Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism with the Focus on the A∫guttara Nikåya and the Ekottarika Ógama Tse-fu Kuan∗ 1. Compassion and merit in relation to the purpose of the numerical collections It is generally held that compassion distinguishes Mahåyåna Buddhism from the “H¥nayåna”, a pejorative term for early Buddhism and the mainstream schools derived from it. For example, Damien Keown (1996: 59) says: “in the Mahåyåna compassion (karu˜å) is accorded a central place.” A famous scholar of religious studies, Huston Smith (1958: 130) also remarks: “In Theravada [which refers back to ‘Hinayana’ on p. 128] the key virtue was bodhi, wisdom … Mahayana moved a different word to the center: karuna, compassion.” In this research I argue that early Buddhism already laid heavy stress on compassion, which was by no means peripheral. Early Buddhist literature attributes infinite compassion to the Buddha, and even attaches supramundane value to the practice of compassion. The earliest stratum of Buddhist literature includes the four main Nikåyas in the Pali Canon and the corresponding four Ógamas in Chinese translation, which may be traced back to the First Council (sa∫g¥ti) shortly after the Buddha’s death (Hirakawa, 1 1990: 69) in the 5th century BCE. The four divisions are apparently ∗ College of General Studies, Yuan Ze University, Taiwan. 1 Regarding the Buddha’s date, Narain (1992 and 1994) puts the Buddha’s death at 483 BCE, Norman (1991: 312) at 415–410 BCE, and Gombrich (2000) at 422–399 BCE. 54 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 based on the length of the suttas/sËtras contained therein. The long suttas have been allocated to the D¥gha Nikåya/ D¥rgha Ógama, the middle-length suttas to the Majjhima Nikåya/ Madhyama Ógama, and the short suttas to the Saµyutta Nikåya/ Saµyukta Ógama and the A∫guttara Nikåya/ Ekottarika Ógama. The short suttas have been arranged together according to their topics in the Saµyutta Nikåya/Saµyukta Ógama, while the A∫guttara Nikåya (abbreviated to AN) and the Ekottarika Ógama in Chinese translation (abbreviated to EÓ) adopt a numerical arrangement as elucidated below.2 In AN and EÓ, the suttas are grouped into eleven nipåtas (“books”), from the Eka-nipåta (Book of Ones) to the Ekådasakanipåta (Book of Elevens) — though in EÓ the nipåtas are not labelled as such. This grouping into nipåtas is based on the number of doctrinal items dealt with in the component suttas. The structures of both numerical collections, namely AN and EÓ, are thus organized on the “a∫guttara principle”, as some scholars dub it.3 The materials found in the scriptures of the early schools — which are preserved in Pali, Chinese, and some fragmentary texts in Sanskrit and Tibetan — that agree with each other can be regarded as going back to the time before the schisms.4 A large amount of textual material is shared in common by the four main Nikåyas of the Theravåda and the corresponding four Ógamas of various schools. Even within a single school, e.g. the Theravåda, one Nikåya contains (portions of) suttas parallel to those in the other Nikåyas presumably because the reciters (bhå˜akas) or redactors5 of the various Nikåyas could not always agree about the allocation of suttas. Likewise, different schools had their own 2 Cf. Norman (1983: 30); von Hinüber (1997: 25); Cox (1995: 9–10). 3 E.g. Sujato (2005: 87); Sujato and Brahmali (2014: 67). Wynne (2005: 65) says: “The corresponding pieces of textual material found in the canons of the different sects … probably go back to pre-sectarian times. It is unlikely that these correspondences could have been produced by the joint endeavour of different Buddhist sects, for such an undertaking would have required organisation on a scale which was simply inconceivable in the ancient world.” In early times the Buddhist texts were transmitted orally by the bhå˜akas “reciters”, who may also have been the redactors of the texts. See von Hinüber (1997: 25). 4 5 Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 55 reciters/ redactors, who preferred to differ over the placing of some suttas. For example, the Vamm¥ka Sutta was placed in the Majjhima Nikåya (MN 23) by the Theravådins, but the same sutta was placed in the Saµyukta Ógama (SÓ 1079) by the (MËla-) Sarvåstivådins, and in the Ekottarika Ógama (EÓ 39.9) by the Mahåsåµghikas. Referring to the above phenomena, Norman (1983: 31) explains: “there was in early times a large collection of suttas which were remembered by heart, and the task of allocating them to the various nikåyas/ågamas had not been finished, or the allocation completely agreed, by the time the schools began to separate.” Accordingly, such textual materials with parallels may belong to the pre-sectarian, earliest stratum of Buddhist literature. On the other hand, however, it does not follow that suttas without parallels must be late. Some Pali suttas have no parallels in the Chinese Ógamas. This does not signify that only the Theravåda Canon has these suttas. The D¥rgha Ógama, Madhyama Ógama, Saµyukta Ógama and Ekottarika Ógama in Chinese translation are respectively ascribed to the Dharmaguptakas, Sarvåstivådins, (MËla-)Sarvåstivådins and Mahåsåµghikas.6 None of these schools’ four Ógamas survives complete. Therefore, the foregoing schools might have included such “lone” Pali suttas in certain Ógamas that have been lost, and thus such suttas could have already existed before the schisms. The same can be said of “lone” suttas in the Chinese Ógamas. As Anålayo (2018: 131) notes, “the complexity of the transmission of the early discourses is such that it does not allow invariably equating lack of parallels with lateness.” Most suttas from AN and EÓ dealt with in this paper have no parallels in ancient Buddhist texts. In the light of the above discussion, these suttas are not necessarily later than the other suttas in the Nikåyas and Ógamas, although they appear to be relatively unconventional. Their distinctive features are probably related to the nature of the numerical collections. The numerical collections could be idiosyncratic in some ways compared to the other three collections. As regards the 6 For DĀ, see Mayeda (1985: 97), Salomon (1999: 173–174) and Karashima (2014). For MĀ, see Enomoto (1984), Thich Minh Chau (1991: 18–27) and Anålayo (2017: 67–71). For SĀ, see Enomoto (1984), Yinshun (1994: 97), Mizuno (1996: 373–375), Hiraoka (2003) and Dhammadinnå (2012: 68). For EĀ, see Akanuma (1981: 38–39), Bronkhorst (1985: 312–314), Yinshun (1994: 755–756), Påsådika (2010: 88–90) and Kuan (2013). 56 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 content of AN, the best-known sets of doctrinal categories are largely unrepresented in this corpus. A likely explanation for this phenomenon is that AN was intended to accommodate sets that were not already accommodated in the Saµyutta Nikåya (SN).7 For example, suttas relating to the four noble truths were not included in AN because there was already a place for them in SN, namely the Sacca-saµyutta. The Book of Fours in AN was meant to include any tetrad for which no saµyutta was provided in SN. The frequently cited sets are absent from AN because AN was meant for rarely cited sets, such as the three kinds of persons compared to the sick discussed in Section 4 below. AN was for any sets left over after the well-known sets had been grouped in SN.8 The same holds true for EÓ in Chinese translation. This “leftover” feature of AN and EÓ may explain why most suttas discussed below seem atypical. Some characteristics of AN and EÓ can be highlighted if we consider the principle underlying the compilation of the four Nikåyas/Ógamas. As stated above, the length of the suttas is relevant to how the texts were compiled into four collections. In addition, the four Nikåyas/Ógamas are assigned with different (T 1440, functions. The Sapoduo pini piposha *Sarvåstivåda-vinaya-vibhåΣå), a commentary on the Sarvåstivåda Vinaya, states: 薩婆多毘尼毘婆沙 The Ekottarika Ógama was compiled for teaching the Dharma at the right time to devas and humans in this world; it is studied by preachers. The Madhyama Ógama is meant for teaching the profound doctrines to beings of sharp faculties; it is studied by the learned. The Saµyukta Ógama teaches various methods of meditation; it is studied by meditators. The D¥rgha Ógama refutes other religions.9 Coincidentally, modern Western scholars also have similar opinions on the four Nikåyas. Thorough research by Manné (1990: 29, 78–79) indicates that the original purpose of the D¥gha Nikåya was to attract converts; this collection is rich in debates and is 7 See Rhys Davids (1910: vii–viii) and Pande (1995: 232–233). 8 Kuan and Bucknell (2019: 156). 9 T XXIII 503c–504a: 為諸天世人隨時說法，集為增一，是勸化人所習。為利根 眾生說諸深義，名中阿含，是學問者所習。說種種禪法，是雜阿含，是坐禪人 所習。破諸外道，是長阿含。 Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 57 directed mostly towards non-Buddhists. The original purpose of the Majjhima Nikåya was the presentation of the Buddha, both as a real person and as an archetype, and the integration of new monastics into the community and the practice. As to the Saµyutta Nikåya, Bodhi (2005: 12) infers from its contents that it was intended to serve the needs of the doctrinal specialists and of those devoted to the meditative development of insight. Regarding the A∫guttara Nikåya, Bodhi (2012: 21) observes: “a shift in emphasis takes place from comprehension to personal edification”, which echoes the ancient view of EÓ quoted above from the Sapoduo pini piposha. In his earlier work, Bodhi (2005: 13) elaborates on this aspect of “personal edification” prominent in the A∫guttara Nikåya as follows: The A∫guttara includes a notable proportion of suttas addressed to lay followers dealing with the ethical and spiritual concerns of life within the world, including family relationships … and the proper ways to acquire, save, and utilize wealth. Other suttas deal with the practical training of monks. The numerical arrangement of this collection makes it particularly convenient for formal instruction, and thus it could easily be drawn upon by elder monks when teaching their pupils and by preachers when giving sermons to the laity. Again, the coincidence is impressive: this feature of AN outlined by Bodhi is almost identical to that of EÓ outlined in the Sapoduo pini piposha cited above. The numerical collection AN/ EÓ, as perceived by ancient Indian/Chinese and modern American monks alike, is unique in its function and purpose. It seems designed to be particularly convenient for teaching diverse types of individuals, ranging from monastics to laymen, from mankind to devas. It serves as a textbook very useful to preachers. In view of the different purposes attached to the four Nikåyas/Ógamas, it is conceivable that the numerical collections, AN and EÓ, are the most adaptable and considerate of individual needs, and hence closely connected with the concepts of compassion (karu˜å/anukampå). As Bodhi points out above, AN “includes a notable proportion of suttas addressed to lay followers dealing with the ethical and spiritual concerns of life within the world”, which involves the issues of merit (puñña) that is fundamental to Buddhist ethics (Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics, 2000: 18–22 and passim). This is also the case with EÓ. Compassion is often interwoven with merit as demonstrated below. 58 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 2. Compassion: finite or infinite Different religions emphasize compassion as an attribute of their respective holy beings. The Buddha is also portrayed in Buddhist texts as one endowed with compassion. Is his compassion finite or infinite from the viewpoint of early Buddhism? Or to put it in a different way, was the Buddha compassionate towards all sentient beings according to the early Buddhist texts? In relation to this question, Anålayo (2015: 7) provides an answer based on one sutta passage as follows: Even after awakening, the Buddha’s form of compassion does not seem to be depicted as being motivated by the wish to save all living beings. A discourse in the A∫guttara-nikåya and its Saµyukta-ågama parallel explicitly highlight that the Buddha was not concerned with whether the whole world or only part of it will be able to reach liberation. (Ibid. note 15 gives the references: AN 10.95 at AN V 195,8 and its parallel SÓ 965 at T II 248a10) This passage does not necessarily suggest that the Buddha’s compassion was finite, but probably implies the Buddha’s equanimity. The idea that the Buddha did not intend to help all beings may be supported by another sutta in the A∫guttara Nikåya, AN 1.13.1:10 Bhikkhus, there is one person who arises in the world for the welfare of many people, for the happiness of many people, out of compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and human beings. Who is that one person? The Tathågata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. (trans. Bodhi 2012: 107–108) AN I 22: Ekapuggalo, bhikkhave, loke uppajjamåno uppajjati bahujanahitåya bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånaµ. Katamo ekapuggalo? Tathågato arahaµ sammåsambuddho.11 This passage uses the word “many” (bahu) instead of “all” and thus seemingly implies that the Buddha (aka the Tathågata, the 10 Sutta 1 of Vagga 13 in the Book of Ones. 11 This passage has a Chinese parallel in EĀ 8.2 at T II 561a: 若有一人出現於世， 多饒益人，安隱眾生，愍世群萌，欲使天、人獲其福祐。云何為一人？所謂多 薩阿竭、阿羅呵、三耶三佛。The sutta in question is only found in these two numerical collections, not in the other Nikåyas or Āgamas. Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 59 Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One) arises in the world for the sake of saving many people rather than all beings. In fact, in the A∫guttara Nikåya there are stock formulas very similar to what is cited above, but they are applied to other kinds of persons rather than the Buddha, for example: (1) AN 1.18.2:12 Bhikkhus, there is one person who arises in the world for the welfare of many people, for the happiness of many people, for the good, welfare, and happiness of many people, of devas and human beings. Who is that one person? It is one who holds right view and has a correct perspective. (trans. Bodhi 2012: 119) AN I 33: Ekapuggalo, bhikkhave, loke uppajjamåno uppajjati bahujanahitåya bahujanasukhåya bahuno janassa atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånaµ. Katamo ekapuggalo? Sammådi††hiko hoti avipar¥tadassano. (2) AN 1.11.1–10:13 Bhikkhus, those bhikkhus who explain nonDhamma as non-Dhamma are acting for the welfare of many people, for the happiness of many people, for the good, welfare, and happiness of many people, of devas and human beings. … (trans. Bodhi 2012: 106) AN I 19–20: Ye te, bhikkhave, bhikkhË adhammaµ adhammo ti d¥penti te, bhikkhave, bhikkhË bahujanahitåya pa†ipannå bahujanasukhåya bahuno janassa atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånaµ. … (3) AN 1.12.11–20: 14 Bhikkhus, those bhikkhus who explain what is no offense as no offense are acting for the welfare of many people, for the happiness of many people, for the good, welfare, and happiness of many people, of devas and humans. … (trans. Bodhi 2012: 107) AN I 21: Ye te, bhikkhave, bhikkhË anåpattiµ anåpatt¥ ti d¥penti te, bhikkhave, bhikkhË bahujanahitåya pa†ipannå bahujanasukhåya bahuno janassa atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånaµ. … The above 21 suttas describe 21 types of people using two stock phrases almost identical to that in AN 1.13.1. Let us compare these three phrases: 12 Sutta 2 of Vagga 18 in the Book of Ones. 13 Suttas 1–10 of Vagga 11 in the Book of Ones. 14 Suttas 11–20 of Vagga 12 in the Book of Ones. 60 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 1. bahujanahitåya bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånaµ (AN 1.13.1) 2. bahujanahitåya bahujanasukhåya bahuno janassa atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånaµ (AN 1.18.2) 3. bahujanahitåya pa†ipannå bahujanasukhåya bahuno janassa atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånaµ (AN 1.11.1–10 and AN 1.12.11–20) It should be noted that the last two phrases in the 21 suttas have bahuno janassa (of many people) in place of lokånukampåya (out of compassion for the world) as found in AN 1.13.1. The expression “out of compassion for the world”, unique to AN 1.13.1, is used exclusively to describe the Buddha. Similarly, this expression found elsewhere in the A∫guttara Nikåya also applies to the Buddha only:15 (1) AN 4.160: 16 Bhikkhus, while the Fortunate One or the Fortunate One’s discipline remains in the world, this is for the welfare of many people, for the happiness of many people, out of compassion for the world … (trans. Bodhi 2012: 526) AN II 147: Sugato vå bhikkhave loke ti††hamåno sugatavinayo vå tad assa bahujanahitåya bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya … (2) AN 8.70: Let the Fortunate One live on for an eon, for the welfare of many people, for the happiness of many people, out of compassion for the world … (trans. Bodhi 2012: 1213) AN IV 309: ti††hatu bhante Sugato kappaµ bahujanahitåya bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya … Accordingly, the redactors of AN evidently reserved the expression “out of compassion for the world” for the Buddha. This is probably intended to accentuate the Buddha’s compassion for the entire world, for all living beings. The other three Nikåyas are not consistent in their usages of lokånukampåya (out of compassion for the world). It is sometimes used with reference to the Buddha, for example: 15 This information is yielded by searching the Sutta-pi†aka in CST for lokånukampåya. 16 Sutta 160 in the Book of Fours. Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 61 DN II 103: ti††hatu bhante bhagavå kappaµ, ti††hatu sugato kappaµ bahujanahitåya bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånan ti. MN I 21: Yaµ kho taµ bråhma˜a sammå vadamåno vadeyya: asammohadhammo satto loke uppanno bahujanahitåya bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånan ti, mam eva taµ sammå vadamåno vadeyya. SN II 274: Sace hi bhagavå ciraµ d¥gham addhånaµ ti††heyya tad assa bahujanahitåya bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya atthåya hitåya sukhåya devamanussånan ti. But lokånukampåya is also used with reference to other people rather than the Buddha, for example: DN II 332: Yathå yathå kho råjañña sama˜a-bråhma˜å s¥lavanto kalyå˜adhammå ciraµ d¥gham addhånaµ ti††hanti, tathå tathå bahuµ puññaµ pasavanti, bahujanahitåya ca pa†ipajjanti bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya … (referring to moral and well-conducted ascetics and brahmins17) MN I 211: Passa D¥gha yåva c’ ete tayo kulaputtå bahujanahitåya pa†ipannå bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya … (referring to three clansmen) SN II 203: Sådhu sådhu Kassapa bahujanahitåya kira tvaµ Kassapa pa†ipanno bahujanasukhåya lokånukampåya … (referring to Kassapa) In conclusion, of the four Nikåyas, only AN applies the expression lokånukampåya (out of compassion for the world) exclusively to the Buddha. Our common sense tells us that the Buddha was unable to save the whole world. However, this does not mean that he had no intention to help all living beings or that his compassion was finite. Many Buddhists, including AN’s redactors, would conceive thus: the Buddha arises, lives on and acts “out of compassion for the world” (lokånukampåya). In the other three Nikåyas, this applies also to other kinds of good people. 3. Merit from compassion In a similar vein, the Buddha encouraged others to develop compassion for the whole world. The four brahma-vihåras or “boundless states [of mind]” (appamaññå), often taught by the 17 Translation of sama˜a-bråhma˜å s¥lavanto kalyå˜adhammå by Walshe (1995: 357). 62 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 Buddha as recorded in the Nikåyas, consist of pervading the entire world with a mind imbued with boundless loving-kindness (mettå), compassion (karu˜å), empathetic joy (muditå) and equanimity (upekkhå). This is not purely meditative, only practised by meditation adepts. It is also an attitude or mindset to be cultivated in daily life, from childhood to death.18 In AN 10.208, the Buddha affirms that if a person develops the four boundless states of mind from his childhood, he will not do a bad deed (kamma, “karma”), and such mind at death will lead to a good rebirth (AN V 300–301). Good rebirth denotes merit (puñña) considering the analogy between this sutta and the sutta discussed below. According to AN 7.58 (IV 88–91),19 the Buddha expounds “merit” (puñña) as follows: This is a designation for happiness, that is, merit. I recall that for a long time I experienced the desirable, lovely, agreeable result of merit that had been made over a long time. For seven years I developed a mind of loving-kindness. As a consequence, for seven eons of world-dissolution and evolution I did not come back to this world. When the world was dissolving I fared on to the [realm of] streaming radiance. When the world was evolving, I was reborn in an empty mansion of Brahmå …20 (trans. Bodhi 2012: 1062) In view of this passage, as Cousins (1996: 155) says, puñña (merit) simply means fortunate or happy. He goes on to interpret puñña thus: “As a noun it is applied either to an act which brings good fortune or to the happy result in the future of such an act.” In this passage, the Buddha says in retrospect that, by cultivating loving-kindness he has made merit, which brings about (or which is) the happy result consisting in the various good rebirths. In other words, loving-kindness (mettå), which can be synonymous with 18 This idea is inspired by Anålayo (2015: 9–10 and note 19). 19 This sutta is parallel to EĀ 10.7 (T II 565b–c). 20 AN IV 88–89: Sukhass’ etaµ, bhikkhave, adhivacanaµ, yadidaµ puññåni. Abhijånåmi kho panåhaµ bhikkhave d¥gharattaµ katånaµ puññånaµ d¥gharattaµ i††haµ kantaµ manåpaµ vipåkaµ paccanubhËtaµ. Satta vassåni mettacittaµ bhåvesiµ. Satta vassåni mettacittaµ bhåvetvå satta saµva††aviva††akappe na yimaµ lokaµ punågamåsiµ. Saµva††amåne sudåhaµ bhikkhave loke åbhassarupago homi, viva††amåne loke suññaµ brahmavimånaµ upapajjåmi … Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 63 compassion (anukampå, karu˜å) as elucidated below, is conducive to merit (puñña). The concept that compassion, or loving-kindness, is conducive to merit is articulated in a verse of AN 8.1 as follows: If, one arouses loving-kindness (mettåyati) towards just one being, with a mind free from hatred, one thereby becomes good (kusal¥). Compassionate (anukamp¥) in mind towards all beings, the noble one generates abundant merit (puñña).21 Anukamp¥ (nominative singular masculine form of anukampin, compassionate) is the adjective of the noun anukampå (compassion). Despite the nuances between anukampå and karu˜å,22 these two words can be regarded as synonyms.23 This is corroborated by the fact that in the above verse, mettåyati (arouses loving-kindness) and anukamp¥ correspond respectively to the first two “boundless states”, namely loving-kindness (mettå) and compassion (karu˜å). Just as mettåyati is etymologically equivalent to mettå, so too anukamp¥ is semantically equivalent to karu˜å. As Collins (2010: 44) elucidates, there are two axes of moral evaluation in Buddhism: (1) puñña, meritorious, and påpa, demeritorious (as nouns they mean “merit” and “demerit”); (2) kusala, wholesome or skilful, and akusala, unwholesome or unskilful (they are also nouns). Collins says: “Both merit and demerit are phenomena of karma and rebirth, and so acquiring merit, however useful in the short term in attaining good rebirth, is in the long run inimical to attaining nirvana.” By contrast, as he explains, an enlightened person’s action, without any trace of attachment, is entirely skilful (kusala) but does not accumulate merit (puñña), and thus has no 21 AN IV 151: Ekam pi ce på˜am adu††hacitto, mettåyati kusal¥ tena hoti. Sabbe ca på˜e manasånukamp¥, pahËtam ariyo pakaroti puññaµ. 22 Bodhi (2012: 1790 note 1616) says: “Anukampå usually suggests compassion as a motive for action on behalf of others, whereas karu˜å generally designates a meditative state.” Anålayo (2015: 9 note 19) says: “anukampå and karu˜å do not seem to be substantially different qualities, but complementary and interrelated aspects of compassion.” 23 64 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 karmic result. This view is supported by several passages in the Sutta-nipåta.24 The first half of the foregoing verse mentions the word kusal¥, which is apparently the nominative singular masculine form of kusalin, a presumed variant of kusala, “skilful/ wholesome”.25 This verse also appears in the Itivuttaka (sutta 27 of Eka-nipåta “Book of Ones”), another numerical but much smaller collection in the Khuddaka Nikåya, which has kusalo (It 21) instead of kusal¥. Therefore, kusal¥ undoubtedly means the same as kusalo, the nominative singular masculine form of kusala. The second half of the verse talks about “merit” (puñña). Therefore, this verse seems to mean that loving-kindness brings about kusala, which is karmafree, whereas compassion accumulates merit (puñña), which has karmic effects. To interpret in this way would be pedantic. It is more advisable to understand the two halves of the verse as two different ways of putting the same idea—altruism is beneficial to oneself as well as to others. In other words, mettåyati and anukamp¥ are meant to be synonymous, and this is also true of kusalin/kusala and puñña.26 The fact that kusalin/kusala and puñña are not incompatible but are strongly correlated is attested in sutta 26 of DN: “By reason of the undertaking of good (kusala) states, bhikkhus, in this way this merit (puñña) increases.”27 In view of the contrast between “one becomes good” (kusal¥/kusalo hoti) and “the noble one generates abundant merit” (pahËtam ariyo pakaroti puññaµ), the purport of this verse is that kindness or compassion towards an individual is indeed beneficial, and much more so towards all sentient beings (Cf. Anålayo 2015: 11). This suggests that 24 Sn 520, 547, 636, 790. Referring to these verses, Nyanatiloka (1970: 146) says: “The Arahats, however, having transcended all life-affirming and rebirth-producing actions, are said to be ‘beyond merit and demerit’.” Cf. also Harvey (2000: 43). 25 For the Sanskrit counterparts of the Pali kusala and kusalin, namely kuśala and kuśalin, see Monier-Williams (1899: 297). 26 Kusala and puñña may not be so distinctly different in relation to karma. Gethin (1998: 199) says: “In general, though with some qualification, rebirth in the lower realms is considered to be the result of relatively unwholesome (akuśala/akusala), or bad (påpa) karma, while rebirth in the higher realms the result of relatively wholesome (kuśala/kusala), or good (pu˜ya/puñña) karma.” DN III 58: kusalånaµ bhikkhave dhammånaµ samådåna-hetu evam idaµ puññaµ pava∂∂hat¥ ti. My translation is based on Cousins (1996: 155). 27 Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 65 compassion towards all beings is particularly encouraged. In other words, infinite compassion greatly surpasses finite compassion. This notion is exemplified in the suttas discussed below. 4. Compassion put into practical action In AN 3.22 (I 120–122)28 the Buddha expounds three kinds of persons, which are compared to the following three kinds of sick people (abridged): (1) A sick person will not recover from his illness whether or not he gets medication. (2) A sick person will recover whether or not he gets medication. (3) A sick person will recover only if he gets medication, not if he fails to get it. Medication is prescribed particularly for the third kind of sick person. But because of this sick person, the other sick people should also be served. Likewise, there are three kinds of persons (abridged): (1) A person will not enter upon the world-transcending path29 whether or not he hears the Dharma. (2) A person will enter upon the world-transcending path whether or not he hears the Dharma. (3) A person will enter upon the world-transcending path only if he hears the Dharma, not if he fails to hear it. 28 According to SuttaCentral (https://suttacentral.net/an3-puggalavagga) and Akanuma (1929: 238), this sutta has only one parallel, i.e. the Puggalapaññatti 3.2 (Pp 27–29), also organized on the “a∫guttara principle”. The Puggalapaññatti is probably the earliest Abhidhamma text, which was composed before the compilation of the four Nikåyas had been completed. See Kuan (2015: 34–35, 44). 29 Bodhi (2012: 217–218) translates okkamati niyåmaµ kusalesu dhammesu sammattaµ as “enter upon the fixed course [consisting in] rightness in wholesome qualities”. Bodhi (2012: 1638 note 358) explains: “This is a technical expression denoting entry upon the world-transcending path. … See too SN 25.1–10, III 225–28, which says that by entering the ‘fixed course of rightness’ (sammattaniyåma) one enters the noble plane …” The Pali sammatta-niyåma is equivalent to the Sanskrit samyaktva-niyama. As Dhammajoti (2015: 518) explains, the entry into samyaktva-niyama denotes that “from this point onward, the practitioner is destined for — i.e., will definitely attain — nirvå˜a (= samyaktva). 66 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 The teaching of the Dharma (dhamma-desanå) is prescribed particularly for the third kind of person. But because of this person, the Dharma should also be taught to the others (aññesam pi dhammo desetabbo). This sutta compares the Dharma to medication. Both can save people, but not all people. Just as only certain sick people can recover from illness by using medication, so too only certain people, i.e. the third kind of persons in our sutta, can benefit from listening to the Dharma. Even though only the third kind of persons really need the teaching of the Dharma, which is useless to the other two kinds of persons, the Dharma should also be taught to the other two kinds of persons, for we do not know which people belong to the third kind and have to assume everyone to fall into this category. In other words, the Dharma should be preached to all kinds of people, just as medical treatment should be made available to all kinds of sick people. Someone comments on this sutta: “Healing the body, healing the mind. Everyone should be treated, even if they don’t recover.” (https://suttacentral.net/an3puggalavagga) This sutta indicates that the Buddha advocates “boundless” compassion towards all human beings. Anålayo (2015: 21–22) points out: “Compassion in the early Buddhist discourses finds its most prominent expression in teaching activity … Compassionate activity has its complement and source in the meditative cultivation of compassion.” Compassion is mainly, but not solely, embodied by teaching the Dharma, as AN 2.13.10 states:30 There are these two kinds of compassion. What two? Compassion [shown with] worldly things (åmisånukampå) and compassion [shown with] the Dharma (dhammånukampå). These are the two kinds of compassion. Of these two kinds of compassion, compassion [shown with] the Dharma is foremost. (AN I 92) It is clear that compassion is not just a type of meditation or contemplation, but it can and should be put into practical action, either by preaching the Dharma or by providing worldly necessities. However, as Gombrich (1998: 26–27) comments, the Theravåda tradition is so conservative that wherever the words loving30 This sutta has no parallels in ancient texts according to SuttaCentral (https://suttacentral.net/an2-danavagga) and Akanuma (1929: 284). 67 Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. kindness (mettå) and compassion (karu˜å) are mentioned in the texts, the reference is to thought, not to acts of kindness — other than preaching. He points out that the Theravådin Abhidhamma, e.g. the Dhammasa∫ga˜i, defines loving-kindness (mettå) negatively as absence of hatred (adosa) and considers it to be a component of every morally wholesome (kusala) thought (Dhs §1056), and therefore not necessarily directed at any object; “loving-kindness” is thus rendered somewhat bloodless. This is certainly not the Buddha’s original intention. How compassion can be put into practical action is illustrated by the Buddha in sutta 4 of Chapter 12 in the Ekottarika Ógama (hereafter EÓ 12.4) as follows:31 The Blessed One told the bhikkhus: “If anyone visits a sick person, he visits me. If anyone attends to a sick person, he attends to me. The reason is that now I personally want to attend or visit a sick person. Bhikkhus, I do not see one person among the devas, worldlings, ascetics and brahmins whose supreme giving surpasses this giving. One who practises this giving, performs such giving, will obtain great result and great merit ( , *puñña).”32 功德 Although this passage makes no mention of any word equivalent to karu˜å or anukampå (compassion) such as , it expresses a strong humanitarian sentiment which cannot be other than compassion. Harvey (2013: 280) makes the same point by saying: “The Buddha taught that ‘whoever wishes to take care of me should take care of the sick’ (Vin.I.301–2) … A good example of this compassionate ideal at work was in Tang China …”33 In EÓ 悲 31 32 33 This sutta has no parallels in ancient texts according to SuttaCentral (https://suttacentral.net/ea12) and Akanuma (1929: 124). The Sifen lü (T 1428, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya) contains a similar passage, which equates serving a sick bhikkhu with serving the Buddha: 四分律 世尊言：「善哉！ 比丘，汝乃能瞻視病比丘，正應供養病比丘，作瞻病比丘人。供養病比丘，是 為供養我。」(T XXII 862a) I thank Ven. Jiyin for this reference. T II 569c: 世尊告諸比丘：「其有瞻視病者，則為瞻視我已；有看病者，則為看 我已。所以然者，我今躬欲看視疾病。諸比丘，我不見一人於諸天、世間、沙 門、婆羅門施中最上，無過是施。其行是施，爾乃為施，獲大果報，得大功 德。」 Harvey continues: “Tang China (618–907), where Buddhist monasteries, and lay religious societies set up by monks, ran hospitals, dispensaries, orphanages, homes for the elderly … they fed beggars, did famine relief work …” 68 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 12.4 the Buddha’s teaching on giving, i.e. altruistic behaviour, connotes that boundless compassion should be directed to any people who suffer. It is remarkable that this sutta equates compassion (or kindness) for the Buddha with compassion for others. Serving the Buddha and Arahants is usually deemed to be more meritorious and auspicious than serving the others. AN 3.57 states: “Those, however, who attend on the holy ones … go to the world of the devas or are born here in a good family.”34 (trans. Bodhi 2012: 256) According to the commentary, the “holy ones” (sante) refer to the supreme persons (uttama-purise): Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas and Arahants.35 Therefore, EÓ 12.4 suggests that by attending on any kinds of people, as long as they are in need, one generates such great merit (puñña) as is acquired by attending on the Buddha. 5. Compassion and seeing all as equals In EÓ 18.8 the Buddha tells Mahåprajåpat¥ Gautam¥: “Seeing disciples as equals is reverence for the Tathågata.” 36 In response to the Buddha’s instruction, she said: “Henceforth I will revere the Blessed One, as the Tathågata decrees now, by seeing all sentient beings with a mind free from [the discriminatory concepts of] upper and lower [classes].” 37 Despite the fact that Buddhism classifies people into ranks based on their spiritual levels, this sutta emphasizes the importance of seeing all sentient beings as equals 34 AN I 162: Ye ca sante upåsanti … devalokañ ca te yanti kule vå idha jåyare. 35 Cited from Bodhi (2012: 1646 note 417). See Mp II 259: Na hi sante upåsare ti buddha-paccekabuddha-kh¥˜åsave uttamapurise na upasaµkamanti. 36 This sutta has no parallels in ancient texts according to SuttaCentral (https://suttacentral.net/ea18) and Akanuma (1929: 128). 37 T II 592c: 世尊復以偈報瞿曇彌曰：「…平等視聲聞，此則禮如來。」是時，大 愛道白世尊曰：「自今以後，當禮世尊，如今如來勅，視一切眾生，意無增 減。」I follow the Song, Yuan and Ming editions, which all read 如今如來勅 視 “as the Tathågata decrees now, [by] seeing” as given in footnote 28 at T II 592, while the Taishō edition reads 如來今勅禮 “the Tathågata now decrees revering” (T II 592c22). Thích Huyên-Vi et al. (1996: 150) translate Mahåprajåpat¥’s reply thus: “Hence-forth the Exalted One should be revered [for his,] the Tathågata’s, insisting on regarding all living beings with a mind free from [the discriminatory concepts of] upper and lower (adhikanyËna) [classes].” 69 Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. to such a degree that this attitude is said to be a way of venerating the Buddha. It could be that the foregoing passage is a precursor of the Mahåyåna concept of compassion, which is considered to be so “great” as to “see all sentient beings as equals” as found in the *Deva-råja-pravara-prajñåpåramitå SËtra (T 231): “the Fortunate One (sugata, i.e. Buddha) … has great compassion, seeing all sentient beings as equals.” (T VIII 724a: … ) 勝天王般若波羅蜜經 善 逝 大悲平等視眾生 Why should all sentient beings be regarded as equals? The answer can be found in EÓ 10.5, which elucidates the rationale behind this attitude. 38 This sutta vividly describes how a lay Buddhist practises such “great” compassion with an intention to equally help all sentient beings without discrimination: The householder Anåthapi˜∂ika went to where the Blessed One was … the Blessed One said: “Householder, does your family constantly give to the poor?” The householder replied: “Yes, Blessed One, [we] constantly give to the poor. [We] give widely at the four city gates, and give away necessities at home too. Blessed One, sometimes I have this thought: ‘I also want to give to wild animals39— birds, pigs, dogs and the like.’ I do not have the thought: ‘This should be given; that should not be given.’ Nor do I have the thought: ‘This should be given more; that should be given less.’ I always have this thought: ‘All sentient beings are maintained by food. They live when food is available, and die when food is unavailable.’”40 Note that “all sentient beings are maintained by food” in this passage is actually the first “one thing” (eko dhammo) in the lists of doctrinal items arranged on the “a∫guttara principle” as found in the Sa∫g¥ti Sutta of the D¥gha Nikåya and its Chinese 38 This sutta has no parallels in ancient texts according to SuttaCentral (https://suttacentral.net/ea10) and Akanuma (1929: 123). 39 I follow the Song, Yuan and Ming editions, which all read “wild animals” as given in footnote 3 at T II 565, while the Taishō edition reads “wild” (T II 565a16). 40 T II 565a: 野獸 野 阿那邠持長者便往至世尊所…世尊告曰：「云何，長者，貴家恒布施 貧乏耶？」長者對曰：「如是，世尊，恒布施貧乏。於四城門而廣布施，復在 家中給與所須。世尊，我或時作是念：『并欲布施野獸、飛鳥、猪、狗之屬。』 我亦無是念：『此應與，此不應與。』亦復無是念：『此應與多，此應與少。』 我恒有是念：『一切眾生皆由食而存其命，有食便存，無食便喪。』」 70 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 parallel in the D¥rgha Ógama.41 According to our sutta EÓ 10.5, Anåthapi˜∂ika has sympathy for all kinds of living beings and tries to help everyone in need. His compassion is built on the rationale that all sentient beings wish to live and they cannot live without food. He is willing to grant such wishes of all creatures. It is in this sense that all sentient beings should be treated equally. After Anåthapi˜∂ika’s reply as quoted above, the Buddha praises him: “With a Bodhisattva’s mind, you concentrate your mind to give widely and benevolently … You will obtain great fruit, attain great fame, have great results, be heard everywhere, and attain the dharma taste of sweet dew (am®ta/amata, immortality).”42 Therefore, Anåthapi˜∂ika’s compassion is credited with generating abundant merit and hence good karmic effects in this world. It is noteworthy that his compassion is also invested with the supramundane significance of attaining “immortality” (sweet dew), i.e. Nirvana or enlightenment. This idea is implicit in the A††hakanågara Sutta of MN (I 349–353) and its parallel, AN 11.17 (V 342–347). According to this sutta, just like the four jhånas and the first three formless meditative attainments, the four boundless states of mind (as meditation), including loving-kindness and compassion, can form the basis for developing insight into impermanence, as a result of which, the practitioner may attain the destruction of the taints (åsavånaµ khayaµ), i.e. Nirvana, but if not, he will be reborn in the Pure Abodes and attain final Nirvana there (Dhammajoti 2010: 173). What is peculiar to EÓ 10.5 is its mention of the Bodhisattva in conjunction with boundless compassion as practical action. There seems to be a hint of Mahåyåna influence on the Chinese Ekottarika Ógama. As usually understood, early Buddhism did not regard boundless compassion as an indispensable prerequisite for achieving the ultimate goal, but it (as meditation) is only an optional way besides jhånas, etc. as stated in the A††hakanågara Sutta above. According to Atiśa, a Mahåyåna master, beings can be divided into three types (mostly cited from Williams 2009: 194–195): (1) ordinary worldly beings; 一切眾生皆仰食存. 汝乃以菩薩心，專精一意而廣惠施。…汝當獲大果，得大名稱，有大 果報，聲徹十方，得甘露法味。 41 DN III 211: sabbe sattå åhåra-††hitikå. DĀ 9 at T I 49c: 42 T II 565a: Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 71 (2) those who are on the path to the Nirvana of an Arahant; they act in order to bring about their own pacification; (3) Bodhisattvas, whose aspiration includes removing the sufferings of all sentient beings. The paradigms of early Buddhism belong to the second type. It is unusual for EÓ 10.5, supposedly an early Buddhist sutta, to mention “Bodhisattva’s mind” and attribute it to Anåthapi˜∂ika. This lay disciple of the Buddha is thus depicted as a Bodhisattva, among the third type of beings, who according to Atiśa aspire to remove the sufferings of all sentient beings. In sum, the portrayal of Anåthapi˜∂ika as a Bodhisattva might be a late addition inspired by the Mahåyåna. Apart from this point, however, EÓ 10.5 is not especially distinct from other ordinary early Buddhist suttas. Alternatively, the description of Anåthapi˜∂ika as a Bodhisattva probably exemplifies the inception of the Mahåyåna within an early Buddhist school, presumably the Mahåsåµghika. Scholars have noticed the difficulties in defining “Mahåyåna Buddhism”.43 Rather than a sect or school, Mahåyåna Buddhism started to arise as a new movement44 within (not independent of) early Buddhist schools (nikåyas) 45 around the second or first century BCE.46 In regard to this movement, Harvey (2013: 108) says: “There developed a new orientation to traditional Buddhist teachings and an upsurge of novel interpretations.” 47 The new orientation involves “a wholehearted adoption of the Bodhisattva path”48. The foregoing EÓ 10.5 passage, although mentioning the term “Bodhisattva”, falls short of a fully-fledged Bodhisattva path as elaborated by the Mahåyåna. The Bodhisattva ideal was not invented from scratch by the Mahåyåna, but it already emerged in early Buddhism. As Anålayo (2010: 131) notes, taking the early suttas as the starting point would explain quite naturally why “the bodhisattva ideal became a pan-Buddhist phenomenon that drew 43 E.g. Silk 2005; Ruegg 2004. 44 45 Williams (2009: 3); Keown (1996: 58); Harvey (2013: 108). Williams (2009: 6). See also de La Vallée Poussin’s (1930: 25, 32–33) remarks cited and translated by Silk (2005: 389–390). 46 Gombrich (1990: 29); Williams et al. (2012: 71). 47 Similar views are expressed by Saitō (2011: 30–31) and Keown (1996: 64). 48 See Harvey (2013: 108); or “a new emphasis” on “the ideal of the bodhisattva” in the words of Keown (1996: 58). 72 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 followers from most, if not all, of the Buddhist schools, including the Theravåda tradition.” Accordingly, it is likely that Mahåyåna Buddhism was developed from such seemingly innovative notions as found in EÓ 10.5 that had germinated in early Buddhist schools. 6. Compassion and enlightenment in connection with merit In EÓ 21.2 the Buddha elaborates on merit (puñña), which integrates compassion embodied in practical action with compassion as a systematic meditative practice. This sutta has no parallels in ancient texts.49 It enumerates three kinds of meritorious ). They resemble the “three bases of meritorious action ( action” (t¥˜i puñña-kiriya-vatthËni), namely the basis of meritorious action consisting in giving (dåna-mayaµ puñña-kiriyavatthu), the basis of meritorious action consisting in morality (s¥lamayaµ puñña-kiriya-vatthu) and the basis of meritorious action consisting in cultivation (bhåvanå-mayaµ puñña-kiriya-vatthu), as listed in AN 8.36 (IV 241), It 3.ii.1 (p. 51) and the Sa∫g¥ti Sutta (DN III 218), all of which are organized on the “a∫guttara principle”. But none of them explains these three items; the names of the last two items differ from those in EÓ 21.2 (see below).50 This sutta expounds the first kind of meritorious action as follows: 三福之業 What is meritorious action consisting in giving? When a person willingly gives to ascetics, brahmins, those in extreme poverty, those who live alone, and those who are uprooted; when food is needed, he provides food; when drink is needed, he gives drink; [he offers] clothes, food, bedding, medicine for the sick, fragrant substances, flowers and accommodation unstintingly at his convenience — this is what is called the meritorious action consisting in giving.51 49 According to SuttaCentral (https://suttacentral.net/ea21) and Akanuma (1929: 130). Akanuma however suggests a comparison between the verses in this sutta and the verses in AN 4.32, but the two sets of verses are quite different. 50 The Pali Sa∫g¥ti Sutta has a Chinese version in DĀ, which lists three kinds of action almost identical to those listed in EĀ 21.2 except for the omission of “merit” (T I 50a): . 福 51 施業、平等業、思惟業 T II 602b: 彼云何名施為福業？若有一人開心布施沙門、婆羅門、極貧窮者、孤 獨者、無所趣向者；須食與食，須漿給漿，衣被、飯食、床臥之具、病瘦醫藥、 香花、宿止，隨身所便，無所愛惜，此名曰施福之業。 Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 73 This is an explication of compassion embodied in practical action. It is followed by the exposition of the second kind of meritorious action, namely meritorious action consisting in universality. 平等 in this sutta as “universality”. This disyllabic I translate (having two characters) word usually means “equality”. Thích Huyên-Vi et al. (2002: 186–187) translate here as “equilibrium”. Judging from the context, it signifies something more profound, perhaps like what is stated in the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism: “it especially refers to the Buddha in his universal, impartial, and equal attitude towards all beings.” (http://www.buddhism) Here was probably dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?q= translated from an Indic word equivalent to samåna or samyak in Sanskrit, which can mean “universal, all, complete”.52 平等 平等 平等 The exposition of meritorious action consisting in universality begins with the five precepts: A person abstains from killing, stealing, sexual intercourse, false speech and alcohol (T II 602b). It goes on to describe the four boundless states of mind as follows: Moreover, he pervades one quarter with a mind of lovingkindness, likewise the second quarter, the third and the fourth. He pervades eight quarters, above and below, boundlessly, without limits and immeasurably. He encompasses all [beings] with this mind of loving-kindness and brings them security. Moreover, he pervades one quarter with a mind of compassion, empathetic joy and equanimity, likewise the second quarter, the 52 平等 According to Hirakawa (1997: 424), was translated from many Sanskrit words, including samåna and samyak, while was translated from samyak-prayoga. Monier-Williams (1899: 1160) defines samåna as “common, general, universal, all”. Monier-Williams (1899: 1181) explains samyak as “in compound for samyañc”, which is defined as “entire, whole, complete, all”. The following case also supports that was used to render an Indic word meaning “universal, complete”. A passage in EĀ 46.8 Its (T II 778c) reads: Pali counterpart in AN 10.27 (V 51) reads: bhikkhu sammå nibbindamåno … sammå vimuccamåno sammå pariyantadassåv¥ sammatthåbhisamecca. Bodhi (2012: 1373) translates this passage thus: “a bhikkhu is completely disenchanted … completely liberated from it, completely sees its delimitations, and completely breaks through its meaning.” Accordingly, is translated from an Indic word equivalent to sammå, or Sanskrit samyak, and means “completely” in this sutta. 平等教化 平等 比丘平等厭患，平等解脫，平等觀察，平等分別其義。 等 平 74 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 third and the fourth. He pervades eight quarters, above and below, boundlessly, without limits and immeasurably … This is what is called the meritorious action consisting in universality.53 This passage reads like a description of a meditative practice as usually understood. However, attention should be drawn to the occurrence of “He encompasses all [beings] with this mind of loving-kindness and brings them security” in this context. By implication, the same is said of compassion and so forth. Therefore, this practice of loving-kindness and compassion is intended to benefit all beings. This second type of meritorious action is closely linked to the first type, meritorious action consisting in giving, shifting from sympathy for specific objects to “universality”, from concrete to abstract, and from outward to inward. The third type, namely meritorious action consisting in reflection, turns even further inward and abstract. It is explained as follows: Here a bhikkhu develops the enlightenment factor of mindfulness, dependent on dispassion, dependent on nondeliberation, dependent on cessation, and dependent on escape. He develops the enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena, develops the enlightenment factor of mindfulness (sic, redundant), develops the enlightenment factor of tranquility, develops the enlightenment factor of concentration, and develops the enlightenment factor of equanimity, dependent on dispassion, dependent on non-deliberation, dependent on cessation, and dependent on escape. This is what is called the meritorious action consisting in reflection.54 The Buddhist texts usually enumerate seven enlightenment factors, but our sutta EÓ 21.2 lists only five, omitting the enlightenment factors of energy and joy. As Gethin (2001: 170–172) demonstrates, the formula of the seven enlightenment factors has 53 54 復以慈心遍滿一方，二方、三方、四方亦爾，八方、上下遍滿其中， 無量無限，不可限，不可稱計。以此慈心普覆一切，令得安隱。復以悲、喜、 護心，普滿一方，二方、三方、四方亦爾，八方、上下悉滿其中，無量無限， 不可稱計…是謂名為平等為福之業。 T II 602c: 於是比丘修行念覺意，依無欲、依無觀、依滅盡、依出要。修擇法覺 意，修念覺意，修猗覺意，修定覺意，修護覺意，依無欲、依無觀、依滅盡、 依出要。是謂名為思惟為福之業。 T II 602b–c: Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 75 strong relevance to the four jhånas, the crucial meditative attainments. As found throughout early Buddhist texts, enlightenment or Nirvana is attained on the basis of the fourth jhåna. Therefore, the third type of meritorious action, which represents the enlightenment factors, conduces to Nirvana. To conclude, in this sutta the scheme of the three types of meritorious action suggests that compassion underlies merit (first and second types), while merit is essential to Nirvana (third type). Harvey (2000: 45–46) also holds that merit (puñña), which he renders as “karmic fruitfulness”, is necessary for movement towards Nirvana but not itself sufficient, for some texts say that Nirvana is attainable by merit. In summary, merit involves compassion and leads to enlightenment. 7. Conclusion Of the four Nikåyas in Pali and the four Ógamas in Chinese, the numerical collections, i.e. the A∫guttara Nikåya and the Ekottarika Ógama, are the most adaptable and considerate of individual needs according to ancient Indian/Chinese and modern American monks. Therefore, these two collections contain a considerable proportion of suttas/sËtras that are closely connected with the notion of compassion (karu˜å/anukampå). These two collections include many suttas addressed to Buddhists dealing with the ethical and spiritual concerns of life within the world (as noted by Bhikkhu Bodhi), and thus involves the issues of merit (puñña). In this study I have illustrated the significant but often underestimated position of compassion with merit in early Buddhist doctrine. While there is textual evidence that the Buddha had no concern whether the entire world or part of it would be emancipated, this does not suggest that his compassion was finite, but probably implies the Buddha’s equanimity. In fact, many suttas in the A∫guttara Nikåya and the Ekottarika Ógama depict the Buddha as being compassionate for the whole world, and record that he taught compassion for the whole world. The redactors of the A∫guttara Nikåya reserved the expression “out of compassion for the world” (lokånukampåya) for the Buddha in order to accentuate the Buddha’s compassion for the entire world. Similarly, the Buddha encouraged others to develop compassion for the whole 76 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 21, 2020 world. He taught the following according to suttas in the A∫guttara Nikåya and the Ekottarika Ógama. Finite compassion is good (kusala), i.e. meritorious, but infinite compassion greatly surpasses finite compassion. Being compassionate (anukamp¥) for all beings, one generates abundant merit (puñña). Compassion is not just a type of meditation or contemplation, but it can and should be put into practical action, either by preaching the Dharma or by providing worldly necessities. Compassionate action consists in seeing all sentient beings as equals on the rationale that all sentient beings wish to live and they cannot live without food. The Buddha’s sermon on the three kinds of meritorious action suggests that compassion underlies merit, while merit is essential to enlightenment or Nirvana. Williams (2009: 195) observes: “Compassion is the basis and motivating force of the Bodhisattva. From it, therefore, springs the entire edifice of the Mahåyåna.” That being said, the doctrine of compassion is not exclusive to Mahåyåna Buddhism, nor was it formulated by the Mahåyåna from scratch. As this study has shown, the soteriological function of compassion associated with merit is expounded in the early suttas/sËtras, particularly those in the A∫guttara Nikåya and the Ekottarika Ógama. On the other hand, many discourses in these two collections reify great compassion by extending Buddhist concern from monastics to the laity, caring for all beings’ worldly welfare based on an ethical system of merit. Walser (2018: 163–187) has examined the ur-sËtra of the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajñåpåramitå), a type of early Mahåyåna literature, and regards it as “an adaptation of earlier Buddhist sutras”, which refer to what are now Pali texts and Ógama translations. The early Buddhist discourses on compassion and merit explored in this paper may be precursors to the more developed Mahåyåna conceptions. Acknowledgments I am grateful to Professor Richard Gombrich, Professor Lalji Shravak and the reviewer for their valuable suggestions. I also thank Ven. Jiyin for providing useful information and Taiwan’s Ministry of Science and Technology for the funding (MOST 107-2410-H-155-034-MY3). 齎因 Compassion and Merit in Early Buddhism …….. 77 Abbreviations References to Pali texts are to the Pali Text Society editions. AN =A∫guttara Nikåya CBETA= CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripi†aka Collection, Version 2014. Taipei: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association. CST =Cha††ha Sa∫gåyana Tipi†aka, Version 4.0 (digital version). Igatpuri: Vipassana Research Institute. DÓ =D¥rgha Ógama (Chang ahan jing ) Dhs =Dhammasa∫ga˜i DN =D¥gha Nikåya 長阿含經 增壹阿含經) EÓ =Ekottarika Ógama (Zengyi ahan jing It =Itivuttaka MÓ =Madhyama Ógama (Zhong ahan jing MN Pp Sv SN Sn T =Majjhima Nikåya =Puggalapaññatti ) =Saµyukta Ógama (Za ahan jing =Saµyutta Nikåya =Sutta-nipåta (by verse) =Taishō ShinshË Daizōkyō (Taishō Edition of the Chinese Tripi†aka). Tokyo: Taishō Issaikyō Kankōkai, 1924–1934. 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