Chöd Through the Lens of Pith Instructions Awareness and Devotion in Chöd Practice at Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling Monastery, Nepal Christina B. Lang Kathmandu University, Centre for Buddhist Studies at Rangjung Yeshe Institute June 24, 2017 1 Dedication May wisdom and compassion flourish in everyone. Acknowledgements First and foremost, I offer my sincere gratitude to my teacher, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, for his guidance and encouragement, for his precious teachings, and for clarifying many of my questions. I am forever indebted to my thesis supervisor, Prof. Karin Meyers, who supported and inspired me with her brilliance, stimulating questions, her open-mindedness, academic professionalism, and kindness. My sincere thanks go to Lama Tsültrim Sangpo for his lectures in Boudhanath, but also for allowing me to listen to and make use of teachings he gave in Rangjung Yeshe Gomde California. (Thanks to Catherine Dalton for translating these.) I would like to express my gratitude also to Lama Tenzin Sangpo, Umze Nhono, and Umze Karma Sherap for their classes on Chöd. I felt honored that Kyabjé Khen Rinpoche patiently made time for my question and answer sessions with him. (Thanks to Lama Öser and Ani Laura Dainty for helping with translation.) I owe my gratitude to Khenpo Tokpa Tulku for reading through my thesis and answering many questions. Thanks to Prof. Philippe Turenne for his guidance and encouragement. I am also very grateful to Prof. Michelle Sorensen, both for meeting earlier in the process and for useful comments on the final version. Thanks to Libby Hogg and Michele Nevarez for making suggestions during the earlier stages of my thesis, and especially to Jangchub Khandro who read through my final draft and provided invaluable suggestions. I would like to thank all teachers, staff, and fellow students from Rangjung Yeshe Institute. Never before have my studies been so meaningful and transformative. Finally, I thank my friends, my family, particularly my parents and my husband for their love, encouragement, and immense support throughout my studies. Tina Lang 2 Table of Contents Abstract 1. Introduction 1.1. Overview 1.2. Literature review 1.2.1. Overview of academic approaches to Chöd 1.2.2. General critique 1.2.3. Critique regarding devotion 1.2.4. Critique regarding awareness 1.2.5. Tsoklé Rinchen Trengwa and Rangjung Dorjé 1.2.6. Summary of literature review 1.3. Methodology 1.4. Introduction to the texts and oral sources 1.4.1. The TRT 1.4.2. Related texts 1.4.3. The Tersar Lüjin 1.4.4. Oral sources 2. An introduction to Chöd and its presentation at KNSL 3. The fourfold framework underlying all practices at KNSL 3.1. Awareness 3.2. Renunciation 3.3. Compassion 3.4. Devotion 4. Awareness in Chöd 4.1. Awareness in written texts 4.1.1. Awareness in the TRT 4.1.2. Awareness in the Tersar Lüjin 4.1.3. Awareness in the TRT empowerment text 4.1.4. Awareness in the Kagyü Lüjin and Commentaries 4.1.5. Summary of awareness in texts 4.2. Awareness in oral instructions 4.2.1. Clarification of context 4.2.2. Centralization of the view 4.2.3. Addressing philosophical questions 4.2.4. Fine-tuning important terms 4.2.5. Providing additional information 4.2.6. Specific information for advanced practice 4.3. Summary of the awareness chapter 5. Devotion in Chöd 5.1. Devotion in written texts 5.1.1. Devotion in the TRT 5.1.2. Devotion in the Tersar Lüjin 5.1.3. Devotion in the TRT empowerment text 5.1.4. Devotion in the Kagyü Lüjin and its commentaries 5.1.5. Devotion in the Catalog 5.1.6. Summary of devotion in texts 5.2. Devotion in oral instructions 5.2.1. Differentiation 5.2.2. Clarifying the relationship of key terms 5 6 6 15 15 18 22 23 25 26 26 36 36 43 46 50 54 69 71 78 80 81 88 89 89 92 94 96 100 101 101 106 109 110 112 123 129 131 131 131 134 135 138 139 140 140 141 143 3 5.2.3. Fine-tuning topics 5.2.4. Application beyond the sādhana 5.2.5. Presentation of intensifying strategies 5.2.6. Linking with core practices 5.2.7. Presenting additional benefits 5.2.8. Clarifying role and effectiveness 5.2.9. Additional applications 5.2.10. Determining the focus 6. Conclusion Bibliography 146 148 149 150 152 154 155 156 157 162 4 Abstract: The Chöd tradition practiced at Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling Monastery (KNSL) in Boudhanath, Nepal places a much greater emphasis on awareness (rig pa) and devotion than is recognized in academic studies on Chöd. Moreover, in connection to this emphasis, the spiritual master’s oral instructions play an indispensable role in the practice. This thesis will demonstrate that although the KNSL’s Chöd texts introduce an abundance of information, it is the oral instructions pertaining to Dzokchen and Essence Mahāmudrā which set forth greater details, fine-tune and condense the philosophical content, introduce the different levels of practice, clarify the approach, and highlight key points. Thus, the oral pith instructions determine how Chöd is practiced—bringing awareness and devotion to the forefront—with renunciation and compassion as two key additional methods. It further argues that this demonstrates the living oral tradition as a critical source of information and analysis when studying Chöd texts or similar tantric ritual texts. The oral instructions are the pedagogical instrument which provides a wealth of differentiation and individualization. Furthermore, KNSL’s oral Chöd instructions consolidate the components of intellectualism, passionate emotions, and nonconceptual wakefulness. 5 Chöd1 Through the Lens of Pith Instructions: Awareness and Devotion in Chöd Practice at Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling Monastery, Nepal 1. Introduction 1.1. Overview Chöd (gcod, severance) practice is gaining more and more attention among scholars and Tibetan Buddhist practitioners worldwide. Tibetan Buddhist practitioners, East or West, often describe Chöd as a practice of visualizing giving one’s body to demons, which is carried out in charnel grounds. They might mention that its intent is to cut through ego-clinging, or they may accentuate its hauntingly beautiful melodies, which are accompanied by the rhythmic playing of drum and bell. Yet, taking a closer look, we discover that Chöd is, or can be, much more than that. Furthermore, the practice can appear very different in different traditions and at various times and places. If one examines what modern scholars have written on this topic, we learn that while early Western scholarship was mainly captivated by the offering of the body to demons, recent scholars have pointed out that the body offering made to the demons in Chöd liturgies is embedded in other practices, such as the body offering made to the buddhas, deities, protectors, local spirits, and all sentient beings. They include discussions of the phowa (’pho ba, transference) of Opening the Door to the Sky (nam mkha’ sgo ’byed); of cutting the four māras (bdud bzhi, four demons) as newly defined in Chöd2 and traditionally attributed to Machik Labdrön (ma gcig lab sgron, ca. 1055 - 1153);3 of the view of Chöd, at times defined 1 “Chöd.” Since a great deal of academic literature uses “Chöd” instead of “Chö” or “gcod,” I also chose Lama Tsültrim Sangpo, for example, calls these uncommon four māras as generally stemming from the secret mantra tradition. Lama Tsültrim Sangpo (tshul khrims bzang po, LTS), Chöd Teachings Session 2, Gomde California: July 2013, notes/transcript by Tina Lang, 7, 9. In the rest of the text also referred to as “Lama Tsültrim,” not to be confused with Lama Tsültrim Allione. 2 In her book, Machik’s Complete Explanation, Sarah Harding writes the year 1055 or possibly 1031 as Machik’s birth date, and that she is said to have lived ninety-five or ninety-nine years. Sarah Harding, trans., ed., Machik’s Complete Explanation: Clarifying the Meaning of Chöd, A Complete Explanation of Casting Out the 3 6 in terms of Mahāmudrā (phyag rgya chen po, great seal); and so forth. Does this mean that Chöd is primarily a sādhana (sgrub thabs) practice focusing on a visualized body offering? If we look at the texts Sarah Harding translates in Machik’s Complete Explanation (ten texts traditionally attributed mostly to Machik, herself, or to her direct students), we discover that, Chöd is not described as one specific sādhana practice of offering the body, but as a complete Buddhist path beginning with preliminary practices, which include the four mindchangings, refuge, and bodhicitta, through elaborate visualization practices, an introduction to the view, practices involving the manipulation of prāṇa (rlung, or subtle energy winds) and nāḍi (rtsa, or subtle channels), right up to attainment of complete enlightenment.4 According to this interpretation, the body offering is only one of many practices on the path. Furthermore, in “Did Machik Lapdrön Really Teach Chöd?,”5 Harding concludes that the very early forms of Chöd may not have included any body offering sādhana at all, and that this was a later development. Instead, Chöd was based on the practice and theory of Prajñāpāramitā (shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa, the perfection of wisdom or transcendent wisdom), which, at times, sounds very much like Mahāmudrā. Hopefully, this question of what Chöd may have looked like at the time of Machik Labdrön will be explored more deeply by scholars as more evidence is discovered. Although modern academic scholars have contributed a great deal to historical and textual research about Chöd, when one compares their findings with how Chöd is taught at Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling (KNSL) Monastery6 in present-day Nepal, we discover two topics in particular Body as Food (Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2003), 287 n.2. Michelle Sorensen writes in the abstract to her dissertation “1055-1153,” in her introduction “ca.1055-1149.” Michelle Janet Sorensen, “Making the Old New Again and Again: Legitimation and Innovation in the Tibetan Buddhist Chöd Tradition” PhD. diss. (Columbia University, 2013), 0, 3. 4 For example, aspects of channels and energy currents (rtsa rlung) are discussed throughout the translated texts. Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 187, 197-201, etc. Sarah Harding, “Did Machik Lapdrön Really Teach Chöd? A Survey of the Early Sources,” presented at AAR 2013, Baltimore, MD. http://wordpress.tsadra.org/?p=2334. 5 7 have received little or no attention, these being devotion and awareness (rig pa),7 despite the fact that these are present in the textual tradition of Chöd and are key elements of Vajrayāna in general. When they are overlooked, the elements in Chöd and how they might be practiced are distorted. This thesis argues that—at least in the tradition practiced at KNSL—oral instructions (man ngag), which lay the foundation for devotion and directly point out awareness, are the key to understanding and execution of Chöd practice. Compared to the written texts of this tradition, they set forth far greater detail, fine-tune and condense the philosophical content, clarify the approach, and stress key points. Moreover, the oral instructions are the pedagogical instrument which provides a wealth of differentiation and individualization. Furthermore, KNSL’s oral Chöd instructions consolidate the components of intellectualism, passionate emotions, and non-conceptual wakefulness. Consequently, the oral pith instructions can be considered another layer of “text,” which is crucial in the tradition’s selfunderstanding of authentic practice, and considered indispensable for gaining the traditionally desired outcomes. As a result, such oral instructions also provide a valuable source of information for the academic scholar seeking understanding of such texts and practice. Although Chöd is a vast topic, appearing in manifold ways at different times and places, this thesis focuses on one specific set of interrelated Chöd practices, namely the Tersar bKa’ rnying shes grub gling. Hereafter referred to as KNSL. Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling Monastery is located in Boudhanath, Kathmandu, Nepal. It was inaugurated in 1976 when Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche was appointed as its abbot by His Holiness the 16th Gyalwa Karmapa. www.shedrub.org. 6 According to the oral instruction traditions of Mahāmudrā and Dzokchen (rdzogs chen, great perfection), as presented at KNSL, “awareness” refers here to the nature of mind, the ultimate view, wakefulness (ye shes). 7 8 Lüjin,8 the Tsoklé Rinchen Trengwa (TRT),9 and related texts, together with the explanations of the oral pith instructions of living masters within one specific tradition, namely the present-day Ka-Nying10 tradition of Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling Monastery (KNSL) in Boudhanath, Nepal. KNSL was built in 1976 by Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, his wife Künsang Dechen, and their two sons, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche and Tsikey Chokling Rinpoche.11 Tulku Urgyen and Mayum Künsang Dechen were both Chöd practitioners. Furthermore, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche played a pivotal role in transmitting Chöd empowerments to many masters of the present time, including many who are now famous for teaching Chöd in the West.12 Although Chöd practices have been featured at KNSL’s retreat establishments13 and traditional three-years retreats, in 2013 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche started specifically emphasizing this practice14 and ensuring that his monastics and interested lay students receive Gter gsar lus sbyin. English versionŚ Karmai Khenpo Rinchen Dargyé, ed., “The Concise Daily Liturgy for Giving the Body,” Catherine Dalton and Ryan Damron, trans. (Rangjung Yeshe Gomde California: Dharmachakra, 2013). Emailed to me by Catherine Dalton on July 28, 2015.Tibetan version: Karmai Khenpo Rinchen Dargyé, “rGyun gyi lus sbyin mdor bsdus,” in Chos spyod (Boudhanath: Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling. No publishing date given), 438-447. “Tersar” referring here to the New Treasures (gter gsar) of Chokgyur Lingpa (mchog gyur gling pa; 1829-1870). 8 Hereafter referred to as TRT. Rje rang ’byung rdo rjes, “Rje rang ’byung rdo rjes mdzad pa’i gcod kyi tshogs las rin po che’i phreng ba ’don bsgrigs bltas chog tu bkod pa gcod kyi lugs sor bzhag” in gCod tshogs rin chen phreng ba (Delhi, India: Chos Spyod Publication, 2010), 11-181. This practice is attributed to Rangjung Dorjé (rang ’byung rdo rje, 1284–1339) and was edited by Karma Chakmé, both of them lineage holders of Kagyü (bKa’ brgyud) as well as Nyingma (rNying ma) schools. 9 10 “Ka” standing here for Kagyü and “Nying” for Nyingma. 11 Sprul sku o rgyan rin po che, 1920-1996. Ma yum kun bzang bde chen, 1924-1991. Chos kyi nyi ma rin po che, b. 1951. Mchog gling rin po che, b. 1953. 12 Such as, according to Lama Öser, Lama Wangdu Rinpoche and Sangye Nyenpa Rinpoche. Lama Öser, personal conversation with author, Boudhanath, May 5, 2014. 13 The hermitage and nunnery Nagi Gompa below Shivapuri and the retreat center Pema Ösel Ling in Pharping. 14 By organizing a several months long training in the TRT of all of his monks (and anyone else who wished to attend) at KNSL. This was followed by the establishment of the annual practice of this elaborate sādhana and a monthly practice of the concise Chöd practice, Tersar Lüjin. Since then lamas from KNSL have held Chöd seminars also at the centers abroad, most prominently in Gomde California. www.gomdeusa.org. 9 detailed training in the Tersar Lüjin and the TRT. Rinpoche named this newly featured “activity”15 focusing on Chöd “Bodhiprajñā Maṇḍala.”16 As mentioned above, the main Chöd texts this thesis will draw from are the TRT and the Tersar Lüjin. As will be discussed in greater detail later (in section 1.4.1), the TRT is an elaborate day-long Chöd sādhana (sgrub thabs, “accomplishment method”) practice traditionally attributed to the Third Karmapa Rangjung Dorjé (rang ’byung rdo rje, 1284– 1339). The TRT is established as an annual practice at KNSL on the 25th (Dākinī Day) of the auspicious fourth month (Saga Dawa, sa ga zla ba) in the Tibetan calendar. Besides this fixed date, it is now practiced several times during the year, often including the empowerment granted by Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche. The concise daily Chöd practice, Tersar Lüjin, is practiced every Dākinī Day throughout the year. In addition, lay practitioners practice it on a weekly basis in the monastery. Khenpo Tokpa Tulku explained that Rinpoche had stressed for many years previous to 2013 the importance of starting to train ordained and lay practitioners in Chöd. Khenpo Tokpa Tulku, interview (Boudhanath: May 11, 2017). “Activity” (phrin las) here refers to a master’s activities for the benefit of others. According to tradition, phrin las pertains to ‘enlightened activities,’ i.e. the activities of a realized being, which aim to establish all beings in enlightenment. 15 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explained that “bodhi” here refers to compassion and “prajñā” to wisdom. In terms of why Rinpoche is focusing on the study and practice of Chöd these days, he explained the following: The time is ripe (dus la bab) for the teachings of Chöd and Tara to spread. This is due to our previous karma and aspirations as well as due to the kindness of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Furthermore, this is the dark age of degeneration (snyig ma’i dus), which is teeming with people who are greedy, disturbed, distracted, attached to material wealth, always busy with body, speech, and mind, and so forth. However, at this time, people are also very sharp and very interested in study. Chöd is extremely effective in helping one let go of any kind of clinging and attachment to outer phenomena, to one’s body, and to the notion of a personal self. If one wants to be truly kind to oneself, one should strive in this way for enlightenment and practice the “undeluded view.” Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, “Teachings on Chöd,” Pharping, annual fall seminar retreat, November 27, 2015. As a senior student of Rinpoche, I became very involved in the practice and organization of teachings for lay practitioners for Rinpoche’s local and international students residing in Nepal, many of whom study or work at Rangjung Yeshe Institute, Boudhanath (www.ryi.org); also for students attending the annual Fall Seminars in 2014 and 2015. 16 10 Other texts used in Chöd instruction at KNSL and consulted in this thesis include the Concise Body Offering,17 The Garden of Joy,18 and Jamgön Kontrül Lodrö Thayé’s (’jam mgon kong sprul blo gros mtha’ yas, 1813-1899) chapter on Chöd in the Catalog of the Treasury of Precious Instructions.19 The TRT in particular orchestrates insight into and supports the upholding of the ultimate view in an elaborate and complex manner. The sādhana utilizes a wide range of intricate methods in addition to the elaborately visualized body offerings and fear-inducing settings commonly associated with Chöd. These methods include pointing out the view from the very beginning, renunciation, devotion, cultivation of compassion, the ejection of consciousness, the mingling of consciousness and space, the chanting of phaṭ, feast offerings (tshogs), and many more. While other Chöd sādhanas may use many of these methods as well, this sādhana has the unusual feature of being interspersed, from beginning to the end, with many pages of devotional supplications. Although the TRT is one of the earliest extant Chöd sādhanas, and practiced in many Tibetan Buddhist monasteries20 as well as in Western dharma centers,21 until now, no modern academic study has focused on this particular sādhana (a point I will return to below). Therefore, in addition to providing a study of how The Fourteenth Karmapa, Thekchok Dorje, “The Condensed Daily Practice of Offering the Body,” in Chöd Practice Manual and Commentary, V.V. Lama Lodö Rinpoche, trans. (Ithaca, Snow Lion: 2007), 23-33. TibetanŚ “rgyun khyer gyi lus sbyin bsdus pa,” ibid., 79-93. Also available inŚ [Thekchok Dorje,] “Concise Practice of Freely Offering the Body” in Khabje Tenga Rinpoche, Chö: The Garden of All Joy & Generosity of the Body, Venerable Lama Yeshe Gyamtso, trans. (Woodstock: KTD Publications, 2008), 150-168. (However, the author [Thekchok Dorje] of this Concise Practice is not mentioned in this book). 17 Jamgön Kongtrül Lodö Taye [sic!], “The Garden of All Joy,” in Chöd Practice Manual and Commentary, 35-80. TibetanŚ “lus chod sbyin gyi zin bris mdor bsdus kun dga’i skyed tshal,” ibid., 118-142. 18 19 Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Thayé, The Catalog of the Treasury of Precious Instructions, trans. Richard Barron (New York, Tsadra Foundation, 2013). http://www.tsadra.org/assets/the-catalog-of-the-treasury-ofprecious-instructions_tsadra-foundation.pdf. Accessed spring 2015. 20 For example, at KNSL and at Lama Wangdu’s monastery in Boudhanath. For example, Lama Gendün Rinpoche’s retreat centers in France and Germanyś Drigung Kagyü Office centers, in Canada, and so forth. www.drigung.com. 21 11 Chöd is practiced in a living tradition and the role of oral pith instructions, the present study might shed new light and yield important insights on this text as both a historical artifact and the basis of widespread modern practice. The second text featured in this thesis is the Tersar Lüjin (gTer gsar lus sbyin, “Giving the Body According to the New Treasures”), its full name being “The Concise Daily Liturgy for Giving the Body” (rGyun gyi lus sbyin mdor bsdus). “Tersar” refers here to the New Treasures (gter gsar) of Chokgyur Lingpa. According to this tradition, the terma (gter ma) root text contained in the Tersar Lüjin was directly composed by Guru Rinpoche (gu ru rin po che, 8th c.) and later revealed by Chokgyur Lingpa who is regarded as the emanation of his disciple Prince Murup Tsenpo.22 Karmai Khenpo Rinchen Dargye (kar ma’i mkhan po rin chen dar rgyas23), one of Chokgyur Lingpa’s main disciples, then arranged the text into the form of a traditional sādhana text, adding beginning and concluding sections to make the practice more accessible for the practitioner. While devotion is clearly a part of this practice, it is less obviously so than in the TRT. References to awareness are clearly pronounced throughout the text. However, in KNSL’s oral commentary of the Tersar Lüjin, both devotion and awareness are underscored and described as indispensable parts of Chöd practice. One interesting aspect of this sādhana is that it shares parts with the TRT, even though the TRT stems from a different style of lineage (bkha’ ma instead of gter ma)24 and a different tradition (Kagyü instead of Nyingma). The fact that KNSL utilizes two sādhanas 22 The second son of King Trisong Deutsen (khri srong lde bstan, 742-c. 800. 755-797 according to Chinese sources.). He is also regarded as an emanation of Guru Rinpoche. Khenpo Tokpa Tuku, interview. 23 Born 1823 (?). http://rywiki.tsadra.org/index.php/Karmey_Khenpo_Rinchen_Dargye. Strictly speaking, the differentiation between bkha’ ma and gter ma stems from the Nyingma tradition. Bkha’ ma, literally “the words of the Buddha,” refers to the non-terma, unbroken transmission of the Buddhist teachings. In the Nyingma tradition, these are traced back to Guru Rinpoche. Here, I use the term more loosely, referring to bkha’ ma as an opposition to revealed treasure teachings, namely as teachings stemming from the uninterrupted succession of oral transmission from master to disciple down until the present day. Besides bkha’ ma and gter ma, the Nyingma tradition lists a third lineage, namely the lineage of dag snang. 24 12 with such different lineages as their short and long Chöd practices will be briefly addressed in the chapter discussing the texts. As mentioned above, the oral pith instructions are indispensable for understanding and executing these sādhana practices.25 In fact, according to tradition, one is not allowed to practice a sādhana without having received its pith instructions from a spiritual master.26 Although there are also pith instructions that have been written down and are available as texts, one should ideally receive personal guidance and pointing out (ngo sprod) of the view from a realized master. Thus, the oral pith instructions are understood to enable a conceptual as well as a non-conceptual transmission of the view. While a correct conceptual understanding is regarded as an important foundation and framework for the practice, it is considered to be a mere stepping stone to the ultimate goal of upholding non-conceptual awareness. The oral instructions stress that awareness, alone27 is the antidote to all concepts. This view is regarded as the main point of Chöd practice, and should be sustained throughout the sādhana and thereafter, to whatever extent is possible. In the pith instruction lineage of KNSL, the masters emphasize that, while the view is the essential practice, compassion and devotion are the main methods (thabs) to recognize and sustain it, and devotion is arguably more essential. While compassion is the most 25 Tulku Jampal Dorjé, Talk on Chöd (KNSL, Boudhanath: November 21, 2015). Lama Tsültrim Sangpo (LTS), Chöd Teachings Session 1 (S1) (Gomde California [CA], 2015), notes by Tina Lang, 6. Umze (dbu mdzad) Karma Sherap, Talk on Chöd 1 (KNSL, Boudhanath: November 21, 2015). 26 While Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche allows those who are interested to sit in during Chöd practices, he asks everyone who seriously wants to take up this practice to have the following prerequisites: refuge vows, bodhisattva vows, the respective empowerments, hearing transmissions, guidance instructions, and pith instructions. 27 In the Dzokchen tradition, the main antidote to concepts is awareness itself, rather than applying a remedy that has steps in-between, such as analyzing or “looking” for the source of the concept. Of course, a practitioner unfamiliar with awareness will utilize such methods to arrive in awareness. For example, one might bring the purity of all things to mind, one might apply compassion to remedy anger, etc. 13 important means in general Mahāyāna, in the tantric tradition overwhelming, heartfelt devotion is said to be the crucial method for recognition and enhancement of the view.28 Devotion is complex and has different meanings as the practitioner progresses. For a novice practitioner, devotion might be an interest in dharma practice and in realization. As one understands more and experiences the benefits of this devotion, such as a mind that is more calm, kind, and clear, devotion towards the teachings and its teachers increases. Through an authentic experience of awareness, an unshakable, even unbearable devotion is said to manifest. Tradition explains that fervent devotion can become so powerful that it jolts one out of the state of clinging and confusion into a state of non-conceptual awareness. In this way, devotion is both a cause for as well as a result of realization as it transforms from mere interest to a powerfully emotional and finally even non-conceptual state of mind. At the same time, it moves one from self-interest to selflessness. As heartfelt devotion is said to be able to do this in a very swift and effective manner, Chöd strongly implements this method to speed up the practitioner’s progress on the path to enlightenment. In this way, devotion plays an essential role with regard to the pointing-out instruction (ngo sprod) mentioned above as well as to one’s personal practice and therefore is an indispensable theme in the pith instructions. Consequently, awareness and devotion are tightly interwoven, one influencing the other. Both topics are highly dependent on and related to a personal master and his or her oral instructions. Besides the non-conceptual, experiential aspect tradition associates with oral instructions, these pith instructions add something to how the texts are understood; therefore, they are a necessary additional “text.” This is not to say that compassion is not crucial in Vajrayāna, as compassion and renunciation are fundamental aspects of any tantric practice. This will be discussed in detail in the framework chapter (3). 28 14 1.2. Literature review 1.2.1. Overview of academic approaches to Chöd Scholars have approached Chöd in many different ways. Western interest in Chöd started in the late 19th and early 20th century with a fascination for the macabre nature of the body offering.29 Since then, Chöd often has been presented as stemming mostly from “shamanism.”30 In the last thirty years, several authors, such as Janet Gyatso (1985),31 Jérôme Edou (1996),32 Jeffrey Cupchick (2009),33 and Michelle Sorensen (2013),34 have taken issue with this and established Chöd as a Buddhist practice. Some recent academics highlight the practice environment wherein one intensifies obsessions and emotions to then utilize Chöd as a radical method to cut through egoclinging.35 Such scholars particularly discuss the role of fear for spiritual enhancement. 36 They also discuss the four māras as explained by Machik.37 From a more ethnographical Michelle Sorensen, “An Offering of ChödŚ Review of Machik’s Complete Explanation, by Sarah Harding” (H-Buddhism, H-Net Reviews, September 2006). 29 30 Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 9. For example, Giacomella Orofino, “The Great Mother and the Gcod Tradition,” in Tantra in Practice, ed. David Gordon White (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 396, 398. Janet Gyatso, “The Development of the Gcod Tradition,” in Soundings in Tibetan Civilization, eds. Barbara Nimri Aziz and Matthew Kapstein (New Delhi: Manohar, 1985). 31 32 Jérôme Edou, Machig Labdrön and the Foundations of Chöd (Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications, 1996). Jeffrey W. Cupchick, “The Tibetan Buddhist Gcod Ritual Meditation PracticeŚ A Study of the Music, Liturgy, Transmission, and Performance,” PhD diss. (Toronto, York University, 2009). For example, Cupchick, writes in his PhD dissertation, “Chöd has been mistakenly theorised as a shamanic rite, a sacrificial offering and even a barbaric feast”. Cupchick, “The Tibetan Buddhist Gcod,” 8. 33 34 Sorensen, “Making the Old New.” 35 For example, Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation; Michael Sheehy, “Severing the Source of FearŚ Contemplative Dynamics of the Tibetan Buddhist Gcod Tradition,” in Contemporary Buddhism, Vol. 6, No. 1, May 2005. 36 Sheehy, “Severing the Source of Fear.” For example, Sorensen, “Making the Old New.” Edou, Machig Labdrön; These four māras (bdud) or demons are: (1) the tangible demon (thogs bcas pa’i bdud), (2) the intangible demon (thogs med kyi bdud), (3) the demon of exultation (dga’ btrod bdud), and (4) the demon of inflation (snyems byed kyi bdud). For 37 15 perspective, Jeffrey Cupchik discusses the various functions of music during the Chöd rituals,38 and Chon Lee Chuan focuses on the usage of the sound “phaṭ.”39 Several scholars have researched early texts to investigate what early Chöd might have looked like. For example, as mentioned above, in “Did Machik Really Teach Chöd?” Sarah Harding concludes that there is not enough textual material to warrant attributing the body offering practice to Machik. Furthermore, besides philosophical content, academic Chöd literature also discusses the role of Machik Labdrön,40 her life41 and her previous lives.42 alternative translations see Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 37, 290. Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 210-224. 38 Cupchik, “The Tibetan Buddhist Gcod." 39 Lee Chuan Chon, “Phet Singing in Chod dByangsŚ Music as a Reflection of Mind” (MA thesis, University of Hawai’i at Manoa, 2000). 40 For example, Janet Gyatso, “The Development.” For example, Karénina Kollmar-Paulenz, “Ma gcig lab sgron ma – The Life of a Tibetan Woman Mystic Between Adaption and Rebellion,” Tibet Journal 23/2 (1998): 11-32. 41 42 For example, Adelheid Hermann-Pfandt, “On a Previous Birth Story of Ma gCig Lab sgron ma,” Tibet Journal 25/3 (2000): 19-31. 16 Many modern academics have also approached Chöd through the lens of philosophy,43 history,44 feminism,45 psychology,46 linguistics,47 textual analysis,48 and anthropology.49 Consequently, scholars have contributed a great deal to the unraveling of the topic of Chöd, which shows itself in many different ways throughout history, horizontally as well as vertically. Thus, scholars researching Chöd have offered very valuable contributions. The abovementioned ongoing academic discussion as to whether Chöd stems mostly from pre-Buddhist or Buddhist sources continues to shed light on the philosophical and historical roots of Chöd. Many substantial translations, such as those Chöd texts translated by Harding, Sorensen, and Edou, are now accessible to both scholars and practitioners.50 Researchers such as Gyatso, Edou, Harding, and Sorensen, have undertaken extensive study of primary sources, often For example, Harding Machik’s Complete Explanation; Gyatso, “The Developmentś” Edou, Machig Labdrön. For example, Michelle Sorensen pointed out how “Mahāmudrā Chöd” was explained to be superior to commonly known Mahāmudrā, to Madhyamaka, Dzokchen, and so forth. Sorensen “Making the Old New,” 262-265. 43 44 For example, Sorensen “Making the Old New,” Edou, Machig Labdrön. For example, Janet Gyatso clarified that at times previous scholars confused Machik Labdrön with Machik Zhachungma (zha chung ma). Gyatso, “The Development,” 329, n. 34. For example, Hermann-Pfandt, “On a Previous Birthś” Edou, Machig Labdrön. Karérina KollmarPaulenz, for example, pointed out how Machik’s life story exemplifies the tensions Tibetan Buddhist female practitioners might experience in terms of social obligations and seeking spiritual liberation. Kollmar-Paulenz, “Ma gcig lab sgron ma,” 25. 45 46 For example, Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation; Edou, Machig Labdrön; Joshua Schauls, “The Outer, Inner, and Secret Aspects of Chöd,” BA Honor Thesis (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe Institute, 2011. Although Joshua Schauls’ work is “only” a BA Honors thesis, as he points out important information omitted by other scholars writing on Chöd, I feel his work is worthy of academic attention). Michael Sheehy, for example, showed how Chöd confronts subconscious notions of fear and how the practice provides ample methods to deconstruct subtle psychic tendencies. Michael Sheehy, “Severing the Source of Fear,” 44. 47 For example, Sorensen “Making the Old New.” For example, Sorensen “Making the Old Newś” Harding, “Did Machik Lapdrön Really Teach Chöd?” Gyatso, “The Developmentś” Sheehy, “Severing the Source of Fearś” Edou, Machig Labdrön. 48 49 For example, Gyatso, “The Developmentś” Edou, Machig Labdrön. For example, Edou, Machig Labdrön; Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanationś Sorensen, “Making the Old New.” 50 17 introducing previously unknown Chöd texts to other academics.51 The clarification of important terms such as “gods-and-demons,”52 for example, by Harding, and the presentation of new translations of Chöd terminology,53 for example, by Michael Sheehy, have stimulated the field. Constructive critique, such as by Sorensen, Joshua Schauls, or Adelheid HermannPfandt, invites scholars to further discussion and research.54 Scholars like Giacomella Orofino took a deeper look at the meaning of “demons” in Chöd practice.55 Harding and Sorensen, for example, revealed new information by comparing Chöd texts.56 Some researchers, such as Cupchick and Schauls, have further fine-tuned the understanding of Chöd by beginning to investigate different levels of Chöd practice.57 Others, such as Karénina Kollmar-Paulenz and Hermann-Pfandt, presented intriguing viewpoints on Machik’s life and her previous incarnation.58 This list does by no means credit all the meaningful academic contributions nor does it acknowledge all the excellent scholars in this field. Therefore, I encourage the reader to further explore academic literature on Chöd and to directly consult modern academics’ work. 1.2.2. General critique For example, Harding, “Did Machik Lapdrön Really Teach Chöd?” Sorensen, “Making the Old Newś” Gyatso, “The Developmentś” Edou, Machig Labdrön. 51 52 For example, Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation. 53 For example, Sheehy, “Severing the Source of Fear.” For example, Sorensen, “Making the Old Newś” Schauls, “Aspects of Chödś” Adelheid HermannPfandt, “Review of Machig Labdrön and the Foundations of Chöd,” Tibet Journal 23/3 (1998): 93-102. 54 55 For example, Orofino, “The Great Mother.” 56 For example, Harding, “Did Machik Lapdrön Really Teach Chöd?” Sorensen, “Making the Old New.” For example, Schauls, “Aspects of Chöd.” I particularly liked Cupchick’s phrasing, when he distinguishes between a “practice-centered performance” of advanced Chöd practitioners versus a “performance-centered practice” of a beginner. Cupchick, “The Tibetan Buddhist Gcod,” 445. 57 58 For example, Hermann-Pfandt, “On a Previous Birthś” Kollmar-Paulenz, “Ma gcig lab sgron ma.” 18 One of the most recent and very thorough works on Chöd is Michelle Sorensen’s dissertation, “Making the Old New Again and Again.” In this work, she criticizes tendencies of current research, such as ahistoricim59 and exoticization.60 Others, such as HerrmannPfandt, also point out the need for scholars to be more precise about certain content and context in Chöd.61 Another problem is general claims about Chöd without specification of which tradition is being described. Some of these claims do not, for example, apply to the Chöd practices at KNSL.62 Furthermore, some statements about visualizations could be further refined, as some descriptions sound as if one should visualize oneself being killed63 and oneself being devoured by demons.64 Yet, in the Chöd texts and practices I have studied thus far, one visualizes one’s consciousness as a ḍākinī; thereafter, the physical form that we have left behind (lus) is cut into pieces either by oneself manifesting as that ḍākinī, or by other emanations of oneself. The body parts are thrown into the cauldron-like skull and distilled 59 She also criticizes lamas and Buddhist students for ahistoric presentations, but adds that for their purposes—meaning practice—this might be a non-issue. Furthermore, she criticizes many translations into the English language, such as Sarah Harding’s Machik’s Complete Explanation, as “not complemented by sufficient contextualization nor by critical examination of the philosophical and practical content.” Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 11. 60 Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 19. Adelheid Herrmann-Pfandt, “Review of Machig Labdrön and the Foundations of Chöd,” Tibet Journal 23/3 (1998): 93-102. 61 For example, Orofino states thatŚ “In this system, however, cutting off the ego takes on a very specific connotation, as it is based not so much on philosophical speculation as on ritual procedure…” Orofino, “The Great Mother,” 398. This sounds as if all Chöd practitioners never approached egolessness through philosophical study, and that it is mainly the ritual that provides this insight. While this might be the case for some practitioners, at KNSL many of the monks practicing Chöd approach egolessness foremost through either analysis stemming from philosophical training, or/and through the oral pith instructions (including the pointingout instructions) of a qualified master. In other words, Chöd practice at KNSL cannot be described as merely following a ritual, but is embedded in frameworks which are presented through philosophy, guidance instructions, practical, pithy key points, and – according to this tradition – nonverbal, or even non-conceptual transmissions of a realized master. Consequently, the Chöd practitioner engages in the ritual with either an intellectual or experiential understanding of egolessness. 62 63 Herrmann-Pfandt, “On a Previous Birth,” 21. 64 Ibid. 19 into a nectar, which is then presented, as is, or transformed into whatever the recipients might desire. Considering that one’s consciousness in a new ḍākinī body is neither slaughtered nor devoured, these descriptions could be misleading. Another problem concerns confusion between the practice as merely a sādhana or as a path which includes a sādhana. For example, in Machik’s Complete Explanation, Harding mainly talks about Chöd as a sādhana practice, although in her translation it is implied that Chöd is a complete Buddhist path.65 The Dudjom Tersar Chöd tradition is also presented as a whole path, containing its own preliminary, sādhana, and rtsa-rlung practices, up to the Nyingma tradition’s highest teachings on Trekchö (khregs chod) and Thögal (thod rgal).66 Thus, studies on Chöd would do well to regard the practice more holistically and explicitly accentuate that the practitioner is meant to apply in everyday life the insights gained through training in a sādhana. Another critique of previous work on Chöd is the relative lack of attention to the oral tradition. As indicated above, academics might benefit from a closer examination of this. For example, the present tradition at KNSL mandates oral instructions in order for practitioners to understand and practice a text. The implication is that scholars exploring present-day Chöd practice texts might want to consult the associated oral instructions if they intend to adequately describe how the sādhanas are understood and practiced by the living tradition. Furthermore, the self-understanding of such an oral tradition could help generate contrast for or contribute to academic understanding and explanations. 65 For example, the texts include sections of meditating extensively on preliminary practices (in the chapter “Tönyön’s Questions on Chöd,”147-151). They include description of and practices involving energy currents (for example, in the chapter “Questions of Gyenema,” 197-201), and clarifications of Mahāmudra and Dzokchen in Chöd (for example, in the chapter “Questions of Tönyön Samdrup,” 114-115.) Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation. 66 Interview with Dana Chubb, long-time practitioner of the Dudjom Chöd (Boudhanath: April 8, 2014). As for a practice text, see Dudjom Rinpoche Jigdral Yeshe Dorje (bdud ‘joms ‘jigs bral ye shes rdo rje, 1904-1987), “Main Practice from the Expansive Treasury of the Sky-Like Dharmata: The Sadhana of Tröma Nagmo called The Sun of Primordial Wisdom.” Restricted sādhana. No details on translator, publisher, date. 20 With regard to this, scholars might draw inspiration from Ulrich T. Kragh’s compelling study,67 wherein he takes a later subtext into consideration when researching an earlier epi-text. Kragh examines the Yogācārabhūmi (YBh, 3rd/4th century) through the lens of the Dakpö Kabum,68 a text focusing on similar topics composed centuries later for the benefit of Tibetan practice communities. In Kragh’s opinion, taking into account this subsequent text leads one to generate “a broader understanding in which the abstract epi-text can be interpreted and reinterpreted,” and thereby “raise new and different hermeneutical horizons for the study of the YBh.”69 Similarly, one could consider the “text” of present-day oral Chöd instructions to broaden the horizons of interpretation of older Chöd sādhana texts. One could also consider that some aspects of Chöd may not appear at all in the written texts, standing on their own, because these were probably also accompanied by pith instructions. Though it may be impossible to know exactly how these texts were interpreted and put into practice centuries ago, the possible influence of the associated oral tradition should be taken into consideration. Finally, to reiterate, the Chöd tradition at KNSL features awareness and devotion as crucial elements of practice which should be cultivated not only during formal sādhana practice sessions, but at all times thereafter. The fact that tradition aims to carry elements of sādhana practice into every-day life probably is not unique to KNSL; instead, it is a feature of much of Vajrayāna, but has not been stressed by scholars. Furthermore, all of KSNL’s Vajrayāna practices are embedded in this framework of awareness, devotion, compassion, and renunciation. Without demonstrating the predominance of such frameworks, common to Ulrich Timme Kragh, “All Mind, No Text - All Text, No MindŚ Tracing Yogācāra in the Early Bka’ Brgyud Literature of Dags po,” in The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners: The Buddhist Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and its Adaptation in India, East Asia and Tibet, ed. Ulrich T. Kragh (Cambridge: Harvard University, Department of South Asian Studies, 2013), 1362-1386. 67 68 Dags po bka’ bum, traditionally attributed to Sgam po pa (1079-1153), first printed edition 1520. 69 Kragh, “All Mind, No Text,” 1384. 21 many living practice communities, one may misrepresent how a sādhana is understood and practiced. According to the KNSL tradition, it is the oral pith instructions that underscore these vital practice elements found within the complex sādhana and which should be directly utilized throughout the practitioner’s day. 1.2.3. Critique regarding devotion Arousing devotion and receiving blessings in Chöd practice are mentioned in a number of academic studies, however they are not sufficiently emphasized relative to the role they play in practice traditions. For example, Harding indicates that these are a part of Chöd practice,70 when she lists “supplication and bringing down the blessings”71 as the fifth of seven parts in the usual sequence of Chöd practice summarized in the fifth chapter in the Machik Namshe (ma gcig rnam bshad).72 Orofino brings up a fourfold division of “[1] awareness of emptiness, [2] love for one’s neighbor, [3] observance of Bodhisattva conduct, and [4] devotion to one’s master and spiritual lineage” in the main principles of Chöd, which she explains as stemming from the Blue Annals.73 Jamgön Kongtrül also describes these same four main themes of Chöd in his Catalog.74 Here, the fourth principle is “devotion to one’s master and spiritual lineage.”75 Michelle Sorensen mentions that a practitioner should never Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 17, 50. Harding points out that in Chöd compassion is the main method to realize wisdom. For example, Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 55. However, in some Chöd texts, such as the TRT, devotion is a much more central theme than compassion 70 71 Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 17. 72 See: section on supplicating and bringing down the blessings. Ibid., 162-163. The complete Tibetan title of Machik’s Complete Explanation is “Phung po gzan skyur gyi rnam bshad gcod kyi don gsal byed,” in short, “ma gcig rnam bshad.” See Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation. According to Sorensen also, “Rnam bshad chen mo.” Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 3. Its present form possibly composed as late as 19th century. Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 264. 73 Orofino, “The Great Mother,” 401. However, here the four themes are phrased a bit differently, “They abide in [1] emptiness, yet [2] do not in any way forsake ordinary beings. They [3] act according to whatever is taught and [4] are imbued with the blessings of sugatas.” Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Thayé, The Catalog, 77-78. 74 75 Orofino, “The Great Mother,” 401. 22 be separated from compassion, devotion, and emptiness when summarizing The Uncommon Section, which she translated in her appendix.76 While discourses on faith, devotion, respect, and blessings appear quite frequently in the primary sources Sorensen has translated, she does not treat these in the main part of her work. In this way, although the role of devotion within the Chöd tradition is at times acknowledged in the scholarly literature it is referred to rather indirectly.77 Indeed, the role and nature of devotion, and particularly guru devotion, is seldom discussed in academic studies of Tibetan Buddhism in general, in stark contrast to the profound significance in the tradition.78 In the TRT, for example, devotion is so fundamental that Karma Chakmé Rinpoché (karma chags med rin po che, 1613-1678) even calls it essentially a guru yoga practice.79 1.2.4. Critique regarding awareness Scholars describe the ultimate view (don dam pa’i lta ba) of Chöd in different ways. For example, Gyatso, Edou, and Harding equate Chöd with Mahāmudrā, with a strong influence of Prajñāpāramitā. Sorensen fine-tunes this a bit by claiming that the designation of “Mahāmudrā Chöd” was Rangjung Dorjé’s presentation rather than Machik Labdrön’s, explaining that in this way, he “initiated the historical process through which Chöd became known as ‘Mahāmudrā Chöd.’”80 However, Sorensen also believes that, as a later development, the Chöd tradition, itself, might have been “adapting and altering Mahāmudrā 76 Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” for example, 277, 438, 455, 457,458. 77 Orofino, “The Great Mother,” 409. Ishwor C.V.S. Shrestha, “The Politics of DevotionŚ Grags pa rGyal mTshan’s Theory of Guru Worship,” MA thesis (KathmanduŚ Rangjung Yeshe Institute, 2013), 10. 78 79 Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland of Chöd Liturgy,” Tashi T. Jamyangling, trans., Karma Chakmé, ed. (Toronto: Drigung Kagyu Office, 2009), http://drigung.com/translations.html. Accessed January 2014, 504. Guru yoga is the practice where one brings forth heartfelt devotion through fervent supplications (for example, to the lineage masters or a deity,) recalling their enlightened qualities. Next one visualizes receiving the four empowerments, and finally one mingles one’s mind with their enlightened mind. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, fall seminar 2015, KNSL. 80 Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 258. 23 principles for its own purposes.”81 She states that the Machik Namshe, attributed to Machik, explains Mahāmudrā Chöd as the culmination of all types of Mahāmudrā.82 Joshua Schauls also described the ultimate view of Chöd practice as Mahāmudrā and Dzokchen.83 Several recent authors draw attention to Jamgön Kontrül Lodrö Thayé’s view84 that the main practice of Chöd is wisdom, aided by “Opening the Door to the Sky.” Harding describes this as the superior phowa, namely, to simply rest in the nature of mind.85 In Machik’s Complete Explanation, Harding sees awareness (rig pa,) as the main practice;86 however, she highlights this as being practiced at the point of phowa87 and the dissolution stage. Michael Sheehy also mentions awareness as being practiced at the dissolution stage.88 81 Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 262. 82 Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 263. For a different accentuation of this issue, see Ibid. 37. 83 Schauls, “Aspects of Chöd,” 31-34. Sorensen, “Making the Old Newś” Edou, Machig Labdrön; Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation. 84 Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 51. For more details see Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 199-208. All the other practices, such as the visualized body offerings, are branch-practices, and meant for post-meditation (rjes thob). Post-meditation (rjes thob) refers to any activity done before or after a formal session of meditative equipoise (mnyam bzhag). This can include ordinary activities such as eating, sleeping, walking, and so forth, but it also refers to Buddhist practices other than sitting meditation. In the pith instruction lineage of KNSL, however, for a practitioner who recognized the nature of mind, or awareness (rig pa), meditative equipoise would refer to any moment of remaining in the nature of mind, whether during sitting meditation, another practice, or ordinary activities. Accordingly, post-meditation would refer to any moment of not remaining in the nature of mind, whether during sitting meditation, another practice, or ordinary activities. In this way, the more advanced the practitioner, the more she or he will be focusing on practicing the nature of mind throughout all practices or activities, while at the time of just becoming familiar with the nature of mind, one might have a specific place, for example, in one’s Chöd sādhana practice, where one attempts to rest in the nature of mind. According to Kongtrül’s statement in Harding’s Machik’s Complete Explanation, this is at the section of separating consciousness and body, utilizing this special strategy called “Opening the Door to the Sky.” In this way, it seems that Kongtrül suggests using this method to recognize or gain certainty in awareness and that he is addressing middling and beginning-advanced practitioners, rather than middling-advanced and higher-advanced practitioners. I conclude this because KNSL’s tradition, which also stems from Kongtrül would highlight that the more advanced practitioner is meant to sustain awareness as often and as long as possible throughout the entire Chöd practice and not just at one or two specific points. 85 86 Orofino, “The Great Mother,” 50. 87 Quoting Kongtrül for authorization of this statement. Sheehy, “Severing the Source of Fear,” 43 (citing “Harding 2003, 49-56”). It is interesting that he only drew attention to the dissolution stage as being linked to resting in “wakeful awareness,” as Harding herself (and according to her, also Kongtrül) mainly highlight ’pho ba, and barely mention the dissolution stage. 88 24 Concerning the ultimate, Orofino has more to say. In the context of the four themes of Chöd, she lists “awareness of emptiness” as the first principle.89 At an earlier point, she explains the basic principle of the practice to involve annihilating the ego by severing or "cutting off demons.”90 While Orofino does acknowledge that emptiness, cutting through ego-clinging, is the basic principle, at a later point she presents it as something that happens after the body offering rather than an aspect that is supposed be practiced at all times.91 Schauls, however, refines this understanding and points out that tradition speaks of outer, inner, and secret aspects of Chöd. Regarding secret Chöd practice, he discusses Mahāmudrā and Dzokchen, saying that “all Chöd practices are suffused with the highest view from the beginning”92 and that one is meant to continue the whole practice from this perspective. Most scholars, however, do not explicitly accentuate this important role of awareness, or the approximation of awareness, as the underlying practice of all aspects of a Chöd sādhana. Similarly, they do not stress awareness as something to be sustained outside the practice session. 1.2.5. Tsoklé Rinchen Trengwa and Rangjung Dorjé The academic literature on Chöd has little to say about the TRT. Although this sādhana is practiced in many Tibetan communities and Western Dharma centers, one finds scant mention of it beyond an occasional footnote.93 As for the TRT’s author, Rangjung 89 Orofino, “The Great Mother,” 401. 90 Ibid., 396. 91 Ibid., 406. 92 Schauls, “Aspects of Chöd,” 31. Some of the sources briefly mentioning the TRT are: Edou, Machig Labdrönś Sorensen, “Making the Old Newś” Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation; Schauls, “Aspects of Chödś” Sheehy, “Severing the Source of Fear.” 93 25 Dorjé, many note his significant role in the codification of Chöd.94 Many also introduce the editor, Karma Chakmé, as a major contributor to the Chöd tradition,95 and therefore quote him extensively.96 As will be presented later, Sorensen discusses Rangjung Dorjé and his interpretation of Chöd at length, but not the TRT. 1.2.6. Summary of literature review To sum up, academic studies have presented an ever-deepening analysis of Chöd. However, scholars have not discussed at length the roles of awareness and devotion within the Chöd tradition. Because traditions such as KNSL’s describe these as key elements of practice, a thorough examination of devotion, awareness, and their interrelatedness seems necessary in order to present Chöd traditions in a more nuanced and complete manner. Moreover, given their indispensable role in the practice of Chöd in general (and with respect to awareness and devotion in particular) further academic attention to the oral pith instructions is warranted. 1.3. Methodology In order to accurately capture the KNSL’s tradition’s self-understanding of Chöd— and specifically the roles devotion and awareness play within this tradition of Chöd—I approach the subject through the method of a ‘thick description,’97 namely, by elaborating upon the framework in which Chöd is practiced. This term is borrowed from Clifford Geertz 94 For exampleŚ Gyatso, “The Development,” 335. 95 For example: ibid. 96 For example, Edou, Machig Labdrön. 97 Gilbert Ryle (1968), popularized by Clifford Geertz as a methodology in his ethnographical studies (1973). Gilbert Ryle, “The Thinking of ThoughtsŚ What is ‘Le Pensour’ Doing?” (1968), in Collected Essays, vol. two, 1929-1968 (New York: Routledge, 2009). Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1977). In her dissertation Michelle Sorensen also aims for a “thicker description” of Chöd. See Sorensen, “Making the Old New Again,” 19. 26 who draws a distinction between a ‘thin description,’ whereby a scholar either observes, for example, a ritual while grasping the performance as a mere onlooker, and a better informed ‘thick description’ which would include a fine distinction of the ritual’s intent and the inner meaningful structures.98 While I pay detailed attention to the self-understanding of the living tradition, this thesis is not an ethnographical undertaking. My focus is a thick description of the pedagogy of this Chöd tradition. Thus, my analysis is not based primarily on observed behavior or practice, but on the theoretical doctrinal content and prescription for said behavior and practice. In this respect, my research provides substantial disclosure regarding how the ritual is taught, how it is designed to mature the mind of the practitioner, and how this links to daily life and in doing so might contribute to or compliment future ethnographic study. In sum, my thesis seeks to also demonstrate the relationship of KNSL’s sādhana texts with the philosophical-religious99 framework of this specific tradition, in order to study individual elements of Chöd practice and their interrelatedness. I also explain how Chöd practice transforms as one develops as a practitioner. KNSL’s practice tradition involves a great variety of philosophical-religious frameworks,100 as it adopts a harmonizing stance influenced by Mipham Rinpoche ('jam mgon mi pham rgya mtsho, 1846-1912), and the Rime (ris med) movement of the 19th century. Indeed, the entirety of the Buddha’s teachings is understood to be relevant for a particular audience or to oneself at specific times and places. While this context is important 98 Geertz, The Interpretation, 3-30. 99 Particularly in Buddhism, philosophy and religion might overlap. However, often the term “philosophy” relates to a rational investigation of the truth, while religion allows for other sources, such as faith, meditative experience, non-conceptual transmissions, etc. Other such frameworks would be approaching the sādhana through a presentation of how it relates to the three vehicles (the fundamental vehicle, the great vehicle, and the vajra vehicle). It could also be approached, and this is particularly true in terms of Chöd practice, through the six pāramitās and its linked practices and philosophies. An introduction to a sādhana would also be framed within the general introduction of development and completion stages (bskyed rim, rdzogs rim), etc. 100 27 to keep in mind, an in-depth discussion of it would far exceed the scope of this thesis. Instead, this thesis features one of these frameworks, namely the pith instructions accentuating renunciation, compassion, devotion, and awareness. For decades, KNSL’s abbot, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, has repeatedly presented this very framework as utterly indispensable to practice in general.101 Regarding oral instructions, two types are distinguished: guidance instructions (khrid) and pith instructions (men ngag102). Guidance instructions often appear as a step-by-step ‘meaning commentary’ delineating precisely how the sādhana is to be practice. Such instructions are frequently divided into sections detailing the historical context, the lineage transmission, the philosophy, performance-related matters, and so forth. As for the performance of Chöd, specific melodies, drum and bell patterns, the correct sequence of the texts, and so forth are taught. As a result, such guidance instructions can be quite elaborate. Pith instructions are intended to dispel confusion and impart the quintessential points of a Vajrayāna practice; in the case of Chöd, this boils down to gaining stability in awareness, the nature of mind. Passed from spiritual master to suitable apprentice, such instructions usually take the form of very simple, direct, easily understood language that brings the practitioner face-to-face with his or her own nature. Their target is not one’s intellect but rather to pierce one’s heart, so to speak. Once the practitioner tastes the experience of authentic awareness—momentary liberation—mere intellectual understanding takes a back 101 For example, in terms of practice, Rinpoche focused the audience of the Fall Seminar 2015 on the practice of Chöd. Having stressed the importance of this practice and provided a general introduction, Rinpoche arranged for one of the senior monastic teachers and ritual experts, Umze Karma Sherap, to teach sessions every evening to those interested. However, during his teaching sessions, Rinpoche himself concentrated on the general context according to the pith instructions, namely the interrelationship of the nature of mind, or awareness, and renunciation, compassion, and devotion. In an afternoon teaching session more specifically focusing on Chöd, Tulku Jampal Dorjé (b. 1955) clarified that it is imperative to understand Chöd practice within this framework. 102 Sometimes also gdam ngag. 28 seat. A ‘shift’ has occurred, and henceforth the sādhana practice is ardently pursed as a direct path to complete enlightenment. Of course, both types of oral instructions are adjusted to an individual’s capacity, meaning varying levels of profundity of an element of practice are revealed, as will be demonstrated in later chapters. In particular, very personal pith instructions are meant to lift the veils of confusion and bring about at least some measure of positive transformation and insight, even if primarily an emotional response.103 In this way, the tradition mandates that Chöd texts, such as the Tsoklé Rinchen Trengwa and the Tersar Lüjin, be accompanied by personal teachings and discussions with the spiritual masters, lamas, teachers, and practitioners of the practice. Since the oral instructions determine the approach, outlook, and framework that underlies the entire Chöd sādhana, this second layer of “text,” comprised of the insights gained from the living practice tradition, is decisive in keeping the practice potent. However, study of the oral instructions presents a significant challenge for the researcher, as the oral instructions themselves are neither fixed nor stagnant. As the practitioner progresses along the path, he or she will start to understand more and more profound levels of meaning embedded within the same oral teachings. One is advised to repeatedly check one’s understanding and experience with an authentic, i.e. realized master. Masters will then provide teachings of increased profundity in accordance with one’s progress. In this way, as one receives, understands, and experiences more advanced stages of the practice, the manner in which one practices Chöd will transform accordingly. The fact that this thesis examines a present-day living tradition, rather than relies upon historical or purely textual research, makes for specific opportunities. Precisely because a 103 It is important to add here that there are pith instructions available in written form, too. However, usually one is not allowed to read them without having received the reading transmission as well as the oral teachings on this particular text or received pointing-out instructions (ngo sprod) which clarify this type of text. 29 dynamic very alive tradition of practice is being held under the microscope, we can scrutinize more closely the relationship between a sādhana text and its accompanying oral instructions rather than second-guess how the practice was carried out in past centuries. Because my relationship to the KNSL tradition has contributed to my ability to access certain oral sources and to my overall perspective/understanding I think it relevant to mention some details of it here. In 1989, I arrived in Nepal to further my studies of Buddhism and have resided there ever since. From 1990 until 1998, I lived in Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling’s layquarters and later in the area surrounding the monastery. This allowed me to form close bonds with the masters and monastics of this lineage. Although I spent eighteen years as a school teacher at Kathmandu’s American school, throughout the years I was very fortunate to continually receive instructions from the masters of Ka-Nying’s very specific tradition. While approaching Buddhism as a practitioner, I was also interested in the academic study of Buddhism. Having begun my academic study of Buddhism at the University of Vienna prior to coming to Nepal, I recently resumed them at Kathmandu University’s Centre for Buddhist Studies at Rangjung Yeshe Institute—the Institute itself is housed in the KNSL monastery and overseen by its abbot, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche. Because of my long-standing familiarity with and easy access to KNSL scholar-practitioners, I believe that I can offer a valuable contribution to current scholarly discussions of Chöd with this study. Most relevant to the project, is the fact that I was fortunate to be able to attend many of the Chöd teachings provided for the monks at KNSL and most of the instructions provided for lay-practitioners since 2013. I was also granted access to audio and video recordings of our lamas teaching these practices at the monastery’s Dharma centers abroad.104 In addition, I was able to conduct many personal interviews to clarify questions and refine my 104 Lama Tsültrim Sangpo, in Rangjung Yeshe Gomde California; Lama Öpak and Phakchok Rinpoche in Singapore. 30 understanding. Indeed, it was in the course of my research that I came to fully realize just how indispensable the oral instructions are for understanding the practice of Chöd in this lineage. Some might argue that my research is biased because I am so close to the tradition. These days, academic studies are whirling with stimulating discussions about whether or not a practitioner should shed his or her perspective as an ‘insider,’ and strive to research and present their Buddhist findings in an unbiased scholarly manner.105 While scholars like Bruce Lincoln imply that an insider lacks a critical enough lens through which a religion must be viewed, others, like Martin Jaffee, claim there is no such thing as a theory-free impartial study of anything.106 The fact is we always have our own intrinsic perspective, whether in religious or secular matters. In light of this, David Hufford argues that whether a scholar is an insider or an outsider is unimportant; what truly matters is his or her degree of reflexivity that contributes to scholarly objectivity and the control of underlying biases.107 Furthermore, he states that “the tendency to count disbelief as the ‘objective’ stance is a serious, systematic bias that runs through most academic studies of spiritual belief.”108 Michael Cantrell goes a step beyond this and argues that such “methodological atheism performs no proper normative function in the academic study of religion; it fabricates, trivializes, and renders inexpressible For example, seeŚ Lincoln. McCutcheon, Jaffee, Duncan Williams. Bruce Lincoln, “Theses on Method,” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 8, no. 3 (1996): 225-227. Russell McCutcheon, “What is the Academic Study of Religion?” (retrieved from University of Alabama Department of Religious Studies site httpŚ//www.as.ua.edu/rel/pdf/Aboutreligion.pdf.pdf). Martin Jaffee, “Fessing up in TheoryŚ On Professing and Confessing in the Religious Studies Classroom.” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 9, no. 4 (1997): 325-327. Duncan Ryûken Williams, “At Ease in BetweenŚ The Middle Position of a Scholar-Practitioner.” Journal of Global Buddhism 9 (2008): 155-163. (available at http://www.globalbuddhism.org). 105 106 Lincoln, “Theses,” 226, 227. Jaffee, “Fessing up,” 326. David L. Hufford, “The Scholarly Voice and the Personal VoiceŚ Reflexivity in Belief Studies,” Western Folklore 54, no.1 (1995), 60. 107 108 Ibid., 61. 31 religious experience.”109 In other words, Cantrell claims that a frame of neutrality limits one’s research by, for example, promoting phenomenological inaccuracy and demoting conceptual resources. The latter means that as a result of the scholar’s presumptions he or she neglects conceptual resources by choosing not to pursue scientific data on religious experience, thus disregarding the principles of scientific inquiry. Similarly, KNSL’s abbot, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, argues that non-belief is, itself, a staunch belief system, so that a non-believer is far from remaining unbiased. He adds that many people believe they are objective simply because they trust in science, however, in practice, this is just another kind of faith—faith in science. Yet scientific theory is intended to offer better approximations of the truth rather than dogmatic, final views on how things are. Similarly, theories as well as methods in the human sciences and religious studies are subject to constant revision. Keeping all this in mind and acknowledging the importance of self-reflection, I have made it clear that as a participant and practitioner of this tradition I am influenced by its outlook. While this requires an extra effort of reflexivity, I believe it is more of an advantage than disadvantage with regards to this project. Ease of access to information and the relationships I have experienced with teachers of this tradition over 27 years have been a boon to my observations and detailed findings that a scholar, without such advantages, might easily overlook. Furthermore, Hufford argues for the relevance of an insider scholar in relation to ethical values relative to power. He states, “The requirement of disinterest as a qualification for the study of a matter in which all persons have an interest is a paradox that reflects the tensions produced when one (powerful) group studies another (less powerful) group.”110 He Michael A. Cantrell, “Must a Scholar of Religion Be Methodologically Atheistic or Agnostic?” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 84, no.2 (June 2016): 373. 109 110 Hufford, “The Scholarly Voice,” 62. 32 indicates that, for example, from the perspective of a person or institution evaluated, the detailed critique of an insider is preferable to the evaluation of an outsider. Similarly, when researching a practice tradition from an ethical standpoint, it seems more fair that the subjectmatter is studied by a person with very detailed first-hand knowledge of that tradition, including explicit interpretations of particular practices. These might not be the only relevant interpretations, however they are certainly relevant to the project of description as well as understanding. In addition, Hufford critiques the asymmetrical relationship when interpretations of scholars (which later might impact the subjects studied) are inaccessible to those being studied.111 The fact that I was able to share and discuss my research with interested members of tradition helps redress this imbalance. Recognizing that my articulation of the tradition’s interpretation is based on my understanding and very much informed by the tradition, this study nevertheless should be relevant to the academic exploration of Chöd practice in that it not only contributes to an accurate description of Chöd texts and practice but increases the scope of explanatory and interpretive perspectives. However, my understanding might not be the same understanding as that of members of the tradition – I am more of a bridge than strictly an insider, owing to a parallel intellectual training in academic Buddhist studies. As a scholar, I am trying to understand Chöd conceptually and describe and articulate it based on the constraints of language. The tradition, however, values experience over what can be expressed conceptually as a requisite means to reach a deeper and more authentic understanding of the subject matter.112 For example, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains, “Any 111 Ibid., 63. 112 For more discussions on the role of experience in Buddhism, see: David Higgins, Robert Sharf, Janet Gyatso, Lambert Schmithausen, Eli Franco, Yaroslav Komarovski, Ulrich T. Kragh, etc. David Higgins, “The Philosophical Foundations of Classical rDzog chen in TibetŚ Investigating the Distinction Between Dualistic Mind (sems) and Primordial Knowing (ye shes)” (PhD diss., Universite de Lausanne, 2012). Robert H. Sharf, "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience." Numen 42, no. 3 (1995): 228-283. Janet Gyatso, “Healing Burns with FireŚ The Facilitations of Experience in Tibetan Buddhism.” Journal of the 33 thought is confusion,”113 and the Tersar Lüjin states, “Prajñāpāramitā is inexpressible and inconceivable.”114 In this way, both the oral and textual tradition of KNSL claim that any type of conceptual understanding remains tethered to conventional rather than ultimate truth. If taken seriously, it follows that anything we can possibly verbalize or compose is, by nature, not ultimate truth. In this way, the tradition clearly states that, unless one is a practitioner who takes the teachings to heart, personally applies them, and realizes their fruit (i.e. a non-conceptual understanding of the Dharma), an authentic understanding of the teachings at their highest level is simply impossible. While some may describe Chöd practice from a more intellectual standpoint, the tradition of KNSL places a great deal of emphasis upon experience, meaning “realization,”115 non-conceptual awareness, and methods which are said to accelerate such experience, namely compassion and devotion. In short, this thesis highlights the tradition’s attention to experiential methods rather than intellectual understanding, yet this is not to say that intellectual scholarship is undervalued in the tradition. On the contrary, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche strongly encourages all his students, whether ordained or not, to become both learned and accomplished, i.e. to become scholar-practitioners, to the best of their capacity. One scholar notably critical towards the idea of experience playing a central role in Buddhism is Robert Sharf. With ineffable experience in mind, Sharf questions the assumption American Academy of Religion 67, no. 1 (1999): 113-147. Lambert Schmithausen, “Aspects of Spiritual Practice in Early Yogācāra.” Journal of the International College for Postgraduate Buddhist Studies (JICPBS) 11 (2007):213-244. Eli Franco, “Meditation and MetaphysicsŚ On the Mutual Relationship in South Asian Buddhism” Sitzungsberichte – Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-historische Klasse 794 (2009):93-132. Yaroslav Komarovski. “Buddhist Contributions to the Question of (Un)meditated Mystical Experience” Sophia 51, no. 1 (2011): 87-115. Kragh, “All Mind, No Text - All Text, No Mind.” 113 CNR, Winter Seminar, Gomde Germany-Austria 2016. 114 Karmai Khenpo, “The Concise Daily Liturgy,” 11. 115 Generally, tradition differentiates two main types of experience, experience still linked to the intellect, and non-conceptual realization—experience that lies beyond an experiencer, something experienced, and experience, itself. Also see Gyatso, “Healing Burns.” 34 that Buddhist practice is aimed at gaining “experience,” and argues that such experience has been greatly exaggerated by contemporary scholarship.116 Janet Gyatso, however, finds certain parts of Sharf’s essay problematic in relation to Tibetan Buddhism.117 For example, she argues that the abundance of Tibetan Buddhist literature on personal experience and the strong retreat tradition in Tibet undermines the claim that experience is unimportant to Buddhists. At the same time she problematizes experience. For example, she does agree with Sharf that largely also in the Tibetan tradition private, nondiscursive, immediate experience is not at the heart of Buddhist practice. As will be made clear in this thesis, an adequate description of the Chöd tradition at KNSL requires reference to experience as the central goal and method of the practice. Finally, I need to address the fact that as a practitioner I encounter the ethical problem of including material that the tradition considers “secret.” In Vajrayāna, and even more specifically in Essence Mahāmudrā and Dzokchen, instructions are imparted which are meant to be kept secret. The secrecy stems from the fact that such teachings are specifically related to personal experience rather than intellectual analysis. Without the proper preparatory training and/or the student’s evaluation by a master, it is quite likely that the listener or reader would misunderstand them, or even be completely led astray from the path to enlightenment, thereby creating obstacles for his or her own as well as others’ realization. Thus, keeping 116 Sharf, “Buddhist Modernism,” 228. Gyatso, “Healing Burns,” 114. In response to Sharf’s article, she argues that (1) Buddhism’s emphasis on experience existed long before the advent of Western influence; (2) that there are numerous technical terms for “experience” in the Tibetan languageś (3) that there is an abundance of Tibetan Buddhist literature on personal experience; and (4) that the strong retreat tradition in Tibet further undermines the claim that experience is unimportant to Buddhists. However, she does agree with Sharf that in Buddhism, also in the Tibetan tradition—private, nondiscursive, immediate experience is not at the heart of Buddhist practice. Like Gyatso, I agree that Sharf raises interesting questions and describes certain practitioners, for example, when he points out that rather than focusing on the traditional soteriological goal of ending suffering and rebirth, there are Asian Buddhists who predominantly focus on worldly benefits in their practice, such as health, stress relief, and so forth. Sharf, “Buddhist Modernism,” 258, 259. Furthermore, it should be noted that Sharf does not entirely reject the claim that Buddhist practitioners may indeed have meditative experiences. Ibid., 233. 117 35 certain teachings secret is intended as an act of kindness and love.118 To express my respect towards the tradition and the masters, but also in acknowledgement of the possible danger of misunderstandings, I have not divulged teachings meant to be kept private, even where they might strongly pertain to my thesis. While mentioning awareness and the nature of mind, I will therefore not go into deeper detail as to how our masters point it out. It is important for the reader to take this into consideration when reading this research. I suggest that any reader interested in more profound instructions on the nature of mind personally consult an authentic master of the tradition. In sum, the approach of this research is mainly descriptive of how Chöd is practiced and taught at KNSL. I draw on both written textual materials and oral instructions, incorporating the self-understanding of the tradition, to accentuate and analyze elements of the practice that are held to be important—namely devotion and awareness— but which so far have not been the focus of any modern scholarly work on Chöd. 1.4. Introduction to the texts and the oral sources 1.4.1. The TRT As mentioned above, the TRT is the elaborate, full-day Chöd practice utilized at KNSL, and one of the earliest extant Chöd sādhanas. Like many other sādhana practices, it is embedded within the Three Excellences (dam pa gsum).119 118 I am fully aware that not everyone will share my view on secrecy. A skeptic might suggest that much benefit can be gained for an institution or individual who claims to be a necessary intermediary or transmitter of experience of the truth. But even if there were such benefits, this would not entail that these benefits must be the motive nor negate the possibility of altruistic motive. 119 According to Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, the Excellent Beginning (sbyor ba) mainly contains refuge and bodhicitta. The Excellent Main Part is also called “the Excellent Main Part free from focus” (dnos gzhi dmigs med) and therefore refers to remaining in the nature of mind. However, in a sādhana, the supporting framework for remaining in awareness combines the Vajrayāna “development and completion stages.” The development stage (bskyed rim) involves effort, such as visualization, while the completion stage (rdzogs rim) could refer to such practices as rtsa-rlung. But within the sādhana structure, such as the TRT or the Tersar Lüjin, the completion stage implies the effortlessly resting in the nature of mind. In all sādhana practices undertaken at KNSL, development and completion are meant to be practiced as a unity. The Excellent 36 The opening section (the first 48 pages out of 510)120 includes supplications, the blessing of nectar and offerings, the magnetizing of peaceful and wrathful beings, refuge, the seven branches, bodhicitta, and the Four Immeasurables. Significantly, much of the sixteen pages of supplications is spent in pointing out the nature of mind, thus setting forth the view from the very beginning—which is also a feature of the teaching style at KNSL. The main body of the sādhana is very extensive, comprising 402 pages. Consequently, I will only highlight its main sections according to its table of contents. 121 The first of these is an elaborate visualization featuring Machik as the main deity. Above her are Prajñāpāramitā, the five Buddha families, Vajrayoginī, Padampa Sangyé (pha dam pa sangs rgyas, d.1117), the ḍākinīs, protectors, and so forth. Below her and all these countless enlightened beings are all sentient beings, including demons, devas, spirits, and karmic creditors.122 Next, the text instructs one to make offerings, receive blessings, practice purification, recite the Ga-te mantra,123 and practice the transference of one’s consciousness– the phowa practice called “Opening the Door to the Sky.” The following 128 pages are concerned with visualized distributions or feasts (’gyed), the feature most commonly associated with Chöd practice. Throughout this text, one’s consciousness appears in the form of different ḍākinīs, such as Machik, Vajravārāhi (rdo rje phag mo), and Tröma Nakmo (khros ma nag mo). Interestingly, as will be discussed later, a great part of this section Conclusion (rjes) includes dedication and aspiration prayers. While sustaining awareness is particularly mandated in the Excellent Main Part, Rinpoche nevertheless emphasizes that awareness should also be integrated into the Excellent Beginning and Conclusion, as will be explained more extensively in the Awareness chapter. 120 In this chapter I will utilize the TRT translated by Tashi Jamyangling as it contains both Tibetan and English, which might make things easier should someone wish to follow my explanations. Rangjung Dorjé. “Jewel Garland.” 121 Ibid., 5-9. 122 Lan chags kyi mgron (or ‘dre) – guests (or spirits) to whom we owe karmic debts. The “Ga-te Mantra” refers to the main mantra of Prajñāpāramitā, as found in the Heart Sūtra: Gate gate pāragate pārasaṃgate bodhi svāhā. 123 37 contains extensive guru-yoga style supplications that are only interspersed with a few lines dedicated to the offering of the body. Although these feasts are often referred to as “the offering of the body,” it is more precise to note that, besides visualizing the offering of one’s body parts (often transformed into a pure and pleasing form and magnified to the size of the universe), there are also sections where one’s body is purified and transformed into wisdom nectar, which then transforms into anything that the recipients might appreciate or need. In this sense, although the offering starts out with the body as the main ingredient, as the body is transformed into other material gifts, it turns into a much more lavish offering than just of flesh and blood. The following 140 pages present the main part of the feast offering (tshogs124), which also includes purification practices for the beings in the six realms. After the invocation of the ḍākinīs, the TRT engages in 43 pages of protector practices. Finally, one visualizes oneself as Chenresik (spyan ras gzigs), recites his mantra, makes aspirations, gives Dharma teachings, and sends all inferior guests125 away. The concluding section repeats offerings and confessions, and includes many dedication and aspiration prayers. Remaining guests are requested to depart, and one retracts one’s consciousness (in the form of Machik) into the heart center of one’s now restored human body, engages in further supplications to Machik, and receives empowerments. The dissolution stage is followed by re-emergence in the form of a ḍākinī. Although the TRT ends Not to be confused with the above-mentioned ’gyed. During the tshogs, one presents actual edible offerings. Pure perception (dang snang) is practiced by visualizing the location as pure (for example, as the sacred place of Oḍḍiyāna), all practitioners as ḍākas and ḍākinīs, the actual offerings as wisdom nectar, etc. Furthermore, the tshogs contains a section very specific to Chöd whereby one visualizes oneself also adding one’s own left-over body to the tshogs offering (and again blessing and transforming it). It is also mentioned that if one wishes to benefit a sick person during this practice, one blends one’s own body with the sick person’s body, mingles both consciousnesses, and performs phowa—meaning the mingling of consciousness and space. One’s left-over body, combined with the sick person’s body, is then added to the tshogs offerings in one’s visualization. 124 125 Beings to whom one owes karmic debts and all other saṃsāric sentient beings, in general. 38 here, KNSL adds many more concluding prayers at this point, such as the Padampa Sangyé aspiration prayer. Throughout all the three sections, the TRT is interspersed with many ways to chant: phaṭ!126 When asked about what differentiates the TRT from other Chöd practices, Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche (skyabs rje mkhan rin po che, b. 1938) explained that, first of all, the TRT is so comprehensive that one does not need supplementary texts. Secondly, the terminology it uses is quite colloquial and therefore easy to understand. Tibetan Buddhists also especially value this text because its editor, Karma Chakmé, was very highly respected during his lifetime and beyond. His practices became so widespread that many are now practiced by all Tibetan Buddhist schools, such as the prayer to be reborn in Sukhāvatī (bde ba chen). This is part of why the TRT is practiced by many Kagyü and Nyingma lineages. As Chakmé is seen as an incarnation of Chenresik, practitioners feel that his works hold “special and incredible” blessings.127 An in-depth discussion of the authorship of the TRT, or its different parts, is far beyond the scope of this thesis,128 but a little background will be helpful. The text names Rangjung Dorjé as its author and Karma Chakmé as the editor, but as will be demonstrated below, there is some debate as to the extent of the latter’s hand in authoring the version practiced now at KNSL. Rangjung Dorjé is said to have taken several Chöd texts that he considered authentic–those he supposed were authored by Machik, her sons, and other Chöd 126 For details on the chanting of “phaṭ!”, see Chuan Chon, “Phet Singing.” While the TRT does not really describe how each phaṭ is meant to be practiced, the oral instructions present more details on this. 127 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche Tashi Palden (b. ca. 1938), interview, Boudhanath: April 21, 2016. Translator: Ani Laura Dainty. Tina’s notes page 9 (ca. 1Ś45Ś36 in audio recording). 128 Sarah Harding also stressed the difficulty of such an undertaking. Sarah Harding, personal correspondence, Jan 26, 2015. 39 lineage-holders129 –and wove them into the form of a single sādhana practice.130 With this process of choosing certain texts, while excluding others, Rangjung Dorjé is also said to have intended to clarify what constitutes authentic Chöd. In this way, he took on the role of a reformer. If this is indeed the case, then it would be a further reason for modern academic studies of Chöd to pay closer attention to the TRT.131 Even if this cannot be confirmed elsewhere, the fact that there is the perception that Chöd required reformation and that the TRT is understood as a model of authentic Chöd is worthy of study. As for Rangjung Dorjé’s interpretation of Chöd in general, Sorensen provides a wealth of information, by focusing on his commentary on Machik Labdrön’s The Great Speech Chapter. She speculates as to why Rangjung Dorjé engaged so extensively with Chöd, suggesting its popularity, efficacy, and prestige as possible reasons, 132 adding that not only did Rangjung Dorjé’s integration of Chöd benefit the Kagyü tradition, but it also helped Chöd survive. She also points out how Rangjung Dorjé’s interpretation deviates at times from Machik’s intent.133 Sorenson further situates Rangjung Dorjé as an important lineage-holder and innovator of Chöd, providing historical and textual evidence of this. In essence, she claims that Rangjung Dorjé transformed Chöd in order to incorporate it into the Karma 129 Authors are often listed in the small print after sections in the TRT. Interestingly, we also find sections of terma texts, such as the section on the 100,000 ḍākinīs (Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 374-398) supposedly originating from the Khandro Nyingthik (mkha’ ’gro snying thig) text by drung rma seng. 130 See Karma Chakmé’s colophon in Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 489-510. Also: Daniel McNamara (Emory University), interview, Boudhanath: October 10, 2014. However, Sarah Harding, for example, doubts that Rangjung Dorjé is the author of the TRT, saying instead that it was cobbled together by the lineage, as it is not found in his gsung ’bum, nor the gdam ngag mdzod, etc. For example, the history by Dharma Senge says: /nam mkha' rgyal mtshan [68a5] dang rje rang byung rdo rje sogs nas brgyud pa'i bka' gcod tshogs las rin chen phreng ba cha lag dang bcas pa'i brgyud pa yang / chags med rin po che yan gzhung ltar dang /, which seems to indicate that it is not the work of a single person. Harding, Email conversation, Jan. 26, 2015. 131 Daniel McNamara underscored Rangjung Dorjé as a reformer who tried to expunge extraneous materials in order to point out what “real” Chöd is. Rangjung Dorjé did this relatively soon after Chöd had its beginnings. This indicates that the Chöd practice proliferated relatively quickly, but was perceived by some to have also become defiled/diluted very quickly. McNamara, interview. 132 Sorensen, “Making the Old New Again,” 258. 133 Ibid. 231-232. 40 Kagyü school, for example, by recasting it as “Mahāmudrā” Chöd, interpreting heterodoxy into orthodoxy. Rangjung Dorjé is regarded as a lineage-holder of both Essence Mahāmudrā and Dzokchen traditions, which may be why this practice is performed within Kagyü as well as Nyingma lineages. According to one of KNSL’s senior lamas, Lama Tsültrim Sangpo (tshul khrims bzang po, b. 1968), Rangjung Dorjé was known as a Chöd yogi and therefore gave many Chöd teachings. Consequently, Chöd practices, such as the TRT, became very wellknown and widely practiced in the Kagyü and other traditions.134 In this way, both tradition and modern academic studies135 acknowledge Rangjung Dorjé as a pivotal figure in the propagation and development of the Chöd tradition. In his colophon, Karma Chakmé also emphasizes that the TRT demonstrates authentic Chöd, explaining: (I) have witnessed a proliferation of a variety of incorrect texts. Just like subsequent adulteration of pure gold. I was sensitive to possible contaminants in the otherwise completely pure liturgy. It was, indeed, rare to find a master copy that is not tainted with impurities. (I) therefore fundamentally based my work on old writings of the Victorious Karmapa Rangjung Dorje. In addition I compared notes with six Chöd volumes of Kham and Central Tibet. That is why I am supposing that this work is correct and authentic.136 This indicates that Chakmé, himself, decided what constitutes authentic or inauthentic Chöd practice, and purged and possibly authored sections accordingly. Chakmé added texts to the TRT, such as a supplication to Machik at the beginning (as indicated in the small print) and a colophon at the end. The former illustrates the centrality of both the ultimate view and devotion, as will be discussed later. He also appears to have made Lama Tsültrim Sangpo (LTS), Chöd Teachings Session 2, Gomde CaliforniaŚ July 2013, Tina’s notes, page 5. 134 135 Also seeŚ Gyatso, “The Development,” 335. Karma Chakmé in the colophon “Chhagmé Rinpoche’s comments,” in Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 500. 136 41 changes within the actual text, as masters who lived after Rangjung Dorjé, like Karma Chakmé himself, are mentioned in lineage supplications within the core text.137 The topic of the authorship of the TRT becomes more confusing as the TRT might be an extension of another text. According to Tenga Rinpoche (bstan dga' rin po che, 19322012), Karma Chakmé based the TRT on a text by Rangjung Dorjé, the Chöd feast sādhana called The Source of all Qualities or Yönten Künjung (gcod tsogs yon tan kun ’byung).138 Rinpoche explains that both the TRT and the Yönten Künjung, are from the Surmang (zur mang) tradition,139 adding, “If you look at the two texts, you will see that essentially Rinchen Trengwa is Yönten Kunjung.g [sic!] with a lot of additions.”140 As Rinpoche states that Chakmé’s “best known contribution to the Chöd practice of the Surmang tradition is the composition”141 of the TRT–in this sense presenting him as an author rather than an editor— this points to Chakmé possibly having a greater role in the authorship of the TRT than the text, itself, expresses.142 137 For example, ibid., 138, 150. Here, Chakmé is the last in the line of lineage masters. It is not uncommon that a highly respected master would add his own name to such lineage supplications. This might have been done by himself at the request of his disciples or by one of the direct disciples during his lifetime. If the latter was the case, this would add a further editor. 138 Khabje Tenga Rinpoche, Chö: The Garden of All Joy & Generosity of the Body, Venerable Lama Yeshe Gyamtso, trans. (Woodstock: KTD Publications, 2008) 39-40. 139 However, according to Namdrol Gyatso (1956-2014), the Yönten Künjung is from the Surmang tradition, while the TRT is referred to as being from the Tsurpu tradition. Namdrol Gyatso was the late manager of KNSL and was educated as a monk in Rumtek during the time of the Sixteenth Karmapa. Namdrol Gyatso, interview, KNSL, Boudhanath: fall 2013. 140 Tenga Rinpoche, Chö, 40. In an email conversation, Sarah Harding indicated that studying the Surmang tradition’s gCod kyi tshogs las yon tan kun ’byung gsungs rgyun ’khrul med ltar bkod pa bzhugs pa’i dbu phyogs lags so (from gdams ngag mdzod) might help with identifying the authors of parts of the TRT. According to the Catalog V14 (pha), compiled and arranged by Karmapa XIV Tekchok Dorje (Theg mchog rdo rje, 1798/99–1868/69) (DNZ, Shechen printing), 297–334. Harding, email conversation, January 26, 2015. 141 Tenga Rinpoche, Chö, 39. 142 In particular, considering the phrasing of the title of the TRT which clearly states “composed by Lord Rangjung Dorjé (rje rang byung rdo rjes mdsad pa’i). 42 From Rangjung Dorjé, the transmission of the Yönten Künjung143 was then passed down through the Kagyü lineage to the fourth Trungpa Rinpoche Künga Namgyal (kun dga’ rnam rgyal, 1567-1629)144 who stayed at Surmang monastery. His was the main tradition to propagate this practice. Karma Chakmé revised this text by means of further additions,145 creating what is now known as TRT. 1.4.2. Related Texts Before I discuss the second main Chöd practice at KNSL, the Tersar Lüjin, there are several other texts related to the TRT worth mentioning. As the following sādhana, the Kagyü Lüjin, is also practiced occasionally at KNSL, I will also take into account this liturgy and its commentaries in my discussion of the roles awareness and devotion play in KNSL’s Chöd. Associated with the above-mentioned longer versions of Kagyü Chöd, there is a short body offering practice known as the Lüjin (Lus sbyin).146 This practice is not to be confused 143 The Yönten Künjung has its own commentary by Tenzin Namdak which is called The Crystal Mirror (Shel dkar me long). Since, according to tradition, the TRT is essentially the Yönten Künjung with some additions, the Crystal Mirror can also be seen as a commentarial text for the TRT. Tenzin Namdak (bstan ’dzin rnam dag), “Gcod kyi tshogs las yon tan kun ldan gyi dmigs rim bla ma’i gsung rgyun gyi zin bris shel dkar me long,” dictated to Shayka-monk Yeshe Wangden, in gdams ngag mdzod V14, 205-254. https://www.tbrc.org/#library_work_ViewByOutline-O01CT0013d1e2846%7CW20877. According to Lama Lhündrup, Tenzin Namdak was the student and scribe of Garwang Rinpoche, who was the lineage-holder in Surmang after the fourth Trungpa Rinpoche (Künga Namgyal, 1567-1629). Lama Sönam Lhündrup, “KristallspiegelŚ Unterweisungen zum Chöd-Kommentar ‘Schelkar Melong,’”(Croizet, February 2010). Chögyam Trungpa writes that the fourth Trungpa “is of considerable importance for the entire Kagyü school because of the depth of this understanding and attainment.” Fabrice Midal, Chögyam Trungpa: His Life and Vision (Boston and LondonŚ Shambhala, 2004), 39. The fourth Trungpa’s focus on Chöd practice and his important role for the Surmang Kagyü tradition is described in Chögyam Trungpa, Mishap Lineage: Transforming Confusion Into Wisdom (Boston: Shambhala, 2009), 42-46. Karma Thrinley Rinpoche (karma phrin las rin po che, b. 1931) also mentions that the fourth Trungpa particularly propagated the Chöd tradition. Karma Thrinley Rinpoche, The History of the Sixteen Karmapas of Tibet (BoulderŚ Prajñā Press, 1980) 37. 144 Tenga Rinpoche writes, “What Karma Chakme Rinpoche did was he took the basic format and text of Yönten Kunjung and he added liturgical descriptions of all the visualizations, such as the mandala offering, the white feast, the red feast, all the particular visualizations which are part of every Chö practice.” 145 146 rGyun khyer gyi lus sbyin bsdus pa. For example, found in Tenga Rinpoche, Chö, 150-168. As this is a very generic name, one has to be careful not to confuse it with other practices. For example, the Tersar Lüjin has a nearly identical name (rgyun gyi lus sbyin mdor bsdus). 43 with the Tersar Lüjin, which stems from the Nyingma tradition. Like the TRT, the Kagyü Lüjin is of murky origin. Sometimes it is ascribed to the Fourteenth Karmapa Thekchok Dorjé (theg mchog rdo rje, 1798/9-1868/9)147, sometimes to Karma Chakmé.148 Tenga Rinpoche, meanwhile, ascribes its original composition to Rangjung Dorjé and names Jamgön Kongtrül as the editor of the present version.149 It is worth noting that, although it seems to be an abbreviated form of the TRT,150, the Lüjin includes an Amitāyus (tshe dpag med) practice and a prayer for rebirth in Amitābha’s (snang ba mtha’ yas) pure land not found in the TRT.151 Interestingly, Rangjung Dorjé’s short Chöd lineage prayer152 is also found there following the red feast, while in the TRT and Tersar Lüjin it is placed at the beginning of the practice. There is a commentary on this Lüjin that is called The Garden Which Engenders Complete Joy153: the Condensed General Notes on the Generosity of Offering the Body (Lus kyi mchod154 sbyin gyi zin bris mdor bsdus kun dga’i skyed tshal) by Jamgön Kontrül Lodrö Thayé. This commentary presents crucial information on the view and its role within Chöd 147 Thekchok Dorje, the Fourteenth Karmapa, and Jamgön Kontrül Lodö Thayé, Chöd Practice Manual and Commentary, trans. by V.V. Lama Lodö Rinpoche (Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 2007). 148 Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 285, f.1. 149 Tenga Rinpoche, Chö, 30. 150 It has the same visualization, same steps and key elements, and some parts completely identical to the TRT. For example, the prayer to Prajñāpāramitā (Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 84, 85. Thekchok Dorje, Chöd, 30) and the verses relating to the tantric four demons (Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 470, 471. Thekchok Dorje, Chöd, 30). (These two sections are also found in the Tersar Lüjin. Karmai Khenpo, “The Concise Liturgy,” 8 and 11 respectively). 151 Lama Thierry explained that one often adds a long-life practice at the end of phowa practice, because otherwise the latter could shorten one’s life. Lama Thierry, interview (Boudhanath, Jan/Feb 2015). 152 Tenga Rinpoche, Chö, 159-160. 153 Reading kun dga’ as kun nas dga’ ba. In Chö, it is spelled “chod sbyin” rather than “mchod sbyin.” In the gdams ngag mdzod provided on the TBRC website, it is spelled “mchod sbyin.” https://www.tbrc.org/#library_work_ViewByOutlineO01CT0013d1e2947%7CW20877. 154 44 practice. The centrality of remaining in the view is also reinforced in Tenga Rinpoche’s book, Chö, where he gives further explanations concerning both the Lüjin and The Garden. A text that is often used in conjunction with the practice of the TRT is the TRT empowerment text.155 It is read mostly by the master who grants the empowerment; however, certain parts are sung by the whole congregation of practitioners receiving the empowerment. This text presents details on history, prophecies, lineages, descriptions, and praises of Chöd, etc. The actual empowerment is then first given in the TRT empowerment text’s essential version of the Opening the Door to the Sky, and subsequently through a much more detailed version, followed by the deity empowerment of Machik. As Jamgön Kongtrül is regarded as one of the three main lineage teachers at KNSL,156 this thesis is also informed by two of his texts.157 The first text is his Catalog (dkar chag) of the eighteen volumes of The Treasury of Precious Instructions.158 There Kongtrül explains Shije159 (zhi byed, pacification of suffering) as the main teaching of the Shi-Chöd school and Chöd as the auxiliary teaching.160 Of particular interest for my research is the fact that the Guru Manipa, “Gcod dbang mdor bsdus rin po che’i phreng ba” in gCod tshogs rin chen phreng ba, 171–205. Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drime. No publishing date given. The author seems to be Guru Manipa, and I am wondering if this is another name for Karma Chakmé. 155 The other two being Chokgyur Dechen Lingpa and Jamyang Khyentsei Wangpo (’jam dbyangs mkhyen brtse’i dbang po, 1820-1892). 156 157 Even more interesting than the following two texts might be the forthcoming new book: Jamgön Kongtrül, Chöd: The Sacred Teachings on Severance: Essential Teachings of the Eight Practice Lineages of Tibet, Volume 14 (The Treasury of Precious Instructions), translated by Sarah Harding (Ithaca: Snow Lion, November 29, 2016). 158 Jamgön Kongtrül, The Catalog. 159 “The Shije tradition, which takes its name from a line in the Heart Sūtra that describes the mantra of Prajñāpāramitā as ‘the mantra that brings about the pacification of suffering,’ is based on teachings brought to Tibet by Dampa Sangyé during some five visits to Tibet, organized into three main lineages with numerous branch lineages.” Kontrül, “Catalog,” xxii. Just like Chöd, Shije is also said to unify sūtra and tantra. Kontrül explains Shije to be “of the transcendent perfections in their essence, yet in accord with the mantra approach.” Kontrül, “Catalog,” 73. 160 Kongtrül, Catalog, 76. This statement, itself, raises many questions beyond the scope of this thesis. For example, is Chöd complete without the teachings of Shije? Machik’s Complete Explanation would suggest so, as it presents Chöd as a complete path. The TRT empowerment text mentions that Chöd not only includes 45 Catalog highlights four themes of Chöd. These four themes are likewise quoted in the sections on Chöd in Kongtrül’s second text, Esoteric Instructions,161 in which he also features the view as the main practice of Chöd. 1.4.3. The Tersar Lüjin While the TRT constitutes the full-day Chöd practice at KNSL, this is not the only form that is celebrated. During the three-year retreats, KNSL utilizes three types of short Chöd practices meant for daily practice: (1) the above-mentioned Lüjin, (2) the Tersar Lüjin, and (3) the Khandroi Gegyang (Mkha’ ’gro’i gad rgyangs), The Laughter of the Dakinis, which stems from the Longchen Nyingthik cycle. This latter is mainly practiced at KNSL’s branch nunnery, Nagi Gompa, according to the custom established before Tulku Urygyen Rinpoche inherited the hermitage. Of these three short Chöd practices, the Tersar Lüjin162 is the main Chöd practiced these days by the ordained and lay students of Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche. As previously mentioned, it consists of the terma root text, said to have been revealed by the tertön (gter ston, treasure-revealer) Chokgyur Lingpa, and texts added by Karmai Khenpo Rinchen Dargyé, one of Chokgyur Lingpa’s main disciples. Within the Chokling Tersar (mchog gling gter gsar), the terma root text of the Tersar Lüjin belongs to the Thukdrup Barche Künsel Cycle (thugs sgrub bar chad kun sel); within that, it is specifically tied to the mandala of Shije, but also other traditions, and in this way Chöd is more than just a branch of Shije. Furthermore, if it is true that many Shije teachings have died out, what implications does this have for the Chöd tradition? Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Thayé, “Zhijé and Chöd,” in The Treasury of Knowledge: Esoteric Instructions, (Shes bya kun khyab, Book eight, part four) Sarah Harding, trans. (Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2007), 278. 161 162 In relation to this Tersar Lüjin, the Chokling Tersar also has a longer Chöd practice: Rin chen rnam par rgyal ba, bdag ’dzin bdud bzhi thol skyes rbad gcod bka’ gter byin rlabs gnyis ’dres yum chen thugs kyi thig le (The Heart Drop of the Great Mother), which blends the blessings of kama and terma (the Buddha’s word lineage and the treasure lineage) and abruptly cuts the upheavals of the four māras, ego-clinging, in Mchog gyur ling pa, The Treasury of Revelations and Teachings of Gter chen Mchog gyur bde chen gling pa, V1-39 (Paro, Bhutan: no publisher given, 1982), PT NYA 9, 161-219. According to Lama Öpak, a part of this text was extracted from Sangye Lingpa’s (sangs rgyas gling pa, 1340-1396) Lama Gongdü (bla ma dgongs ’dus). Lama Öpak, interview, KNSL, Boudhanath: September 29, 2016. 46 Déchen Gyalpo (bde chen rgyal po), who is one of the twelve manifestations (rnam ’phrul bcu gnyis)163 of Padmasambhava. Within the Déchen Gyalpo section, the Tersar Lüjin is found in the completion stage section, indicating that it is for advanced practitioners, and in this way, is generally regarded as an enhancement practice. It is on the basis of the Tersar Lüjin that the senior lamas of KNSL present an overview of KNSL’s view regarding Chöd, in general. By contrast, the TRT is the basis for the performance teachings, where one studies the melodies, drum and bell patterns, text sequence, and so forth that have been taught to lay practitioners and monastics, local as well as international, over the past three years. To my knowledge, there have been no courses offered on the TRT’s meaning, although, on the one hand, it is said to be self-explanatory due to its extremely detailed format, and, on the other hand, the explanations given for the Tersar Lüjin also apply to the TRT. This fact that the TRT and the Tersar Lüjin are the two main practices at KNSL is interesting, as the Tersar Lüjin stems from the terma tradition, while the TRT does not. However, as mentioned above, the terma root text within the Tersar Lüjin was supplemented with other texts by Karmai Khenpo. Several of these additional texts, such as the beautiful supplication composed by Rangjung Dorjé, are also found in the TRT, which is not a terma text but can be classified as kama (bka’ ma). In this way, Karmai Khenpo has unified the traditions of kama and terma in this practice. Furthermore, this Lüjin stems from the Nyingma tradition, while the TRT belongs to the Kagyü tradition. However, as practiced today the two traditions can be very close. In particular, since the inception of the Rime (ris med) movement of the 19th century, one finds many overlaps of lineages, i.e. many Kagyü 163 Rig 'dzin rgyal ba'i gdung 'dzin, rig 'dzin smra ba'i seng ge, rig 'dzin skyes mchog tshul bzang, rig 'dzin bdud kyi gshed chen, rig 'dzin 'dzam gling rgyan mchog, rig 'dzin padma 'byung gnas, rig 'dzin khyad par 'phags pa, rig 'dzin rdzu 'phrul mthu chen, rig 'dzin rdo rje drag rtsal, rig 'dzin skal ldan 'dren mdzad, rig 'dzin raksha thod phreng, rig 'dzin bde chen rgyal po. 47 practitioners have also sought out Nyingma teachers and vice versa. In addition, Nyingma texts from the Chokling Tersar, such as the famous Sabtik Drölma or Drölchok (zab tig sgrol chog) Tara practice,164 are widely practiced in the Kagyü tradition. Masters, such as Rangjung Dorjé, can be found listed as lineage masters in the liturgy of both traditions. Thus, that both are embraced by KNSL, which explicitly upholds both traditions, is not surprising. When teaching on the Chöd terma tradition, Lama Tsültrim has explained that Machik’s Chöd is also sometimes described as a terma. This is because, according to tradition, “the teachings of the Buddha pertaining to the perfection of wisdom fell upon, [or] arose within the mind of Machik Labdron.”165 However, when the Nyingma tradition speaks of terma, it typically relates to treasures concealed by Padmasambhava. In the case of the root text of the Tersar Lüjin, Lama Tsültrim explains that Padmasambhava condensed the meaning of the Buddha’s teachings on Prajñāpāramitā. He then passed them on through oral instructions166 in a form that can be practiced, which he also preserved in the symbolic script of the ḍākinīs and hid to be discovered later on.167 After Chokgyur Lingpa revealed the root treasure text, it was arranged by Karmai Khenpo in the form of a ritual practice by his addition of lineage supplications, dedications, and so forth. As was mentioned above, some of these additions can also be found in the TRT and thus possibly stem directly from the TRT.168 Consequently, the terma root text is the heart of the practice and is said to come from Guru Chokgyur Lingpa, dGongs gter sgrol ma’i zab tig las maṇḍal cho ga tshogs gnyis snying po. The Mandala Ritual called The Essence of the Two Accumulations From the Mind Treasure: Tara’s Profound Essence (Scharnstein, Austria: Translated and published by Dharmachakra Practices, no publishing date given). 164 165 LTS, Gomde CAŚ 2013, page 4. I assume this is what the Nyingma tradition would call a “mind 166 For example, to Prince Murup Tsenpo (mu rub btsan po,). 167 LTS, Gomde CA: 2013, page 2. terma.” 168 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, personal communication, Budhanilkanta: July 29, 2015. One such section is the Chöd lineage supplication, which is accredited to Rangjung Dorjé in the small print. 48 Rinpoche, while the sādhana also contains “side ornaments” composed by later masters, in this way unifying kama and terma.169 One might reasonably wonder how the 8th century Padmasambhava could hide teachings that were supposedly invented in the 11th and 12th centuries by Machik. To this query, Lama Tsültrim responded that Machik is the one who holds the lineage of Chöd as one of the eight chariots of Buddhist teachings in Tibet. However, not all Chöd teachings have come down to us through Machik’s line. Padmasambhava also taught Chöd, and those teachings were later revealed by his tertöns. Nevertheless, the fact remains that Machik is identified as the primary teacher of Chöd. The Chöd teachings that she gave are incredibly extensive, and she propagated them on a large scale. The terma Chöd teachings are usually more condensed in comparison with Machik’s teachings.170 However, from a text critical perspective, many elements of the TRT and the Tersar Lüjin are similar.171 For example, they both utilize the ejection of consciousness and both focus on the visualized body offering made to enlightened as well as unenlightened beings. There are different types of body offerings, such as the white and red feasts. Thus, from an historical perspective, it is unlikely that the terma Chöd texts arose from an independent source unless one is willing to assume that Machik incorporated the above-mentioned oral transmission of Chöd teachings given by Padmasambhava or that both the Chöd teachings of 169 LTS, Chöd S1, Gomde CA: 2013, 2. 170 LTS, Chöd S1, Gomde CA: 2013, 4-5. 171 In terms of distinction, one of the main differences is that the Tersar Lüjin does not utilize Machik in the refuge section or as the main deity. 49 Padmasambhava and those of Machik (possibly through Padampa Sangyé172) originate from the same source.173 There are many other texts that could be mentioned here, but fall outside the scope of this paper. Besides the TRT, itself, and the above-mentioned empowerment text, the collection of TRT related texts includes many more texts, all untranslated, which would shed further important light on this discussion. Furthermore, it would be worthwhile to examine any longer Chöd texts found in the Barche Künsel Cycle. In addition, a closer look at how the topics of devotion and awareness are reflected in the Machik Namshe, traditionally considered to be an important Chöd root text, could also be an interesting avenue of future scholarly research. 1.4.4. Oral Sources Besides written texts, the other main source for this thesis has been the oral tradition and commentaries available at KNSL. In this section, I shall give a brief introduction to the main teachers at KNSL involved in the teaching and transmission of Chöd practice. As mentioned above, in terms of the Chöd transmission, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche (1920-1996174) was crucial for KNSL as well as for many other traditions. Rinpoche upheld both the Kagyü and Nyingma Chöd lineages. Of particular relevance are the facts that Chokgyur Dechen Lingpa was Rinpoche’s great-grandfather, and Rinpoche’s father, Chime Dorjé, was a famous Chöd practitioner who is considered to have become a realized siddha 172 Tradition also likes to link these masters by claiming that Padampa Sangyé is an incarnation of Padmasambhava and Machik of Yéshe Tsogyal. For example, Gyalwa Changchub and Namkhai Nyingpo (rgyal ba byang chub, nam mkha’i snying po), Lady of the Lotus-Born: The Life and Enlightenment of Yeshe Tsogyal. Translated by Padmakara Translation Group (Boston: Shambhala, 2002), 91. 173 For example, from the same Indian sources. As we will see in the Introduction to Chöd, tradition has yet another explanation, namely that Chöd stems from the tantras, which are said to be accessible on the timeless sambhogakāya level at any time, and therefore, strictly speaking, Chöd cannot be contributed to either Padmasambhava or Machik. 174 For his biography, please visit http://www.rangjung.com/book_author/tulku-urgyen-rinpoche. 50 through the practice of Chöd.175 Thus, from a young age, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche was familiar with this practice. He received the Hundred Empowerments of Cutting from Kyungtrül Karjam, a Nyingma master of the Mindroling tradition.176 Lama Öser has explained that Rinpoche was the main lineage-holder of these particular empowerments and that he transmitted these to Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche and many other high incarnate lamas and tulkus. He added, “The empowerments took place at Nagi Gompa. Most people who currently hold this lineage received it there from Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche.”177 Rinpoche’s eldest son and the abbot of KNSL, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche (b. 1951178), received Chöd transmissions from both the Kagyü and Nyingma traditions, mainly from his father, but also from the Sixteenth Karmapa and others. As both Rinpoche’s father and mother, Mayum Künsang Dechen,179 were especially fond of Chöd, it brought this practice close to his own heart, too. As mentioned above, in 2013 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche introduced intensified training in and practice of the TRT and Tersar Lüjin for his ordained and lay students. Since then, KNSL hosts specific annual, monthly, and weekly Chöd group practices of these sādhanas.180 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche on Chöd, KNSL, Boudhanath: Feb 11, 2014 – Tina’s notes (teachings during the empowerment). 175 176 Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, Vajra Heart (Kathmandu: Rangjung Yeshe, 1988) (restricted). The Hundred Empowerments of Cutting (gcod dbang brgya rtsa) are said to go back to Machik and spread through many schools and lineages. In the Karma Kagyü school, it was received and passed on by Rangjung Dorjé. www.benchen.org/en. 177 Lama Öser, interview, Boudhanath: May 5, 2014. 178 For his biography, please visit https://dharmasun.org/teacher/chokyi-nyima-rinpoche. 179 For Mayum’s biography, seeŚ http://theyoginiproject.org/yoginis-her-story/tulku-mothers#tab-id-4. 180 As this thesis is mainly about KNSL and its Chöd practices of the TRT and the Tersar Lüjin, I have not researched the intense practice of Chöd the nuns have been engaged in at KNSL’s nunnery, Nagi Gompa, for decades. Their main Chöd practice is The Laughter of the Dakinis. It would be interesting to research this in the future. 51 As the fourth incarnation of the tertön Chokgyur Lingpa, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche’s second son, Tsikey Chokling Rinpoche (b.1953181), is the main vajra master at KNSL. He often grants the empowerment for the Trinlé Nyingpo practice, one of the prerequisites required for the Tersar Lüjin practice. His son, Phakchok Rinpoche (b. 1981182), who also fulfills the role of vajra master during major annual rituals, often teaches Chöd during his teaching tours in Malaysia and Singapore. In the absence of the two aforementioned Rinpoches, Tulku Jampal Dorjé (b. 1955) acts as vajra master for various rituals at KNSL. He has also taught lay audiences about this practice, for example during the fall seminar in 2015.183 Lama Tsültrim Sangpo learned Chöd practice from Mayum Künsang Dechen, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, and others. As a senior chant master and teacher, he is one of the principal teachers of Chöd at KNSL and abroad. Similarly, Lama Tenzin Sangpo (b. 1967),184 one of the most respected and learned chant masters and senior teachers at KNSL, also has taught Chöd within this tradition. Although not resident at KNSL, Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche Tashi Palden is also considered an expert scholar and a Dharma teacher close to this tradition. He was particularly helpful in clarifying questions on the TRT. He considers Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche one of his main teachers, and lived close to him in Nagi Gompa for several years.185 As will be demonstrated in this thesis, the oral teachings of these and other contemporary teachers add a wealth of material to the textual information on Chöd. They 181 For Chokling Rinpoche’s biography, seeŚ httpsŚ//dharmasun.org/teacher/tsikey-chokling-rinpoche. 182 For Phakchok Rinpoche’s biography, seeŚ httpsŚ //dharmasun.org/teacher/phakchok-rinpoche. For Tulku Jampal Dorjé’s biography, see: https://www.facebook.com/184193968276944/photos/a.1222003861162611.1073741940.184193968276944/12 22003011162696. 183 184 For Lama Tenzin’s biography, seeŚ https://dharmasun.org/teacher/lama-tenzin-sangpo/. 185 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche lives in Jorpati, which in Western-terms is a section of the larger Boudhanath area. He often travels to Taiwan. 52 combine to build the basis for the understanding and practice of Chöd at KNSL, and provide a rich perspective from which to examine the historical textual Chöd tradition as well as other modern iterations of Chöd practice. The next chapters of this thesis contain the main discussions of this work. Chapter 2 provides an introduction to Chöd and a summary of how the practice is presented specifically at KNSL. Thus, chapter 2 offers a framework for the later chapters by setting forth the complexity of this topic and the particularity of its presentation at KNSL. Chapter 3 presents one of the philosophical and practical frameworks, that of awareness, renunciation, compassion, and devotion that serves as an underlying principle for any Vajrayāna practice at KNSL and which, therefore, exerts a strong influence on how Chöd practice is understood and executed in this tradition. This will be followed by the core of this thesis, a discussion of the roles of awareness (chapter 4) and devotion (chapter 5) in the oral instructions and texts related to the TRT and the Tersar Lüjin. 53 2. An introduction to Chöd and its presentation at KNSL According to Tibetan tradition, the Tibetan female master, Machik Labdrön, developed her own explanation and method for the speedy path to enlightenment. She is claimed to be the main source of the practice called Chöd, in which she united sūtra and tantra in a unique way. This practice, often regarded as one of the eight practice lineages,186 has gained immense popularity and is found in all Tibetan Buddhist lineages,187 however definitive information about Machik and her practice are difficult, and perhaps impossible, to discern in any historical records. If we investigate Chöd practices after the time of Machik, we observe it evolving and adapting within the lineages, or being modified to fit a particular lineage.188 There is no single fixed Chöd practice, although there are certain similarities, such as the mentioning of Machik as a source—or the main source— the affiliation with Prajñāpāramitā, the visualization practice of offering one’s body to guests, the emphasis on cutting through all attachments and ego-clinging, etc. In Buddhism, we often find terms stretched to include multiple levels of meaning. For example, the term “Mahāmudrā” can refer to practices on the path as well as to the final goal or main view. Similarly, we find the term “Chöd” referred to as both the aspect of method (thabs) and the aspect of wisdom (shes rab). With regard to the latter, it can be identified with the ultimate view of Dzokchen, Mahāmudrā, or Prajñāpāramitā. With respect to the 186 sgrub brgyud shing rta chen mo brgyad: rnying ma, bka' gdamspa, smar pa bka' brgyud, shangs pa bka' brgyud, sa skya/lam ’bras, zhi byed dan gcod, dus ’khor/sbyor drug, and o rgyan bsnyen brgyud. 187 For a discussion on whether or not Chöd is found in the Sakya school, see Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” for example, 7, 35, 36. When I asked the Kagyü-Sakya master Karma Thrinley Rinpoche, he explained that the Sakya school practices Karchöd Chöd, which is related to Vajravārāhī. Karma Thrinley Rinpoche, interview, Boudhanath, August 1, 2015. Similarly, Khorchak Rinpoche speaks of two Sakya Vajrayoginī Karchöd Chöd practices which he revived. http://www.sakyatenphelling.org/programme/special/2015/SakyaSpiritualPracticeofChod.pdf. 188 Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 231-232. 54 former, “Chöd” refers to a whole cycle of methods that are meant to either enable one to gain insight into the ultimate nature of things, or to strengthen one’s recognition of this realization. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains both wisdom and method as being essential on the Buddhist path and that they are meant to be practiced as a unity.189 The method aspect of Chöd can also include other techniques less directly related to realization, such as healing the sick, supporting the deceased in their after-death experience, exorcism, etc.190 In terms of the practical application at KNSL, I am unaware of any monks or nuns being called upon to carry out such services based on Chöd practice. However, during my first years in Nepal, the late Lama Pema Tharlam, a lay yogic practitioner who stayed at KNSL, would be summoned as a Chöd Yogi to perform at funeral rites and so on. Presently, Tulku Dorjé, a student of Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, resides in Swayambhu fulfills similar services.191 None of the oral Chöd teachings I was able to consult spoke about healing, supporting the deceased in their after-death experience, or exorcism. In relation to the wisdom and method aspects, one could also look at meditative equipoise (mnyam bzhag) and post-meditation (rjes thob) as practiced within Chöd. For example, Jamgön Kongtrül considers the practice of mingling one’s consciousness with space as the main practice of Chöd. This is experienced in meditative equipoise, while the offering of one’s body is a branch, practiced during post-meditation.192 In this way–as will be 189 Which can be explained on many different levels, depending on how advanced a practitioner is. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, annual fall seminars, 1990-2013, Boudhanath. www.dharmasun.org. 190 For accounts of how healing the sick etc. is applied in Chöd practice see, for example, Lama Tsering Wangdu. Hundred Thousand Rays of the Sun: The Sublime Life and Teachings of a Chöd Master. Edited by Joshua Waldman and Lama Jinpa. Lulu.com, 2008. The fact that Chöd is used for these purposes comes as no surprise given its close connection to the Prajñāpāramitā literature and its famous essential presentation, the Heart Sūtra. Sarah Harding describes how these were used for exorcism and protection. Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 43. However, she adds, “Khenpo Tsultrim asserted that using Chöd for healing oneself or one’s patients is certainly contradictory to Machik’s intentionŚ ‘You feed the patient to the demons!’” Ibid., 291, fn. 53. 191 Lama Öpak, personal conversation, Boudhanath, November 2016. 192 Harding, “Did Machik Lapdrön Really Teach Chöd?” However, the practice of mingling one’s mind with space can also be understood on many different levels depending upon the practitioner’s capacity. 55 explained in the awareness chapter–from the perspective of Dzokchen and Essence Mahāmudrā as explained in KNSL, meditative equipoise relates to wisdom, the realization and sustaining of awareness, while post-meditation refers to practices of the method aspect. The wisdom aspect, the ultimate view, is indescribable and non-conceptual. Chöd is said to express the intent of “Prajñāpāramitā” or the view of “Madhyamaka (dbu ma, Middle Way).” But as is well known, Tibetan traditions disagree on the meaning of both Prajñāpāramitā and Madhyamaka. At other times, the ultimate view of Chöd is defined as Mahāmudrā or Dzokchen which are, in turn, explained in many different ways. Sometimes, as we will see below, all three terms–Madhyamaka, Mahāmudrā, and Dzokchen–are said to point to the exact same view of the ultimate. Similarly, Tibetan Buddhist lineages interpret and practice the method aspect in many different ways. As Chöd can thus mean many things, it is important to point out that this thesis doesn’t claim that the insights gained from the description of KNSL’s Chöd tradition can be applied to other Chöd traditions, but instead offers further information to scholarly study of a complex and diverse tradition. At KNSL, Chöd is often introduced according to a six-part framework addressing: (1) the origins or history of this practice (byung khungs), (2) the meaning of Chöd (go don), (3) what are we cutting through (gang gcad par bya ba), (4) what are we cutting with (gang gis gcod par bya ba), (5) how are we cutting (gcod pa’i tshul), and (6) why is this helpful, what will be the result (phan yon, ’bras bu).193 The following is a brief summary of the main points emphasized in this framework. Therefore, the highest way of mingling with space would be the realization of the view, awareness. Whereas, for a beginning practitioner this practice would be a conceptual attempt, and therefore fall into the category of “method” rather than “wisdom,” and “post-meditation” rather than “meditative equipoise,” if seen from the ultimate perspective. 193 For example, as taught by Lama Tsültrim Sangpo (LTS), Chöd Teachings, Gomde California: July 2013. Translator: Catherine B. Dalton. Unless otherwise indicated, most of the information in this summary is from this eight-session seminar. 56 As a general introduction to these six topics, the KNSL teachers explain Chöd as an extremely profound practice. It unites sūtra and tantra, helps one swiftly accumulate merit and purify obscurations, and thereby hastens one’s path to enlightenment.194 If a practitioner is able to authentically apply Chöd, he or she can gain realization very quickly, in some cases almost instantaneously.195 As will be elaborated upon later, Chöd’s quality of accelerating one’s progress to enlightenment is understood to be directly related to “eruptions” of all kinds of pleasant and unpleasant experiences as last karmic traces ripen. Chöd teachings usually commence with strongly underscoring the correct view while faith and devotion are also often accentuated. Moreover, right from the outset, our attention is called to the link between the TRT and the Tersar Lüjin. Accordingly, while the TRT is very elaborate, its entire meaning is condensed within the Tersar Lüjin. Being a shorter sādhana, the latter serves as an easy daily practice.196 When explaining the first point, the history of Chöd, this tradition ultimately traces the origins of Chöd to Buddha Shakyamuni and his sūtric teachings on the Prajñāpāramitā. The very intent of these teachings can, it is said, be condensed into Chöd practice. In fact, the following four-line verse, found within the Condensed Sūtras of the Prajñāparamitā (mdo sdus, Prajñāpāramitā Sañcaya-gātha), is frequently quoted as one of the main sources, and will be dealt with more deeply in subsequent chapters: A bodhisattva who is skilled and powerful in these four causes Will not waver, nor fall under the sway of the four demons: He remains in emptiness, never giving up compassion, 194 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, Chöd teachings during its empowerment, KNSL, Boudhanath: Feb. 11, 2014. 195 Umze Karma Sherap, Chöd teachings, session1, KNSL, Boudhanath: September 21, 2016. Translator: Joseph Faria. 196 Ibid. 57 Practices exactly in accord with what is taught, and receives the blessings of the tathāgatas.197 The last two lines express the previously mentioned “four themes of Chöd” which include the ultimate view–here expressed as “emptiness”–and blessings. In the written and oral commentaries detailed in the next chapters, these aspects will be discussed in relation to awareness and devotion. As for the question of origin in relation to Machik, Khenpo Tokpa Tulku from KNSL narrates: Although various Indian sources can be accredited as a precursor of Chöd, its origin is usually accredited to Machik Labdrön. Machik Labdrön is said to have derived the Chöd practice in a moment of great insight from a section of Prajñāpāramitā teachings that illustrates the emptiness of gods and demons. Later, combining her insight on the Prajñāpāramitā sūtra with the teachings on the pacification of suffering, which she had received from the Indian Mahasiddha Padampa Sangyé, and with the teachings that stemmed from visionary experiences of Tārā, the practice of Chöd took form. The gods and demons of Chöd are understood to be the personification of our own egoclinging and emotions, such as anger, pride, desire, and jealousy.198 While the personal and spiritual relationship between Padampa Sangyé and Machik is still debated in academic studies,199 traditionally Padampa is perceived as a pivotal figure for the development of the Chöd tradition. Notably, Machik is not just described as an historical person but as an enlightened being who manifests differently on different levels. On the dharmakāya level, she is Prajñāpāramitā, the great mother (yum chen mo) of all the buddhas who metaphorically gives birth to the four types of noble beings.200 Another of her dharmakāya names is 197 LTS, Chöd, S1. Gomde CA: July 15, 2016. Translator: Catherine B. Dalton. However, during the Chöd seminar in 2013, the four points were featured differently as: faith, compassion, gathering the accumulations, being spurred on or inspired by one’s spiritual teacher. LTS, Chöd S1, Gomde CAŚ July 4, 2013. 198 http://www.shedrub.org/news.php?nid=103&video KNSL, June 2013. Accessed spring 2016. For example, Sorensen states that “there is little material evidence that such a transmission took place.” Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 5. Gyatso pointed out that some biographies show that Machik had developed Chöd before meeting Padampa. Gyatso, “The Development,” 332, fn. 53. 199 200 Buddhas, bodhisattvas, pratyekabuddhas, rāvakas. 58 Samantabhadrī. Her sambhogakāya form is Vajravārāhī (rdo rje phag mo). Tröma Nakmo (khro ma nag mo, black wrathful lady) is understood to be essentially the same entity as Vajravārāhī, just black in color instead of red.201 Her nirmanakāya form is Tārā, and her reemanation (yang sprul) is Machik Labdrön.202 As indicated above, Machik is credited with having combined the sūtric teachings on Prajñāpāramitā with tantra. This is also expressed with the syllable “phaṭ” which is made of two lettersŚ “pha” and “ta.” “Pha” symbolizes Prajñāpāramitā and “ta” tantra, therefore indicating the unity of sūtra and tantra in the context of Chöd. Machik is said to have gained her realization while reading the Prajñāpāramitā texts, and she also received the blessings and teachings of Tārā in her visions. Lama Tsültrim explains that these insights and teachings could also be called “terma,” in the sense of a “mind terma,” as the “treasures” of the Perfection of Wisdom arose within her mind.203 He continues that, according to Tibetan tradition, the Buddha’s teachings are timeless. They entirely transcend time and space, meaning they are seen to happen all the time, at every moment, appearing in the mind of someone somewhere. With these as a basis, Machik created her own particular instructions for Chöd. These teachings are said to be the only teachings, which were transmitted from Tibet to India.204 201 Lama Öpak, interview, Sept. 29, 2016. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche has also explained it in the following wayŚ Machik’s outer aspect is Prajñāpāramitā, her inner aspect is Tārā, her secret aspect is Vajravārāhī, while her innermost aspect is Tröma Nakmo. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, Chöd, February 11, 2014. As this tradition sees a close connection between Tārā and Chöd practice, it comes as no surprise that Rinpoche has not only started to recommend Chöd practice for his students, but also Tārā practice. (See his elaborate Tārā Triple Excellence online meditation program at www.dharmasun.org, which is also being translated into Nepali, Chinese, Russian, German, Spanish, French, etc.). Rinpoche has also explained that both practices are especially suitable for practitioners of these times. Particularly, Rinpoche has many Newari students. The Newari tradition features Prajñāpāramitā readings, and Tārā is one of the main Newari deities–to the extent that, instead of utilizing “Namaste” as a greeting, they use “Tārāmam”. Prof. Greg Sharkey, S.J., Guided Tour to Patan, August 2015. 202 203 LTS, Chöd S1, Gomde CA: 2013. 204 Ibid. For a brief discussion of this statement, see, for example, Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 14, 15, 41, 42. 59 The KNSL larger tradition also acknowledges Padmasambhava as a propagator of Chöd. However, Lama Tenzin notes that Chöd is also rooted in tantra, and therefore one cannot assert that Chöd started particularly with Machik or Padmasambhava or even with Buddha Shakyamuni.205 For example, the Tersar Lüjin, originating from the Thukdrup Barche Künsel cycle of the Chokling Tersar, has its roots in the Magical Net of Vidyādharas (rig’dzin sgyu ’phrul drva ba) tantra,206 which specifically mentions this practice. Tantras are explained to have remained on the sambhogakāya level since beginningless time, and can thus be accessed by a realized person at any time and in any place. Due to its tantric roots, Chöd is considered a very profound practice. In the Thukdrup Barche Künsel, it is grouped within the completion stage (rdzogs rim) section and consequently is classified mainly as a method to enhance the view.207 The second topic of this Chöd presentation concerns its meaning. Lama Tsültrim clarifies that, in general, “Chöd” (in English, “cutting” or “severing”)208 refers to cutting the continuity (’rgyun gcod) of samsara, i.e. cutting that which binds us to endless cycling in confusion. Every cause yields its specific effect. Here, the cause—confused mental clinging to a non-existent self as truly existing—yields the effect of negative emotions, karma, and rebirth in various forms. These bodily forms are called “the aggregates of suffering.” To eliminate this result, one must eliminate or cut through the cause, which is clinging to a self.209 At times, an alternative word with the same pronunciation is used–spyod, meaning 205 Lama Tenzin Sangpo. Chöd Teachings Session 1. Translated by Tina Lang. KNSL, Boudhanath: November 19, 2014. According to many sources, Machik received three tantras from Tārā. Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 104. As with all termas, Chöd termas are also said to stem from the tantras. 206 The terma was revealed on November 7, 1848. Andreas Doctor, Tibetan Treasure Literature: Revelation, Tradition, and Accomplishment in Visionary Buddhism (Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2005) 87. 207 Lama Tenzin. Chöd 1. Lama Tsültrim explains it as actually being an imperative, “Cut!” or “Cut through!” LTS, Chöd S1, Gomde CA: 2013. 208 209 LTS, Chöd S1, 2016. 60 ‘conduct’–which indicates the practices of a bodhisattva. Here, the teachers purposely use these homonyms (both are pronounced “chö”) to draw the connection between severing our clinging to an imaginary self and the selfless conduct of a bodhisattva or wisdom and practicing skillful means, respectively.210 The third topic of this KNSL presentation on Chöd reveals an in-depth exposition of what one aims to sever. Here, Lama Tsültrim Sangpo quotes Milarepa (mi la ras pa, 10401123211) who explained Chöd in terms of (1) outer, (2) inner, and (3) secret cutting whereby one cuts off distractions, offers one’s body, and cuts all clinging to the self, respectively. Lama Tsültrim also refers to Rangjung Dorjé, who defines the ‘outer cut’ as renouncing nonvirtues and engaging in virtue, the ‘inner cut’ as severing all grasping to sense perceptions, and the ‘secret cut’ as shattering ma rig pa. These definitions will be explored in the chapter on Awareness. But what exactly must be severed according to KNSL’s approach to Chöd practice? The key, it is said, is to cut through the two sets of four māras, or demons: the general outer sūtric presentation and the unique inner tantric presentation. The former set consists of (1) the māra of negative emotions, (2) the māra of the aggregates, (3), the māra of the Lord of Death, and (4) the māra of the son of the gods; the latter set comprises (1) the tangible demon, (2) the intangible demon, (3) the demon of exultation, and (4) the demon of inflation. As these are closely related to awareness, they will be examined in the latter part of this thesis. The fourth topic is the agents for such cutting, which Lama Tsültrim explains as method, wisdom, and their union (thabs shes zung ’jug). Alternatively, he also explains this based on the three samādhis of the sūtric tradition: the vajra-like samādhi (rdo rje lta bu’i 210 Kyapjé Khenpo Rinpoche, interview, April 21, 2016. 211 Or 1052-1135. 61 ting nge ’dzin), the samādhi of heroic accomplishment (dpa’ bar ’gro ba’i ting nge ’dzin), and the illusory samādhi (sgyu ma lta bu’i ting nge ’dzin). However, these two presentations are said to be each contained within the other. As the phrase “union of method and wisdom” suggests, although one may focus on one aspect rather than the other, they are mutually dependent and therefore inseparable. Here, in the context of a general explanation of the intent of the Prajñāpāramitā, the method aspect is compassion and the wisdom aspect is emptiness. Compassion protects one from falling into the extreme of nirvāṇic peace (zhi), while emptiness frees one from saṃsāric existence (srid). This union—often described as “emptiness with a core of compassion” (stong nyid snying rje'i snying po can)—cuts through ego-clinging and leads one to perfect awakening. In Chöd practice, compassion is aroused based on the attitude of the Four Immeasurables and bodhicitta. Two types of generosity are implemented—first, the mental offering of one’s own body, transformed into whatever will satisfy the needs or desires of beings; this is given with the wish that it may bring beings temporary and ultimate benefit. Having magnetized all beings through these abundant offerings, we then gift them with the heartfelt inspiration to study and practice the Dharma. Therefore, the Chöd sādhanas practiced at KNSL contain verses of Dharma teachings, such as: Refrain from all non-virtue, Practice an abundance of virtue, And completely tame your own mind This is the teaching of the Buddha.212 Dharma teachings—practicing the method aspect of compassion in action—are regarded as the quintessential gift to sentient beings, since Dharma practice enables them to free themselves from suffering and arrive at the ultimate purpose, complete enlightenment. In this way, Chöd practice includes visualization of the twofold generosities: mundane gifts, which 212 Karmai Khenpo, “The Concise Liturgy,” 9. 62 assure the unceasing welfare of beings, and the supramundane gift of Dharma which kindles the unceasing twofold bodhicitta within their hearts. The method aspect of compassion can be practiced in many different ways. Not all beings can be enticed by mere peaceful strategies to curtail their negative patterns of behavior. With strong compassion for misguided mean-spirited beings, in Chöd practice one resorts to the wrathful form, Tröma Nakmo. Meeting their match in her terrifying enraged display, unruly beings are corralled for their ultimate good. The lamas at KNSL describe the wisdom aspect, which makes the cut, as nothing other than emptiness, itself, the ultimate view of Prajñāpāramitā, Mahāmudrā, and Dzokchen. However, for the realization of emptiness to take place, the downpour of blessings from enlightened beings is a prerequisite second to none. This is based exclusively upon the practitioner’s unswerving devotion, as the following chapters will elaborate. Secondly, KNSL teachers explain how the three sūtric samādhis cut confusion. The vajra-like samādhi refers to the recognition of innate awareness (rig pa), or emptiness.213 Out of this recognition, one gives rise to strong compassion and develops bodhicitta for those beings blind to this recognition. This is the samādhi of heroic accomplishment. The third samādhi, the illusory samādhi signifies sustaining the unity of emptiness and compassion throughout all one’s daily activities, particularly during Chöd practice. As this pertains directly to the role awareness plays in Chöd, this thesis will later include a more detailed presentation of the three samādhis. Comparing the presentations side-by-side, Lama Tsültrim explicitly states that the first samādhi refers to the wisdom aspect, the second to the method aspect, while the third refers to their union. However, in the latter presentation, compassion is said to be a result of Emptiness is equated with ‘awareness’ since “empti-” refers to the empty essence of mind while “ness” refers to its luminous nature. 213 63 recognition of the view, rather than the cause that leads to said recognition. While the former presentation allows for both interpretations: as a method, compassion can cause realization, while this realization will also have compassion as its innate quality. As the fifth topic—how the cutting is actually carried out—the lamas of KNSL describe the details of each respective sādhana. This topic is the core of the teachings and often takes several days to impart. Until one has reached enlightenment, one must rely on methods, such as those embedded in Chöd sādhanas for one’s wisdom to fully unfold. First, the lamas present an overview of the so-called Three Excellences.214 Here, the view and its conceptual approximation are taught,215 and the role of devotion in Chöd is elaborated upon in great detail. The topics of awareness and devotion are reiterated throughout the several days of teachings on the sādhana. An additional topic is generosity, which is presented according to āntideva’s definition of “mentally giving up attachments,” or completely letting go. Phakchok Rinpoche explains that the most challenging material object to utterly abandon or let go of is one’s own body. Therefore, in Chöd practice one trains in letting go of precisely this most intractable object of one’s attachment.216 Although they occasionally refer to the TRT, the KNSL lamas’ explanations usually proceed according to the sequence of the Tersar Lüjin. Throughout the several days of Chöd teachings, the lamas present a word-by-word commentary. The text begins with a supplication to the root guru, followed by a lineage prayer composed by Rangjung Dorjé. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche also often gives commentaries on the latter, explaining that the very 214 See fn.119. 215 A senior lama, like Lama Tsültrim, will present this in a conceptual manner, while the more experiential pointing-out instructions will typically be imparted by Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche. 216 Phakchok Rinpoche, Chöd Teachings11, 12, 20, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6bcMlNc9acg, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqd4wpEEdEM, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JFiGSwmMjo. 64 essence of the Dharma is entirely contained within these few lines.217 He then explains the refuge prayer that follows on different levels, once again highlighting awareness (rig pa) or intrinsic wakefulness (rang ’byung ye shes) as the ultimate refuge. Also, the refuge prayer incorporates the four hallmarks examined in the next chapter, namely renunciation, compassion, devotion, and awareness. Next Lama Tsültrim discusses the sādhana itself in some detail. The main part of the Chöd sādhana begins with the vajra-like samādhi, meaning the recognition of innate awareness, the nature of one’s own mind. One is taught that all aspects of body, speech, and mind—the pure as well as the impure—are ultimately the display of this awareness. Out of great compassion, awareness then takes the outer form of a deity, which is the samādhi of heroic accomplishment. This is the aspect of appearance. In the sādhana, after ejecting one’s consciousness218 and shedding one’s human body, one’s manifestation as the deity corresponds to this aspect of appearance. In the Tersar Lüjin, this deity–one’s own awareness made manifest–is Tröma Nakmo,219 a wrathful aspect of Machik. Not wavering from the experience of these two, emptiness and its compassionate manifestation united, one engages in the activity of Chöd to benefit beings by offering one’s cast-off physical form rearranged as any phenomena recipients could possibly yearn for. Offerings are made in two ‘directions’—upwards to the two classes of superior guests, namely buddhas, bodhisattvas, spiritual masters, deities, ḍākinīs, ḍākas, and Dharma protectors, and downwards to the two classes of inferior guests, namely all sentient beings, in general, and any to whom the practitioner owes a karmic debt. Here, one gives specific attention to malevolent spirits, 217 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, Talk to RYI students, KNSL, Boudhanath: September 2016. 218 The ejection of consciousness in Chöd practice can be performed in many different ways, depending on the capacity of the practitioner, as will be explained in the Awareness chapter. Also see, for example, Harding, Machik’s Great Explanation, 50, 51. 219 Here, the lama would then explain the symbolic meaning of Tröma Nakmo’s appearance. 65 which are explained to be manifestations of one’s own negative emotions. This practice of offering one’s body corresponds with the third, the illusory samādhi. One does this while sustaining the authentic view according to one’s capacity, either as an actual experience of intrinsic awareness or as an approximation, reminding oneself throughout the practice that no actual body exists to be offered, no actual recipient exists to receive it, no act of giving, and the practitioner is also not truly established. In this way, one adheres to the three samādhis throughout this section. Usually, the KNSL lama will also explain the different usages of phaṭ within the sādhana and the various levels of phowa practice that follow the refuge section. As both of these strongly pertain to awareness, details will follow in the relevant chapters. After a detailed explanation of the transmutation and offering of one’s left-over body and the four types of guests, as well as the different types of feasts (’gyed) and the symbolism of drum beats, we enter the section devoted to dedications, aspirations, and practicing the generosity of giving Dharma teachings (chos kyi sbyin pa).220 This is followed by more prayers for the benefit of beings as well as one prayer particularly for the Chöd practitioner. Once all beings have been satisfied by the offerings and benefited from the Dharma teachings, one imagines that they have now all generated compassion and bodhicitta. Because of this, the practitioner, in the form of Tröma Nakmo, and all beings recite the mantra of Avalokite vara, the embodiment of boundless compassion, while recollecting the ultimate Avalokite vara of the three perspectives (khyer so gsum): empty appearance, empty sound, and empty awareness. After reciting additional dedications, one requests the beings to depart. Having visualized receiving empowerments from all the enlightened beings present, these then dissolve into oneself as Tröma Nakmo. Retracting one’s consciousness, as Tröma This is the third type of generosity – the other two being the generosity of giving material things and the generosity of protecting from fear. Patrul Rinpoche, Words of My Perfect Teacher (New Delhi: Vistaar Publications, 1999) 234-238. 220 66 Nakmo, back into one’s now restored human body, the main part of the practice ends, and one chants supplementary aspiration and dedication prayers. Finally, the sixth topic in the presentation of Chöd is concerned with the benefits of this practice. As one traverses the path, one is said to encounter temporary signs and finally the ultimate sign. Here, Lama Tsültrim speaks of three measures or ways of measuring progress: the measure of testing, the measure of completion, and the measure of having cut. Temporary signs can manifest on the outer, inner, and secret levels as pleasant or unpleasant experiences, such as perceiving fearsome gods and demons,221 experiencing sickness, and falling prey to doubts. One is advised to continue focusing on the view and not to grasp onto any of these momentary appearances. A forceful shouting of phaṭ might be utilized to let go of all concepts and remain in naked awareness. The lamas at KNSL remind the practitioners that, no matter how frightful or disagreeable such “eruptions” of difficulties may be, this is merely a sign of past karma ripening and being purified more swiftly. In this way, one’s path to enlightenment is cleared. Positive signs of progress, such as clairvoyance and so forth, may also arise.222 As the teachings on the third tantric māra, the māra of exultation (dga’ brod kyi bdud), clearly states, if one grasps onto any of these encouraging signs, they, too, will become yet another obstacle. If, however, one is able to simply remain in the view, the final result of Chöd practice is said to be complete and perfect enlightenment. Comparing KNSL’s teachings on Chöd with the academic writings on Chöd consulted here, one discovers that, throughout KNSL’s presentation awareness is foremost while In Tibetan the term “gods and demons (lha ‘dre)” is actually just one word (“gods-demons”) and indicates a great variety of beings who can sometimes be helpful and sometimes harmful, depending on their mood. See for example, Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 38-42. 221 222 Other positive signs may include the manifestation of good circumstances, such as becoming wealthy, being praised or served by others, etc. 67 devotion is the quintessential means.223 This is the case both with Chöd, in particular, and with Vajrayāna, in general, as will be stressed in the following chapters. Furthermore, we find that the two sets of the four māras and their relation to nature of mind practice are prominent. Moreover, several explanations of the outer, inner, and secret meanings of Chöd are elucidated again with an emphasis on the innermost meaning. Specifically, when it comes to the wisdom aspect, certain cardinal prerequisites are underscored, for example that one must receive the reading transmission, empowerment, and oral instructions for the practice from a qualified realized master. 223 One may interpret the fact that KNSL brings awareness to the forefront as a modernization of Chöd practice. However, when Harding researched ten early Chöd texts, she scarcely found mention of the body offering. What the texts seemed to focus on was the view of Prajñāpāramitā. If this were true, then the focus primarily on awareness seems to revive the very roots of Chöd rather than being a modernization. Harding, “Did Machik Labdrön Really Teach Chöd?” 68 3. The fourfold framework underlying all practices at KNSL While the previous chapter described KNSL’s specific instruction on Chöd following a sixfold framework, this chapter concerns the more general framework with which Vajrayāna teachings are presented at KNSL. Its oral tradition presents the practices of devotion and awareness together with renunciation and compassion in a fourfold framework. This intricate philosophical framework with an elaborate pedagogical structure is based on a complex understanding of the human psyche. Tightly interrelated, these four practice aspects are seen as indispensable for authentic Dharma practice in general, and for Chöd practice in particular. This framework is crucial for understanding why these four components and particularly awareness and devotion are so strongly featured in the sixfold presentation discussed in chapter 2. The masters at KNSL introduce many approaches to enlightenment embedded in a variety of different frameworks. One reason for this variety is the complexity of the Dharma, itself, traditionally described as extremely vast and profound. Another reason is the need to accommodate the great diversity of inclinations and capacities within the audience. Vajrayāna, in particular, presents many layers of meaning and approaches. Inspired by such masters as Mipham Rinpoche, the teachers at KNSL explain that each method and framework is valuable, and even necessary, for certain individuals at certain times. One such framework,224 often accentuated by Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, concerns the four key points, which he summarizes as: The key points of all Dharma, are: 1. Renunciation and detachment; 2. Love and compassion—unbiased, free of prejudice; 3. Trust, that has become unshakable. Other frameworks often used at KNSL are “The Four Dharmas of Gampopa,” See, for example, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche’s As It Is, Volume 1 (Boudhanath, Hong Kong, and Esby: Rangjung Yeshe, 1999) 3948. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche often presents the framework of “calm, kind, and clear.” For example, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche (CNR), “Saturday TalkŚ Important Key Points” (KNSL, BoudhanathŚ April 17, 2004). Saturday Talks are accessible at www.dharmasun.org. 224 69 Through these three, we will come to understand the most important of all, which is: 4. The true view, to be realized in actuality.225 This chapter will address these four in the following order226: (1) the authentic view, awareness (rig pa); (2) renunciation (nges ’byung); (3) compassion (snying rje); and (4) devotion (mos gus, or also dad pa227).228 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche presents the latter three as being directly related to awareness.229 225 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, Saturday Talk, translator Erik Pema Kunsang, notes by Tina Lang (Boudhanath: March 10, 2007) 6. Here, renunciation, compassion, and devotion are presented as causes for the true view to arise. This is a presentation aimed more at beginners. In other contexts, Rinpoche explains that by gaining an increased understanding and experience of the view, newer, stronger types of renunciation, compassion, and devotion will arise. Finally, with true realization, these three aspects will become unshakable. (As for my references to Saturday TalksŚ when I write “notes by Tina Lang,” it implies that I took notes during the teachings. However, I double-checked them later with both the English translation and the audio version of Rinpoche’s Tibetan, to ensure I hadn’t made any mistakes). 226 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche often speaks of them in this order. I assume awareness has to come first because awareness lays the basis, the goal and the path to be followed, while the other three facets–renunciation, compassion, devotion—are explained in direct relation to awareness. In a more general context, these three can be linked to the three vehiclesŚ renunciation as an important method in the Hinayāna vehicle, compassion in Mahāyāna, and devotion in Vajrayāna. 227 “Dad pa” is often translated as “faith,” “devotion,” or “trust.” 228 As one facet is said to support the other, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche sometimes presents them as a whole, whilst at other times he emphasizes one quality over the others, depending on the context and the audience. At times, Rinpoche also adds other elements to this list of four, such as diligence, pure perception, discipline, etc. For exampleŚ CNR, Saturday Talk “The Five Perfections,” translator Thomas Doctor (Boudhanath: January 17, 2009). CNR, Saturday Talk, translator Thomas Doctor (Boudhanath: October 8, 2005). However, this does not mean that KNSL’s teachers do not also give more general explanations on the latter three topics. In particular, those engaging in higher studies at KNSL will follow a rigorous program exploring these topics in great detail, for example by studying texts such as The Words of My Perfect Teacher, the Jewel Ornament of Liberation, the Way of the Bodhisattva, and the Thirty-Seven Practices of a Bodhisattva, which are part of the standard curriculum for both ordained and lay students. In Rinpoche’s online meditation program, Tara’s Triple Excellence, renunciation, compassion, and devotion also receive a great deal of attention. However, when it comes to the pith instructions imparted by the various Rinpoches at KNSL, the angle from which they are presented is directly related to awareness. Patrul Rinpoche, The Words of My Perfect Teacher. Gampopa, Jewel Ornament of Liberation, translated by Khenpo Konchog Gyaltsen Rinpoche, edited by Ani K. Trinlay Chödron (Ithaca: Snow Lion 1998). Ś ãntideva, The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra. (Boston: Shambhala South Asia Editions, 1999). Chökyi Dragpa, Uniting Wisdom and Compassion: Illuminating the Thirty-Seven Practices of a Bodhisattva, translated by Heidi I. Köppl (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2004). 229 70 3.1. Awareness Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, like his paternal predecessor, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, mentions “awareness” (rig pa) relatively early on in his seminars which are presented as very personal heart-to-heart instructions. At KNSL, the ultimate view is described by means of several terms, but most often it is simply called rig pa or “awareness,” which derives predominantly from the Dzokchen tradition.230 Therefore, I have chosen to frame the wisdom aspect of the teaching around this term. This Dzokchen use of the term should be distinguished from, for example, conceptual rig pa, which constitutes “noticing,” as in “stillness, occurrence, and noticing (gnas ’gyu rig gsum).”231 According to Dzokchen, and KNSL’s interpretation, rig pa is not only a result (’bras bu) of practice, rather it is described as the very basis (gzhi) of practice, our basic state which is primordially present, albeit usually unrecognized as such. Rig pa is also regarded as the path (lam), since, once the natural state has been recognized, one’s main practice is to let go into it, again and again. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains awareness this wayŚ “When referring to the view of Dzogchen or Mahāmudrā, it means consciousness devoid of ignorance and dualistic fixation.”232 In the Dzokchen context, ignorance (ma rig pa, literally “non-awareness”) indicates the direct opposite of awareness (rig pa). Any concept, any emotion—even a virtuous one—and any blank, unaware state devoid of thoughts is all labeled “ignorance” since it involves fixated, dualistic involvement in the “three spheres (’khor gsum)” of subject, Throughout this paper, awareness is used as a synonym for the “ultimate state” (don dam pa’i gnas lugs), the “natural state” (gnas lugs), self-existing wakefulness (rang byung ye shes; also: rang ‘byung ye shes.), the authentic view (yang dag pa’i lta ba), the view of Dzokchen or Mahāmudrā, etc. Often when the term gnas lugs is used, the teachers would differentiate between gnas lugs—the natural state, the abiding mode, the way things truly are—and the snang lugs—the apparent mode, the way things appear which are, in contrast, false. 230 231 Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, Vajra Speech: Pith Instructions for the Dzogchen Yogi (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 2001) 130. 232 CNR, The Union of Mahamudra and Dzogchen: A Commentary on the Quintessence of Spiritual Practice, the Direct Instructions of the Great Compassionate One by Karma Chagmey Rinpoche. (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 1989) 222. 71 object, and action. In this context, Rinpoche often quotes the Sakya master Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (rje btsun grags pa rgyal mtshan, 1147-1216)Ś “If you have any fixation at all, it is not the view.”233 This description of ignorance, fixation, and their relationship to awareness is important for an understanding of the discussion on the four māras in particular, as will be detailed below. Rinpoche also defines awareness in his “Spontaneous Song”Ś Awareness is the innate natural state, Free from arising, dwelling and ceasing. Unimpeded openness, inexpressible empty cognizance Your primordial essence is beyond conceptual mind. This is the path journeyed by the buddhas of the three times, The realization of Mahamudra, Dzogchen, and the Middle Way.234 Here, Rinpoche points out that awareness is not something fabricated, but innate to one’s nature. It is empty, yet not a blank unknowing state, as it is cognizant. Once awareness is realized, this realization is the highest, ultimate view not only of Dzokchen, but also of Mahāmudrā and Madhyamaka.235 The claim that there is only one ultimate realization common to all three traditions–Dzokchen, Mahāmudrā, and Madhyamaka236–allows for the seamless integration of sūtra and tantra that is presented in Chöd practices. It also sets the Line 4 of the famous verse “Parting from the Four Attachments (zhen pa bzhi bral)Ś” ’dsin pa ’byung na lta ba min. Chogye Trichen Rinpoche, Parting from the Four Attachments: A Commentary on Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen’s Song of Experience on Mind Training and the View (Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2003). 233 234 CNR, “Spontaneous Song,” in The Union of Mahamudra and Dzogchen, 216. 235 “Through the oral traditions of the Middle Way, Mahamudra, Dzogchen and also of the system known as Prajnaparamita, or transcendent knowledge, we can personally apply these pith instructions and come face-to-face with the buddha nature present in ourselves.” Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, Rainbow Painting (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 1995) 39. 236 Also see: Tsele Natsok Rangdröl, Empowerment and the Path to Liberation (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 1992) 98, 99. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains that although, ultimately, these three traditions lead to the same realization, they differ in clarity of explanation as well as in efficacy and swiftness. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, Tara’s Triple Excellence online meditation program, refuge session 12, www.dharmasun.org. 72 stage for a top-down approach to practice, where teachings and methods of the sūtra path are interpreted in the light of tantra.237 There are many approaches to engender recognition of this view employed at KNSL. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains: [T]here are different approaches: the tradition of cultivating the correct view through learning and reflection, or the tradition of cultivating the correct view through meditation based on pith instructions. There is indeed, another approach called the “transmission of blessings” tradition. In the first case, we relate to the Dharma scriptures through learning and reflection. In the second case, the students receive pith instructions from a teacher. In the third case—the tradition of the transmission of blessings—the teacher introduces the students to the view in a raw, genuine, completely naked way. A qualified Lama can introduce the students to the view in such a way that they recognize it, and the teacher and student thereby become inseparable in their realization. This approach is called the “transmission of blessings.”238 Accordingly, the first approach is the traditional progressive path of learning (thos), reflecting (bsam), and meditating (sgom). Learning (thos) literally means “listening,” and Rinpoche often stresses the importance of first receiving Dharma teachings directly from a teacher, rather than from reading a book, for example. Therefore, also in this framework, there is an emphasis on the component of oral teachings and the personal presence of a teacher. Next, further reflection (bsam) is said to eliminate doubts. The certainty thus achieved in the view is then to be personally applied in meditation. This style of approaching the view is very useful for a person who tends to be intellectual and critical. The second approach to realizing the view is called the “way of the simple meditator” (ku su lu). Here, a practitioner, with great faith in his or her teacher, requests the master for pith instructions. He or she thereafter applies these instructions until first understanding 237 Khenpo Tokpa Tulku uses the following analogy to explain the distinct views of a Dzokchen master and a beginner: A person can observe the happenings of Kathmandu from two different perspectives. When looking down to the city from the mountain hermitage of Nagi Gompa, it nearly feels like everything is one. One does not perceive many differences from this view. However, if one stands in the center of Kathmandu, one perceives countless differences. Both perspectives are not lies. Thus, a Dzokchen master perceives phenomena in one way, while the beginner experiences them in the framework of black and white. Interestingly, as one progresses, things become more grey. Khenpo Tokpa Tulku, interview. 238 CNR, Saturday Talk, transcript by Tina Lang (Boudhanath: February 16, 2013) 7, 8. 73 dawns, then experience takes place, and finally realization arises. Intellectual understanding and experience are both seen as temporary, conceptual approximations of the ultimate realization and, in the end, are to be discarded. One is meant to check regularly with one’s master as to whether one’s practice and understanding are correct, and, if necessary, the master will then redirect one’s practice. Once a true recognition of awareness has taken place, one is meant to train in grow accustomed to and stabilize this view of awareness, until one is able to remain naturally in rig pa for increasingly longer periods of time. The unbroken stream of awareness is explained to be the state of buddhahood. Finally, it is said that some fortunate individuals—who have trained in awareness in past lives, who have kept pure samayas, have accumulated great amounts of merit, and purified a great deal of obscurations, and who possess unbearable compassion and devotion– can receive the direct transference of blessings, meaning that they can recognize awareness in a completely unmistaken way, beyond the slightest doubt, when it is pointed out by the master.239 Khenpo Tokpa Tulku explains that – simply put - one can practice a Vajrayāna sādhana such as Chöd practice in two ways. The practitioner who has recognized awareness, practices Chöd “from the inside out,” utilizing Chöd’s methods as an enhancement. Those who have not recognized awareness, mimic realization on an intellectual level. In addition, “There are various methods of transmissionŚ from mind to mind directly, through indication or gesture, and by words.” CNR, The Union of Mahamudra and Dzogchen, 29. These approaches are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Moreover, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche strongly encourages his students to become scholar-practitioners. This is said to be not only for one’s own benefit, in clearly resolving the view beyond any doubt, but also to be able to help others and to be able to communicate the Dharma in a clear and profound manner. As one juxtaposes written text and oral instructions in Tibetan Buddhism, one discovers this third layer that is essential to the tradition, namely that of direct transmission. It may be interesting to engage in more research on these approaches and, for example, contrast them with the stereotypical style of Western scholarly approach whereby one studies a tradition by merely considering one of its texts. I understand that this merely text-focused Western scholar is as much a caricature as a stereotype. However, I also feel that stereotypes can be thought-provoking. For more discussion on stereotypes and methodology in Buddhism, see: José Cabezón, “Buddhist Studies as a Discipline and the Role of Theory,” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 18:2 (1995): 231-268. 239 74 they employ further Vajrayāna methods, such as melodies and musical instruments – thus involving body, speech, and mind.240 Practicing Chöd “from the outside in”, they create the conditions for recognizing rig pa.241 In this way, considering the complex psyche of different practitioners, KNSL’s tradition lays out a variety of pedagogical approaches for such individuals to realize and sustain awareness. The personal guidance of experts, i.e. the masters, is strongly recommended, as they can assess students’ depositions and present the most suitable individualized and differentiated approaches. Vajrayāna tradition suggests that this oral and personal component is likewise crucial for coming to an understanding of awareness and its application in Chöd sādhanas. This becomes more evident when the prerequisites traditionally required of a practitioner are investigated. Often, individuals are not allowed to practice, nor at times even to read, Vajrayāna the texts and sādhanas without having first received these four indispensable prerequisites: (1) the ripening empowerments (smin byed kyi dbang),242 (2) the supportive reading transmission (rgyab rten gyi lung), (3) the liberating oral guidance instructions (grol byed kyi khrid), and (4) the oral pith instructions (man ngag).243 240 Particularly for a beginner, the rhythm of the melodies and the rhythm of the body movement (for example, by playing the drum and bell in Chöd practice) are said to have a strong impact on the mind of the practitioner. This is not only used in practice but also for study. The monks at KNSL utilize rhythmic reading and body movement (rocking the body back and forth) to enhance their studies when memorizing texts. Khenpo Tokpa Tulku, interview. 241 Khenpo Tokpa Tulku, interview. 242 Although there are many types of empowerments employed at KNSL, generally, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche distinguishes four types: (1) the vase empowerment (bum pa’i dbang), (2) the secret empowerment (gsang ba’i dbang), (3) the wisdom-knowledge empowerment (shes rab ye shes kyi dbang), and (4) the precious word empowerment (tshig dbang rin po che). The four empowerments are linked to the four general māras. The first empowerment defeats the māra of the aggregates, the second eliminates the māra of negative emotions, the third defeats the māra of the Lord of Death, and the fourth conquers the māra of the son of the gods. Padmasambhava, The Light of Wisdom Volume II, commentary by Jamgön Kongtrül (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 1998) 31-44. The root text by Padmasambhava is the lam rim ye shes snying po, the Gradual Path of the Wisdom Essence. 243 Often only the first three are listed, however, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche emphasizes that the fourth one has to be added. 75 When a qualified, experienced, and realized tantric master meets a qualified disciple, then the meaning of wisdom, itself, which is the intent of empowerment, can be transferred in both a conceptual–and, more importantly, a non-conceptual–manner. As Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche says, The most gifted disciple will receive empowerment and recognize wisdom, and at this moment attain complete liberation. Through receiving the ripening empowerments, one’s body, speech, and mind become matured and one’s perception changes. By training in this practice, all appearances are seen as the unity of emptiness and appearance. All that is heard is the unity of emptiness and sound, all sensations are the unity of bliss and emptiness, and all mental activities are experienced as the unity of awareness and emptiness. Then we have become capable practitioners of Mantrayāna, and we’ll be able to achieve great results in an extremely short time.244 In this statement, Rinpoche emphasizes the effectiveness of empowerments. If one were to recognize awareness when it is pointed out during empowerments, one could swiftly reach one’s aim of liberation. The last line implies that, were we not to receive empowerment and thereby not realize its intent, the path to insight would take much longer. As oral instructions and transmissions are key features of empowerments, they too must unlock the door to realization of innate awareness. As they are prerequisites for thorough engagement with a sādhana text and are said to be the causes for recognition of awareness which hasten attainment of one’s spiritual aim, this implies that tradition perceives the study of text alone as a slow, tedious, and lengthy avenue to insight. Not only that, but one’s grasp of the significance of the practice would be, at best partial, if not actually mistaken. Among the four Vajrayāna empowerments (the vase, secret, wisdom-knowledge, and precious word empowerments)245 that constitute the first requisite, the fourth—the precious word empowerment—is of central importance, as this is where the ultimate view is pointed out in its totality. Ideally, one gains a direct experience of luminous emptiness, the nature of 244 CNR, Saturday Talk, translator Thomas Doctor, notes by Tina Lang (Boudhanath: June 11, 2005) 6. 245 Also see: Tsele Natsok Rangdröl, Empowerment. 76 mind. The unfolding of one’s own true nature could take place instantaneously or step-bystep through understanding, experience, and realization. Even if authentic realization has not arisen during the empowerment, itself, empowerments are nonetheless said to ripen one’s stream-of-being so that when the next steps–the reading transmission, the guidance, and the pith instructions–are imparted, authentic recognition can take place. As previously mentioned (in section 1.3.), the guidance instructions may be more general in tone, following the outline of the sādhana and possibly providing a word-for-word explanation. The pith instructions refer to heart-to-heart teachings from a realized master who instructs the students with direct, simple words on how to recognize the nature of mind. During the reading transmission, the master reads the entire text, creating for the listeners a personal auspicious connection with the text as well as with the entire lineage of masters, again enabling deeper understanding. All four prerequisites pinpoint the power of an uninterrupted lineage transmission, all the way back to the author of the text.246 This attention no doubt functions to help the practitioner develop greater trust in the efficacy and blessings of the practice. Consequently, the Tibetan Buddhist tradition emphatically states that in order to understand and practice a text authentically, and in order to personally realize its intent, i.e. awareness, one must meet a realized lineage-holder of said text, and receive detailed personal explanations. Not only that, but with such an authentic master directing his realization toward This tradition, and Tibetan Buddhism in general, stresses the importance of “lineage” (brgyud pa). Lineage refers to a line of realized masters who have passed down the teachings and transmissions. Usually, one can also receive reading transmissions and guidance instructions from people who have not necessarily achieved high realization. However, as the empowerments and pith instructions are particularly aimed at pointing out the nature of mind, a realized master is indispensable. Were one to question the historical accuracy of uninterrupted lines going back to the author of a text, tradition might refer to yet another lineage transmission. Enlightened body, speech, and mind, expressions of enlightenment such as tantras, are said to be accessible by realized people at any time and in any place. Many hagiographies present practitioners meeting masters of the past or deities in visions and in this way establishing an even shorter connection to their teachings and transmissions than through the historical lineage (for example, Machik receiving tantric teachings from Tārā. Jigme Lingpa receiving direct transmissions from Longchenpa). 246 77 one’s mind, some transmission beyond words is said to take place. This transmission is understood to enable one to comprehend the text on a more profound and specifically nonconceptual level. Needless to say, this extra layer of approaching a text such as a Chöd sādhana is greatly distinct from the modern academic approach. The traditional approach moves from intellectual and emotional engagement with a text to a non-conceptual immersion.247 After Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche has pointed out the importance of awareness relatively early on in his teachings, such as during a seminar, he follows up with an elaboration on the framework of the gradual path, followed by further details on how to recognize and sustain the view throughout every moment, day and night. For example, even in the introduction to the Tara Triple Excellence program,248 Rinpoche begins with teachings on the nature of mind, the wisdom aspect. With this as a background, the practitioners commence their training, utilizing preliminary contemplations and practices such as the Tara sādhana “The Essence of the Two Accumulations”249 as the method aspect. In this way, the program allows for the unified approach of wisdom and method from the very outset.250 As for the method aspect, due to their purported efficacy, Rinpoche spends much time explaining the other three topics–renunciation, compassion, and devotion—as outlined below—based on an intellectual and direct introduction of awareness. 3.2. Renunciation 247 As will be explained in the framework (3) and devotion (5) chapters. The Tara’s Triple Excellence program is a gradual online meditation program based on a terma revealed by Chokgyur Dechen Lingpa and on the instructions of Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche. www.dharmasun.org. 248 249 See fn. 164. 250 As mentioned above, for a beginner, the wisdom aspect might just be a conceptual approximation of the view, such as reminding oneself of the illusory and pure nature of all beings and all phenomena. 78 The second of the four topics is that of renunciation or disenchantment. Generally, one speaks of disenchantment towards the suffering of saṃsāra. Pointing to the source of saṃsāra, renunciation of the negative emotions is highlighted since they are the doubleedged sword that harms both oneself and others.251 However, according to the pith instructions, the main culprit is ignorance, (ma rig pa) itself–not knowing or realizing the true nature of things. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains: The real fundamental object of renunciation is our failure to recognize the natural state. This is what we should be fed up with, however this feeling of weariness, alone, is not enough; we must do something about it so that our renunciation results in realizing the natural state.252 Strictly speaking, anything that is not awareness is one’s object of renunciation, including joyful as well as virtuous conceptual states, such as compassion and devotion. As the term “Chöd,” or “severing” indicates something to be cut away, something to renounce, renunciation and its different layers are closely related to the outer, inner, and secret levels of Chöd. By learning more about the nature of confusion and its shortcomings, and through studying the qualities of awareness, our renunciation of confusion grows. By actually experiencing and realizing awareness, one gains a real taste of the extent of utter confusion so that renunciation is further fortified. In this way, renunciation can be both a cause for and a result of awareness. Therefore, on the one hand, renunciation is developed along the path, propelling one towards the goal, and enabling one to achieve realization. On the other hand, renunciation is also a by-product of insight. 251 According to Rinpoche, the Theravada tradition underscores renunciation of attachment, which is said to be the root cause giving rise to numerous other negative emotions. Mahāyāna followers mainly renounce anger, as this affliction thoroughly obscures true insight into reality, which is compassionate emptiness. CNR, “Saturday TalkŚ Joyful Diligence,” translator Andreas Doctor, notes by Tina Lang (Boudhanath, March 14, 2009) 3. 252 79 At KNSL, renunciation takes on a specific flavor strongly tied to the ultimate realization. This interpretation also somewhat simplifies one’s approach to practice, and focuses one’s effort on what this tradition perceives as of utmost importance–differentiating rig pa and ma rig pa. 3.3. Compassion Just as renunciation can be a means, or stepping stone, to realization and, at the same time, a by-product of realization itself, this also holds true for compassion, as explained in the pith instructions. When the masters at KNSL use “compassion” generically, it often encompasses broader terminology, such as “loving kindness and compassion,” “bodhicitta,” and so forth. Generally, Rinpoche distinguishes between two types of loving compassion, one with focus and one without (or beyond) reference point.253 Again, the oral tradition directly links love and compassion to awareness. Generally, loving kindness is defined as the wish that all beings may be endowed with happiness and its causes. The cause of ultimate joy is awareness, itself, a fact which the oral tradition underscores in its presentation on love and compassion. Similarly, compassion is the wish that all beings may be free of suffering and its causes which, essentially, is ignorance of the ultimate view. However, until one reaches the ultimate realization, compassion is a method to train in. Intense compassion, it is said, can bring about the realization of awareness, or ultimate bodhicitta. The stronger one’s love and compassion for ‘others’, the less one clings to a personal self and the closer one is to realizing awareness. Obviously, compassion is a skillful means to achieving the goal. Awareness, in turn, is said to be naturally imbued with unbearable nondual compassion for all beings who have not realized this state. Thus, 253 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, Present Fresh Wakefulness: A Meditation Manual on Nonconceptual Wisdom (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe Publications, 2002) 59. 80 compassion is also explained as the result of understanding and experiencing awareness, as one comprehends, on increasingly subtle and experiential levels, that continuous suffering of beings is caused by not knowing (ma rig pa) awareness.254 Again, with this tradition’s interpretation, cultivating compassion has a particular connotation as it focuses greatly on awareness. While a beginner would also utilize common methods for developing bodhicitta, for example, the Four Immeasurables,255 the aspect of awareness or its approximation is always interwoven, and therefore a distinct shift towards the ultimate realization defines the practice. 3.4. Devotion As with the other three subjects, devotion is a substantial topic, hence only a very simplistic presentation can be made here. The word “devotion” as utilized in the English translation of dharma teachings can encompass a broad spectrum of meanings, such as faith, interest, longing, admiration, etc. Generally, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains four stages of trust or devotion (dad pa): joyful trust or admiration (dang ba’i dad pa), yearning trust (’dod pa’i dad pa), confident trust (yid ches pa’i dad pa), and irreversible trust (phyir mi ldog pa’i dad pa).256 According to the pith instructions, the ultimate object of devotion is the realization of awareness, itself. Applying the four stages of trust or devotion, a beginner first becomes interested in learning more about awareness; feeling admiration when hearing about See for example, CNR, “Commentary on the Root Verses on Training the Mind From the Great Lord Atisha,” translator Thomas Doctor, transcript by Tina Lang (Boudhanath, March 2, 2008). Or, CNR “Unfolding Compassion and InsightŚ The Six Paramitas,” summer seminar 1, transcript by Tina Lang (Gomde Denmark: 2006). 254 As can be followed in great detail in the Second Excellence of Rinpoche’s Tara Triple Excellence Program www.dharmasun.org.The Four Immeasurables (tshad med bzhi) are loving kindness (byams pa), compassion (snying rje), joy (dga’ ba), and equanimity (btang snyoms). In this context, the definition of compassion is the wish that all beings may be free from suffering and its causes. 255 256 CNR, Saturday Talk, translator Andreas Doctor, transcript by S. Lhamo (Boudhanath: April 5, 2008). 81 it, he or she likes it. Secondly, a longing is sown which makes the disciple yearn to directly realize awareness. Thirdly, the student grows more familiar in the sense of gaining a deeper understanding and experience, which encourages a genuine trust and confidence in this state. Finally, once one has reached authentic realization of the ultimate, trust becomes irreversible. Even if Buddha, himself, were to appear and tell one that one’s realization is not the authentic state, one would not be shaken. In addition, one’s faith in understanding, experiencing, and realizing awareness becomes strongly associated with those who have helped one along the path. One develops devotion or pure perception (dag snang)257 towards those who embody this state, i.e. the buddhas, the guru, the lineage masters, etc.258 Moreover, one feels strong devotion toward the Dharma of scriptures and realization that explains and demonstrates this state. Furthermore, one also develops more respect, devotion, and pure perception towards all those who train in this ultimate truth, i.e. the saṅgha, meaning the ordained and lay practitioners or one’s vajra brothers and sisters. Thus, at KNSL and in much of Vajrayāna Buddhism, devotion and the related pure perception are directly related to awareness itself. In Vajrayāna, training in the skillful means of guru yoga (bla ma’i rnal ’byor) strengthens the devotion linked to awareness, itself, and to the master who embodies and Sometimes also translated as “sacred outlook.” For more details on the definition of pure perception see, Marcia Binder Schmidt, editor, Dzogchen Essentials (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 2004) 53, 98, 99, 141. That pure perception is not only a method but also allows one to experience things more closely to how they really are, is pointed out in Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, Vajra Speech, 115-118. 257 258 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains the relation between the master and the instructions which remind one to remain in awarenessŚ “By remembering the lama, one remembers the pith instructions. By remembering the pith instructions, one remembers the lama.” CNR, winter seminar, 2016), 16. In the movie, “Crazy Wisdom,” Peter Volz, a student of Trungpa Rinpoche explainsŚ “In the West it is easy to misunderstand “devotion” in the Tibetan tradition. It looks from the outside as if there is this great, great person and these little people following him, at the great person’s feet. But, in fact, the tradition itself is very clear, that the teacher has nothing more than the student, that the wisdom exists already. One is born with it, we die with it. We can’t get rid of it. We can’t get more of it. The teacher points that out. And the student gradually comes to that understanding. And the minds meet.” Johanna Demetrakas, director, Crazy Wisdom: The Life & Times of Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche, DVD (USA: Crazy Wisdom Films, 2011). 82 introduces this state.259 This practice is featured in the Tersar Lüjin and even more so in the TRT. Guru yoga is particularly highlighted as a trigger for sudden realization.260 Generally, its sequence entails visualization of one’s guru (or else the guru in the form of a buddha or deity) above one’s head. One then supplicates fervently from the bottom of one’s heart until one’s hairs stand on end and one’s eyes fill with tears. Next, one visualizes receiving the four empowerments from one’s master,261 and finally the guru mingles into light and dissolves into oneself. Imagining that one’s own body, speech, and, mind are indivisible from the guru’s Vajra Body, Speech, and Mind, one remains in awareness. Ultimately, the true “receiving the blessings of the master” is nothing other than recognizing awareness, oneself. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains this sequence as outer, inner, secret, and ultimate guru yoga: In general, it is said that guru yoga is practiced in a threefold manner, the outer way is supplication, the inner is receiving the empowerments, the secret is to mingle one’s mind with the wisdom mind of the masters. But what is real guru yoga? The realization of the nature of one’s own mind is guru yoga.262 And In guru yoga practice, one approaches unexcelled wisdom and compassion, applies this to one’s mind, and tries to recognize this within oneself. This is what guru yoga is.263 259 Guru yoga is a part of the preliminary practices. However, guru yoga is also vital to the main part. Chokgyur Lingpa, The Great Gate, (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 1989) 73. In this tradition, it is seen to be one of the most essential practices throughout one’s journey along the path. A longer version of guru yoga which Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche often practices with his students is: Jamgön Kongtrül, Calling the Guru from Afar: A Supplication to Pierce Your Heart with Devotion (Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 1998). The topic of guru yoga is particularly pertinent to this thesis, as Karma Chakmé describes KNSL’s main long Chöd practice, the TRT, as essentially being a guru yoga practice. 260 “In order to attain realization in an immediate and sudden way, so that realization is transferred to oneself, one practices the supplication to the master.” CNR, Saturday Talk, translator Thomas Doctor, notes by Tina Lang (Boudhanath: August 18, 2007) 3. 261 See fn. 503. 262 Ibid. 263 CNR, winter seminar, 3. 83 In relation to this, Rinpoche explains that the word “yoga (rnal ’byor) in “guru yoga” means “immersion (’byor) in the natural state (rnal).” The ultimate master, the ultimate buddha is within. The ultimate guru yoga is one’s own innate natural state, awareness itself.264 Rinpoche often stresses the importance of fabricated devotion for a beginning practitioner. He explains that, because devotion is such an open clear state of mind, it is the ideal method for coming to realize awareness.265 The Great Gate, a commentary on the Chokling Tersar’s preliminary practices (sngon ’gro) as practiced at KNSL, explains: In the songs of the Great Chetsun it is stated: “When someone feels devotion towards his master, Certainly experience and blessings will arise.” And “Drigung Kyobpa has saidŚ lf the sun of devotion does not shine On the snow mountain of the guru's four kayas, The rivers of blessings will not flow. Therefore, be diligent in devotion.”266 The last verse, in particular is, often quoted by Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche who explains that when one surrenders the iron grip of ego-clinging, and gives rise to deep devotion, which is an unselfish, open, clear experience of love–only then can realization, or blessings, manifest from deep within oneself. The following quote by Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche likewise highlights the decisive importance of devotion within the tradition at KNSLŚ “The link between us and the state of enlightenment is faith and devotion.”267 Like renunciation and compassion, devotion can be understood in a twofold manner. For a beginner, it is a method we train in to realize the ultimate view. This is a conceptual 264 CNR, Saturday Talk, (March 10, 2009) 3. CNR, Saturday Talk, (August 18, 2007) 3, 4. 265 Rinpoche also explains that devotion and pure perception are indispensable in making sure that obstacles, such as becoming side-tracked, will not occur. Moreover, devotion is said to remove negative emotions, to help one to sustain samādhi, and to lead to the common and supreme siddhis. CNR, winter seminar, 4. 266 Chokgyur Lingpa, Great Gate, 65. 267 Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, Rainbow Painting, 93. 84 state of mind and therefore a type of devotion that is meant to be discarded at the time of enlightenment. However, for those who have gained deeper insight, devotion is a by-product or natural quality of realization. As an attribute of insight, this devotion is beyond the conceptual mind. Khenpo Tokpa Tulku uses an analogy for this resultant, non-conceptual devotion: devotion as the heat of the light of awareness. When the light starts to shine, warmth is automatically there too. He explains that this might be a difficult concept to grasp, because when caught up in a dualistic perspective, one might categorize emptiness as something “which is not” and devotion as something “which is.” However the ultimate realization is beyond such concepts.268 While renunciation, compassion, and devotion can serve as methods as well as qualities of awakening, they are also accurate indicators or genuine sign-posts of success in one’s practice.269 Lopön Shedrub Gyatso also stresses that these three are interconnected so that the increase in one quality enhances the other two.270 However, KNSL regards compassion and devotion as foremost methods for ushering in recognition of awareness.271 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains that this is because both are aspects of love, i.e. states whereby our habitual egocentric perspective is nearly lost. Accordingly, they are said to be the most powerful and excellent mental states for making evident and manifest our basic nature.272 The key to their effectiveness is to cultivate these qualities until they are no longer 268 Khenpo Tokpa Tulku, interview. “The most eminent signs of accomplishment are, respectively, devotion to the master, pure perception of Dharma brothers and sisters, compassion for sentient beings, conscientiousness in regard to cause and effect, disenchantment with samsara, detachment from material things, a peaceful and gentle personality, and a one-pointed focus on practice.” Tsele Natsok Rangdröl, Empowerment,106. “The true, unmistaken signs of accomplishment as established by the masters of the lineage, are to possess compassion, devotion and an acute sense of impermanence. Combined with this, thoughts grow less and less and the genuine awakened state lasts for increasingly longer periods.” Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, Rainbow Painting, 85. 269 270 Lopön Shedrub Gyatso, interview (Boudhanath: October 1, 2014). 271 CNR, The Union of Mahamudra and Dzogchen, 57, 58. 272 CNR, Saturday Talk (January 17, 2009). Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche describes how, through compassion and devotion, our sense of “I” is suddenly so small that it is nearly lost. One allows all thoughts to 85 mere lip service, but become so heartfelt that they are nearly unbearable. Both sweep us away from self-interest to selflessness. It is the releasing of self-grasping, combined with the fervency and depth of selfless emotion, which turns them into swift-acting effective tools to carry us to a direct recognition of awareness. Furthermore, Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche explainsŚ “As one progresses, devotion is more related to one’s own experience than to someone outside. Particularly in Vajrayāna, faith is related to pure view and stable pride. We acknowledge, ‘Guru Rinpoche and I are 100% the same.’ We trust that we are primordially enlightened.”273 Although in Dzokchen and Mahāmudrā devotion is considered the supreme method, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains that many people find feelings of deep devotion a challenge. Compared to devotion, it is relatively easy to give rise to renunciation, and it is not very difficult to feel compassion–at least towards those who are kind to us and even towards strangers. The difficulty one faces in generating heartfelt devotion—a prerequisite in the practice of tantra—is one reason why it is said that the tantric path can be overwhelming.274 Consequently, the tradition also presents a gradual approach for certain practitioners, focusing first on renunciation, next on compassion, and finally on devotion and pure perception.275 fall apart, all grasping, all concepts, all reference points. If one feels a completely universal sense of love and compassion and an overwhelming devotion to the beauty and power of the objects of refuge, one can find oneself on the verge of passing out. In that state, there is very little sense of holding on, but rather a complete openness, no sense of an “I.” Therefore, it is so easy to arrive at realization. CNR, Tara’s Triple Excellence, week 9, refuge 12 evening, ca. 16:10 min, translator Thomas Doctor. www.dharmasun.org. 273 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche, interview, translator Lama Öser, notes by Tina Lang (Boudhanath: March 15, 2016), 1, 2. 274 CNR, winter seminar, 3, 6. Khenpo Tokpa Tulku states that generally, the sūtric path focuses on the path of knowledge, while tantra stresses the path of devotion. However, the latter requires more prerequisites of the practitioner. One must be able to trust in something other than oneself. This complete surrender is said to be a very swift and effective method. However, there are many opportunities for misunderstanding and misleading. In contrast, a practitioner focusing on knowledge places more confidence in him- or herself. However, relying a great deal on reasoning, many doubts arise. Therefore, the path of knowledge requires a lot of time and effort. Khenpo Tokpa Tuku, interview. 275 For example, Rinpoche’s Tara Triple Excellence program is based on these steps. 86 As mentioned, awareness, renunciation, compassion, and devotion are tightly interwoven. Devotion is aimed at the goal, rig pa, while renunciation is aimed towards its opposite, the ma rig pa that one wishes to leave behind. Therefore, sometime Rinpoche states that, on the path to enlightenment, renunciation propels us from behind while devotion pulls us from the front. Thus, both are considered indispensable to the path and related. In addition, if one begins to understand and experience the qualities of awareness and perceives the utter confusion that is ignorance of this state, one cannot help but feel deep compassion for beings stuck in ma rig pa and its consequent suffering. In this way, according to this tradition’s interpretation, the four are so tightly interwoven that one cannot practice one without the other three being somewhat included. Thus, when discussing the application of awareness and devotion in the later chapters, the reader must understand that this tradition would implicitly consider renunciation and compassion. In sum, this fourfold framework determines how the teachers at KNSL explain how Vajrayāna practices, including Chöd, should be understood and put into practice. Directly linking renunciation, compassion, and devotion—elements found throughout the sādhana to awareness, this tradition’s Chöd practices gain an intensified focus on awareness. The following chapters (4 and 5) will more specifically address the two main topics of this fourfold framework, namely awareness and devotion, both in the texts and in the oral instructions presented at KNSL (often embedded in the sixfold presentation discussed in chapter 2). However, it cannot be stressed enough that the other aspects, particularly compassion, also play an important role in Chöd practice. Further research on these two and their role in Chöd could be an interesting undertaking. 87 4. Awareness in Chöd This chapter discusses awareness in the two main Chöd sādhanas used at KNSL, as well as a few selected commentaries, and further describes the most critical points of awareness as explained by KNSL masters. Contrary to asserting that awareness is mainly practiced only in one or two places276 in these sādhanas one finds instructions and both direct and indirect reminders to remain in awareness throughout the practice. Moreover, while KNSL’s written texts present a great deal of information regarding the definition and application of awareness during Chöd practice, it is the oral instructions that provide essential details and convey various levels of profundity. Before entering the main discussion, a few points should be considered. First, one’s understanding of certain terminology found in the sādhana will very much depend upon one’s education, background, and experience. For example, some may consider simple terms, such as “Akanistha, Buddhafield of the state of reality” (og min chos dbying zhing kham),277 as a physical pure realm, but those who have been introduced to such terms through the oral pith instructions of Dzokchen or Essence Mahāmudrā will probably interpret this as referring to awareness, itself. This term then serves as a trigger for the more advanced practitioner to sustain awareness, while those less experienced will interpret the meaning altogether differently and, hence, practice differently. Similarly, when imparting their oral instructions, the masters highlight the symbolic meaning of certain features of the sādhana’s deities, 278 and may explain the outer, inner, and secret meanings of key terms.279 276 As was expressed by some scholars, see section 1.2.4. 277 Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 14. 278 However, at times, the TRT text also spells out the symbolic meanings of certain features of the visualized deity or master. For example, Padampa Sangyé’s “rich black complexion symbolizes the unchanging nature of dharmata.” Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 165. See, for example, Khenchen Palden Sherab and Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal, Tara’s Enlightened Activity: An Oral Commentary on the Twenty-One Praises to Tara (Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2007) on how the meaning of a Vajrayāna text can be interpreted differently. Lama Tenzin Sangpo has also mentioned that, in 279 88 Another point to keep in mind is that, if one relies upon a translated text, the translation can influence whether certain parts of the liturgy relate to awareness, and in what manner. For example, one translator might render “ye shes” as “wisdom,” while another, in accordance with certain pith instructions, might translate it as “primordial wakefulness.” Thus, depending upon the recipient and the translator, a variety of terms and sections may be understood as directly signifying awareness. 4.1. Awareness in written texts 4.1.1. Awareness in the TRT As the Tsoklé Rinchen Trengwa (TRT) is quite extensive, I will only feature a few sections here, beginning with Karma Chakmé’s Devotional Song to Machik Labdrön, which serves as a kind of opening to the TRT.280 In the Song, we find that the author’s lengthy presentation is primarily based on the topic of awareness. He includes references to key terms linked to awareness, for instance, “one’s mind is the naked dharmakaya (rang sems chos sku rjen pa)”.281 Specific terminology, such as “simplicity (spros bral)” and “naked (rjen pa),”282 are found in Prajñāpāramitā, as well as in Mahāmudrā and Dzokchen texts in reference to awareness. Other terms he uses relate more directly and specifically to the latter two, such as “primordial wisdom of awareness (rig pa’i ye shes).” order to seriously take up the practice of Chöd, one needs to receive the word-for-word explanation of the hidden and actual meaning of each word within the sādhana. Lama Tenzin Sangpo, Teachings on Chöd 2, KNSL, Boudhanath: fall seminar November 26, 2014. Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 12-25. While the title of the TRT only appears after this devotional song, all compilations of the TRT that I have seen always include this text. It is also part of the practice of the TRT at KNSL. Therefore, I feel it is justified to treat it as an integral part. 280 281 Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 17. 282 Ibid., 18, 19. 89 Karma Chakmé also considers his Song as pith instructions (gdams ngag),283 either to be applied immediately–for example, “now, look this way” (da tshur ltos),284 or to be applied during specific meditation experiences–for example, during states of bliss, clarity, or nonthought (bde, gsal, mi rtog).285 Chakmé links the instructions of directly looking into one’s own natural state of mind on definite occasions with particular practice traditions. For example, he states that applying this advice to feelings of elation or depression, one arrives at the One Taste of Mahāmudrā, while applying it to fear, and thereby gaining fearlessness, is the practice of Chöd. When one is beyond suffering, it is Shije, and beyond both existence and nonexistence, it is Great Madhyamaka. When everything is already perfected within mind, it is Dzokchen.286 This is followed by instructions also presented by masters of KNSL, such as “Leave your mind free without designated focus,” and “Leave your mind free of the seer and the seen.”287 It is noteworthy that nearly fifty percent of this first section of the TRT is concerned with defining awareness and giving practical advice on how to utilize all kinds of experiences which may arise during the practice session as well as during breaks. In this way, the instructions are carried beyond the sādhana into one’s everyday life. The language resounds with the style of other pith instructions, as taught, for example, in restricted books such as The Flight of the Garuda.288 283 Ibid., 21. 284 Ibid., 18. 285 Ibid., 19, 20. 286 Although, generally, I have followed Tashi T. Jamyangling’s wonderful work, at times I do not agree with his translation, such as in this case where he rendered “de sems la ma rdzogs chos gcig med” as “There is nothing that arises outside of mind.” Ibid., 22. 287 Ibid., 23. 288 Lama Shabkar, Jatang Tsogdruk Rangdrol and others, The Flight of the Garuda, trans. Erik Pema Kunsang (Kathmandu: Rangjung Yeshe Publications, 1988). 90 As the main text of the TRT subsequently guides the practitioner through the elaborate visualizations, one also finds constant reminders of awareness. For example, where it says “All phenomena become emptiness”289 the note in fine print adds, “Bring to mind the meaning of Mahamudra.”290 At times, the various layers of meaning are also spelled out in the text. For example, after the outer, inner, and secret refuge, a line on the “thatness” refuge states, “I take refuge in my Mind that is the Unborn Dharmakaya.”291 The ultimate refuge prayer292 ends with the following: The Refugees, the Three Jewels, and the Refuge, are without any point of focus for one’s own mind is the Dharmakaya. In reality, the Mind is unborn. Phat Phat Phat.293 Although, the text directly refers to Mahāmudrā (as seen above), it also particularly focuses on Prajñāpāramitā by citing, for example: Prajñāpāramitā is inexpressible and inconceivable, Unborn, unceasing, the very essence of space, The object of discriminating self-aware wisdom. May there be the auspiciousness of the mother of the buddhas of the three times.294 In the main part of the text, we find numerous long supplications that remind one of this aim to rest in awareness with lines such as, “Please lead your son to the unborn state.”295 289 Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 30. 290 Ibid., 49. 291 Ibid., 54. Rang sems skye ba med pa chos kyi sku la skyabs su mchio. 292 Unique to this text, there is an ultimate refuge after the outer, inner, secret, and thatness refuges, i.e. five levels of profundity instead of three or four. However, the thatness and ultimate refuge seem to express the same level. 293 Ibid., 56, 57. Similarly, the following offering section presents varying layers and culminates with an ultimate offering. Ibid. 82, 83. Likewise, the feast offering (tsogs) section mentions outer, inner, and secret offerings, and concludes with the offering of “undefiled samadhi by staying in equanimity.” Ibid., 263. 294 For the Tibetan, see ibid., 84, 85. However, here I chose the English translation of Catherine B. Dalton and Ryan Damron. Karmai Khenpo, “The Concise Daily Liturgy,” 11. Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 129-143 (and occasionally, later too, such as 253). As for the translation, I personally prefer to translate “bu” as “child,” meaning a more modern, gender-neutral rendering. 295 91 Although, in most296 cases, the text does not explicitly state that these supplications should be practiced as a guru yoga that culminates with resting in awareness, the colophon nonetheless describes the TRT as “essentially a guru yoga practice.”297 Another section that indicates the practitioner should rest in awareness is the segment on the transference of consciousness, “Opening the Door to the Sky,” which concludes with, “the ejected consciousness becomes inseparable from the space of all-pervading dharmata.”298 Regarding the approximation of awareness, the text also contains reminders to regard visualizations, themselves, as illusory. Thus, the text guides a practitioner who has not realized awareness to nevertheless incorporate the wisdom aspect by conceptually acknowledging the emptiness nature of all phenomena, including that of his or her own body and mind. In sum, this handful of examples demonstrates that throughout the liturgy of KNSL’s main extensive Chöd sādhana, the TRT, practitioners are prompted again and again to either remain in authentic awareness or to approximate it. 4.1.2. Awareness in the Tersar Lüjin KNSL’s main abbreviated Chöd sādhana, the Tersar Lüjin, opens with Rangjung Dorjé’s lineage supplication, which is an extract from the TRT. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche highly praises this supplication as extremely profound, and as containing the key points of all the tantras.299 The following verse, in particular, points out the relationship between outer appearances and awareness, and also hints that perfection is primordially present within awareness: For example, the section called “Requesting the Five Vahari Deities for Blessing” does specifically mention the dissolving of five-colored light and the following generation of “completely pure primordial wisdom of great bliss.” Ibid., 219, 220. 296 297 See fn. 79. 298 Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 99. 299 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, Teachings for the Antioch University Students (Bodhgaya, October 23- 28, 2016). 92 Grant your blessings that I recognize appearance and existence, The spectacle of the mind, to be the essence of awareness.300 Grant your blessings that I gain mastery of natural awareness In which the three kāyas are innately present.301 As with the TRT, we find descriptions and reminders of awareness peppered within the main text–for example, “the state of uncontrived mahamudra hung,”302 “the space of luminosity’s expanse, arising as the seal of self-manifest awareness,”303 “the view free of acceptance and rejection, good and bad,”304 and “Wisdom shines vividly within the basic space of phenomena. The dharmakāya throne, unchanging innate awareness, is seized.”305 We find the same guidelines in the fine print–for example, “rest in a state free of focus”306 and “rest evenly in the sky-like state that is free of concepts.”307 Many of these references are easily understood as instructions for direct application. For example, the term “uncontrived” indicates that one should let go of any fabricating. Similarly, the word “natural” in “natural awareness” hints that awareness is already present within one’s mind, and one should therefore let go of trying to create it. Other terms remind the practitioner of the nature of awarenessŚ phrases, such as “free of focus,” highlight more the empty nature of awareness (as well as directing one to let go of a focus), while other terms, such as “luminosity”, point to its clarity aspect. The translators noted hereŚ “Reading rang ngo as rang rig pa’i ngo bo.” Karmai Khenpo, “The Concise Daily Liturgy,” 12. Ryan Damron (one of the translators) explained to me that the translation was made after clarifying all points with Lama Tsültrim Sangpo. Ryan Damron, interview (KNSL, Boudhanath, October 2016). 300 301 Ibid., 2. 302 Ibid. 303 Ibid., 3. 304 Ibid., 6. 305 Ibid. 306 Ibid., 5. 307 Ibid., 6. 93 4.1.3. Awareness in the TRT empowerment text The TRT empowerment text also contains advice pertaining to awareness for both beginners and more advanced practitioners. The phowa of Chöd, called Opening the Door to the Sky, is described as the superior type of phowa, because–after ejecting one’s consciousness–one is asked to “totally let go [skyur] into the state beyond hope and fear; outshine with the view free from extremes.”308 One is encouraged to mingle one’s awareness with space, with dharmakāya, and to remain in this state.309 This seems to be the advice for the more advanced practitioner, since the next section presents an alternative meditation particularly for the beginner, where one ejects one’s consciousness into the visualized form of the Great Mother Prajñāpāramitā who resides above one’s head. One takes on her physical form and mingles one’s mind with the Great Mother. Thus, abiding in the sevenfold posture of Vairocana, one abandons any and all mental elaborations, and allows one’s mind to remain in a relaxed manner within its own state.310 The first training in phowa is more advanced, as one directly remains in awareness without any auxiliary practice. As for the latter, one utilizes physical strategies–a particular body posture–as well as the mental strategies of visualizing one’s consciousness being ejected and entering a deity. Thus one imagines that oneself has become the deity, both physically as well as mentally, before attempting to remain in awareness. The empowerment text also contains sections that are regularly quoted by KNSL masters when elucidating awareness. For example, there is this instruction to abide in the 308 Ibid., 183, 184. Re dogs med pa’i ngang la skyur. Mtha’ bral lta ba zil gyis non. 309 Ibid., 190. 310 Ibid., 190, 191. 94 ultimate view credited to Machik Labdrön, “Tighten tight and loosen loose.”311 Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche explained this in the following way: ‘Tighten tight’ means simply to look into mind essence. ‘Loosen loose’ means to totally let go of or disown any idea of recognizing. What is recognized here is that there is no ‘thing’ to recognize. The awakened state is not a thing that can be identified or pinpointed. This is most essential. Without recognizing that there is no thing to recognize, you will always hold onto some idea about it. To hold on to the notion of recognition and a recognizer is conceptual. This thought is the root of samsara. It is not self-existing wakefulness; it is fabrication. So first look and then loosed from deep within; then it is like space, wide awake. This is the samadhi of suchness, which is real and naturally stable. What is seen is free of substantiality. It is not a ‘thing.’312 While Machik’s ultimate view is often described as Mahāmudrā or Madhyamaka, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche here uses Dzokchen terminology, such as “self-existing wakefulness (rang ’byung ye shes)” to elaborate on Machik’s quote. As previously mentioned, KNSL masters, such as Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche and Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, do not make essential distinctions between Mahāmudrā, Dzokchen, or Madhyamaka in terms of the ultimate view.313 The empowerment text also details how the musical instruments used in the sādhana relate to awareness. With regard to the ḍāmaru (a double-sided drum) it says: The ḍāmaru, exemplifying emptiness, Resounds the natural sound of appearance and skillful means, The non-dual unity of sound and emptiness.314 311 Ibid. 191. A similar quote is also attributed to Padampa Sangyé, “Tighten with intensity, and then gently relax! The tightening is the method, and the loosening is the wisdom! Introduction to the nature of mind by the Lamas is like that, as well!” David Molk, translator, Lion of Siddhas: The Life and Teachings of Padampa Sangye (Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2008), 21, 281. 312 Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, Rainbow Painting, 125. Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche explains, “The view of Mahamudra, Dzogchen and Madhyamika is identical in essence. Although it is said, ‘The ground is Mahamudra, the path is the Middle Way, and the fruition is the Great Perfection,’ in the view itself there is no difference whatsoever. In my tradition, we do not select only one particular view among these three. The naked, natural state of mind does not exclusively belong to any specific category of Middle Way, Mahamudra or Dzogchen. These three are taught here as one identical nature. The awakened state of Mahamudra doesn’t differ from the awakened state of Dzogchen or Madhyamika.” Tulku Urgyen, Rainbow Painting, 200. 313 Stong nyid mtshon pa’i ḍāmaru. Snang ba thabs kyi rang sgra sgrogs. Zung ’jug grags stong gnyis su med. Manipa, Gcod dbang, 204. 314 95 As for the other instruments: the human bone trumpet is said to conquer appearance and existence, and to help one to “become familiar with letting awareness remain without focus, clear and open.”315 In this way, the TRT empowerment text points out awareness, provides instructions on how to remain in it, and also explains how the ritual instruments symbolically relate to this realization. If the practitioner recalls these instructions during Chöd practice, then merely looking at or hearing the ritual instruments could support remaining in awareness or trigger re-entry into awareness. 4.1.4. Awareness in the Kagyü Lüjin and Commentaries The Lüjin from the Kagyü tradition316 begins by immediately pointing out the view of awareness in its lineage supplicationŚ “whatever arises is fresh–the essence of realization. […] rest simply without altering it, […] free from conception,” etc.317 Other references to awareness are found throughout the text, such asŚ “the empty, unborn Dharmakaya of our own mind,”318 “the spontaneously present three kayas of my own awareness,”319 “beyond words, thoughts, descriptions,”320 “one’s own self-aware primordial wakefulness,”321 “free 315 Rigs pa gtad med zang thal sgoms. Ibid. 316 Thekchok Dorjé, Chöd Practice, contains both the Lüjin (The Condensed Daily Practice of Offering the Body, rgyun khyer gyi lus sbyin bsdus pa) and Kongtrül’s commentary on it, The Garden of All Joy (lus kyi mchod sbyin gyi zin bris mdor bsdus kun dga’i skyed tshal). Occasionally, this sādhana is practiced by practitioners in KNSL’s traditional three-year retreats. “Gang shar rtogs pa’i ngo bo so ma de. ma bcos de kar ’jog pa […] blo dang bral ba” Thekchok Dorjé, Chöd, 81. The translation I utilized stems from Nalanda Translation Committee, as found in: Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche and Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, compilers, “The Rangjung Yeshe Chantbook” (BoudhanathŚ Rangjung Yeshe Publications, no publishing date given) 12. 317 318 Thekchok Dorjé, Chöd Practice, 24. “Rang sems stong pa skye ba med pa chod kyi sku,” ibid., 84. 319 Ibid., 88. 320 Ibid., 90. 321 Ibid. 96 from extremes.”322 Again, as in the other texts, one is reminded throughout to remain in the ultimate view. In his commentary on the Lüjin, The Garden of All Joy, Jamgön Kongtrül explains that according to the extraordinary vehicle, the wisdom aspect of Chöd practice is to remain within dharmadhātu.323 He mentions that the main part of this practice (and of the Prajñāpāramitā) is found within Opening the Door to the Sky,324 by remaining in dharmadhātu. However, he also mentions that all the other parts of the practice should be understood through this main practice,325 indicating that the ultimate view is meant to suffuse the rest of the practice. Kongtrül further mentions that the methods (thabs) in Chöd practice are meant to strengthen insight (ye shes). His use of the word “strengthen” (rather than “develop” or “gain”) suggests that he sees Chöd as a practice for someone who has already gained insight, and that it is not necessarily meant for a beginner who has no experience of the ultimate view.326 His Catalog supports this conclusion, wherein he says that one should practice Chöd in frightening places,327 indicating advanced yogic conduct not advisable for novices, as they are usually discouraged from practicing in nightmarish places. Kongtrül also describes Chöd as an “enhancement” practice,328 implying enrichment of a previously established recognition 322 Ibid. 323 Ibid., 5. Kontrül stresses that method and wisdom must always be practiced as a unity. 324 Ibid., 49. 325 Ibid., 11. 326 Ibid. 327 Kontrül, Catalog, 78. 328 Ibid., 76. 97 of awareness, 329 and says that the conduct of a Chöd practitioner is secret and profound.330 All of this indicates that he perceives Chöd as a practice intended for advanced practitioners. It should be noted that while Chöd is practiced in this way at KNSL, especially by the nuns and monks in three-year retreats, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains that Chöd practice can be understood and practiced at many different levels, and so is also beneficial for beginners331— a topic that will be addressed in more detail below. Kongtrül’s Catalog also describes four themes in Chöd which particularly pertain to this thesis: (1) the view of abiding in emptiness; (2) the compassion of not forsaking beings in any way; (3) the discipline of bodhisattvas, acting according to whatever the Buddha taught; and (4) the blessings conferred by sugatas.332 The first point, which refers to sustaining awareness, is further explained: As for the view of abiding in emptiness, initially one eliminates the belief that the mind-body aggregates that are included in one’s ongoing experience constitute a self, and then abides continually in the meaningful experience of a lack of any identity, without one’s mind focusing on any notion of subtle traits being associated with anything associated with other beings in one’s objective perception. As mentioned above, Kontrül explains that this view is introduced primarily through the phowa section of Chöd.333 However, his mention that the practice “eliminates the belief” in the mind-body aggregate indicates the important role the visualized body offering plays in loosening clinging to one’s body as being oneself. In this way, the body offering is a method to realizing egolessness wisdom. 329 Tulku Urgyen, Vajra Speech, 60. 330 Kontrül indicates that in Chöd the advanced practitioner trains in cutting off afflictive states by provoking these very states. Kontrül, Catalog, 76. 331 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, interview (Budhanilkanta, Nepal: July 29, 2015). 332 Kontrül, Catalog, 77. 333 Ibid. 98 The topic of awareness is also repeatedly featured in Tenga Rinpoche’s book Chö, which provides a commentary on both the Lüjin and the Garden of All Joy. Rinpoche accentuates awareness as the main and ultimate Chöd practice which must be tested by seeking out unfavorable circumstances, such as fear, sickness, slander, etc.334 and then forcefully cutting through any grasping at the self.335 He explains that Chöd is similar in function to “The Conduct that is the Discipline of Awareness,”336 whereby one practices remaining in awareness and then tests one’s insight in several ways. For example, one moves from one’s solidary retreat place to populated areas where one might encounter abuse or affection. One scrutinizes the extent to which one can sustain awareness during any of these trying experiences. By training in this conduct, eventually one can bring all positive and negative conditions onto the path, i.e. sustain awareness throughout.337 He emphasizes that “resting in that recognition is the ultimate practice or most essential practice of Chö.”338 Tenga Rinpoche also clearly identifies Machik’s Chöd as essentially a Mahāmudrā practice, and defines the ultimate in Chöd as the “unity of luminosity and emptiness,”339 He explains, “Now undesirable refers to all the things we do not want to happen to us, such a sickness, slander, adverse conditions, and upheavals of all kinds. The reason why these need to be accepted in the practice of Chö is that fundamentally the cause of all of these is our grasping at a self. It is because we grasp at a self that we experience these things as undesirable. As part of the remedy to grasping at a self, one has to learn to accept these things and no longer to view them as undesirable.” Tenga Rinpoche, Chö, 35, 36. 334 335 Ibid., 37. 336 Tenga Rinpoche describes three modes of conduct: (1) All Good Conduct, (2) The Conduct that is the Discipline of Awareness, and (3) The Conduct that is Completely Victorious in all Directions. Ibid., 34. It would be interesting to investigate whether and how this “discipline” relates to the third point of Kongtrül’s four themes. 337 Ibid., 34, 35. 338 Ibid., 104. 339 Ibid., 57. 99 “dharmakaya,”340 “clear light,”341 “rest free of conceptualization of the three aspects,”342 etc. as is found in Mahāmudrā manuals. Throughout his commentary on the practice itself, Tenga Rinpoche highlights how one should sustain the ultimate view, right then and there, throughout the sādhana and beyond. He states that even the musical interludes are to be used for the purpose of remaining in the nature of mind.343 4.1.5. Summary awareness in texts Many more texts could be consulted in this discussion.344 However, from the above we can extract the following main points related to awareness: The main sādhana texts at KNSL introduce awareness early on and repeatedly remind the practitioner of the view throughout the performance. This mode of practice is also clearly featured in the commentarial literature. Furthermore, these commentaries also fine-tune the understanding of the terminology and clearly indicate that the sādhana can be practiced and interpreted at different levels according to the practitioner’s own capacity, in this way providing pedagogical steps on how to approach awareness. The commentaries often describe Chöd as aimed at the advanced practitioner able to sustain awareness as much as possible within the formal framework of the sādhana and beyond. In addition, the commentaries indicate that by provoking emotions which cause an inner upheaval, such as fear, and then using awareness to directly cutting through ego-clinging, the practitioner trains in sustaining the view during 340 Ibid., 103. 341 Ibid., 135. 342 Ibid., 108. The translator renders “’khor gsum (three spheres)” as “three aspects.” 343 For example, ibid., 128, 129. The teachers at KNSL also make reference to texts such asŚ Patrul Rinpoche, “The kusali’s accumulationŚ destroying the four demons at a single stroke” in The Words of My Perfect Teacher. Translated by Padmakara. Revised Edition. (Boston: Shambhala, 1998). Khenpo Ngawang Pelzang. A Guide to The Words of My Perfect Teacher. Padmakara, trans. (Boston & London: Shambhala, 2011); The Machik Namshe as found in Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation. Jamgön Kongtrül, “Zhijé and Chöd,” in The Treasury of Knowledge: Esoteric Instructions (shes bya kun khyab, Book eight, Part four), Sarah Harding, trans. (Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2007), 259-288. 344 100 extremely difficult situations, and thereby spiritual progress is accelerated. All of the above texts point to awareness as the quintessential aspect of the Chöd sādhana and prescribe its application beyond the formal practice session. 4.2. Awareness in oral instructions While the textual tradition provides a great deal of information pertaining to awareness, the oral instructions clarify the context, centralize the view, address philosophical questions, fine-tune important terms, provide additional information, and deliver specific information for advanced practice. Crucially, the oral pith instructions also include direct pointing out of awareness, an element regarded as indispensable to the practice. However, as previously mentioned (section 1.3.), some details have been omitted here out of respect for the tradition of confidentiality. 4.2.1. Clarification of context Oral instructions on the Chöd sādhana particularly clarify the context, for example by explaining the relationship between skillful means and awareness. Following the view common to most Mahāyāna doctrine and practice, the lamas at KNSL stress that to practice skillful means alone, without the accompaniment of awareness or its approximation, is not authentic practice. For example, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains that if a branch practice, such as generosity, is not accompanied by wisdom, it is not regarded as a “pāramitā,” or “transcendental.” Not only generosity, but all practices must be accompanied by wisdom to effectively lead to enlightenment.345 Thus, Rinpoche also statesŚ “Skillful means will eliminate one’s attachment to the concept of emptiness, while wisdom makes one understand reality and luminosity.”346 This demonstrates that each aspect, method and wisdom, fulfills an 345 CNR, Chöd Retreat (Pharping: September 28, 2014), 2. 346 Ibid. 101 important function. The wisdom aspect indicates an authentic, direct understanding of the ultimate state, as it is. The methods aspect points to emptiness not merely being a blank empty state. Ultimately, mere conceptual understanding and clinging to emptiness are obstacles. Therefore, the lamas at KNSL emphasize that understanding of the ultimate view in Chöd practice needs to lead to experience and finally result in authentic realization. In the context of Prajñāpāramitā, the best method to lead to an authentic understanding of emptiness is boundless compassion, which is also the indispensable basis for all tantric practice. However, Vajrayāna practice is distinguished by its additional stress on unbearable, heartfelt devotion. (How this relates to Chöd in particular is the topic of the next chapter). As for the four themes of Chöd mentioned in the Catalog–emptiness, compassion, devotion, and discipline—it is not enough to have the latter three alone. With respect to this, Tulku Jampal Dorjé explains, “We have to realize emptiness. Without this, Dharma practice is pointless. This is what Buddhist practice is about,”347 stressing that the purpose of all practices is to realize awareness. This is because conceptual virtues not embraced by the view only lead to higher rebirths but not liberation from saṃsāra. This special feature of union in Chöd appears again and again in the oral instructions at KNSL. According to Lama Öpak, the union of means and wisdom is also reflected in the syllable phaṭ, which is greatly featured in Chöd sādhanas. It consists of two parts – “pha” and “ta.” “Pha” symbolizes skillful means, while “ta” refers to wisdom. “Phaṭ “expresses the indivisibility, the non-duality of skillful means and wisdom. This is what cuts through Tulku explains the four themes as follows, “First, compassion is extremely important, all practices need this as their basic framework. Secondly, emptiness: we have to realize emptiness. Without this, there’s no point. This is what Buddhist practice is about. Thirdly, discipline or Bodhisattva activities: this comes down to bodhicitta. Bodhicitta is necessary; without bodhicitta, we are just ordinary beings. Fourthly, faith: without faith we won’t receive the blessings. Therefore, in the TRT, we visualize so many deities and supplicate them, for example Machik Labdrön. Then through her compassion, love, and wisdom, we receive the blessings from her.” Tulku Jampal Dorjé, Chöd. 347 102 dualistic fixation, or concepts.”348 By highlighting this union, combined with featuring awareness as the ultimate aim, this tradition makes it explicit that conceptual methods, though needed, are discarded in the end. In this way, the focus of practice is shifted towards awareness, itself. As was briefly discussed in the fourfold framework chapter and will be discussed in more detail in the devotion chapter, once one has gained some stability in awareness, the methods, such as renunciation, compassion, and devotion, transform into nonconceptual versions and arise as qualities of awareness, inseparable of the state of awareness itself. The oral Chöd teachings also emphasize the unified approach of methods and awareness with a discussion of the application of the aforementioned three sūtric samādhis (ting nge ’dzin, meditative concentration).349 Lama Tsültrim explains that the first, the vajra-like samādhi (rdo rje lta bu’i ting nge ‘dzin), refers to the wisdom of emptiness, and that this could be taken on three different levels: intellectual understanding, experience, and finally actual realization. In the case of the latter, this samādhi would involve a direct recognition of the intrinsic nature of mind, or awareness, as described in the Dzokchen and Essence Mahāmudrā teachings. Within this samādhi, one would then engage in both meditation and conduct. The term “vajra” refers to the unchanging and uncompounded quality of this view. When looking at the Tibetan word for samādhi–ting nge ’dzin,–’dzin usually entails some kind of holding-in-mind. However, here in this context, not even the slightest hint of grasping is involved–no concentrating, no 348 Lama Öpak, Chöd Teaching 5, Ani Laura, trans. (Singapore: July 2014). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YjKRS-va9FA. LTS, Chöd S5, S6 (Gomde CA: 2013), 17-21, 32. One should not confuse these sūtric versions of the three samādhis with the three samādhis as explained in the tantric context of development and completion stages, where specifically the third samādhi is quite different from the sūtric version. In the tantric context, one speaks of the (1) samādhi of suchness (de bzhin nyid kyi ting nge ‘dzin), (2) the samādhi of illumination (kun tu sngang ba ting nge ‘dzin), and the (3) samādhi of the seed-syllable (rgyu’i ting nge ‘dzin). The samādhi of the seed-syllable, sometimes also translated as causal samādhi, utilizes the Vajrayāna perspective where one takes the result as the path, seeing everything as perfect from the very beginning. 349 103 meditating, no meditator, nor anything meditated upon. The view is beyond duality, beyond reference points. Lama Tsültrim quotes the Diamond Cutting Sūtra here, explaining that when the Buddha spoke of dharmakāya, he said, “Any being who sees me as form, who hears me as sound, such a being is on the wrong path and actually doesn’t see me.”350 Furthermore, at the time of his awakening, the Buddha said, “I have seen a dharma which is profound, peaceful, free from complexity, luminous, and uncompounded. It is like nectar, amrita, and if I were to teach it, no-one would understand. Therefore, I shall remain silent.”351 Lama Tsültrim explains that statements such as these indicate the ultimate truth, the view of the varja-like samādhi, which is inexpressible and beyond reference points. However, here again the lamas of KNSL present differentiation according to the practitioner’s capacity. Lama Tsültrim emphasizes that while a beginner applies an intellectual understanding of the ultimate view as the wisdom aspect, a middling practitioner will have gained some experience and therefore practice this samādhi differently. Both levels, however, fall still within the realm of duality. Only the advanced practitioner will have gained some authentic, nondual personal realization in this view and practice it authentically.352 The second samādhi, the samādhi of heroic movement (dpa’ bar ‘gro ba’i ting nge ‘dzin), relates to the practice of compassion and bodhicitta. Lama Tsültrim explains that someone who realizes the varja-like samādhi, who sees that all phenomena lack inherent, true existence, gives rise to this second samādhi. Sentient beings cannot experience the emptiness of all phenomena, and therefore do not perceive how things actually are. This confusion Diamond Sūtra, Chapter 26. Here translated by Catherine Dalton from Tibetan. LTS, Chöd S4 (Gomde CA: 2013), 18. See also, Red Pine, The Diamond Sutra: The Perfection of Wisdom (Berkeley: Counterpoint, 2011), 24: “Who looks for me in form, who seeks me in a voice, indulges in wasted effort, such people see me not.” (Translated from Sanskrit and Chinese). 350 351 LTS, Chöd S4 (Gomde CA: 2013), 18. 352 Ibid., 17. 104 causes grasping and negative emotions, which in turn lead to suffering. Seeing this, the bodhisattva cannot help but feel great compassion and give rise to the heroic wish to benefit beings and lead them to full awakening. To accomplish this, the bodhisattva does not shy away from difficulties or immense hardships, because of his or her strong motivation and immense courage. Therefore, this samādhi is described as heroic. The practitioner does so, out of the view of the first samādhi in union with the great courageous compassion, the impulse to act for the benefit of beings no matter what, of the second samādhi. In this way, the first samādhi relates to wisdom, whereas the second focuses on the skillful means of compassion. Again, the lamas present differentiation options. Whilst a novice is unable to undergo the severe hardships required to lead beings to awakening, it is nonetheless said to be crucial that he continues to develop the intention and the wish to be able to do so. The mental habituation of wishing to benefit others will eventually lead to the ability to put this into action. For the advanced practitioner, the second samādhi arises out of the realization of the first without any effort at all. The third samādhi, the illusory samādhi (sgyu ma lta bu’i ting nge ’dzin), refers to taking up the practice, uniting wisdom and compassion when engaging in Chöd meditation and conduct. Lama Tsültrim explains that this specifically shows the manner the Chöd sādhanas with all its different methods should be embraced by the view, either in actuality or with its approximation. For example, the practitioner presents the offering of the different feasts within the realization that the offerer, the offering, and the recipient lack true existence and with the intent that ultimately the practice might enable them to lead all beings to enlightenment.353 353 Ibid., 19. 105 In this way, the three sūtric samādhis are likened to view, meditation, and conduct. Lama Tsültrim points out that this explanation shows the practitioner that a mere intellectual understanding of the practice is not enough, and how to condense the key points of the teachings into something one can actually practice and benefit from.354 Depending on one’s capacity, of course, this has varying depths of meaning. When a beginner trains in these three as a unity, at least on an intellectual level, he or she creates the conditions for an experience of the authentic view to occur. Lama Tsültrim explains that one can indeed practice the three samādhis together in a single session of Chöd. Thus, the practice of the Chöd sādhana itself is the third samādhi when embraced with the view of emptiness, the vajra-like samādhi, and compassion, the samādhi of heroic movement. In this way, this tradition relies on the framework of the three samādhis to accentuate that the practitioner should embrace each element of Chöd with compassion and the view. The vajra-like samādhi, in particular – which is also referred to in the following sections - is central to KNSL’s Chöd practice.355 4.2.2. Centralization of the view Apart from the teaching on the three samādhis, the KNSL lamas often directly address the centrality of awareness. For example, Lama Tsültrim explains that, in this tradition, every aspect of the practice should be sealed with non-conceptuality356 and that in Chöd practice, “everything is [practiced] from the perspective of the view, within the view.”357 Ibid., 20. Here Lama Tsültrim refers to the legend of the Indian master Ati a (982-1054) meeting the translator Rinchen Sangpo (rin chen bzang po, 958-1055). First Ati a thought the Tibetan people would not need him, as they had a good understanding of the Buddhist teachings. However, when he discovered that they were unclear on how to put these teachings together and actually practice them, he decided to stay in Tibet. 354 355 LTS, Chöd S7 (Gomde CA: 2013), 43. LTS, Chöd S1 (Gomde CA:2015), 4. LTS, Chöd S8 (Gomde CA: 2013), 44. 356 Ibid., 37. 357 Ibid., 38. 106 A beginner may be unable to sustain the ultimate view while engaging in a such a complicated practice with its music, gestures, and visualizations,358 but for a realized person this is not considered a problem. Lama Tsültrim Sangpo elaborates: Actually, it is possible to be in a state without any type of focus and also do all sorts of things. That seems a little beyond us, and maybe we simply can’t do this. But in fact, from the perspective of the Buddha, while in the state completely free from any type of conceptual fixation, even more is possible than what we can achieve while in a conceptual state! Much, much more. But this seems inconceivable for us, so for us it is fine to let everything go like that.359 In this way, awareness is regarded as something that the advanced practitioner can sustain not only throughout his or her practice but throughout any type of activity. The less advanced practitioner is encouraged to train in that to whatever extant he or she can, whether with a conceptual approximation of awareness and/or during temporary periods of non-conceptual awareness. Besides presenting detailed explanations on the union of methods and awareness, the oral instructions further centralize awareness, by presenting in-depth explanations of the view, condensing philosophical contexts, etc. For example, KNSL teachers consider the ultimate realization of Chöd (as well as Mahāmudrā and Dzokchen) to be the same as that of the Prajñāpāramitā, but Chöd practice applying tantric methods. With regard to this, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche’s father, the Chöd master Chime Dorjé said: How can there be any difference between the view of Prajñāpāramitā, which is the very essence of Chö, and the view of the Great Perfection? They are completely identical! Mahamudra, Dzogchen and Chö ultimately converge in the same awakened state – the ultimate transcendent knowledge. There isn’t the slightest difference, is there?360 358 Some scholars, such as Sharf, might doubt the ability to engage in such visualizations. The complexity of tantric visualizations and the pace at which monks recite the visualization manuals leads Sharf to speculate that visualization is unlikely to occur and that experiences linked to visualization are unlikely as well. However, the tradition at KNSL employs an elaborate pedagogy to train the practitioner to develop a stable and clear visualization meant to lead to temporary experiences as well as ultimate realization. Sharf, “Buddhist Modernism,” 244, 245. 359 Ibid., 50. 360 Tulku Urgyen, Blazing Splendor, 115. This is according to the oral pith instructions of KNSL. However, concerning the sādhana text of the TRT, Kyapjé Khenpo Rinpoche explains that, when speaking of 107 Here Prajñāpāramitā is interpreted, understood, and practiced based on the pith instructions of Dzokchen and Essence Mahāmudrā—what we might call a “top-down approach.” As Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains: When we talk about wisdom, we mean Prajñāpāramitā, or transcendent wisdom, not a mere intellectual understanding, but we can understand it through the key points of Dzokchen.361 This top-down approach is also demonstrated in the following statements where Rinpoche describes the outlook one should assume during Chöd practiceŚ “We, ourselves, are buddhas, that is our teaching.”362 Encouraging the practitioner to cultivate pure perception towards him or herself demonstrates that the predominance of the tantric viewpoint. Furthermore, when asked about the quintessential point of Chöd practice, Rinpoche replied: “Of course, the nature of mind is the main point in our tradition.”363 Moreover, as Chöd is also sometimes called the practice of a kusulu (a simple meditator),364 Lama Tsültrim explains how Chöd practice, in particular, focuses chiefly on the recognition of awareness: “A kusulu engages in very unelaborate styles of practice, primarily training in the recognition the unity of emptiness and compassion, this usually refers to the Mahāyāna perspective of Prajñāpāramitā, which belongs to the middle turning of the wheel of dharma. Here, emptiness is emphasized. The view is described in terms of the object. However, in terms of the object, dharmadhātu (the basic space of phenomena), there is just one nature of reality. Actual wisdom is totally beyond all words and description, all concepts and elaborations, all clinging; therefore, it is not wrong to say that the realization of Prajñāpāramitā is ultimately none other than the realization of Dzokchen and Mahāmudrā. There are statements about this by Sakya Pandita, Karma Chakmé, Rangjung Dorjé, Mipham, Rongzompa, and so forth. Kyapjé Khenpo Rinpoche, interview Ani Laura Dainty, trans. (Boudhanath: April 21, 2016), notes by Tina Lang, 7. 361 CNR, Pharping, 2. In some of the following quotes in this chapter stemming from the lamas, I have made minimal editorial changes for the benefit of the reader. 362 CNR on Chöd (KNSL, Boudhanath: June 7, 2014). Lama Tsültrim also points out the purity of our own mind when he elaborates on a line from the Tersar Lüjin. He says, “Don’t consider your mind a demon. Why? The essence of mind is Buddha. It is due to dualistic perception that demons appear, that anything can demonic while not truly there. The essence of mind is nothing but Buddha, not a demon.” LTS, Chöd S8 (Gomde CA 2013), 48. 363 CNR, interview (Budhanilkanta: July 29, 2015). 364 Also referred to as “kusali,” for example in Patrul Rinpoche, The Words of My Perfect Teacher, 297. 108 of mind nature.”365 This might seem somewhat ironic given the outer complexity of the Chöd sādhana, but makes sense in the light of this tradition’s explanation that Chöd practice doesn’t merely refer to the time of formal sādhana practice, but also points to the view which is to be carried into all aspects of life. Furthermore, this tradition emphasizes that as the practitioner progresses, the focus of the sādhana practice shifts towards upholding the view of Dzokchen and Mahāmudrā. In this way, although the TRT, for example, is, generally speaking, also linked to the sūtric outlook,366 the lamas at KNSL encourage the practitioner to embrace Chöd practice from a top-down approach, applying awareness and pure perception throughout as much as possible. 4.2.3. Addressing philosophical questions The oral instructions also address philosophical issues that may require an explanation. For example, if ultimately the notion of a self is an illusion, one may wonder who is the subject that is cutting through the object of delusion? Lama Tsültrim Sangpo responds by saying that although there is no truly existing cutter, no object to be cut, and no act of cutting, in our confused circumstances we nonetheless experience a subject, an object, and an action. Our experience is likened to a dream, apparent yet not truly existent. One is completely caught up in the experiences of the dream, experiencing suffering based on our roller-coaster of emotional ups and downs. Based on various practice methods, one trains in loosening or cutting through these misapprehensions until, at one point, one awakens from the dream and there is no longer the threefold experience of subject, object, and action.367 365 LTS, Chöd S5 (Gomde CA 2013), 23. 366 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche, interview (Boudhanath, March 15, 2016). 367 Lama Tsültrim also explained that it is vital to distinguish clearly between relative and ultimate truth. LTS, Chöd S2 (Gomde CA: 2013), 11. 109 4.2.4. Fine-tuning important terms Furthermore, the oral instructions also fine-tune the interpretation of important terms in Chöd practice, such as “generosity (sbyin pa),” and how they are linked to awareness and interpreted as tantric methods. Lama Tsültrim explains that to mentally give up all attachments is the definition of generosity.368 Totally letting go of all clinging is said to be nothing but awareness, itself–the ultimate view. The sādhana contains several types of generosity; each one is said to benefit the practitioner as well as the recipient. In the case of novice practitioners, the recipients are merely imaginary, and this training is said to enable neophytes to perform such acts in the future. However, advanced practitioners are said to be able to attract beings, such as spirits, in actuality, and to truly be able to benefit them through these types of generosity. First, when engaging in the generosity of giving away one’s body, the practitioner trains in cutting through clinging to the idea of a self. This concept of “I” is said to be derived based on our clinging to the five aggregates– in this case, particularly one’s physical form. By giving away the body again and again, one cuts through both one’s attachment as well as identifying oneself with one’s body. This helps the practitioner realize awareness. Recipients are benefited by receiving imaginary material gifts the Chöd practitioner visualizes. According to the lamas of KNSL, the main point here is not that the beings receive material goods which satisfy them, but that beings are imagined to give rise to bodhicitta. Lama Tsültrim explains: [I]n the context of giving the body, in the practice of Chöd, if we just glance, it looks like giving someone some food, […] sustaining them with sense pleasures and food. But that’s not really what is going on here. It is said that when we do this practice, we should understand that by simply smelling what we are offering, or seeing, touching it just barely—any type of contact should be understood as a cause for bodhicitta to arise in the mind of all of those beings that we are benefiting through this practice.369 368 Ibid., 13. 369 LTS, Chöd S1 (Gomde CA: 2015), 5. 110 This transformative power occurs once the body and offerings are consecrated. Before the visualized body offering, one imagines one’s body being blessed by oṃ, āḥ, and hūṃ—the three syllables which are explained as embodying the essence of enlightened Body, Speech and Mind. Furthermore, one’s body is transformed into completely pure wisdom nectar. It is explained that anyone who merely sees, smells, touches, or tastes this blessed body, or nectar of awareness, will automatically give rise to (relative and ultimate) bodhicitta.370 In this way, this type of generosity aims at triggering the recognition of awareness, itself, in all beings,371 understood as the greatest gift of all. Through this explanation, the oral tradition again communicates to the practitioner that ultimately awareness is the actual goal, not only for oneself, but also for others. This is also the case regarding “the generosity of giving the gift of the DharmaŚ”372 After the feasts, Dharma teachings are provided to the imaginary guests to further enhance their understanding and experience of awareness. Consequently, engendering these different types of generosity cause the practitioner to reduce ego-grasping and recollect awareness. In terms of the recipients, one imagines all beings also recollecting and realizing awareness. In this way, the oral tradition incorporates pure perception within Chöd practice by interpreting all segments related to generosity as resulting in the purification and consequent perfection of all beings. That the practitioner is supposed to uphold the now developed pure perception is made clear in the subsequent Avalokite vara section. Here one is reminded of the tantric method of perceiving the purity of appearances-sounds-awareness (snang grag rig gsum) appearing in other sādhanas at KNSL, LTS, Chöd S7 (Gomde CAŚ 2013), 40. “Bodhicitta” refers here to both relative and ultimate bodhicitta, meaning we also imagine that all beings have recognized awareness. 370 371 Lama Tenzin, November 26, 2014. 372 Umze Karma Sherap, Chöd Teachings (Boudhanath: November 20, 2015). 111 wherein one imagines the perfect purity of all appearances (including beings), 373 sounds, and mental events. Training in this is said to reduce negative emotions and create a calm, kind, clear mental state that makes it easier for the practitioner to recognize awareness. Thus, the oral tradition not only details the different types of generosity as linked to the view of awareness, but also inspires the tantric outlook of pure perception.374 4.2.5. Providing additional information Furthermore, the oral tradition also presents abundant additional information not explicitly outlined, in detail, in the texts of this tradition. For example, the oral tradition delineates how the practitioner’s approach to Chöd practice matures as one advances along the path. Neophytes are encouraged to begin with an approximation of the view in their daily practice. This is done, for example, by applying a theoretical understanding of awareness, by conceptually recalling the impermanent, interdependent, and illusory nature of all phenomena, but also by bringing to mind the pure nature of all things throughout one’s sādhana practice.375 As Lama Öser has explained, “Some practice Chöd to gain realization, others to enhance the realization they’ve already gained.”376 As mentioned above, although some speak of Chöd as a practice exclusively for advanced practitioners, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche says: As with all Buddhist teachings, Chöd practice is understood on different levels, for different levels of practitioners, and the amazing and wonderful thing is that on each level it is beneficial, profound, and beautiful.377 373 Imagining them as perfect male and female buddhas. 374 For more on pure perception in Chöd, see sections 3.4., 4.2.4., 5.1.2., 5.2.3., 5.2.5., 5.2.6., and fn. 375 LTS, Chöd S6 (Gomde CA 2013), 38. 376 Lama Öser, interview (Boudhanath: May 5, 2014). 377 CNR, interview (Budhanilkanta: July 29, 2015). 257. 112 The masters at KNSL present several models reflecting progress in Chöd practice. Lama Tsültrim Sangpo describes three different layers of Chöd practice by quoting Milarepa. Outer cutting (gcod) refers to moving away from whatever causes distraction to one’s practice, such as ordinary places and people. One thereby cuts off the diversions of ordinary life. Inner cutting refers to cutting one’s attachment to the five aggregates, specifically the aggregate of physical form, since pampering and clinging to one’s body also distracts one from practice. To reduce the grasping to one’s body, one visualizes offering one’s body as food (phung po gzan du bskyur ba). Secret, or ultimate, cutting means the complete and abrupt severing of all clinging whatsoever, not just to one’s physical form, but to all that comprises a so-called personal “self.” KNSL teachers also refer to Karmapa Rangjung Dorjé’s reference to three different methods of cutting and objects to be cut. The outer method of cutting is to sever the ten nonvirtues and engage in their opposites, the ten virtuous deeds. This cuts off rebirth in the lower realms. Inner Chöd is to sever the grasping onto the five sense perceptions as having truly established, inherent, independent existence. This cuts through the continuity of saṃsāric experience. As for the secret cutting, Rangjung Dorjé points out that it is ignorance itself that should be eradicated, specifically the ignorance which fails to perceive the natural state exactly as it is.378 If one is able to cut through this, the entire scope of confusion collapses.379 This tradition presents two different sets of layered practice a novice can utilize to embark on Chöd practice. While these demonstrate clear graduated models a practitioner can follow, they also point out that ultimately Chöd is about eliminating ignorance and realizing Umze Karma Sherap phrased the secret Chöd in the following wayŚ “The secret Chöd is to remain within the single sphere. We are bound to endless saṃsāra because of our ego-clinging. To totally and completely let go of ego-clinging is the secret cut.” Umze Karma Sherap, Chöd Teaching (KNSL, Boudhanath: fall seminar, November 20, 2015). 378 379 LTS, Chöd S2 (Gomde CA 2013), 5, 6, 7. 113 awareness. These interpretations also imply that supportive strategies, such as staying in remote, isolated areas, are helpful for the beginner, however not paramount for advanced practitioners.380 The oral instructions also add plenty of information on the four sūtric and the four tantric māras. Though somewhat mentioned in the sādhanā texts, they are rarely elaborated upon. The two sets of māras are key teachings in KNSL’s Chöd tradition.381 KNSL’s teachers relate the four sūtric māras to the meaning of the root of the word māra–“mṛ (death).”382 Māra, or demon, does not refer to some evil, horrifying, outer being with bulging eyes and so forth, but rather to one’s own grasping which obstructs or “slays” spiritual accomplishment.383 Looking at this in detail will help illustrate important steps and philosophical details the tradition presents in relation to recognizing and gaining stability in awareness. The first sūtric māra, the demon of the aggregates (phug po’i bdud), is that which dies. Here, one primarily speaks of the aggregate of the body which is said to be one of the primary constituents of the self. As long as one grasps onto a self, one creates karma and thereby is trapped within saṃsāra’s cyclic existence of continuous suffering, i.e. the illusory experience of birth, old age, sickness, and death. One advantage of Chöd is precisely to cut through this major source of suffering, meaning attachment to one’s own body. In brief, shortsighted clinging to one’s highly perishable physical form, which dies, is certainly an However, one must understand that even these phrases such as “remove yourself from distraction” and “practice virtue, abandon non-virtue” are interpreted in the oral pith instructions on different levels, the ultimate again being linked to awareness. From this ultimate perspective, the advanced practitioner will practice all levels at once. 380 381 The following section derives from CNR, Pharping; LTS (Gomde CA: 2013). Lama Tenzin (Nov. 19, 2014). New.” 382 For more information, seeŚ Sorensen, “Making the Old New,” 210. 383 Also see Harding, “Did Machik Lapdrön Really Teach Chöd?” and Sorensen, “Making the Old 114 obstacle to liberation from bondage. As we can see, this step of practice relates to the inner cut as presented by Milarepa and is an indispensable step on the gradual path of coming to realize awareness. The second māra, the demon of negative emotions (nyon mongs kyi bdud),384 is that which brings about death. To cling to dualistic concepts is ignorance, itself. To be attached to anything related to oneself and to feel aversion towards anything one deems as not-self, or “other”–are both misconceptions in direct opposition to the true nature of things beyond this artificial dualistic setup. These misapprehensions exacerbate karma assuring one will continue to cycle through the painful stages of birth, old age, sickness, and finally death. Therefore, afflictions usher in death while obstructing awareness and the path to awakening. Thirdly, needless to mention the māra of the Lord of Death (‘chi bdag gi bdud) is death, itself. Whoever is born will die. There is no assurance regarding where rebirth will take place, in what form one will be reborn, and whether circumstances will be conducive to once again pursue spiritual practice in one’s next life. Bringing death to mind each and every day helps the practitioner focus on the meaningful and enables him or her to flee distractions. The fourth māra, the son of the gods (lha’i bu’i bdud),385 obstructs the deathless state, buddhahood. This refers to any kind of distraction from practice. As it is said, appearances are skilled in deceiving, and mind is gullible.386 Being constantly tempted and carried away 384 The three core afflictions being ignorance, attachment, and aversion. Here the term “devaputra” refers to something in our own mind. However, there are analogous legends which reflect this from the perspective of the outer world. According to Lama Tsültrim, devaputra can, as an externalized version of this inner māra, also refer to the demon Māra Garap Wangjuk who, taking on the form of a god, lives on the summit of Mount Meru. He obsesses about keeping all sentient beings under his evil influence. Therefore, whenever someone engages in virtue and practices the Dharma, he becomes enraged and tries to distract the practitioner by sending obstacles. He has five wives, namely attachment, aversion, ignorance, pride, and jealousy. Legend goes that, if someone genuinely wants to practice, Garap Wangjuk will quickly target the practitioner with these arrows of attachment, aversion, etc. causing the practitioner to postpone his or her practice with thoughts such as, “I’m not feeling very well, I’ll practice tomorrow,” or “This TV show is really funny, I’ll do my practice tomorrow.” 385 386 LTS, Chöd S2 (Gomde CA 2013), 8. Also: Patrul Rinpoche, Words of My Perfect Teacher, 189. 115 by the seeming pleasures of samsara blocks one from attaining liberation, buddhahood beyond all death. This māra relates to Rangjung Dorjé’s inner cut. Thus, the four sūtric māras condense the teachings and bring into focus four points a Chöd practitioner should discard in order to progress on the path. The next set of four māras stems from the tantric tradition. Here, the oral instructions more clearly bring clinging to the foreground as the main culprit to realizing and strengthening awareness. The first māra, the tangible māra (thogs bcas pa’i bdud), refers to our grasping to outer conditions and circumstances. This, in turn, kindles emotions such as attachment and aversion. Secondly, the intangible māra (thogs med kyi bdud), is not necessarily related to outer circumstances and conditions. Afflictions arise due to the already present karma ripening moment-by-moment within one’s mind stream. Clinging to these karmic emotional upheavals must be cut through. Thirdly, the māra of exultation (dga’ btrod bdud) can befall practitioners on the path at any time. Meditation experiences such as bliss, non-thought, or clarity arise whereby the meditator becomes pleased, attached, and proud, but this distracts him or her from actual practice. Alternatively, meditation experiences can be so unpleasant that one is deterred from practice. No matter what takes place, one is instructed to simply observe these comings and goings while remaining detached and free from accepting and rejecting. One thereby gains mastery over one’s mind and stability in practice. On the contrary, if again and again one becomes caught up in clinging to positive or negative meditation experiences, stabilizing awareness remains ever-elusive.387 “When we practice in an empty, frightening place, we may nevertheless experience bliss, clarity, non-thought and so forth. We may then conclude that we are superior, thinking, “I, myself, am superior, my lama, my varja brothers, and my practice is superior. We outshine everyone else. I’m so realized, I have reached the ultimate.’ This kind of pride and self-satisfaction is the Demon of Exultation.” CNR, Pharping, 3. 387 116 Fourthly, the māra of inflation (snyems byed kyi bdud) refers to ego-clinging, itself.388 All the other māras are variations of the theme of this fourth demon. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains: We need to cut through the belief in a self, and utilize skillful means to accomplish this. Since time immemorial, we have clung to a self. Unless we cut this clinging, we will continue to experience a lot of suffering. Ego-clinging is the root of all suffering. It hinders us from reaching enlightenment–and that is the worst demon, the worst enemy, the worst poison. We need to know that this is the main problem. We need to recognize this defect for what it is. The main problem is not outside, but it is our own grasping and fixation to a self. This is the obstacle to liberation and omniscience.389 In this way, grasping, itself, is the trouble-making cause of all suffering. Each of these four latter māras are obstacles to the path to awakening, whether one clings to one’s perceptions, gets caught up in one’s emotions and concepts, becomes proud and thrilled with spiritual accomplishments, or harbors even the slightest, subtlest notion of a self. The oral tradition points out that any type of clinging is none other than confusion, the very antithesis of awareness. By adding this detail and describing the two sets of four māras as indispensable to Chöd, the oral instructions also clearly assert that Chöd practice is not only a sādhana, but includes other instructions to be applied throughout both sessions and daily life. As these two sets directly relate to the recognition and sustaining of awareness, they provide philosophical background as well as a pedagogical approach to awareness. While the description of the māras are general Chöd teachings, whether one is engaged in the sādhana or not, the next section presents the oral tradition’s closer look at the sādhana itself, where it inserts yet another layer of commentary particularly related to awareness. 388 In the context of ego-clinging, Phakchok Rinpoche criticizes some practitioners for their habit of scanning themselves in meditationŚ We scan “my body” and “my mind,” but are we also scanning the “I”? Are we even looking to see where it is, the “I”? So, we are scanning our body and our mind, yet we keep our idea of “I,” holding onto it, nice and tight! Phakchok Rinpoche, Talk on Chöd 3, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ex8D10NNdV8. 389 CNR, Pharping, 4. 117 As mentioned above, the supplications and refuge found in the preliminary section pertain also directly to awareness. While some of this may be evident in the texts, themselves, the oral instructions add some detail. For example, the refuge prayer of the Tersar Lüjin concludes with the wish to accomplish “mastery of the three bodies.”390 Lama Tsültrim explainsŚ “If you wonder what that really means, in short it is mastery over one’s own awareness. We want to magnetize, draw in our own awareness.”391 While previously (4.2), the syllable phaṭ was explained to symbolize the nonduality of skillful means and wisdom, furthermore, the oral instructions explain the usage of the syllable phaṭ as a reminder of awareness throughout the sādhana. For example, at the beginning of the Tersar Lüjin’s terma root text, the syllable phaṭ functions as a reminder of the varja-like samādhi, of completely cutting through all clinging and concepts at this point. Here, phaṭ represents the intent of the Prajñāpāramitā, the direct experience of emptiness, free of any dualistic clinging, free of any concepts of subject and object. One leaves one’s mind in a completely unfabricated yet lucid state. This is also the ultimate phowa, the ultimate Opening the Door to the Sky. Particularly in its oral instructions on Dzokchen, this tradition explains the syllable phaṭ as a perfect aid for completely cutting through the continuity of our concepts so that we arrive in a state beyond conceptuality and clinging. Unlike its sharp pronunciation explained below, at this particular point in the sādhana, one pronounces phaṭ softly in a prolongated manner similar to the traditional usage of the letter āḥ in the oral instructions of Dzokchen. At times the fine print of the sādhanas indicates whether phaṭ is to be pronounced softly or sharply. However, the oral instructions add further instructions, fine-tuning when a certain pronunciation is called for. For example, when one is distracted from the view or if 390 Dharmakāya, sambhogakāya, nirmanakāya. 391 LTS, Chöd S5 (Gomde CA: 2013), 31. 118 one feels tired, one is encouraged to utter a sharp, abrupt phaṭ.392 In this way, it is used to jolt oneself into awareness. If one is agitated, a soft, long phaṭ can help the mind to calm down which is conducive for resting in the view. Lama Tsültrim explains that within the body offering sections, often phaṭ is used to remind one to return to the view, to rest in awareness beyond concepts of an offerer, a recipient, or an offering.393 Outside the sādhana, phaṭ is also used by the master to point out awareness to the student. This could be during the formal Chöd empowerment or any time the student is with the master. Phakchok Rinpoche explains, “How to cut? When the teacher shouts, “phaṭ!” you let go.”394 Furthermore, sometimes the Chöd practitioner does not even recite the sādhana text, but merely utilizes phaṭ, itself, as the main support for the essential practice. Lama Urgyen Dorjé explains, “Sometimes, we [the three-years retreatants] would just shout “phaṭ!” onehundred times or more, because that is the real meaning of Chöd, cutting through all emotions and clinging. That’s what it’s all about.”395 In this way, the oral tradition described using the syllable phaṭ pronounced differently according to particular aims and situations. The oral instructions add further information about the innermost meaning of Chöd’s phowa and the deities. As mentioned above, the Tersar Lüjin’s terma root text begins with phaṭ as a reminder to remain in awareness. The following line, “rang sems ma bcod (leave your own mind unfabricated)” also indicates the varja-like samādhi. Here, the oral instructions specify this technique as a reminder to sustain awareness throughout the sādhana.396 The advanced practitioner will say phaṭ and immediately let go into awareness. LTS, Chöd S3, S6, S7 (Gomde CAŚ 2013), 16, 33, 44. Tulku Jampal Dorjé, 2015Ś “As for phaṭ: what happens in your mind when you shout “phaṭ!”? That’s what you should look at!” 392 393 LTS, Chöd S6 (Gomde CA: 2013), 35. 394 Phakchok Rinpoche, Chöd Teaching 14. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XS49rBSP-JA. 395 Lama Urgyen Dorjé, interview (KNSL, Boudhanath: August 2015). 396 AlsoŚ “Rang sems ma bcos indicates that we begin with the view. Phaṭ reminds us of this. We should carry out the entire practice from within that view.” Umze Karma Sherap. November 20, 2015. 119 This resting in awareness is the ultimate phowa, the ultimate Opening the Door to the Sky. Next, out of this state, one’s awareness then manifests as Tröma Nakmo in the space above one’s former, human body. Thus the ultimate phowa does not involve steps of visualizing the ejection of one’s consciousness. For the practitioner who cannot practice this direct phowa of remaining in awareness, the TRT empowerment text and the TRT add strategies for practicing the Opening the Door to the Sky in a gradual manner, for example by beginning to visualize one’s consciousness in different spherical forms to jump through six centers of one’s body before being ejected.397 In contrast, the Tersar Lüjin directly jumps from the varja-like samādhi (indicated through phaṭ and rang sems ma bcod) to the self-visualization of the female deity Tröma Nakmo outside one’s body. Here, the oral instructions fill in the details and offer options that adjust the approach to this phowa practice in accordance to the capacity of the practitioner. For example, one either directly ejects one’s own mind out of the physical body into space, or one follows more gradual steps as outlined in the TRT. Once the consciousness is ejected, one immediately mingles one’s mind with space, which then manifests the form of the deity. Alternatively, one could also visualize one’s consciousness at one’s heart center in the central channel of one’s body in the form of Tröma Nakmo (or whichever deity is being utilized in the Chöd practice). Then one ejects one’s consciousness as Tröma Nakmo, and then mingles one’s mind with space. 398 397 Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 97-100. 398 In this way, one’s consciousness is already Tröma Nakmo as it travels the pathway out of one’s crown. This is said to be easier for trained practitioners. For beginners, it might be preferable to first visualize one’s consciousness at one’s heart center as a small, five-colored bindu (drop), slightly vibrating, ready to leap up. As it then suddenly and quickly shoots up out of the top of one’s head (the brahma aperture), it emerges with space. As soon as it appears in space, it instantly takes on the form of Tröma Nakmo, an enlightened being who always abides in awareness with the quality of boundless compassion. As one has separated mind and matter in this way, one’s material physical body is left behind. It is imperative to understand that, at this point, one’s consciousness is no longer within the body. As one is now high above one’s body dwelling in a new form, such as Tröma Nakmo, the shell of the discarded body is no longer grasped as “oneself.” I am specifically highlighting this because of explanations that link Chöd with shamanism, wherein some authors seem to 120 In this way, unless one is a practitioner of the highest capacity, a distinctive method in Chöd to jolt oneself into the state of awareness is to imagine that one’s consciousness mingles with the vastness of space (hence the name, “Opening the Door to the Sky”) and then to totally let go of any concept, thus allowing one’s mind to rest in a wide-open state without any confinements or reference points. The oral instructions augment the text with explanations of the symbolic and innermost meaning of “deity.” In essence, the deity—in the case of the Tersar Lüjin, Tröma Nakmo—is nothing but one’s own awareness.399 The lamas explain that, in the moment that our mind remains unfabricated, it is Tröma Nakmo.400 This is the ultimate meaning of the deity.401 As with all Vajrayāna deities, Tröma Nakmo’s form bears great symbolism directly linked to mind teachings and qualities of awareness. For example, her black body color represents the unchanging nature of suchness. Her realization has completely cut through birth and death, which is indicated by the cleaver she holds in her right hand. Her realization completely consumes all manner of attachment and aversion to samsara, which is gathered in the form of blood within the skull cup that she clutches in her left hand. Symbolically, Tröma misunderstand this important point, stating that one offers oneself (with one’s consciousness still abiding within the body) as a self-sacrifice to be devoured by demons or deities. As we can clearly see from the explanations of the masters at KNSL, this is not the case. At this point in the practice, one’s consciousness has adopted a new body, the form of an enlightened being. The former physical body is now something extraneous, and therefore no longer “me”. However, one still must consider one’s enormous attachment to this body. The following steps, whereby one visualizes chopping one’s cherished body into pieces, may present a major quite difficult undertaking for less mature practitioners. Thus, while the ultimate phowa refers to a state beyond concepts and duality, the above mentioned visualizations are stepping stones for the less accomplished practitioner. To undermine a fixation onto duality, these practitioners are encouraged to mentally regard their visualization (of themselves and the world) not as something truly existing, but as dream-like. 399 CNR, November 23, 2015Ś “One utilizes the symbolic deity of appearance as a method to reach the ultimate deity of suchness.” “In the very moment that you are doing nothing whatsoever, your mind is Tröma Nakmo. This is the case for any deity. The moment your mind is in an unfabricated state, in that very moment your mind is nothing other than the deity.” LTS, Chöd S6 (Gomde CAŚ 2013), 33. 400 401 Ibid. 121 Nakmo consumes this blood. Her three eyes signify that she clearly sees the three times. The three points of the trident represent cutting through the three poisons. Tröma Nakmo is depicted naked because the ultimate state is completely devoid of being clothed in the stains of negative emotions. Recollecting the pure symbolism of the form of the deity is an element encouraged during development stage practice.402 Thus, the oral instructions link the deity and elements of the deity’s form to awareness and its qualities, an element not included in the two Chöd sādhanas. The oral instructions also describe how the varied drum beat patterns employed throughout the sādhana as well as the musical instruments have specific symbolism pertaining to awareness. For example, when doing a double-drum beat three times between sections, it indicates cutting the three poisons at the root to lay bare awareness. When doing it four times, it symbolizes cutting through the root of the four māras, again revealing intrinsic awareness. In this way, the different drum patterns also fulfill the pedagogic aim of reminding the practitioner of the view.403 Furthermore, the ḍāmaru symbolizes skillful means, while the bell symbolizes wisdom.404 Different parts of the bone trumpet are again linked to awareness, for example the elongated shape, itself, represents the “sword of wisdom,” that symbolizes awareness.405 Again, this information is only transmitted through the oral instructions. 402 When training in the appearance of the deity, there are three main aspects: (1) vivid appearance (snang ba gsal ba), (2) stable pride (nga rgyal brtan pa), and (3) recollecting purity (dag pa dran pa). Kunkyen Tenpe Nyima, “The Compendium of Oral InstructionsŚ General Notes on the Rituals of the Development Stage,” in Kunkyen Tenpe Nyima and Shechen Gyaltsap IV, Vajra Wisdom: Deity Practice in Tibetan Buddhism, translated by Dharmachakra Translation Committee (Boston & London: Snow Lion, 2012), 53. 403 LTS, Chöd S6 (Gomde CA: 2013), 39. 404 LTS, Chöd Teachings (KNSL, Boudhanath: March 19, 2014). Umze Karma Sherap, Chöd Teachings (BoudhanathŚ Nov. 24, 2015). Furthermore, he states, “We speak of needing substances, meditative concentration, and mantra in Vajrayāna. Here, the instruments could also be described as substances. The power of substances is inconceivable; they are skillful methods which bear tremendous benefit.” Ibid. CNR also explains, “Don’t underestimate the power of ritual instruments in Vajrayāna. They will help your mind to be more calm, more kind, more clear, and to progress in practice. You can feel the difference.” CNR, Tara Retreat (PharpingŚ Nov. 6, 2016). 405 122 4.2.6. Specific information for advanced practice As already mentioned, the oral instructions offer different options depending upon the level of the practitioner. For example, a practitioner might take up different aspects of the practice and choose different times of the day and locations to practice. Some of these instructions are now available in written form. For example, in The Blazing Splendor, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche’s grandfather, Chime Dorjé, explains a sequence of progress as a Chöd practitioner. According to this, one first follows the general principles of tantric practice. Next, one carries out a daytime Chöd retreat, practicing either the long or short Chöd practices, all day for one-hundred consecutive days. He continues: Later you would do another set of one hundred days on a mountain, then at a river and then at a major bridge. Only when you had accomplished four sets of one hundred days would you deserve the title of Chö practitioner. […] In the next phase, these Chö practices were done not only during day-time; you would go to scary places in the dead of night. At some point, the practitioner might face tests known as ‘eruptions’ or ‘challenges,’ in which a local spirit would challenge your stability by creating magical apparitions of varying degrees of intensity.406 While this was the prescribed sequence in Tibet, at present-day KNSL and its branch monasteries, the monks and nuns practicing Chöd do so mostly in the retreat centers at Pharping and Nagi Gompa, particularly during three-year retreats. Lama Tenzin Sangpo gave further explanations on the role of Chöd for KNSL’s retreatants: Specifically, in retreat, one may fall sick with body aches. One may become overly concerned with one’s physical and mental suffering. So, one removes these obstacles by practicing Chöd. More particularly, in Dzogchen and Mahāmudrā, it is used as phog don–a necessary enhancement practice for the view. Therefore, we find the Chöd practice in the completion stage section of Déchen Gyalpo.407 Thus, Lama Tenzin points out several uses of Chöd for advanced practitioners. First, he explains Chöd as helping the retreatant deal with suffering. It seems logical that a practice 406 Tulku Urgyen, Blazing Splendor, 115, 116. 407 Lama Tenzin, (Nov 26, 2014). 123 which trains one to give up any clinging to mental and physical events would be helpful during intensive retreats when prolonged sitting and yogic exercises might cause physical discomfort and when the progress in practice, itself, is said to stir up lingering karma which may cause mental and physical challenges. Secondly, as the retreatants are focusing more on awareness as the retreat progresses, Chöd’s features of being both an enhancement and testing ground are accentuated by the retreat environment. By making practitioners aware of these uses, the oral tradition adds to the understanding of this practice. Furthermore, Lama Tsültrim Sangpo explains that a Chöd practitioner may seek out two types of practice places depending on her or his level of practice. While a novice should stay in an isolated retreat place, at a certain stage in the practice the practitioner is encouraged to seek out frightening locales. Lama clarifies: [This is] a higher stage of practice, reached through having engaged in prior practice. And when one has arrived at a certain level of Chöd practice, then it is extremely important and helpful to go to a frightening place and practice there because, at that stage, it is an incredible enhancement for practice. But for a beginning practitioner, this would not be helpful, but just terrifying, and it is very likely that one would come under the sway of obstacles that manifest in such places, so it is unadvisable for a novice to immediately run off to scary places to practice Chöd. Still, an isolated place is very helpful.408 As was mentioned in chapter three on the fourfold framework, the clear, heightened mind frame of terror could also be conducive to halting concepts, and remaining in the view. However, for someone unable to sustain the view, exposing oneself to one’s deepest fears could be utterly traumatic rather than an enhancement to one’s practice. Consequently, Chimé Dorjé and Lama Tsültrim suggest that one should start training in a protected retreat setting rather than practicing at places that scare one. 408 LTS, Chöd S1 (Gomde CA:2015), 4. 124 Practitioners are also encouraged to consult their master to confirm that their view is sufficiently stable to attempt to seek out scary places.409 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche specifies some locations, “They go to a mountain hermitage, an abyss, a cemetery, or some other place that is usually scary, and there they practice fearlessness, which comes through realization.”410 However, when engaging in these practices, one is also cautioned to be aware of the māra of exultation sneaking in and spoiling one’s practice. As Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains: Through practicing yogic discipline (brtul zhugs), we might gain experiences such as “I’m undefeatable, I’m invincible.” This could be the grasping of, “I possess exalted realization. I saw the deity, or a demon, a god, and I didn’t have any fear at all. No one is like me!” And then we become attached to this, we cling and grasp to that. That is māra! When good qualities appear, we grasp and are attached, and this grasping is what actually spoils your realization. So, don’t attach to realization or activities, thinking, “I did great. I’m famous. I’m successful. I’m most successful.” This spoils your pure activities, too.411 Rinpoche also warns, “When we go to cemeteries, it is important to know that our concepts can then spiral out of control, so we should completely suspend our mind in Prajñāpāramitā. ‘Sustain the natural state of the view and enhance it with action,’ it is said.”412 In this way, the advanced practitioner might think him or herself “safe” from the disturbances and fear of outer demons, only to fall prey to their inner demon of arrogance. Accordingly, Rinpoche often warns that pride and jealousy are the most difficult emotions to acknowledge in oneself. In the oral pith instructions, the practitioner is strongly encouraged to constantly watch out for these and directly cut through any pride or jealousy using the 409 Lama Öpak, Chöd Teaching 19. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfADpm3rQ5k. 410 CNR, Pharping, 3. 411 Ibid. CNR, Pharping, 4. Interestingly, Lopön Shedrub Gyatso said, “Concerning Chöd, the stronger one’s fear and the stronger one’s ego-clinging, the easier the practice is”. Lopön Shedrub Gyatso, The Way of the Bodhisattva Class (RYI, Boudhanath: October 02, 2014). 412 125 force of awareness. Thus, oral instructions inform practitioners regarding the pitfalls of practice and help refine their understanding of when it would be appropriate to progress to the next style and location of Chöd practice. At a certain point of stability, a person who has recognized awareness and trained in sustaining it, might utilize Chöd as a “Trekchö exam,” to find out how stable his or her realization truly is.413 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche explains: Generally, Chöd is not a part of Dzokchen per se, if we talk about Trekchö and Thögal. However, when we speak of enhancement, anything becomes, or can be used as, an enhancement for a practitioner. Therefore, some Dzokchen practitioners, such as our three-year retreatants, use Chöd practice as an enhancement practice. Here, we speak of engaging in the conduct, and trying to sustain the view throughout, no matter what. So, often a Chöd practitioner would seek out scary places, confront his or her own fears, and try to continue the essential practice of remaining in the nature of mind. So, in this way, Chöd is an enhancement practice.414 Thus, Khen Rinpoche also confirms that Chöd is used to test, sustain, and enhance one’s ability to remain in awareness. The oral instructions describe meditation experiences and signs which indicate progress on the path of Chöd. Lama Tsültrim explains three measures or ways of measuring one’s progressŚ the measure of testing, the measure of completion, and the measure of having cut. Firstly, the measure of testing consists of outer, inner, and secret so-called “eruptions.” In the beginning, one might experience outer eruptions, such as experiencing outer frightening appearances, the manifestation of spirits, etc. The key point then is not to cling, not to get caught up in them. They are signs that the practice is working. Lama Tsültrim Sangpo explains that when one experiences something very strange or frightening, the experienced practitioner has a perfect opportunity: Precisely that moment is a perfect moment to recognize rig pa. Fear has the quality to cut through the continuity of conceptual thought so that we arrive in state where awareness is laid perfectly bare and unadorned. That’s the best thing to do at that 413 LTS, Chöd Retreat (Pharping: September 28, 2014). 414 Kyapjé Khenpo Rinpoche (April 21, 2016) 9, 10. 126 point, and a great way to enhance one’s practice. If something is absolutely terrifying and such manifestations appear, another thing one can do is to shout “phaṭ!” really loud and forcefully. This shatters concepts so we let go of the whole conceptual apparatus and look directly at the one who is afraid. Look at that which is experiencing fear. Look directly at that. This, again, has the effect of collapsing conceptual constructs and bringing us to a state of naked, unadorned awareness.415 Outer appearances are outer eruptions. Inner eruptions might be sickness or other types of suffering. Secret eruptions happen within one’s mindś one might become distraught, give rise to doubts,416 etc. Again, one is encouraged not to be upset, but to supplicate the guru, generate compassion, train in not clinging to anything, and sustain the view, no matter what may arise. Eruptions are said to manifest because karma is ripening more swiftly based on one’s advanced practice. In this way, it is because of practicing that one encounters more difficulties. While this might sound frightening and make one hesitate to plunge deeper into practice, it is actually a good and necessary sign, an indication of progress, and a sign that one is drawing closer to awakening. One should be happy and continue training in sustaining the view, rather than be discouraged, frightened, or upset. Lama Tsültrim explains that, when one practices and thereby approaches closer to enlightenment, one’s remaining negative karma will ripen from the past, perhaps all at once in this lifetime. This is not only something found in tantra but also in the sūtric teachings. In the Diamond Cutter Sūtra, the Buddha is said to have stated that people who recite this sūtra may experience great suffering due to their negative karma ripening more quickly as they intensify their practice. Furthermore, eruptions are not only discussed in Chöd, but are also particularly mentioned in Dzokchen teachings.417 415 LTS, Chöd S8 (Gomde CA: 2013), 52. 416 For example, doubts in the Dharma, one’s teacher, one’s spiritual friends. Ibid., 53. See, for example, Dudjom Rinpoche’s advice for mountain retreat. Dudjom Rinpoche, Die Klausur auf dem Berge: Ri Chö – Das Berg Dharma. Dzogchen-Lehren und Kommentare. (Berlin: Wandel Verlag, 2016). This book contains an auto-commentary by Rinpoche on his root text, “Extracting the Quintessence of 417 127 Lama Tenzin explains that Dilgo Khyentsé Rinpoche418 (dil mgo mkhyen brtse rin po che, 1910-1991) offers several ways for the practitioner to deal with eruptions. The first strategy is to recognize them as obstacles and embrace them with your practice—at best, directly apply awareness. One should regard all unfavorable circumstances as the dynamic expression (tsal) of awareness and simply rest in awareness. Otherwise, with pure samayas and great devotion, one should fully entrust oneself to one’s master, supplicate him or her one-pointedly. Through guru yoga, one mingles minds with the master, and rests in awareness. Alternatively, one can utilize difficulties as mind training and then rest in awareness. With the mind training approach, one takes on these challenges by imagining that one is thereby taking on the suffering of all beings. Another strategy is to see the eruptions as something desirable, or even as a nice gift from your teacher. One is encouraged to think, “Because of these difficulties, now I can already purify all my negative karma. How wonderful!” Or, “I rejoice. Now, my bad karma is ripening and I won’t have to experience it in the future.” One is also encouraged to see eruptions as teachers that provide wonderful opportunities to train one’s mind.419 In this way, the oral instructions add very practical and differentiated advice on how to utilize difficulties arising in one’s Chöd practice to one’s advantage. Accomplishment.” Dudjom Rinpoche, Extracting the Quintessence of Accomplishment: Oral Instructions for the Practice of Mountain Retreat. Expounded Simply and Directly in their Essential Nakedness (Darjeeling: Ogyan Choekhorling, 1979). 418 Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche was one of the main lineage holders of the Chokling Tersar and a teacher of the senior lamas at KNSL. 419 Lama Tenzin Sangpo, teachings on eruptions by Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche (Gomde GermanyAustria, March 2017). In a private conversation with Lama Tenzin, he explained how these particularly apply to Chöd practice and therefore gave permission to include them in this thesis. 128 After the eruptions,420 there may arise various signs or measures of completion. These are positive experiences, for instance receiving praise, wealth, gaining clairvoyance or other psychic powers, etc.421 As mentioned above, here one needs to be extremely careful not to fall prey to the māra of exultation, but to once again sustain the view with neither hope nor fear. This, too, will pass. Thirdly, there is the sign or measure of having cut. Having completely cut through all kinds of suffering and pleasure at the root, one remains in the experience of awareness, the meaning of the unborn nature. This is the ultimate sign.422 Thus, the oral pith instructions provide, in great detail, the temporary and ultimate signs one may experience, thereby preparing the practitioner and enabling him or her to recognize these signs, not be frightened or elated, but to apply the remedy. While some of these signs are explained in the Machik Namshe, the sādhanas and related commentaries, themselves, do not provide these details. 4.3. Summary of the awareness chapter In conclusion, as was discussed in the Introduction (1.2.4.), academic studies have mentioned emptiness and the view as crucial in Chöd practice. However, KNSL’s Chöd sādhanas and related texts and even more so the oral instructions, point out that the view or awareness, or its approximation, is to be sustained throughout the entire Chöd sādhana and beyond. While the Chöd texts certainly speak of awareness as something to be practiced at many stages during the liturgy, it is the oral instructions that clarify the context, centralize the view, address philosophical questions, fine-tune important terms, provide additional 420 While this is the sequence as taught by Lama Tsültrim in the context of listing different experiences and signs on the path of Chöd, this is not to say that these always appear in sequential order nor that they are limited to Chöd practice. See, for example, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, Present Fresh Wakefulness, 136, 137. 421 Although not listed by Lama Tsültrim here, the lamas at KNSL speak in great detail of other positive meditative experiences such as bliss, clarity, and non-thought. For example, ibid. 422 LTS, Chöd S8 (Gomde CA: 2013), 53. 129 information, and deliver specific information for advanced practice. Here, the oral instructions provide a great variety of strategies to successfully deal with challenges arising in Chöd practice. They also convey usages, reasons, and signs to a metacognitive level, in this way adding focus and understanding. 130 5. Devotion in Chöd As presented in the Literature Review (section 1.2.3.), academic studies mention that devotion is a feature central to Chöd practice, but do not venture into any detail. In contrast, the Chöd texts used at KNSL strongly emphasize devotion as a pivotal method to realize awareness, and the oral pith instructions add vital details with regard to differentiation, relationship of key terms, fine-tuning of topics, application beyond the sādhana, intensifying strategies, linking to core practices, benefits, role, effectiveness, additional applications, and focus. Similar to the structure of the previous chapter the first section below examines devotion in the written texts used at KNSL and the second part the oral instructions. 5.1. Devotion in written texts 5.1.1. Devotion in the TRT As previously mentioned, Karma Chakmé identifies the TRT as essentially a guru yoga practice, and the sheer number of devotional prayers in the sādhana is striking. More than 60% of the text is infused with devout invocation of enlightened beings,423 and the greatest portion of the liturgy involves intense supplication and the downpour of blessings. Passages that encourage engendering and strengthening devotion also appear in the refuge, offering, praises, and confession liturgies. As indicated in the previous chapter, while the devotional segments of the sādhana often appear oriented toward external enlightened 423 The following provides the number of pages which comprise devotional sections in the TRT, listed in the sequence of the liturgy: Devotional Song to MachikŚ 13.5ś Lineage supplicationŚ 2.5ś Paying homage to PrajñāpāramitāŚ 1ś Refuge and first part of 7 limbsŚ 8ś Praise of PrajñāpāramitāŚ 0.5ś Offerings and praiseŚ 18ś Supplication and receiving blessings: 12 + 21 + 10 + 6 + 8.5 + 3.5 + 4 + 23 + 25; Feast offering to enlightened beings: 4.5; Beseeching blessingsŚ 3. SupplicationŚ 5.5ś Offerings and requesting blessingsŚ 14 (I didn’t count things like worldly protectors, 32, and ḍākinī dance, even though they are somewhat related to devotion); Supplication and praise: 7.5; Offering and supplication to repair samayas: 2;. Confession-supplication: 10; Offering: 4; Supplication: 26; Wisdom protector supplication: 21; Supplication: 4; Offering: 1.5; Offering-confession: 2; Supplication and receiving blessing: 12. Total pages in textŚ 475. Total pages of devotional segmentsŚ 287. Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland.” 131 beings, it is the ultimate deity—the absolute state of awareness—that is the real object of devotion. As with all sādhanas, the TRT reminds one to understand enlightened beings as essentially inseparable from the master for whom one feels the most devotion. Thus, Karma Chakmé’s Devotional Song to Machik starts by stating that one should visualize, upon the crown of one’s head, “the mother who gives birth to the four types of noble beings, who, ultimately, is inseparable from whichever lama one has faith in.”424 In this way, one taps into the strong feeling of love and devotion that one might have towards one’s master and transfers this to the enlightened beings visualized in the sādhana. This serves to strengthen one’s personal connection to these deities, and thereby the beneficial effect of practices devoted to them, and, at the same time, deepen the connection to one’s guru.425 Another aspect of this Chöd liturgy, which is meant to bring particular enlightened beings closer to one’s heart, is the references to Machik, Prajñāpāramitā, and Tröma Nakmo as one’s “mother,”426 and to Padampa Sangyé as one’s “father.” The elaborate descriptions of the qualities of these, and other enlightened beings, also seem to intensify this intimacy and devotion.427 Devotion here is not merely a serious petition for help from a superior entity, but involves delight and even humor. Devotional segments sometimes end with phrases such as “khro lo lo,” “ya la la,” etc., which indicate great joy and possibly a playful dance.428 424 Rangjung Dorjé, “Jewel Garland,” 12, 13. (My translation). 425 It is also utilized the other way around: One might feel strong devotion towards a certain deity. Imagining this deity and one’s master to be essentially the same, this would then strengthen one’s devotion to the master. 426 Generally, Prajñāpāramitā is personified and referred to as Great Mother throughout the sādhana as “Great Dharmakaya Mother,” ibid., 67, for example. However, Tröma Nakmo is also called “mother” (“Wrathful Mother,” ibid., 40), as are Tārā (“Mother Tara,” ibid., 87) and Machik (“Mother Labdrön,” ibid., 152, 175, 177). 427 For example, ibid., 175-181, describing many of the qualities of Machik. 428 Ibid., 193. 191. 132 Likewise, the qualities of the beings evoke appreciation, joy, and awe. This is particularly the case when the object of one’s devotion is the primordial purity of all phenomena and all beings, including oneself. At times, the composition also takes on a question-and-answer style: “[W]ho, indeed, lives in that sacred place? Pha Dhampa Sangye is the one who lives in that sacred place.”429 This further adds a feeling of lightness and liveliness to the supplications and praises. Bringing enlightened beings closer to one’s heart, and thus creating a very personal relationship, is essential for the practice of guru yoga, as will be explained in the discussion of the oral instructions below. Much of the TRT includes guru yoga practices, and most of the supplications to enlightened beings (who are essentially seen as one’s own guru) are strongly related to awareness, particularly the request for the blessings of enlightened beings so that one can realize the ultimate state. The TRT periodically indicates that one should supplicate these beings as the guru with great longing and devotion.430 Sometimes the immediacy and fervency of devotion is expressed through such phrases as: “Bless (us) right now. Bless (us) quickly. Bless (us) instantly. Phat. Phat.”431 In some instances, each phase of the guru yoga sequence—supplicating with heartfelt devotion, visualizing the downpour of blessings or receiving empowerments, mingling one’s mind, and remaining in awareness—is explicit in the liturgy.432 Often these elaborate guru yoga sequences move seamlessly into brief visualized body offerings for the sake of sentient beings. One might assume that in a Chöd liturgy it would be the other way around: elaborate body offerings interspersed with brief 429 Ibid., 159. 430 For example, ibid., 90, 221, 222, 225, 227, 237. 431 For example, ibid., 156. 432 For example, ibid., 168, 477-487. 133 supplications. However, in the light of the strong relationship between awareness, devotion, and compassion (as outlined in chapter 2), this comes as no surprise. In the guru yoga sections, devotion is utilized as the primary method for recognizing and sustaining awareness. One is encouraged to abide in awareness at the conclusion of each devout supplication. At the same time, this recognition of the ultimate view is said to bring forth, as its intrinsic quality, unbearable compassion for all beings. It is out of this love that one offers one’s body so as to benefit beings, on the relative level, by giving them whatever they want and need, and to benefit them, on the absolute level, by evoking the birth of bodhicitta in their minds. In this way, the intense guru yoga sections also become the cause for embracing beings with great compassion, and for taking immediate action (in a visualized form). Because devotion is directly linked to awareness and compassion, the text of the TRT contains numerous devotional passages, which, according to the pith instructions, are meant to trigger a recognition of the ultimate state. However, perhaps there is an additional reason for galvanizing devotion. Feeling the strong presence and protection of enlightened beings will give one courage to face the terrifying places and manifestations, both outer and inner, that Chöd practitioners visit or invite. This may also explain why (as mentioned above) some of the devotional verses are written in a very playful and joyful manner, making Chöd feasts seem like courageous, delightful celebrations. These connote a blissful union with the relative and ultimate guru, which expresses itself in compassionate generosity toward beings, and breaking the tight grip of ego-clinging. 5.1.2. Devotion in the Tersar Lüjin Devotion is also a topic central to the Tersar Lüjin. This text makes several direct references to pure perception–seeing everything and everyone as perfectly pure from the very beginning–which is a form of devotion related to the ultimate state. The Tersar Lüjin states: All that appears and exists, the vessel and its contents, Are, from the beginning, the great seal of complete liberation. 134 From the illusory play of luminosity…433 These direct references come as no surprise when one reflects on the fact that the Tersar Lüjin is from the completion stage (rdzogs rim) section of Déchen Gyalpo. Sustaining devotion and trust in the ultimate pure nature of all phenomena is an outlook fundamental to this Chöd practice. In the Tersar Lüjin, right at the outset we find guru yoga sections beginning with two fervent supplications to the root guru as well as Rangjung Dorjé’s supplication to the Chöd lineage masters and protectors (also found in the TRT).434 The text indicates that these prayers should be recited “fervently” and “with intense devotion.”435 The refuge prayer also demonstrates the afore-mentioned devotional link between awareness and one’s guru since the practitioner is instructed to perceive the master as a realized being, and aim to gain this same realization.436 Other sections are also strongly related to devotion, such as the body offering to enlightened beings, the Avalokite vara practice, and the aspiration prayers437 5.1.3. Devotion in the TRT empowerment text Just as the TRT is heavily interspersed with devotional songs, so too is the TRT empowerment text,438 indicating again that devotion is the key to realizing awareness in the context of Chöd practice. The text begins by explaining why Machik is a special sacred being and how she was foretold in the scriptures. This is followed by extensive listings of the 433 Karmai Khenpo, “The Concise,” 4. 434 Karmai Khenpo, “The Concise,” 1, 2. 435 For example, “[w]ith intense devotion say” Ibid., 1. and “make this aspiration fervently.” Ibid., 2. “May we accomplish the state of the trikāya master.” Ibid., 3. From the text, alone, it is unclear who the “master” is in this context. Lama Tsültrim explains the “trikāya master (sku gsum bla ma)” as one’s root guru in the form of Padmasambhava. Lama Tsültrim, Chöd Session 5 (Gomde CA, 2013), 31. 436 437 Karmai Khenpo, “The Concise,” 4, 8, 10, 11. 438 Some of these devotional songs are identical in the TRT and TRT empowerment texts. 135 different Chöd lineages. The explicit intention of this is to help the practitioner gain faith and trust.439 Having established the authenticity and sacred nature of Machik and the lineage, the text continues to present quotations detailing the distinctiveness of Chöd, further evoking faith in Machik’s teachings and practices. Devotion is also expressed subsequently in the refuge and seven-branch prayers. The actual empowerment is first given in the essential version of the Opening the Door to the Sky, and then through a much more detailed version containing, among other things, supplications (directly from the TRT) that last for many pages. Here, for example, is the first of many verses: In the abode of the celestial palace of Dharmadhātu Akaniṣṭha I supplicate the Great Mother Prajñāpāramitā. Bless me, your supplicating child, Pacify the circumstances of the outer and inner obstacles. Grant both the supreme and common siddhis. Draw this child onto the path of birthlessness!440 The style of these prayers in the phowa section resembles guru yoga practice in that one strongly requests the Great Mother for blessings. These supplications are then followed by visualizations related to phowa; thereafter, when the consciousness is ejected, one mingles one’s mind with space and remains directly in awareness. However, in the following version for beginners, one first mingles body and mind with Prajñāpāramitā before mingling one’s mind with space, adding the step of becoming the deity before resting in awareness. In this way, one performs a practice that is also utilized in guru yoga at times, whereby one becomes the master or deity before totally letting go of any concepts. In the next section, yet another instruction resembles guru yoga practice. Although one visualizes Machik, she is described as none other than one’s own root guru and 439 Manipa, Gcod dbang, 172, 173. Manipa, Gcod dbang, 184. Last line of translation taken from David Molk’s translation of the TRT. David Molk, “The Precious Garland,” 42. 440 136 Prajñāpāramitā, who are inseparable.441 Here, and in the following supplications for blessings, the text directly mentions several times that one must supplicate with devotion.442 This heightens the intensity of the supplications. For example, at the end of each of the supplications, one requests the blessing of one’s body, speech, and mind, as well as their combination. This is followed by visualizing a downpour of blessings: I supplicate you to grant me blessings. Bless me, Mother Machik! Remove all hindrances, Mother Machik! Let realization arise, Mother Machik! Grant the supreme empowerment, Mother Machik! Bestow siddhis, Mother Machik! Embrace me with your compassion, Mother Machik! Guide me on the path, Mother Machik! Bless me, so that I can become exactly like you, Mother!443 Here again one can observe passionate supplications, intensifying and personalizing the relationship with the enlightened being by calling her “Mother.”444 One places trust in the deity so that she can bring about a great positive transformation and eliminate all obstacles on the path.445 In this way, the TRT empowerment text contains numerous devotional sections. The dominant role of devotion in realizing the ultimate is illustrated by the fact that each empowerment is preceded by pages of long, fervent supplications, sung with moving melodies, and followed by visualizing the receipt of blessings and then resting in the ultimate view. Although Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche mentions that there are two key methods, devotion 441 Manipa, Gcod dbang, 191. 442 For example, ibid., 192, 193, 198. 443 Manipa, Gcod dbang, 193-198. As her name, “Machik,” already means “only mother,” an additional “mother,” before her name seems to accentuate an intense personal relationship. 444 445 Similar fervent supplications can be found throughout the text, such as during the torma empowerment. Ibid., 200, 201. 137 and compassion, for recognizing awareness, it is devotion rather than compassion that is the primary means to trigger realization in the main part of the empowerment, just as in the TRT and Tersar Lüjin. 5.1.4. Devotion in the Kagyü Lüjin and its commentaries Devotional supplication also seems to be an important part of the short Lüjin of the Kagyü tradition. It starts with supplications to one’s root guru, followed by the Kagyü lineage prayer. The eight-limbs prayer contains a long section of worship. Rangjung Dorjé’s Chöd lineage prayer, which is common to both the TRT and the Tersar Lüjin, is also included here. Furthermore, this text contains many other devotional prayers, such as supplications to Machik and to Avalokite vara. Even more so, its commentary, The Garden of Joy, passionately explains devotion as a method for realizing the ultimate. Here, it is explained that, in-between the body offering visualizations, one should pray to the lineage lamas from the depths of one’s heart to be able to cut all clinging, hope, and fear. One should then remain devoid of even the slightest notion of subject, object, and action. Again, devotion is defined as the quintessential, direct and immediate avenue to the ultimate state. Nevertheless, one is warned that conceptual devotion is still just a branch practice and must eventually be discarded, while the main practice is remaining in the realization of the Mother. Interestingly, although the Lüjin and the Garden of Joy abound in explicit as well as implicit content related to devotion, Tenga Rinpoche does not focus extensively on devotion in his commentary. He mentions the importance of cultivating heartfelt, fervent devotion when invoking the lineage masters,446 pointing out that the purpose of guru yoga is to recognize, increase, and stabilize the recognition of mind nature,447 and delineating the 446 Tenga Rinpoche, Chö, 128. 447 Ibid., 58. 138 relationship between blessings and devotion.448 He emphasizes that it is the “father guru who shows self-awareness to be wisdom,”449 and that, in the end, all concepts whatsoever must be dropped, including objectifying devotion and referential compassion.450 One could infer that Tenga Rinpoche did not elaborate upon devotion since it is such an all-encompassing feature within the Kagyü tradition.451 It’s safe to say that he regarded devotion as an obvious key to unlocking the potency of Vajrayāna practice, and thus required little discussion when he elucidated this sādhana. Alternatively, as he was commenting on a text which already underscores devotion, he might have believed these points were demonstrated clearly enough. Both Tenga Rinpoche452 and Patrül Rinpoche453 state that Chöd practice can be described as a facet of both guru yoga and maṇḍala practice. As both of these practices strongly bring into play devotion, this is yet another reason to conclude that devotion is a means of great consequence within Ka-Nying Chöd traditions. 5.1.5. Devotion in the Catalog The final text I will consider is the “Zhije and Chö” chapter in Kongtrül’s Catalog. In the first part of this chapter, pertaining to Shije, he describes the practitioner with greatest capacity as merely sustaining “pure awareness in all its nakedness,” while those with middling capacity should apply “the key point of devotion as the single decisive point” in attaining the four kāyas of the guru.454 This indicates the key role of awareness, with devotion 448 Ibid., 172. 449 Ibid., 72. 450 Ibid., 86. 451 Devotion is especially relied upon in the Kagyü tradition. Karma Thrinley Rinpoche (karma phrin las rin po che, b. 1931) in a private conversation with me, fall 1990, at his monastery in Boudhanath. 452 Ibid., 31. 453 Patrul Rinpoche, The Words, 297. This is one of the foundational texts taught to the lay and ordained practitioners at KNSL. 454 Kongtrül, Catalog, 77. 139 as the “highest” method leading to realization.455 As he sees Shije as the main teaching and Chöd as its auxiliary practice, one can deduce that these statements also apply to Chöd. Kongtrül also elaborates upon the fourfold themes of Chöd (see section 4.1.4.): emptiness, compassion, discipline, and receiving the blessings. Regarding the last of these, he explains: To be blessed by sugatas means that, having taken refuge, one prays with fervent devotion to one’s primary gurus and those of the lineage. With the foregoing as a basis, at the outset of one’s practical implementation of these instructions, one receives the empowerments that are unique to this tradition, which render one a suitable aspirant. […. One drives] home the vital point of blessings invoked through devoted supplication.456 In this way, Kongtrül also underscores devotion as a decisive factor in fruitful Chöd practice. 5.1.6. Summary of devotion in texts In summary, the above-mentioned texts clearly demonstrate that devotion is a tool of immense significance within this Chöd practice lineage. In particular, sections of the sādhanas more unique to Chöd, such as phowa and the visualized body offering, are clearly presented as pivoting upon devotion toward outer masters—in the form of one’s guru— lineage masters, and enlightened beings, and toward the innermost master, the absolute state, itself. 5.2. Devotion in oral instructions While KNSL’s Chöd texts clearly demonstrate that devotion is an important element of Chöd practice, even more so KNSL’s oral instruction clearly point out the centrality of devotion. They add a great deal of information by explaining different levels of devotion, clarifying the relationship of key terms, fine-tuning topics, and elucidating the application of 455 When regarding awareness as the wisdom aspect and everything else as methods. 456 Ibid., 78. For a brief explanation on how the devotion of a middling practitioner differs from the devotion of a practitioner with true realization, see section 5.2.1. 140 devotion beyond the sādhana. Furthermore, they offer strategies to intensify devotion, link devotion with core practices, present additional benefits, clarify its role and effectiveness, illustrate additional applications of devotion within the sādhana, and determine the focus of Chöd practice by presenting devotion as crucial. 5.2.1. Differentiation Compared to the texts, the oral instructions add an element of differentiation by presenting several levels of devotional practice, according to the practitioner’s capacity. As a pivotal pre-requisite, Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche describes devotion as a fervent interest that drives a newcomer to take up Chöd and perpetuate his or her practice.457 Without this type of beginner’s devotion, one would not set foot upon the path at all. Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche likens a person who lacks devotion to a burnt seed from which nothing will ever grow. Therefore, he sees this type of devotion as premier, ensuring that one enters and progresses along on the path.458 Rinpoche stresses, however, that devotion still mired within a dualistic framework must ultimately be transcended.459 457 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche, interview (March 15, 2016). Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains that, since Chöd is a Vajrayāna practice, it is intended particularly for those with sharp faculties, for those who can easily generate feelings of renunciation and compassion, and most specifically for those who have devotion and pure perception. CNR, teaching on Chöd, (Boudhanath: November 23, 2015). 458 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche, interview (March 15, 2016), 3. Lama Öser, interview. Umze Karma Sherap, Chöd (September 21, 2016). 459 CNR, teachings (KNSL: November 22, 2015). One might wonder how this transcendence of conceptual devotion might affect the outer guru-disciple relationship. As devotion shifts from the outer manifest guru to the inner intrinsic guru of one’s own awareness, one may expect the external guru-disciple relationship to dissolve. On the contrary, tradition states that as one reaches authentic realization, devotion to the master who has pointed out this nature in the first place becomes intense overwhelming devotion–a non-conceptual devotion regarded as an intrinsic quality of awareness. I have personally witnessed—and heard additional first-hand stories about—certain masters connected to this Ka-Nying lineage who are considered to be highly realized, who were so overcome with profound devotion when seeing their guru’s name in a text that they were choked with tears and had to pause for some minutes before continuing with a textual reading transmission. This level of devotion seems not so much triggered by the outer person of the guru as by one’s inner realization and the resulting inexpressible gratitude. It is said that this devotion is so overwhelmingly profound that, rather than a cognitive or even emotional occurrence, it lies utterly beyond concept and description. 141 As described in the framework chapter (section 3.4.), Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche describes four types of devotion of increasing profundity. Furthermore, a practitioner might have many objects of devotion, such as devotion in the teacher, the teachings, the purity of all phenomena and beings, and devotion in the ultimate truth. As devotion intensifies based on increased understanding460 and experience, it can become so forceful that any manner of clinging to a personal self or “I” is dropped and one directly realizes intrinsic awareness. As the fastest most effective instrument in the Vajrayāna ‘toolbox,’ practices rely upon devotion intensively. Here, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche drives home this point, “It is based on devotion and pure perception that Vajrayāna is such an extremely swift path.”461 Receiving blessings through heartfelt devotion is described as the key to the realization of Mahāmudrā and Dzokchen, and the heart of all Dharma.462 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche states that, once one gains this direct realization of the ultimate view, one’s devotion becomes irreversible (phyir mi ldog pa’i dad pa). Particularly in the Dzokchen context, the only direct and perfect remedy to ignorance is the absolute view which is endowed with this irreversible devotion. Other measures of devotion will not suffice. While important stepping stones, they are mere unstable, limited methods. This indicates that, for beginners as well as advanced practitioners, devotion is an essential ingredient for Chöd practice, and that the meaning of the term “devotion” in Chöd 460 Rinpoche stresses that devotion should not be mere blind faith, but the conviction that stems from understanding the reasons. CNR, teaching (Boudhanath: Sept 5, 2015). This point is also emphasized by Umze Karma Sherap, Joseph Faria trans. (KNSL, BoudhanathŚ October 12, 2016) Tina’s notes, 4. Rinpoche further explainsŚ “A beginner must train in increasing his/her devotion by studying dependent origination. One must understand this. This distinguishes Buddhists from followers of other religions.” CNR, interview (KNSL: December 5, 2016). 461 CNR, fall seminar (KNSL: November 8, 2016). Particularly, when we speak of devotion in terms of pith instructions, we should understand that devotion and pure perception are so closely linked that these two almost seem to melt into a single term, for one also feels devotion for the pure nature of all phenomena and all beings. 462 CNR, teachings on Chöd (KNSL: February 11, 2014). Lama Öser, interview (Boudhanath: May 5, 2014). 142 practice will change as one’s practice progresses. The previously mentioned devotion—the method for a beginning and middling Chöd practitioner—is to be transcended. This refers to any type of devotion which is an emotion arising within the dualistic framework of mind. In contrast, the KNSL tradition explains the irreversible or non-conceptual devotion as a quality which results from awareness. An advanced Chöd practitioner who has gained some realization will have an irreversible devotion, completely free of doubt, as he or she has gained a personal and authentic insight into the ultimate view. Here, awareness and devotion are not two states but an indivisible unity.463 5.2.2. Clarifying the relationship of key terms The oral instructions also clarify and explain the relationship between devotion and blessings (byin brlabs). Lama Tsültrim Sangpo clarifies this fourth topic within the four themes of Chöd – emptiness, compassion, discipline, and the downpour of blessings - as the receiving of blessings from one’s spiritual teachers and lineage masters, through the method of fervent devotion.464 The term “receiving blessing” indicates a positive transformation in the recipient, the Chöd practitioner. This mostly involves inner mental changes, such as being more calm, kind, clear, open-minded, compassionate, and so forth, however, the practitioner is really seeking the ultimate blessing of the realization of awareness, a direct personal recognition of the nature of mind. According to the lamas at KNSL, “blessings” refer to the results of ardent devotion. Depending upon the practitioner’s capacity, blessings become increasingly profound. In this regard, Tulku Jampal Dorjé states: For Chöd practice, fervent devotion is a pre-requisite. Only then can one receive the blessings [i.e. gain insight into the nature of mind]. Without devotion, there’s nothing See, for example, Sogyal Rinpoche explains this the following way, “So in the end devotion springs out of wisdom: devotion and the living experience of the nature of mind become inseparable, and inspire one another.” Schmidt, Dzogchen Essentials, 137. 463 464 LTS, Chöd S1 (Gomde CA, July 4, 2013). 143 to gain. However much devotion one generates, to that same extent powerful blessings will be transmitted.465 In this context, the teachers at KNSL often use the metaphor employed by the master Drikung Kyopa Rinpoche:466 The four bodies (kāya) of the guru467 are likened to a perfect, stainless and radiant snow mountain. If one wishes to receive the blessings of the guru’s four bodies, one’s devotion must resemble the sun. When the sunbeams of strong devotion shine down upon the snowy mountain, melting the ‘snow’ of the guru’s four bodies, the devotee will experience a cascade of ocean-like blessings. This metaphor describes the essential role of devotion, and notably, also personal responsibility in accessing realization.468 As mentioned, intense feelings of devotion are said to open one’s ordinary mind, and cause it to become less egocentric and afflicted. Without this open, free state of mind, one will surely be unable to recognize one’s own intrinsic nature. In this way, the tradition explicitly clarifies that the main responsibility of spiritual progress lies with the individual practitioner. However, the oral tradition contends that the case can be reversed, meaning the transmission of powerful blessings can actually kindle devotion in a recipient.469 465 Tulku Jampal Dorjé, Chöd. Concerning the desired intensity of devotion, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche has said, “Develop devotion toward all the lineage masters, but specifically toward your own root guru who pointed out the nature of mind so directly and powerfully that you nearly faint. Pray fervently and onepointedly—without even a second of distraction—to the root guru and all the buddhas and bodhisattvas that they bless you with authentic realization on this very seat right here and now!” CNR, on Chöd (Pharping: November 29, 2015). The importance of taking Chöd instructions very personally is also reflected in the following statementŚ “Allow every step of the practice to strike the depths of your heart, right in that very moment.” CNR, teachings on Chöd (KNSL: November 18, 2015). 466 See verse from the Great Gate, p. 76. 467 Dharmakāya, saṃbhogakāya, nirmāṇakāya, and svābhāvikakāya. 468 While personal responsibility is emphasized here, sometimes guru devotion is seen as a kind of abdication of personal responsibility (for example, when basic day to day life decisions are not made without consulting one’s lama or when pure perception it thought to block critical thinking with respect to the person of the guru). This is a tension also within the tradition. This topic is also discussed in detail in Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse, The Guru Drinks Bourbon?, edited by Amira Ben-Yehuda (Boulder: Shambhala, 2016). As analogous to aktipāta in Hindu devotional traditions. See, for example, Jeffrey J. Kripal, “Charisma and the Social Dimensions of ReligionŚ Transmitting the Power,” in Comparing Religions (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), 209-235. 469 144 Consequently, however much emphasis is placed on devotion as a method, this does not conflict with the idea that a realized person can have a powerful and positive impact on the practitioner’s mind regardless of devotion. As already mention several times, this tradition claims that receiving transmission and oral instructions from a realized master, endowed with the strength of the lineage, is indispensable for authentic Chöd practice. “Realized” indicates a powerful stability in sustaining awareness throughout day and night. One of the main qualities of the master’s realization, crucial for the practitioner, is an immense, selfless compassion. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche has said that merely being in the same room with such a realized person, can immediately make one’s frame of mind more soft and calm.470 Words spoken and gestures shown by such a person or merely their presence may directly touch one’s heart and cause a transformation not limited to physically observable or rationally explicable factors. The most powerful of these effects is, of course, the mind-to-mind transmission of the direct experience of awareness. Furthermore, Chöd melodies composed by such a master are said to possess transformative power. Therefore, KNSL’s tradition places great attention on students learning the tunes of the Chöd sections correctly, as they are said to carry the blessings of the lineage.471 As one experiences the combined positive impact of the blessings of the enlightened ones, the text, the enchanting melodies, and so forth, one often cannot help but give rise to devotion as a result. 470 CNR, November 2016. LTS, Chöd S1 (Gomde CA, July 4, 2013), 1. Traditionally, one’s ritual Chöd instruments, such as vajra, bell, ḍāmaru, and bone trumpet, should be blessed by one’s master before one starts to use them. This also indicates that tradition believes in the master’s ability to imbue material objects with blessings. 471 145 5.2.3. Fine-tuning topics Quintessential topics, such as one’s relationship with one’s master, are also fine-tuned by the oral explanations. The perception one has of one’s guru, and the relationship that evolves out of that, is very important for the practice of Chöd. Lama Tsültrim explains that through remembering the guru’s kindness one develops devotion (mos gus) to one’s teacher, and through remembering the guru’s qualities one gives rise to faith (dad pa).472 This demonstrates yet another link between compassion and devotion—being touched by the master’s great compassion, one develops devotion to the master. The genuine quality of the master, as Lama Tsültrim says, is “the ability to pass on his or her blessings to us, so that we can recognize the ultimate nature of our mind.”473 As common to Vajrayāna, the masters at KNSL describe the guru as even more important than the Buddha, because he or she is the one who causes us to experience a glimpse of enlightenment; even the Buddha, himself, could not provide anything more profound than that. The guru is considered the embodiment of all enlightened beings, even of enlightenment, itself,474 and is therefore described as the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha; the master, the deity, and the ḍākinī; or the dharmakāya, saṃbhogakāya, and nirmāṇakāya.475 This last threefold group describes the empty, luminous, and compassionate 472 Ibid., 25. Here, the translator chose “devotion” for mos gus, and “faith” for dad pa. However, sometimes dad pa is also translated as “devotion.” Here, Lama Tsültrim differentiated between these two terms. However, he did not present any distinguishing definitions. As he spent most of his time in retreat when recently in Nepal, I had no opportunity to follow up on this issue. 473 Ibid., 23. The lamas at KNSL also explain that everything one perceives is the result of one’s own karma. Whatever one experiences is nothing but one’s own mind. Negative events and the appearance of demons are nothing but the manifestation of one’s own negative emotions and confusion. In this context, one could also describe the master as the manifestation of one’s own intrinsic awareness and one’s own good karma, resulting from one’s qualities of intrinsic awareness, namely compassion and insight. 474 Rinpoche further elucidates, “The lama serves as the magnifying glass for the Budddha’s blessings. That’s why there is a great emphasis on the guru, and that’s why it is also sometimes referred to as “Lamaism.” In the tantric context, the guru is of the greatest importance. ‘The guru is the Buddha, the guru is the Dharma, the guru is the Saṅgha,’ some Newaris say. But if you hold onto the idea of the outer ‘guru’ too tightly, you might miss out on the true ‘taste’ of the Dharma.” CNR, Chöd (Pharping, November 28, 2015). Rinpoche also 475 146 qualities of the ultimate nature of mind, respectively. As this is also said to be the nature of our own mind, the real guru is ultimately no different from oneself. This harkens back to the earlier statement that this tradition underscores it is the practitioner’s own responsibility to gain enlightenment. As Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche often says, “You must be your own protector!” However, due to dependent origination, the fastest way to realize the innate guru is to rely upon the blessings of the lineage masters; for this, one must receive empowerments, text transmissions, guidance, and pith instructions from a realized master.476 Rinpoche explains that if one finds a guru with whom one “clicks,” then the guru serves as the short-cut to realization.477 While direct transmission from the master is critical for initiation into the practice, the physical presence of the master is not required during Chöd practice. Blessings can be conveyed in many different ways, for example they can be triggered by the practitioner’s own devotion as it is stirred up through fervent prayer and visualizing one’s master as truly present above or in front of oneself. Furthermore, recollecting one’s master as often as possible throughout the day, whether in a formal practice session or simply strolling through a busy marketplace, one should automatically bring to mind his oral pith instructions and apply them, moment-by-moment, in every situation. In this way, this tradition presents an clarifies in the following statement that ultimately it is oneself who carries the responsibility rather than the masterŚ “Don’t hold onto the outer guru too tightly, but remember that the guru is the doctor, the Dharma is the medicine, the saṅgha members are the nurses. It is not the doctor who cures you, but you consuming the medicine!” CNR, fall seminar (KNSLŚ November 12, 2016). 476 CNR, fall seminar (“KNSLŚ November 10, 2016). Umze Karma Sherap also explains that one must receive oral pith instructions in order for Chöd to become an authentic Chöd practice. Umze Karma Sherap, Chöd (KNSL: October 12, 2016). 477 CNR, fall seminar (KNSL: November 11, 2016). This resonates with discoveries in the field of psychology, suggesting that trust towards the therapist constitutes 65% of the prerequisites needed for a successful outcome for the patient. In this light it makes sense that devotion to a master is needful for the student to take his oral instructions to heart and successfully put them in to practice. Madelein Huisman (licensed mental health psychologist), interview (Boudhanath: June 22, 2017). 147 interesting apparent “tension” between personal responsibility and reliance on an outer, more highly developed being. In the guru yoga sections of the Chöd sādhanas, one trains in perceiving the master as a buddha. Lama Tenzin explains that the moment one truly perceives one’s master as the buddha, all ordinary thoughts and states of consciousness disappear and manifest as awareness. One does not have to force a mingling478 of one’s mind with the realization of the master; in the moment of feeling overwhelming devotion, without any effort, the mingling just happens automatically.479 The indication is that one trains in devotion towards the master’s perfection and purity to such an extent that one’s fervor becomes overwhelming.480 Devotion and pure perception seem to mingle at this point. Due to the immense potency ascribed to guru yoga, one begins Chöd practices with supplications to one’s own root guru, the embodiment of all enlightened beings, and then one practices further supplications, throughout the sādhana, in the style of guru yoga as explained above.481 5.2.4. Application beyond the sādhana Although it is not directly discussed in the texts, the oral instructions give advice on the application of devotion beyond the scope of the formal sādhana practice. For example, Lama Tsültrim Sangpo explains that one should not only practice guru yoga during the Chöd sādhana, but also carry it out into one’s daily lifeŚ As a matter of fact, this tradition emphasizes that one should always visualize one’s master. When one is supplicating, it is suggested to visualize the guru above one’s head. At the time of making offerings, visualize the guru in front of you. When lying According to the lamas at KNSL, “mingling” one’s mind with the realization of the master does not mean the mixing of two separate components. Rather, it is a recognition that the guru’s realization has never been separate from oneself from the very beginning. Also, see: Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse, Not For Happiness: A Guide to the So-Called Preliminary Practices (Boston & London: Shambhala, 2012), 179, 180. 478 479 Lama Tenzin Sangpo, fall retreat (Pharping, November 17, 2016). 480 However, as mentioned above, devotion can also arise as a fortuitous by-product of insight. In this case, rather than effortfully fabricated or intensified, devotion arises spontaneously. 481 Lama Tenzin Sangpo, Chöd (KNSL: November 26, 2015). 148 down to sleep, visualize him or her at your heart-center. When eating, visualize the guru at your throat. When making circumambulations, visualize the master above your right shoulder, and so on. In short, during all manner of spiritual and mundane activities, one should always think of the guru.482 As mentioned in the previous section, remembering the guru is to be linked with remembering awareness. 5.2.5. Presentation of intensifying strategies Furthermore, the oral instructions present strategies to intensify one’s devotion. For example, training in pure perception towards the master is explained as a method for heightening one’s devotion, and in this way quickly recognizing and sustaining awareness. One trains in considering everything the master does as excellent, as enlightened activities.483 It may prove difficult for a novice practitioner to perceive the master as completely perfect. One is therefore invited to visualize a Buddhist deity towards whom one feels especially devoted–such as Avalokite vara, Tārā, or Buddha ākyamuni– and acknowledge that the essence of the deity is actually one’s own guru. The guru’s realization of intrinsic awareness is said to be no different from the realization of all other enlightened beings. In this way, visualizing one’s guru at the start of Chöd practice can be carried out in various ways; for example, one could either devoutly focus on the master, in his usual everyday manifestation, or else on the more idealized representation of an enlightened being, acknowledging that, in the end, it is towards realization, itself, that one develops devotion.484 Here KNSL’s lamas refer to The Words of My Perfect Teacher for more information. Paltrul Rinpoche, The Words of My Perfect Teacher. 482 483 For an outsider, this might sound cultish. It is also acknowledged within the tradition that there is the danger of blindly following a master and being misused. This is one of the reasons why this tradition always strongly stresses that one must be extremely careful in choosing a teacher. One should seek out a teacher with great compassion, great realization and sanctioned by a traditional lineage of other realized masters. If a teacher has great compassion, he or she will not misuse the student for his or her own purposes. When the teacher has great realization, the student will be led onto the correct path, rather than being misguided. 484 LTS, Chöd S5 (2013), 27. 149 Another example of an intensifying strategy is demonstrated in the instruction for the supplication to one’s root master at the beginning of the Chöd practice. The supplication verse says: Think of me, precious master, essence of all buddhas of the three times. Grant your blessings so that my mind is ripened and liberated. Grant your blessings so the distinctive realization of the profound path is born in my mind. Grant your blessings that I complete the sublime path of the luminous Great Perfection in this very life.485 The lamas at KNSL instruct the practitioners to chant this with fervent devotion (and if one wishes, with moving melodies), while considering that one’s master is actually present, in this very moment, in front of oneself. He looks at one with the undivided love a parent might have for a single child. The text instructs the Chöd practitioner to regard one’s master as being no different from the buddhas of the three times. As an additional strategy, one recalls the qualities of a Buddha – the qualities of his or her enlightened Body, Speech, Mind, Activities, and Qualities – and reminds oneself that one’s master embodies each and every one of these. Thus generating devotion, one should earnestly take to heart the words of the supplication until tears come to one’s eyes and the hairs of one’s body stand on end. At this moment, when one’s devotion has become overwhelming, the lamas explain that it will be easy to let go into awareness.486 5.2.6. Linking with core practices The oral teachings constantly link devotion to the mind nature and to tantric methods. Consequently, Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche quoted Milarepa when he added that as long as guru yoga remains a practice linked to an external guru embedded within external appearances, one has not transcended the confines of the realm of illusion. Sooner or later, this dualistic 485 Karmai Khenpo, “The Concise Daily Liturgy,” 1. 486 Also see, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, As It Is V1, 150. 150 setup must also be abandoned. To successfully cut through the two types of clinging to a self, meaning to remain effortlessly within awareness, itself, is the ultimate guru yoga.487 Specifically in the higher tantras, one works with the direct realization of the nature of mind, and takes this as the path. However, to be able to do so, one must first rely upon the outer symbolic lama in order to arrive at the realization of the ultimate lama, awareness itself. Once this is recognized, cultivating stability in awareness becomes the main practice. Until then, guru yoga is the superb method, the unique strategy Vajrayāna. Chöd is therefore said to be Prajñāpāramitā, in essence, yet in accordance with secret mantra.488 Thus Chöd utilizes the method of continually supplicating the guru.489 One of the key elements of Vajrayāna is to train in pure perception. This training is also a form of devout trust. As we have seen in the previous section, one is instructed to regard the master as a fully enlightened Buddha. Pure perception is not to be confined to the master alone, but should be extended to encompass everyone and everything, both animate and inanimate, that appears within the far reaches of one’s personal maṇḍala. From the perspective of Chöd as a tantric practice, Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche highlights devotion to the pure nature of all phenomena as a key practice: One trains in pure perception towards the teachings, the Dharma, the one who imparts the teachings, the guru, and those who practice these teachings, the saṅgha. Moreover, one also cultivates pure perception towards all sentient beings, towards oneself, and even towards material objects. Since buddha nature pervades everything, everything is essentially an infinite buddhafield.490 487 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche, interview (March 15, 2016). 488 Synonym for Vajrayāna. 489 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche, interview (April 21, 2016). CNR, seminar for Antioch University (BodhgayaŚ October 24, 2016). “Your own basic nature, exactly the same as the guru’s and the buddha’s, is just waiting to be realized. All the qualities are already there just ready to blossom.” CNR, seminar for Antioch University (BodhgayaŚ October 25, 2016). 490 151 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche elucidates that already right now everything is completely pure, including that oneself is a primordially enlightened buddha.491 However, he explains, even though our basic nature is identical to the wisdom of enlightened beings, it is difficult for practitioners to believe this because of being caught up in dualism. One cannot believe that one’s innate potential and the fruition are one and the same. Therefore, one trains in allowing oneself to come to this realization, step-by-step, by visualizing oneself as the deity. In the case of the Tersar Lüjin, for example, said deity is Tröma Nakmo. Traditionally, one approaches this by training in the vivid appearance, stable pride or confidence, and by recollecting the purity. The masters at KNLS also teach that one should train in the purity of all phenomena and beings, by acknowledging all appearances to be the perfect pure realm of the deity. All beings are to be regarded as deities, all sounds as mantras, and any conceptuality as not alien to awareness, itself. Another way that Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains this is to regard appearances as visible emptiness, sounds as audible emptiness, and concepts as aware emptiness. The sustaining of this threefold outlook (khyer so gsum) makes one a true yogi, rather than any exotic outfit one might don, pujas one might engage in, etc., Rinpoche explains.492 This training ultimately comes down to awareness, and one’s devotion to awareness. 5.2.7. Presenting additional benefits In the oral instructions, the topic of devotion is repeatedly praised, citing a great diversity of its benefits. While this topic strongly pertains to Chöd practice, it is not explained in the texts discussed above. 491 Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche, interview (March 15, 2016). 492 CNR, Saturday Talk, Erik Pema Kunsang, trans. (KNSL: December 24, 2005), notes by Tina, 7. 152 Lama Tsültrim explains that another reason for engaging in devotional guru yoga practice right at the outset of Chöd is to clear away obstacles.493 Specifically, he explains why a more advanced Chöd practitioner should practice guru yogaŚ “The more profound the Dharma, the more profound the demons.”494 As discussed in the previous chapter, for the advanced practitioner obstacles in the form of outer, inner, and secret obstacles or “eruptions” will manifest.495 Lama Tsültrim further explains that the ḍākinī Yéshe Tsogyal was also aware of this, and asked Guru Rinpoche the best method for clearing such obstacles. In reply, he told her thisŚ “In order to clear away these obstacles, the most supreme method, which was taught by the buddhas of the past, is taught by the buddhas of the present, and will be taught by the buddhas of the future, is to supplicate the guru. […] There is no superior method to clear away obstacles, apart from supplicating the guru.”496 In this way, as one’s Chöd practice may actually cause negative experiences to ripen, if one is unable to cut through these and overcome them directly through awareness, the tradition recommends guru yoga practice as the most effective method for dealing with such obstacles. It may also be the case that a practitioner perceives obstacles as less daunting when strong faith is present. The main advantage of devotion is arriving directly in awareness, as its fervent application causes one to drop all types of clinging. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains: There are several methods which help you to drop your present grasping: shouting ‘Phaṭ!’ generating fervent devotion, and experiencing overwhelming compassion. Also, fear can bring about this experience of your ‘I’ being lost.497 493 LTS, Chöd S5 (Gomde CA, 2013), 24, 25. 494 LTS, Chöd S5 (Gomde CA, 2013), 24. 495 See also descriptions of “uprisings” in Harding, Machik’s Complete Explanation, 217-221, 231-251. 496 LTS, Chöd S5 (Gomde CA, 2013), 25. 497 CNR, Chöd (KNSL: November 18, 2015). 153 Overwhelming devotion is said to halt one’s self-grasping. As further benefits of devotion, Rinpoche mentions fearlessness, a swift journey to enlightenment,498 and, “Our minds become softer, kinder, and we got some taste of realization. […] We all feel very, very blessed.”499 Thus, fervent devotion leads to swift progress and a positive transformation of Chöd practitioners. 5.2.8. Clarifying role and effectiveness The oral instructions also clarify how devotion fits within the general frameworks, how it relates to other methods, and why it is effective. As explained in the chapter (3) on the fourfold framework, devotion and compassion are often presented side-by-side. Both are powerful emotions of love able to break the bondage of constant self-referencing that ordinarily blocks innate awareness. These two aspects are linked through awareness: a beginner feels devotion towards awareness and therefore pursues its realization. As one gains more understanding and experience in this, natural compassion for others arises, aiming to establish all beings in awareness. However, as one authentically realizes awareness—the third step in the triad of understanding, experience, and realization,—devotion and compassion are beyond reference point. While sustaining awareness, genuine devotion and compassion are beyond any reference to “other” beings. However, from the perception of unrealized beings, compassionate activities are still said to manifest. Relatively speaking, devotion and compassion with reference point are virtuous states of mind which make awareness increasingly evident.500 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche goes even 498 CNR, Chöd (KNSLŚ November 20, 2015). The term “fearless” here could be interpreted as a quality of awareness and enlightenment. However, as discussed above, one might also wonder whether strong devotion, itself, causes one to become more courageous, and therefore less beset by fear. 499 Rinpoche explained this following the TRT practice and empowerment. Chöd video: Chöd_Empowerment_02_2014_ (February 22, 2014). 500 CNR, Chöd (November 20, 2015). 154 so far as to say that with intense devotion and compassion, there is no need for any other enhancement practices such as seeking out frightening places: It is important to combine bodhicitta—the main Mahayāna method—with devotion and pure perception—the main Vajrayāna methods–as these are the best enhancement to your practice. Then there is no need to go to any scary place! Compassion and devotion will prevent you from going astray and enhance and deepen your practice.501 This is quite an unusual statement, considering that practicing in terrifying locations is often a key element for the advanced Chöd practitioner. Thus, in the oral pith instructions, devotion and compassion are seen as indispensable and extremely efficient. Umze Karma Sherap explains that without these two, Chöd actually becomes a perverted practice: Through faith and compassion, one can offer one’s body, and this will reduce one’s ego-clinging. However, it is important to request oral pith instructions from the lama for Chöd. Only through faith and compassion will it become the authentic Chöd practice! Only through faith and compassion can we eliminate self-grasping! Faith and compassion help us, preventing our Chöd practice from becoming a perverted practice. If you practice Chöd without faith and compassion, it is perverted Chöd practice.502 5.2.9. Additional applications Besides the explicit guru yoga sections in the Chöd sādhanas, the oral tradition presents additional sections related to devotion. One practices going for refuge in the style of the guru yoga, i.e. although not indicated in the text, one receives the empowerments and rests in awareness. Similarly, although not explicit in the Tersar Lüjin, the oral instructions explain how to receive the four empowerments at the dissolution stage at the conclusion of the practice.503 501 Ibid. 502 Umze Karma Sherap, Chöd (October 12, 2016). 503 Lama Tsültrim explains: Imagine that light radiates from all enlightened beings–from their foreheads, their throats, their heart-centers, and their navels. White light emanates from the crown, red light from the throat, blue light from the heart, and multicolored light from the navel. These light rays dissolve into our own four places. In this way, we receive the four empowerments from them: the vase empowerment, the secret empowerment, the wisdom-knowledge empowerment, and the precious word empowerment. Our four obscurations are thereby perfectly purified. Then, all deities dissolve into light and into oneself. Imagine your body, speech, and mind to be 155 Although devotion plays a role in the body offering and is implicit in the texts, it is more than explicit in the oral instructions. Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche explains that we speak, here, of mchod sbyin (mchod meaning “offering” and spyin “giving.”) One offers “upwards” to the two classes of honored guests, meaning the enlightened beings and protectors, and one gives “downwards” to all sentient beings, particularly those karmic debtors who might now manifest as problem-makers, and to all evil spirits. The offering (mcho) is made out of devotion to the qualities of enlightened Body, Speech, and Mind of awakened beings.504 The giving (sbyin) is performed out of compassion. Both are skillful means to be embraced with awareness, directly cutting through the grasping onto a self and others.505 5.2.10. Determining the focus Rinpoche has also expressed the sentiment that some scholars and practitioners tend to over-emphasize the importance of ritual and visualization in Chöd practice, whereas in his opinion compassion and devotion are utterly indispensable and paramount. Once again attention is drawn to the special characteristic of this lineage, which advocates heartfelt devotion and compassion as the two most effective methods for realizing awareness. One might conclude that this is because in this tradition Chöd is also taught to beginners who may require detailed explanations on devotion. However, even in closed retreats where Rinpoche only teaches advanced practitioners, devotion is a major topic and therefore remains one of the key elements at all levels of practice. indivisible from their awakened Body, Speech, and Mind. Then, sustain realization for a moment. LTS, Chöd, (Gomde CA: 2013), 51. 504 Also see Umze Karma Sherap, Chöd (November 20, 2015). .505 CNR, interview (July 29, 2015). 156 6. Conclusion Chöd is a practice that takes on a new guise depending on time, place, or lineage. The main purpose of Chöd, common to all lineages, is to cut through the thick veils of delusion and reveal the absolute truth stripped bare. Awakening from our deep sleep of ignorance is indeed the goal of all Buddhist practice. The beauty of Chöd is that it offers practitioners a multitude of styles and methods to accomplish this goal. This thesis demonstrates that the Chöd tradition at Ka-Nying Shedrub Ling Monastery (KNSL) in Boudhanath, Nepal, greatly emphasizes awareness. Regarded as the main aim of Chöd, the masters encourage the practitioner to uphold awareness or its approximation throughout the entire sādhanā practice and all daily activities. Secondly, this thesis also shows that devotion is a crucial element of this Chöd tradition. It is regarded as the main method to realize awareness and therefore utilized throughout the sādhanā and beyond. In contrast, previous academic studies of Chöd do not provide detail on the role of devotion, and they do not focus on awareness to the extent done at KNSL. Furthermore, the thesis demonstrates that this tradition champions the role of oral pith instructions. The all-important oral pith instructions, together with empowerments, transmissions, and continuous, personal guidance from a realized master, are regarded as indispensable ingredients for authentic Chöd practice. This thesis shows that although the texts present a great deal of information, it is the oral instructions which are the key to how this tradition understands and practices Chöd, bringing awareness and devotion to the forefront. The oral instructions explain how Chöd practice is to be understood within the general framework of other Dharma teachings, particularly the fourfold framework of renunciation, compassion, devotion, and awareness. The first three are explained as tightly interwoven and 157 directly relating to awareness. Not only that, but when considering awareness and devotion, renunciation and compassion are implicit. The lamas at KNSL often give longer seminars following a sixfold Chöd-specific framework which elaborates on the origins and meaning of Chöd, the object which is cut through, the subject which cuts, and the manner of cutting itself, and the benefits and results of Chöd. However, the above-mentioned fourfold framework underlies these explanations and thus calls attention to awareness and devotion. The function of the oral instructions in the Chöd tradition of KNSL—beside clarifying the state of awareness itself, including its non-conceptual transmission or pointing out—is to present to the practitioner an intricate pedagogy through which to reach the goal of realization. More so than the sādhanā texts themselves, they provide a great variety of strategies and stepping stones, depending on the practitioner’s capacity, inclination, and level. They explain benchmarks—such as outer, inner, and secret signs—which indicate the reaching of mini-goals which signpost that one has reached a certain stage on the path. Thus, from the pedagogical point of view, this tradition’s oral instructions are the instrument for immense differentiation and provision of instructions for gradual and instantaneous paths. Not only that, the personal attention from a well-trained and experienced master ensures that the student’s personal level is assessed and appropriate strategies are provided with which to take the individual practitioner onto the next level of progress. In addition, the continuous checking with the master that is encouraged creates a safety-net for the early discovery of side-tracks, misunderstandings, wrong application, hurdles, etc. Thus, through personalized instructions adjustments can be made to ensure the accomplishment of the intended goal and to avoid going astray. A few aspects of KNSL’s oral instructions are particularly striking. As mentioned above, one is the aspect of differentiation. While many texts present Chöd as a practice 158 geared towards advanced practitioners, at KNSL Chöd is presented as a practice suitable for all levels of practitioners. Therefore, the lamas explain many different gradual stages as to how Chöd can be practiced. While the oral instructions present a wealth of information for the beginner, the amount of detail offered for the advanced practitioners is particularly noteworthy. As one progresses, the practice evolves with awareness coming more and more into focus. Advanced practitioners will utilize yogic conduct to increasingly expose themselves to terrifying situations and to challenging mental states as a method to hasten their spiritual progress. If, with awareness, one can thoroughly cut through any clinging during these experiences, one’s progress will be rapid. Furthermore, as one’s approach to enlightenment is accelerated through intensive and increasingly more profound practice, all kinds of positive—and also negative—experiences manifest at outer, inner, and secret levels. Here the oral instructions are crucial as they explain these phenomena to the practitioner, so the practitioner can be ready to apply the appropriate strategies as such experiences unfold. Moreover, the masters at KNSL teach the ultimate view, awareness, from the outset, in a unified approach that combines Dzokchen, Essence Mahāmudrā, and Madhyamaka. All aspects of Chöd practice–during formal practice sessions and in one’s daily life—are regarded through the lens of awareness. This top-down approach of interpreting sūtra through tantra also allows for the specific integration of sūtric teachings into the tantric context, and therefore unites sūtra and tantra in a unique way. While the texts note the Opening the Door to the Sky as the main method to realize and abide in awareness, at KNSL, awareness is mainly introduced by the Rinpoches, with words, direct transmission, and the utilization of “phaṭ.” This is because Chöd is regarded as part of the entire body of Buddhist teachings taught in KNSL, and not a separate path. Therefore, often the teachings on Chöd appear to seamlessly melt into the path of Dzokchen and Essence Mahāmudrā in particular. This particularly applies to the instruction on the four 159 māras and the provocation and utilization of fear and unpleasant situation as enhancers of practice. Furthermore, the textual sources of this Chöd tradition demonstrate that devotion and awareness are to be practiced throughout the entirety of the sādhanas. They are not merely to be practiced in one or two specific places in the sādhana or during a formal meditation session. KNSL’s masters underscore this even more so in their oral pith instructions, and with greater detail and profundity. In addition, Chöd is regarded as much more than a sādhana practice. Particularly the aspects of awareness and devotion are ideally practiced day and night. Texts such as the Tsoklé Rinchen Trengwa (KSNL’s full-day Chöd practice) particularly demonstrate the crucial role of devotion. A significant part of this sādhana consists of devotional sections, interspersed only with a few lines of visualized body offerings. Personal devotion to the master is trained in, for example, during the extensive guru yoga sections. During the oral pith instructions, the role of devotion is highlighted as a key method for realizing and sustaining the ultimate view. As with awareness, the meaning of devotion evolves as the practitioner progresses along the path. While devotion is explained as mere interest for a beginner, as one’s understanding and experience grow, it changes from an informed devotion towards the teachings and the personal guru into a devotion that is an expression of the ultimate guru, awareness itself. Once the practitioner realizes awareness, devotion is not only the cause for this insight, but also a result. Devotion becomes irreversible as it manifests as a quality of realization. This apparent tension of conceptual and nonconceptual devotion is also addressed in the oral instructions. An integral part of this practice is devotion towards the inherent purity of all beings and all phenomena. Although this tradition describes the many benefits of devotion, it also 160 seeks to remind the practitioner that, ultimately, any conceptual devotion is still a means to be discarded in the end. Presenting devotion as a paramount method, the oral instructions bring this means into greater focus and therefore change the understanding of its application and scope one might gain from merely consulting written texts. The texts and oral instructions add both emotional as well intellectual components to devotion. On one hand, they provide many strategies to increase devotion. The resulting emotional devotional intensity, full of passion and fervor, can jolt one into the nonconceptual state of awareness. On the other hand, the oral instructions also establish devotion on an intellectual level, explaining the reasons and benefits to the practitioner. This is an important function, as Vajrayāna in general is said to greatly rely on devotion. The tension here, however, is that it might be a difficult emotion especially for critical, educated and more intellectually oriented people. By rationalizing devotion, the oral instructions perhaps allow the more intellectual practitioner to acquire devotion, or let oneself go and surrender to it. Thus, the oral Chöd instructions bring together the components of intellectualism, passionate emotions, and non-conceptual wakefulness. In this way, looking at Chöd practice through the lens of the oral pith instructions of Dzokchen and Essence Mahāmudrā at KNSL adds a great deal to this tradition’s Chöd texts. By shifting the emphasis of practice towards the view, awareness, with devotion as a crucial method, and renunciation and compassion as further indispensable means, the KNSL oral instructions provide a unique lens for understanding the practice of Chöd. 161 Bibliography* Allione, Tsultrim. Women of Wisdom. Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2000. —. 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Rangjung Dorjé (rang ’byung rdo rje). “Rje rang ’byung rdo rjes mdzad pa’i gcod kyi tshogs las rin po che’i phreng ba ’don bsgrigs bltas chog tu bkod pa gcod kyi lugs sor bzhag.” In Gcod tshogs rin chen phreng ba. 9-170. Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drime. No publishing date given.507 —. “Gcod bka‘ tshoms chen mo‘i sa bcad.” Wylie: In Gdams ngag mdzod, vol. 9. Ed. Jam mgon kong sprul. Delhi: N. Lungtok and N. Gyaltsen, 1971, 501-505. Wylie in: Michelle Sorensen, “Making the Old New Again,” appendix 7, 490-498. Tibetan: In Gdams ngag mdzod, vol.14. Ed. Jam mgon kong sprul. Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999, 53-57. http://tbrc.org/#library_work_ViewByOutlineo20877C2O0314|W23605 —. “Gcod kyi TIKA (Bka’ tshom chen mo’i ‘grel pa.)” Wylie: In Gdams ngag mdzod, vol. 9. Ed. Jam mgon kong sprul. Delhi: N. Lungtok and N. Gyaltsen, 1971, 505-526. Wylie in: Michelle Sorensen, “Making the Old New Again,” appendix 7, 500-556. Tibetan: In Gdams ngag mdzod, vol.14. Ed. Jam mgon kong sprul. Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999, 57-79. http://tbrc.org/#library_work_ViewByOutlineo20877C2O0314|W23605 —. “Jewel Garland of Chöd Liturgy.” Translated by Tashi T. Jamyangling. Edited by Karma Chakmé. Toronto: Drigung Kagyu Office, 2009. http://drigung.com/translations.html. —. “Rje rang ’byung rdo rjes mdzad pa’i gcod kyi tshogs las rin po che’i phreng ba ’don bsgrigs bltas chog tu bkod pa gcod kyi lugs sor bzhag.” In Gcod tshogs rin chen phreng ba. 11-181. Delhi, India: Chos Spyod Publication, 2010. —. “The Precious Garland of Activities Of The Chöd Feast Gathering.” Translated by David Molk. 1998. Emailed to me by David Molk on March 1, 2014. Restricted. Ryle, Gilbert. “The Thinking of ThoughtsŚ What is ‘Le Pensour’ Doing?” (1968). In Collected Essays 2. 1929-1968. New York: Routledge, 2009. Ś āntideva. The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra. Translated by Padmakara. Boston: Shambhala South Asia Editions, 1999. Ś āntideva and mkhan po kun dpal. Byang chub sems dpa’i spyod pa la ’jug pa rtsa ba dang ’grel ba. Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang. 1990. Savvas, Carol Diane. “A Study of the Profound Path of GcodŚ The Mahāyāna Buddhist Meditation Tradition of Tibet’s Great Woman Saint Machig Labdron.” PhD diss. University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990. 507 Purchased at Shechen Monastery Book Shop, Boudhanath, January 2014. 167 Schauls, Joshua. “The Outer, Inner, and Secret Aspects of Chöd.” BA Honor Thesis. Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe Institute, Spring 2011. Schmithausen, Lambert. “Aspects of Spiritual Practice in Early Yogācāra.” Journal of the International College for Postgraduate Buddhist Studies (JICPBS) 11 (2007): 213244. Sharf, Robert H. "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience." Numen 42, no. 3 (1995): 228-283. Sheehy, Michael R. “Severing the Source of FearŚ Contemplative Dynamics of the Tibetan Buddhist gCod Tradition.” In Contemporary Buddhism: An Interdisciplinary Journal 6/1 (2005): 37-52. Shrestha, Ishwor C.V.S. “The Politics of DevotionŚ Grags pa rGyal mTshan’s Theory of Guru Worship,” MA thesis. KathmanduŚ Rangjung Yeshe Institute, 2013. Sorensen, Michelle Janet. “An Offering of Chöd.” Review of Machik’s Complete Explanation, by Sarah Harding. H-Buddhism, H-Net Reviews, September 2006. http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=12208. —. “Making the Old New Again and Again: Legitimation and Innovation in the Tibetan Buddhist Chöd Tradition.” PhD diss. Columbia University, 2013. Stott, David. “Offering the BodyŚ The Practice of Gcod in Tibetan Buddhism,” Religion 19 (1989): 221-226. Tenzin Namdak (bstan ’dzin rnam dag). Gcod kyi tshogs las yon tan kun ldan gyi dmigs rim bla ma’i gsung rgyun gyi zin bris shel dkar me long zhes bya ba. No publisher, no date. dictated to Shayka-monk Yeshe Wangden, in gdams ngag mdzod V14, 205-254. https://www.tbrc.org/#library_work_ViewByOutlineO01CT0013d1e2846%7CW20877. —. “Der Kristallspiegel: Eine Aufzeichnung der Worte, wie sie vom Meister übertragen wurden zum Ablauf der Visualisationen im ChödTsokle TextŚ ‘Versehen mit allen Qualitäten.’” Explanations by Lama Sönam Lhündrup (Tilmann Borghardt). February 2010, Croizet. Thekchok Dorje, the Fourteenth Karmapa (theg mchog rdo rje), and Jamgön Kontrül Lodö Thayé, Chöd Practice Manual and Commentary, trans. by V.V. Lama Lodö Rinpoche. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 2007. Tsele Natsok Rangdrol (rtse le sna tshogs rang grol) Lamp of Mahamudra. Boston: Shambhala, 1989. —. Empowerment and the Path of Liberation. Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 1993. Tucci, Giuseppe. The Religions of Tibet (rev. ed.). Translated by Geoffrey Samuel. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980. 168 Tulku Jampal Dorje (sprul sku ’jam dpal rdo rje). “Teaching on the Long Chokling Tersar Chod Practice.” Nagi Gompa, October 2006(?). Restricted transcript. Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche (sprul sku o rgyan rin po che). Vajra Heart. Kathmandu: Rangjung Yeshe, 1988. (restricted) —. Rainbow Painting. Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 1995. —. As It Is 1. Boudhanath, Hong Kong, and Esby: Rangjung Yeshe, 1999. —. Vajra Speech: Pith Instructions for the Dzogchen Yogi. Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 2001. —. Dzogchen Essentials. Edited by Marcia Binder Schmidt. Boudhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 2004. —. Blazing Splendor: The Memoir of the Dzogchen Yogi Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche. Boudhanath, Hong Kong, and Esby: Rangjung Yeshe, 2005. Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche and Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche, compilers, “The Rangjung Yeshe Chantbook.” BoudhanathŚ Rangjung Yeshe, no publishing date given. Van Tuyl, Charles. “Mi-la-ras-pa and the gCod Ritual.” The Tibet Journal 4/1 (1979): 34-40. Williams, Duncan Ryûken. “At Ease in BetweenŚ The Middle Position of a ScholarPractitioner.” Journal of Global Buddhism 9 (2008): 155-163. Oral Sources: Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche (KNSL) —. Annual fall seminars, 1990-2013, Boudhanath. www.dharmasun.org. —. “Saturday TalkŚ Important Key Points.” BoudhanathŚ April 17, 2004. —. Saturday Talk, translator Thomas Doctor. Boudhanath: October 8, 2005. —. Saturday Talk, translator Erik Pema Kunsang. Boudhanath: December 24, 2005. —. Saturday Talk, translator Thomas Doctor. Boudhanath: June 11, 2005. —. “Unfolding Compassion and InsightŚ The Six Paramitas,” summer seminar 1, transcript by Tina Lang. Gomde Denmark: 2006. —. Saturday Talk, translator Erik Pema Kunsang, notes by Tina Lang. Boudhanath: March 10, 2007. —. Saturday Talk, translator Thomas Doctor, notes by Tina Lang. Boudhanath: August 18, 2007. —. “Commentary on the Root Verses on Training the Mind From the Great Lord Atisha,” translator Thomas Doctor, transcript by Tina Lang. Boudhanath, March 2, 2008. —. Saturday Talk, translator Andreas Doctor, transcript by S. Lhamo. Boudhanath: April 5, 2008. —. Saturday Talk “The Five Perfections,” translator Thomas Doctor. BoudhanathŚ January 17, 2009. —. Saturday Talk. Boudhanath: March 10, 2009. 169 —. “Saturday TalkŚ Joyful Diligence,” translator Andreas Doctor, notes by Tina Lang. Boudhanath, March 14, 2009. —. “Saturday TalkŚ The Twofold Bodhicitta,” translator Andreas Doctor, notes by Tina Lang. Boudhanath, August 15, 2009. —. Saturday Talk, transcript by Tina Lang. Boudhanath: February 16, 2013. —. Chöd, teaching during empowerment. Boudhanath: February 11, 2014. —. Chöd video: Chöd _Empowerment_02_2014_ (February 22, 2014). —. Chöd. Boudhanath: June 7, 2014. —. Chöd Retreat. Pharping: September 28, 2014. —. Interview. Budhanilkanta, Nepal: July 29, 2015. —. Teaching. Boudhanath: Sept 5, 2015. —. Chöd. Boudhanath: November 18, 2015. —. Chöd. Boudhanath: November 20, 2015. —. Teachings. Boudhanath: November 22, 2015. —. Teaching on Chöd. Boudhanath: November 23, 2015. —. Chöd, annual fall seminar retreat. Pharping: November 27, 2015. —. Chöd. Pharping, November 28, 2015. —. Chöd. Pharping: November 29, 2015. —. winter seminar, translation and notes by Tina Lang. Scharnstein: January 2016. —. Talk to RYI students. Boudhanath: September 2016. —. Teachings for the Antioch University Students (Bodhgaya, October 23-28, 2016). —. Tara Retreat. Pharping: November 6, 2016. —. Fall seminar. Boudhanath: November 8, 2016. —. Fall seminar. Boudhanath: November 10, 2016. —. Fall seminar. Boudhanath: November 11, 2016. —. Fall seminar. Boudhanath: November 12, 2016. —. Interview. Boudhanath: December 5, 2016. Daniel McNamara (Emory University). Interview. Boudhanath: October 10, 2014. Gregory Sharkey (Rangjung Yeshe Institute). Guided Tour to Patan. Patan: August 2015. Karma Thrinley Rinpoche (KNSL associate) —. Private conversation. Boudhanath: fall 1990. —. Interview. Boudhanath: August 1, 2015. Khenpo Tokpa Tulku (KNSL) —. http://www.shedrub.org/news.php?nid=103&video. Boudhanath: June 2013. —. Interview. Boudhanath: May 11, 2017. Kyapjé Khen Rinpoche Tashi Palden (KNSL associate) —. Interview. Translator Ani Laura Dainty. Boudhanath: April 21, 2016. —. Interview. Translator Lama Öser, notes by Tina Lang. Boudhanath: March 15, 2016. Lama Öpak (KNSL) —. Interview. Boudhanath: September 29, 2016. —. Chöd Teaching 5. Translator Ani Laura. Singapore: July 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YjKRS-va9FA. —. Chöd Teaching 19. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfADpm3rQ5k. 170 Lama Öser (KNSL). Personal conversation with author. Boudhanath: May 5, 2014. Lama Tenzin Sangpo (KNSL) —. Chöd Teachings Session 1. Translator Tina Lang. Boudhanath: November 19, 2014. —. Teachings on Chöd 2. Translator Catherine B. Dalton. Boudhanath: November 26, 2014. —. Fall retreat. Pharping: November 17, 2016. —. Teachings on eruptions by Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche. Gomde Germany-Austria: March 29 and 30, 2017. Lama Thierry (KNSL associate). Interview. Boudhanath: February 2015. Lama Tsültrim Sangpo (KNSL) —. Chöd Teachings Sessions 1-8. Gomde California: July 2013. —. Chöd Teachings. Boudhanath: March 19, 2014. —. Chöd Retreat. Pharping: September 28, 2014. —. Chöd Teachings Sessions 1-6. Gomde California: 2015. —. Chöd Teachings Sessions 1-6. Gomde California: July 2016. Lama Urgyen Dorjé (KNSL). Interview. Boudhanath: August 2015. Lopön Shedrub Gyatso (KNSL) —. Interview. Boudhanath: October 1, 2014. —. The Way of the Bodhisattva Class. Rangjung Yeshe Institute, Boudhanath: October 2, 2014. Namdrol Gyatso Lama (KNSL). Interview. Boudhanath: fall 2013. Phakchok Rinpoche (KNSL) —. Chöd Teachings 3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ex8D10NNdV8. —. Chöd Teachings 11. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6bcMlNc9acg. —. Chöd Teachings 12. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqd4wpEEdEM. —. Chöd Teaching 14. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XS49rBSP-JA. —. Chöd Teachings 20. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JFiGSwmMjo. Ryan Damron (KNSL associate). Interview. Boudhanath: October 2016. Sarah Harding (Nalanda University). Email conversation. January 26, 2015. Tulku Jampal Dorjé (KNSL). Talk on Chöd. Boudhanath: November 21, 2015. Umze Karma Sherap (KNSL) —. Chöd teachings, session1. Translator Joseph Faria. Boudhanath: September 21, 2016. —. Chöd Teaching. Boudhanath: fall seminar, November 20, 2015. —. Talk on Chöd 1. Boudhanath: November 21, 2015. —. Chöd Teachings. Boudhanath: November 24, 2015. —. Chöd. Translator Joseph Faria. Boudhanath: October 12, 2016. Biographies for referral: Chokling Rinpoche’s biographyŚ https://dharmasun.org/teacher/tsikey-chokling-rinpoche. 171 Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche’s biographyŚ https://dharmasun.org/teacher/chokyi-nyima-rinpoche. Lama Tenzin’s biographyŚ https://dharmasun.org/teacher/lama-tenzin-sangpo/. Mayum Künsang Dechen’s biography: http://theyoginiproject.org/yoginis-her-story/tulku-mothers#tab-id-4. Phakchok Rinpoche’s biographyŚ https: //dharmasun.org/teacher/phakchok-rinpoche. Tulku Jampal Dorjé’s biographyŚ https://www.facebook.com/184193968276944/photos/a.1222003861162611.1073741 940.184193968276944/1222003011162696. Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche’s biographyŚ Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, Blazing Splendor. 172