. KULEN STYLE (825 - 875) The Khmer Empire was not born at Angkor, but on top of the mountain of Kulen, when Jayavarman II declared independence from the Javanese. Today, many of these original structures are little more than piles of bricks hidden deep in the mountain jungles. temples from this period typically consisted of simple layouts of a single prasat. The ‘colonettes’ of the doors (more below) started to transition from their circular to octagonal shape that would be common throughout most periods of Angkorian architecture. Meanwhile, the ‘lintel’carvings showed strong Javanese influence. The mysterious carvings of Kbal Spean, located on Mt. Kulen PREAH KO STYLE (875 - 893) It was the third king of the Khmer Empire, Indravarman I, who decided to leave Kulen and build a new capital city called Harihalaya. Today, these temples are located in a village called Roluos, around 10km east of Siem Reap. Indravarman I would start his new city by building an ancestral temple, and shortly afterward, a large state temple – a trend that would be followed by most subsequent Angkorian kings. PREAH KO (879) Preah Ko is a prime example of the ‘trimurti’ temple layout, a very common style up throughout the 10th century. This arrangement consists of one taller prasat, or sanctuary, in between two shorter ones of equal height. Typically, as is the case here, the taller central sanctuary represented Shiva and the two others represented Brahma and Vishnu. The name ‘Preah Ko,’ in fact, translates to ‘sacred bull,’ and numerous statues of Nandin the bull, Shiva’s vehicle, can be found around the complex. The bricks of the Preah Ko’s prasats are now exposed, but they were originally entirely covered in stucco. Fragments of fresco were discovered inside one of the sanctuaries, revealing how they were likely colorful and bright back in their day. As was the case in nearly all Angkorian temples, all of the prasats were built facing east.On either side of the prasat door are two columns referred to as colonettes. Here’s one of the first instances of octagonal colonettes, as opposed to the circular ones of the preAngkorian Period.Inside those are what are known as door jambs. As in the case of Preah Ko, these sometimes bear ancient inscriptions. 27 At the top of the door is the lintel. These always feature intricate carvings of mythological beings, oftentimes gods on top of the demon kala, or Indra riding his three-headed elephant. These are always worth examining, as many lintels throughout Angkor are one of a kind. Interestingly, despite being so old, Preah Ko contains some of the best examples of lintel carvings of any of the early Khmer temples. As will be a common theme from here on out, the level of detail at this temple is striking. The purpose of the intricate carvings all over the structures was to make them resemble the abode of the gods. This would help encourage the deities to descend from the heavens and visit the temples during special ceremonies and rituals. • FALSE DOORS: In this era of Angkorian architecture, the prasats only had one entrance (facing east) with false doors on the other three sides. Here, the fake door knobs take on the form of lions’ heads. • THE INNER CHAMBER: As this was a temple dedicated to Shiva, the interior of the prasats contained a shiva-linga which symbolized the deity. Prasats in Angkor normally contained a shiva-linga or a scultpure, whether of a deity or the Buddha. The small interiors only allowed room for a priest to conduct special rituals. • An ancient inscription in the door jamb • One of many intricate lintel carvings depicting Garuda • Two lion guardians and a bull, symbolizing Shiva • This enclosure near the entrance featured round colonettes, reminiscent of pre-Angkorian architecture • LIBRARIES: Here we see the first instance of a ‘library’ at Angkor, though we have no idea what they were actually called at the time. Some scholars have guessed that they probably contained important palm leaf manuscripts, as well as idols. • Another likely possibility, however, is that in addition to the prasats, religious rituals were also carried out in these structures – probably to the fire god Agni or to worship of the planetary and directional gods. • For some reason, when there was only one library in a temple complex, as is the case at Preah Ko, it would be in the southwest corner. Later temples would consist of many more of these structures. BAKONG (881) Only a couple years after Preah Ko, Indravarman I consecrated his state temple known as Bakong. Made of sandstone, this pyramid temple consists of five tiers that stood 14 meters high. The temple architects made the higher tiers smaller, making clever use of perspective to make Bakong appear taller than it really is. 28 Approaching the temple, one of the first things you’ll notice is the large moat surrounding it, meant to symbolize the cosmic ocean. THE MOUNTAIN TEMPLE: Bakong is considered the very first ‘mountain temple’ of Angkor. All Angkorian mountain temples featured a central prasat on top of a large tiered pyramidal structure. The central tower, surrounded by shorter towers, represented the peaks of Mt. Meru, the mythological home of the gods. What’s missing at Bakong, however, is the quincunx layout (more below). With Bakong as his state temple, Indravarman I started a tradition of mountain temples that would develop until it reached its apex at Angkor Wat. It seems safe to say that Bakong was influenced by the temple of Borobudur in central Java, Indonesia, which was also constructed in the 9th century. The extent of communication between Indravarman I and Java’s Sailendra Dynasty, however, remains unknown. Borobudur, Indonesia THE FIRST NAGA BALUSTRADE: Here we have the first instance of a naga balustrade, which stretches across either side of the causeway. These would persist up through the very last phases of Angkorian architecture, and are still a common feature of modern-day Buddhist temples.Near the entrance, you’ll encounter two long halls that actually may be from a much later period. We know that the prasat at the very top of the pyramid was built by a later king, so these halls may also date from around that time. In any case, they’re fun to walk around and explore.Before or after ascending the pyramid, take some time to check out the eight prasats surrounding its base. These eight brick sanctuaries feature some excellent carved lintels (at least where they still exist). The circular collonettes are also a throwback to the pre-Angkorian era.The central prasat was rebuilt hundreds of years later in the 12th century. However, much of Bakong, including its highest sanctuary, had to be rebuilt in the 1930’s due to being near collapse. Lions guard each side of the central prasat, while the lintels depict scenes involving Vishnu and his avatar Krishna. THE FIRST BAS-RELIEF: On the fourth level of the pyramid, you can find the first example of a bas-relief at Angkor. It depicts asuras (demons) in a battle scene, with the art style showing strong Javanese influence. BAKHENG STYLE (893 - 925) The Bakheng Style is defined by the works Indravarman I’s son and successor, Yashovarman I. He’s also the king to found the actual city of Angkor, then known as Yasodharapura. After constructing the ancestral temple of Lolei, located just nearby Preah Ko, he’d go on to build his state temple of Phnom Bakheng. PHNOM BAKHENG (C. 907) Phnom Bakheng is the second Khmer mountain temple – that is, a temple built on top of a large stepped pyramid. But what makes Phnom Bakheng special is that it’s a mountain temple… built on top of a mountain! This is the only “mountain mountain” temple to have been attempted in Angkor’s history. 29 THE QUINCUNX LAYOUT: Phnom Bakheng is the first example of the quincunx layout that would be utilized at all future state mountain temples. The layout is meant to symbolize the mythical Mt. Meru, which consisted of one central peak surrounded by four smaller ones. Visiting Phnom Bakheng today, only a few of these mountain-top prasats survive. The layout is much more apparent at the temples built by successive kings. The central prasat at the top of Phnom Bakheng is rather unique for its era. Rather than a single easternfacing door and three false doors, this sanctuary has four doors – one for each side. Meanwhile, the other sanctuaries at the top of the pyramid have two doors each. Prasats with four doors would not become utilized again for about 100 years, with the late 10th century temple Ta Keo. Another unique, and simply astonishing, fact about Phnom Bakheng is that all of its smaller sanctuaries added up to a total of 108! This is a highly symbolic number in Hinduism, and it also would’ve been mindblowing to look at in its prime. Sadly, Phnom Bakheng is in rather poor condition compared to the other major temples of Angkor, and most of the sanctuaries have disappeared. You’ll just have to use your imagination. PHNOM KHROM & PHNOM BOK Yashorvarman I was so fond of hilltops that he built two other temples in this setting: Phnom Khrom and Phnom Bok. Neither are “mountain mountain” temples, however, but utilize the classic trimurti layout we saw at Preah Ko. This would continue to be a popular layout for smaller temples throughout the rest of the 10th century. KOH KER STYLE (921 - 944) For reasons we may never know, king Jayavarman IV moved the capital away from Angkor to a new location around 90km away called Koh Ker. Though it was only capital for a couple of decades, the amount of temples they built in the city is quite remarkable. The main state temple, Prasat Thom, is one of the most unique structures in all of Cambodia. It’s a tiered pyramid but with no prasats on top – only a large linga. If anything, it resembles Mesoamerican architecture more than it does your typical Khmer temple. Today, Koh Ker is mainly remembered for its sculptures, which were among the finest ever carved in the empire. Prasat Thom PRE RUP STYLE (944 - 968) After over two decades of abandonment, Angkor (Yasodharapura) was finally revitalized thanks to a king named Rajendravarman II. As was the common trend, he built a public waterwork followed by an ancestral temple and a new state mountain temple. EAST MEBON (952) East Mebon was built in the middle of a large baray (artificial reservoir) that has since dried up. In fact, one could only take a boat to get there. It must’ve been a stunning to sight to witness from across the water. 30 While it lacks the stepped pyramidal structure of a typical mountain temple (well, it does have a couple of tiers), it features a quincunx layout that is even more pronounced than at Phnom Bakheng. Around the five prasats in the center are eight more sanctuary towers at the lower level. Additionally, the temple was home to five libraries. HOLES: At East Mebon, along with pretty much every other temple, you’ll come across all sorts of holes indented in the stone. In many cases, wooden beams were placed in these to hold up wooden structures, none of which remain. Other times, as seen in the picture on the left, small holes were made in brick sanctuaries to allow the outer stucco layer to better stick to them. Though not a mountain temple itself, East Mebon is a sign of things to come with future mountain temples such as Pre Rup and Ta Keo. This temple gets relatively few tourists and is fun to explore. BAT CHUM (C. 952) Built around the same time as East Mebon is the small temple of Bat Chum. It again utilizes the trimurti arrangement, demonstrating that this style remained as popular as ever. There are a few interesting details, however, that sets this one apart from our previous examples. This is not a Hindu temple, but a Mahayana Buddhist one. And rather than the Hindu trinity of Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma, this temple is dedicated to Buddha and two Bodhisattvas known as Vajrapani and Prajnaparamita. This is a slightly different Buddhist triad from the later 12th century temples of Jayavarman VII, which would replace Vajrapani with Lokeshvara. An inscription tells us that Bat Chum was built by Buddhist architect Kavindrarimathana, the man behind East Mebon. In fact, this is the only Angkorian architect whose name has been revealed to us. PRE RUP (961) Pre Rup, Rajendravarma II’s state temple, takes a lot of clear inspiration from East Mebn. Only this time, the temple was built on land and there were no issues constructing a pyramidal base for the uppermost sanctuaries. In addition to the quincunx arrangement at the top, there are twelve small sanctuaries at the pyramid’s second level. Five brick sanctuaries were added to the east side at a later date. Oddly, their lintels are incomplete, while the space where a 6th sanctuary should be is entirely empty. Pre Rup also has two large libraries. Inside one of them, a tablet depicted 9 planets, giving credence to theory that these structures were used by a planetary worship cult and not houses for manuscripts. Also surrounding the pyramid are a number of long halls which would be the precursor to the entirely connected outer galleries of later mountain temples.One sanctuary features a rare depiction of Brahma's consort Saraswati. This mysterious structure in the corner was possible built to house the temple's center. It also shows us how the halls, or galleries, were not connected with one another, something that would change at later temples. East Mebon,is very similar to Pre Rup. It is the only temples open for sunset. BANTEAY SREI STYLE (967 - 1000) 31 From around the year 967, two different architectural styles existed concurrently: the Banteay Srei style and the Khleang style. Banteay Srei temple, after which the style was named, is one of the most unique temples of Angkor, largely due to the intricate details which seem to cover nearly every square inch of it. But its creators also introduced a few new architectural elements that would become standard at future Angkor temples. BANTEAY SREI (967) Taking a break from the grandiose and imposing mountain temples, we come to Banteay Srei, one of the most eloquent temples in all of Angkor. This is a rare major temple to have not been commissioned by a king, but by a pair of Brahmin priests. Their names were Yajnavaraha, one of king Jayavaraman V’s gurus, and his brother Vishnukumara. Their temple is clearly smaller than those commisioned by kings at the time. Perhaps it was out of fear of drawing too much attention away from the royal temples. Or perhaps it was because the brothers knew the level of extreme detail they wanted to implement in their temple, and only a smaller size would’ve made the project feasible.Constructed out of a special pinkish high-grade sandstone, this temple is nicknamed the “Citadel of Women.” PEDIMENTS: Above we went over the basic elements which make up your typical Angkorian door. But another feature, which became especially pronounced at Banteay Srei, is the pediment, situated above the lintel. These crowning slabs of stone provided even more room for intricate carvings. Banteay Srei, in fact, was the first temple to portray specific scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata Indian epics. THE FIRST USE OF A GOPURA: Banteay Srei was the first temple to introduce a gopura, a chamber attached to the entrance of the central prasat. The gopura would later be heavily utilized in the Angkor Wat style or architecture that was prominent in the 12th century. The size of the temple gates progressively diminish, giving the visitor the impression that the center is farther away than it really is. In addition to the central prasats are two libraries which are considered to be the most impressive structures at the temple. The level of artwork is so sophisticated that experts originally assumed that this was one of the last Angkor temples ever built.. Architectural Elements(Components) of the Temples Shikhara tower or spire in Indian temple architecture Although Angkor Wat appears, at first glance, to be a mass of stone with a central causeway, it actually consists of a series of elevated towers and covered galleries on different levels connected by stairs.The galleries and its columns set the boundaries for the first and second levels, while the third level supports five towers - one in each corner, and one in the centre. 32 Each tower features graduated tiers that create a cone shape, and the highest tower within the temple complex is 699ft (213m). The outer gallery of the temple contains bas-reliefs that stretch for almost 1,960ft (600m), including the Ramayana gallery in the western section. The bas-reliefs were designed to be viewed from left to right in the order of a Hindu funeral ritual, and this supports the funerary claims. Latina shikhara of Adinatha temple, Khajuraho On the left, the Sekhari shikhara of the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho This article is about the type of architecture. Shikhara (IAST: Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples. A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India. In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole building, including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the vimana only, which is usually 33 a dome capped with a finial; this article is concerned with the northern form. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent features in large temples. Shikhara can be classified into three main forms: 1. Latina. The shikhara has four faces, which may include projections or ratha within each face. All the elements run smoothly up the face in a curve. The most common. They are also sometimes called "homogeneous" shikhara, as opposed to the next two types, which may be called "heterogeneous". 2. Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are typically near the ends of the face or on the corners. 3. Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the top, creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in overall shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the northern Deccan and West India. The Mahabodhi Temple: a stepped pyramid with stupa finial on top. The early history of the Hindu shikhara is unclear but the Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya has a straight-sided shikhara tower over 55 metres (180 feet) high, with an amalaka near the top. The current structure dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th century CE. When the temple acquired its shikhara tower, today considered more characteristic of Hindu temples, is uncertain.The forms with smaller subsidiary spires begin in the 10th centuryand from then on tend to predominate. The Khajuraho Group of Monuments has several early forms from early in the century, though Latina ones reappear after about 1050, in examples like the Vamana Temple. The bhumija spire probably first appears around 1000-1025, with other temples begun in the 1050s, such as the Shiv Mandir, Ambarnath. In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for offerings, or water-pot, at its peak. 34 Nagara shikhara of Rameshwar Temple in Bhubaneswar Dravidian vimana of Murudeshwara Temple Vesara style of Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura. Towers are in 16 pointed star plan. Archeoastronomical Site: The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Astronomical Union (IAU) jointly published a thematic study on heritage sites of 35 astronomy and archaeoastronomy to be used as a guide to UNESCO in its evaluation of the cultural importance of archaeoastronomical sites around the world, which discussed sample sites and provided categories for the classification of archaeoastronomical sites. The editors, Clive Ruggles and Michel Cotte, proposed that archaeoastronomical sites be considered in four categories: 1) Generally accepted; 2) Debated among specialists; 3) Unproven; and 4) Completely refuted. Angkor Wat and Phnom Bakheng are both Category 1. According to Jean Filliozat of the École Française, the center tower represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones represent the 4 lunar phases each with 27 days. Temple mountain The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple. Both Angkor and Phnom Bakheng at Angkor, are in the form of a temple mountains. The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method. Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker, the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor. Shiva In pre-Angkorian Cambodia from the 7th century CE, Harihara statues fusing the characteristics of Shiva and Vishnu are known. Harihara is the fused representation of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara) from the Hindu tradition. Also known as Shankaranarayana ("Shankara" is Shiva, and "Narayana" is Vishnu). Hinduism and worship of god Shiva has been practiced in Cambodia for a long time. Today many temples and ruins in Cambodia tell the story of the glory days of Hinduism. Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to Shiva. In general, the Angkorian Khmer represented and worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam, though they also fashioned anthropomorphic statues of the god. Anthropomorphic representations are also found in Angkorian bas reliefs. A famous 36 tympanum from Banteay Srei depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with his consort, while the demon king Ravana shakes the mountain from below. At Angkor Wat and Bayon, Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic. His attributes include the mystical eye in the middle of his forehead, the trident, and the rosary. His vahana or mount is the bull Nandi. Originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by the end of the 12th century. Vishnu Angkor Wat is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu who is one of the three principal gods in the Hindu pantheon (Shiva and Brahma are the others). Among them he is known as the “Protector.” The major patron of Angkor Wat was King Suryavarman II, whose name translates as the “protector of the sun.”Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic representations of the god himself, as well as representations of his incarnations or Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism is the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, or the recognition of human qualities in these beings. Some anthropomorphic deities represented specific human concepts, such as love, war, fertility, beauty, or the seasons. Depictions of Vishnu are prominent at Angkor Wat, the 12th-century temple that was originally dedicated to Vishnu. Bas reliefs depict Vishna battling with against asura opponents, or riding on the shoulders of his vahana or mount, the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's attributes include the discus, the conch shell, the baton, and the orb.Even though Angkor Wat means "Temple City" or "City of Temples". Its original name was Vrah Vishnuloka or Parama Vishnuloka, meaning the sacred dwelling of Vishnu in Sanskrit. Indra Indra is associated with the East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajraIn the ancient religion of the Vedas, Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served only as a decorative motif in architecture. The numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor, unlike those of Krishna that are. Krishna galleries are galleries that delimit four courtyards of the Angkor Wat. Its walls are decorated with devatas, apsaras and rishis, while the pediments contain carvings of Vishnu and Krishna, one of Vishnu’s incarnations. The literary sources for these scenes are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Bhagavata Purana. Scenes from the life of Krishna, a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu, are common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples. The following are some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna: 1. A series of bas reliefs at the 11th-century temple pyramid called Baphuon depicts scenes of the birth and childhood of Krishna. 37 2. Numerous bas reliefs in various temples show Krishna subduing the nāga Kaliya. 3. In Angkorian depictions, Krishna is shown effortlessly stepping on and pushing down his opponent's multiple heads. 4. Also common is the depiction of Krishna as he lifts Mount Govardhana with one hand in order to provide the cowherds with shelter from the deluge caused by Indra. 5. Krishna is frequently depicted killing or subduing various demons, including his evil uncle Kamsa. 6. An extensive bas relief in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat depicts Krishna's battle with the asura Bana. In battle, Krishna is shown riding on the shoulders of Garuda, the traditional mount of Vishnu. 7. In Baphuon temple there is a bas-relief illustrating the legend of Krishna (second level, gopura II/N, south face, east section) 8. In some scenes, Krishna is depicted in his role as charioteer, advisor and protector of Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata. A well-known bas relief from the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei depicts the Krishna and Arjuna helping Agni to burn down Khandava forest. French archaeologists originally excavated the torso and head of the Krishna in 1912 at Phnom Da, an important Hindu site in southern Cambodia where monumental sculptures had been installed in mountain caves.Colonial authorities exported the head and torso, which were purchased in 1920 by the Belgian banker, art collector and architectural patron Adolphe Stoclet.Of the numerous Krishna statutes is the eastern section of the north gallery shows Vishnu incarnated as Krishna riding a garuda. He confronts a burning walled city, the residence of Bana, the demon king. The garuda puts out the fire and Bana is captured. In the final scene Krishna kneels before Shiva and asks that Bana’s life be spared. Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan, c. 600. Southern Cambodia, Takeo Province, Phnom Da, Pre-Angkorean period. Sandstone; overall without base: 244 cm. The Cleveland Museum of Art, John L. Severance Fund, 1973.106 38 Garuda Garuda guardian sculptures (two on right side), Banteay Srei temple, Cambodia. Symbolism: The word Garuda is literally derived from Sanskrit. In Cambodia, Khmer architects have used the Garuda sculptures as the exquisite ornate to equip on temples, Viharas of wat and many elite houses since ancient time, especially from Khmer empire era until nowadays. Garuda is also mentioned in many legendary tales as the vehicle of Vishnu and its main rival is Naga. Garuda's links to Vishnu – the Hindu god who fights injustice and destroys evil in his various avatars to preserve dharma, has made him an iconic symbol of king's duty and power, an insignia of royalty or dharma. His eagle-like form is shown either alone or with Vishnu, signifying divine approval of the power of the state. He is found on the faces of many early Hindu kingdom coins with this symbolism, either as a single-headed bird or a three-headed bird that watches all sides.Throughout the Mahabharata, Garuda is invoked as a symbol of impetuous violent force, of speed, and of martial prowess. Powerful warriors advancing rapidly on doomed foes are likened to Garuda swooping down on a serpent. Defeated warriors are like snakes beaten down by Garuda. The Mahabharata character Drona uses a military formation named after Garuda. Krishna even carries the image of Garuda on his banner. Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the mythologial enemy of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu. Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. They may be classified as follows: • As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed of Vishnu or Krishna, bearing the god on his shoulders, and simultaneously fighting against the god's enemies. Numerous such images of Garuda may be observed in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat. • Garuda serves as an atlas supporting a superstructure, as in the bas relief at Angkor Wat that depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized mythological lions are the most common atlas figures at Angkor. • Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as in the gigantic relief sculptures on the outer wall of Preah Khan. In this context, Garuda symbolizes the military power of the Khmer kings and their victories over their enemies. Not coincidentally, the city of Preah Khan was built on the site of King Jayavarman VII's victory over invaders from Champa. 39 • In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and balustrades, Garuda is often depicted in relief against the fan of nāga heads. The relationship between Garuda and the nāga heads is ambiguous in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may again be one of domination of the nāga by Garuda. Linga This segmented linga from 10th century Angkor has a square base, an octagonal middle, and a round tip. In the Khmer empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Siva. The lingas that survive from the Angkorean period are generally made of polished stone. The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual, and only secondarily that of decoration. The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types. 1. Some lingas are implanted in a flat square base called a yoni, symbolic of the womb. 2. On the surface of some lingas is engraved the face of Siva. Such lingas are called mukhalingas. 3. Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip- symbolic of Shiva. Kbal Spean ("Bridge Head") consists of a series of stone rock relief carvings in sandstone formations of the river bed and banks. It is commonly known as the "Valley of a 1000 Lingas" or "The River of a Thousand Lingas". The motifs for stone carvings are mainly myriads of lingams (phallic symbol of Hindu god Shiva), depicted as neatly arranged bumps that cover the surface of a sandstone bed rock, and lingam-yoni designs. There are also various Hindu mythological motifs, including depictions of the gods Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Lakshmi, Rama, and Hanuman, as well as animals (cows and frogs) This site is located on the southwest slopes of the Kulen Hills to the northeast of Angkor in Siem Reap District, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia. It is situated along a 150m stretch of the Stung Kbal Spean 40 River, 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the main Angkor group of monuments, which lie downstream. The site Makara In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the makara is generally part of a decorative carving on a lintel, tympanum, or wall. A Makara is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of an elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a crocodile, or a dragon. Often the makara is depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or serpent, emerging from its gaping maw. In Hindu astrology, Makara is equivalent to the Zodiac sign Capricorn. Makara appears as the vahana (vehicle) of the river goddess Ganga, Narmada and of the sea god Varuna.The Makara is a central motif in the design of the famously beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of temples: Preah Ko, Bakong, and Lolei. At Banteay Srei, carvings of Makaras disgorging other monsters may be observed on many of the corners of the buildings. 41 Never Seen Before Makara Statue Found in Cambodia, 29 JANUARY, 2020 - 13:59 ED WHELAN In Cambodia, a magnificent but mysterious statue has been found in a forested area in a national park. The statue is of a mythical creature known as Makara. This discovery is like nothing else that has been found before and it is expected to throw light on the culture in Cambodia before the emergence of the Khmer Empire (800 AD to 1431 AD). The amazing sculpted figure was found in Phnom Kulen National Park, which is in Siem Reap province. This area has many important temples, and the area holds a special place in the history of the Khmer Empire. The find was made by a local craftsman Chhim Samrithy, 38, who stated that, ‘I usually walk in the forest to look for some unique and sacred objects and suddenly spotted this rare statue,’ reports Archaeology News Network . He came across a massive head that had been carved into a rock and he immediately contacted local officials. Nāga Shesha (Sanskrit: Śeṣa), also known as Sheshanaga (Śeṣanāga) or Adishesha (Ādi Śeṣa), is the nagaraja or King of all Nāgas and one of the primal beings of creation. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to hold all the planets of the universe on his hoods and to constantly sing the glories of the God Vishnu from all his mouths. He is sometimes referred to as Ananta Shesha, which translates as 42 endless-Shesha or Adishesha "first Shesha". It is said that when Adishesa uncoils, time moves forward and creation takes place; when he coils back, the universe ceases to exist. Vishnu is often depicted as resting on Shesha. Shesha is considered a servant and a manifestation of Vishnu. He is said to have descended to Earth in two human forms or avatars: Lakshmana, brother of Vishnu's avatar Rama, and as Balarama, brother of Vishnu's avatar Krishna. "Shesha" in Sanskrit texts, especially those relating to mathematical calculation, implies the "remainder"—that which remains when all else ceases to exist. Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian lintels. The composition of such lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center of a rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far ends of the rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either vinelike vegetation or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted wearing crowns, and others are depicted serving as mounts for human riders. To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended from the union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent princess from Cambodia. Serpents, or nāgas, play a particularly important role in Cambodian mythology. A well-known story explains the emergence of the Khmer people from the union of Indian and indigenous elements, the latter being represented as nāgas. According to the story, an Indian brahmana named Kaundinya came to Cambodia, which at the time was under the dominion of the naga king. The naga princess Soma sallied forth to fight against the invader but was defeated. Presented with the option of marrying the victorious Kaundinya, Soma readily agreed to do so, and together they ruled the land. The Khmer people are their descendants. Nāgas were also characters in other well-known legends and stories depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk, the legend of the Leper King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon, and later the story of Mucalinda, the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements. Mucalinda, the Nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for Cambodian Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175 CE Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer architecture as well as in freestanding sculpture. They are frequently depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra. 43 This multi-headed nāga is part of a decorative lintel from the end of the 9th century. Nāga Bridge Stone Asuras hold the nāga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th century city of Angkor Thom. Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by stone balustrades shaped as nāgas. Mucalinda, the nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for Cambodian Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175 CE. Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer architecture as well as in free-standing sculpture. They are frequently depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra. 44 In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the entrances to 12th century city of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped balustrades are supported not by simple posts but by stone statues of gigantic warriors. These giants are the devas and asuras who used the nāga king Vasuki in order to the churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the amrita or elixir of immortality. The story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk or samudra manthan has its source in Indian mythology. Quincunx A quincunx is a geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of five units in the pattern corresponding to the five-spot on six-sided dice, playing cards, and dominoes. It is represented in Unicode as U+2059 ⁙ FIVE DOT PUNCTUATION or (for the die pattern) U+2684 ⚄ DIE FACE5. In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-in-square", is the plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the four angular ones are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the pattern of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are surmounted by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple, such as Angkor Wat, are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to represent the five peaks of Mount Meru.This arrangement conveys a symbolic identification with the sacred mountain. Mount Meru. A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and the five brick towers of the 10thcentury temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean. Kbal Spean.12 Kala A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th-century Hindu temple Banteay Srei. 45 Kala is a Sanskrit term with dual meanings. The first meaning is translated as "black" or "dark colored," and the second as "time," "destiny," "fate" or "death." Kala is also used in reference to one of the forms of Yama, the Hindu god of death. It is a common decorative element on lintels, tympana and walls of cambodian temples is the kala - a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva. In Khmer temple architecture, the kala serves as a monstrous head with a large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for other figures. Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective magic or apotropaism. Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may represent the Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of elements derived from long forgotten primitive and Non-Hindu antecedents. The temple at Baphuon is the archetype of the Baphuon style with intricate carvings covering every available surface. It is located in Angkor Thom, northwest of the Bayon. Built in the mid-11th century, it is a three-tiered temple mountain built as the state temple of Udayadityavarman II, dedicated to the Hindu God Shiva.The temple adjoins the southern enclosure of the royal palace and measures 120 metres east-west by 100 metres north-south at its base and stands 34 meters tall without its tower, which would have made it roughly 50 meters tall. 13 Perimeter: The outer wall, of Angkor for instance was 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and 4.5 m (15 ft) high, is surrounded by a 30 m (98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m (620 ft) wide and over 5 kilometres (3 mi) in perimeter. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres), which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m (1,150 ft) causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure. Fact that Bopuran temple was also surrounded by a wall 125 by 425 m the central tower was probably gilded wood, which has not survived gives basis to our theorey that all temples had a wall on the perimeter.13 The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated- typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or 46 a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower (prasat) rising above it, by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru, the legendary home of the Hindu gods. Prang The prang is common to much Khmer religious architecture and is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved. Today it is described as” a type of South-East Asian temple spire”. Prang at Angkor wat Gopuras: The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Pallava kings, and relate to the central shikhara towers of North India. Between the twelfth and sixteenth century, during the Pandya, Nayaka and Vijayanagara era when Hindu temples increasingly became a hub of the urban life, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size and courtyards. It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram. Besides South India, they appear in architecture outside India, especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor Wat. 47 The Ta Prohm temple showing the Gopura Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points. A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall; if the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways. Gallery A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat. A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of the temple. 48 Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara. Since Avalokiteśvara or Padmapani is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas it is a later non-Hindu architectural addition of the entire Gopura itself. This bodhisattva is variably depicted, described and portrayed in different cultures as either male or female. Dharmasala House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing windows.Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire" for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 CE. Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies. 49 Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West. Library: Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west. Reservoirs: An artificial body of water which is a common element of the architectural style of the Khmer Empire of Southeast Asia. The building of such water bodies might have originated from the tradition of building large reservoirs called dighi in Eastern India. Historians are divided on the meaning and functions of these. Some believe that they were primarily spiritual in purpose, symbolizing the Sea of Creation surrounding Mount Meru, font of the Hindu cosmos. Others have theorized that they held water for irrigation of fields. It is possible that the function was a combination of these explanations, or others. The largest are the East Baray and West Baray in the Angkor area, each rectangular in shape, oriented east-west and measuring roughly five by one and a half miles. Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation and embankment, respectively. Another reservoir -The baray is associated with Preah Khan temple is the Jayataka lake, in the middle of which stands another 12th-century temple of Neak Pean. Preah Khan was built by King Jayavarman VII to honor his father. It is located northeast of Angkor Thom and just west of the Jayatataka baray, with which it was associated, it was the centre of a substantial organisation, with almost 100,000 officials and servants. The temple is flat in design, with a basic plan of successive rectangular galleries around a Buddhist sanctuary complicated by Hindu satellite temples and numerous later additions. Like the nearby Ta Prohm, Preah Khan has been left largely unrestored, with numerous trees and other vegetation growing among the ruins. Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its miraculous healing powers. Architectural elements: There are 6 main elements and form, space are some of them. The other 5 more elements include dot, line, shape, texture, and colour. All works should incorporate these elements in the design because it defines the creation on the platform of art and functionality it 50 stands on. Architectural elements are the unique details and component parts that, together, form the architectural style of houses, buildings and structures. Bas Relief: figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian Khmer preferred to work in bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to hautrelief. Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the 11th century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII. A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt to extinguish the fire created by Agni. The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of this bas-relief at Angkor Wat. 51 This scene from the outer gallery at the Bayon shows Chinese expats negotiating with Khmer merchants at an Angkorean market. The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous Angkorian narrative basreliefs: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century) the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the intervention of the human hero Rama on behalf of the latter the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which sit Shiva and his shakti Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to extinguish the flames bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th century) the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or monkeys the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell the Churning of the Ocean of Milk a battle between devas and asuras a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at the Bayon (late 12th century) battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops scenes from the everyday life of Angkor civil strife among the Khmer the legend of the Leper King the worship of Shiva groups of dancing apsaras Blind door and window Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the east. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls. 52 Blind door at Bantey serey Colonette is a small column, usually decorative in Khmer architecture, standing at either side of a doorway. Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the period, they were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonettes were often circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves. Corbelling Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom. 53 Corbelled hallway at Ta Prohm. A corbel arch (or corbeled / corbelled arch) is an arch-like construction method that uses the architectural technique of corbeling to span a space or void in a structure, such as an entranceway in a wall or as the span of a bridge. A corbel vault uses this technique to support the superstructure of a building's roof. Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms, passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards the centre than the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is structurally weaker than the true arch. The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian engineers from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings constructed with stone walls surmounted by a light wooden roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor remains a serious one for modern conservation. Lintel, pediment, and tympanum A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to construct a true arch, they constructed their passageways using lintels or corbelling. A pediment is a roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface of a pediment. The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel styles.The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century. Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and the makara, as well as various forms of vegetation. Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is associated with East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna, the god of the ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of wealth, with North.[31] List of Khmer lintel styles 54 1. Sambor Prei Kuk style: Inward-facing makaras with tapering bodies. Four arches joined by three medallions, the central once carved with Indra. Small figure on each makara. A variation is with figures replacing the makaras and a scene with figures below the arch. 2. Prei Khmeng style : Continuation of Sambor Prei Kuk but makaras disappear, being replaced by incurving ends and figures. Arches more rectilinear. Large figures sometimes at each end. A variation is a central scene below the arch, usually Vishnu Reclining. 3. Kompong Preah style : High quality carving. Arches replaced by a garland of vegetation (like a wreath) more or less segmented. Medallions disappear, central one sometimes replaced by a knot of leaves. Leafy pendants spray out above and below garland. 4. Kulen style : Great diversity, with influences from Champa and Java, including the kala and outward-facing makaras. 5. Preah Ko style : Some of the most beautiful of all Khmer lintels, rich, will-carved and imaginative. Kala in center, issuing garland on either side. Distinct loops of vegetation curl down from garland. Outward-facing makaras sometimes appear at the ends. Vishnu on Garuda common. 6. Rich-carved decoration of Preah Ko lintel. 7. Bakheng style : Continuation of Preah Ko but less fanciful and tiny figures disappear. Loop of vegetation below the naga form tight circular coils. Garland begins to dip in the center. 8. Koh Ker style : Center occupied by a prominent scene, taking up almost the entire height of the lintel. Usually no lower border. Dress of figures shows a curved line to the sampot tucked in below waist. 9. Pre Rup style : Tendency to copy earlier style, especially Preah Ko and Bakheng. Central figures. Re-appearance of lower border. 10. Banteay Srei style : Increase in complexity and detail. Garland sometimes makes pronounced loop on either side with kala at top of each loop. Central figure. 11. Khleang style : Less ornate than those of Banteay Srei. Central kala with triangular tongue, its hands holding the garland which is bent at the center. Kala sometimes surmounted by a divinity. Loops of garland on either side divided by flora stalk and pendant. Vigorous treatment of vegetation. 12. Baphuon style : The central kala surmounted by divinity, usually riding a steed or a Vishnu scene, typically from the life of Krishna. Loops of garland no longer cut. Another type is a scene with many figures and little vegetation. 13. Angkor Wat style : Centered, framed and linked by garlands. A second type is a narrative scene filled with figures. When nagas appear, they curls are tight and prominent. Dress mirrors that of devatas and apsaras in bas-reliefs. No empty spaces. 14. Bayon style : Most figures disappear, usually only a kala at the bottom of the lintel surmounted by small figure. Mainly Buddhist motifs. In the middle of the period the garland is cut into four parts, while later a series of whorls of foliage replace the four divisions. Stairs 55 The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of the tread, producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be both religious and monumental. From the religious perspective, a steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the gods. "From the monumental point of view," according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize, "the advantage is clear – the square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust." Motifs: Two apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th-century Buddhist temple the Bayon. Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, or samudra manthan, found in the Vishnu Purana. The starkness of the exterior of the second level gallery is offset by the decoration of the interior. Over 1,500 Apsaras (celestial dancers) line the walls of the gallery offering endless visual and spiritual enchantment. Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious 56 buildings, however, was a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than dancing are more commonly called "devatas" Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most common in the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars that line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon, and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where they appear individually and in groups.[34] Dvarapala This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei. Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs. They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay Srei, Preah Khan and Banteay Kdei.Even today the word dyarapal is used in India to represent the security guards at the door. They were common in 10th century temples, two dvarapalas, or male guardians, are carved into the sanctuary walls. Davarapalas would remain a staple of Angkorian artwork up until the very end. 57 Gajasimha and Reachisey The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group. The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery. Materials: The major construction materials used for the Angkor monuments are sandstone and laterite, which were supplied from several quarries in and around the Angkor area [Sites16,17,19]. Wood was also used. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite, the wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive processes. In a study sponsored by the UNESCO and Japanese Trust Fund, titled “The Stone Materials of the Angkor Monuments” a detailed study of the composition of the sandstones used has been done, which points to use of sandstones from several quarries. Five to ten million sandstone blocks weighing up to 1.5 tons that were hewn from quarries at the base of nearby Mount Kulen. Brick The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are the temple towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. In the end, the Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick tower of the Khmer, and the Cham won the contest. Sandstone The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen mountains. Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely from Sandstone. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested. 58 Laterite Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself. Craftsmanship: The builders of the Cambodian temples were able to recruit the services of very skilled craftsmen-whether from India or trained by Hindus there from is not clear.The temple represents the height of architectural skills of the Khmer builders. Its very detailed carved bas reliefs that cover much of the temple shows impressive craftsmanship. Unlike other Angkor temples, Angkor Wat is oriented towards the West and dedicated to Vishnu, where previous temples face east and are dedicated to Shiva. Angkor Wat was the state temple of King Suryavarman II, who built the temple ruled for almost 40 years and expanded the Khmer empire. Angkor is a good representative of Hindu Temple designs. Situated some 4 miles (6 km) north of the modern town of Siem Reap in northwestern Cambodia (Kampuchea), the temple was built about 1115-1145 in Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, by King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-1150), to serve as his mausoleum. Angkor Wat operated first as a Hindu shrine dedicated to Vishnu, then a Theravada Buddhist temple in the late 13th century. Today Angkor Wat is Cambodia's most famous site of religious art and its silhouette appears on the Cambodian national flag. The temple is renowned for its high classical style of Khmer architecture, derived and modified from the Hindu Temple Architecture of the Indian Gupta Period, as well as the staggering quantity of its relief sculpture and architectural carvings. Artifacts taken from the site and large sections cast from the temple buildings were exhibited in Paris in 1867, announcing a great and unknown civilization rivalling in sophistication the work of the greatest architects in the West. In 1992, along with a sister temple Angkor Thom, Angkor Wat was proclaimed a UN World Heritage Site. Architecture and Construction of Angkor If Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each of which has an average weight of 1.5 tons then one can say that it required more stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and originally occupied an area considerably greater than modern-day Paris. Given the additional complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor was designed and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia. The temple was designed and built on the basis of religious and political ideas imported from India, albeit adapted to local conditions. From the time of King Yasovarman I, for whom the city (originally 59 called Yasodharapura) was named Angkor Wat defines what has come to be understood as the classical style of Angkorian architecture: other temples designed in this idiom include Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. It combines two basic features of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the galleried temple, founded on early Dravidian architecture, with key features including the "Jagati" - a raised platform or terrace upon which many buddhist and hindu temples were built. In addition to Angkor Wat, another famous shrine with a jagati is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, at Khajuraho. Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the temple of Angkor Wat is laid out symmetrically on tiered platforms that ascend to the central tower (one of a quincunx), which rises to a height of 213 feet (65 metres). Long colonnades connect the towers at each stepped level in concentric rings of rectangular galleries, whose walls are lined with sculpture and relief carvings. The temple is approached across the moat, via a stone causeway lined with stone figures. The ascending towers represent the spiritual world and mountain homes of the gods and were probably built in homage to ancestral deities. The temple's structures are chiefly built in stone with detailed bas-reliefs carved into the walls; the corbelled block work and pseudo-vaulted towers are covered with highly animated figures chiseled into the sandstone and volcanic rock. The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which can be seen on almost all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs. There are literally miles of reliefs, typically in the form of basrelief friezes illustrating scenes from Indian mythology, and featuring a bewildering array of animal and human figures, as well as abstract motifs like lotus rosettes and garlands. They include: devatas (Hindu gods or spirits), griffins, unicorns, lions, garudas, snakes, winged dragons, dancing girls and warriors. Khmer sculptors - surely some of the greatest sculptors in south-east Asia paid meticulous attention to the headdresses, hair, garments, posture and jewellery of the deities and human figures. In addition to reliefs, Angkor Wat contains numerous statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Carved pediments and lintels decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. While the inner walls of the outer gallery, for example, are decorated with a series of large-scale scenes depicting episodes from Hindu sagas like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. On the southern gallery walls there is a representation of the 37 heavens and 32 hells of Hindu mythology, while the eastern gallery houses one of the most celebrated friezes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, featuring Vishnu showing 88 devas and 92 asuras. Along with the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, Central India, and the Taj Mahal in northern India, the Cambodian Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the greatest 60 examples of religious architecture in the whole of Asia, comparable to the finest specimens of Gothic architecture or Baroque architecture in Europe. Henri Mahout, a French botanist started intensive research and restoration programs. Initially, he did not believe that the temples were built by Cambodians, but by another race which had concurred and occupied Cambodia for over 2000 years ago. His theory would later be proven to be incorrect, after that researchers discovered scripts on the walls of the temples, and stone sculptures, that have made it possible for archeologists to piece together the history of Cambodia. The earliest and most detailed account of Angkor was written by the Portuguese Diego de Couto in the mid 16th century and described how a Cambodian King came upon the ruins while hunting elephants. During the 15th and 16th centuries various Spanish missionaries traveled to the site and left written reports about their visits. In 1603 the Spaniard Gabriel Quiroga wrote "In 1507 a city was brought to light that had never been seen or heard of by the natives". Moreover, the 17th century brings us accounts of Japanese settlements at Angkor. An inscription with Japanese calligraphic characters found on a pillar on the second floor of Angkor Wat dating back to 1632 is good proof of it. Another Japanese man, Kenryo Shimano, is the author of the oldest known Angkor Wat plan. During his travels to Angkor some time between 1632 and 1636 he drew a very detailed map of the temple. Now it is known that Angkor, was the great capital city of the Khmer empire from the city’s founding in about AD 880 until about 1225. Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument on the planet. Angkor Wat is spread across over 400 acres / 1.6 km², and is said to be the largest religious monument in the world. It was listed as a UNESCO's World Heritage Site in 1992, which encouraged an international effort to save the complex- mainly from the Archeological Survey of India. Constructed in the early 12th century (between 1113 and 1150), Angkor Wat is considered to be the largest religious monument in the world. Angkor Wat was shifted from Hindu to Buddhist use sometime around the late 13th century. The temple is still used by Buddhists as a place of worship today. The construction of the complex is said to have taken 35 years and 300,000 employees and 6,000 elephants participated. It was built without the aid of machinery as none was available then. The building of Angkor Wat is likely to have necessitated some 300,000 workers, which included architects, construction workers, masons, sculptors and the servants to feed these workers. Construction of the site took over 30 years and was never completely finished. The site is built entirely out of stone, which is incredible as close examination of the temple demonstrates that almost every surface is treated and carved with narrative or decorative details. 61 The construction of Angkor Wat likely began in the year 1116 C.E.—three years after King Suryavarman II came to the throne—with construction ending in 1150, shortly after the king’s death. Evidence for these dates comes in part from inscriptions, which are vague, but also from the architectural design and artistic style of the temple and its associated sculptures. Transportation of the Huge stone blocks: The 12th century temple complex is built from five to ten million sandstone blocks weighing up to 1.5 tons that were hewn from quarries at the base of nearby Mount Kulen. Since it was built during the reign of only one king questions came up as to how so many stones could have been transported from the sacred mountain to the temple site in just a few decades.Scholars had previously assumed the Khmers must have floated the stones used to build Angkor Wat 22 miles down a canal to Tonle Sap Lake, carried on rafts another 22 miles to the Siem Reap River, then arduously rowed upstream the final 10 miles to the site. Canals: The Khmer empire was noted for its use of canals as a means of transportation, and the archaelogists discovered traces of a network leading directly from the foot of Mount Kulen to Angkor. But the difficulty of moving so many stones via this 56 mile route led Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan, to scour satellite images to see if there could have been a shortcut.14 Field surveys confirmed their findings, and the pair now believe this gentle 21 mile route was a far more likely proposition than the journey of more than twice that length previously suggested. They also discovered a series of quarries along the way with stones that matched those of the temples.The huge stones from which the Cambodian temple complex Angkor Wat is built were carried to the area by a series of since-filled in canals, a new study claims.000 Satellite images have revealed that the Khmer rulers dug a 21 mile long canal across their kingdom to transport the sandstone blocks from a mountainside quarry to their capital city. This explains how the enormous temple was constructed in just 35 years despite estimates that it should have taken several hundred using the technology available at the time.It was originally thought that each stone block was dragged on a tortuous 55 mile journey that could have 62 taken several days over land, along rivers and across a lake to Angkor. Instead, with the findings of a network of canals that cuts across the country, occasionally merging with short stretches of river the stones could have been floated on rafts. Remnants of canals still containing water can still be found whereas others have disappeared beneath roads or had dried up and become overgrown.Large sandstone blocks that have fallen off the rafts and lying on the canal banks at various points along the route. Discovery has also been made of a further 50 new quarries along the route of the canal where stone had been dug out. At Koh Ker temples also (see later) there is a large reservoir known as Rahal that extends approximately 1200 m in a north–south direction and 600 m in an east–west direction, located southeast of the city of Prasat Thom. The main axis line of Rahal reservoir also is shifted 14 degrees in a counterclockwise direction from the due east–west axis line. Since the Koh Ker monuments occur in an area that slopes downwards from the south to the north, it is generally believed that the main axis line of the Rahal reservoir was dictated by the topography of the Koh Ker area. Angkorit has been found meets the material requirements of a “hydraulic city” in that it possessed an immense, integrated, and highly complex system of water catchment, storage, and redistribution. Although ground-based archaeological investigations at Angkor are nowhere near as advanced as at comparable sites in Mesoamerica, for example, surface surveys and excavations have consistently demonstrated that the features identified through remote sensing are of Angkorian origin and have the potential to provide crucial data about the rise and fall of urbanism in this area and the role of water management systems in that process. Around the ponds and the local temples and on the occupation mounds it is now possible to see the fabric of residential life stretching around and far beyond the infrastructural network.15 Weight of each block: The carefully carved stone blocks used to construct the temple and the surrounding monuments were up to three feet across in some places and weighed around 1.6 tons.Experts had previously believed these blocks were dragged over land from Mount Kulen to a river that carried them to the Tonle Sap Lake, where they were sailed up to Siem Reap River and then pulled upstream to the construction site in Angkor. It is estimated that the construction of the canals took only a few years. Since the flow was downstream in the Siem Reap River the blocks would have been transported faster and with little effort.16 Funerary temple: Some historians believe that the temple also served as a funerary temple for the King. This could explain its orientation to the West; the setting sun (in the West) symbolizes the end of the cycle of life. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the basreliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services. The archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the greatest 63 expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse. Most Angkorian temples are commonly directed to the east, with the exception of Angkor Wat which is oriented to the west, a direction associated with death in Hindu culture. Also, the direction means it faces the sunset, which adds to its beauty and attracts many visitors at this time. Approach to the Angkor temple consisting of walkway and moats: It is quiet possible that just as in the Angkor temple which is surrounded by a 190 meter wide moat other temples though in runis now, may have such delienation. At the Western end of the Angkor is a 12 meter wide bridge, in front of which is a terrace where lions and Naga snakes guard the temple. Crossing the bridge the visitor approaches the impressive Western gate, which was build to resemble the front view of the temple itself. The structure consists of long galleries with a three part gopura topped by towers that have partly collapsed. At both ends of the structure is a pavilion, large enough to enable elephants to go through. The Western gate contains apsaras and devatas as well as magnificent carvings on its lintels showing Vishnu, Garuda, warriors and scenes from the epic Ramayana. Only after passing the Western gate, the Angkor Wat temple comes in sight. Behind the Western gate is a 350 meter long processional walkway elevated about 1½ meters above the ground towards the temple. On either side of the walkway is a library building. Past the libraries are two lakes, reflecting the silhouette of the of Angkor Wat’s towers. The temple itself is build on raised platform about 330 meters long and 255 meters wide. The structure comprises of three rectangular tiers each higher one smaller than the one below it encircled by long galleries with corner towers and a gopura in the center of its sides. Ta Prohm- The “Jungle temple” 64 Angkor Thom-Capital city of the Khmer Hindu bas relief’s galleries of the third tier The third tier is surrounded by long concentric galleries. Its walls contain some of the finest and best preserved bas reliefs of Angkor Wat, including: Ramayana: The battle of Lanka, a storey from the epic Ramayana, where Rama fights Ravana who abducted his wife Sita 1. The abduction of Shiva by Ravana 2. Other scenes from the Ramayana Mahabharata: The battle of Kurukshetra from the epic Mahabharata, between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, depicting soldiers and commanders on elephants or riding chariots. 1.The churning of the ocean of milk, a 50 meter long panel. This storey from the Mahabharata tells how an elixir of immortality over which the Gods and the demons fight is produced by churning the ocean with Mount Meru used as the churning rod 1. The Heavens and Hells and the Judgement of Sinners by Yama, the Hindu God of Death. Depictions of the 37 heavens with palaces with servants and the 32 hells and the punishments and tortures received there, each one for a specific sin committed a. Vishnu and his incarnation Krishna b. The victory of Vishnu over the asuras 65 A 90 meter panel of the Royal Procession. Two sections depict King Suryavarman II and a procession of court ladies, another section shows a procession of soldiers on foot or on horses and elephants and a parade of Brahmin priests The galleries also contain a number of Buddha images, placed there after Angkor Wat was converted into a Buddhist temple. The platform with 5 lotus bud shaped towers The second tier measuring 100 by 115 meters is enclosed by galleries. On each of its four corners are towers that have partly collapsed. On top of the structure is a square platform about 55 meters wide that contains five towers shaped like lotus buds. The platform is surrounded by galleries, with a sanctuary tower on each if its corners. In the middle stands the 42 meter high central sanctuary on each side opening to a vestibule in which Buddha statues are found. The walls of the tower are decorated with on one side of the causeway, fifty-four guardian deities (called "devas") pull the head of a mythical serpent or "naga." On the other side, fifty-four images of demon gods (called "asuras") push the tail of the serpent. The whipping motion of the serpent's body was said to churn the ocean and recreate the cosmos anew. The dancing female deities (each known as an "apsaras") were the first beings to emerge from the sea of creation. According to Hindu scriptures, these dancing divinities, whose name means "moving in water" in Sanskrit, were the first beings to emerge from the Churning of the Sea of Milk in the Hindu myth of creation. Angkor Thom was a fortified city built from the early eleventh to the late twelfth centuries A.D. during the reigns from Suryavarman I to Jayavarman VII. Because it was built over a long time by successive kings, it has two city centers and differing architectural and sculpture styles. Angkor Thom, located just north of the Angkor Wat site is the largest building complex in the Angkor area. The Bayon Temple complex within Angkor Thom was built under the direction of the Mahayana Buddhist ruler Jayavarman VII, who ascended to the Khmer kingdom's throne at Angkor in 1181 A.D. He erected the site for Buddhist worship, although it later was renovated and used as a Hindu temple. Various forms of Hindu and Buddhist worship were practiced side-by-side and successively in the ancient royal courts of Southeast Asia. Towers: There are 54 standing towers at Bayon Temple but there may once have been between 100 and 200 towers. Four faces, looking toward the cardinal directions, are carved on the sides of each tower. The preservation of many of the towers, however, is poor so it is difficult to know exactly how 66 all the towers were carved. Over 200 giant smiling faces remain, each with four faces. These structures are known as "face towers." The bas-relief carvings on the outer walls of the Bayon towers depict heroic historical tales as well as scenes of everyday Khmer life. Jayavarman VII was a capable military commander who repelled attacks by the Champa kingdom before becoming the Khmer king and undertaking a massive effort to construct stone temples and other monuments. Ultimately, it was the Siamese kingdom based in what is now Thailand, that sacked Angkor in 1431 and ended the kingdom's regional power. "architectural triad" brought about an element of experimentation in architectural style in the Angkorian period. From the astronomical references planned for three temples, out of the four noted alignments three, namely, equinox and winter and Solar Solstices could be observed from inside the western entrance of Phnom Bok hill temple, which is also known for the triple sanctuary dedicated to the Hindu Trimurti which is the triple deity of supreme divinity in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified as a triad of deities, typically Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer. The Puranic period saw the rise of post-Vedic religion and the evolution of what is fondly called "synthetic Hinduism". This period had no homogeneity, and included orthodox Brahmanism in the form of remnants of older Vedic faith traditions, along with different sectarian religions, notably Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism that were within the orthodox fold yet still formed distinct entities. One of the important traits of this period is a spirit of harmony between orthodox and sectarian forms. Regarding this spirit of reconciliation. Earliest 3 Hindu hilltop temples in the Angkor region The site of the three hills was chosen by Yashovarman I in the 10th century.Those days the shrines had high religious value during the Angkorian rule. The temples called as part of an "architectural triad" 1. Phnom Bok is a hill in the northeast of Eastern Baray in Cambodia, with a prasat (temple) of the same name built on it. It is one of the "trilogies of mountains", each of which has a temple with similar layout. The creation of the temple is credited to the reign of Yasovarman I (889–910) between 9th and 10th centuries; established after he moved his capital to Angkor and named it Yasodharapura. The two other sister temples, named after the contiguous hills, are the Phnom Bakheng and Phnom Krom. 2. Phnom Krom is a 140 m high hill close to Siem Reap city, Cambodia. There is a temple on the top which derived its name from the hill, Prasat Phnom Krom. Phnom Krom is about 12 kilometers southwest of Siem Reap town. The area here is very rocky and legend has it that the rocks were exposed by the monkey general Hanuman during a hunt for medicine in the Ramayana epic. The area beyond the temple’s west gate affords views of the Tonle Saplake . 67 3. Phnom Bakheng at Angkor, Cambodia, is a Hindu temple in the form of a temple mountain dedicated to Shiva. It was the architectural centerpiece of a new capital, Yasodharapura, that Yasovarman built when he moved the court from the capital Hariharalaya in the Roluos area located to the southeast. It was built at the end of the 9th century, during the reign of King Yasovarman (889-910). Located atop a hillone can see the bigger temple Angkor Wat, which lies amid the jungle about 1.5 km to the southeast. Constructed more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng was in its day the principal temple of the Angkor region, historians believe. A Thai inscription dated 1052 AD and found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple in present-day Thailand states in Sanskrit: "When Sri Yasovardhana became king under the name of Yasovarman, the able Vamasiva continued as his guru. By the king's order, he set up a linga on Sri Yasodharagiri, a mountain equal in beauty to the king of mountains." Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop a steep hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a pyramid form of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. At the top level, five sandstone sanctuaries, in various states of repair, stand in a quincunx pattern—one in the center and one at each corner of the level's square. Originally, 108 small towers were arrayed around the temple at ground level and on various tiers; most of them have collapsed. The temple sits on a rectangular base and rises in five levels and is crowned by five main towers. One hundred four smaller towers are distributed over the lower four levels, placed so symmetrically that only 33 can be seen from the center of any side. Thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt on Mount Meru. Phnom Bakheng's total number of towers is also significant. The center one represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones represent the four lunar phases, each with 27 days. The seven levels of the monument represent the seven heavens and each terrace contains 12 towers which represent the 12-year cycle of Jupiter. According to University of Chicago scholar Paul Wheatley, it is "an astronomical calendar in stone."18 Surrounding the mount and temple, labor teams built an outer moat. Avenues radiated out in the four cardinal directions from the mount. A causeway ran in a northwestsoutheast orientation from the old capital area to the east section of the new capital's outer moat and then, turning to an east–west orientation, connected directly to the east entrance of the temple. Later in its history, Phnom Bakheng was converted into a Buddhist temple. A monumental Sitting Buddha, now lost, was created on its upper tier. Across its west side, a Reclining Buddha of similar scale was crafted in stone. The outlines of this figure are still visible. Angkor Thom and Bayon: Angkor Thom was a nomenclature given to Yashodharpura. Meaning "Great City," alternative name: Nokor Thom, located in same site as Yashodharpura it was the last and 68 most lasting capital city of the Khmer empire. The word Nokor is literally derived from Sanskrit word of Nagara ( नगर), which means City, combining with Khmer word Thom which means Big or Great so as to form Nokor Thom then being altered to current name of Angkor Thom. The Khmers did not draw any clear distinctions between Angkor Thom and Yashodharapura until 16th century. Established in the late twelfth century by King Jayavarman VII, it covers an area of 9 km², within which are located several monuments from earlier eras as well as those established by Jayavarman and his successors. At the centre of the city is Jayavarman's state temple, the Bayon, a richly decorated Khmer temple. Built in the late 12th or early 13th century as the state temple of the Mahayana Buddhist King Jayavarman VII. Angkor Thom was established as the capital of Jayavarman VII's empire, and was the centre of his massive building program. Angkor Thom seems not to be the first Khmer capital on the site, however. Yasodharapura, dating from three centuries earlier, was centred slightly further northwest, and Angkor Thom overlapped parts of it. The most notable earlier temples within the city are the former state temple of Baphuon, and Phimeanakas, which was incorporated into the Royal Palace. The last temple known to have been constructed in Angkor Thom was Mangalartha, which was dedicated in 1295. Thereafter the existing structures continued to be modified from time to time, but any new creations were in perishable materials and have not survived. Angkor Thom was abandoned some time prior to 1609. The Ayutthaya Kingdom, led by King Borommarachathirat II, sacked Angkor Thom, forcing the Khmers under Ponhea Yat to relocate their capital southeast to Phnom Penh. It is believed to have 69 sustained a population of 80,000–150,000 people. The Architecture of Angkor Thom is in the Bayon style which is exemplified by large scale of the construction and in the widespread use of laterite, in the face-towers at each of the entrances to the city and in the naga-carrying giant figures which accompany each of the towers. South gate of Angkor Thom along with a bridge of statues of gods and demons. Two rows of figures each carry the body of seven-headed naga. The city lies on the west bank of the Siem Reap River, a tributary of Tonle Sap, about a quarter of a mile from the river. The south gate of Angkor Thom is 7.2 km north of Siem Reap, and 1.7 km north of the entrance to Angkor Wat. The walls, 8 m high and flanked by a moat, are each 3 km long, enclosing an area of 9 km². The walls are of laterite buttressed by earth, with a parapet on the top. There are gates at each of the cardinal points, from which roads lead to the Bayon at the centre of the city. As the Bayon itself has no wall or moat of its own, those of the city are interpreted by archaeologists as representing the mountains and oceans surrounding the Bayon's Mount Meru. Another gate—the Victory Gate—is 500 m north of the east gate; the Victory Way runs parallel to the east road to the Victory Square and the Royal Palace north of the Bayon. It is around 30 minutes from central Siem Reap. The faces on the 23 m towers at the city gates, which are later additions to the main structure, take after those of the Bayon and pose the same problems of interpretation. They may represent the king himself, the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, guardians of the empire's cardinal points, or some combination of these. A causeway spans the moat in front of each tower: these have a row of devas on the left and asuras on the right, each row holding a naga in the attitude of a tug-of-war. This appears to be a reference to the myth, popular in Angkor, of the Churning of the Sea of Milk. The temple-mountain of the Bayon, or perhaps the gate itself would then be the pivot around which the churning takes place. The nagas may also represent the transition from the world of men to the world of the gods (the Bayon), or be guardian figures. The gateways themselves are 3.5 by 7 m, and would originally have been closed with wooden doors. The south gate is now by far the most often visited, as it is the main entrance to the city for tourists. At each corner of the city is a Prasat Chrung—corner shrine—built of sandstone and dedicated to Avalokiteshvara. These are cruciform with a central tower, and orientated towards the east. Within the city was a system of canals, through which water flowed from the northeast to the southwest. The bulk of the land enclosed by the walls would have been occupied by the secular buildings of the city, of which nothing remains. This area is now covered by forest. Bas Reliefs: Most of the great Angkor ruins have vast displays of bas-relief depicting the various gods, goddesses, and other-worldly beings from the mythological stories and epic poems of ancient Hinduism (modified by centuries of Buddhism). Mingled with these images are actual known animals, like elephants, snakes, fish, and monkeys, in addition to dragon-like creatures that look like the stylized, elongated serpents (with feet and claws) found in Chinese art. But among the ruins of Ta Prohm, near 70 a huge stone entrance, one can see that the "roundels on pilasters on the south side of the west entrance are unusual in design." What one sees are roundels depicting various common animals—pigs, monkeys, water buffaloes, roosters and snakes. There are no mythological figures among the roundels, so one can reasonably conclude that these figures depict the animals that were commonly seen by the ancient Khmer people in the twelfth century. Preah Vihear: is a temple located in the province of the same name, and is one of Cambodia’s most celebrated monuments not only because of its scenic location and its extraordinary beauty on the natural border between northern Cambodia and northeastern Thailand. On July 8, 2008, Preah Vihear was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. As a traditional place of worship, Preah Vihear was honoured and modified by many successive Khmer kings. This is why it is a collection of several architectural styles, even the rare most artistic Banteay Srei style from the late tenth century shapes some decorations, but the Angkor Wat style of the last major construction phase is dominant. The modern name "Preah Vihear" simply means "holy abode", "holy shrine" or "holy monastery". The complex is sometimes called "Prasat Preah Vihear" or "Phnom Preah Vihear". Thais call it "Kao Pravihan" meaning "mountain temple". It is dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva, in his mountain god forms called Shikhareshvara and Bhadreshvara. Its total height is 625 metres above sea level atop a mountain site "Shikara" is wellknown term for main temple-towers in India surmounting the sanctum, its original meaning is "peak". "Ishvara means "Lord". Shiva resides on Mount Kailash, "Shikhara-ishvara" melted to "Shikahereshvara" is only one of his many names. A local mountain god identified with Shiva and venerated under this Sanskrit name seems to be the original patron of Preah Vihear. "Bhadreshvara", meaning the "promising Lord", originally is the guardian deity of the Cham, the arch rival of the Khmer kingdom. Wat Phu in today's southern Laos, located on a hill, too, seems to have been founded by the Cham, but became a Khmer sanctuary, it remained to be dedicated to Bhadreshvara. According to an inscription at Preah Vihear (K 380) Bhadreshvara of Wat Phu (called Lingapura) arrived miraculously at Preah Vihear (called Shikheshvara) to manifest the splendour of Shiva in the form of light. Preah Vihear is unusual among Khmer temples in many respects, not only because of its unique setting. The complex is arranged along a north-south axis, instead of having the usual orientation to the east. Most strikingly, it does not consist of concentric enclosures inside one another, but of a row of five Gopuram structures leading uphill, one behind the other, on a length of 800 metres. Such a 71 layout is called linear temple. Each of the Gopuras is prededed by a set of steps emphasizing the rising of the next level. Building activities are said to have started as early as the ninth century, when Phnom Kulen and Roluos were the capitals of what should become the Angkor empire. The earliest remaining parts of the temple date from the Koh Ker period in the second quarter of the tenth century. Most of the structures of the current complex are from the heydays of Angkor, from the 11th and 12th century. The buildings were erected in the eras of Suryavarman I. (1005-1050) and Angkor Wat founder Suryavarman II. (1113 -1150), two of three most influential Khmer kings in history. Detailed inscriptions at Preah Vihear from the reign of Suryavarman II. inform about religious rituals and festivals and gifts to the king's religious advisor, the priest Divakarapandita, who donated a sculpture of the dancing Shiva. Remarkably, the outer Gopuram Gate (counted from the centre as "fifth") is the oldest one, it is in the Koh Ker style. It once had a tiled roof. The next (fourth) Gopuram, with a long crossways hall, is from the reign of Suryavarman I, the Baphuon period. Its southern pediment has one of the most celebrated bas-relief depiction of the common motif "Churning of the Ocean of Milk". The third Gopuram is the largest. Finally, there are two connected successive courtyards leading to the main shrine. Mahabalipuram mystery: It has been said that Angkor Wat, the intriguing temple complex of Cambodia was inspired by Mahabalipuram sculptures? Some call this places as Vaikuntha, an abode of the preserver of the universe. When one looks at the sculptures of Angkor Wat and the ancient temples of Mahabalipuram, one find a number of similarities. The Pallava kings ruled Tamil Nadu for 400 years, from the 6th century to the 9th. Kanchipuram was their capital and Mamallapuram their seaport. Long before the Pallavas took power, Mamallapuram (or Mahabalipuram) was known for its flourishing seaport where ships from Greece and elsewhere came to trade. The Mahabalipuram monuments were built between the 7th and 8th centuries under the reigns of the Pallava kings Mahendravarman I (600–630), his son Narasimhavarman I (630–668), Mahendravarman II (668– 672), Paramesvaravarman I (670–695) and Narasimhavarman II (695–722). Most of the monuments were built under Narasimhavarman I, the “great warrior” or “Mamallan”, after whom the place is named. They are said to have been built as a kind of memorial to the Pallava victory over king Chalukya Pulakesin II. The fortune Mamallan acquired through conquest was invested in embellishing the town with splendid buildings. 72 Use for defensive capacity : Angkor Wat is the first and only known example of an Angkorian temple being systematically modified for use in a defensive capacity. Researchers from the University of Sydney, leading the Greater Angkor Project in Cambodia, dug up the artefacts using laser airborne laser scanning (LiDAR) technology, along with ground penetrating radar. Sprawling structures forming the shape of a giant spiral and an ensemble of buried towers have been dug up from the grounds of Angkor Wat, spurring new mysteries about the ancient temple.It was once believed that the Cambodian temple was surrounded sacred precincts, or 'temple cities.'After finding a massive sand structure and other buried remnants of the long-gone society, archaeologists are now saying Angkor Wat was much more complex than imagined. +8Using laser airborne scanning (LiDAR) technology and ground penetrating radar, researchers were able to map the locations of eight buried towers found on the grounds of Angkor Wat. These are indicated in bright yellow. The discovered structure is more than 1500 m long, running along the south side of Angkor Wat,buried towers, which were demolished during construction of the main temple, possibly the remains of an ancient shrine. Wooden structures also found at the site suggest that Angkor Way may have enhanced its defense capabilities near the end of its operation.The spiral structure is difficult to make out from the ground, and is largely a mystery to the researchers. Huge, unique and problematic structure of the ‘rectilinear spirals’, has never previously been recognized or even predicted, or supposed, and it still defies explanation.'Along with this, they found buried towers, which were demolished during construction of the main temple. The researchers believe this may be the remnants of an ancient shrine. 'This structure, which has dimensions of more than 1500m x 600m, is the most striking discovery associated with Angkor Wat to date, its function remains unknown and, as yet, it has no known equivalent 73 in the Angkorian world. The spiral structure was not in use for long. A canal that cut through the spiral design was built later in the 12th century.It is possible the spiral structure was never completed.Evidence of low-density communities now have researchers questioning the social structure that once was. Evidence of roads, ponds, and mounds, which may have been used by workers of the temple signifies the temple precinct, bounded by moat and wall, may not have been exclusively the preserve of the wealthy of priestly elite.It has previously been assumed that enclosed spaces within Angkor Wat indicated cities or towns. Moats, walls, and other infrastructure kept each area contained. Researchers believe that these closed off urban areas differed significantly from the regions outside.AS 1297 and 1585, with earlier defensive constructions, or between 1585 and the 1630s, to mark the beginning of the end of Angkor, as the neighbouring city, Ayutthaya bore down upon it.Either date makes the defences of Angkor Wat one of the last major constructions at Angkor and is perhaps indicative of its end.19 8Koh Ker, one of the provincial cities of the Khmer Empire, was located approximately 85 km northeast of the Angkor monuments. The temples in the Koh Ker monuments were mainly constructed from laterite, sandstone and brick between 921 and 944 AD. The laterites used in the Koh Ker monuments were classified using a portable X-ray fluorescence analyser.In doing so 5 different stages of construction were identified in the buildings of the Koh Ker monuments; each characterized by a different laterite source rock likely supplied from quarries around the Srayang village, which is located immediately to the south of the Koh Ker monuments. 20 The Koh Ker monuments consist of Prasat Thom, the largest temple, and several other small to medium-scale temples . To date, the remains of 76 temples have been confirmed in the Koh Ker area. Prang, which is a five-tiered stepped pyramid surmounted by a huge linga with two-tiered platforms, is located at the west end of Prasat Thom. Unlike the Angkor monument site, where temples are positioned along a main axis that runs east to west, at the Koh Ker monument site, the main axes of some of the temples, including Prasat Thom, are shifted approximately 14 degrees in a counterclockwise direction from the due east–west axis; while other temples are orientated along this east–west axis. As mentioned earlier there is a large reservoir known as Rahal. Thus, the main axis line of Prasat Thom was consequently also rotated from the east–west line. The north east royal road is located approximately 6 km northwest of Prasat Thom, and there is a causeway to Prasat Thom from the royal road. There are more than 14 different temples where laterite was used as a major construction material. These temples include: 1. Prasat Thom, 2. Prasat Krachap, 3. Prasat Neang Khmau, 74 4. Prasat Chen, 5. Prasat Kraham, 6. Prasat Damrei, 7. Prasat Bak, Prasat G, 8. Prasat D, 9. Prasat Trapean Rosei, 10. Prasat Banteay Pir Chan, 11. Prasat Pram, Prasat Khtum, and 12. Prasat Chrap. Prasat Andong Kuk, The sandstone used for the construction of the Koh Ker monuments is a gray to yellowish brown sandstone (feldspathic arenite), which also was used to build the Angkor monuments. It is generally believed that this material is derived from the Jurassic Grés Rouge Formation. Sandstone blocks of the Koh Ker monuments likely originate from the surrounding area rather than from Mt. Kulen, which was used to supply sandstone blocks to the Angkor area Using the assumption that the temples were constructed in an outwardly propagating manner, 5 different construction stages were distinguished using latrices of differing Sr content and magnetic susceptibility values. Almost all of the buildings in the Koh Ker monuments belong to the first three stages, with only three and two buildings belonging to the fourth and fifth stages, respectively. Buildings belonging to the fifth stage remained unfinished. Since around 1850, Angkor Wat has been featured in the center of the national flag of Cambodia, as if to show their incredible pride in the ancient monument. Their pride is also reflected by putting images from Angkor Wat on many denominations of the riel (Cambodia's currency).The bas-reliefs on the walls represent important deities and figures in the Hindu and Buddhist religions and key events in their narrative tradition. REFERENCES . Footnote 8 Origins: The origins of the temple lie in what may be the world's oldest religious text, the Rigveda, one of the four Veda Samhitas of Hindu literature. This text describes the gods of heaven and earth, including the earthly god Vishnu, The Preserver. It is to Vishnu that Angkor Wat is consecrated, and with more than mere symbolic intent. Hindu temples were built to be earthly abodes for the gods. The central sanctuary was the most sacred place, directly in line with the vertical axis of the central spire that provided the connection between the realms of heaven and Earth. The surrounding architecture of the temple would 75 then mirror Hindu cosmology, being essentially a mandala in stone a diagram of the cosmos itself. Furthermore, the Khmer civilization had by the time of Angkor Wat's construction incorporated the idea that a king would, after his death, be transmuted into one of the gods. Hence, it was at Angkor Wat that Suryavarman II, after his death, was believed to reside as Vishnu. Astronomical significance: Astronomy and Hindu cosmology are inseparably entwined at Angkor Wat. Nowhere is this more evident than in the interior colonnade, which is dedicated to a vast and glorious carved mural, a basrelief illustrating the gods as well as scenes from the Hindu epic the Mahabharata. Along the east wall is a 45-meter (150-foot) scene illustrating the "churning of the sea of milk," a creation myth in which the gods attempt to churn the elixir of immortality out of the milk of time. The north wall depicts the "day of the gods," along the west wall is a great battle scene from the Mahabharata, and the south wall portrays the kingdom of Yama, the god of death. It has been suggested that the choice and arrangement of these scenes was intended to tie in with the seasons—the creation scene of the east wall is symbolic of the renewal of spring, the "day of the gods" is summer, the great battle on the west wall may represent the decline of autumn, and the portrayal of Yama might signify the dormancy, the lifeless time of winter. The architecture of Angkor Wat also has numerous astronomical aspects beyond the basic mandala plan that is common to other Hindu temples. As many as eighteen astronomical alignments have been identified within its walls. To mention but three of them: when standing just inside the western entrance, the Sun rises over the central tower on the spring (vernal) equinox; it rises over a distant temple at Prasat Kuk Bangro, 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles) away, on the winter solstice; and on the summer solstice it rises over a prominent hill 17.5 kilometers (10.9 miles) away. According to Graham Hancock, Angkor Wat and all the temples were conceived by its builders as a symbolic diagram of the universe. The notion of a land that is the image of heaven on which are built cosmic temples with halls that resemble the sky was an idea that took root in Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat consists of a series of five inter nested rectangular enclosures. The short dimensions are aligned with high precision to true north-south, showing no deviation whatever according to modern surveys. The long dimensions are oriented, equally precisely, to an axis that has been deliberately diverted 0.75 degrees south of east and north of west. The first and outermost of the five rectangles that we find ourselves looking down on from the air is the moat. Measured along its outer edge it runs 1300 meters north to south and 1500 meters from east to west.Its ditch, (moat) 190 meters wide, has walls made from closely fitted blocks of red sandstone set out with such precision that the accumulated surveying error around the entire 5.6 kilometers of the perimeter amounts to barely a centimeter. Angkor Wats principal entrance is on the west side where a megalithic causeway 347 meters long and 9.4 meters wide bears due east across the moat and then passes under a massive gate let into the walls of the second of the five rectangles. This second enclosure measures 1025 x 800 meters. The causeway continues eastward through it, past lawns and subsidiary structure and a large reflecting pool, until it rises on to a cruciform terrace leading into the lowest gallery of the temple itself. This is the third of the five inter nested rectangles visible from the air and precision engineering and surveying are again in evidence with the northern and southern walls, for example, being of identical lengths, exactly 202.14 meters. Ascending to the fourth rectangle, the fourth level of Angkor Wats gigantic central pyramid, the same precision can be observed. The northern and southern walls measure respectively 114.24 and 114.22 meters. At the fifth and last enclosure, the top level of the pyramid which reaches a height of 65 mts above the entrance causeway the northern wall is 47.75 mts in length and the southern wall 47.79 mts. According to a study published in the journal Science, these minute differences, less than 0.01 percent, demonstrates an astounding degree of accuracy on the part of the ancient builders. The Draco-Angkor Correlation 76 The principal monuments of Angkor model the sinuous coils of the northern constellation of Draco. There seems to be no doubt that a correlation exists: the correspondence between the principal stars of Draco and at least fifteen of the main pyramid-temples of Angkor are too close to be called anything else. Cycles of the Ages A detailed survey of Angkor Wat published in Science magazine in July 1976 reveled that even the causeway incorporates cosmic symbolism and numbers encoding the cycles of time. After establishing the basic unit of measure used in Angkor as the Khme hat (equivalent to 0.43434 meters) the authors of the survey go on to demonstrate that axial lengths along the causeway appear to have been adjusted to symbolize or represent the great world ages of Hindu cosmology.These periods begin with the 1. 2. 3. 4. Krita Yuga or golden age of man- 1,728,000 years Treta Yuga, 1,296,000 years Dvarpara Yuga 864,000 years and Kali Yuga, the last being the most decadent age of man- 432,000 years. It therefore cannot be an accident that key sections of the causeway have axial lengths that approximate extremely closely to 1,728 hat, 1,296 hat, 864 hat, and 432 hat the yuga lengths scaled down by 1000. We propose, conclude the authors, that the passage of time is numerically expressed by the lengths corresponding to yugas along the west-east axis. Angkor wats dominant feature is its long and massive east-west axis which locks it uncompromisingly to sunrise and sunset on the equinoxes. In addition, the temple is cleverly anchored to ground and sky by markers for other key astronomical moments of the year. For example, reports Science: It is interesting to note that there are two solstitial alignments from the western entrance gate of Angkor Wat. These two alignments (added to the equinoctial alignment already established) mean that the entire solar year was divided into four major sections by alignments from just inside the entrance of Angkor Wat. From this western vantage point the sun rises over Phnom Bok (17.4 kilometers to the north-east) on the day of the summer solsticeThe western entrance gate of the temple also has a winter solstice alignment with the temple of Prast Kuk Bangro, 5.5 kilometres of the south-east. Finally, some researchers have claimed that the very dimensions of many of the structures at Angkor Wat have astronomical associations. These associations emerge from consideration of the unit of length that was in use at that time, a unit known as the hat or "Cambodian cubit." There is some question as to how long a hat was, and indeed its definition may not have been uniformly applied; but a value of 43.45 centimeters (17.1 inches) for the length of a hat is suggested by the structures themselves. Using this value, archaeologists discovered numerous dimensions of the temple that seem to have astronomical and cosmological significance for example, the following: The dimensions of the highest rectangular level of the temple are 189 hat in the east-west direction and 176 hat in the north-south direction. Added together these give 365, the number of days in one year. In the central sanctuary, the distances between sets of steps is approximately 12 hat. There are roughly 12 lunar cycles, or synodic months (from full Moon to full Moon, say the basis for our modern month) in one year. 77 The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91 hat. On average, there are 91 days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any equinox and the next solstice. Because of its orbit around the Earth, the Moon's apparent position in the sky relative to the background stars will appear to shift from night to night. Since it takes the Moon just over 27 days to complete one orbit (known as its sidereal period), it will, during this time appear to move through 27 successive regions of the sky. In Hindu cosmology, these regions were known as the naksatras, or lunar mansions. In some contexts there were 27 lunar mansions, while in other contexts an additional naksatra containing the star Vega was included, giving 28 lunar mansions. REFERENCES 1. A. Temple Architecture, a Brief Overview and Its Symbolism, Purushottama Bilimoria, http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://www.indianheritage.org/temple/symbolism_Pur ushottama.pdf 2. See our Paper on Hindu Temple Architecture of India –some musings in academia.edu 3. From the book-Record of Cambodia: The Land and Its People, by Zhou Daguan's and his description on the Angkor Royal Palace. 4. Angkor Wat: A bridge to the past, Kausalya Santhanam, https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-andculture/angkor-wat-a-bridge-to-the-past/article24103506.ece 5. Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd. 6. Angkor by Maurice Glaize – Goodreads, 1944 7. Angkor Wat: Time, Space, and Kingship, Eleanor Mannikka, Allen & Unwin, 1997 8. See above 9. The Hsinbyume Pagoda,Burma, also known as Myatheindan is a large painted white and is modelled on the physical description of the Buddhist sacred mountain, Mount Meru. The pagoda's design is a great departure from Burmese pagoda design norms. It is based on descriptions of the mythical Sulamani pagoda on Mount Meru, and the lower parts of the pagoda represent the mountain. Seven concentric terraces represent the seven mountain ranges going up to the Mount Meru according to Buddhist mythology. See my paper on Prambana- the Hindu temple in Indonesia in academia.edu 10. A Mountain in Tibet: The Search for Mount Kailas and the Sources of the Great Rivers of India, Charles Allen,kobo books,1982 11. The Adhinath Temple at Ranakpur, Takio Kamia, http://www.kamit.jp/03_jaina/6_ranakpur/ran_eng.htm 12."Angkor Vat, Description Graphique du Temple" by Guy Nafilyan, 1969, Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient. 13. Angkor Wat, the Kundalini, and the Quinx: The Human Architecture of Divine Renewal in the Quincunx." In Twentieth-century Epic Novels, Theodore Louis Steinberg 13. Biphoun temple in Angkor: The sandstone temple-mountain symbolically represents the sacred five-peaked Mount Meru important in both Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. 14. Etsuo Uchida,Takesi Nakagawa, Journal of Minerology,Petrology and Economic Geology,January 1998 15. A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia,Damian Evans, Christophe Pottier, Roland Fletcher, Scott Hensley, Ian Tapley, Anthony Milne, and Michael Barbetti,PNAS September 4, 2007 -Edited by Michael D. Coe, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 16. Mystery of Angkor Wat's massive stones solved - they were 'brought to the area by a massive network of canals'. Findings reveal how 12th century temple complex was built out of millions of stone blocks weighing up to 1.5tons in just a few decades, DAMIEN GAYLE, 2012 https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article2226195/Mystery-Angkor-Wats-massive-stones-solved--brought-area-massive-network-canals.html 17. Suvarnadvipa, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, Vol.II, Calcutta,,R.C. Majumdar 18. (1983). Nagara and Commandery : Origins of the Southeast Asian Urban Traditions. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago, Dept. of Geography. 19. What ARE the buried buildings of Angkor Wat? Researchers discover ancient temple was surrounded by a 1mile long 'mysterious structure' with towers and a giant SPIRAL of sand, CHEYENNE MACDONALD FOR DAILYMAIL.COMThursday, Mar 12th 2020 20. Construction sequence of the Koh Ker monuments in Cambodia deduced from the chemical composition and magnetic susceptibility of its laterites,Etsuo Uchida, Kojiro Tsuda &Ichita Shimoda,Heritage Science volume 2, 78 ANNEXUREI Links to information on the Significant Angkor Archaeological Sites: Angkor Thom: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor_Thom Angkor Wat: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor_Wat Baksei Chamkrong: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baksei_Chamkrong Banteay Kdei: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banteay_Kdei Banteay Samré: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banteay_Samr%C3%A9 Banteay Srei: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banteay_Srei Baphuon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baphuon The Bayon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bayon Chau Say Tevoda: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chau_Say_Tevoda East Baray: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Baray East Mebon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Mebon Kbal Spean: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kbal_Spean The Khleangs: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khleangs Krol Ko: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krol_Ko Lolei: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lolei Neak Pean: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neak_Pean Phimeanakas: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phimeanakas Phnom Bakheng: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phnom_Bakheng Phnom Krom: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phnom_Krom Prasat Ak Yum: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ak_Yum Prasat Kravan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasat_Kravan Preah Khan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preah_Khan Preah Ko: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preah_Ko Preah Palilay: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preah_Palilay Preah Pithu: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preah_Pithu Pre Rup: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre_Rup Spean Thma: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spean_Thma Srah Srang: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srah_Srang Ta Nei: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta_Nei Ta Prohm: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta_Prohm Ta Som: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta_Som Ta Keo: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta_Keo Terrace of the Elephants: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrace_of_the_Elephants Terrace of the Leper King: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrace_of_the_Leper_King Thommanon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thommanon West Baray: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Baray West Mebon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Mebon Mahendraparvata: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahendraparvata Video Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BCzpJAm_y_Q A N N E X U R E II ANGKOR ARCHITECTURAL STYLES PRE-ANGKOREAN ARCHITECTURE Style Dates Rulers Sambor Prei Kuk c. 610 – c. 650 CE Ishanavarman I, Bhavavarman II • • Round, plain colonettes with capitals that include a bu Details Prei Kmeng c. 635 – c. 700 CE Jayavarman I • • • • 79 Masterpieces of sculpture, but primitive architecture. Larger colonettes are more heavily decorated. General decline in standards. Details Kompong Preah c. 700 – c. 800 CE Various Found at: Ak Yom • More decorative rings on cylindrical colonettes. • Continuing brick construction. See also Kompong Preah Lintel Style. TRANSITIONAL ARCHITECTURE Kulen c. 825 – c. 875 CE • • • • Jayavarman II Continuation of pre-Angkorean style, but a period of innovation and borrowing, Relatively high towers are mainly square. Mainly brick, with laterite walls and stone door surrounds. Square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear. A N G K O R E AN A R C H I T E C T U R E Preah Ko Indravarman I Jayavarman III 877 – c. 886 CE Bakong Kutishvara Found at: Lolei Preah Ko • Simple plan: one or more square brick towers on a single base. • First appearance of concentric enclosures. • First appearance of gopuras and ‘libraries’. • Decorative ‘flying palaces' replaced by dvarapalas and devatas in niches. • First major temple-mountain at Bakong. Style Dates Rulers Bakheng 889 – 923 CE Yashovarman I Harshavarman I Baksei Chamkrong Prasat Bei Prasat Kravan Lolei Found at: Phnom Bakheng Phnom Bok Phnom Krom Thma Bei Kaek • Development of the temple-mountain. • More use of stone, particularly for major temples. • More decorative stone carving. Koh Ker c. 921 – 944 CE Jayavarman IV Baksei Chamkrong Damrei (Prasat) at Koh Ker Found at: Koh Ker Kravan (Prasat) • Scale of buildings diminishes towards the centre. 80 • Brick is still the main material, but sandstone also used. . Pre Rup 944 – 968 CE Rajendravarman II Bat Chum East Mebon Found at: Kutishvara Pre Rup • Transitional between Koh Ker and Banteay Srei. • Long halls partly enclose the sanctuary. • The last great monuments in plastered brick. • Increasing use of sandstone. . Banteay Srei 967 – 1000 CE Jayavarman V Found at: Banteay Srei • Ornate, superposed pediments. • Sweeping gable ends. • Rich and deep carving. • Plastered brick replaced by stone and laterite. • Appearance of mythological scenes in pediments. • Voluptuous devatas with gentle expressions. See also Banteay Srei Lintel Style. Details Khleang 968 – 1010 CE Jayavarman V North Khleang Phimeanakas Found at: Royal Palace South Khleang Ta Keo • First use of galleries. • Cruciform (cross-shaped) gopuras. • Octagonal colonettes. • Restrained decorative carving. . Details Baphuon 1050 – 1080 CE Udayadityavarman II Baphuon Found at: Kbal Spean West Mebon A return to rich carving: floral motifs, but also lintels with scenes. Nagas without headdress. Bas-reliefs appear at the Baphuon temple, carved with narrative panels Angkor Wat Jayavarman VI Suryavarman II Yashovarman II c. 1080 – 1175 CE Details 81 Bayon 1181 – 1243 CE Jayavarman VII Indravarman II Angkor Thom Angkor Thom South Gate Banteay Chhmar Banteay Kdei Banteay Prei Banteay Thom Banteay Torp Bayon Chapel of the Hospital Chrungs (Prasat) Krol Ko (Prasat) Jayatataka (Baray) Neak Pean Preah Palilay Found at: Prei (Prasat) Prei Prasat (Prasat) Preah Khan Royal Terraces Srah Srang Prasat Suor Prat Ta Nei Ta Prohm Ta Prohm Kel Ta Som Terrace of the Elephants Terrace of the Leper King Tonle Sgnout Top East (Prasat) • The last great Angkor style. • Hurried construction, often in laterite not stone. • Carving less elegant. • Complex plans, huge temples. • In Cambodia, face-towers, and historical narrative bas-reliefs. • Three periods: 1. Large, complex temples on a single level; 2. Face-towers and avenues of giants carrying nagas; 3. Decline of building standards, devatas acquire Angkor Wat -style diadem. 82