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Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Architect, Philosopher and Iron Chain Bridge Builder Manfred Gerner Translated from German by Gregor Verhufen ད ལ་ ག་ བི ་ ག་ ེ་བ། Thangtong Gyalpo: Architect, Philosopher and Iron Chain Bridge Builder Copyright ©2007 the Centre for Bhutan Studies First Published: 2007 The Centre for Bhutan Studies PO Box No. 1111 Thimphu, Bhutan Tel: 975-2-321005, 321111 Fax: 975-2-321001 e-mail: cbs@druknet.bt http://www.bhutanstudies.org.bt ISBN 99936-14-39-4 Cover photo: Statue of Drupthob Thangtong Gyalpo, believed to have been made by Drupthob himself, is housed in a private lhakhang of Tsheringmo, Pangkhar village, Ura, Bumthang. Photo by Karma Ura, 2007. Block print of Thangtong Gyalpo in title page by Lauf, 1972. To His Majesty , the Druk Gy alpo of the Roy al Kingdom of Bhutan, the Bhutanese people and the Incarnation Line of Chakzam pa Thangtong Gy alpo. ད་མ་ ོངམ་ལས་རིམ་ ོ། ་མ་ ོངམ་ལས་ མ། Appease the spirits before they turn foes Build a bridge before the river swells Contents Preface ...................................................................................... i I. Biographical notes on Thangtong Gyalpo ...................... 1 The King of the Empty Plains .............................................................. 1 Tibet of his times.................................................................................... 6 Thangtong Gyalpo’s journeys to Bhutan ........................................... 9 Fragments from his life’s work.......................................................... 13 Incarnation lineage.............................................................................. 15 Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo................................................................... 18 The representations of Thangtong Gyalpo ...................................... 24 II Thangtong Gyalpo as an Architect and Blacksmith. 34 Dungtsi Lhakhang in Paro ................................................................. 35 Chung Riwoche ................................................................................... 39 Production of iron and steel............................................................... 44 III. Bridges in the Himalayas ............................................. 52 Development of methods to cross rivers and gorges ..................... 52 Ice and snow bridges .......................................................................... 53 Rafts and inflated animal skins .......................................................... 53 Boats................................................................................................... 53 Stone slab bridges............................................................................... 54 Girder bridges from round and squared timber trunks ...................... 54 Single rope bridges ............................................................................. 55 Ropes made from yak skin .................................................................. 56 Suspension bridges from plant fibres ................................................. 57 Bamboo arch bridges........................................................................... 59 Steel cables with hoops ....................................................................... 60 Wooden cantilever bridges ................................................................. 62 Iron chain suspension bridges ............................................................ 64 Suspension bridges............................................................................. 66 Bailey bridges ..................................................................................... 66 Concrete bridges ................................................................................. 67 Arch bridges ....................................................................................... 67 Steel truss bridges .............................................................................. 68 Bridges, ferries and boats made by Thangtong Gyalpo................. 69 Iron chain suspension bridges in the Himalayas ............................ 70 Tibet....................................................................................................... 73 Chung Riwoche Chakzam .................................................................. 73 Bridge technology................................................................................ 74 Phuntsholing Chakzam ...................................................................... 77 Rinchen Chakzam............................................................................... 79 Tholing Chakzam ............................................................................... 81 Riwoche Chakzam .............................................................................. 83 Panding Chakzam .............................................................................. 84 Chakzam.......................................................................................... 86 Nyango Druka Chakzam.................................................................... 93 Rinchen Ding Chakzam ..................................................................... 94 China and Tibet ................................................................................... 94 Luding Chakzam ................................................................................ 94 Bhutan ................................................................................................... 96 Tamchog Chakzam ............................................................................. 99 Doksum Chakzam............................................................................. 102 Dangme Chakzam ............................................................................ 104 Khoma Chakzam............................................................................... 104 Tashigang Chakzam ......................................................................... 106 Chaze Chakzam ................................................................................ 107 Changchi Chakzam........................................................................... 108 Chukha Chakzam.............................................................................. 109 Lumbolang Chakzam........................................................................ 112 Chuzom Chakzam............................................................................. 112 Wangdi Chakzam ............................................................................. 112 Nepal ................................................................................................... 114 IV Thangtong Gyalpo’s Iron Chain Bridge and Their Influence in Europe ........................................................... 120 Bibliography ....................................................................... 140 PREFACE Thangtong Gyalpo (Thang sTong rGyal po) is a historical figure reaching in the supernatural who impresses us with his versatility to liberate sentient beings. His teachings and writings are translated only partly. The far bigger part of his work is passed down traditionally. To a large extent, it is directly visible, learnable and conceivable in reality in the form of monasteries, bridges, plays and songs. Further, we meet this reality of the Mahāsiddha in another form: Living in Thimphu in Bhutan and studying in India is the 17th reincarnation of Thangtong Gyalpo, Ngawang Thinley Lhundrub (Ngag dbang phrin las lhun grub). In Tibet, Bhutan and the world of the Mahāyāna Buddhism in the Himalayas, Thangtong Gyalpo is known and revered by all people. If one questions this, his oeuvre, his whole work and actions will be known far less. This is one reason for the results shown in the present work, which is the result of about 30 years of research projects in Tibet and Bhutan and in particular, fieldwork that was taken up in July 1974 in Bhutan and in April 1981 in Tibet. Thangtong Gyalpo has developed complex philosophical ideas. However, unlike most other Buddhist masters, he not only noted them down in his writings and passed them on in theories, but has also found his own way for the spreading of the teachings: Thangtong Gyalpo has lived his teachings. He has cooperated with his people as a blacksmith, as well as a philosopher, and shared the results and failures with them, which made it possible for him to personally access people of different classes. Therefore, he is regarded as one of three unusual masters in Tibetan Drubchen Nyönpa (sGrub chen sMyon pa) or ‘divine madman’. Thangtong Gyalpo’s ideas richly yielded fruit: He inspired his fellow people, spurred them to top performances and with it achieved unexpected multiplicative effects in the spreading of the Buddhist doctrine in Tibet and Bhutan. i Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo For Buddhists, Thangtong Gyalpo’s teachings, his life and works are as a whole, model, help and a clue. For westerners, who are more on ‘logos’ and ‘ratios,’ Thangtong Gyalpo shows methods for their own mental concepts. Far beyond that, he has iron suspension bridges built with a span of more than 100 metres at the beginning of 15th century; while in Europe, spans of more than 20 metres were regarded as significant achievement. In this contribution, the biography of Thangtong Gyalpo, his teachings, songs, plays (‘cham) and his whole work in brief, is touched slightly in as much as it seemed necessary for the clarification of his personality as an architect and a bridge builder. Instead, the paper attempts to draw the attention to the bridges he built in Tibet and Bhutan and their influence in Europe and America. Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo is one of the most significant Mahāsiddhas of Tibet who worked in the first half of the 15th century in Tibet and Bhutan. Thangtong Gyalpo was a yogi, philosopher, poet, exorcist, teacher, architect, engineer, painter, sculptor, doctor, treasure revealer and last but not least, an iron chain suspension bridge builder, a universal genius with supernatural abilities. The spectrum of his titles and epithets is accordingly wide, beginning with his name, ‘Thangtong Gyalpo’ (the King of the Empty Plains), ‘iron bridge yogi’ (lcags zam rnal ‘byor pa), ‘father of the Tibetan opera’ and up to the ‘Leonardo da Vinci of Asia’ as Wolf Kahlen called him. Tashi Tsering summarises his activities in superlatives as presented below: The mad saint (sgrub smyon), the destroyer of illusion (’khrul zhig), the performer of miracles, the medicine man who dispelled epidemics, the protector from Hor invasions, and the mender of harmful geomantic configurations (me btsa’ gso ba). He was also an accomplished master of technology, who built numerous iron bridges and ferries, erected many devotional objects symbolising body, speech and mind and allegedly ii Preface pioneered the fashioning of statues out of precious stones. He was a great propagator of the Avalokiteshvara cycle and sadhana and, to come closer to our subject, and is considered to have been the initiator of a lce lha mo and bla ma ma ni, those who display thangkas and those who use a stupa with many doors (mchod rten bkra shis sgo mang). Fig. 1: Drubthop Thangtong Gyalpo. Votiv statue, produced and consecrated at the Tsug Lhakhang in Lhasa in 2005. iii Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Thangtong Gyalpo is also credited with establishing the ritual of breaking the stone on the stomach (pho ba rdo gshag) and is famous for having discovered hidden treasures (gter). He started his own religious tradition (Thang lugs) within the Shangpa Kagyu (Shangs pa bka' brgyud) lineage. Although a graduate of the Sakyapa (Sa skya pa) school, he founded the Chakzampa (lCags zam pa) tradition by combining the Shangpa Kagyu and Jangter (Byang gter) traditions. Moreover, he attained the power of longevity ('chi med tshe'i rig 'dzin mnga' brnyes pa). Even to the present day, those with purified karma can be fortunate enough to see his wisdom body (ye shes kyi sku).1 Thangtong Gyalpo is known as a Mahāsiddha and a treasure revealer (gter ston pa). But he is also mentioned as one of the three great Drubthobs, the Divine Madmen, who, as already explained, impelled the teachings not with the usual methods like meditation and prayer but taught through contact and work. Tsering, T. 2001, S. 37: Tashi Tsering in his work on Thangtong Gyalpo’s contribution to the a lce lha mo tradition draws a sharp profile with the help of different original texts of the extraordinary abilities of an extraordinary personality. 1 iv I. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THANGTONG GYALPO The King of the Empty Plains The life and work of Thangtong Gyalpo are available in several biographies of which two were written in Tibet. The first one was written by his nephew Konchog Dewä Jungnä (dKon mchog bde ba’i ‘Byung gnas) who took care of a temple in the Phari (Phag ri) Dzong in Tibet near the Bhutanese border and the second one by Gyurme Dechen (‘Gyur med bde chen) in 1609. Several other versions were composed in Bhutan with minor variations.2 Beside the ‘hard’ facts, all biographies contain myths, religious views, legends, tantra and magic. While G. Tucci assumes that the biographical facts are to a large extent overlaid by legends that hardly allow for retrieving reliable data,3 Michael Aris4 explains that: It seems that at the vital beginning and at the end of the work, legend and miracles dominate. In the core of the work an amount of detailed and practical information is given, which helps to identify his work (of the divine person; the author) reliably. In fact, it is difficult to trace the widely differentiating data of his birth and death and, linked to that, the lifetime of the Mahāsiddha. The earliest mention of his birth is 1361 and the latest year of his death is 1485. These data prove a lifetime of 124 years, which quite often are also mentioned in the literature. However, some also speak of a lifetime of 128 years. According to their authentic references, G. Tucci and R. A. Stein accept 1385 as the year of his birth and 1464 as the year of death. The author follows their data.5 2 3 4 5 Aris 1979, p.185. Tucci 1949, p.163. Aris 1979, p.185. Gyatso 1980, p.111. 1 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo According to the biographical information in History of Bhutan,6 Thangtong Gyalpo was born in the Wood Ox Year (1384) in the village of Rinchen Ding (Rin chen sdings), also called Owa Lhatse (‘O ba lHa rtse), in the district of Latö (La stod) i.e. about 100 kilometres to the west of Lhasa in Tibet. The master is said to have come into the world in the “way of Padmasambava” as a united emanation of Chenrezig (sPyan ras gzis, skr.: Avalokiteśvara) and his wrathful form, Tamdrin (rTa mgrin, skr.: Hayagrīva). His human father was Dorje Gyaltshen (rDo rje rGyal mtshan) and the mother Jagar Lhamo. Thangtong Gyalpo is also regarded as the united incarnation of the Mahāsiddha Kukuripa (skr. Kukurīpa), one of the 84 Mahāsiddhas of India and Kuenkhyen Dolpopa (Kun mkhyen Dol po pa). Even at birth, he manifested the mystic shine and the extraordinary being of the saint. Thus, Sarat Chandra Das and Austine Waddell in connection with a representation of Thangtong Gyalpo in the Jokhang (Jo khang) in Lhasa report a legend about his birth. According to this legend, Thangtong Gyalpo at first refused to be born and remained for 60 years (i.e. a complete sexagenary cycle) in the mother’s womb, owing to the misunderstandings of this world, which he had to face in his former lives. There, he remained in deep meditation and concentrated his mind upon the well-being of all sentient beings. At the end of the 60th year, Thangtong Gyalpo realised that he had negated the suffering of his mother, while he meditated for the well-being of others. Thus, he left the womb and came into the world at the age of 60 years, i.e., already with grey hair and began his teachings immediately. According to another legend, he uttered the Mantra Om Mani Padme Hum at his birth.7 6 7 Tshewang, S. 1994, p.1. Waddell 1895/1974, p.385. 2 Biographical Notes Other accounts initially sound surprising as well: Thangtong Gyalpo is said to have studied under more than 500 teachers. One of his early teachers was his uncle Lama Dragzang (Bla ma Grags bzang) who later initiated him into the teachings of Avalokiteśvara. The teachings of this Bodhisattva later developed to be a central point in his philosophical treatises. The most important teacher in this regard was Ka Ngapa Päljor Sherab (bKa’ lnga pa dPal ‘byor Shes rab) from Dotö Kyara (mDo stod sKya ra).8 8 Gyatso 1980, p.116. 3 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Fig. 2: Thangtong Gyalpo on a slate plate in the Simtokha Dzong in Bhutan. 4 Biographical Notes Thangtong Gyalpo’s intensive studies and teachings were supported by visions and communication with other masters, in addition to a large part by meditation periods, for example, a seven-year ‘retreat’ after the death of his mother. Later in life, he meditated on the ‘compassionate’ Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, who led not only to the intensive communication, but also to visions and prophecies, which the Drubthop was able to experience. Janet Gyatso formulates accordingly: The prophecies he received from Avalokitesvara became the major impetus for his extensive bridge construction, an endeavour seen as part of the Bodhisattva vow to help all sentient beings.9 After his ordination as a gelong, Thangtong Gyalpo received the surname Tsundup Zangpo (brtson ‘grus bzang po), whereby the name Tsundup refers to Thangtong Gyalpo’s abilities in the crafts. At the beginning of 15th century, Thangtong Gyalpo began his work with the casting of bronze and iron thunderbolts (Dorje); construction of chörten and chain suspension bridges; and above all, with the spread of his teachings and the establishment of his own religious school, the Chakzam line, in short called “Chakzampa”. Thangtong travelled throughout Tibet, taught in the most important monasteries like Samye; visited and discussed with the most extraordinary masters of the time, like the Fifth and Sixth Gyalwang Karmapa; and also travelled to neighbouring countries, like India, Kashmir, Bhutan, Nepal, Ladakh, Mongolia and China. Gyatso 1980, p.113. The contents of the citation make clear that for Thangtong Gyalpo, Mahāsiddha and suspension bridge builder were not two separate occupations, but that one conditioned the other, from the methodical beginning of the spreading of the teachings as well as from the teachings of Avalokiteśvara. 9 5 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Tibet of his times Thangtong Gyalpo worked in an exiting and fruitful period in Tibet’s history. The ‘second spread of the teachings’ from the 10th to the 12th century with such significant teachers like Rinchen Zangpo (Rin chen bzang po, 958-1055), Atiśa (Jo bo rje Atiśa, 958-1054), Marpa Chökyi Lodrö (Mar pa Chos kyi blo gros, 1012-1097) up to Milarepa (Mi la ras pa, 1040-1123) led to series of significant monastic foundations like Reting (Ra sgreng, 1057), Sakya (Sa skya, 1073), Drigung (‘Bri gung, 1120) and Tsurphu (mTshur phu, 1198). This momentum continued in the middle of the 14th century and possibly up to the first half of the 15th century, which gave a significant push for an extraordinary spiritual, social, judicial and cultural jump in development which led to the rise of extraordinary personalities. Following are some of the important personalities who were contemporaries of Thangtong Gyalpo: 1357 Tsongkhapa (Tsong kha pa], the founder and reformer of the Gelugpa school (dGe’ lugs pa) is born in the “onion valley”, where today the holy monastery of Kumbum is located. 1385 Khedrup Je Geleg Pelzang (mKhas grub rje, dGe legs dpal bzang), one of the principle disciples of Tsongkhapa is born. 1391 The nephew and favourite disciple of Tsongkhapa and later the first Dalai Lama is born as Gedün Drubpa (dGe ‘dun grub pa). 1455 Kunga Legpa’i Zangpo commonly called Kunley (rNal byor pa ‘Brug pa Kun legs) is born.10 10 Drukpa Gerner 1981, p.190 ff. 6 Biographical Notes Finally, originating in this time were noteworthy monasteries such as, 1409 Galdan (dGa’ ldan), the Joyful 1414 Drepung (‘Bras spungs), the Rice Heap 1417 Sera (Se ra Theg chen gling), the Court of the Wild Roses 1429 Ngor (Ngor E wam chos sde), the monastery of Ngor E wam 1447 Tashi Lhünpo (bKra shis Lhun po), the Lucky Mound Fig. 3: Larger than life size statue of Thangtong Gyalpo next to the entrance of the Dukhang at Samye, the oldest monastery of Tibet. 7 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo 8 Biographical Notes With a determining influence by Thangtong Gyalpo, the tradition of the chörten with a hundred thousand statues and many doors of auspiciousness,’ Kumbum Tashi Gomang (sKu ‘bum bKra shis sgo mang), is developed to the full blossom. While all-important texts were already printed at the beginning of the 14th century, the painting style that once was influenced by Kashmir, India and Nepal is now merged into a pure Tibetan painting style. In this touching sphere, Thangtong Gyalpo, through direct contact with his people, stands out until to this day for the visibly extraordinary results of his method of spreading the teachings of Dharma. Tashi Tsering has quoted ten forms of religious activities of Thangtong Gyalpo from a biography: Rnam thar gsal ba’i sgron me says that Thang stong rgyal po’s [...] religious activities took ten forms. What were they? Building temples as a symbol of the (Buddha-) body; printing scriptures as a symbol of the speech; building stupas as a symbol of the mind; building bridges for the sake of all beings; and saving individual lives. These were the five major forms. Uninterrupted daily offerings at the temples; the uninterrupted sound of reading the scriptures; uninterrupted circumambulations of the stupa; non-stop building of bridges and sparing life without interruption were the five minor forms. Thus his ten powerful forms filled the world.11 In 1430, Thangtong Gyalpo built a bridge across the Yarlung Tsangpo (Yar klungs bTsang po) which was probably his first big and most significant suspension bridge called the Chushul Chakzam (chu shul lcags zam). Later, this bridge became so famous that it was simply called Chakzam or Iron Bridge without being known by its local name. Thangtong Gyalpo’s journeys to Bhutan Tsering, T. 2001, p.43. Tashi Tsering with the citation from the biography depicts a whole spiritual persona with a few facts. 11 9 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo To spread the teachings beyond his native Tibet and in search of raw materials for iron chain bridges, Thangtong Gyalpo travelled to Bhutan in 1433 via Ralung, the Phari Dzong and the Phari La.12 In Bhutan, his way is exactly to be pursued alongside the temples he built, like the Dungtsi Lhakhang in the Paro valley, as well as the iron chain bridges or traces of them in Tamchog, Chukha and Wangdi Phodrang. Fig. 4 & 5: Like many other masters, Thangtong Gyalpo began his work in Bhutan at the Palphug meditation cave of Taktshang in the Paro valley. As Thangtong Gyalpo continued to travel further on to Paro, he finds a place occupied by an evil demoness and builds a Tshewang, 1994, p.100. Today it is difficult to find out what were the most important causal motives for Thangtong Gyalpo to visit Bhutan. Was it his wish for the spreading of his teachings? Did he want to experience the ‘power places’ like Taktsang himself? Did he want to find iron in Bhutan or did he want to learn from the Bhutanese blacksmiths? 12 10 Biographical Notes chörten, Dungtsi Lhakhang (Zlum rtse lha khang). He blessed the place and prayed that the evil demoness be banished for good from the place so that she could not do any more harm to the people. From Dungtsi Lhakhang, Thangtong Gyalpo proceeded to Dzong Drakha or Dzong Khraka, the today’s Dzong Drak Gonpa, which is located to the west of Bongdey. In this monastery (which today is often called the small Taktsang), Thangtong Gyalpo again built a small chörten, blessed it and carried out the inauguration rites. From this Gonpa, Thangtong Gyalpo’s way led him to the Haa valley, and there after to the Jildo Charig gorge. In the Haa valley, it is reported that for the first time, Thangtong Gyalpo forged iron chains for suspension bridges. Fig. 6: Dzong Drak Gonpa near Bongdey where Thangtong Gyalpo built one of his chörtens in Bhutan. Having returned to the Paro valley, Thangtong Gyalpo proceeded down to the Paro Chhu (sPa gro chu) up to the place of today’s Tamchog Lhakhang (gTang chos Lha khang). 11 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo The place to this day shows very red, ferrous rock. Here as well as a few kilometres farther downstream, Thangtong Gyalpo is supposed to have built yet another iron chain bridge. The bridge building master continued his journey to the east, first to Thimphu and then in the direction of Punakha. Close to Wangdi Phodrang, he is said to have built the Badong Lhakhang. There a lama also donated 250 pieces of iron to him for another iron chain bridge, probably the bridge of Wangdi Phodrang, which was substituted in 1684 with a cantilever bridge. Finally, moving further to the east, he built another big temple of Shar Chitog Khar. From hence, Thangtong Gyalpo’s tracks are lost for some time. However, his biography records that he built many bridges, chörtens and lhakhangs in Bhutan to stabilise the teachings of the Buddha. In the course of time, these monuments were assigned local names, which make the identification difficult in the present time. 12 Biographical Notes Fig. 7: Another foundation of a monastery by Thangtong Gyalpo is the Gonpa of Shar Chitog Khar near Wangdi Phodrang. In 1434, Thangtong Gyalpo imported the blacksmith’s tools and a total of 7500 horse loads of raw iron to Tibet. Various sources agree that Thangtong Gyalpo had large quantities of iron, raw iron, ready made chain links transported from Bhutan to Tibet, including their precise quantity. His biographer, Gyurme Dechen records that the blacksmiths of Paro forged 7000 chain links and that he packed 1400 horse loads of 15 chain links each alongside with other baggages and have them brought to different places in Tibet.13 Other parts of the biography also mention 1084 ‘plumbs’ of iron that the Drubthop brought to Phari in Tibet. Fragments from his life’s work In 1436, Thangtong Gyalpo is back in Tibet to build the bridge at Päl Riwoche (dPal Ri bo che) across the Yarlung Tsangpo river (Yar klung gtsang po), which is still extant. It is here that the Drubthop, many years later will establish his large Kumbum Tashi Gomang Chörten. Following the Päl Riwoche (dPal Ri bo che) bridge, the Drubthop embarked upon the next big bridge building work in 1442, the Rinchen Chakzam (Rin chen lCags zam) at the monastery of Phodo (phod mdo) and Lhundrub (lHun grub), across the Kyichu river (sKyid chu), an important passage between the monastery of Reting (Ra sgreng) and Lhasa. In the Wood Rat Year, corresponding to 1444, Thangtong Gyalpo founded the monastery, which he later used as his main seat. This monastery is located at the holy mountain of Chuwo Ri (Chu bo ri), above the southern bridgehead of his iron chain bridge across the Yarlung Tsangpo river. Chuwo Ri is one of eight original meditation caves of Guru Rinpoche 13 Gruschke 2004, p.157. 13 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo and the eighth century king of the Dharma, Trisong Detsen. It is here that the hermitage of Namkading is located.14 Around this period, Thangtong Gyalpo visited Bhutan for the second time. During this visit, he was in the Eastern Bhutan, where he built (among others) the large iron chain bridge below Tashigang, which stood until 1968. The literature mentions a bridge building in Tashitse (bKras shis rtse) from 1436 to 1449, which could refer to this event. Above all, there are numerous references to his ‘son’ Buchung that proves his sojourn in Eastern Bhutan. Towards the middle of the 15th century, the Drubthob works in Eastern Tibet. In 1448, he founds the Sakya monastery of Derge (sDe dge) Gonchen, which today is located in the district of Derge Xian, and is also called Lhündrub Teng (lHun grub steng). Derge Gonchen is one of the headquarters of the Sakya Tridzin, the head of the Sakya order who presently resides in Rajpur in Uttar Pradesh in India.15 Here at the beginning of the 15th century, the relationship between Thangtong Gyalpo and the leading member of the Sakya School become visible again; this is true even today with the 17th Chakzampa Tulku (lCags zam pa Thugs sprul sku). On a hill, opposite of Derge, a cave exists, in which Thangtong Gyalpo has meditated. And not far from Derge, in the district of Riwoche, the Riwoche Chakzam across the Chi Chhu, a tributary of the Mekong, exists to this day. In the same year, Thangtong Gyalpo returns to Central Tibet once again to continue his immense network of iron chain bridges. Some of these bridges, like the ones in Chung Riwoche, Lhundrup, Panding, Phuntsholing and Tholing are still extant to this day. Other bridges, like the famous ‘Chakzam’ of which Sven Hedin could still take a photo in 14 15 Chan 1994, p.478. Dowman 2000, p.317/318. 14 Biographical Notes 1907 are mentioned in the literature, and with others again, like the Nyango Druka Chakzam near Samye, some of the river pillars have survived. Thangtong Gyalpo, however, begins the preparations for his masterpiece in 1448: The Chung Riwoche Kumbum at Päl Riwoche, which he started constructing in 1449. Furthermore, it was important to Thangtong Gyalpo to strengthen his monastic institution, his teachings and the Chakzampa School in Central Tibet. Finally, like his year of birth, biographers differ in the year of his death as well. Several sources point out to the fact that Drubthop Thangtong Gyalpo has died in the district of Riwoche in the eastern Tibetan province of Kham.16 The year of his death is assumed anywhere between 1464 and 1509. By keeping the variations of his birth in mind, 1384, Thangtong Gyalpo has accordingly become anywhere between 78 and 125 years of age.17 Incarnation lineage The incarnation lineage of Thangtong Gyalpo, the lineage of the Chakzampa Tulkus (lCags zam pa sprul sku) is uninterrupted to this day. Gyonpo Tshering in Thimphu has recorded it thus: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 16 17 Thangthong Gyalpo Char Thukchan Ja-Kangpa Jatangpa Nering Sonam Jatangpa Nering Chodpa Nering Jatangpa Jatangpa Phuntshog (1738-1790) Zeng 1996, p.192. A. Gruschke mentions even more authors. This wide range of the data is mentioned in the literature. 15 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo 8. Jatangpa Yontenpal 9. Jatangpa Oewapal 10. Ngedon Nyingpo 11. Khyentse Wangpo 12. Dewai Dorje 13. Jatangpa Zhabkar Tshogdrug Rangdrol 14. Jatangpa Ri-ul Lama 15. Jatangpa Sulmang Chodgyan 16. Drupai Wangchuk Chenpo Rikey Jadral 17. Ngawang Thinley Lhundrub, born in 1990.18 His Eminence, the 16th Thangtong Tulku, Rikey Jadral Rinpoche, passed away in 1983 after he had founded the new Thangtong Dewachen monastery in Thimphu in 1976. Kalu Rinpoche who conducted the funeral rite for Rikey Jadral Rinpoche prophesied a swift reincarnation. In addition, His Holiness, the late Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche and Kalu Rinpoche indicated that His Holiness, the Sakya Tridzin possesses the ability to recognise the new incarnation. In the Fire Horse Year, corresponding to the 17th May 1990, Sangay Choedzin was born in the morning at 6 o’ clock along with the sunrise to Gyonpo Tshering and Deki Wangmo. Quite early, the boy manifested many signs, pointing to be the reincarnation of the previous Chakzampa. In his prediction letter, the Sakya Tridzin described the place, house, names of parents and birthday of the boy. A friend of the family mentioned to the father, a few days after the birth that the boy could be the reincarnation of Thangtong Gyalpo. Subsequently, His Holiness, the Dalai Lama as well as His Holiness, the Sakya Tridzin recognised the boy as the 17th incarnation of Thangtong Gyalpo. Following the instructions of the Sakya Tridzin, the investiture ceremony was carried out by His Eminence, the 18 Tsering, G., p.8. 16 Biographical Notes late Nyoshul Khen Rinpoche on the fourth day of the sixth month in the Water Dog Year, corresponding to 12 July 1994 at the Thangtong Dewachen monastery in Zilukha, Thimphu. Later in the same year, the Sakya Tridzin carried out the formal installation on the 16 September 1994, at his residence in Rajpur, Uttar Pradesh in India.19 On the 6 May 2004, in the presence of his parents as well as the director of the Thangtong Dewachen Lhakhang in Thimphu, I was able to have a detailed conversation with the 14-year-old incarnation of Thangtong Gyalpo, Ngagwang Thinley Lhundrub. During the interview, His Eminence gave an account of his studies under the guidance of His Holiness the Sakya Tridzin and His Eminence Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse Rinpoche in India. As to his previous incarnations, the young Tulku pays an extraordinary reverence to them and formulates his future plans clearly: “I will take special care of Thangtong Gyalpo’s teachings.”20 Ibid. p.2. Ngagwang Thinley Lhundrub has the charisma of a great personality already at 14 years. He met the author not as a child or youngster but with restraint and great seriousness. 19 20 17 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Fig. 8: 17th incarnation of Thangtong Gyalpo, Ngagwang Thinley Lhundrub (Ngag dbang phrin las lhun grub), with his father and mother. Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo Not much is known about Thangtong Gyalpo’s family. In a prologue to the Ache Lhamo (A lce Lha mo) play, the activities of the Drubthop are connected to his family. According to that source, Thangtong Gyalpo produced copies of the Kangjur (bKa’ ‘gyur) and Tanjur (bsTan ‘gyur) for his father and built the Kumbum Chörten for his mother. As for his son, he had the Mani Kabum (Ma ni bka’ ‘bum) copied, and for the welfare 18 Biographical Notes of all sentient beings, he built iron chain bridges across the rivers.21 In the biography of Gyurme Dechen, it is pointed out that Nyima Zangpo (Nyi ma bzang po) is regarded as his spiritual son. In Tibet, there is no indication of his biological offspring; however, there is a clear trace of such an existence in Bhutan. In addition, nothing is known about the wife of the Mahāsiddha. Françoise Pommaret, however, reports (again only in respect to Bhutan) about a female partner of Thangtong Gyalpo, who worked as a teacher of Pema Lingpa (Padma gling pa): Pema Lingpa came into the world in Chel in the Tang valley of Bumthang. He was regarded as the reincarnation of Longchen Rabjampa, as well as that of Pematsel, the daughter of the king Trisong Detsen. Since his mother could not feed him, she gave Pema Lingpa to a nurse in the family of a blacksmith, where he learnt the craft of a blacksmith as a child. With the passage of time, he became a skilful blacksmith and wood carver. Since Pema Lingpa was interested in religious activities, he received lessons from, Drubthob Zangmo, his paternal aunt and the partner of the Chagzampa (iron bridge builder) Thangtong Gyelpo.22 Just as real is the historical personality of Thangtong Gyalpo, so blurred is the information on his son, Gyalwa Zangpo. As already explained, nothing is reported in the Tibetan biographies about a biological son. Neither picture nor sculpture is extent in Tibet. However, the discovery of artefacts and references strongly point to a son of Thangtong Gyalpo in Merak in the eastern extremity of Bhutan. 21 22 Tsering, T. 2001, p.50. Pommaret 1997, p.189/190. 19 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Thangtong Gyalpo first came to Bhutan via the monastery of Ralung, the Chumbi valley and the Phari Dzong to Paro. However, there are two trade routes existing during that time, by which Bhutan could be reached a lot easier from Lhasa: One route is via Senge Dzong to Lhuntse Dzong and another through the Valley of the Kings directly to Tashigang, which is only two day’s walk from Merak. It is a well-known fact that the ancestors of the today’s inhabitants of Merak and Sakteng emigrated from Tibet in the 14th century, which is a proof of the good connections existing between the two regions. The author saw the representation of Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo for the first time in 1997, in form of a clay-sculpture, while measurements were taken for the renovation of the Choetsi Lhakhang, high above the Paro valley. Inside the niched wall of the altar of this Lhakhang is a group of three figures standing with Thangtong Gyalpo as the central figure. Below him, to the left is a slightly smaller figure of a younger man who in the representation resembles the holy Chakzampa and on the right lies the Chökyong (chos skyong, skr.: Dharmapāla), the protector of the teachings. In 1998, the author found the second one in the small monastery of Gengo on the way to Merak. Gengo lies about 3.5 hours of walk behind the Mindula pass and one hour before Merak. The Lama of the Lhakhang informed the author about Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo, but could not show the reliquary chörten, as he was engaged in carrying out an important ritual with a hermit who stayed as a guest. 20 Biographical Notes Fig. 9: The altar (mchod shoms) for Thangtong Gyalpo, his son and Chökyong (chos skyong) in the Choetsi Lhakhang in the Paro valley. Later, more information about Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo began to reach me. Thanks to Robert Dompnier,23 who had seen a wooden sculpture of Thangtong Gyalpo in Merak and had its photo taken. The gilt figure completely differs from all other Thangtong Gyalpo representations. The sculpture in Merak shows a young man with a ‘Buddha’s face’ without a beard, but with the bun of the Arhats and Mahāsiddhas. The right hand holds a small but original chain above the level of the head and the left hand rests in the meditation gesture in Robert Dompnier, like the author, has travelled to the most remote places of Bhutan. 23 21 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo the lap. The figure does not sit crossed legged nor on a double lotus throne, but on a simple piece of cloth. When thousands of Thangtong Gyalpo representations follow precisely the same iconography, however, for the figure in Merak, there are only two interpretations: Either Thangtong Gyalpo is represented in his youthful years or it may be a representation of his son, Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo. Fig. 10: Statue of Thangtong Gyalpo or his son Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo in Merak. Photo: Robert Dompnier Finally in 2005, Karma Ura gave additional information on Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo to the author. Following is the translated version of Lama Rinchen’s verbal assertion transcribed by Karma Ura: 22 Biographical Notes The most important thing to see in Gengo village is its temple. In the temple, the main relics are a statue of eleven-headed Avaloketishvara and Guru Rinpoche. However, the most important antique treasure in this temple is the holy mummy or relic of Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo, the son of the famous Drupthop Thangtong Gyalpo. It was mentioned to me that Gyalwa Zangpo was born from the rib cage of Thangtong Gyalpo. The holy mummy of Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo is embalmed and enshrined in a wooden Gomang Chorten. I, Karma Ura, would like to add that the existence of the holy mummy of the miraculously born son of Drupthop Thangthang Gyalpo is totally unknown, not only internationally but also within Bhutan. It is a great rediscovery to know that Thangthong Gyalpo had, what may probably be a genealogical son in this country. This fact is not recorded in any of his biographies, which of course were written in Tibet. So the Tibetans would not have known the existence of his descendant in eastern Bhutan.24 Further, Karma Ura expounds that Buchung may have been born in Merak and sent to India at the age of 21 years in search of spiritual treasures.25 Once again, this is easily possible as India is accessible to the east and south from Merak in one or two day journey on foot. In addition to many places and geomantic points like trees or stones in the greater vicinity of Merak, bear the names of Thangtong Gyalpo or his son. In the Gengo Lhakhang, among the eight traditional chörtens, the embalmed body of Buchung is said to be concealed in the most beautiful of these chörtens, the Gomang Chörten, the chörten of the one hundred thousand doors. Merak must have been a home and homeland to Thangtong Gyalpo and his ‘miraculous’ family for a long time. Since he is thought to Ura 2006, p.1/2. Ura 2005: In 2005, the author was able to speak in detail with Karma Ura about Thangtong Gyalpo. As a result, Karma Ura wrote the manuscript with the oral expounding by Lam Rinchen. 24 25 23 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo have lived there for a long period, he may have built a number of bridges using this location as his centre. Tashigang and Doksum for example belong to this area, just like the bridges to the south of Mongar, which likewise are only a few days’ journey journey. Last but not least, there is another basic fact that makes Merak an operating place for Thangtong Gyalpo: To the south of Tashigang, close to Khaling lies Barshong, where one of the two huge iron deposits of Bhutan are located.26 The representations of Thangtong Gyalpo Thangtong Gyalpo lives on as a Drupthob, as well as through the unbroken line of his incarnations. Moreover, he also lives on in his works: i.e. lhakhags, chörten, iron chain bridges, his philosophical writings up to the dances and songs that accompany certain works. Unlike other masters who have ‘only’ left their philosophy, Thangtong Gyalpo is remembered through physical structures like bridges and temples that remain, which make Tibet and Bhutan more easily ‘conceivable’ to lamas, monks and laymen alike, which according to him is a very popular media of his activity among simple people. Thangtong Gyalpo’s blessing is especially sought for the ‘long life’ and protection from evil. In Tibet, people generally place a figure of Thangtong Gyalpo on to the household altar. If one moves to another place or another house, his statue is brought before anything else. His popularity and admiration in the present day Tibet is clear. Even in the holiest temple of Tibet, the Tsuglakhang (gTsug lag khang) in Lhasa bears a large statue of him in terracotta with offerings. At the Barkhor (bar’khor), beside the Buddha statues, only statue of Thangtong Gyalpo painted richly and sized approximately 15 to 20 centimetres are sold to pilgrims by the two shops. In Rapten 2001. Rapten’s report for the Centre for Bhutan Studies as published in ‘Kuensel’ issue of 23 June 2001, p.6. 26 24 Biographical Notes Bhutan, every year at the end of a nine day ceremony at the Memorial Chörten in Thimphu, tshewang or long life initiation according to the lineage of Drubthop Thangtong Gyalpo is bestowed on tens of thousands of people. In 2005, this ceremony was conducted by the highly honoured Namkhai Nyingpo.27 Very often one finds Thangtong Gyalpo’s physical representations on wall paintings, Thangkas as well as on Tsa-tsas and figures far larger than life size displayed. Thangtong Gyalpo is thereby shown very uniformly which leads Schumann to assume that a representation similar to a portrait is aimed,28 in addition one is trying to show substantial characteristics of the emanation that he embodies, express it through the figures or statues and in the paintings. As already mentioned, Thangtong Gyalpo embodies the emanation of Guru Rinpoche, Chenrezig and Tamdrin. Padmasambhava popularly known as Guru Rinpoche is seen as the master who is directing ‘outside’ because he brought the Buddhism to Tibet and Bhutan. Avalokiteśvara, the transcendent Bodhisattva of Compassion in his 4 armed form embodies the ‘inwardly’ directed way and Tamdrin, the ‘horsenecked’ with red skin colour, finally stands out and represents the ‘mystic or secret’ form. Thangtong Gyalpo is usually portrayed as a paunchy old man with brown or red skin colour. The brown or red-brown is supposed to resemble the colour of a fresh sheep liver and, therefore, varies from red-brown or brownish to practically all Kuensel 2005. In the issue from the 6th April, 2005 of the Kuensel, the Bhutanese weekly paper, the blessing is expressly appreciated and a large photo showing the numerous pilgrims and believers is added. 28 Schumann 1986, p.365. 27 25 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo shadings between red and black. The origin of this colour is to be found with Tamdrin, who is always shown with a skin colour from red-brown to deep brown. Thangtong Gyalpo wears his hair highly bound up in a big knot, as many other Mahāsiddhas do. The long beard is, like the hair, always white, a symbolic indication that he came to see the light of the world only at the age of 60. Fig. 11: Typical illustration of Thangtong Gyalpo on a block print. Source: Schumann 1986 Thangtong Gyalpo is usually shown sitting in the lotus posture on a double lotus throne. He wears, like many of the yogis and Mahāsiddhas, a white cotton garment and a red cloak. In addition to these characteristics, he wears a meditation belt, a jewel chain, earrings and arm tyres with the flame jewel. In the left hand, he holds the scull cup, Thöpa (thod pa, skr.: Kapāla) and the nectar vase (bdud rtsi’i 26 Biographical Notes bum pa, skr.: Amṛtakalaśa) placed inside the bowl. The right hand, which is almost in the ‘earth-touching’ gesture lies on top of the knee. Finally, a piece of chain, mostly five chain links may be seen in his right hand. Only in the small sculpture, which is located in Merak, is he shown as a young man, holding five chain links high above his head. In all significant sanctuaries, Thangtong Gyalpo is revered in murals, even more so in larger-than-life-size statues. A huge statue of the master rises in front of the Potala at the rock spur on the Marpori, subtending the Chagpori (lCags po ri), the iron mountain. Inside the Potala palace, a medallion is found with a representation of Thangtong Gyalpo placed above an iron chain bridge and a wooden bark as a ferry. In the large Dukhang (‘Du khang), the meeting hall of Samye, the Drubthop greets us directly left to the entrance. 27 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Fig. 12: Wall painting of Thangtong Gyalpo at the Gyantse hotel in Tibet In Chung Riwoche, an almost demon-like black statue in a niche reminds us of the builder of the sanctuary, and even at the new Gyantse hotel, a whole wall is dedicated to Thangtong Gyalpo with the following inscription: Thangthong Gyalpo (1361-1486). He was born in Wolka Lhatse. That includes Angren County of Tibet now. He built many temples and eighty-five iron bridges in Tibet. In his life, he wrote many historical opera plays. We Tibetan say traditional Tibetan opera was founded by him. In medicine, he invented white saint pills and many other special pills. Later, he died in Chung Riwo at the age of hundred and twenty-five. He was a resourceful person for Tibet. 28 Biographical Notes In Bhutan, Thangtong Gyalpo is shown virtually in classical mode as reflected in the fine mural painting at the walls of the Dungtsi Lhakhang that he himself had established. Another large wall painting in Taktshang is also dedicated to the memory of his domain in Bhutan. As mentioned earlier, one can find an altar at the Choetse Lhakhang above Tamchog bearing images of Thangtong Gyalpo in the middle, with his son to the left and a protective deity to the right. The temple at the bridgehead of the former Tashigang iron chain bridge encloses altars, sculptures and wall paintings of Thangtong Gyalpo. Finally, the lhakhang of Tamchog also contains several wall paintings of Thangtong Gyalpo. In the broader sense, the monasteries and lhakhangs that are attributed to Thangtong Gyalpo must be counted as his representations. Many times these lhakhangs are only called Drubthop Lhakhang (sGrub thob Lha khang) or Mahāsiddha Lhakhang as general names for a Thangtong Gyalpo lhakhang. The Drubthop Lhakhang of Lhasa is located indicatively at the foot of the Chakpori, the iron mountain. To its right lies the Palphuk cave, a sanctuary which was founded in the seventh century at the time of the King of Dharma, Srongtsen Gampo. It is one of the oldest sanctuaries of Tibet besides Jokhang, Samye and Ramoche, where Guru Rinpoche is said to have meditated. 29 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Fig. 13: Head of Thangtong Gyalpo inside the Drubthop Lhakhang at the Chagpori in Lhasa. According to the foundation legend, Thangtong Gyalpo came to this cave and meditated here. During the meditation, a black spot appeared above the left eye of the master. The Buddhists in the Himalayas believe that for the well-being of all sentient beings, Thangtong Gyalpo banished all evil deeds of the world in this spot. The Lhakhang was established to commemorate the selflessness of the Drubthop. Around 1930, Khyenrab Norbu, an incarnation of Yutok Yönten Gonpo, the founder of the Tibetan medicine, whose mortal remains are kept in a metal chörten, renovated the Lhakhang. Later, after its destruction during the Cultural Revolution, it was Sonam 30 Biographical Notes Rinchen, another incarnation of Yutok Yönten Gonpo, who restored the Lhakhang once again.29 Fig. 14: Thangtong Gyalpo at the Thangtong Dewachen Lhakhang in Zilukha, Thimphu. A huge gilt statue of Thangtong Gyalpo, with pronounced spot above left eye, dominates the Dukhang Lhakhang. Beside representations of Yutok Yönten Gonpo, there are many small painted figures of Thangtong Gyalpo and the Three Kings of the Dharma are found as mural paintings at the back: The one on left is Trisong Detsen, in the middle resides Srongtsen 29 Chan 1994, p.127. 31 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Gampo and to the right is Ralpachan. Today four Nyingmapa nuns help in keeping the Drubthop Lhakhang clean. One of the duties of these four nuns is to make Tsa-tsas of the Drupthob and to distribute them to the pilgrims passing by. The Thangtong Dewachen Lhakhang, a Drubthop Lhakhag in Zilukha above the Tashi Chhö Dzong in Thimphu, is, like in Lhasa, a nunnery. The 16th Chakzampa, Rikey Jadral, founded Thangtong Dewachen in 1976. A several metre highgilt statue of Thangtong Gyalpo in the middle of the altar commands the Dukhang of this Lhakhang. Beside, the altar also houses statues of Green Tārā and the local deity ‘Zhilshindam.’ The nunnery owns a whole series of Thangkas with representations of the Drubthop from which some have suffered from a fire in 2005. Presently, 60 nuns promote Buddhism in general and the teachings of Thangtong Gyalpo of the Jangter tradition in particular. Furthermore, this nunnery take care of spiritual and liturgical needs of the surrounding inhabitants, in addition to the care of the 17th incarnation of Thangtong Gyalpo, Tulku Ngagwang Thinley Lhundrup, born in 1990. Below the Tashigang Dzong, an iron chain bridge once spanned the Drangme Chhu (Drang me chu). In the former western bridgehead of the Drangme Chhu Chakzam, another Drubthop Lhakhang is located which was renovated at around 2000, wherby it received a new multi-staged roof. On the ground floor of this Lhakhang, an appropriate part of the chains of the former bridge is attached to the walls, each one below a painted bridge representation. The Dukhang is controlled by Thangtong Gyalpo figures. Among them, there is also a highly revered small figure, similarly to the one in Chung Riwoche. Similarly, the Tamchog Gonpa (rTa mchog dgon pa or generally rTa mchog sgang), half way between Paro and Chuzom in the Paro Chhu valley is regarded a Drubthop Lhakhang. The red earth around the buildings indicates the high iron content. The biographies prove unambiguously that 32 Biographical Notes Thangtong Gyalpo once worked here. It is also known that an iron chain bridge of Thangtong Gyalpo stood here until 1969 and by order of His Majesty, the King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, a new iron chain bridge has been erected here once again in 2005. The lhakhang and the hermitage belonging to it were founded by successors of Thangtong Gyalpo. The Dukhang is dedicated to Thangtong Gyalpo and the Drubthop is seen illustrated everywhere. Today, private farmers who work in the succession to the Drubthop maintain the lhakhang. Fig. 15: The highly revered statue of Thangtong Gyalpo inside the temple at the Drangme Chhu near Tashigang. 33 II THANGTONG GYALPO AS AN ARCHITECT AND BLACKSMITH The extraordinary personality of Thangtong Gyalpo can hardly be done justice in a work like this. The more one examines the bridges, temples and artefacts that are still available, the more one comes to appreciate the work of the great Drubthop. Since Thangtong Gyalpo is accomplished at various fields, only single aspect of him can be focussed in this book. Therefore, in the current work, only the art of the iron chain bridges and their effect on Tibet and Bhutan and in further course for the suspension bridge building in the world is illustrated, with slight references to Thangtong Gyalpo as a whole. Thangtong Gyalpo is associated with many locations and places, and in the wider context with the foundation of numerous monasteries and lhakhangs. In Bhutan, for example, the Badong Lhakhang located at high elevation on a hill north of Wangdi Phodrang, next to the old connecting path between Wangdi and Punakha is one of them. Another example of his impressive construction is the Shar Chitog Khar Lhakhang, located high above the tributary of the Dang Chhu with a unique altar of the Buddhas of the three times . In Tibet, the large monastery of Chakzam Chuwo Ri (lCags zam Chu bo ri) that Thangtong Gyalpo founded in 1444, located at the southern bridgehead of his famous ‘Chakzam’ across the Yarlung Tsangpo river, above it’s confluence with the Kyichu river (sKyid chu) became his main seat. Later, the monastery of Chakzam Chuwo Ri became the main monastery of the Chakzampa school as well as the seat of the Chakzampa Tulkus. Two of his constructions, where it is undoubtedly confirmed that Thangtong Gyalpo had conceived them as a philosopher and architect and where he even lent a hand himself at their construction will be examined here more closely. They are, 34 As an Architect and Blacksmith the Dungtsi Lhakhang in Bhutan and the Kumbum at Chung Riwoche in Tibet. Dungtsi Lhakhang in Paro After crossing the Phari Dzong, Thangtong Gyalpo entered Bhutan and went immediately to one of the geomantically the most significant ‘power place’, the Taktsang cave in Paro valley. As he proceeded on to Paro, he saw a particular place that was occupied by an evil demon. According to the legends, this demon at one point looked like a black snake and at another like a nine-headed tortoise. The monster was responsible for misfortune, illnesses and famines in the locality. Thangtong Gyalpo subdued the demon with his supernatural powers and built a chörten above the entrance to the cave called Dungtsi Lhakhang. The Dungtsi Lhakhang is like a realised Buddhist philosophy within a building. The chörten in its outer architecture is shown as a three dimensional cosmic diagram, a Mandala. The square ground floor of the Dungtsi Lhakhang, which is provided with a set off at each of the four corners symbolises the element earth; the Bumpa, the cylindrical rotunda, the element water; the rising tower with thirteen rings, the element fire; the recumbent sickle with the solar circle, the element air; and the flaming drop at the pinnacle, the element ether. The tower-like pinnacle sticking out from the building also reaches as a column down to the lower floors, which represents Meru, the axis mundi. The square foundation and the Bumpa were built unlike a normal chörten and without a hollow cavity, but were setup as a ritual room, which means that the foundation is single storied and the Bumpa, divided by a ceiling, which is two storied. The Dungtsi Lhakhang is neither a chörten nor a lhakhang, but both. The two storied Bumpa is equipped with two ritual circumambulation paths, Korlam (sKor lam) and the four niches inside the inner wall represent the four cardinal points. The concept of how to divide the Bumpa into 35 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo two floors was similar to those in the Kumbum Chörten in Jonang and Gyang Bumoche in Tibet. Three floors show the Buddhist path to enlightenment. At the ground floor, the life of the people, laymen as well as monks and saints are represented. After the death, one is said to wander in the Bardo, the intermediate state for 49 days, which is between death and rebirth. This is allegorised in the basement of the Bumpa. On the upper floor of the Bumpa, the Yidams are represented with their female partners in Yab Yum position. As with all tantric Buddhist sanctuaries, it is part of the ritual to first circumambulate the Dungtsi Lhakhang clockwise, that is to begin with the left side, while proceeding with the circumambulation set the 108 prayer wheels in motion that are fixed to the walls of the temple. This ‘circumambulation’ is also continued inside until the upper floors. If one follows this system on the mural paintings as well, one is practically introduced to the complete pantheon of the deities of the Drukpa Kagyü school. Towards the eastern side of the ground floor (to the left of entrance) on the inside of the outer walls among others (only the well-known and important deities are mentioned) the Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, Pälden Lhamo, Mahākala and the heavenly palace of Zangdog Pelri are represented. At the southern wall, we find Buddha, Padmasambhava and Amitāyus. As for the western wall, Avalokiteśvara and other Bodhisattvas are depicted. On the northern face, the great masters of the Kagyüpa School along with Thangtong Gyalpo are represented. At the mortar-built internal square outside the eastern wall bear ten wrathful deities with a repeat of Thangtong Gyalpo. At the southern wall apart from the Buddhas and Lamas, 16 Arhats are depicted. The western wall depict dharma-protectors along with the 21 Tārās and on the northern face beside portraying high Kagyüpa Lamas, a 4armed and a 6-armed Mahākala are also illustrated. If one 36 As an Architect and Blacksmith proceeds through the door of the outer wall, one meets the 35 Confession Buddhas and on the shaft of the internal column bears 21 forms of Avalokiteśvara30 Fig. 16: The Dungtsi Lhakhang: The philosophy of Mahāyāna Buddhism realised in a building. In the basement of the Bumpa, there are protectors of the teaching, and at the shaft bears the wrathful deities of the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Finally at the upper floor of the 30 Gerner, Bhutan 1981, p.120/121. 37 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Bumpa, Yidams, personal protective deities, statues of Maitreya, the Adi-buddha, Thangtong Gyalpo and Milarepa are found. 38 As an Architect and Blacksmith The Dungtsi Lhakhang is Thangtong Gyalpo’s first creation of a chörten that includes a representation of the Buddhist system of teaching according to the tantric teachings expounded through pictures for laymen and monks alike. The concept, by which one apprehends Buddhism by watching pictures, while carrying on the circumambulation was introduced at the Chung Riwoche Kumbum in Tibet. The people of Bhutan have a special reverence for the Dungtsi Lhakhang. Today, this Lhakhang is popularly used for conducting ceremonies for deceased in helping them on their way through the Bardo. These rituals that often last for several weeks are sponsored by the relatives of the deceased. The monk conducting these ceremonies sits in front of a small altar on the eastern side of the ground floor, while some other members who also supply the monk with food reside in the simple cottages beside the temple.31 Chung Riwoche Chung Riwoche Kumbum Chörten (mChod rten bKra shis sgo mang gCung Ri bo che) is located in the region of Latö, about 100 kilometres to the west of Lhatse, in a sharp river bend on the left bank of the Yarlung Tsangpo. This Chörten is a masterpiece of Thangtong Gyalpo, which was planned as a three-dimensional Mandala, now established as a Kumbum, a form that is common in Latö. When Thangtong Gyalpo completed the construction of the Dungtsi Lhakhang in Paro, he was about 50 years old. When he was around 65 years, he began the construction of Chung Riwoche. However, according to Thangtong Gyalpo’s own information, the inspiration goes back much further to 1354 when Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen begun the construction of the first big Kumbum Chörten (sKu ‘bum mchod rten) in Jonang (Jo nang) above Phuntsholing (Phun tshogs gling). The 31 Gerner Bhutan 1981, p.119/120. 39 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo construction of the Gyang Bumoche Kumbum (rGyang Bu mo che sku ‘bum) began at around 1420 at Lhatse. From 1427 to 1439, Thangtong Gyalpo constructed the Gyantse Kumbum (rGyal rtse sku ‘bum) outside the area of Latö, followed by the construction of the Kumbum Chung Riwoche in 1449. Fig. 17: Thangtong Gyalpo’s masterpiece, the Kumbum Chörten at Chung Riwoche, Tibet. According to Thangtong Gyalpo’s autobiographical notes, he assisted the construction of the Jonang Kumbum in his former incarnation. It was also recorded that he was an assistant at the construction of the Gyang Bumoche Kumbum as well. Later, he applied the same concept to his Dungtsi Lhakhang in Bhutan. Finally in Chung Riwoche, he finalised his own conceptual ideas and, as a matter of fact, the various Kumbums at Jonang, Gyang Bumoche and Chung Riwoche in Tibet as well as the Dungtsi Lhakhang in Bhutan used similar forms while from other Kumbum 40 As an Architect and Blacksmith Chörten, like the Kumbum of Gyantse, he attempted divergent philosophical concept and construction details, as exemplified by the internal circumambulation paths, Korlam. The similarities become clear if we consider the Bumpa: Only the Kumbum Chörtens of Jonang, Chung Riwoche and Dungtsi Lhakhang have the Bumpa split into two floors. Like no other building or iron chain bridge is the preparations and the construction of the Chung Riwoche Kumbum described in greater detail in the biography (rNam thar) by Gyurme Dechen. Furthermore, Roberto Vitali could investigate the construction precisely before the end of the recent restoration work in 1988. In 1448, Thangtong Gyalpo returned to the place at the Yarlung Tsangpo that he had named Päl Riwoche (dPal Ri bo che) in 1436, where he had established an iron chain bridge across that river. At first, he persuaded the local and regional rulers to establish a centre for the spread of Buddhist doctrine, at the place where the crossing of the river could be done with the use of an iron bridge. He received the approval from the authorities with a promise of support through supply of money, material, workers and artists. According to Vitali: “The lord of La-stod Lho accepted his proposal and offered craftsmen, wood and workers from his fief [khri.skor]” and Vitali continues with the translation from the biography of Gyurme Dechen: He went to dPal Ri.bo.che and many workers of Byang Khrizhabs (the La.stod Byang prince) arrived in order to lay the foundation of the mchod.rten bkra.shis sgo.mangs (sic) in the earth-female-snake year corresponding to 1449. The master and his disciples worked as well with earth and stones. Due to the effort of all, many stones and much earth was put together. When the mchod.rten was completed up to the bum.pa [bell], it collapsed three times. Then they planned to expand the mchod-rten foundations to make it more magnificent in appearance. At every layer of the foundation’s walls, grains were always found. The monks and workers were discouraged. Grub thob chenpo said, ‘We are part of this impermanence. This is a sign for the community. What we are 41 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo doing is for the benefit of dharma and sentient beings. If we do not succeed in this life, we will succeed in the next. It may be finished before my death. If it is not done, then there will be natural disasters such as storms, poverty, crop failures and excessive rain. The elements will fight each other; strife and unknown diseases will strike causing death. To avoid such misfortunes, willingly or unwillingly, you people must be patient and work hard, because this mchod rten is connected with the happiness of humanity and its building will cause deliverance to Sukhavati heaven.’ After saying these words, the people felt encouraged and placed great trust in him in order to finish the work.32 In 1456, Thangtong Gyalpo completed the huge work. In the biography of Gyurme Dechen, he recorded the consecration rites of the chorten: Grub.thob chen.po completed the construction of the mchod.rten with a golden umbrella when he was ninety six in the fire-male-rat year corresponding to 1456. Then he gave empowerments to his spiritual son Nyi-ma bzang.po, who had originated from the three spokes of Grub.thob chen.po’s rdo.rje, and consecrated the great mchod.rten.33 Even the description of the construction of the Chung Riwoche Kumbum is filled with legends and miracles exhibited by Thangtong Gyalpo, listing construction workers, striking and rebelling up to accidents that struck himself: At one point while breaking stones he was completely ‘buried’ alive by heavy stones. All workers thought that Thangtong Gyalpo was dead. But when they tried to dig out the ‘dead’ master after three days, he appeared more robust than ever before. The Chung Riwoche Kumbum consists of nine floors with 84 chapels, including the ground floor. At the base floor, a Korlam is arranged, in the four floors on top of that twenty 32 33 Vitali 1990, p.123/124. Vitali 1990, p.125. 42 As an Architect and Blacksmith chapels. The Bumpa is divided into two floors with a Korlam as in the Jonang Kumbum and Dungtsi Lhakhang in Bhutan, and in the roof construction, four small temple niches are arranged again. Like the Jonang Kumbum, the Chung Riwoche Kumbum is equipped with the same number and equally big temple niches at every floor, unlike the Gyantse Kumbum, which features large temple niches in each of the cardinal directions. Moreover, the temple niches in Gyantse are equipped with sculptural figures; the niches in Chung Riwoche are dominated by paintings. These paintings clearly show their own style, the Latö school, which was also founded along the lines of the Jonang Kumbum. This is very much in contrast with Gyantse, where clear influence from Nepal and China led to results that are more elegant. The Latö-style distinguishes itself through squatty athletic-like figures and by distinct thick, black edge lines. 43 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Fig. 18: Wall painting of the Kumbum Chörten at Chung Riwoche, partly destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Production of iron and steel With the melting of iron and the forging of steel, Thangtong Gyalpo intervened even more in the craft activities. Moreover, it must be understood that the production of iron from iron ores in China, Tibet and Bhutan still needed no furnaces until the 20th century, but was processed in domestic workshops. On 14 December 1882, Karl Zittel writes about the iron production in China in the newspaper ‘Allgemeine Zeitung’. The Chinese iron industry since thousands of years is pursued most intensely in the districts of Tay yang and Loping. More than 100 million people receive their ironware 44 As an Architect and Blacksmith needs from the cities of Föng-tai-shien, Ping-ting-tschou and their surroundings. One cannot think of an easier and cheaper iron production than here. The farmer digs the ore in his own field and makes it to the nearby smeltery; and fuel material of the highest quality is found everywhere. Furnace operation can begin with a capital of 100 German marks. The Chinese people do not know anything about furnaces or other costly facilities. People search a place for themselves, where the loess rises in two or three steady terraces. Then they dig some cavities into the walls and the establishment is ready. After clay, cabbage and ore are gathered, a plane square is pounded on the ground of the terrace, surrounded by mud walls, a small hut for the bellow attached to a side and on it the ground is supported by fist-sized Anthracit pieces. Then one puts up about 150 self-manufactured 15 inch high and at the top 6-inches-wide smelters which are loaded with a mixture by ore, small pieces of coal and of iron enriched slag. All gaps between the crucibles are filled with small Anthracit pieces, then above that Anthracit layers are spread and a new layer of crucible is added in the same way and yet again loaded with Anthracit. At the top, one prepares a roof from remains of used crucible, and now the fire is fanned by means of the bellow and is kept alive, until it finishes through natural draft. Once the ore has melted, the crucibles are poured out according to demand either directly in forms, or the contents are prepared to wrought iron by slow cooling.34 In Bhutan, the past still seems to be even closer. Phuntsho Rapten in the 23 June 2001 issue of Kuensel writes: The metallurgy of Chakor La at Geynekha in Thimphu and Barshong at Khaling in Tashigang used to be the main sources of iron ore for the Bhutanese blacksmiths. Literally, Chakor La means: ‘Hill surrounded by iron ore’. The people of Geynekha up to 1950 paid taxes in the form of pig iron. Barshongpas (the people of Barshong) also paid taxes in the form of iron, which was used for forging swords during the rule of the Jakar Dzongpon, Pema Tenzin. 34 Zittel 1882, p.1. 45 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo A suitable depth compared to height of an at least one story traditional Bhutanese building must be dug into the earth to extract iron ore. The iron ore is found mixed with blackish earth. The people work on the earth with spades and pick axe. The pig iron ore is carried in a bamboo basket from the place where it was extracted to the place where the stove stands. The furnace varies from household to household, according to wish but is normally square in shape. On different corners of the furnace, a round hole is dug to let the molten iron flow out. Above the main fire hole, a tier of hard wood is piled up. On top of that, the earth with the enclosed iron ore is spread out and the process is repeated until the furnace is filled up. The fire is burning uninterruptedly. It lasts possibly from one week up to ten days or even one month to finish the process of the iron melting. It all depends on the size of the furnace. The molten iron, which is collected in different holes, is only soft iron, called Nyencha. Then these iron balls are put in charcoal and are heated up incessantly to make the iron harder (to produce i.e. steel). Swords and other household appliances are made from this iron. Different varieties of iron can be melted, while one uses different kinds of wood. One reaches a better quality of the iron if it is burnt with Sisi shing (oak) , Sokey shing or Thom shing. A medium quality is reached if the iron is burnt with Etho metho, Tar shing, Tsutsu and simple qualities are produced from Choka shing or Mur shing.35 The manufacturing methods used up to the recent time are strongly alike. The essential difference consists of the fact that the iron ore in China was melted with coal, while in Bhutan different species of wood was used to secure differing quality of iron. The details on the iron ore locations and the export to Tibet by Thangtong Gyalpo differ a lot. According to sources, 18 different places are identified, where iron was melted and forged. Others speak of 1084 ‘plumbs’ of iron that Thangtong Gyalpo was supposed to have brought across the border to 35 Rapten 2001. p.6. 46 As an Architect and Blacksmith Phari Dzong in Tibet and still other sources speak of 7500 horse loads of iron that Thangtong Gyalpo transported from Paro to Tibet. Fig. 19: Detail of the investigation illustrations of the ETH Zürich, Switzerland. Source: Epprecht 1979. The production of iron was already known in Central Asia by 1200 BC. The art of the iron treatment and the production of bridges from iron chains, however, was the speciality of Thangtong Gyalpo. The production of steel could only be done by heating up the iron repeatedly, then forging rectangle sticks from this steel, form the sticks to chain links and finally, in a welding procedure at about 1,400 degrees, i.e. with almost liquid iron, have them diagonally overlap. If the iron or the steel becomes too hot during this procedure, it will be useless. Thangtong Gyalpo also perfected this art of crafting with additions like arsenic as a flux while doing the fire welding, which was possibly the last working step to the chain links at the site. By this procedure, he reached such an extraordinary steel quality that they were not only highly 47 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo strain proven but in many places still free of corrosion, even up to this day.36 In the middle of 1970s, a chain link of a bridge by Thangtong Gyalpo was brought to Europe form Bhutan to be examined thoroughly. The chemical investigation proved that it contained wrought iron similar to the hammered iron kinds from the Romans era with only about 2 percent of other alloys and with only 0.012 percent of carbon content. Later in a more detailed metallographic investigation at the Confederate Technical College (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule ETH) in Zürich, in the winter of 1978/79 provided precise information about the different dispersion of the carbon in the forged cross-cuts and the use of arsenic for welding together of the single chain links. In summary, the report of the ETH ascertains: Finally it can be said that the iron chains of the Bhutanese suspension bridges were produced of forged iron. The chain links were created obviously from iron rods which were forged before from smaller iron malice with different carbon concentration. Afterwards the iron rods were forged to chain parts by heating up the iron in coal fire. In this way the iron was able to absorb carbon and thus become harder iron (steel). Then the chain links were possibly on site, closed by a fire welding technology which is unknown today and at which a thin film of slightly melted iron that contains the arsenic is coating the surface. Otherwise this technique is only known to have used by Roman for making their swords.37 In 2004, Uli Barnickel, metal sculptor and blacksmith, help conduct the investigation of the Rinchen and Puntsholing Chakzam and examined the blacksmith's technology in particular. 37 Epprecht 1979, p.150. 36 48 As an Architect and Blacksmith In the iron chain bridges of the Himalayas, there are five different types of chain links, as well as blacksmith’s work that can be distinguished clearly: Chain type 1: Outside length is 25 to 35 cm, outside width 8 to 10 cm, iron cross-cuts approximately 2.0 cm x 3.5 cm, no plane surfaces, relatively coarse blacksmith work. This kind of chain links, which today are kept and revered at the Sili Gonpa seems to have been used only at the chains of the former bridge across the Wang Chu near the village of Changshi. Fig. 20: Original iron chains of Thangtong Gyalpo without any corrosion even after 555 years. Chain type 2: Outside length is 15 to 40 cm, outside width 5 to 8 cm and iron cross-cuts approximately 1.7 cm x 2.5 cm. The long sides of the chain links are precisely parallel and the chain links are completely smooth and have been forged elegantly. This kind of chain links seems to have been used in all bridges or the chains of bridges, which directly go back to Thangtong Gyalpo. Chain type 3: Outside length is 15 to 40 cm, outside width 5 to 8 cm and iron cross-cuts of approximately 1.5 cm x 2.5 cm. The chain links have been forged to a more rectangular cross-cut, single limbs are almost like flat iron and above all, the long sides are not parallel, but have partly been drawn 49 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo inwards. The chain links were used in Tholing in Tibet and in Tamchok in Bhutan. Chain type 4: Outside length is approximately 20 to 35 cm, outside width 5 to 8 cm and iron cross-cut of about 1.5 cm to 2.5 cm. The chain links have not been forged from rectangle steel, but from round steel. This kind of chain only exists in Nepal. Chain type 5: Anchor cables from ship constructions: Outside length is 15 to 20 cm, outside width 8 to 10 cm and iron cross-cut of about 3 to 4 cm. Anchor cables were used only in the 20th century in Nepal for building suspension bridges. The size of the chain links all together varies, partially in dependence with the spans of the bridges between 15 to 40 cm in length and approximately 5 to 8 cm in width and iron cross-cuts of approximately 1.2 x 2.5 cm to 2.0 x 3.5 cm. With the relatively large range of variation in the dimensions, the forging work shows a close uniformity with the chains from chain links of type 2. In the literature, all iron chain bridges in Tibet and Bhutan are practically ascribed ‘rightly or wrongly’ to Thangtong Gyalpo. Unambiguously, through the comparison of the biographical information and the technical details, an ‘original type’ consisting of two chains, where a bridge rail is hung in between and also with the enhancement of two other chains can be attributed to Thangtong Gyalpo. Hence, the question of whether Thangtong Gyalpo has invented the iron chain bridges is pertinent. There are references to older bridges in the Tibetan literature. Tsering reports about an iron chain bridge, which was supposed to have been built by the Tibetans during the war against the Tang dynasty, possibly in the year 821 for crossing the lower Yellow river. Likewise, the third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorje (Rang ‘byung rdo rje) who lived from 1284 to 1330 is said to have constructed an iron chain bridge across the Sog-chu. Tsering 50 As an Architect and Blacksmith cites Tibetan sources; however, there are no references about bridge constructions or their dimensions.38 Since 1200 BC, the production and forging of iron was known in China. One must assume that at least smaller bridges or footbridges made from iron chains were already in existence before Thangtong Gyalpo. Thangtong Gyalpo’s extraordinary merit lies in the fulfilment of the prophecies of Avalokiteśvara. Among others, he also developed the art of blacksmithery to the highest level through ‘welding together’ single chain links with the aid of arsenic, which enabled him to create bridge steel, free of corrosion. Even more so commendable was the mastering the art of building the ‘gigantic’ span bridges. Along with it, he was also greatly successful in building suspension bridges, in addition to the development of the bridge building as a whole to a new height in the 15th century. 38 Tsering, T. 2001, p.59. 51 III. BRIDGES IN THE HIMALAYAS Development of methods to cross rivers and gorges Easily passable and unbroken link across the natural barrier are a basic condition for cultural and economic development. The people of the high mountains, like in the Alps as well as the Himalayas, had to overcome more torrential rivers and deep gorges than the people living in plains, where quite often simple fords across the rivers helped. Thus in the mountainous regions, people have to search for possibilities to overcome these obstacles. In the Himalayas and particularly Tibet, even the most difficult terrains are connected by continuous road networks and ingeniously built bridges even during the Middle Ages. The methods to cross gorges and rivers in the Himalayas are extremely diverse and rich in variations. In the following, they are shown only briefly as it is necessary for the classification of Thangtong Gyalpo’s work and the iron chain bridges. The chronology of the representation corresponds possibly to the technical degree of maturity, but does not follow a continuous development pattern, because even the oldest methods are applied differently on the regional level until today. 1. Ice and snow bridges 2. Rafts and inflated animal skins 3. Boats 4. Stone slab bridges 5. Girder bridges from round and squared timber trunks 6. Ropes made from plant fibres 7. Ropes made from yak skin 8. Single rope bridges 9. Bamboo arch bridges 10. Steel cable with hoops 11. Steel cables with rails 12. Wooden cantilever bridges 13. Iron chain suspension bridges 14. Suspension bridges 52 Bridges in the Himalayas 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Bailey bridges Concrete bridges Concrete arch bridges Steel truss bridges Bridges, ferries and boats Ice and snow bridges Ice bridges and snow bridges along with frozen rivers permit unspectacular river crossings without large expenditures in the winter time. In the Zanskar valley (Zangs dkar) in the western Himalayas, the frozen river is used as a means to travel across and for travelling through the steep gorges in winter even today. Disadvantages consist in the fact that the shining ice is difficult to be walked upon for mounts and pack animals. Moreover, the ‘bridges’ can be used for only few months in a year. Rafts and inflated animal skins Smaller rafts of wood or bamboo and inflated animal skins can only be used to a limited extent, as they are applicable only in relatively calm water. The rafts were punted or pulled by ropes that were stretched across the rivers. In Bhutan, bamboo rafts, which can accommodate four to five people, are used in Manas, in the southern part of the country.39 In Bhutan, rafts are also used if a corpse had to be transported across a river, since it was forbidden to transport deceased over a bridge in order not to offend the protective spirits. The author could observe in 1990 in Eastern Tibet a raft made from a rust of eight inflated pigskins. Moreover, in 1978 he also saw a Bhutanese who crossed the river recumbently paddling with hands and feet on an inflated yak skin in the Tang valley in Bumthang. Boats 39 Ura 2000, p.47. 53 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Two kinds of boats are used for transporting goods and crossing rivers in Central Tibet since the Middle Ages. The first type consisted of light boats made from three yak skins stretched on wood, which could be carried on land. This boat can be carried comfortably upstream by a single person and has a carrying capacity of more than one ton on the water. Since the 18th century (most probably from the 17th century), heavy wooden boats that were up to four metres wide and 20 metres long are to this day are ferried from Tsethang to Samye across the Yarlung Tsangpo river. Stone slab bridges The stone slab bridges were not common in the Himalayas up to the last century. Whatever the available material in the mountains allowed, natural slate plates or granite plates were moved with wooden roles to the creeks, and stable bridges were built. The spans were narrowly limited to a few metres. Accordingly, stone bridges in the Himalayas play a subordinate role. Girder bridges from round and squared timber trunks Despite their materials having had to be brought partially to the building site from afar girder bridges play a far more important role. For timber bridges, one stacked loose stone foundations up on both riverbanks and put over it several round or sharp-edged hewed trunks. Usually for this bridge, fir, spruce and pine trunks were used. With this kind of bridge, one reaches a span (with trunks that were long and thick) of more than twelve metres. Larger spans will fail because of the dead weight and the deflection of the trunks conditioned thereby or the transport possibilities of long and heavy wooden trunks. Because of the weight, only bridges with low spans could be provided with a layer from stone plates. The static system of these bridges is very simple, i.e. one girder on two props. All together, this simple system in many places attained durability, lasting many decades. In order to achieve larger spans, favourable conditions like suspending or overhanging rocks or recumbent rocks in the 54 Bridges in the Himalayas river were often used as natural stream pillars. In Bhutan, these bridges are built on a large scale even to this day along with the wooden cantilever bridges, which we will deal later.40 Single rope bridges In travel reports of the past, the crossing of rivers by using ropes made from plant fibre are recorded with great respect. Fastened temporary ropes are used for the crossing of an expedition, but mostly, ropes are permanently fixed with stones. In the easiest case, a rope was stretched, where one had to ‘work his way along’. Almost comfortably were two tense ropes with a ring. The traveller had to sit or kneel down in this hoop and then pull himself with both ropes (which also carry the ring) across the river or the gorge. In Bhutan, for spanning such a rope, it was knotted to a thin thread, which was then shot with an arrow across the river. The thinner thread or rope then pulled the heavy rope across the river. 40 Gerner 1999, p.1411. 55 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Fig. 21: Difficult gorge crossing on a single rope bridge. Source: Aris, 1982. Captain Turner describes such a bridge between Murichom and Chukha in the valley of the Wang Chu in Bhutan: A very curious and simple bridge, for the accommodation of single passengers, communicated between this and the opposite mountain. It consisted of two large ropes made of twisted creepers, stretched parallel to each other, and encircled with a hoop. The traveller, who wishes to cross over from hence, has only to place himself between the ropes, and sit down on the hoop, seizing one rope in each hand, by means of which he slides himself along, and crosses an abyss on which I could not look without shuddering. Custom, however, has rendered it familiar, and easy to those who are in the practice of thus passing from one mountain to the other, as it saves them by this expedient, a laborious journey of several days.41 Ropes made from yak skin 41 Turner 1800, p.54 and Ura 2000, p.48. 56 Bridges in the Himalayas Father M. Huc saw on his trips to Tartary i.e. Tibet and China from 1840 to 1846 a bridge made from ropes, which were plaited out of yak skin leather. Huc comments: As we were passing the Ya-Loung-Kiang in a boat, a shepherd crossed the same river on a bridge merely composed of a thick rope of yak skin tightly stretched from one bank to the other. A solid strap to a moveable pulley on the rope suspended a sort of wooden stirrup. The shepherd had only to place himself backwards, under this strange bridge, with his feet on the stirrup, and hold on to the rope with both his hands; he then pulled the rope gently; the mere weight of his body made the pulley move, and he reached the other side in a very short time. These bridges are very common in Thibet, and are very convenient for crossing torrents and precipices; but one must be accustomed to them.42 Suspension bridges from plant fibres In Bhutan as well as in Zanskar and Lahoul, elegant suspension bridges were built with a span reaching up to 40 metres. Karma Ura describes bridges of the semitropical areas of Bhutan made from reed and climbers, consisting of slope ropes and the walking layer fastened to it. The railing is made from twisted mats. The ropes are partially strengthened with wood and both supports were fastened with wooden constructions.43 Crook and Osmasten describe rope bridges from Zanskar: Suspension bridges are used on spans up to 60 metre in length, traditionally made of cables of twisted branchlets (Lonicera myrtillus, a kind of honeysuckle) or of stak.pa (Betula utilis, a birch). Since these bridges need renewing every three years or so, they are now being increasingly reinforced or replaced by steel cables. Normally these cannot 42 43 Huc 1856, p.572/573. Ura 2000, p.48. 57 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo be crossed by animals. New and bigger bridges with wooden decking are being built in a few places (e. g. Padum).44 Similar rope bridges were built (and are still built occasionally) in South America. The immense road system of the Incas from the second half of 15th up to the beginning of the 16th century got by only with one system of bridges. The Incas had a similar ‘bridge building program’ like the ones to be found in the Himalayas: Stone bridges from big blocks, wooden cantilever bridges, hanging rope bridges, rope bridges with baskets but no iron chain bridges were constructed. The most interesting constructions are the suspension bridges made from dried grass. In 1534, Pedro Sanches, the secretary of Pizarro observed the construction of such a rope bridge of the Incas. In 1870, there was a report about the Apurimac suspension bridge with approximately 45-metre span. Such constructions are to be observed until the end of 20th century.45 Weihreter reports about an outstanding suspension bridge near Schaor in Lahoul. It is regarded as among the biggest and best suspension bridges in the whole of the Himalayas. This fragile looking construction is only made out of the branches of the Killa-bush (tuzia remenodis). This bridge is produced of a thick rope twisted from branches used as a tread and two such ropes as handrails where three ropes are connected in such a way that also the handrails help with the carrying.46 Crook 1994, p.51. Zweitausendeins 2000, p.249 ff. “The seventy wonders of the ancient world. The great monuments and how they were built.” Published by Thames and Hudson, London in 1999, German translation entitled “Die siebzig Weltwunder” published by Zweitausendeins, Frankfurt in 2000. The bridge of Apurimac, but also the so-called “hammock bridges”, as it was recorded, e.g. by Alexander von Humboldt in 1802 in today's Ecuador, are often used in the whole bridge literature as examples. 46 Weihreter 2001, p.33. 44 45 58 Bridges in the Himalayas Fig. 22: The author in 1975, on a bridge made from willow tree branches in Ladakh. During his travel from 1979 and 1980 in Zanskar, the author saw a bridges in use made from willow-tree branches. One such is the Zangla bridge across the Zanskar river and another is found across the Lingti Chhu at Char. These bridges had spans up to forty metres and are made of six to nine centimetre thick willow rope bundles with approximately fifteen centimetres in diameter. Together, these ropes were connected with thin pasture ropes again. Such bridges could be used by two to three people and swayed strongly in both directions. The packing animals could not use this bridge, but had to cross the rivers by swimming. The disadvantage of all rope bridges and bridges made from plant fibres lie in need for frequent repairs. This signifies a huge amount of work involved for the inhabitants of a village for many weeks. The bridge across the Zanskar river with its 40 metres of span was regarded as one of the longest spanned willow branch bridges. Bamboo arch bridges 59 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo In the bamboo covered valleys of the southern and eastern Himalayas, arched bridges made from bamboos are still in use today. From a single bamboo pole to bundle of bamboo poles, one formed bows on which a light bridge rail with ropes from plant fibres was hung up. Blanche Christine Olschak reports about the English naturalist Joseph Dalton Hooker and his expeditions to Sikkim from 1848 to 1851: “Steadfast Hooker crossed the gorges of the rivers on slimy and swinging bamboo bridges.” A detailed sketch of a bamboo bridge with approximately 30 metres of span is presented in the report.47 In Bhutan, on the way upstream of the Paro Chhu towards Lingshi Dzong, the author could see a simple bamboo arch bridge in use as late as 1996. Steel cables with hoops Even in the 20th century, this method of crossing rivers and ravines was used in the Himalayas. A single wire rope is stretched over relatively light abutments and by means of a role with a bench one pulls oneself across the river. After some enhancements, a wooden box was hung up on two roles for a maximum of two people and one also had to pull oneself with the hands along the wire rope and in each case, the last quarter of the rope sagging required all power. Therefore, these ‘transport boxes’ were made even more comfortable, while they received a hauling cable with which one could pull the vehicle on the desired side, as well as be moved from the shore. Weihreter in 1985 in the Western Himalaya could witness the transfer of a tensioning rope and calls the equipment ‘Jhula’.48 47 48 Olschak 1965, p.66/67. Weihreter 2001, p.30. 60 Bridges in the Himalayas Fig. 23: Crossing the Indus river with a hoop on a steel cable. From 1976 to 1985, the author had to cross the Indus river in Ladakh (La dvags) several times, using such bridges. Similarly, Sven Hedin, while he was wandering through the Trans-Himalaya in 1906 and 1907, had numerous adventurous crossings of rivers and gorges by using this kind of bridges. About a Sutlej crossing, he writes: Deva Ram gives his sign, the rope carriage starts to glide; I float beyond the edge and now below me in the depth the greyish white waves of the river are rolling. An eternity passes. Why do I not already arrive over there, then? It is only 35 metres. Over there on the heights is my old Tibet. Down there in the levels is India. My caravan has been torn apart. I myself float between the sky and the murderous Satledch (Sutlej). I have investigated this river and have found its original spring. The discovery cost a sacrifice indeed. I had never had such respect before the immense majestic river like at this moment, and all at once I had understanding for the chörten-pyramids and stone marks of the Tibetans on shores and bridges, those calls for help against indomitable natural forces and those lithified prayers to relentless gods. My look falls on the white boiling gigantic kettle in the abyss down there. How splendid, how fascinatingly nice. The language owns no words for it; no master can paint this picture. The vertiginous bird’s-eye view 61 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo cannot be returned on the canvas. Only after a model one could make off a concept. Only listen to the concentrated rumbling of this water thunder which is renewed with every moment. It fills up the narrow stone gutter and I float in the midst of a chaos of sound waves which cross each other from all sides. With every jerk that the drawing of the people causes, I swing, to and fro. Holla! Only two metres up to the edge of the stone dam. Marvellous land! If the cable has held so long, it will not exactly tear now with fateful crashing. Pull, only one more metre. With a cosy feeling of security I glide further on over the stone dam and in the twinkling of an eye. I am single for all gang and bonds!49 Wooden cantilever bridges Simple bended beams with a maximum of about 12 metres of span were not long enough for many broader rivers and gorges. First, one started to support the beam in bending from the riverbanks at an angle and then developed cantilever bridges with cantilevered tiers of beams from the river banks, which again supported up to 12 metre long single tense suspension beams. For the cantilever bridges, firm bridgeheads from stones and hardening tiers of wood were established. Then on the bridge height up to about five tiers of beams were piled on one another in each case, cantilevering from about 1.5 to 2.5 metres. The cantilever beams then carry the freely tensed middle section. The tiers of beams themselves are weighted with piled up stone tiers, so that they remain stable. Particularly, in the eastern Tibet, one will find reckless constructions of these cantilever bridges that are still in use today. 49 Hedin 1909, p.344. 62 Bridges in the Himalayas Fig. 24: Horse caravan on the former cantilever bridge across the Paro Chhu below Taktshang. In Bhutan, they have received a special characteristic, where not only stone tiers were used as a weight to the tiers of beams, but also splendid bridge houses were built. The most significant of these bridges was the bridge below the Wangdi Phodrang Dzong, with a span of approximately 52 meters that stood from 1684 until it was washed away in 1968. These bridges provide their service in Bhutan to this day. One such bridge is built next to the vegetable market in Thimphu across the Thimphu Chhu in the year 2005 and another one is planned to connect the Punakha Dzong.50 The cantilever bridge at the Punakha Dzong, the winter residence of the Je Khenpo, was destroyed by high water. However, the left bridge tower with the cantilever tiers of beams was preserved. An emergency bridge was first spanned at these cantilever beams as a light suspension bridge to the right riverbank. Later, only a few metres upstream, a cable rope suspension bridge with concrete pylons was erected. This is supposed to be substituted again 50 63 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Iron chain suspension bridges In the overall development of bridge building as well as forged suspension bridges, the earliest known iron chain bridge architect, Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo, play a significant role. Thangtong Gyalpo is supposed to have built 108 iron chain bridges in Tibet and Bhutan, in addition to a number of ferry boats, possibly between the year 1430 and 1464. Some of the iron chain bridges have survived to this day and have provided their services without repair or special care and without having shown signs of rust or corrosion. The remaining iron chain bridges by Thangtong Gyalpo or the vestiges of them that have survived to this day as well as a few drawings or the vestiges of abutments show that in Tibet and Bhutan at least two distinguishing constructions were carried out. The type 1 bridge normally consists of two parallel spanned chains in between where the bridge rail, the walking layer was hung on to the ropes. Instead of a firm bridge rail, only bamboo mats were often inserted into the ropes. In some cases, such iron chain bridges were strengthened, while by height of the walking layer, two other chains were arranged. With the iron chain bridges existing even today, the ‘railing chains’ are provided with the chains with wires or wire meshes which carry the walking layer. Earlier, instead of the wires, one probably also used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins at the iron chain bridges. The type 2 bridge, a stress ribbon bridge consists of several chains spanned side by side that directly carry the screed, the bridge rail, as well as additionally higher arranged chains at the side which served as a railing. The bridge existing today at Duksum in Eastern Bhutan and the bridge discovered by Samuel Turner in the 18th century close to Chukha and according to the plans of the Swiss engineer Fritz Baumgärtner by a wooden cantilever bridge. 64 Bridges in the Himalayas drawn by James Basire and Samuel Davis belong to this kind. For this type, there is no evidence found by means of historical bridge descriptions or through other reports, which can be traced back to Thangtong Gyalpo. It is more likely that original iron chain bridges by Thangtong Gyalpo were extended with two or more chains. A variation of type 1 bridge is the ‘suspended’ bridge. The bridge of Tholing in the former kingdom of Guge in Western Tibet shows a mixed construction in this respect, as it concerns one of the wooden cantilever bridge typical of the Himalayas, whose long span is supported by two spanned chains above it, as well as appropriately hung out chains. Other mixed constructions are combined bridges, for example’ wire ropes and willow ropes. Starting with father Grueber, almost all European travellers who used the iron chain bridges in Tibet and Bhutan were highly impressed by them. In 1856, father Huc writes: Iron suspension bridges likewise are in use a lot, especially in the provinces of U (dBus) and Tsang (gTsang). To construct these (suspension bridges), as many iron anchors are attached on both sides of the river, as they have chains. Then the chains are stretched, and on top of the chain planks which are partially covered with a tier of earth are fastened. Because these bridges are especially loose (swing and sway) they are equipped with railings.51 In 1906, John Claude White informs about iron chain bridges in Bhutan,52 and also from 1906 to 1907, Sven Hedin Huc 1856, p.573/574. White reports about his trip through Bhutan in 1906 to the Royal Geographical Society in London on the 8 December, 1909. Among others, White mentions the good state of the cantilever bridges. However, it seemed to him that the suspension bridges had been given up. 51 52 65 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo mentions iron chain bridges in Tholing and Phuntsholing and, finally, Heinrich Harrer uses it in 1945 at Chung Riwoche on his way from India to Lhasa. Suspension bridges After steel cables were available at about the middle of the 20th century, ropes and rope bridges from plant fibres and chains were substituted increasingly by steel cables. This development first started in Nepal followed by Bhutan and Tibet. Especially, the iron chain bridges in Nepal were substituted with cable suspension bridges using the pylons and bridgeheads of the chain bridge. In the meantime, cable suspension bridges with spans of more than 250 metres and high pylons in form of steel truss constructions are no more a rarity in the Himalayas. In Bhutan alone, approximately 400 cable suspension bridges were said to be built. Bailey bridges Pioneer bridges from light steel truss parts that could be mounted without heavy hoists were likewise introduced to the Himalayas by Indian, Chinese and Nepalese military in the second half of the 20th century. These bridges, named after the British engineer Donald Coleman Bailey (1901-1985) spans to approximately 80 metres. This is achieved through building sets-like side by side stacks or on top of each other, sorting of light bridge building parts with about 1metre height and 3 metre long spans. These bridges are covered with wood and present one lane each; however, horses and mule caravans can well meet on the bridges. Bridges like this were developed for military purposes. They are intended as temporary facilities. In many parts of the Himalayas, they have partially been used as stationary bridges for many decades. If a Bailey bridge is dismantled, its parts are reassembled in a new bridge. In 2003 at Khuruthang in Bhutan, the wide spanning Khuru Khuenphen Zam was erected from parts of other bridges. In addition, combinations of Bailey and steel cable suspension bridges have proved themselves. A similar one in Samtse was built in 66 Bridges in the Himalayas 1993, across the Daina Chhu with a span of 330 metres. For this a wide spanning Bailey bridge, rail with steel cables above high steel truss pylons was hung down. Concrete bridges Concrete bridges as single field bridges or multiple field bridges have removed Bailey-bridges in particular. The span from yoke to yoke can hardly reach 20 metres. These bridges also admit heavy driving traffic and are already partly twolane. The bridges are either prefabricated or made out of concrete that is produced at the local spot. For the prefabrication, heavy transport vehicles and lifting devices are necessary. Arch bridges Arch bridges produced through concrete construction methods, with partly spectacular constructions have been introduced in the Himalayas in the second half of the 20th century. In the 50s and 60s, Chinese master builders began with wide-spanning concrete arches, e.g., with the Gangge Bridge across the Yarlung Tsangpo or the friendship bridge between Nepal and Tibet. In Bhutan, with Swiss help, the concrete arch bridge across the Puna Tsang Chhu, also called Tsangmi Chhu, below Wangdi Phodrang was constructed during the last years of the 20th century. This bridge in particular has its development and history documented impressively. The first bridge, the Tsangmi Chakzam, an iron suspension bridge, was built by Thangtong Gyalpo after 1433. In 1684, it was replaced by a wooden cantilever bridge that spanned two times across a natural river pillar, the Tsangmi Zam. The larger bridge part had a span of 52 metres and the smaller one with a one sided cantilever a span of 24 metres. The bridge stood for centuries up to about 1915, when a mighty flood washed it away. A new wooden cantilever bridge with an identical construction like the old Tsangmi Zam was rebuilt immediately. In the meantime, a bamboo bridge was built as a temporary measure. In 1968, once gain the Tsangmi Zam 67 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo fell victim to a flash flood. In the beginning of the 70s, it was substituted by a Bailey bridge. The Bailey bridge was once again replaced by a concrete arch bridge towards the turn of the millennium. Steel truss bridges As for the latest bridge development in the Himalayas, steel truss bridges are among the most popular. Steel truss bridges were built in Tibet, on the so-called south route from lake Manasarowar to the west. It is also popularly built in Nepal. Steel trusses have the special advantage that they can be prefabricated in relatively small and light units and be mounted on site with light lifting devices. In Bhutan, Indian road builders first built steel truss bridges, like the one across the Paro Chhu between Paro and Chuzom. In cooperation between Bhutan and Japan, five steel truss bridges were built from 2002 to 2004, which were prefabricated in Japan, then shipped via Calcutta and finally mounted in a very short time. Largely, these bridges substituted the existing Bailey-bridges. In this way, the following bridges were established at the main artery road from the west to the east, which is the most important road connecting Western and Eastern Bhutan: 1. 2. 3. 4. Waheyzam, Samtengang Bjizam, Trongsa Chamkharzam, Jakar Kurizampa, Mongar Yet another of this kind, a truss arch bridge with a 92-metre span is found across the Mangde Chhu in the south of Bhutan. These bridges introduced a new era in the bridge technology of the Himalayas. They have span of more than 50 metres and are 7.5 metres wide, with two-lane traffic and the supporting steel constructions are maintenance free. 68 Bridges in the Himalayas Bridges, ferries and boats made by Thangtong Gyalpo Apart from the suspension bridges, Thangtong Gyalpo has also helped with the development of ferries and boats. In his biographies, Thangtong Gyalpo is often mentioned as Chakzampa, a suspension bridge builder, but he was also known as the constructor of ferries.53 Continuous connecting lines as for the personality and the work of Thangtong Gyalpo can even be harder to draw. In Tibet, there are two kinds of ferries: One in the form of light yak skin boats called Kowa by the Tibetans, and heavy ferries of wood. The yak-skin boats are partially framed boats made from three complete and one divided yak’s skin which can carry about one ton of load and which are to be found throughout Tibet. The wooden ferries are about four metres wide and up to 20 metres long with about a half a metre of draught. These ferries are only found at the Yarlung Tsangpo, for e.g., between Tsethang and Samye. Such ferries can transport up to 20 to 25 tons, including large herd of yaks, cows or horses, and even lorries. At yak-skin boats, the triangular or semicircular with about 30 x 40 cm yak skin piece, which is sewed on the longer cross sides at the upper board between large yak skins, is called a ‘head’. Diana Altner in her report “The Tibetan yak skin boat in the change of the time” writes: This skin piece symbolises the head of the holy Thangtong Gyalpo as well as those of the boat and should protect the passengers of the boat against demons and accidents. Today every Tibetan skin boat disposes this kind of ‘“head”. On very old photos of former Tibet travellers, the “heads” of the boats are likewise recognizable. Unfortunately, the early wall paintings of skin boats give no explanation about the existence of these special sewed skin pieces. It remains unclear whether the so-called “head” of the boats was Aris 1979, p.185. Aris writes: “... This interesting figure is not only remembered for his many iron chain suspension bridges and boat ferries, …” 53 69 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo originally used purely for practical reasons (to make the skin more imperishable from flaws by dividing the seam), or whether his origin can actually be related to Thangtong Gyalpo.54 Concerning the ferries in general, there is a clear reference to Thangtong Gyalpo. Probably, his most significant suspension bridge is ‘Chakzam’ (therefore, simply ‘suspension bridge’ without local epithet) which spans across the Yarlung Tsangpo, some distance above the confluence with the Kyichhu river at the holy mountain of Chu wo ri. Apart from the few distinct monasteries, there was once a monastery where the monks followed the tradition of Thangtong Gyalpo. This was also the seat of his incarnations and it was completely destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Not only was the suspension bridge built for monastery, but it is also a facility for ferries. Mc Govern comments on this in 1926: We had different animals brought with us and, hence, we could not use these boats (Kowa). For us a big, rectangular, wooden boat with a plane ground was prepared, which I believe, was the only one of its kind to be found in Tibet.55 Iron chain suspension bridges in the Himalayas The literature attributes the construction of 108 suspension bridges and many ferries to Thangtong Gyalpo who is said to have built them with a principle motive of making the holy sites accessible to pilgrims. Out of 108, 100 are supposed to have been built in Tibet and the rest in Bhutan. The number 108 is a magic number, a lucky number, e.g., 108 plaits of the Tibetan women or 108 beads in the ‘Tibetan rosary’ (phreng ba) or 108 (9 x 12) columns that are manifested externally in the largest dukhang. Going by the biographical records, Thangtong Gyalpo, his followers and immediate 54 55 Altner 2005, p.36/37. Mc Govern 1926, p.203. 70 Bridges in the Himalayas successors have built numerous suspension bridges in Tibet and Bhutan, and what seemed more reasonable, than to ascribe 108 ‘luck-bringing’ bridges to the great master. Other authors mention 100 or 80 bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo, of which eight are across the Yarlung Tsangpo alone. The fact that some chain bridges fell into the water at their original place or were dismantled and partly put together by using chains of different forerunner bridges to new bridges elsewhere, causes among other things, many difficulties at the identification and the assignment of the bridges. In this way, the iron chain bridge at Tashigang in Eastern Bhutan was destroyed in 1968 by floods and parts of those chains were reinstated in the bridge at the nearby Doksum. A part of the chains of this bridge was demolished again in 2005 and was integrated into a new iron chain bridge at Tamchog, which was chosen as the place for the building a new one at the special request of the royal family, as it is strongly associated with Thangtong Gyalpo. Although, the new bridge is planned for the site, however, it is very difficult to ascribe the chains to Thangtong Gyalpo owing to the above reason. However, at least three facts help to assign iron chain bridges directly to the great master. They are biographical references to bridge buildings and places where Thangtong Gyalpo has worked; the form and arrangement of iron chain bridges; and, finally the form of the chain links or the blacksmith’s technology. Below is the list of iron chain bridges and their locations in Tibet, China, Bhutan and Nepal. Following this, existing bridges or bridge remnants are discussed followed by bridges which are mentioned in the literature, and finally data are presented to those bridges, where only the names are known. From the numerous reports on the bridges by travellers, researchers and adventurers, like Johannes Grueber and Samuel Turner up to Sven Hedin and Heinrich Harrer, only a few will be presented - as far as it seems necessary for the 71 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo use of the technology, but also in as far as to elaborate on the impressions. 72 Bridges in the Himalayas Tibet In Tibet, at least six iron chain bridges or essential parts have survived to this day: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Chung Riwoche Chakzam Phuntsholing Chakzam Rinchen Chakzam Tholing Chakzam Riwoche Chakzam Panding Chakzam From two other significant bridges river pillars still exist. 1. Chakzam 2. Nyang Druka Chakzam Finally, there are information available for the following bridges that were mostly sunk. 1. Rinchending Chakzam 2. Batang Chakzam 3. Sogchu Chakzam Chung Riwoche Chakzam Beside the ‘Chakzam’ at the Chuwo Ri mountain, the iron suspension bridge at the Kumbum in Chung Riwoche is one of the most significant creations of Thangtong Gyalpo. About 100 kilometres upstream from Lhatse and about 50 kilometres from Rinchen Ding, Thangtong Gyalpo’s birthplace, the bridge straddles over the Yarlung Tsangpo. The bridge is located about 250 metres away from Thangtong Gyalpo’s masterpiece, the Chung Riwoche Kumbum, which secured the access to the shrine for the pilgrims particularly during the time when the ferry traffic was not possible. In addition, the bridge safeguarded the transit on the big eastwest connection in Tibet. Even today, the bridge from more technical side than aesthetic view proves to be an impressive work. 73 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo In only about 200 metres of distance downstream, a new cable suspension bridge that may be used by light vehicles was built in similar dimensions and in similar structure like the bridge of Thangtong Gyalpo. Today Chung Riwoche and the bridge lie apart from the big traffic roads through Tibet and can be reached in a cumbersome journey from Lhatse even in about six to eight hours at favourable weather and road conditions. Fig. 25: The Chung Riwoche Chakzam in front with the Kumbum in the background. Bridge technology The bridge lies in a wide river valley, which does not support anchoring of chains in the rock, but had to be spanned across two land pillars, the bridgehead and the stream pillar. Because of the long span of the left bridge field, Thangtong Gyalpo used four chains in Chung Riwoche: Two chains with a little thicker chain links, which carry the walking layer 74 Bridges in the Himalayas directly and two chains possibly at the height of a handrail, which are connected to the lower chains by ropes and help with the carrying in this manner. The stream pillar and both land pillars rise about six metres with a clear gradation of three metres of height above the normal water level. Stream pillars and land pillars consist of wackestone from the river that exist in large quantities at the site and are partly reinforced by strong wood. The stream pillar owns about 15-metre long breakwater and icebreaker upstream in the same construction like the pillar itself. The still original construction shows that one knew how to handle technically the floodwater strong, waves and even more so, the ice drifts of the stream current. The dimensions of the bridge and chain links are: - Span of the wide opening approximately 60 m - Span of the shorter opening 35 m - Chain links of the lower chains approximately 22 to 26 cm long, 7 to 8 cm wide - Steel cross cut approximately 2 x 3 cm - Chain links of the upper chains approximately 23 to 38 cm long, 7 to 8 cm wide - Steel cross-cut approximately 2 x 2 cm According to the biographical information, Thangtong Gyalpo built the bridge in 1436, i.e. after his first trip to Bhutan, from where he brought large quantity of iron to Tibet. In connection with the preparations for the construction of the Chung Riwoche Kumbum, Thangtong Gyalpo in 1448, even mentions about the advantages of bridge.56 It is clearly mentioned in many sources, what importance it had for the To enforce the construction site desired by him, Thangtong Gyalpo in 1448 explained to the regional rulers the advantages of the construction site for the Chung Riwoche Kumbum, which was in immediate vicinity of the river crossing via the iron chain bridge built by him. 56 75 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo traffic in Tibet. It was obvious even in 1945, when Heinrich Harrer, after his escape with Peter Aufschnaiter from the English internment camp in India and on the way to Lhasa, writes: On the 2nd of December, 1945 Peter Aufschnaiter and I reached the big Tsangpo. Already days before worries tormented us as to how we could cross it. In Tschung Riwotsche (Chung Riwoche), as the place on the opposite riverbank was called, stood an enormous Stupa, as big as we knew it only of pictures from Gyantse. The Tsangpo was covered with gigantic ice floes and to swim through it was absolutely unthinkable, because of the strong current and cold. A nomad who noted our desperation pointed upstream where an iron chain bridge with two pillars spanned the stream. It was one of one hundred and eight iron bridges, that Thangdong Gyalpo built 500 years ago had forged. After we had unloaded our things, the yak went into the cold water without any hurry. The waves engulfed him, only his immense head protruded between the floes, the current grasped the obviously excellent swimmer and about one kilometre downstream he reached the other shore. Of course our minds at that time were thinking of other things, than to admire the brilliant construction of the bridge. We climbed on the raised bridge pillar and saw that there was no ground at all. One had to put the foot straight on strap and might not look down, so that to one did not become dizzy by the raving floes. I waited, until Aufschnaiter had reached the next bridge pillar, then the balancing act began. I carried the shivering dog under one arm, and with the other hand I had to hold on to compensate the swinging of the iron chain bridge. It was adventurous and the thought that I had to do it this way once again, disheartening. So that the fingers did not stick on the iron, we used socks as gloves. The bitter cold of twenty degrees minus gave us no end of trouble. We manoeuvred for hours and the day came to an end. However, we had overcome the big obstacle on the way to the north.57 57 Harrer 2005, pp.24-26. 76 Bridges in the Himalayas In the year 2002, the bridge is still extant but was not passable anymore, because the cables to the connection of the chains and the walking layer were missing in each case on the last metres. The villagers explained to us that since the establishment of the new bridge, the old bridge was not maintained anymore. However, as it is associated with the Mahāsiddha, it is still revered highly: The numerous prayer flags like the dead black cat hung up nearby the bridgehead and the remains of a raven testify this fact. The black animals represent a defence symbol for the people and the bridge. Phuntsholing Chakzam The Puntsholing Chakzam (today Pinzoling) across the Yarlung Tsangpo is about 50 km downstream of Lhatse. The bridge served as an easy access to the Puntsholing monastery and even more to the huge Jonang Chörten, only about 1.5 hours of travel on foot from the bridge, but served also the holiday traffic to the north-south as well as to east-west direction. The geographical situation of this bridge and the bridge building work is similar to Chung Riwoche, that Thangtong Gyalpo had two river pillars set up next to the banks, which almost stand dry at low water and another two pillars as bridgeheads on the banks in the distance of approximately 20 to 25 metres of the river pillars. The pillars, that are made from wackestones of the river and rise about nine metres above the water, are three times reinforced and protected well with wood. Since the crown of a pillar is worn out, it is easier to understand the construction well. Around a row of vertically placed wood, some rings of beams are carpentered that show a steady skeleton altogether. There are also timber joint plugs, mole plugs and leaves to be found. Despite the big span of the central field, only two chains are spanned here. In between the chains, which serve as handrails, ropes or, more recently cables, which carry the walking layer were and still are spanned. Because the stream pillars lie near the bank and are thereby are spanned less, the wave and ice rejecters are set up less strongly. 77 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo The dimensions of the bridge and chain links are as follows: - Span of right bridgehead (1st stream pillar): 25 m Span of the central field: 76 m Span left bridgehead (2nd stream pillar): 20 m Chain links: approximately 25 cm to 28 cm long and 7 cm to 8 cm wide - Steel crosscut: approximately 1.8 x 2.5 cm - Fig. 26: The part of the Phuntsoling Chakzam across the Yarlung Tsangpo, which is still functioning. The bridge was used until about 1904. In 1907, Sven Hedin reports in his book ‘Transhimalaya’: Almost immediately south of Tschagha, a village with a few stone houses in a grove of old willows, one can see the monastery and the Dsong (Dzong) of Pinsoling (Phuntsholing) on the right riverbank. The river is narrow and the banks full of round granite blocks of one metre in diameter; the necessary material to a bridge is available. On the banks two mighty stone pyramids and behind the two another two 78 Bridges in the Himalayas smaller ones are erected. Between those two thick chains are spanned that are prolonged up to the smaller pyramids and are fastened there once again. Between the chains, a network of ropes is spanned like a hammock on which one lays narrow planks; on these one walks and uses the chains as a railing. However, since three years the Pinsoling Bridge it is not used anymore; whoever wants to proceed to Pinsoling from Tschagha, must first go upstream to Ladse-dsong (Lhatse dzong) and then use the ferry there.58 During the last years of the 20th century, only a few metres from Phuntsholing a new suspension bridge was built upstream, which can also carry heavy traffic load. The bridge of Thangtong Gyalpo for some time must have still been used, because instead of the former ropes for the walking layer cables were arranged. With the first local perpetration by the author, the bridge was still passable. In 2001, it was no longer usable but still completely available. However, in 2002, the bridge stood only from the left bridgehead up to the first stream pillar, while the chains of the middle section and the right part lay in the floods of the Yarlung Tsangpo. Rinchen Chakzam On the edge of a wide valley, to the north of Lhasa where the rivers Rong Chhu, Talung Chhu and Miggi unite to the Kyichu river, another bridge attributed to Thangtong Gyalpo leads across the Kyichu. This iron chain bridge allowed among others, the access to the huge monasteries of Reting, Taglung and Drigung, but it is also important traffic wise, as well as strategically. Through this bridge, several caravan used to cross, in particular the north-south road from Sining and the Kokonor across the Tangla mountains, Reting, then via the Rinchen Chakzam, which for example, had already been used by father Johannes Grueber in the middle of the 17th century. 58 Hedin 1909. p.375/376. 79 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo The Chom Lhakhang, which has been restored in recent times, and a small settlement, the today’s Lhundrub Xian, are located directly above the bridge. The bridge building place has a geomantic meaning concerning the related and consistently formed ‘pyramid mountain’. The four chains of the bridge from different construction phases spanned directly above the possibly head-high pylons on the riverbanks of the Kyichu. Fig. 27: The Rinchen Chagzam on the way the monastery of Reting and Lhasa, Tibet. The dimensions of the bridge and chain links are: - Span approximately 45m - Chain links vary; they are approximately 30 to 40 cm long and 8 to 11 cm wide, where a single chain links with more than 50 cm of length occur. - Steel cross cut approximately 1.8 x 2.0 cm to 1.8 x 2.8 cm. 80 Bridges in the Himalayas Wolf Kahlen has, with the help of an indentation in a chain link identified the construction date to be 1442.59 In another chain link, the name ‘Rinchen Chakzam’ is engraved and the term ‘Rinchen’ for ‘great preciousness’ must be seen in direct connection with the Mahāsiddha who has established the bridge. In the third quarter of the 20th century, only a few metres farther downstream, a huge stone arch bridge, with double lanes for heavy traffic was built. The numerous prayer flags at the chains and on the bridgeheads testify the high admiration, which people have for Thangtong Gyalpo. A dead black cat for the defence against evil of bridge and people is hung up at the chain links at the side of the village just before the investigation of the bridge by the author in 2004. Tholing Chakzam A combined bridge straddles a narrow gorge of the Sutlej only a few kilometres from Tholing. This bridge protected the access to the once important Western Tibetan kingdom of Guge with the monastic cities of Tholing and Tsaparang. The Sutlej river, with torrential flow and narrow gorge is practically not passable with ferries, and before iron chain bridges existed, had to be crossed on a so called ‘single rope bridges’ at other places, where one had to ‘work his way along’ or had to draw oneself to move in a ring or box. Several travellers report about the reckless enterprise of this suitable river crossing. As the pack and riding animals also needed a bridge to cross the gorge and the torrential waters, another construction was chosen in Tholing. Initially a vertiginous wooden cantilever bridge was erected because of its bridgeheads that were 59 Kahlen 1992. p.41/42. 81 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo ‘stuck’ in the rocks. On top of the tiers of beams that are cantilevering far outside, bended beams that are as long superimpose the centre field. Because the span is too wide, this bridge could hardly carry itself. Therefore, high above the stonewall bridgeheads; two strong chains are hung to hold the wooden bridge. Above the old bridge, the steel construction of the new iron truss bridge is visible. Fig. 28: The combined cantilever and iron chain bridge on the way to Tholing. Sven Hedin praised this bridge explicitly: The bridge of Totling (Tholing) is a good quality construction, and one can entrust the planks one’s horses without slightest fears. The bridgeheads are built in form of short stone tunnels on the outlets of the rocks, maybe 12 metres above the water surfaces. Between the upper surfaces of the tunnel walls, two mighty iron chains are spanned from riverbank to riverbank; the wooden rail of the bridge is hanging in them. The whole construction is joined so firmly that the bridge does not even tremble noticeably under the weight of the horses. The chains 82 Bridges in the Himalayas also serve as railing, and my mould had no opportunity to try his luck with a new death jump.60 The suspension bridge of Tholing, better the cantilever bridge hung up by chains, is still standing. One must pay attention not to overlook it. Chinese engineers have erected a steel truss bridge for heavy load traffic, which lies slightly apart from it. The dimensions of the old bridge and chain links are: - Span approximately 30 m - Chain links approximately 26 to 38 cm long and 7 to 8 cm wide - Steel crosscut approximately 1.8 cm x 2.5 cm Riwoche Chakzam In the Eastern Tibetan Province of Kham, another suspension bridge is ascribed to Thangtong Gyalpo. The Riwoche Chakzam straddles the Chi Chu, a tributary of the Mekong, which is about 60 kilometres to the north of the provincial centre of Riwoche, near the village of Chakzamkha, called after the iron chain bridge. The bridge is constructed as a stress ribbon bridge possibly like the bridge in Chhuka, with five chains which had a width about 2.60 metres, which directly carry the bridge rail. Today the chains are connected among each other with cable. Andreas Gruschke has accurately described this bridge: It has a span of about 40 metres and the chains are about 56 metres long, including its clamped support in the bridgeheads. Only one chain is supposed to stem from the original bridge, while the others arose with the repair and the rebuilding measures. The bridgeheads surmount the bridge Hedin 1909, p.305. With the construction of a steel bridge, the suspension bridge was difficult to access and is now practically not walkable anymore. 60 83 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo rail by about 10 metres. The height of the bridge is about 7 metres above the water level gauge at normal water level.61 To start a small ferry service, the iron chain bridge was strengthened in the 19th century with a steel cable and the handrails. The bridge was and still is an important limb of the caravan way from Lhasa and Central Tibet to the western part of the Chinese province of Szechuan. The name of the province, Riwoche, as well as the monastic foundation in Derge, the successor of his school tradition, and not least indications to the death of Thangtong Gyalpo in Kham in Eastern Tibet, are enough clues that this bridge was originally constructed by Thangtong Gyalpo. Panding Chakzam 61 Gruschke 2004, p.157 84 Bridges in the Himalayas Fig. 29: The Panding Chakzam strengthened with steel cables for modern traffic. The suspension bridge at Panding across the Yarlung Tsangpo is approximately 40 metre wide is located about 65 kilometres upstream from Lhatse and 35 kilometres downstream from Chung Riwoche. The bridge is in close proximity to Thangtong Gyalpo’s birthplace Rinchen Ding, which lies about three hours walk downstream. A 97-year-old Tibetan, Wangchuk from Panding recounted the fate of the bridge during the last about 100 years: Until 1994, the old suspension bridge stood with about six chains and a width of about 1.20 metres. This bridge, because of its width and planking stood relatively firm against the side wind and served for pack and riding animals. Chinese engineers altered the bridge in 1994, by widening it to 3.20 metres to make it passable for light vehicles. In addition to this modification, they strengthened the bridge with steel cables. Now the bridge has two mighty stonewall bridgeheads across which span the chains as well as the steel cables. The dimensions of the bridge and chain links are: - Span: 44 m - Original width: 1.20 m and width since 1994: 3.20 m - Chain at the top side of the river, chain links 30 to 41 cm long, 7 to 8 cm wide - Steel cross cut approximately 2 x 2 cm - Chain at the lower side of the river, chain links 26 to 31 cm long, 7 to 8 cm wide - Steel cross- cut 2 x 2 cm - 85 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Fig. 30: The author interviewing a 97 year old Tibetan Wangchuk about the history of the Panding Chakzam. Chakzam Although Chinese engineers tore down this bridge during the construction of the new concrete bridge in about 1950, the ‘Chakzam’ now and then also called ‘Chu Shur’ or ‘Chu Shul’ Chakzam remains the most famous bridge building work by Thangtong Gyalpo. Only the southern stream pillar made from wackestone from the river still tells us about its significance as one of the oldest and probably farthest spanned iron chain bridges in the Himalayas. From the whole northern part of Tibet, including Lhasa, one reached Thangtong Gyalpo’s main monastery at the southern Yarlung Tsangpo banks of Chuwo Ri via this iron chain bridge. Further, on, the north-south connection led to Bhutan, 86 Bridges in the Himalayas Sikkim, Nepal and India. Moreover, across this bridge, the way led from Lhasa to the big cities of Gyantse and Shigatse. According to biographical information, Thangtong Gyalpo built this iron chain bridge in the male iron dog year, corresponding to 1430, before his visit and iron import from Bhutan. With the construction of this suspension bridge, even more legends and stories are attributed to him at other places. Before there was a bridge here, Thangtong Gyalpo wanted to cross the Tsangpo by a ferryboat at this place. Since he was looking like a beggar, the pugnacious ferryman hit Thangtong Gyalpo with the oar that led the Drubthop fall into water. Thangtong Gyalpo was so angry about the immorality and impudence of ferrymen in general, that he decided to build a bridge and save pilgrims and travellers from similar situation. Another story recounts a practical side of Thangtong Gyalpo. For erecting the Chakzam as well as later bridges, he required money. In order to manage this, he created a musical play, searched seven especially pretty young girls as singers, let them perform the song play and earned a lot of success and high sums of money for his bridges: Ache Lhamo, the Tibetan opera was born. Tashi Tsering has precisely examined the activities of the Drubthop and has found the following passage in this regard: The Biography of Dpal Lcags zam pa Thang stong rgyal po and brief account of the building of iron bridges by the 11th Lcags zam grub thob sprul sku says: In the 15th Century, in order to raise funds for building iron bridges across big rivers in Tibet which were difficult to cross, Thang stong rgyal po called together seven young daughters of a family known as Sbas sna in ‘Phyongs rgyas. The seven sisters had beautiful figures, smiling faces, irresistibly attractive looks, the youthfulness of the full moon and melodious voices. The mere sight of them disturbed one’s mental equilibrium. He taught them the steps and tunes etc., and with the achievements of the ancient forefathers as the theme of the performance, he introduced the tradition of a lce lha mo, comprising Rngon pa, Rgya lu, Lha mo, and the use of 87 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo cymbals and drums, in all parts of Tibet. Hence Thang stong rgyal po is known as the founder of the lha mo tradition of the performing arts of Tibet. Not only does the folklore of Tibet describe Thang stong rgyal po as the lha mo tradition, but even today, when the lha mo artists stage performances, they always carry an image of Thang stong rgyal po with them. From this one can infer that Thang stong rgyal po founded the lha mo tradition of (the) performing art of Tibet.62 The Chakzam stood about 65 kilometres southwest from Lhasa, above the confluence of the Kyichu and the Yarlung Tsangpo. The northern bridgehead was located at the today’s village of Chushul. At the southern bridgehead below the Chakzam or Chuwo Ri monastery, stood a big chörten, the so called Thangtong Kumbum, that had his statue and relics enshrined inside. The bridge was erected in the design mostly chosen by Thangtong Gyalpo. Instead of usual two chains, this particular one has four chains, i.e. a doubled chain on every side across the bridge pillars were spanned and anchored with split pins in the strong beam of the wooden framework of the stream pillars, owing to its length. Up to four metre long ropes were hung between the chains and carried a bridge layer from lined up planks, several metres long and approximately 30 centimetres wide. According to photos of the suspension bridge that have been published several times, e.g., from Sven Hedin in 1907,63 the middle section must have reached a span of more than 100 metres. In spite of the length of the bridge, the northern riverbank was flooded with high water behind the northern bridge pillar. Despite having ‘high volume of traffic’ at this most important river crossing of Tibet, still the iron chain bridge functioned 62 63 Tsering, T. 2001, p.47. Hofmann 1983, p.83 88 Bridges in the Himalayas well. Here at this bridge, once riding, pack animals, and those herds that could not cross the several hundred metre wide Yarlung Tsangpo without swimming cross the river in addition to the human traffic. Here, there was also ferry traffic by yak leather boats and wooden ferries. Over the centuries, many travellers have recounted their adventures on or with the bridge. Von Hesse-Wartegg in 1900 ranks the bridge among the wonders of the world and reports in the “Wonders of the World”: At it’s fastest and at the same time deepest position (of the river) a precipitous rock island rises from its torrential floods, which was to the Tibetans virtually a naturally made bridge pillar. Nevertheless, the width of both arms of the river was still too large for the production of hanging ropes for a suspension bridge made from bamboo poles. Thus in the fifteenth century the Chinese prince Tang Tong had then made four massive chains with links of sixteen centimetres of diameter, forged of iron, spanned here across the river and hung up a bridge rail on ropes into these chains. The immense, half a millennium old work of Chinese engineering art exists even today, but while the chains are only slightly affected by the rust, the network of the bridge rail is damaged to such an extent that the Tibetans have given up the use of the bridge a long time ago and now help themselves to cross the river with two ferry boats. The place at this point of the Tsang-Po is still called Tschak-Sam (Chakzam), that is iron bridge.64 In 1904 and 1905, Austine Waddell was a leading medical officer with the Younghusband expedition to Tibet. He compiled a precise report of ‘Chakzam’ from a military point of view, of importance, is the specification of the bridge. According to his report, the span of the bridge is approximately 150 yard or about 137 metres. Since the description is precise, a relatively long citation will be repeated literally: 64 Hesse-Wartegg, p.217. 89 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo The old iron suspension bridge spans picturesquely the main stream of the river about 200 yards below the ferry, under the monastery which bears its name, `The holy hill of the Iron Bridge` (Chak-sam ch`ö-ri). It is of the kind met with in Western China, and, according to the local tradition, was built in the early part of the fifteenth century A.D. by the sage T`angtong-the King, now a canonised saint, whose image is worshipped not merely in the adjoining monastery, which he is also said to have built… His monumental handiwork here of itself certainly entitles him to the respect of the inhabitants; for although it is not used at present, owing apparently to the river having burst for nearly half its waters a fresh channel to the north, and so having left the northern end of the bridge stranded amid stream, the structure itself still stands firmly after all these centuries, a magnificent piece of engineering work in the wilds of Tibet. It is about 150 yards in length and 15 feet above flood-level, and stretches between two tall masonry piers which are characteristically given the shape of the sacred chorten. The northern pier stands on a large mound, doubtlessly founded on a rock, on what is now a wooden islet in the middle of the river, and the other stands on the rocky southern shore below the monastery (…). The two double chain-cables, made of 1 inch thick iron links of a foot long, are fastened at each end to great beams built into the piers and into the rocks beyond them. Between and connecting these two tightly stretched cables were suspended, throughout their length, at intervals of about a yard, loops of yak-hair rope, carrying, in their apex below, a footway of planks 1 foot broad and lashed end to end. The bridge was still in use in 1878, when visited by one of our Survey spies, whose diagram of it, here produced, shows the whole river as running under the viaduct, and this is still to occur at low water in the dry season. At present, being out of use, the timber footway and its suspensory ropes have been removed. The chief defects of the structure are its want of lateral stays to prevent the alarming swinging, and its open sides with narrow footway prevent it being used for cattle – only for human passengers, and not more than one of those could pass at a time. No toll was said to be levied for transit over it, 90 Bridges in the Himalayas as it was kept in free repair by the villagers for the Government; whilst for the ferry the fee of about two pence per passenger, and four pence a pony, went to the local monastery.65 Fig. 31: The European drawing of the Chakzam. Source: Waddell, 1895 Waddell 1905, p.312-314. Waddells text is the most precise description of the ‘Chakzam’. Indeed, the drawing enclosed by Waddel of a Pandit from the year 1878 is precisely calculated, however, it interprets, e.g., the representation of a ‘European house’ as well as the profile of a bridge wrongly. 65 91 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Mc Govern comments in 1926: I trembled in the cold, and in order not to remain too near to the ferry hut, I walked up to the cliffs to throw a look at this half a mile downstream situated monastery. Although it has only a few hundred residents, this monastery has some fame, because it is the starting point and the base of the big iron chain bridge, which earlier was spanned here across the Brahmaputra river. The bridge still exists and at the break of dawn, it looked rather picturesque, but it is not useful anymore, because the river has expanded his banks during the last years, so that the northern end of the bridge forms a small island in the middle of river. The Tibetans were not able to develop the suspension bridge up to the new riverbank, and have rather again applied the ferry system. The bridge was good and had endured centuries, built by king Tantong who, born in 1385, is now looked at as a saint of the Tibetan religion. This bridge is not his only architectural work, because he is also supposed to have built 108 temples, altars and seven other suspension bridges across the Brahmaputra. People tell that some of these bridges are still in use today.66 66 Mc Govern 1926, p.202. 92 Bridges in the Himalayas Fig. 32: The pillars of the former Nyango Druka Chakzam in the wide river bed of the Yarlung Tsangpo near Tsethang. The dimensions of the bridge and chain links are: - Span of the central field: approximately 137m - Chain links approximately 30 cm long - Steel Cross Section: approximately 1,8 x 2,5 cm Nyango Druka Chakzam About five kilometres downstream from today’s Tsethang, there are five river pillars out of formerly many more such pillars of an iron chain bridge of Thangtong Gyalpo. Now the river pillars present themselves of differing heights, however, they fit with their internal wooden constructions and the reinforced two-staged constructional systems out of wackestones from rivers with originally about six to eight metres of height precisely to the standard constructions by Thangtong Gyalpo. Today the river pillars are revered for being associated with Thangtong Gyalpo and carry numerous prayer flags. The Nyango Druka Chakzam too formed an important component of pilgrims’ route. The pilgrim and caravan route from Lhasa to the Yarlung valley, which led through the Yön valley with its significant temples, but also the pilgrim’s route to Samye, which lies about 35 kilometres to the west of the former northern bridgehead of the Chakzam, all led across this iron chain bridge. Chan suggests that the bridge across the Yarlung Zangpo, which here is a kilometre long, owned more than 30 stream pillars and the spans of the chains amounted to about 150 metres.67 The watchtowers, which also served as additional weights for the anchoring of the chains stood on both sides of the bridgeheads. 67 Chan 1994, p.379. 93 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Rinchen Ding Chakzam About 45 kilometres upstream of the Yarlung Zangpo, from Lhatse at the right riverbank, the village of Rinchen Ding, the birthplace of Thangtong Gyalpo is located. A resident of Rinchen Ding reported to the author in 2002, that the bridge, Thangtong Gyalpo erected for the residents of the village across the Yarlung Tsangpo, has possibly the dimensions as the bridge of Panding had before its reconstruction. It is about 1.20 metres wide and permits the trouble-free meeting of people on the bridge, but also the crossing of yaks and horses. In his long life, Thangtong Gyalpo has erected numerous iron chain bridges. Following are some of the bridges that that bear literature. The Chakzam at Batang, across the Dajin, a tributary of the Yangtze-Kiang, which belonged to the system of another big road connection from Tibet to China. The caravan route led from Markham in Eastern Tibet to Batang (suspension bridge) and further via Litang, Kangding to Luding (suspension bridge) to Chengdu. Sogde Chakzam, also called Sogchu Chakzam, located in Nub Hor.68 China and Tibet Luding Chakzam Across the former border river between China and Tibet, Dajin (Ta-Teu), today Dadu He, a tributary of the YangtzeKiang, a suspension bridge leads to Luding (Ludin-tscheu). The bridge across the border river was, like the bridge in Batang, an important part of the caravan and courier route i.e. Lhasa - Markham - Batang - Litang - Kanding - Luding to Chengdu. The relatively wide and stately iron chain bridge 68 Gruschke 2004, p.155. With a literature reference to Bower. 94 Bridges in the Himalayas was compared to Thangtong Gyalpo’s other bridges erected as late as 1701. Cooper writes about the history of this bridge as the ‘trip to the location of an overland road from China to India in 1882”: A day’s journey brought us from Owha-lin-pin to the city of Lu-din-tscheu, which, because of the suspension bridge which spans the Ta teu river there, is famous…. The famous bridge was, fortunately, just in a damaged state and made our group cross the river in a more safe kind, namely on a big ferry. While we crossed, the first skipper who was very talkative told to us the history of the suspension bridge across Lu-din-tscheu. Shortly before the annection of Eastern Tübet by the Chinese, the government in Peking posted a reward of 30,000 Taels for those who would succeed in building a bridge across the Tatow-river, which caused serious difficulties in the regular relations between China and Tübet, because of its often sudden swelling and its great depth. The swiftness of the current and the high rocks, which restrict the riverbed let all attempts fail to span the river with stone arches. Nevertheless, finally, a blacksmith came to the city and had the idea of a suspension bridge. The officials, who were authorised to collect ideas from suggestions, accepted his plan and as the Abbé Huc was saying, the bridge was completed in 1701. The construction of the same is very faulty. Nine big chains, not completely as thick as a ship cable, four feet apart from each other are spanned across big square bridgeheads, which are erected on both riverbanks and are firmly immured. The ground is made of simple planks, which show neither a railing, nor are they protected by ballast, and the vibrating careens are so strong that it is sometimes nearly impossible to gain a foothold. Every day from midday until four o’clock in the afternoon, the doors, which lead to the bridge, are closed, and nobody may cross the same, because then the terrible hoist races down the gorge and makes the passage very dangerous. People say that the bridge has performed good services during the first couple of years after its erection, 95 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo however, during the last years the most gruesome accidents would have occurred through the tearing of the chains.69 At the beginning of the 20th century, the bridge was strengthened and made more comfortable with two lateral chains each (serving as handrails). The two chains through hanging bars supported the supporting chains arranged below the bridge rail. Patterson writes about the Luding Chakzam after his trip through Tibet in ‘Tibetan Journey’ in 1950: “The last solid bridge on the way to Tibet from China”.70 This bridge has attained political recognition through the ‘long march’ by Mao Tsetung and his army, who escaped via this bridge in 1936 with 35,000 men and thereby saved himself and his men the night before the approaching troops of Chiang Kai-shek who at the time were even stronger than him.71 During the renovation, the hanging iron was substituted by chains and the bridge rails, namely with closely recumbent cross-pieced wood and wood beams. By then, the bridge was constructed more firmly than before. In this form, the author arrived at the bridge, which was in good condition and surely passable in 1980 as in 1996. Thousands of people now use it daily. Light carriages can pass through it. Bhutan In 1433, Thangtong Gyalpo came to Bhutan. His route can exactly be traced.72 Cooper 1882, p.181/182. Patterson 1952. 71 Gerner 1999, p.1410. 72 (For this, see the chapter ‘Biographical notes on Thangtong Gyalpo’ and ‘Thangtong Gyalpo’s journeys to Bhutan’.) 69 70 96 Bridges in the Himalayas In Bhutan, the Mahāsiddha not only found open ears for his teachings, but he also found big iron ore deposits. The land was even more depended on consolidated bridges than Tibet, as raft or ferry connections were not possible because of precipitous gorges and torrential rivers, except in some southern and eastern parts of the land. Thus, it does not surprise that Thangtong Gyalpo in Bhutan immediately put into practise the vision that he had received from Avalokiteśvara, namely to relieve the people from their grievous crossing of gorges and torrential streams or make it possible all through the construction of iron chain bridges. Immediately after his arrival in Bhutan, Thangtong Gyalpo began with the construction of iron chain bridges. While travelling through Western Bhutan, it is interesting to note that the Chakzampa visited especially the places where he found iron ores, as for example Tamchog, also called Damchog, Damchhu, Tashog or Tamtscho, or places that since ages were associated with blacksmiths, as for example Chang Dunkhar - above the Paro airport. Thus, it is reported in the ‘History of Bhutan’ that in Paro, 18 blacksmiths went to the master to help him and forge iron and further more chain links.73 Even more with a lasting effect than in Tibet, Thangtong Gyalpo had left his blessings and his works in the form of traces in Bhutan. He is alive to this day because of his devotion to Dharma, his bridges, but also because of his 17th reincarnation. Today, in addition to the four existing iron chain bridges, there are chain leftovers or the locations of at least six other iron chain bridges that Thangtong Gyalpo built in Bhutan. This becomes easily evident through the very different figures, beside the 108, i.e. 100 in Tibet and 8 in Bhutan. 73 Gerner 1999, p.1410. 97 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo The existing iron suspension bridges in Bhutan are: (1) Tamchog Chakzam, (2) Doksum Chakzam, (3) Dangme Chakzam, and (4) Khoma Chakzam In the following chain bridges, chain leftovers, anchors or supports exist: (1) Tashigang Chakzam, (2) Chaze Chakzam, and (3) Changchi Chakzam Another three suspension bridges that are more or less extensively described in historical and contemporary literature are: (1) Chukha Chakzam, (2) Wangdi Chakzam, and () Chuzom Chakzam 98 Bridges in the Himalayas Tamchog Chakzam According to the biographical notes in the History of Bhutan, Thangtong Gyalpo erected a bridge across the Paro Chhu (sPa gro chu) to Tamchog (gTam chos) by 1433.74 The successors of the first Chakzampa built a Lhakhang here,75 the Tamchog Gonpa (gTam chos dgon pa). In 1969, the iron suspension bridge was destroyed by high water. The chains were partly rescued and kept in the attic of the shed behind the Lhakhang where I found them while visiting the place in 1980 and 1992. According to the oral tradition, even other chain parts are supposed to lie buried in the riverbed below stones and sand. To ensure the access to the Tamchog Lhakhang across the swift moving Paro Chhu, a suspension bridge was built from cable ropes after 1969. As per the royal wish of His Majesty King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the Ministry of Works and Human Settlements had in 2005, the cable rope suspension bridge again substituted with an iron chain bridge. The foundations of the bridge on both riverbanks, i.e. the bridgeheads bear stately gate superstructures, which is set up so highly that practically no more danger exists through high water. The iron chains used are historical without exception from different places. Some of them are the secured chains of Tamchog itself, four chains are supposedly to originate from Doksum and some from Tashigang. The soil of the hill on which the Tamchog Gonpa stands, is coloured red by the strong iron content. We can also see metalliferous lodes on the towering rock behind the Gonpa. Tshewang 1994, p.100 ff. Tshewang 1994, p.100 ff. The literary references as well as the oral notes of the present residents differ a lot in this respect. It is certain that even the present owners and residents of Tamchok feel obliged to the tradition. 74 75 99 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Finally, the author could discover several ‘mouthpieces’ of ore tunnels further up on top of the mountain. Fig. 33: The newly erected Tamchog Chakzam (2005) across the Paro Chhu. However, legend also knows different ways about how the wrought iron reached to this place. Thangtong Gyalpo, while visiting Wang Dhalukha in Thimphu, not far from the village of Genekha, which in the literature is known for its rich iron ore deposits,76 found rich iron ores. He is said to have requested the residents for those ores, and they offered all iron with a belief that he would not be in a position to transport everything available. However, with supernatural powers the Drubthop is said to have thrown the iron up in the air and landed in Chags, above the Tamchog Gonpa. He is 76 Rapten 2001, p.6. 100 Bridges in the Himalayas then said to have used his knee as an anvil and forged two bridges in one day from the iron, i.e. one for Tamchog Gonpa and the other one, Chaze Chakzam, which was erected only a few kilometres downstream. 101 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Doksum Chakzam In the village of Doksum, also called Duksom and Drugsum, on the way between Tashigang and Tashi Yangtse as well as Chörten Kora, an iron chain bridge is built here across the likewise very steeply precipitating and torrential Kholong Chhu. This bridge at least is supposed to have been strengthened with chains of the Tashigang Chakzam bridge, after it was destroyed by high water in 1968. Fig. 34: The Doksum Chakzam in Bhutan, 2003. In the meantime, a Bailey bridge was built across the Kulong Chhu, even closer to the aperture, which takes up not only pedestrians, but also heavy goods vehicles. The iron chain 102 Bridges in the Himalayas bridge still serves as access to Tomijangsa. The author could observe the Doksum Chakzam in 1985 and but surveyed it exactly only in 2004.77 Fig. 35: The anchorage of the Doksum Chakzam The span of the bridge stretches to 38.4 metres. The bridge existed out of nine chains until 2004. Three chains carried the bridge rail and three chains on every side formed the railing. At the bridgeheads, the lower three chains had a distance of 66 centimetres (which is relatively wide tread), the lower railing chains were 1.50 metres apart, the above lying The engineer Horst Taft and the author carried out the measurement work. The bridge was still used in 2004. However, both bridgeheads in particular with the abutments showed considerable damages. 77 103 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo chains two metres, and both upper chain rows had a distance of 2.68 metres. Earlier, plant fibre ropes connected all chains. Later, these ropes were substituted with a network from wire. In both cases, all railing chains help with the support. With recumbent ‘handrail chains’ that are 2.68 metres apart and which were not meant for touching as arises from the measure, but instead, just as with the ‘Chakzam’ at Chushul in Tibet, had to strengthen the strong lateral vibrations. The chains correspond to the standard type of the chains of Thangtong Gyalpo. The dimensions of the bridge and the chain are: - Span: exactly 38.4 m - Chain links approximately 31 to 35 cm long and 7.5 to 8.5 cm wide - Steel cross-cuts measure approximately 1.6 x 2.5 cm Dangme Chakzam Karma Ura informed me about an existing iron chain bridge in the Mongar Dzongkhag. The bridge is a part of the caravan way between Mongar Dzong and Pemagatshel Dzong at Kengkhar across the Dangme Chhu. Karma Ura estimates its length at approximately 100 metres. As with the bridges in Doksum and Tashigang, there is a direct connection to the iron ore deposit, which is located about two day’s journeys away from Khaling.78 Khoma Chakzam Karma Ura also informed me about an iron chain bridge in the Luntshi Dzongkhag. About 10 minutes walk from the village of Khoma, there existed an iron chain bridge on the way from Lhuntse Dzong to the Monkhar Gonpa, across the tributary of the Kuri Chhu. The bridge had a span of approximately 25 to 30 metres and was now substituted by a The information bases on a verbal report by Karma Ura and the report on the iron ore deposit is by Phuntsho Rapten. 78 104 Bridges in the Himalayas wooden cantilever bridge. One of the chains of the former iron chain bridge lies in the river and the other one was incorporated into the wooden bridge.79 79 Oral report by Karma Ura. 105 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Tashigang Chakzam Below the Tashigang Dzong, an iron chain bridge of Thangtong Gyalpo spanned the Dangme Chhu (Drang me chu). Like the Dangme Chu Chazam, the bridge spanned about 100 metres and was constructed in the standard bridge form of the Chakzampa: Two chains bound between ropes from plant fibers, which were later replaced by wire, which carried a walking layer, the bridge rail. In 1968, a high water tore away the foundations of the iron chain bridge and collapsed into the water. The chains were later rescued and partly kept in the Tashigang Dzong, where they lay on the court wall for a long time. Another part of it is hung up on the walls of the former right bridgehead in the Chakzam Lhakhang, which is dedicated to Thangtong Gyalpo. Fig. 36: The former Tashigang Chakzam across the Drangme Chhu. Photo: Fritz von Schulthess. 106 Bridges in the Himalayas The dimensions of the chain links are: - Chain links 33 to 37 cm long, 8 to 8 cm wide - Steel cross-cut approximately 1.3 x 2.0 cm A chain link of this bridge was examined metallographically from 1978 to 1979 in the Confederate Technical College of Zurich, Switzerland. The results of this investigation are reported in brief in the segment ‘Productions from Iron and Steel.’ Chaze Chakzam Another suspension bridge was to be found across the Paro Chhu, also called Pa Chhu, about three kilometres to the west, i.e. upstream from Chuzom (Chu ‘dzom) and half way to Tamchog. The bridge connected the way to the right alongside the Paro Chhu with the villages of Tenchey Khar that is situated high above the left valley, nowadays called Dangkarta, Chippu and Bjee Toed as well as the Choetsi Lhakhang, the Drakten Lhakhang and the monastery of Dangla, which is further apart. The iron chain bridge had a span of about 35 metres and was washed away by flood in 1968. It was substituted by a suspension bridge from cable ropes and the foundations and bridgeheads of the iron chain bridge were used for it. On 20th February, 2004, road workers who were busy with the preparations for a permanent bridge building as well as a road to the above mentioned villages, found a nearly eight metre long section of the former iron chain bridge in the river.80 Choetsi earlier was likewise a blacksmith’s village and inside the Choetsi Lhakhang, there is an altar dedicated to Thangtong Gyalpo and his son Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo. The weekly paper of Bhutan, Kuensel reported in detail about the unexpected chain finding on 20.03.2004. 80 107 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Fig. 37: The new statue of Thangtong Gyalpo inside the Sili Gonpa. Changchi Chakzam Shortly after Chukha, Samuel Turner crossed another iron chain bridge and Davis noted this bridge down in his maps. I have searched for this suspension bridge and found the remains of it. It crossed the Wang Chhu between Chochoka, the today’s Changchi, and the Sili Gonpa. Next to the road, the remains of the anchorage can still to be found in the bank rocks, and, finally, a part of the chains is kept in the basement of the Sili Gonpa. In the Dukhang of this monastery, the link appears. We find the statue of Thangtong Gyalpo revered. 108 Bridges in the Himalayas As long as the iron chain bridge stood, Sili Gonpa could to be reached from the road in a few minutes. Now, without a bridge, it takes about an hour of driving and more than one and a half hours of walk. The Gonpa is cut off by the traffic, and, therefore, nothing was known about the chains available there. The chains hanging in the Sili Gonpa look differently from the other chains that can be traced back to Thangtong Gyalpo. The link length up to 40 cm is possibly the same, the width amounts to about 8 to 10 cm, however, above all, these links are relatively raw and have been forged unevenly and the steel crosscut with about 2.5 x 3.5 cm is bigger than the other chains Fig. 38: Altar inside the Sili Gonpa with Buddha Śākyamuni in the foreground and the chain links of the Changchi Chakzam in the back. Chukha Chakzam Chukha Chazam presents a prominent significance for the history of the iron chain bridges in Bhutan and Tibet as well as the later evolution of suspension bridges in Europe and America. George Bogle used it on his way to Tibet and wrote about it; also, the mission under Samuel Turner in 1786 109 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo crossed this iron iron chain bridge. Turner had the bridge exactly described, measured and recorded, and, above all, the precise dimension and accurate drawing set the suspension and iron chain bridge building into motion. Fig. 39: The drawing of the Chukha Chakszam published by Samuel Turner in 1800 in London after the exact measurement of his travel companion Samuel Davis. Source: Turner, 1800 Turner comments about the bridge: We descended the mountain, and crossed the chain bridge called Chuka cha-zum (Chukha Chazam), stretched over the Tehintchieu (Thimchu) river, a short distance above the castle of Chuka, which is reckoned eighteen miles from Murichom. For the best explanation of its construction, I refer to the annexed plan and sections, constructed from a measurement of the different parts. Plate III. A perspective view of it, and the adjacent scenery, is given in Plate IV. Only one horse is admitted to go over it at a time: it swings as you tread upon it, reacting at the same time with a force that impels you, every 110 Bridges in the Himalayas step you take, to quicken your pace. It may be necessary to say, in explanation of the plan, that on the five chains that support the platform, are placed several layers of strong coarse mats of bamboo, loosely put down, to play with the swing of the bridge; and the fence on each side, of the same materials, contributes to the security of the passenger.81 The Real Privy Council (Wirkliche Geheime Rat) M. V. Brandt in 1909 translated a report by C. R. Markham about the bridge: At Chukha the river is very torrential and wide, and an iron bridge has been hung across it. Five chains are spanned from one riverbank to the other and covered with slats and mats of bamboo, which form the ground of the bridge. Two other chains on every side are spanned about seven feet above the outer chain and connected to it by twisted raw seaweed cords. The bridge is 147 feet long and six feet wide. As soon as one puts the foot on it, it moves from one end to the other.82 With 147 English feet, the Chukha Chakzam was about 50 metres long, 1.50 metres wide and the uppermost side chain according to the various accounts between 2.1 and 3 metres high. The bridge was designed as a stress ribbon bridge where the bridge rail from bamboo mats directly overlaid five lower chains. These five chains were linked with plant ropes among each other; likewise, both upper chains and a thick railing with about 1.20-metre height were integrated. The left bridgehead, which foundations reached below the normal water level, was shaped in form of a bridge house that was provided with a cantilevering, roofed wooden construction, which shortened the span of the iron chain bridge to the riverside. The right bridgehead with foundation stood about five metres above the normal water level and was attached to the rock and had at the level of the bridge a heavy wooden scaffolding of about three metres of height above which the Turner 1800, p.54/55. Brandt 1909, p.83/84. Brandt has translated and edited the reports of the trips of Bogle, Manning and C. R. Markham. 81 82 111 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo upper two chains were spanned, and two string board walls of about 1.50 metre of thickness which protected the wooden scaffolding against lateral toppling. Lumbolang Chakzam George Bogle reports about a bridge across the Thimphu Chhu: ‘At Lumbolang is a bridge that exists of only two chains.’83 The place called Lumbolang by Bogle lies half a way between Paga Gonpa and Babesa, i.e. at the today’s Khasadapshu. In Khasadapshu, an important bridge across the Thimphu Chhu exists even today. Chuzom Chakzam At Chuzom, both the Paro Chhu and Thimphu Chhu unite to the Wang Chhu. Karma Ura reports that after the confluence, an iron chain bridge spanned the strategically important point. In 1974, the author instead of the iron chain bridge found a Bailey bridge already suitable for heavy vehicle traffic. A substantially higher laid and further spanned concrete bridge later substituted it. Wangdi Chakzam Below the Punakha Dzong, the winter residence of the Je Khenpo, Pho Chhu and Mo Chhu unite to form Puna Tsang Chhu, which in India is called Sankosh. The most important crossing from Western to Central and Eastern Bhutan led across this river below the Wangdi Phodrang Dzong, and here clearly there is a bridge history written. According to Karma Ura, a stately cantilever bridge divided by a natural stream pillar was constructed in 1684 in place of iron chain bridge. Ura writes: “The bazam replaced an iron chain bridge installed by Thangtong Gyalpo at the same site”.84 The transport links at this point has never lost its importance. In 1968, a concrete bridge with a daring arch again replaced a 83 84 Brandt 1909, p.84. Ura 2000, p.50. 112 Bridges in the Himalayas Bailey bridge, which substituted the washed away wooden bridge, shortly before the turn of the millennium. 113 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Nepal In Nepal, there was a tradition of the construction of iron chain bridges as well, and some of them still exist to this day. Whether or how far this tradition goes back to Thangtong Gyalpo, cannot be determined according to the present level of knowledge. In principle, transport and traffic are strongly dependent on ravines and flood in Nepal as they are in Tibet. In 1975, Manfred Taube writes: The most vulnerable place of the road network are the river crossings: Fords are not usable during the whole monsoon period, also the crossing with logboats stops in this time, and the small rivers that are otherwise crossed on a simple trunk are likewise not passable during the rainy season. In addition, the usual suspension bridges, that are swaying strongly when someone is passing it, do not contribute substantially to the stabilization of traffic. Entering of the wooden gangways is perilous in many places. While the only wooden cantilever bridges passable for animals must be renewed about every eight years, the rotten planks lying on bamboo ropes are substituted in general only when somebody is braking into it although, on the other hand, in some places with the participation of the whole village communities a full day is used for the blessing of the bridges four times a year.85 Honorary Consul Dr. Manfred Kulessa, generously transmitted first news and photos of the iron chain bridges of Nepal to me and Dr. Hans Renatus provided photos from Eastern Nepal.86 Taube 1975, p.161. Dr. Manfred Kulessa, Honorary Consul of the Kingdom of Bhutan, as UNDP representative conducted the bridge building program of Baglung and reported to the “Nepal Council for World Affairs” on 18 August, 1977. Dr. Kulessa provided extensive material on suspension and rope bridges in Nepal, in addition to reports on engineer's offices and material from state organisations. Dr. Hans 85 86 114 Bridges in the Himalayas Renatus during his travels in the eastern Nepal discovered a number of iron chain bridges across the Bhote Kosi and the Khimti Khola rivers. Dr. Renatus has documented the bridges through photographs and made them available to me. 115 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo The extensive research resulted in surfacing numerous facts to the iron chain bridges as well as to the blacksmiths and all together proved a good overview on the iron chain bridges in Nepal. Fig. 40: Iron chain bridge across the Bhote–Kosi in Nepal. Photo: Hans Renatus Early reports on iron chain bridges in Nepal in the 18th century testifies discovery of iron occurrence and their exploitation, including techniques of blacksmiths in producing the chains. The iron chain bridges then replaced rope bridges from plant fibres, like they were also common in India, Ladakh, Tibet and South America, as well as bamboo, round timber, squared timber and wooden cantilever bridges. 116 Bridges in the Himalayas While the rope bridges from plant fibres survived only few years and the wooden bridges were often washed away by the high water, the iron chain bridges provided good services for at least 50 years and mostly survived much longer. Condition for iron chain bridges was in each case the regional occurrence of iron ore. For example, in circa 1970, numerous iron chain bridges exist in the district of Baglung87 to the west of Pokhara, but also in eastern Nepal around Jiri. Norman Hardie reports about this during his journey in 1955: At the sixth day since Kathmandu, we reached the last of the Hindu villages. High up on top of the hills, we saw mouths of the tunnels leading to the iron ore deposits. At the wayside stood furnaces and black smithy. Mostly a child served the bellows, while it used the long lever arm as a seesawing swing. From those there come the door locks of the Sherpas and the strong chains of the better iron chain bridges.88 The chain links and chains were forged by the Kamis, the blacksmiths, a caste of untouchable craftsmen. These blacksmiths played an extremely important role, because they forged not only the chains, but also the anchor constructions as well as for the wood processing and stone treatment tools. The known iron chain bridges of Nepal with lengths of about 50 metres had a uniform construction. Between two chains in each case a walking layer of approximately 20 centimetre width or a bridge ground up to about 60 centimetre width was hung up with ropes from plant fibres, wire or hanging bars and the iron chains served even as handrails. At least in western Nepal, chain links of 1.5 to 2 cm thick round iron chains had been forged, while Thangtong Gyalpo’s chain links in Tibet and Bhutan were designed from rectangular crosscuts. In eastern and northern Nepal, hammered chain 87 88 Groeli 1977, p.3. Hardie 1960, p.118. 117 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo links also exist from rectangular crosscuts, which could be a reference for a connection with Tibet. In the beginning of the thirties of the last century, the iron chain bridge construction in Nepal received a striking incision, because the ruler of Galkot in Calcutta had anchor chains bought and advanced to Nepal and instead of handhammered chains allowed them to be used for suspension bridges. However, the heavy anchor cables did not assert themselves in general, rather 20 years later, in about 1950, a far bigger change already began: At the renovation of bridges, the chains were substituted by cable ropes. In the beginning, smaller bridges applied the same technology like with iron chains and later with bigger spans, they used cable rope suspension bridges. The use of cable ropes in Nepal proved to be extremely advantageous, because the cable ropes of the cable railway, which was, stretching many kilometres from Hetauda to Kathmandu, had to be changed regularly, and these used steel cables could serve as a material for many bridges. Thus, in the last quarter of the 20th century, hundreds of new cable bridges could be erected or suspension bridges removed with the help of regional and private programs, like the ‘Baglung District Suspended Bridge Construction Pilot Program’,89 but also state programs, like the ‘Trial Suspension Bridge Program 1975-1977.’90 A significant parallelism is to be ascertained with the bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo in Tibet as well as Bhutan and the bridges in Nepal. However, in particular, Thangtong Gyalpo and his successors built iron chain bridges for the development of the land and to create easy access to the holy sites for pilgrims. The iron chain bridge construction was a Groeli 1977. See also: East Consulting Engineers, Kathmandu: Trail Suspension Bridge Study conducted for United States Agency for International Development, Nepal, Kathmandu 1977 90 Pfaffen 1977. 89 118 Bridges in the Himalayas good action and contributed to the improvement of the karma. Even in Nepal, bridge building was and still is regarded as a good and socially useful activity. Many of the iron chain bridges, as well as the cable suspension bridges of Nepal, were sponsored by single person or by family clans. In turn, they also maintain them. Thus, it is reported that a poor man who went to India as an immigrant worker for many years, upon his return used the saved wage for the material of a bridge for his village. To cite a better example: In 1940, Tikaram Kharel bought anchor cables from Calcutta had a bridge erected across the Dharan Khola in the Panchayat Kadebes. In 1971, after 30 years of its construction, the bridge had to be renovated. The sons of Hiralal, Klimananda and Gopiram Kharel took the responsibility as a family duty and had a new, longer iron chain bridge erected; this time, however, again forged on site. 119 IV THANGTONG GYALPO’S IRON CHAIN BRIDGE AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN EUROPE Thangtong Gyalpo, besides being accomplished in many other fields, is especially known for pioneering works in spiritual as well as iron chain bridge building. With his iron chain bridges, he had created a lasting access to the religious sites as well as safe traffic routes. This was confirmed by all European travellers that journeyed through Tibet from 1600 until the middle of the 20th century. Up to the present work, the influence of Thangtong Gyalpo’s iron chain bridges on the European and American suspension bridges did not become a subject of serious study. Despite numerous proofs of the technology transfer from Asia to Europe and later also to America, it is unusual, in western thinking, that beside the religious and artistic treasures of Buddhism, technology from Tibet initiated developments in Europe and America! Regarding the iron chain bridges, two important influences are to be noted: In the 17th century, reports and ideas about iron chain bridges built by Thangtong Gyalpo came to Europe and after 1800, their precise technical details, which led immediately to the construction of suspension bridges in Europe and Asia, became known. Beside the general sequence of events, direct connections can be drawn from the chronological presentation given below: 1430-1460 Thangtong Gyalpo and his followers build numerous iron chain bridges in Tibet and Bhutan. The bridges reach spans of more than 100 metres and are free of corrosion. Some of the bridges are extant to the present day and are still put to use. 120 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe 1601 Father Matteo Ricci (1592-1610) founds the first Jesuit mission in Peking. From 1601, scientifically compiled reports reach Europe from China and Tibet.91 1616 Faustus Verantius (1551-1617) publishes his book ‘Machinae Novae’ in Venice. The great artists and master builders of the Renaissance like Filippo Brunelleschi (13771446), Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1565), Leonardo da Vinci (1492-1519) and Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) had all designed stone and wooden bridges, frame, truss-frame and arch constructions but no suspension bridge. Fig. 41: First model of a suspension bridge in Europe published by Faustus Verantius in 1616. Source: Dietrich 1998 The chain construction of the Twärren Bridge that was erected in about 1218 across the Schöllenen gorge at the Gotthardroute through the Alps was not a bridge, but a path 91 Leibold 2002, p.113 121 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo that was fastened by chains.92 Verantius in his book takes up the ideas from Asia for iron chain bridges and, moreover, introduces two prototypes of suspension bridges, one a highly hung bridge with textile ropes and another chain bridge with eye bars. While the stone and wooden bridges likewise shown by him are in fact close to reality for being able to build during the period, however, both suspension bridges are relatively far away.93 Fig. 42: Another concept of a suspension bridge by Faustus Verantius. Source: Dietrich 1998 1631 The universal scholar Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680) born in Geisa in the mountains of the Rhön in Germany becomes a professor of mathematics, physics and oriental languages and was appointed to the Collegium Romanum by the pope in Rome. The letters and reports of the Jesuit’s fathers from China and Tibet and further from the whole 92 93 Peters 1981, p.53. Verantius 1616. 122 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe world end up on, or at least cross Kircher’s table with abundance of information from many parts of the world. 1656-1664 The Jesuit Johannes Grueber from Linz at the Danube is sent to China to explore a northern land route to China. Grueber uses the seaway to Macao for the outward journey; and the return journey leads him, according to his instructions, across land from Peking to India. Father Grueber, therefore, was the first European who crossed Tibet. In his letters, Grueber dedicated only few lines to the trip of many months from Peking to Kathmandu, but indeed with enough exact local names, so that the route is to be pursued exactly: Peking, Sining Fu, Kokonor, Nyenchen Thangla mountains, Reting monastery, Lhasa and Kathmandu. It is certain that on his way, he must have at least crossed two bridges erected by Thangtong Gyalpo, one is the Rinchen Chakzam to the south of Reting across the Kyichu river which even exist today and the ‘Chakzam’ across the Yarlung Tsangpo, that existed up to about 1950. In the letters that he wrote from 1664 to 1665 with travel accounts, Grueber says nothing about iron chain bridges.94 However, in 1664 Grueber reported precisely to the fraternity general of the Jesuits. What is even more important is that Grueber was in close contact with Athanasius Kircher for many years. Kircher later published the reports that were transmitted orally to him by Johannes Grueber and with his explicit approval in his work, ‘China monumentis qua sacris qua profanis nec non variis naturae & artis spectaculis, aliarumque rerum memorabilium argumentis illustrata.’95 1667 Athanasius Kircher publishes his large work on China as Tibet was more or less subsumed under the generic term ‘Catai’ entitled: ‘China monumentis ... illustrata’ in Amsterdam. Michael Leibold comments on the book: “The 94 95 Grueber 1985 Kircher 1667 123 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo state of the literature and the exclusivity of his information enabled Kircher with his ‘China ... illustrata’ to publish a prevailing and systematising work about China.” Especially outstanding technical objects were the bridge building, the Great Wall of China, varnish production, letter printing and the invention of the gunpowder.96 The pictures in the work of Kircher, however, were delivered by the already introduced father Matteo Ricci, but even more so, by father Adam Schall von Bell (1591-1666) who worked for many years as a high official at the court of emperor Shunzi in Peking. Kircher was also the first European to present the sketched representation of the Potala, the residence of the Dalai Lamas in Lhasa. About the bridges, Kircher reports: In the province of Junnan one sees across a deep valley through which a creek with very fast waters flows, a bridge, about which is told that it was erected by the emperor Ming of the Hanfamily in the year 65 A.D., and which was not built from brick stones or by the composition of immense stone blocks, but from very strong iron chains which are fastened by hooks and eyes on both sides of the mountain in such a way that a bridge originated from superimposed planks. There are 20 chains from which each has the length of 20 measuring poles (pertica), i.e. 300 hand spans (palmus). If many people cross it at the same time, the bridge sways and moves from here to there, and the crossing people not without fear, dizziness and in fear of falling down walk in a great hurry. I cannot admire enough at all the skill of the Chinese architects by whom they have dared to try such a difficult work to the comfort of the travellers.97 The translation presented here follows the Latin text of Kircher narrowly, which is in contrast to others that follow 96 Leibold 2002, p.114 Kircher 1667, p.213 ff., translated by Margarete Rosskopf, Burchard Schlömer and Dr. Matthias Vogt. 97 124 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe more free translations. Kircher clearly says that people ‘narrate’ that the bridge has been built in 65 A.D. A ‘narrated’ date with so many stopovers on the way to Europe is questionable. On the other hand the representation of the length (the reporter must have seen the bridge) is explained very exactly - namely with the measurement common to Tibet - the hand spans.98 In addition, the technical details, like the anchorage, are reproduced exactly. Finally, Kircher expressively testifies his respect for the work and the architect. It is to be assumed here more from the fact that two circumstances are shown in one trait: On the one hand the story of a bridge from the year 65 A.D. and on the other hand the technology of the iron chain bridge of Thangtong Gyalpo seen by Grueber.99 see moreover: Baumeister und ihre Maßordnungen, in: Gerner, M.: Architekturen im Himalaya: (transl.) „One tala tho, a hand span, equals 12 finger widths (anguli). In centimetres the tala equals a measurement of 20 – 24 cm, the anguli between 1,7 und 2 cm.” According to this, the bridge would have had a span of about 6070m obsessedly. 99 The representations in the literature do not take up the ‘narration,’ but mostly contain conjunctive forms or accept the bridge building date of 65 A.D. more or less as given, like Peters, Tom, F.: The development of the great bridge building (Die Entwicklung des Großbrückenbaus): “Suspension bridges from iron chains are of Chinese origin. According to old traditions the first iron suspension bridge originated in 65 A.D. in the Chinese province of Yünnan.” After that follows the representation of the bridges by Thangtong Gyalpo at the date of approx. 1420: “The first designer of iron chain bridges about whom we know further details was the Tibetan monk Thang-Stong rGyal-Po (1385-1465) who was active in the Himalayan Mountains. His bridges are all unstiffend. They sway strongly and the gangway lies directly on the chains. Some of it have survived, nevertheless, about 550 years and serve even today the pedestrian's traffic.” Besides, the pictures by way of introduction show Leupold’s “Suspension bridge in Sina” and then next to a picture of Thangtong Gyalpo the drawing of the iron chain bridge of Chukha published by 98 125 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo Kircher’s “Chinas monumentis .... illustrata” became very popular in Europe and was widely circulated and with it the basic knowledge of a functioning bridge from chains in China or Tibet also found a wide readership in Europe. 668 “China monumentis … illustrata” was translated into Dutch 669 It was followed by a shortened English version 670 The book was translated into French 672 There followed the second edition in Latin and Leibold comments: China … illustrata “was in the 17th century in which a not unimportant number of publications on China was made available, one of the most wide-spread titles.”100 Turner in 1800 and a photos of the iron chain bridges of Chaze (Choetsi) and Doksum in Bhutan. 100 Leibold 2002, p.113 126 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe Fig. 43: The first draft of an iron chain bridge in Tibet (China) which was published in Europe in 1726. Source: Leupold 1726 ‘Theatrum Pontificiale’ or ‘Scene of the Bridges and the Bridge Building’ in Leipzig. The book contains drawings of an iron chain bridge, which practically illustrates Kircher’s description.101 Leupold 1726, TAB LVII. According to the inquiries and expositions made here an iron chain bridge of Thangtong Gyalpo 101 127 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo The Kircher’s report and Leupolds drawing corresponds with regard to gorge and torrential rivers exactly to the chain numbers and measurements to Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridge across the Sutlej at Tholing, which is preserved to this day, although hidden below a Chinese steel truss bridge for heavy traffic. However, iron chain bridges for the European engineers were still exotic and strange in 1726. This is indicated by Leupold’s text: Very much a quaint bridge of chains. Although the number of the copper plates have grown a lot, one still has wanted to add for the sake of curio, something else that is special to Chinese bridges, namely at first: Figure I. Table LVII, a bridge; Because from one high mountain to the other, with 20 immensely strong iron chains, covered only by planks, a bridge was built into the free air and can be viewed at with astonishment. It is supposed to have been built in China at of the city of Kintany.102 One meets the curiosity of the ‘iron chain bridges’ with a lot of care and restraint, and thus it does not surprise that before 1800 in Europe, only few iron chain bridges were constructed. Such a bridge was erected across the river Tees in northern England, approximately two miles above the city of Middleton in about 1740. It is not by chance, that Samuel Turner in 1800 transmits a report by Hutchinson from his book ‘History and Antiquities of Durham’ about this bridge in connection with the iron chain bridge in Chukha in Bhutan: About two miles above Middleton, where the stream showers in a row of cascades, there is a bridge from iron chains hanging from rock wall to rock wall, across an abyss of nearly that has been seen is exactly described and probably has been walked upon by father Grueber is presented, but is assigned to the story of a former bridge. 102 Leupold 1726, § 321. 128 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe 60 feet depth for the passage of travellers, but primarily for miners: The bridge is 70 feet long and a little bit more than two feet broad with a railing on one side and with boards planked in such a way that the pedestrian strolling through it, feels the shaking movement of the chain links and he himself is floating above a roaring abyss with a constantly moving ground below him, so that only few travellers dare to confide in this bridge.103 At the beginning of 19th century, this bridge collapsed, and was rebuilt and has then existed till the beginning of the 20th century. In Germany, an iron chain bridge with a span of approximately 11.5 metres with width of 1.4-metre was built in 1781 in the park at Wörlitz. In its guides and descriptions, it is clear that there is a connection with Chinese or Tibetan iron chain bridges that are presented as models.104 Another iron chain bridge, possibly erected around 1794, with a span of about 12.5 metres and 1.90-metre width, stands in the park of Bagno near the Steinfurt castle.105 Few examples and the extremely low spans show that one had reached to the idea of the iron chain bridge, but by far not yet the courage and the technology, which was realised at Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges. One may recall the works of father Johannes Grueber, Athanasius Kircher and Jakob Leupold that the Europeans imported the knowledge of iron chain bridge construction from Tibet. In the initial years, the results in Europe were humble. If one hears the refrains of both ‘visionary’ bridge representations of Faustus Verantius, in Europe until 1800, there were only smaller iron chain bridges and chain footbridges with spans less than 15 metres that mostly 103 104 105 Turner 1800, p.55. Grunsky 1998, p.105 ff. Grunsky 1998, p.102 ff. 129 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo originated under the aspect of the exotic charm of models from China, and according to the previous analysis more from Tibet. In 1800, this scenario changed. In 1774, Warren Hastings, the governor of Bengal and chairperson of the council of the East India Company, sent George Bogle in company of the doctor Alexander Hamilton to the court of the Panchen Rinpoche at Tashi Lhunpo in Tibet. They took their way through Bhutan from May to October 1774 and returned in 1775. In 1776 and 1777, missions followed under the direction of Alexander Hamilton. In the beginning of 1783, Samuel Turner led another mission of the East Indian Company, who was also instructed to proceed to Tashi Lhunpo. Turner took the same way as Bogle. He was accompanied by accomplished people like Lieutenant Samuel Davis, a drafter and Robert Saunders for botanical, mineralogical and medical studies. Turner and his companions wrote less colourful travelogues, but recorded everything of importance in an academically precise way. 1800 As a result of the cited mission, a book of Samuel Turner was published in London “An account of an Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama in Tibet, containing a narrative of a journey through Bootan and a part of Tibet”. This book contains the detailed description and provides an accurately measured drawing of the suspension bridge at Chukha in Bhutan ascribed to Thangtong Gyalpo.106 Turner’s reports and communications were so important that in the same year, a French translation appeared in Paris followed by a shortened German translation in Leipzig in the succeeding year.107 In 1817, an Italian translation appeared in Milan. Boeder rightly infers to the rapid European translations: “This 106 107 Turner 1800. Boeder, in Thunlam 1, p.17, Bonn 2002. 130 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe already points to his importance. He collected a lot of material about the areas in Bhutan visited by him and described his manifold impressions very carefully. On this occasion, especially the countless rivers, the deep gorges, the traffic system, the bridge constructions (bridges from iron chains, wooden cantilever bridges), the architecture ......” interested him.108 The development and the unexpected triumphant procession of the suspension bridges in Europe began with this publication of a technically precisely illustrated bridge by Thangtong Gyalpo. In Europe and America and further worldwide, this design first led to iron chain bridges and then to bridges with cables. The developments and connections to Thangtong Gyalpo can precisely be understood through the numerous publications in Europe; however, mention of Thangtong Gyalpo is practically absent. 1801 The Justice of the Peace, James Finley, allows the first iron chain bridge to be erected near Philadelphia in America. The chains are like the chains of the bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo. Some authors report about the first test bridges of Finley from 1796. 1808 Finley registers a patent for iron chain bridges.109 1810 Finley publishes the patent for iron chain bridges and by 1820 he built about 40 smaller iron chain bridges with ring links and spans between 10 and 40 metres.110 Only one bridge of its kind exists to this day, i.e. the 1810 Merimac Bridge which was built in Newburyport. 108 109 110 Boeder, in Thunlam 1, p.17, Bonn 2002. Bujler 2004, p.100. Peters 1981, p.53. 131 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo 1811 Thomas Pope publishes his book, ‘Treatise of Bridge Architecture’ in New York on the subject of iron chain bridge for a wide audience in the USA.111 1816-1817 A smaller iron chain bridges as pedestrian’s footbridge is erected as an experiment in Scotland. Possibly, at the same time a number of scientific contributions on iron chain bridges, which refer to Pope’s publications, appear in France. 1819-1820 Captain Samuel Brown (1776-1852) builds the first iron chain bridge, which links to the dimension of the bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo: The Union Bridge across the Tweed close to Berwick with a span of 110 metres. Besides, the chain links are formed not as ring links, but in the form of eye-bars. The eye-bars go back to Verantius and were developed from 1805 by Hawk and Brown.112 1819-1826 The Bangor bridge, planned by Thomas Telford (1757-1834), likewise from eye-bars with 176 metres of span is erected across the Menai canal in Wales. 1820-1825 Almost at the same time, the Convey Castle Bridge also planned by Telford with a span of about 100 metres is built.113 1823 Navier publishes the basic work for suspension bridges in Europe in Paris: ‘Becquey et mémoire sur les ponts suspendus.’. This book presents the development of the iron chain bridges, which is relevant to the current work. At the beginning of the book, Navier shows a bridge from plant fibres in Peru, the sketch of an iron chain bridge across the Tees Pope 1811. Grunsky 1998, p.100 ff. With the eye-bars considerably lower, dead weights of the bridges are achieved. Therefore, they also asserted themselves with the bigger spans more and more. 113 Bühler 2004, p.100/101. 111 112 132 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe and one of the fantastic suspension bridges of Verantius and then shows Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridge of Chuka in the exact representation of Turner with front view, longitudinal section and cross-cuts. The headline to it is: Pont de Chuka au Tibet.114 In Turner’s book, the bridge is located unambiguously in Bhutan and Navier also shows the right local name: Chuka. However, the reason for taking Tibet as the country of origin cannot be fully understood. It may be surmised that the wrong country name given is could be due to the fact that the invention laurels passed to Thangtong Gyalpo. Fig. 44: The development of suspension bridges in the publication of Claude Navier begins after an illustration of a fibre plant bridge with the iron chain bridge at Chhuka as published by Turner in 1800. Source: Bühler 2004 After Naviers book, which was already published in a second edition in Paris in 1830, a richness of contributions and reports to iron chain bridges develops all over Europe and another such flood of iron chain bridges appeared mostly in the form of eye-bar suspension bridges. 114 Navier 1823. 133 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo 1823 Five iron chain bridges are erected by Wilhelm von Traitteur in St. Petersburg. 1823 Friedrich Schnierch builds an iron chain bridge at Brünn in Austria/Hungary. 1824 Navier himself builds an iron chain bridge in Paris, which, however, was not completed. 1825 An iron chain bridge is built near Nienburg at the Saale. After three months, the bridge collapsed which took the life of 50 people. 1826 An iron chain bridge with a span of 28 metres is built at Malapane. 1827 The British engineer, William Th. Clark (1783-1852) erects the Hammer Blacksmith Iron Chain Bridge across the Thames in London. 134 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe Fig. 45: The iron chain bridge between Buda and Pest in Hungary built in the middle of the 19th century. 1829 As per the sketch of Leo von Klenze (1784-1864), an iron chain bridge is built across the Regnitz in Bamberg.115 1839 The ‘Iron Hanger,’ an iron chain bridge is built at ‘Haus Laer’ in Meschede, across the Ruhr with about 28 metres of span and a width of 1.90 metre.116 1840-1849 The first big iron chain bridge with 202 metres of span is built according to the concepts of the British engineer Clark across the Danube in Budapest which still extant.117 1898-1903 The second iron chain bridge, the so-called Elisabethenbrücke after Empress Sissi is erected across the Danube in Budapest. In 1945, this bridge was dismantled. 1926 In Florianopolis, the capital of the Brazilian federal state of Santa Catarina, the iron chain bridge with a span of 340 metres, the farthest free span ever is erected.118 Almost simultaneously with the iron chain bridges, suspension bridges with steel cables are also built, which is closely linked to the development of the cable technology. 1816 A pedestrian’s footbridge across the Schujkil in Philadelphia with 124 metres of span is erected as a cable suspension bridge. Grunsky 1998, p.101 ff. Monumente 2004, p.32/33. 117 Dietrich 1998, p.170 ff. The bridge proves in a special way the quality of suspension bridges, because it resists till this day to the strong, two-lane traffic between Buda and Pest. 118 Bühler 2004, p.102. 115 116 135 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo 1832-1834 Josef Chaley (1795-1861) initiates the construction of ‘Grand Pont’ near Fribourg across the Saane with 273 metres of span. From 1870 to 1883, Washington August (1837-1926) erects the famous Brooklyn Suspension Bridge across the East river in New York in accordance with the plans by his father, Thuringian John August Roebling (1806-1869), with a span of 486 metres. 1896-1897 The first cable suspension bridge across the Argen at Kressbronn with a span of 72 metres of is erected in Germany.119 1933-1937 The Golden Gate Bridge is planned in San Francisco by Joseph B. Strauss and is erected with a span of 1,280 metres. 1998 Finally, the suspension bridge across the Big Belt between Fehmarn and Seeland is initiated with a span of 1624 metres.120 One of two suspension bridge constructions which go back to Thangong Gyalpo is a stress ribbon bridge where the chains carry the walking layer directly. Today in the course of the advancement of suspension bridges, stress ribbon bridges (Spannbandbrücke) are also built again. Thus in 1999, Jürg Conzett plans and erects a 40-metre spanned stress ribbon bridge (Spannbandbrücke) across the spectacular Via Mala gorge at Suransuns in Switzerland. The steel parts are produced from V4A chrome nickel steel. The sidewalk is made from natural granite stone.121 119 120 121 Bühler 2004, p.102. Bühler 2004, p.108 ff. Bühler 2004, p.56. 136 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe If we look into the future, it is unimaginable that the stress ribbons, like coal fibre ribbons could find use and with it, bridges become conceivable with several kilometres of span in a system that Thangtong Gyalpo invented. Even if one looks at the bridge building altogether through the adoption of the different materials like wood and stone worldwide, Thangtong Gyalpo with his suspension bridges, far ahead of his time has shown the way. The famous stone and wooden bridges of the ancient world, had spans of approximately 15 to 30 metres. During the first 1700 years after Christ’s birth, single spectacular bridges with spans up to 40 metres were erected. The wooden arch bridge with approximately 20 arches, each with a width of about 34 metres and a bridge bay distance of 51 metres, first built under the Roman emperor Trajan von Appolodorus at about 105 AD in Dacien in today’s Romania122 and the An-ji bridge in China with a level stone arch of about 40 metres of span in 7th century. In addition, the stone bridge of Regensburg, built from 1135 to 1146, and the famous bridge of Mostar, from the Turkish master builder Mimar Hajradin, a pupil of Sinan, erected from 1557 to 1566 with a span of 29.5 metres, belong in this span area. All the great Renaissance master builders dealt with very far spanned bridges. Thus, Leonardo da Vinci from 1502 to 1503 conceived a wooden arch bridge with 360-metre length and 24 metre width over the Golden Horn in Istanbul, Turkey, which could hardly have been realised then.123 The examples built in the 16th century have reached spans of 25 to 35 metres; and the famous bridge of Andrea Palladio with a truss construction, the Ponte degli Alpini in Bassano, Italy, across 122 123 Dietrich 1998, p.84 ff. Dietrich 1998, p.91 ff. 137 Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo the Cismone just reached a spanned width up to 12 metres.124 The Grubenmann brothers, master carpenters of Switzerland achieved a real jump only in the middle of the 18th century. Ulrich Grubenmann created a wooden bridge across the Rhine at Schaffhausen in 1755, with a span of 19 metres on the request of the Schaffhausen council with an additional river pillar. This master builder reached farthest span with a wooden bridge across the Limmat in 1764. His brother, Josef Grubenmann shortly afterwards built the Rhine bridge at Reichenau with 71 metres of span.125 These bridges were later followed by the steel bridges, in the beginning, with modest spans. In 1769, the first cast steel bridge with about 30 metres of span was erected in Coalbrookdale in England.126 The bridges introduced by Thangtong Gyalpo in the beginning of 15th century with 80 to 130 metres of length in Tibet with all materials were achieved in Europe and America only after 400 after years in the 19th century. Bühler 2004, p.58. The drawings, outlines and concepts of the renaissance master builders for bridge constructions and the span widths of the bridge of Bassano show conspicuously the discrepancy between wish and reality. 125 Gerner 2002, p.70-76. 126 Bühler 2002, p.71-72. 124 138 Thangtong Gyalpo’s Influence in Europe Fig. 46: Thangtong Gyalpo on a mural at Sili Gonpa in Bhutan. 139 BIBLIOGRAPHY Altner Diana: Das Tibetische Yakhautboot im Wandel der Zeit, in: Tibetforum 1-3/2005 Ardussi John und Epstein Lawrence: The Saintly Madman in Tibet in: James F. Fischer, (ed.), Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface, The Hague, 1978 Aris, Michael: Bhutan, The Early History of a Himalayan Kingdom, Central Asian Studies, Warminster, 1979 Aris, Michael (1982). Views of Medievel Bhutan, London and Washington Armington, Stan (1998) Bhutan, Hawthorn Baumhauer, Otto, Hrsg (1965) Tibet, Dokumente zur Entdeckungsgeschichte, Stuttgart Boeder, Franz-Josef: Frühe europäische Besucher in Bhutan vom 17 – 19. 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Sept.1882, Augsburg, 1882 Zischka, Anton: Wissenschaft bricht Monopole, Leipzig, 1936 Zweitausendeins: Die Straßen und Brücken der Inka, in: Die Siebzig Weltwunder, Frankfurt, 2000 144 Bibliography Additional Notes on the book The Centre for Bhutan Studies has received a letter from Tenzin Chhophag, the 12th Chagzampa, in December 2007. The letter states that he (Tenzin Chhophag) has been recognized as the 12th Chagzampa by His Holiness Dalai Lama, Dilgo Khyentse Rimpoche, Mingling Trichen Rimpoche and Sakya Tridzin Rimpoche. The letter went on to state that in a book (Chagzampa Thangtong Gyalpo – Architect, Philosopher and Iron Chain Bridge Builder by Manfred Gerner), the Centre for Bhutan Studies has documented Thangtong Gyalpo’s lineage up to the 17th incarnation. First, it has been written that the Late Dilgo Khyentse Rimpoche and Kalu Rimpoche have indicated that Sangay Choedzin, currently the Lama of the Zilukha Nunnery, as the 17th Thangtong Gyalpo, and suggested that the boy must be recognized by Sakya Tridzin. Second, it has been written that Dalai Lama and Sakya Tridzin have recognized Sangay Choedzin as the 17th Thangtong Gyalpo. The letter questioned the source of information the Centre has used and suggested further investigation. It demanded that the Centre, which is responsible for printing and distribution [the book], should provide answers to the doubts raised above. Signed by Tenzin Chhophag The Centre for Bhutan Studies would like to clarify that Chagzampa Thangtong Gyalpo – Architect, Philosopher and Iron Chain Bridge Builder was written by Manfred Gerner in German and translated into English by Gregor Verhufen. The Centre has published the book for 145 the benefits of the Bhutanese reading public since there is limited information on this important Buddhist saint. The Centre is mainly interested with the book, like any other Bhutanese readers, as a rich social document, not for its documentation of who is and who is not the 12th or 17th reincarnation of Thangtong Gyalpo. We also would like to clarify that CBS has played no role either in its research or in selecting sources. One of the Centre’s mandates is to generate and disseminate information freely to the Bhutanese through research and publication, and publication of the above book is one effort in fulfilling the mandate. Thank you. 146