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Preface
Dabaism is a local religion of Na People spread in the border area
between Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces in South-West China. Dabaism shares
the same origin with Dongbaism, another local religion of Naxi People living
in Lijiang area, Yunnan Province. Their designations derive from the
respective words for priest: “Daba” in Na language and “Dongba” in Naxi
language. Na and Naxi are two dialects / languages with analogous relations
(He & Jiang 1985: 104).
Systematic investigations of Dongbaism started in 19th century, with the
arrival of Christian missionaries in South-West China. The local writing
system, called Dongba scripts, is now recognized (and well-known) as the
unique pictographic writing still alive all over the world. However, Dabaism
has remained untouched over time, being attested in a remote mountainous
area.
Daba calendars are the only written texts of Dabaism discovered so far.
They are called Gelimu, Gemu, or Ge’ermu according to Daba priests from
different villages. These words literally mean “the book to look at the stars” in
local language. The first segment “ge” means “star” and the last segment “mu”
means “book”. In the form Gelimu, the second segment “li” means “to look”,
and in the form Ge’ermu the second segment “er” is the grammatical word for
plural form. They are almanacs to tell the divination fortunes of days when
certain lunar mansions appear. Besides their significance in the history of
Daba and Dongba writing, they are the carriers of Na People’s astronomical
knowledge and taboos in daily activities related to the lunar mansions.
Some studies have been discontinuously conducted on this topic since
the first report on Daba writing system (transcribing the calendars) in 1940s.
SZL (2003) and YXZ (1994) are the relevant references presenting the
authors’ own fieldwork data. However, some unclear and obscure hermeneutic
points of Daba script have still to be investigated in depth.
i
When I was studying at Tsinghua University, I had the opportunity to
approach these mysterious Daba symbols. Between January 2011 and July
2014, I have conducted several field work trips in Na villages on the border
between Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces. My field works focused on Daba
writing, Daba oral tradition, and language documentation of local languages.
The Daba priests I have interviewed on the topic of Daba calendars have been:
Daba Dawa and Daba Awo from Wujiao Village, Muli County, Sichuan
Province; Daba Mupa and Daba Dexi from Lijiazui Village, Muli County,
Sichuan Province; Daba Dafa (He Luzuo) and Daba Liu Gaozuo from Qiansuo
Village, Yanyuan County, Sichuan Province; Daba Awu from Wenquan
Village, Ninglang County, Yunnan Province.
Thanks to their patient cooperation, I have been able to interpret seven
Daba calendars. These Daba calendars contain four types of symbols used to
mark the days: 1) twenty-eight original Daba symbols of the twenty-eight
lunar mansions, 2) signs combined with two symbols related to water and rain
borrowed from Tibetan calendar, 3) seven symbols borrowed from Tibetan
calendar used for the Qiyao (“the seven luminaries”), and 4) some other icons
borrowed from Tibetan Buddhism, used just as icons indicating the fortune of
the days by their directions (if they are written in the ‘normal’ way, they add
good luck to those days, if they are written upside-down, they add bad luck to
those days). My interpretation work has been developed as follows: IPA
transcription of the symbols in Na language, Chinese translation of the
symbols, IPA transcription of the divination meanings of the day, word-byword Chinese annotation, Chinese translation, and Chinese remarks on those
days. In this book, I give the corresponding English translation as well.
In the later years, I have continued working on these data in order to
find out the relationship of Daba lunar mansions with more universal
astronomical designations. The link was found in Dongba stars. There are
quite abundant literature records and researches on Dongba astrology, e.g.: RJ
(1972), LLC (1972), ZBT (1985), and LGW (2006). Mainly through phonetic
correspondences contained in the names of the lunar mansions, I have
connected the Daba asterisms with those in Dongbaism. Furthermore, since
ii
most of the Dongba stars have been equated to the Chinese and Western
astronomical designations, I analyzed these asteroid clusters chosen to mark
the days with the widely shared 28 lunar mansions in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and
Chinese, in order to provide more comprehensive perspectives (especially in
Tibetological and Indological areas) of the lunar mansions in Dabaism and
Dongbaism. Besides the deciphering of Daba script in their calendar, I have
found some plausible explanations to the questions remained unsolved in the
studies in Dongba lunar mansions.
During the process of mapping the Daba symbols towards Dongba
hieroglyphs, I have noticed the discrepancy between Daba and Dongba script:
Dongba characters can be used phonetically to transcribe the syllables in the
names of the lunar mansions, while Daba characters are pictograms not
suitable to write down the target language. Moreover, the Dongba characters
used to stand for the lunar mansions show various status from pictograms to
phonetic symbols according to their geographic locations where the calendars
were collected. Basing my analysis on the grammatological comparison
between Daba and Dongba characters of the 28 lunar mansions, I
reconstructed the plausible development path from Daba script to Dongba
writing system.
In this book, I start with a brief introduction to the ethnic group Na
People. Chapter II collects the literature review of the relevant studies on
Daba calendars. In Chapter III, I present an interpretation of three Daba
calendars (which are relatively more ancient and complete, representing three
types of Daba calendars) based on my original field work data. Chapter IV is
my comparative study of the 28 Lunar Mansions transcribed by the Daba
scripts with the 28 Lunar Mansion systems in other major cultures
surrounding Daba culture. Chapter V is a grammatological study suggesting
that Daba scripts are the sprouts of Dongba hieroglyphs: Daba scripts would
represent the earlier stage of Dongba writing system.
The present study aims at an expansion of our knowledge of Daba
writing system and of the context in which it was and is still used. It could
serve as an important bibliographic instrument in the field of archaic writings.
iii
It provides the first systematic deciphering and analysis of these ancient
calendars, as well as a comparison with those of Dongbaism. It also offers the
first scientific introduction of the hermeneutic hypothesis according to which
Dongba writing would be derived from the ancestral Daba characters. Further
on, I hope it can contribute in establishing a philological foundation for
forthcoming researches on Daba script, originating possibly related
comparative studies.
Xu Duoduo
August, 2016
Nanyang Technological University
Singapore
iv
Content
Preface
i-iv
I. From Mosuo to Na People: The Disciples of Dabaism
1
1. The Endonyms and the Concept of Naish People
2. Divergence between Na and Naxi
3. Historical Designation Mosuo
4. From Mosuo to Naish Ethnic Group
II. The Discovery of Daba Script: From 1940 to 2011
1. Discovery
2. The Villages: Milieu of Daba Calendars
3. Researches on Daba Script
III. Interpretation of Daba Script
3
4
6
9
15
17
18
19
23
1. Mono-Symbolic Calendar: Gemu from Wujiao Village
2. Tri-Symbolic Calendar: Gelimu from Lijiazui Village
3. Di-Symbolic Calendar: Gelimu from Qiansuo Village
4. The Nature of Daba Script
IV. The Lunar Mansions in Daba Calendar
25
37
50
59
65
1. The 28 Lunar Mansions in Dongbaism
67
2. Comparative Methodology
70
3. Local Constellations of Daba and Dongba
71
4. Correspondence between Daba and Dongba Constellations
83
5. The Starting Lunar Mansion
85
6. International Designations (Chinese, Tibetan, Sanskrit, & European)
87
v
V. The Antiquity of Daba Script
99
1. Initial Evidence of the Kinship between Daba and Dongba Script
101
2. Composition of Daba and Dongba Scripts for Lunar Mansions
102
3. Grammatological Classification of Daba and Dongba Lunar Mansions
121
4. Reconstruction of the Developmental Path from Daba to Dongba
Writing
132
5. Script Created for the Astronomical Calendar
134
Appendix
139
A. From Daba to Dongba: Catalog of 28 Lunar Mansions
B. Profile: Phonemic System of Na Language
Postscript
141
147
159
vi
Abbreviations
Place
Reference
Gloss
WJ
LJZ
QS
WQ
YM
FGY 1981
Fang & He 1979
Guo & He 1999
He & Jiang 1985
He & Guo 1985
LGW 2006
LLC 1972
RJ 1963
RJ 1972
SZL 2003
YXZ 1994
ZBT 1985
ZRC 1958
EXIST.
FUT.
LOC.
Wujiao Village
Lijiazui Village
Qiansuo Village
Wenquan Village
Youmi Village
Fang Guoyu 1981
Fang Guoyu & He Zhiwu 1979
Guo Dalie & He Zhiwu 1999
He Jiren & Jiang Zhuyi 1985
He Zhiwu & Guo Dalie 1985
Li Guowen 2006
Li Lincan et al 1972
Rock Joseph 1963
Rock Joseph 1972
Song Zhaolin 2003
Yang Xuezheng 1994
Zhu Baotian & Chen Jiujin 1985
Zhou Rucheng 1958
Existence
Future
Locative
vii
Daba Lunar Mansions
Painted by Xu Duoduo
Sept. 1, 2016
viii
Chapter I
From Mosuo to Na People:
The Disciples of Dabaism
Dabaism is the local religion of Na People living on the border between
Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces in South-West China. The designation Na
People is based on their endonym: [Qľଠଖ] “black, big” + the word for “people,
ethnic group” in their language. With a population of around 47,000 units,
they are considered the major eastern branch of Naxi People (one of the 56
nationalities of China) in local academic field (He & Jiang 1985; Guo & He
1999). However, Na People living in Sichuan Province are somehow
recognized as Mongolian (one of the 56 nationalities of China), while those
attested on the side of Yunnan Province have got provincial recognition as
Mosuo People. In the past, the whole Naxi ethnic group was once called
Mosuo in historical records. In this chapter, I try to illustrate the passage of the
designation of Na People.
1
2
1. The Endonyms and the Concept of Naish People
On the border between Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces in South-West
China, there are ethnic groups following a local religion called Dabaism.
Dabaism shares the same origins with Dongbaism, another traditional belief of
Naxi People living in Lijiang area, Yunnan Province. Their different
designations are due to the dialectal discrepancies between Na and Naxi.
Dabaism derives from the local word for their priests “Daba”. Similarly,
Dongbaism is based on the word “Dongba”, referring to their priests, in Naxi
language.
The disciples of Dabaism are called Na People according to their
endonym. Their language is Na language (ISO639-3: nru). The speakers of Na
language on the Yunnan side have gained official recognition at the provincial
level as a distinct group under the name of Mosuo. On the Sichuan side, they
have the exonym Mongolian as one of the 56 officially admitted nationalities
in People’s Republic of China.
Conversely, Naxi People (with a population of approximately 300,000
units1, mainly spread in Lijiang area, Yunnan Province) have got the formal
designation according to their endonym [QľନଔɪL୫] (He & Jiang 1985: 2) during
the national ethnic group recognition organized by the government of the
People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1950s.
In fact, Na People and Naxi People share a similar endonyms, both in
formation and semantics aspects. They are composed of the syllable “nɑ”
followed by the word for “people”. The syllable “nɑ” is homophonic to the
word “black, big”. However, the meaning of the word in the endonym is
difficult to be confirmed so far. The Romanized equivalent of this syllable, Na,
has been used as the name of the language. For example, “Yongning Na” for
the dialect spoken in and around the plain of Yongning has been taken up in
some English publications on this topic (Lidz 2007; Michaud 2008).
1
Cf. Naxizu Jianshi [A Brief History of Naxi People], 2008: 112. Data were elicited from
the fifth census of 2000.
3
Na People located in different dialectal plains can have variations in their
endonyms. During my fieldwork trips, I have encountered endonyms as [Qľଠଖ]
(WQ; QS), [Qľ୭]ӝ୫] (LJZ), [Qľ୭Kҩ୫] (WJ), and [Qľ୭ॷYૂ୫] (YM).2
Recently, having noticed their similar endonyms and languages, some
local scholars propose a broader interpretation to solve the situation: “the Na
homologous ethnic group” (“Na Xi Zuqun ã+ÿÔ” in Chinese), in order to
include all the ethnic groups sharing endonym with the structure: “nɑ” (+
“people”) (cf. Mu Shihua 2010). The notion expressed by “the Na
homologous ethnic group” can be literally translated as “Naish People”. The
suffix “-ish” is used as an adjectival marker (cf. English, British). This
proposal seems reasonable. Besides their similar endonyms and native
religions, as well as closely-related languages, they were regarded as one
ethnic group in historical literature.
2. Divergence between Na and Naxi
Even though Na’s kinship with Naxi has been widely established, a
considerable number of Na People refuse to be aligned with Naxi. Such
opposition can be highlighted in their choice of appellations. The two
exonyms of Na People have followed different naming process than Naxi
People. Mosuo could be inherited from the ancient appellation of these ethnic
groups, while Mongolian was chosen to name them for the sake of similar
pronunciation. The word Mosuo in Na language can be interpreted as “people
worshiping the sky”: Mo [P؉୫] is “sky” and Suo [WVфR୭] is “ethnic group”
2
WQ is in Yongning Township, Ninglang County, Yunnan Province. QS is in Qiansuo
Township, Yanyuan County, Sichuan Province. LJZ and WJ are in Wujiao Township, Muli
County, Sichuan Province. YM is in Labo Township, Ninglang County, Yunnan Province.
The second syllable in [Qľ୭ॷYૂ୫] means “warm” and refers to the warm area at the river side.
Therefore, the endonym of Youmi Na means “Na People at the river side”. Na People in
YM have another endonym [ॷӝ୩Tф̸U୫]. Its meaning has been explicitly explained. But the
transliteration of it has been often used to refer to this branch of Na People, e.g.: LLC (1972:
125), He & Guo (1985: 40), and Zhong Yaoping (2010).
4
(Yang Jiehong 2013: 76).3 It sounds similar to Mengzu (“Meng nationality”)
in Chinese, which is homophonic to the abbreviated Mengguzu (“Menggu
nationality”). The reason for this divergence could be the long separation in
history, both politically and geographically, which results in different cultural
patterns and self-identification.
Politically, Na and Naxi were under different governors and religious
sects in Ming and Qing Dynasty (Awang Qinrao 1993, passim; He Shaoying
2001: 123-126). Na, living in Muli, were in the territory of Gelug, also known
as Yellow Hat sect, which was the representative ruler for Heshuote Tribe in
Tibetan area from late Ming to Qing Dynasty. In the meantime, Naxi were in
the reign of Mu Family, the local governor assigned by Chinese Emperor. Mu
Family had the base in Lijiang and, with their support, Karma Kargyu,
especially its Red Hat sect, had been the predominant religious group.
Geographically, the settlements of Na People are mainly located in
remote mountains, with smaller populations. They had less communication
with other people. According to He & Jiang (1985: 104, 107), Na People
mainly spread on the border of Yunnan and Sichuan, like: Ninglang County of
Yunnan Province, Yanyuan County, Muli County, Yanbian County of Sichuan
Province, and small amount in Zhangzidan Township of Yongsheng County,
Qizong Township in Weixi County, Hailong Township and Fengke Township
of Lijiang City in Yunnan Province. Naxi People, on the other hand, live in
Lijiang City, Zhongdian County, Weixi County, Yongsheng County in
Yunnan Province, and a few of them live in Heqing County, Jianchuan County,
Lanping County, Deqin County, Gongshan County in Yunnan Province,
3
The IPA transcriptions are cited from LLC (1972): No. 1, No. 510. Generally scholars
consider Mosuo as a pejorative exonym (cf. Fang & He 1979: 33; Rock 1952: 198). Such
anecdote has been confirmed during my fieldwork. My consultants, Na People classified as
Mongolian, did not like this exonym; they pride in being the descendants of Genghis Khan.
However, Na People in Yunnan Province have no negative feeling toward the exonym, and
identify themselves as Mosuo People. The meaning of Mosuo remains unclear. Fang Guoyu
(1944/2001: 31) proposed the possible connection of the first syllable Mo to yak and the
second syllable Suo is the old word for “people, ethnic group”. Yang Jiehong (2013) is a
new interpretation on Mosuo.
5
Pijiang Village in Yongning Township, Ninglang County, E’ya Township of
Muli County in Sichuan Province, and Mangkang County in Tibet.
The divergence between the two moieties also reflects in their customs,
especially in the field of marriage and funeral. Or, vice versa, the different
customs resulted from the separation. Some of Na People still keep the
traditional matriarchal custom. The marriage is called [পľ୫ɪMࣜ୭], which means
“spouse” in Na language. They are considered as “a society without fathers or
husbands” (Cai Hua 2001) from the perspective of patriarchal society. Having
suffered a lot from such distinctive custom during the Cultural Revolution,
among Na People it became a taboo to talk about this. The marriage custom
gradually resigns because of the influence of the culture of Han People. After
death, Na People hold the traditional ritual for cremation, while Naxi People
have converted to burial.
Even though the drawing apart by the two leaders (Tibetan and Chinese)
in both areas began in the 14th century, Jackson (1979: 294) took 1710 and
1723 as the beginning of salient differentiation. On these two time points, the
Yellow sect took over control in Yongning and the Chinese took over Lijiang,
respectively.
3. Historical Designation Mosuo
The name Naxi was set up in 1954 (He Zhiwu 1989: 3). The old
Chinese designation of the Naish People was Mosuo. In historical recordings
since Jin Dynasty, different characters were used to write down the name of
this ethnic group. For example: “ c É ”, a minority population living in
Dingzuo Xian Ê ï, Yuexi Jun ºâ (Chang Ju [Dongjin Dynasty] 1987: 210). It
also appears in the annotation about the miswritten name of an ethnic group
conquered by Kublai Khan (Gu Zuyu [Qing Dynasty] 1998: 5174); “Ë”, an
ethnic group dwelling in the area east of Kunming
6>
, Shuangshe
ü=
and
Songwai ®F, and close to Lu Shui (d, in the records about Yunnan in which
the distribution of various ethnic groups are described (Fan Chuo [Tang
6
Dynasty] 1992: 17); “c>”, the representative of several local tribes living in
the west side of Er Hai a§, depicted by Bai Juyi [Tang Dnyasty] (1996: 52,
Manzi Chao4); “[Ë”, the name of a local kingdom whose regime is Yuexi
Chuan
ºÀ
(Guo Songnian & Li Jing [Yuan Dynasty] 1986: 93); “cA”, the
name of a local tribe in the Biography of Yuanshizhu Emperor IFV\Ú in Yuan
Shi [History of the Yuan Dynasty] (Wang Song [Qing Dynasty] 2010: 357);
“c ” (Yuan Shi: Wulianghetai zhuan [“History of the Yuan Dynasty: The
Biography of Wulianghetai”]), “xË” (Yuan Shi: Dili Zhi [“History of the
Yuan Dynasty: Chorography”]), “xø” (Yunnan Zhi [“The Local Chronicles
of Yunnan”])5; “ÛÝ”, an ethnic group in Sichuan Province (Editorial Group
of Sichuan Province 1987: 300); “íË”, local ethnic group in the seventh
chapter of trip notes in Yunnan of Xu Hongzu [Ming Dynasty] (1933: 95); “c
Ë”, in the annotation about the correct name of an ethnic group conquered by
Kublai Khan in Gu Zuyu [Qing Dynasty] (1988: 5174); “xË”, inhabitants in
Lijiang in Qing Dynasty derived from Kunming Yi (“minority people in
Kunming”) in history (Ni Tui [Qing] 1992: 23); “íË”, the name of the
minority people using the pictographic writing known as Dongba scripts (LLC
1972).
According to some records, as well as the books listed above for how
“Mosuo” were written, “Mo” and “Suo” were written down as two ethnic
groups. On the same page of the record of “Ë” in Fan Chuo [Tang Dynasty]
(1992: 17), “ ” as a subgroup of “| ” is also mentioned.6 In Xin Tang
Shu (“New History of Tang”à(), written by Song Qi and Ouyang Xiu, there
is a record about “ ” and “Ë ” (Chang Ju [Dongjin Dynasty] 1987: 163).
4
The title of the poem is written as M in Chinese, which means “the minority leaders
come to present themselves to Chinese Emperor”.
5
These three records in Yuan Shi as the old name for Mosuo are cited from He Jiren (1991:
60). The three references mentioned here are “I"·F8 P”, “I"·`$”, and “Á
”, in sequence.
6
“ ” means uncivilized people, and “|” means black.
7
In Gu Zuyu [Qing Dynasty] (1988: 5174), “íÃË ”, occupying Tieqiao ñ
area in Song Dynasty was documented. At page 5182 of the book, it is written:
“mÃíÃË” were living in Langqu Zhou Ç, where is now Ninglang
County. “m” refers to Lolo, i.e.: Yi People. In several foreign scholars’
ethnological studies related to Southwest China, Mo and Suo also appear as
two ethnic groups. For example, Laufer (1916: 274): “The name Mo-so is
applied to them by the Chinese and presents the combination of two tribal
names, Mo and So.”
A question could be raised: is Moso one ethnic group, or consisted of
Mo and So (Suo) as two groups? The record in Rock (1947: 300) could be the
key: “Originally three tribes dwelled there from generation to generation; they
are the Lo-lo, Mo [Mo-so] and Hsieh [Li-hsieh] (The Yung-pei Records ch.2,
fol. 4b).” According to the Romanized transcription, [Li-hsieh], Hsieh could
be modern Lisu People, which was written as “GË” [Lisuo] in the literature
of Qing Dynasty (Ni Tui [Qing Dynasty] 1992: 23). Moreover, they could be
cognate branches, since their designations are semantically the same: “black
people” (Jackson 1979: 277).
A possible explanation, therefore, could be that Mosuo is a Chinese
exonym for an ethnic group from which Na and Naxi People derive. When Mo
and Suo are mentioned separately, Mo refers to Mosuo and Suo refers to
another tent.
These characters used for the name of this ethnic group are listed
chronologically in Table I-1. The use of “Ý” starts from Ming Dynasty. It
marks the turning point of the pronunciation of this minority population’s
exonym. According to the reconstructed pronunciation for these
transcriptions7, the forms probably represented originally the name *masa, and
then changed into mosuo after Yuan Dynasty. Interestingly, one branch of
Naxi living in Weixi County, is characterized by the endonym
[mɑ˧li˥mɑ˧sɑ˧], which is considered as the ancient pronunciation of
[PXନଔOL୫PR୫VR୫] “Mosuo People from Muli County” (He & Jiang 1985: 2).
7
With reference to the reconstruction work by Karlgren (1940: 451-536).
8
Table I-1. Mosuo in Historical Literature
Dynasty
Characters
Jin {
cÉ
Tang (
Ë; c>;
Song »
ÄËÅ
Yuan I
cA; [Ë; c ; xË; xø
Ming >
ÛÝ; íË
Qing 5
Ë; c«8; cË; cÉ; í; x
Public of China A- íË
4. From Mosuo to Naish Ethnic Group
Rock (1947: 4) has argued whether the two appellations, Mosuo and
Nakhi, are identical. In other words: how to ensure that Mosuo in history is
current Na and Naxi People? The evidences have been collected so far come
from two different sources.
On one hand, the localities mentioned in the historical recordings are
correspondent to the current residence of Na and Naxi People. For example,
the village base of the present study is located in Yanyuan County, which was
the region of Dingzuo Ê^ in Han Dynasty, Kunming 6> in Tang Dynasty,
Yanjingwei
Å
in Ming Dynasty, and Yanyuan County
8
Àï
since Qing
This word is cited from Gu Zuyu [Qing Dynasty] (1988: 5174), fifth chapter of Yunnan:
“ÿ>@s (¾ÈÉ-õø}c«ÄÖ0=cÉÈ£cË{é
Ä” The translation is: “Kingdom of Nanzhao and Tibetan had always fighting here, and
Mongolian Kublai Khan finally conquered MoDi. Annotation: MoDi has another name
MoSa, it is miswritten from MoSuo.” The reason for the use of character “«” is unknown.
It could be the general title for minority people in west China. In ancient China, there was
the distinction between Huaxia and four ethnic groups in the peripheral areas of China:
those in the south are called Man , in the east are called Yi g, in the west are Rong >,
and in the north are Di ô.
9
Dynasty (Sichuan Tongzhi [Annals of Sichuan], vol. 2: 44-45). Dingzuo
and Kunming
6>
Ê^
were mentioned as centers of Mosuo People in the citations
listed above. Moreover, Fang & He (1979: 39) discovered that “gPd” and
“¬d”, two places where Mosuo People lived recorded in the Chorography of
History of the Yuan Dynasty, are the names of Lijiang and Yongning in native
languages, i.e.: [L୫СYૂ୫G\ନଔ] and [O\୫G\୭], by reconstructing the pronunciation of
the characters in Old Mandarin. In other words, Lijiang and Yongning, two
important inhabited places of Naxi and Na People nowadays, were also
territories of Mosuo People in history.
On the other hand, until the time of People’s Republic of China, studies
on Dongba scripts call this ethnic group Mosuo, e.g.: Laufer (1916), LLC
(1972), and Li Lincan et al. (1978). Furthermore, even after the setting up of
the more respectful name Naxi, for Na People in Yunnan Province it is still
used the autonym Mosuo.
Fang & He (1979) illustrated the migration of Mosuo in history from
numerous sources. According to the Authors, Mosuo People have been living
in Yanyuan County before Tang Dynasty. During the more than 1,000 years
after that, they have undergone wars among ethnic groups and migrations.
Some of the Mosuo People whoc changed their venues merged into local
nationalities, e.g.: those forced to move to Kunchuan, the region of Kunming
at present, in Tang Dynasty. Some joined into other minority groups during
the ethnic identification in 1950s, e.g.: Mosuo in Xikang and Zhongdian are
recognized as Tibetan. While some of them became dominant nationality in
the region, like those in Lijiang and Yongning, who are Naxi People
(nationally recognized) and Na People.
10
Conclusion
Naish People is the designation of the ethnic groups living on the border
between Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces in South West China sharing the syllable
"na" in their endonyms. Na is one branch of Naish People. The local religion of Na
People is called Dabaism. Na has been distinguished from Naxi People due to their
distant settlements and living under different regimes. However, such discrepancy
was gradually formed since Ming Dynasty and became salient since Qing Dynasty.
In Chinese historical literature, Naish ethnic group had a common designation:
Mosuo. The old pronunciation of their exonym and the place names in Na language
preserve the memory of this ancient ethnic group.
References
Awang Qinrao. Lurong Geding (trans.). 1993. Muli Zheng Jiao Shi [History of
the Government and Religion in Mu-li Tsang Tsu Region]. Chengdu:
Sichuan Renmin Chubanshe.
Bai Juyi [Tang Dynasty]. 1996. Bai Juyi Quanji [Collection of Bai Juyi’s
Work]. Zhuhai: Zhuhai Chubanshe.
Cai Hua. Hustvedt Asti (trans.). 2001. A Society without Fathers or Husbands:
The Na of China. New York: Zone Books.
Chang Ju [Dongjin Dynasty]. Ren Naiqiang (ed.). 1987. Huayang Guozhi
Jiaobu Tuzhu [A Correction and Completion with Pictographic
Annotation for Local Chronicles of South China]. Shanghai: Shanghai
Guji Chubanshe.
Editorial Group of Sichuan Province. 1987. Sichuan Yizu Lishi Diaocha Ziliao,
Dang’an Ziliao Xuanbian [Selected Historical Investigation Material
and Documentation of Yi People in Sichuan Province]. Chengdu:
Sichuansheng Shehui Kexueyuan Chubanshe.
Fan Chuo [Tang Dynasty]. 1992. Man Shu [A Book about Minority People].
Zhongguo Shudian.
11
Fang Guoyu. 1944. Mosuo Minzu Kao [A Study on the Mosuo People]. // In:
Lin Chaomin (ed.). 2001. Fang Guoyu Wenji [Collected Papers of Fang
Guoyu] (IV). Kunming: Yunnan Jiaoyu Chubanshe.
Fang Guoyu & He Zhiwu. 1979. Naxizu de Yuanyuan Qianxi he Fenbu [The
Origin, Migration, and Distribution]. Minzu Yanjiu, (1): 33-41.
Gu Zuyu [Qing Dynasty]. 1998. Du Shi Fang Yu Jiyao [Notes of Reading
History and Local Chronicles]. Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian
Chubanshe.
Guo Dalie & He Zhiwu. 1999. Naxizu Shi [History of Naxi People]. Chengdu:
Sichuan Renmin Chubanshe.
Guo Songnian [Yuan Dynasty] & Li Jing [Yuan Dynasty]. Wang Shuwu (ed.).
1986. Dali Xingji Jiaozhu & Yunnan Zhilue [An Annotation for Travel
in Dali & A Brief Record of Yunnan Province]. Kunming: Yunnan
Minzu Chubanshe.
He Jiren & Jiang Zhuyi. 1985. Naxiyu Jianzhi [A Brief Description of the Naxi
Language]. Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe.
He Jiren. 1991. “Mosuo” yu “Namuyi” Yuyuan Kao [A Study of the Origin of
“Moso” and “Namuzi”]. Minzu Yuwen, (5): 60-63.
He Shaoying. 2001. Naxizu Wenhua Shi [History of Naxi Culture]. Kunming:
Yunnan Minzu Chubanshe.
He Zhiwu. 1989. Naxi Dongba Wenhua [Dongba Culture of Naxi People].
Jilin: Jilin Jiaoyu Chubanshe.
He Zhiwu & Guo Dalie. 1985. Dongbajiao de Paixi he Xianzhuang [Branches
of Dongbaism and Their Current Status]. // Guo Dalie & Yang
Shiguang (eds.). 1985. Dongba Wenhua Lunji [Collection of Papers on
Dongba Culture], 38-44. Kunming: Yunnan Renmin Chubanshe.
Jackson Anthony. 1979. Na-khi Religion: An Analytical Appraisal of the Nakhi Ritual Texts. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Karlgren, Bernhard. Zhao Yuanren, Luo Changpei, & Li Fanggui (trans.).
1940. Zhongguo Yinyunxue Yanjiu [A Study on Chinese Phonology].
Shanghai: The Commercial Press.
12
Laufer Berthold. 1916. The Nichols Mo-So Manuscript. Geographical Review,
1 (4): 274-285.
Li Lincan, Zhang Kun, & He Cai. 1972. A Dictionary of Mo-So Hieroglyphics.
Taipei: Wenshizhe Chubanshe.
Li Lincan, Zhang Kun, & He Cai. 1978. Mosuo Jingdian Yizhu Jiuzhong
[Translations and annotations of Mo-S0 classics]. Taipei: Editorial
Committee of Chinese Series of National Institute for Compilation and
Translation.
Lidz Liberty. 2007. Evidentiality in Yongning Na (Mosuo). Linguistics of the
Tibeto-Burman Area, 30 (2): 45-87.
Michaud Alexis. 2008. Phonemic and tonal analysis of Yongning Na. Cahiers
de Linguistique - Asie Orientale, 37 (2): 159-196.
Mu Shihua. 2010. Shui shi Moso? Lun Gu Moso de Fenhua yu Na Xi Zuqun
de Rentong ji Shibie Wenti [Who are Moso People?: A Study on the
Differentiation of Ancient Moso People and the Issue of Ethnic
Recognition of Naish People]. Sixiang Zhanxian, 36(3): 96-102.
Ni Tui [Qing]. Li Yan (ed.). 1992. Dianyun Linian Zhuan [Chronicle of
Yunnan]. Yunnan Renmin Chubanshe.
Rock Joseph. 1947. The Ancient Na-khi kingdom of Southwest China.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Rock Joseph. 1952. The Na-khi Naga Cult and related ceremonies. Serie
Orientale Roma IV. Rome: Instituto Italiano per II Medio ed Estremo.
The Committee of Naxizu Jianshi. 2008. Naxizu Jianshi [A Brief History of
Naxi People]. Minzu Chubanshe.
Wang Song [Qing Dynasty]. 2010. Yunnan Beizheng Zhi [A Record of
Anecdotes in Yunnan Province]. Yunnan Renmin Chubanshe.
Xu Hongzu [Ming Dynasty]. 1933. Xu Xiake Youji [Travel Notes of Xu Xiake].
Shanghai: Commercial Press.
Yang Jiehong. 2013. Textual Study and Explanation of “Moxie”. Journal of
Minzu University of China, 40 (3): 69-77.
13
Zhang Jinsheng et al. [Qing Dynasty]. 1773. Sichuan Tongzhi [Annals of
Sichuan] (vol. 2). // Siku Quanshu -Shibu 11 Dili [Complete Books of
the Four Repositories, History XI, Geography].
Zhong Yaoping. 2010. Research on Ruka Dongba Writing of Naxi Nationality.
Chongqing: Southwest University Dissertation.
14
Chapter II
The Discovery of Daba Script: From 1940 to 2011
Daba script used to write down calendars is the only writing system of
Dabaism documented so far. Daba culture, isolated in remote mountainous
regions (and remained, therefore, “untouched” over centuries), in a long time
has been considered as an eastern branch of Dongbaism without writing
system (cf. He & Jiang 1985: 117).
15
16
1. Discovery
The earliest scientific study on Daba script available is by Zhuang
Xueyou in 1940, published on a Journal entitled Liang You (Good Friend).
However, it is just a bulletin reporting that Mosuo People have pictograms,
without any detail about what kind of pictograms they are (cf. SZL 2003: 86).
Following that clue, Mr Song Zhaolin has collected a Daba calendar in
1963 in Yongning Township, Ninglang County, Yunnan Province. However,
Mr Song had not the opportunity to do research in depth until 2000 (cf. SZL
2003: 86). Starting from his field work data in 2000 in Lugu Lake area, four
versions of Daba calendars from four villages have been reported by him.
Moreover, three among them are presented with a systematic interpretation for
each symbol in SZL (2003).
Some other scholars have also interpreted Daba calendars as the bearer
of Daba symbols since 1980s. YXZ (1994: 32-35) wrote a brief report on this
topic. In the paragraph of his book on a comparative study of Tibetan
Buddhism among Tibetan People, Naxi People, and Pumi People, Mr Yang
Xuezheng has shown a figure with 32 symbols, interpreting them one by one
basing his analysis on his first-hand field work data (YXZ 1994: 32-35).
In the summer of 2010, Prof. Zhao Liming has conducted a long field
work following the Mr Song Zhaolin’s suggestions. She has collected the
latest information about the existing writing texts of various ethnic groups
living on the border between Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces.
Later on, in the National Social Science Fund Project “Interpretation
and Rescue of Endangered Scripts and Bibliographies in Southwest China”
(10&ZD123) advised by her, I was in charge of the interpretation of Daba
writing system. From January 2011 to January 2015, I have fulfilled several
field work trips to Daba and Dongba areas. In this book, I will present the data
of Daba calendars of three representative types.
17
2. The Villages: Milieu of Daba Calendars
Daba calendars going to be presented in detail in this book are from:
WJ, LJZ, and QS.
WJ has a population of around 300 units, composed of Na People
(around 200, 70% in the village; endonym: [Qľ୭Kҩ୫]) and Yi People. They
believe in Dabaism and Tibetan Buddhism. During my fieldwork time in 2011,
there were six Daba priests and seven Lama9 in the village.
“Wujiao” in Na language is [؉୭GॼR୫@. It is a transcription of a Tibetan
phrase, which means “this is the place”. According to their legend, a goddess
called Pati Lamu ([S͑୫WL୫זľ୫P؉୫]) has pronounced that sentence when she
arrived there. Daba Awo also told me the etymological origin of the name of
LJZ. It was called “Lizheheng” [OL୫Gॷࣜ୭Kҩ୫], which means “the place that bad
people hide themselves”. Later on, with the sound change, the current
pronunciation became widespread: [OL୭Wɪľ୫WVӝ୭].
LJZ is another village in Wujiao Township, Muli County, Sichuan
Province. It has a population of around 400 individuals, who are all Na
People. Besides the endonym [Qľ୭]ӝ୫], they have an alternative designation:
[Qľ୭PYૂ୫প ୫Gॼࣜ୭]. There were ten Daba priests and ten Lama in the village in
2011.
QS is in Qiansuo Township, Yanyuan County, Sichuan Province. It has a
population of around 300 units, including Na People, Yi People, and Han
People. Among them, the number of Na People is about 200. They are
distributed in different parts of the village: Na People in the center, Han
People in the peripheral area, and Yi People at the foot of mountains hundreds
of meters of fields away. They had three Daba priests and seven Lama
according to the statistics in 2011.
9
“Lama” is the designation of Tibetan Buddhism monk.
18
QS was one of the military bases in Yanyuan County (Sichuan Tongzhi
[Annals of Sichuan], vol. 19: 58-59). The name “Qiansuo” is from the ancient
Chinese military toponomastics. Suo is the sub-level of each military base
called Wei around the country. Suo manages with the villages in order to
recruit soilders. The local tribe chieftain is called Tusi in Chinese. The
surname of Qiansuo Tusi is “A”. They are offshoot of the Mu family, the local
chieftian in Lijiang area authorized by Chinese government (Lijiangfu Zhilue
[Brief History of Lijiang Prefecture]: 137). Literally, “Qiansuo” is the Suo
located in the front. There are other four Suo in that area: Zuosuo, Yousuo,
Housuo, and Zhongsuo, meaning Suo on the left, on the right, at the back, and
in the center, respectively.
The village has also its original name, “Waru” [Zࣜ୫ॷYૂ୫] in Na
language. The first syllable [Zࣜ୫] is “village”, while the second is synonym
of “warm”. Considering its location near to the Wenquan River (“the warm
spring river”) that is the natural border between Yunnan and Sichuan
Provinces, its local name could mean “the village at the river side”.
This preliminary observation on the villages’ names also reveals the
historical image of the influences from the two bigger regions (China and
Tibet) involved in the history of that area. In addition, the Lamas in these three
villages all belong to the Gelug School, the Yellow Hat sect in Tibetan
Buddihism.
3. Researches on Daba Script
Mr Yang Xuezheng’s interpretation of 32 Daba symbols elicited from
two Daba calendars (YXZ 1994: 35) includes: pronunciation of the symbol in
local language transcribed by Chinese characters, the literal meaning of each
symbol, and the divination meaning of the symbol. In his interpretation, nine
symbols are related to animals, seven are related to sex, four are related to
stars, four are related to human body parts, two represents diseases, other two
heterogeneous notions / items (No. 6: wealth/property and No. 25: poisonous
19
food). Four other symbols are not yet interpreted. The divination meanings are
simply auspicious, ominous, or neutral, except one symbol representing
auspicious prediction if there is a battle and ominous prognostication if it is a
normal day. In his short conclusion, Mr Yang has pointed out some
characteristics of these Daba symbols: 1) these characters are assigned to the
days without apparent links to the dates of every month; 2) the pronunciations
of the symbols are mainly in ancient Mosuo language, which is merely
understood by current people; 3) the knowledge of these symbols and the
calendars are held only by a few elder Daba priests, reachable by common
people.
Mr Song Zhaolin’s interpretation of Daba script is a work based on each
calendar. He presented the symbols used for 28 days in the first month with 1)
the pronunciation(s) of the symbol(s) in one grid of the calendar by Chinese
characters, 2) the meaning(s) of the word(s), 3) the day is auspicious,
ominous, or neutral, 4) the suitable activities and non-suitable actions on that
day. The three versions of Daba calendars interpreted in SZL (2003) include
two types: each day represented by either one symbol or two symbols. The
calendar with single symbols for each day contains 28 different symbols. The
calendar with double symbols for each day is a combination of these 28
symbols with some other symbols. The calendar written with the 28 single
symbols is considered the more ancient type. Applying the “Liu Shu theory” 10
to the analysis of Daba script, Mr Song Zhaolin has concluded that most of the
characters are pictograms and ideograms. Moreover, he claims the Daba
symbols (called Mosuo characters in his paper) to be characters according to
three factors: 1) they have stable shapes; 2) these symbols can write down the
relatively complicate calendar, which has different contents for 360 days per
10
The “Liu Shu theory” is a traditional philological theoretical framework aimed at the
analysis of the composition of Chinese characters proposed by Xu Shen (58 -147 AD), a
scholar from Han Dynasty. According to this theory, Chinese characters can be divided into
six categories based on the six manners they were created: pictograms (Xiangxing),
ideograms (Zhishi), compound ideograms (Huiyi), phono-semantic compounds
(Xingsheng), phonetic loan characters (Jiajie), and derivative cognates (Zhuanzhu). (cf. Xu
Shen 2001: 314).
20
year; 3) the symbols in Daba calendars are widely recognized and used by
Daba priests. Comparing to Dongba writing, however, Daba script shows to be
less mature as a writing system. Three reasons are listed: 1) pictograms are
much more than ideograms; 2) variants of characters are spotted among
different calendars; 3) these characters are used only to write down Daba
calendars, being not applicable to writing down other Daba classics.
YXZ (1994) and SZL (2003) are two important references in the study
of Daba script. Being pioneer researches on this topic, they have unveiled the
existence of Daba script and have provided a general idea of this writing
system.
However, there is still need to work in depth on the symbols. For
example, Chinese and Na have quite different phonemic systems. Therefore,
the transcription of the pronunciations of the symbols in Na by Chinese
characters is not accurate enough as a source. Moreover, due to the inaccurate
transcription, it is difficult to find out the relationship of the symbols’
designation with the daily vocabulary. This could lead to misinterpretation of
the symbols’ meanings.11 Further on, an unclear point in these two reports is
the number of Daba characters. SZL (2003) seems to rely on the Daba
calendars themselves, since he has provided scanned copies of Daba
calendars. Conversely, the 32 Daba symbols displayed in YXZ (1994: 32)
could be a combined elicitation from two versions of Daba calendars. In other
words, the single symbol set used in Daba calendars contains 28 units.
However, the number of the additional symbol set was not clarified by SZL
(2003). Instead, Mr Song has stated the total number of the symbols appearing
in double symbol calendars as it results from this sentence: “…it has several
more characters, more than 30 pictograms in all” (SZL 2003: 90). According
to his interpretation of data, the meanings of this additional set of symbols
include “throat”, “sun”, “moon”, “eye”, “palm”, “throat”, and “nose”. The
11
For example, the third symbol in the first calendar sounds as “paokuai” (transcribed by
pinyin) and is interpreted as “the penis of the goat”. However, according to my knowledge
of Na language, the first syllable could be “frog” and the second is “mouth”. Therefore, the
compound word means the “the mouth of the frog”.
21
words for the two “throats” are different. Nevertheless, that was not explained
in the paper.
In order to clarify the obscure points findable in the current available
academic publications on Daba script, it is necessary to provide a more
accurate description and interpretation of Daba writing system and of its
bearer, Daba calendar, as well. In this book, I will apply a linguistic
perspective in order to try to understand the meanings of the Daba symbols
according to the local language.
References
Guan Xuexuan & Wan Xianyan [Qing Dynasty]. 1743. Lijiangfu Zhilue [Brief
History of Lijiang Prefecture]. Xueshan Tang.
He Jiren & Jiang Zhuyi. 1985. Naxiyu Jianzhi [A Brief Description of the Naxi
Language]. Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe.
Song Zhaolin. 2003. Mosuoren de Xiangxing Wenzi [Hieroglyphic Writing of
Mosuo People]. Southeast Culture, 19 (4): 86-93.
Xu Shen [Han Dynasty]. 2001. Shuo Wen Jie Zi [An Etymological Dictionary
Explaining Graphemes and Analyzing Characters]. Nanjing: Jiangsu
Guji Chubanshe.
Yang Xuezheng. 1994. Zangzu, Naxizu, Pumizu de Zangchuan Fojiao: Diyu
Minzu Zongjiao Yanjiu [The Tibetan Buddhism of Tibetan People, Naxi
People, and Pumi People: A Study on Regional Ethnic Religion].
Kunming: Yunnan Renmin Chubanshe.
Zhang Jinsheng et al. [Qing Dynasty]. 1773. Sichuan Tongzhi [Annals of
Sichuan] (vol. 19). // Siku Quanshu -Shibu 11 Dili [Complete Books of
the Four Repositories, History XI, Geography].
22
Chapter III
Interpretation of Daba Script
Basing my analysis on my field work data, as well as on the published
studies, Daba Calendars can be classified into three types, mono-symbolic /
di-symbolic / tri-symbolic, according to how many symbols they use for each
day. The three versions of Daba calendars described in this chapter are
representatives of each type.
Noticing that the basic symbols of Daba calendars are repeated every 28
units, I have inferred they correspond to the 28 lunar mansions in Daba
culture. I numbered the first cycle in the first month from 1 to 28 according to
the star groups Daba priests have catalogued during the interpretation work.
The interpretation of the basic 28 symbols presented here depicts: 1)
Daba script; 2) IPA transcription of the symbol’s pronunciation in Na; 3)
Chinese translation of the name of the specific lunar mansion represented by
the related symbol; 4) literal meaning of the lunar mansion; 5) the
corresponding Chinese lunar mansion or star; 6) the western designation of the
lunar mansion or star; 7) IPA transcription of the divination comments of the
symbol; 8) word-by-word gloss; 9) translation of the whole sentence; 10) my
conclusive remarks on the suitable and non-suitable activities on that day.
Interpreting this traditional system, I have annotated the corresponding
Chinese lunar mansions and their western designations as well (see sections 5
and 6). This can help in identifying Daba script and the lunar mansions
recorded by these ideograms in the whole cultural background, considering
also their relationships with lunar mansions/stars in other (related and
unrelated) cultures. The same I have done to the heading of the star groups. I
have given the designation to each asterism group, i.e. the local constellation,
according to the results after the comparative study done in chapter IV. The
23
details on how I have found out the connections will be illustrated
exhaustively in next chapter.
The additional symbols are also described in detail in the section of the
calendar in which they appear. They are in fact three kinds of exotic ones
borrowed from Tibetan Buddhism: 1) two related to water and rain, 2) Qiyao
(“the seven luminaries”), and 3) 20 icons representing the holy items. Besides
the information collected from Daba priests, I have also tried to dig out the
source of the Daba icons of Qiyao.
These four sets of symbols are used in a cycling way in different
versions of Daba calendars, at their own period, covering all the days of the
year.
24
1. Mono-Symbolic Calendar: Gemu from Wujiao Village
This Daba calendar, entitled Gemu ([N؉୫PYૂ୭], literally means “to look
at the stars”), is from WJ, Wujiao Township, Muli County, Sichuan Province.
Daba Dawa told it could also be called Ge’ermu [N؉୫ޙ୭PYૂ
୭]. The second
ૂ
syllable er could be the plural marker in Na language. That is to say, Ge’er
mean “stars”.
The calendar is about 40 cm in length and 18 cm in height. It consists of
six pages, with the symbols written by calligraphic brush from the left to the
right. The Daba priest preserving the calendar was called Dawa (1929-2012).
He lived in WJ all his life.
This source relatively old, showing a more archaic version of Daba
calendars. It is the mono-symbolic type of calendar (as stated by SZL 2003),
where each day is written through a (only one) corresponding symbol.
Gemu from WJ was firstly interpreted by me with the cooperation of
Daba Awo, the son of Daba Dawa, during my field work in January 2011.
Daba Awo (1967- ) is one of the most knowledgeable Daba priests in WJ. Awo
is his family name, while his name is Tshi’er Phianchu. He started to learn
Daba culture since he was 10 years old following Daba Dawa. When he was
21 years old, he started to conduct rituals by himself. The recorded data and
interpretation have been counter-checked with him again during my field work
in July 2011 in WJ.
Figure III-1. The First Page of WJ Daba Calendar
25
(1) The “Human Being” Constellation
Script
1.
28.
Sф ୫PL୫ نL୫˅ӝ୫
Na
Chinese
Pami
Nizhi
Literal Meaning
----Chinese Lunar Mansion
Hegu-2
Western Designation
Altair (Aquila)
IPA
Sф ୫
PL୫
PYૂ୫
WɪфL୫
ॼࣜ୫
O͑୭
WɪфL୫
Wф͑୫
WɪфL୭
Gloss
the day of Pami funeral
etc.
to discard
to go
(On the days of “Pami” and “Nizhi”,) it is not allowed to celebrate
Trans. funerals. If a funeral is celebrated, someone will die in the following
day.
Remark The day that “Pami” or “Nizhi” is on duty is not good for funerals.
(2) The “Horse” Constellation
Script
2.
Na
ॷZ ୫N؉୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Ma Xing
star of horse
Hugua
Hugua (Delphinus)
IPA
ॷZ ୫
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
Gloss
O͑୫
टZľ୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
horse
to sell
not
good
to buy
not
good
(On the day of “Ma Xing”,) the exchanges of horses are not
Trans.
auspicious.
Remark The day that “Ma Xing” is on duty is not good for horses’ exchange.
26
(3) The “Frog” Constellation
Script
3.
Sࣜ୫NфZࣜ୫
Na
4.
5.
6.
Sࣜ୫Gॼ؉୫
Gॼ؉୫N؉୭
Sࣜ୫N؉୭Sф؉୭
Waniao
Shui Xing Baiwa Xing
Xing
the mouth of the urine of the star of a white star from
Literal Meaning
frog
frog
water
the “frog”
Chinese Lunar
Shi
Bi
Kui
Lou
Mansion
Western
Markab and Algenib and
Legs
Bond
Designation
Scheat
Sirrah
Chinese
Wazui Xing
IPA
СYૂ୭
Gloss
ER୫
टZľ୫
EM͑୫
Gॼࣜଠଖ
СYૂ୫
SфR୫
Eľ୭
livestock
to buy
too
good
crop
to sow
crop
IPA
SфR୫
Gॼࣜ୭
؉୫
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
E؉ଠଖ
Gloss
to sow FUT.
good
bull
to sell
not
good
yak
IPA
WɪфL୫
Gॼࣜ୭
टZľ୫
EM͑୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
EM͑୫
Pࣜ୫
Gloss
to sell not
good
to buy FUT.
not
good
(On the days of “Wazui Xing”, “Waniao Xing”, “Shui Xing”, and
“Baiwa Xing”,) the exchanges of livestock are good. It is also
Trans.
auspicious to work in the field. But the exchanges of bulls and yaks
are not good.
During the days when “Wazui Xing”, “Waniao Xing”, “Shui Xing”,
and “Baiwa Xing” are on duty, the exchanges of livestock are
Remark
auspicious, except bulls and yaks. These are good days to sow and to
work in the field.
27
(4) The “Six Stars” Constellation
Script
Na
7.
8.
Tфޙ୩Wߋ
୩Tфޙ୫
ૂ
ૂ
Tфޙ୩Wߋ
୩СYૂ୫PL୫
ૂ
Chinese
“Kezha” Jiao
“Kezha” Shen
Literal Meaning
the horn of “Kezha” the body of “Kezha”
Chinese Lunar Mansion Mao
--Western Designation
Pleiades
IPA
СYૂ୫
SфR୫
Eľ୭
SфR୫
Gloss
crop
to sow
crop
IPA
V͑୭
ॼ؉୫
Gloss
Gॼࣜ୭
СYૂ୭
to sow not
good
livestock
TфR୩
EM͑୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
Gॼ؉୭ EL୩
blood to have
to kill
FUT.
not
good
mountain area
IPA
KYૂ୫
GL୭
Gॼࣜଠଖ
GॷL୭
ߋL୫
Zࣜ୫ ߋL୫
Gloss
wild animals
to
chase
good
money
to look moun to look
for
tain
for
IPA
EL୫
পľ୫
R୫
СYૂ୭
ER୫
Gloss
FUT. good
home
IPA
Oľ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
Q ୭
Gॼࣜ୭
Pࣜ୫
WɪфL୫
Gloss
Pࣜ୫
TфR୩
ER୫
EL୫
livestock
to kill FUT.
EL୫
Pࣜ୫
Oľ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
then not
good
to sell FUT. then
not
good
(On the days of the “Kezha”,) it is not good to sow and work in the
field. The livestock with blood (mammals) cannot be killed. It is
suitable to hunt. All the animals hunted from the mountains are
Trans.
good. To kill the household livestock (bulls, horses, sheep, and pigs)
is not good (to other livestock at home). To sell them is not good
either.
During the days when “Kezha Jiao” and “Kezha Shen” are on duty,
Remark it is not suitable to work in the field, either to kill or exchange
livestock. They are good days for hunting.
28
(5) The “Red Eye” Constellation
Script
9.
Na
نM ୭KYૂ୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Hongyan Xing
red eye
Bi
Aldebaran
IPA
СYૂ୭
ER୫
Gॼ؉୭
EL୩
KZࣜ୭
EL୭
Pࣜ୭
Gॼࣜ୭
Gloss
livestock
mountain
area
to
shepherd
to
go
not
good
IPA
نM ୭ KYૂ୫
PYૂ୫
N؉୭ পľ୫
R୫
ॼ؉୭
T͑୩
Gloss
eye
red
fire
star
home
house
to
burn
IPA
PYૂ୫
ޙYૂ୭
Wߋࣜ୭
ଠଖ
ॼLଠଖ
forest
pay attention
fire
(On the day of “Hongyan Xing”,) it is not suitable to bring livestock
(bulls, horses, sheep, etc.) into the mountains; (it is not suitable for
Trans.
people to go into the mountains). On this day, people should pay
attention to fire.
The day in which “Hongyan Xing” is on duty is not suitable to go
Remark
into the mountains. It is a day to avoid fire.
Gloss
fire
29
(6) The “Three Stars” Constellation
Script
10.
11.
12.
13.
Na
VR୭Wфľ୫R୫ VR୭Wфľ୫ORଠଖ
VR୭Wфľ୫WߋфZࣜ୫PL୫ VR୭Wфľ୫N؉୫Sф؉୫
Chinese
Literal
Meaning
Chinese
Lunar
Mansion
Western
Designation
Suota Wo
Suota Chuomi
Suota Lo
Suota Gepo
the stars of “sheep”12
Shen
Fa
---
Tianlang Xing
Orion’s
Belt
Orion’s
Broadsword
---
Sirius
IPA
প ୫
WVR୫
Gloss
what
IPA
GॼR୫
O͑୭
Gloss
EXIS
T.
to give
IPA
WVфӝ୩
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
to
build
IPA
Pࣜ୫
نL୭
O͑୭
not
COP.
Tф ଠଖ
Gॼࣜଠଖ
EL୫
to get
good
outside
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜଠଖ ॼ؉୭
WVфӝ୩
পZľଠଖ
not
good house
to
build
foundat
ion
СYૂ୫
SфR୫
Eľ୭
SфR୫
Gॼࣜ୭
ॼR୫
good
crop
to sow
crop
to
sow
good
sheep
N؉୫
СYૂ୭
ER୫
পľ୫
R୫
˅ӝ୫
R୫
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
star
livestock
IPA
GॷL୫
WVфӝ୭
Gloss
money to come
home
Zࣜ୫ EYૂଠଖ
পľ୫
moun
many
tain
home
˅ӝ୫
to get back
good
R୫
˅ӝ୫
R୫
to get
back
12
Daba Awo explained this star group as the Constellation “Sheep” and did not give
specific names of each star. The comparison with other Daba calendars and Dongba lunar
mansions, according to the perspectives of pronunciation and characters’ shape, indicates
the designation of the constellation as “three stars”.
30
IPA
Gॼࣜଠଖ
O͑୫ WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫ Gॼࣜଠଖ
ॼR୫
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୭ Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
good to sell
not
good sheep to sell not
good
(On the days of “Sanxing Tou”, “Sanxing Shou”, “Sanxing
Chuomi”, and “Sanxing Bai Xing”,) it is good to get things and not
good to give away things; it is good to build the houses and to
Trans.
establish the foundations of houses; it is good to sow and to work in
the field. On the days of the constellation “sheep”, it is good to buy
livestock, to achieve big income; it is not good to sell sheep.
During the days when the stars/asterisms from the “Three Stars”
Constellation are on duty, it is auspicious to take in instead of giving
Remark
out stuff. They are days suitable to build up houses and to work in
the fields. It is not auspicious to sell sheep.
(7) The “Pheasant” Constellation
Script
14.
Na
KR୫N؉୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Yeji Xing
star of pheasant
Gui
Beehive Cluster
IPA
؉୫
СZࣜ୭
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
bull
to teach good
IPA
СZࣜ୩
N؉୫
ॷZ ୫
СZࣜ୭
Gॼࣜଠଖ
horse
to teach good
СYૂ୭
ER୫
livestock
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
to teach star
good
(On the day of “Yeji Xing”,) it is good to teach bulls and horses how
Trans.
to work. It is good to teach livestock that day.
The day in which “Yeji Xing” is on duty is suitable to tame
Remark
livestock.
31
(8) The “Eagle” Constellation
Script
15.
Na
Nࣜ୭N؉୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Ying Xing
star of eagle
Wudizuo
Denebola
IPA
СYૂ୫
SфR୫
Eľ୭
SфR୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
СYૂ୭
Gloss
crop
to sow
crop
to sow
not
good
livestock
IPA
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
टZľ୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
NфYૂ୫
ߋ ୩
Gloss
to sell
not
good
to buy
not
good
dog
to pull
IPA
ɪL୭
GLଠଖ
Gॼࣜ୭
Gloss
ER୫
to fish
good
(On the day of “Ying Xing”,) it is not good to sow or to work in the
Trans. field; it is not good to buy or to sell livestock. Only fishing or
hunting is suitable for that day.
The day in which “Ying Xing” is on duty is suitable to fish and to
Remark hunt. It is non-suitable to grow crop, to work in the field, or to
exchange livestock.
32
(9) The “Pig” Constellation
Script
Na
16.
17.
18.
ER୭NфZࣜ୫
ER୭Gॼ؉୫
ER୭Pľ୫
Zhuniao
Zhuyou Xing
Xing
the mouth of the urine of
Literal Meaning
the fat of pig
pig
pig
Chinese Lunar Xuanyuan
Xuanyuan
Taiweiyouyuan
Mansion
Shisi
Shi’er
Western
Two among σ Leo, ι Leo, θ
Regulus
Algieba
Designation
Leo, and δ Leo
Chinese
Zhuzui Xing
IPA
ERଠଖ
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
TфR୩
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
टZľ୫
Gloss
pig
to sell
not
good
to kill
Not
good
to buy
IPA
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
প ୫
WVR୫
Pࣜ୫
نL୭
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
not
good
what
not
COP.
good
(On the days of “Zhuzui Xing”, “Zhuniao Xing”, and “Zhuyou
Trans. Xing”,) it is not good to sell pigs, to kill pigs, or to buy pigs. All the
others things are good to be done.
During the days when the stars/asterisms from the “Pig”
Remark Constellation are on duty, everything is suitable to be done, except
to exchange or to kill pigs.
33
(10) The “Mdzo”13 Constellation
Script
Na
Chinese
20.
21.
22.
23.
]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫
]ӝ୭Tфޙ୫
ૂ
]ӝ୭זL୫
]ӝ୭نM ୫
]ӝ୭СYૂ୫
Pianniu
Er
the ear of
mdzo
Pianniu
Pianniu
Yan
Zhang
the eye of the foot sole
of mdzo
mdzo
Pianniu
Jiao
four sides the horn
of mdzo
of mdzo14
Pianniu Si
Literal
Meaning
Chinese
Lunar
Mansion
Western
Designation
IPA
19.
˅ ୫
the area between Jiao and Ji
the area between the Horn mansion (Spica) to Winnowing
Basket
ޙ୫ Gॼࣜ୭ ]ӝ୭
Tфޙ୫ૂ ॷ ୭
WVфӝ୩ N؉୫ Gॼࣜଠଖ
to
star good
build
(On the days of “Pianniu Si”, “Pianniu Jiao”, “Pianniu Er”, “Pianniu
Yan”, and “Pianniu Zhang”,) it is good to make the foundation of
Trans.
houses flat. It is good to erect columns on the day of “Pianniu Jiao”.
(Nothing is forbidden during these days.)
During the days when the stars/asterisms from the “Mdzo”
Constellation are on duty, it is suitable to build the foundation of the
Remark
houses. During the day in which “Pianniu Jiao” is on duty, it is good
to erect the columns. Nothing is forbidden.
Gloss
foundation flat good mdzo horn column
13
Daba Awo did not give the explanation for syllable []ӝ୭]. I gloss it as “mdzo” according
to the results of comparisons with my field work data from other villages and other studies
on Dongba lunar mansions.
14
It means “the whole body of the mdzo”.
34
(11) “Huizui Xing” and “Roushi Xing”15
Script
24.
25.
Na
Oľ୫KYૂ୫ NфZࣜ୫
ߋࣜ୭G]ӝ୭GYૂ୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Huizui Xing
the star of tiger’s mouth
-----
Roushi Xing
the star of carnivore
-----
IPA
পľ୫
WVR୫ Pࣜ୫
Gloss
what
IPA
Gॼࣜ୭ NфYૂ୫ ߋ ୩
Gloss
good
dog
to pull to fish
IPA
СYૂ୭
EYૂ୫
V͑୫
Gloss
livestock
blood
IPA
EM͑୫
not
Pࣜ୫ Gॼࣜ୭
نL୭
Pࣜ୫ Gॼࣜ୭ OR୭
EYૂ୫
COP.
not
good
to
chant
ɪL୭
GLଠଖ
Gॼࣜଠଖ পľ୫
incantation
R୫
good
home
ॼ؉୫
WɪфL୫ EM͑୫
Pࣜ୫
TфR୩
to
have
to
sell
FUT.
not
to kill
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
टZľ୫ EM͑୫
Gloss
FUT. not
good to buy too
not
good
(On the days of “Huzui Xing” and “Roushi Xing”,) nothing is good
to be done, except chanting incantations in order to expel ghosts,
Trans.
and pulling dogs (to hunt) and fishing. It is not good to sell
livestock, to buy livestock, or to kill livestock.
During the days when “Huzui Xing” and “Roushi Xing” are on duty,
Remark it is suitable to chant spells to expel ghosts and to hunt. Nothing else
is suitable, especially exchanging and/or killing livestock.
15
They are two local ‘original’ stars. It has not yet been possible to find reliable parallels
among Dongba culture and other major cultures.
35
(12) “Tou Xing” and “Wei Xing”
Script
26.
27.
Na
ߋZ ୫TфZࣜ୫
P ୭TфZࣜ୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Tou Xing
the head star
Ji
Winnowing Basket
Wei Xing
the tail star
Dou
Dipper
IPA
ॼľ୭
זľ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
߾ф؉୭
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
WVф؉୭
Gloss
others
good
goat
to sell
not
good
goat
IPA
N؉୫
WɪфL୫
EM͑୫
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
टZľ୫
EM͑୫
Pࣜ୫
Gloss
star
to sell go
not
good
to buy
to go
not
IPA
Gॼࣜ୭
পľ୫
O͑୭
SR୫
ॼL୫
Gॼࣜଠଖ
R୫
Gloss
good
home
to bring
back
good
(On the day of “Tou Xing” and “Wei Xing”,) there is nothing bad,
Trans. except to sell goats or to buy goats. It is good to bring back home
stuff.
During the days when “Tou Xing” and “Wei Xing” are on duty, it is
Remark good to bring stuff into the house, not good to exchange goats.
Nothing else is forbidden.
36
2. Tri-Symbolic Calendar: Gelimu from Lijiazui Village
This Daba calendar from LJZ, Wujiao Township, Muli County, Sichuan
Province, is entitle Gelimu ([N؉୫OL୫PYૂ୭], “book for observing the stars”). The
calendar is about 20 cm in length and 12 cm in height. There are twelve pages
in all, one page for each month of a year. The symbols are written by
calligraphic brush from the left to the right.
It should be the triple symbol type of calendar where each day is written
through three corresponding symbols. The Daba calendar documented in SZL
(2003: 87-88) is the same to the one I am going to present here. However, it
was classified as double symbolic type. The third symbol in each grid, which
looks like slash or the resemblance of waves, was not explained in his paper.
According to my interpretation, this third symbol, written with abstract
lines, is considered secondary in deciding the divination meaning of that day.
Therefore, they are ‘ignored’ by Daba priests. On the last pages of WJ Daba
calendar, there are grids (marked by Tibetan numbers 1-30, ༡-༣༠) filled with
different versions of these slash and wave-like symbols. They serve as an
annotation to the Daba calendar. Conversely, in the LJZ version, the copyist
decided to merge that set of symbols into the text instead of adding end-notes.
These symbols have specific meanings related to water. Daba Awo from
WJ has explained to me that these abstract characters are in fact combinations
of two independent symbols: the wave-like one
(WJ:
) and the slash-
like one
(WJ: ). The wave-like one means “water”, and the day marked
by it is an unlucky day. The slash-like one symbolizes “rain”, and the day
having this symbol is a lucky day. The strokes of each symbol imply the
degree of the luck: the more there are strokes of the wave-like icon, the more
the day is unlucky, and the more there are strokes of the slash-like icon, the
more the luck is bigger.
The owner of this Daba calendar is Daba Mupa (1933- ). Mupa is his
family name, while his name is Erche Duji. He started to learn Daba culture
37
when he was 12 years old, following his grandfather. At the age of around 20,
he began to participate in conducting rituals. On his 25, he has ‘graduated’ and
was qualified to fulfill the responsibility of Daba priest.
In August, 2011, together with my teammates Dr Li Wenshan and his wife,
we have organized our field trip to LJZ. The place was not reachable via
public transportation. Hence, we have experienced small track, motorcycle,
and tractor in order to overcome the shoals and slopes and to reach this
‘wonderland’ out of the world. With the guidance of the local carpenter Suna,
we have met Daba Mupa and translated this tri-symbolic Daba calendar.
Figure III-2. The First Page of LJZ Daba Calendar
38
(1) The “Human Being” Constellation
Script
Na
28.
1.
Sф ୫PL୫
نL୫˅ӝ୫
Chinese
Ren Xing Ren Xing
Literal Meaning
The star of human being
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Hegu-2
Western Designation
Altair (Aquila)
IPA
Kҩ୫
T͑୭
Pࣜ୭
Kҩ୫
Kҩ୫
EL୭
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୭
Gloss
person
to burn not
can
person
do
not
can
(On the days of “Ren Xing”,) it is not allowed to hold cremation or
Trans.
funeral.
The days in which the “Human Being” Constellation is on duty is
Remark
not allowed for weddings or funerals.
(2) The “Horse” Constellation
Script
2.
Na
ॷZ ୫N؉୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Ma Xing
star of horse
Hugua
Hugua (Delphinus)
IPA
ॷZ ୫
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫
Gloss
Kҩ୫
horse
to sell
not
can
(On the day of “Ma Xing”,) the exchanges of horses are not
Trans.
auspicious.
The day in which “Horse” Constellation is on duty is not suitable for
Remark
horses’ exchange.
39
(3) The “Frog” Constellation
Script
3.
4.
5.
6.
Na
Sࣜ୫NфZࣜ୫
Sࣜ୫Gॼ؉୫
Gॼ؉୫N؉୫
Sࣜ୫N؉୭Sф؉୭
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar
Mansion
Western
Designation
Bokua
---
Boji
---
Jige
---
Bogepa
---
Shi
Bi
Kui
Lou
Markab
Scheat
and Algenib and
Legs
Sirrah
Bond
IPA
؉୫
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୫
؉୫
TфR୭
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୫
Gloss
bull
to sell
not
can
bull
to kill
not
can
IPA
EL୫
GॼR୫
EL୫
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୫
Gloss
to go EXIST.
to go not
can
(On the days of “Bokua”, “Boji”, “Jige”, “Bogepa”,) it is not
Trans.
allowed to sell bull or to kill bull. It is not allowed to go outside.
During the days in which “Bokua”, “Boji”, “Jige”, and “Bogepa” are
on duty, it is not allowed to exchange bulls or to kill bulls. It is a day
Remark
favorable for bringing in goods and unfavorable for leaving goods to
go outside.
40
(4) The “Six Stars” Constellation
Script
Na
7.
8.
TR୭Wߋ ୩Tфޙ୫
ૂ TR୭Wߋ ୩СR୭PL୫
Chinese
Guzhake
Guzhagumi
Literal Meaning
----Chinese Lunar Mansion Mao
--Western Designation
Pleiades
IPA
প ୫ WVR୫ G]ӝ୫
EM͑୫
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
Yૂ୫
Oľ୫
Wфľ୭
ॼL୫
whatever to eat FUT. good
business
must not
do
(On the days of “Guzhake”, “Guzhagumi”,) whatever a person eats
Trans.
is good, but she/he must not do businesses.
The days in which the “Six Stars” Constellation are on duty is good
Remark
for taking nutrition. It is not good for business.
41
(5) The “Sheep” Constellation16
Script
9.
VR୭Wфľ୭نM
Na
୭KYૂ୫
Chinese
Literal
Meaning
Chinese
Lunar
Mansion
Western
Designation
IPA
প ୫
Gloss
IPA
11.
10.
12.
13.
VR୭Wфľ୭Wߋф VR୭Wфľ୭N؉୫
VR୭Wфľ୭Rଠଖ VR୭Wфľ୭ORଠଖ
Z ୫PL୫
Sф؉୭
---
Tianlang
Xing
Mianyang Xing
stars of sheep
Bi
Shen
Fa
Aldebaran
Orion’s
Belt
Orion’s
--Broadsword
WVR୫
Sirius
ॼL୫
EM͑୫
Gॼࣜଠଖ
ॼR୫
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫
whatever
do
FUT.
good
sheep
to sell
not
Kҩ୫
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୫
OR୭
TR୫
WфYૂ୭
Gॼࣜଠଖ
TфR୩
Gloss
can to kill not
can
hand
LOC.
to arrive good
(On the days of “Mianyang Xing”,) it is good to do everything. It is
Trans.
not allowed to sell sheep or to kill sheep. It is good to get things.
The days in which the asterisms from the “Sheep” Constellation are
Remark on duty are good for doing everything except the exchanges of sheep
and to kill the sheep. It is good for bringing in stuff.
16
The “Sheep” Constellation is named according to Daba Mupa’s classification of these
lunar mansions. It corresponds to the “Red Eye” Constellation and the “Three Stars”
Constellation in Dongbaism.
42
(6) The “Pheasant” Constellation and the “Eagle” Constellation
Script
14.
15.
Na
KR୫N؉୫
Nࣜ୭N؉୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Huoge
--Gui
Beehive Cluster
Gege
--Wudizuo
Denebola
প ଠଖ
Pࣜ୫
IPA
WɪфL୫
Kҩ୫
Gloss
প ୭
TфR୭
Pࣜ୭
Kҩ୫
chicken
to sell not
can chicken
to kill not
can
(On the days of “Huoge” or “Gege”,) it is not allowed to sell chicken
Trans.
or to kill chicken.
During the days when “Huoge” or “Gege” are on duty, it is not
Remark
suitable for chickens’ exchanges or to kill chickens.
43
(7) The “Pig” Constellation
Script
16.
17.
18.
19.
Na
ER୭NфZࣜ୫
ER୭Gॼ؉୫
ER୭P ୫
ER୭Pľ୫
Chinese
Literal
Meaning
Chinese Lunar
Mansion
Western
Designation
Zhuzui
the mouth
of pig
Xuanyuan
Shisi
Boji
Zhuwei Zhuyou
the tail
the fat of pig
of pig
IPA
ER୭
Regulus
WɪфL୫
--Xuanyuan
Shi’er
---
Taiweiyouyuan
Algieba
---
Two among σ Leo, ι
Leo, θ Leo, and δ Leo
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୫
Gloss
ER୭
TфR୩
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୫
pig
to sell
not
can
pig
to kill
not
can
(On the days of “Zhuzui”, “Boji”, “Zhuwei”, “Zhuyou”,) it is not
Trans.
allowed to sell pig or to kill pig.
During the days when the “Pig” Constellation is on duty, it is not
Remark
good for exchanges of pigs or to kill pigs.
44
(8) The “Mdzo” Constellation
Script
Na
20.
21.
22.
23.
]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫Tфޙ୫
ૂ
]ӝ୭זL୫
]ӝ୭نMࣜ୫
]ӝ୭СYૂ୫
Chinese
Ziruke
Zili
Zinia
Zigu
Literal Meaning --------Chinese Lunar
the area between Jiao and Ji
Mansion
Western
the area between the Horn mansion (Spica) to Winnowing
Designation
Basket
IPA
ॼ؉୭
WVфӝ୩
পZľ୫
WVфӝ୫
Gॼࣜଠଖ GॷR୫
WVфӝ୫
Gॼࣜଠଖ
to
to
to
auspicious
good column
good
build
build
build
(On the days of “Ziruke”, “Zili”, “Zinia”, “Zigu”,) it is good to build
Trans.
up houses and to erect columns.
During the days when the “Mdzo” Constellation is on duty, it is
Remark
good to build up houses and to erect columns.
Gloss
house
45
(9) “Huzui Xing” and “Roushi Xing”
Script
25.
24.
Na
Oľ୫K}୭NфZࣜ୭ ߋL୭G]ӝ୭GYૂଠଖ
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Lahukua
-------
IPA
প ୫
WVR୫
G]ӝ୫
Shizidu
------Gॼࣜଠଖ
প ୫
WVR୫
˅ӝ୫
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
whatever
to eat
good
whatever
to get good
(On the days of “Lahukua”, “Shizidu”,) whatever a person eats is
Trans.
good, whatever a person gets is good.
The day in which “Lahuku” or “Shizidu” is on duty is good for
Remark
eating and bringing stuff.
(10) “Tou Xing” and “Wei Xing”
Script
26.
27.
Na
ߋZ ୫TфZࣜ୭
P ୫TфZࣜ୭
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Shuakua
--Ji
Winnowing Basket
Makua
--Dou
Dipper
IPA
WVфӝ୩
Gloss
goat
to sell
not
can
goat
to kill
not
can
(On the days of “Shuakua” or “Makua”,) it is not allowed to sell
goat or to kill goat.
The day in which “Shuakua” or “Makua” is on duty is not good for
exchanges of goats or to kill goats.
Trans.
Remark
WɪфL୭
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୫
46
WVфӝ୩
TфR୭
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୫
In the right corner at the bottom of each grid, there is a set of seven
symbols appearing in the Lijiazui Daba calendar. According to the
pronunciation and meaning of each character given by Daba Mupa, I assume
these seven symbols correspond to the Qiyao (“the seven luminaries”) in
Tibetan calendar. Moreover, I have traced back their origins among the
Tibetan symbols of Qiyao (Chen Zungui 1987: 1498). In the following table
(Table III-1), I show the comparison of the seven-symbol set in Daba calendar
and Tibetan Qiyao.
The first four columns are compiled according to the Daba Mupa’s
explaination. The Tibetan transcriptions in the fifth column are cited from the
online database “Geonames” (http://www.geonames.de/days.html). The next
three columns about Tibetan symbols of Qiyao are data from Chen Zungui
(1987: 1498). In Chinese tradition, the five planets in Qiyao are related to
Wuxing (“the five basic elements”), cf. (Chen Zungui 1980: 94-100).
47
Daba
IPA
Script
Table III-1. The Tibetan Correspondences of the Seven-Symbol Set with Daba Calendar
Tibetan Tibetan Translati
Trans.
Remark
Tibetan Script
Qiyao
Name Symbol on
གཟའ་ཉི་མ། (gzā.ñi.ma)
གཟའ་ ་བ།
نL୭Pľ୫
sun
---
Gľ୭Zľ୫
moon
---
PL୫Pޙ୫
ૂ
eye
---
Oľ୭Sľ୫
hand
The best གཟའ་ག་པ།
day.17
(gzā.lhag.pa)
Sф}୫SR୫
body
Unlucky
day.18
གཟའ་ར་འ།
Sľ୫V}୫
territory
Good
day. 19
གཟའ་པ་སངས།
]ľ୫Gľ୭Wɪࣜ୫ bravery
Good
day.20
གཟའ་ེན་པ། (gzā.spen.pa)
(gza.zla.ba)
གཟའ་མིག་དམརེ།
(gzā.mig.dmar)
h
(gzā.p ur.bu)
(gzā.pa.saṅs)
17
Week
day
Nima
sun
Sun
Sun.
Da Wa
moon
Moon
Mon.
Mig
Mar
eye
Mars
(Fire)
Tue.
L’agpa
hand
Mercury
(Water)
Wed.
P’ur-bu
dagger
Jupiter
(Wood)
Thur.
Pa-san
hulk
Venus
(Gold)
Fri.
Pen-ba
whisk
Saturn
(Earth)
Sat.
The complete following sentence: “It is good for inviting Lama and Daba priest (to do rituals). It is good for washing clothes. It is
troublesome if people get sick on this day.”
18
The complete following sentence: “It is not good for anything.”
19
The complete following sentence: “It is suitable for relaxing.”
20
The complete following sentence: “People can rest. It is good for funeral.”
48
From Table III-1, we can highlight these interesting points:
1) The pronunciations of these seven symbols in LJZ Daba calendar
have been borrowed from Tibetan Qiyao, except the one meaning
“bravery” (which could have been a mistake in knowledge transmission).
The first segment in each Tibetan transcription of the weekdays, gzā (“the
days of the week”), is identified with []ľ୫] in Na language (e.g.:
[]ľ୫Gľ୭Wɪࣜ୫]). The other six words all have adopted the Tibetan
pronunciation, which is quite different from the local language. For
example, according to the Na words documented in LJZ, “sun” is [نL୫PL୫],
“moon” is [זL୫PL୫], “eye” is [نMࣜ୭ޙӝ୫], “hand” is [OR୭TфZࣜ୫], and “body” is
[СYૂ୫PL୫].
2) The Tibetan names for the seven luminaries used as equivalence to
weekdays are related to their familiar items. In other words, besides the
“sun” and the “moon”, the five planets were named through the Tibetan
words of “eye”, “hand”, “dagger”, “hulk”, and “whisk”.
3) Among the seven borrowed symbols in LJZ Daba calendar, the
first five (from “Sun” to “Jupiter”) are identical to those Tibetan icons
representing the correspondent planets. The seventh could be the peak of
whisk. Just the sixth one is a little bit difficult to be interpreted, being not
‘automatic’ its link to a hulk. These changes in the shape of the symbols
could have led to some misinterpretations of their meanings.
49
3. Di-Symbolic Calendar: Gelimu from Qiansuo Village
This Daba calendar, entitled Gelimu ([N؉୫OL୫PYૂ୭], literally means
“the book for observing the stars”), is from QS, Qiansuo Township,
Yanyuan County, Sichuan Province. The calendar is about 36 cm in length
and 16 cm in height. It consists of twelve pages (one page for each month),
with the symbols written by calligraphic brush from the left to the right.
Daba He Luzuo (1933- ) is the preserver of it. The disciple and son of him,
He Guoguang, has transcribed the lunar mansions’ designations at the
bottom of each grid in Chinese. “He” is their new Chinese surname chosen
in relation to their original Na family name: Dafa. In the village, people are
still used to call Daba He Luzuo with his family name as Daba Dafa.21
It should be a di-symbolic type of calendar where each day is written
through two corresponding characters. Besides the 28 basic Daba
characters of lunar mansions, the other set of symbols were not shown in
the field work data reported in SZL (2003). Similar to the seven-symbol set
applied in LJZ Daba calendar, these icons are also copied from Tibetan
calendars. The difference consists in the fact that the number of the
imported symbols in each grid is not the same: for some grids, there are no
Tibetan signs as additional annotations to the divination meaning of that
day, while for some grids, one or more Tibetan signs are used.
There are 20 of these Tibetan icons in QS Daba calendar. According
to Daba Dafa, they add indications to the day where they appear by
pointing up or pointing down. For example, in Figure III-3,
and
(grid 3)
(grid 14) are towards downside and they add unluckiness to those
days; while
JULG DQG
(grid 5) are towards upside and they bring
good luck to that day. Generally, the symbols filled with black indicate
negative factors. For example,
(grid 7) means “catastrophe”.
(grid 16) means “unlucky” and
21
In Na language, the title comes after the name. Therefore, people call him “Dafa
Daba”. It is also a way to show respect to call a Daba priest with his family name. It
means he is the Daba representing his family.
50
The original data of Gelimu from QS were collected in July 2011,
with cooperation from Daba Luozuo. He is the most respected Daba priest
in QS. He started to learn Daba culture from his father when he was very
young. He is the twentieth generation of Daba priest of his family.
Figure III-3. The First Page of QS Daba Calendar
(1) The “Human Being” Constellation
Script
Na
28.
1.
Sф ୫PL୫
نL୫˅ӝ୫
Chinese
“Pami”
“Nizhi”
Literal Meaning
human being the biggest day22
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Hegu-2
Western Designation
Altair (Aquila)
IPA
Kҩ୫
N؉୫
˅ӝ୫
نL୫
প ୫
WVR୫
Gloss
people
star
one
day
whatever
IPA
ॼL୭
Pࣜ୭
Kҩ୫
ॼL୫
EM͑୫
do
FUT.
Gloss
Trans.
do
not
can
(On the day of “Pami” or “Nizhi”,) it is not good to do anything.
The day in which “Pami” or “Nizhi” is on duty is not suitable for
Remark
either weddings or funerals.
22
This is a translation provided according to the meaning of the word in Na language.
51
(2) The Second Group23
Script
2.
3.
Na
ॷZ ୫N؉୫
Sࣜ୭NфZľ୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Ma Xing
star of horse
Hugua
Hugua (Delphinus)
Hamazui
the mouth of frog
Shi
Markab and Scheat
IPA
टľ୫
ߋӝ୭
G]ӝ୭
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
grain
new
to eat
good
(On the day of “Ma Xing” or “Hamazui”,) it is good to try the
Trans.
new cereals.
The day in which “Ma Xing” or “Hamazui” is on duty is suitable
Remark
for trying the new cereals.
(3) The “Frog” Constellation
Script
4.
5.
Na
Sࣜ୭Gॼ؉୫
Gॼ؉୫N؉୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Waniao
the urine of frog
Bi
Algenib and Sirrah
Shui Xing
the star of water
Kui
Legs
IPA
Kҩ୫
T͑୩
N؉୫
Gॼࣜ୭
Gloss
people
to burn
star
good
(On the day of “Waniao” or “Shui Xing”,) it is good for
Trans.
cremation.
The day in which “Waniao” or “Shui Xing” is on duty is suitable
Remark
for funerals.
23
According to the comparison with the other two Daba calendars, the two asterisms in
the second group of Daba Dafa’s classification are the “Horse” Constellation and the
first asterism in the “Frog” Constellation. The third group and the fourth group contain
the three other members of the “Frog” Constellation. Daba Dafa split them into three
groups possibly because they represent different divination meanings.
52
(4) The Fourth Asterism of “Frog” Constellation
Script
6.
Na
Sࣜ୫N؉୭Sф؉୭
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Bai Hama
white frog
Lou
Bond
N؉୫
Gॼࣜ୭
O͑୫
ॷZ ୫
star
good
very
(On the day of “Bai Hama”,) the day is very good.
The day in which “Bai Hama” is on duty is good for moving into
Remark new houses. Only the Tusi families have the status to use this
prescription.
IPA
Gloss
Trans.
(5) The “Six Stars” Constellation and the “Red Eye” Constellation
Script
8.
7.
Tфޙ୭Wߋ
୩Tфޙ୫
୩СYૂ୫PL୫
ૂ
ૂ Tфޙ୭Wߋ
ૂ
Chinese
Kezhake
Kezha Gumi
Literal Meaning
----Chinese Lunar Mansion Mao
--Western Designation
Pleiades
Na
9.
نM ୭KYૂ୫
Hong Yanjing
red eye
Bi
Aldebaran
ॼ؉ଠଖ
WVфӝ୩
পZľ୭
WVфӝ୩
GॼL୭ KYૂ୫
house
to build auspicious
to build clothes
ޙଠଖ
Pࣜ୭
Kҩ୫
to measure not
can
(On the days of “Kezhake”, “Kezha Gumi”, “Hong Yanjing”,) it
Trans.
is good to build up houses and not good to measure clothes.
During the days when “Kezhake”, “Kezha Gumi”, and “Hong
Remark Yanjing” are on duty, it is good to build up houses, but it is bad to
preparing clothes.
IPA
Gloss
IPA
Gloss
53
(6) The “Three Stars” Constellation
Script
10.
VR୭Wфľ୫R୫
Na
11.
12.
VR୭WфľଠଖORଠଖ
VR୭WфľଠଖWߋфR୫PL୫
24
“Suota” Tou
“Suota” Shou
the head of the hand of
Literal Meaning
“Suota”
“Suota”
Chinese Lunar
Shen
Fa
Mansion
Western
Orion’s
Orion’s Belt
Designation
Broadsword
Chinese
NLଠଖ
ॼ؉୭
G]ӝଠଖ
Gॼࣜଠଖ
“Suota” Simian
the four sides of
“Suota”
-----
IPA
זL୭
Gloss
trousers to wear house
to sit
good
down
house
IPA
ߋӝ୫
TR୫
PYૂ୫
Nф؉୭
G]ӝ୫
Gloss
new
LOC.
fire
to burn house
IPA
ޙ୭
Gॼࣜଠଖ
ॼ؉୭
ॼ؉୭
TфZࣜଠଖ
Gľ୫
to sit
foundation
down
Gloss
plain
good
(The days in which “‘Suota’ Tou”, “‘Suota’ Shou”, “‘Suota’
Simian” are on duty,) are good for the rite of passage, called “to
Trans. wear trousers” in Na language. They are good for moving into the
new houses. They are also good for building up houses and for
laying the foundations.
During the days when “‘Suota’ Tou”, “‘Suota’ Shou”, and
“‘Suota’ Simian” are on duty, it is suitable to conduct the rite of
Remark
passage, to move into the new houses, and to lay the houses’
foundations.
24
“Suota” is the transliteration given by Daba Dafa for this group of lunar mansions.
Theses asterisms have their counterparts in WJ and LJZ Daba calendars called stars of
the “sheep”, which correspond to the “Three Stars” Constellation in Dongbaism.
54
(7) The Fourth Asterism of the “Three Stars” Constellation
Script
13.
Na
VR୭WфľଠଖN؉୫Sф؉୭
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Suota Baixing
a white star of “Suota”
Tianlang Xing
Sirius
N؉୫
O͑୫
IPA
Gॼࣜ୭
ॷZ ୫
Gloss
Trans.
star
good
very
(On the day of “‘Suota’ Baixing”,) the day is very good.
The day in which “‘Suota’ Baixing” is on duty is suitable to do
Remark
everything.
(8) The “Pheasant” Constellation and the “Eagle” Constellation
Script
14.
15.
Na
KR୫N؉୭
Nࣜ୭N؉୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Yeji Xing
star of pheasant
Gui
Beehive Cluster
Ying Xing
star of eagle
Wudizuo
Denebola
IPA
ॷZ ୫
WɪL୭
Wߋ ୫
Gloss
؉୫
СZࣜ୭
Gॼࣜଠଖ
horse
saddle
to settle
bull
to teach
good
(On the days of “Yeji Xing” and “Ying Xing”,) it is good to settle
Trans. the saddles on the horses and to tame the bulls to plough in the
fields.
During the days when “Yeji Xing” and “Ying Xing” are on duty,
Remark
it is good to tame the livestock.
55
(9) The “Pig” Constellation
Script
Na
16.
17.
18.
ER୭NфZľ୫
ER୭Gॼ؉ଠଖ
ER୭Pľ୫
Chinese
Zhuzui Xing
the mouth of
Literal Meaning
pig
Chinese Lunar Xuanyuan
Mansion
Shisi
Western
Regulus
Designation
IPA
Kҩ୫
Zhuniao Xing Zhuyou Xing
the urine of
the fat of pig
pig
Xuanyuan
Taiweiyouyuan
Shi’er
Two among σ Leo, ι
Algieba
Leo, θ Leo, and δ Leo
T͑୩
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
people
to burn
good
(The days of “Zhuzui Xing”, “Zhuniao Xing”, and “Zhuyou
Trans.
Xing”,) are good for cremation.
During the days when asterisms from the “Pig” Constellation are
Remark
on duty, it is good to celebrate funerals.
56
(10) The “Mdzo” Constellation
Script
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Na
]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫Tфޙ୫
ૂ
]ӝ୭Tфޙ୫
ૂ
]ӝ୭זL୫
]ӝ୭نMࣜ୫
]ӝ୭СYૂ୫
Chinese
Pianniu Sijiao
Pianniu
Jiao
Pianniu
Er
Pianniu
Yan
Pianniu
Shenti
Literal
Meaning
the horns on
the horn the ear of the eye of the body
the four sides
of mdzo mdzo
mdzo
of mdzo
of mdzo
Chinese
Lunar
Mansion
Western
Designation
IPA
СYૂ୭
Gloss
IPA
the area between Jiao and Ji
the area between the Horn mansion (Spica) to Winnowing
Basket
ER୫
WɪфL୫
Pࣜ୫
Kҩ୫
СYૂ୭
livestock
to sell
not
can
livestock
Pࣜ୭
СYૂ୭
ER୫
Pࣜ୫
Tľ୫
Kҩ୫
Gloss
ER୫
TфR୩
to kill
Pࣜ୭
Kҩ୫
not
can
livestock
not
to geld not
can
(On the days of “Pianniu Sijiao”, “Pianniu Jiao”, “Pianniu er”,
Trans. “Pianniu Yan”, “Pianniu Shenti”,) it is not allowed to sell
livestock, not allowed to kill livestock, neither to geld livestock.
During the days when the asterisms from the “Mdzo”
Remark
Constellation are on duty, it is not good to exchange livestock.
57
(11) “Huizui Xing” and “Roushi Xing”
Script
24.
25.
Na
Oľ୫KYૂ୫NфZࣜ୭
ߋࣜ୭G]ӝ୭GYૂଠଖ
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Huzui
mouth of tiger
-----
Shezidu
-------
IPA
N؉୭
Pࣜ୫
Gॼࣜ୭
Gloss
Trans.
star
not
Good
(On the day of “Huzui” or “Shezidu”,) the day is not good.
The day in which “Huzui” or “Shezidu” is on duty is not suitable
Remark
to do anything.
(12) “Tou Xing” and “Wei Xing”
Script
26 .
27.
Na
ߋZ ୫TфZࣜ୫
P ୭TфZࣜ୫
Chinese
Literal Meaning
Chinese Lunar Mansion
Western Designation
Shuita Jiaoyin
the footprint of otter
Ji
Winnowing Basket
Weiba Yinzi
the trace of tail
Dou
Dipper
IPA
СYૂ୭
ER୭
]ӝ୩
Gॼࣜଠଖ
Gloss
livestock
to kill
Good
(On the day of “Shuita Jiaoyin” or “Weiba Yinzi”,) it is good to
Trans.
kill livestock.
On the days in which “Tou Xing” or “Wei Xing” are on duty, it is
Remark
not forbidden to kill livestock.
58
4. The Nature of Daba Script
The main parts of the three versions of Daba calendars are the 28
basic symbols representing Daba lunar mansions. Due to cultural contact
throughout history, Daba priests have also added some other symbols from
Tibetan calendar. In WJ Daba calendar (the mono-symbolic version), the
Tibetan elements are two, related to water and rain. Symbols based on these
two for each day of the year have been written as end-notes. In LJZ Daba
calendar (the tri-symbolic version), the end-note symbols in WJ version
have been merged to each day of the month. The icons of Qiyao (“the
seven luminaries”), together with their Tibetan pronunciations, have also
been adopted. In QS Daba calendar, we have seen the third kind of Tibetan
symbols, which are the icons of Tibetan Buddhism items. These symbols
have 20 units that are used non-periodically for a whole year.
Comparing the three versions of Daba calendars translated in this
chapter, we can see that the Daba characters from different villages share
similarities in their forms, pronunciations, and meanings.
The differences spotted in their ‘shapes’ occur in No. 5, 18, and 23.
The fifth lunar mansion has three forms:
(WJ),
(LJZ),
(QS). However, the three symbols have the same pronunciation [Gॼ؉N؉]
(just nuances in tones due to the accents in different villages), meaning “the
star of water”. As far as No. 18 and No. 23, they also have identical
pronunciations ([bo୭mľ୫] for No. 18 and []ӝ୭СYૂ୫] for No. 23) in the three
versions of calendars. In this case, we can see that, to some extent, Daba
priests rely more on their memory of the names of the lunar mansions,
instead of on their characters.
However, the explanations of the meanings of No. 18 and No. 23
were different according to the three Daba priests. This fact largely
depends from their own interpretations. Another noticeable instance is No.
19,
(WJ),
(LJZ),
(QS). Here the form is almost the same
among the three calendars, but with different pronunciations and meanings.
59
Such variations can derive from Daba priests’ discrepancies and
imprecisions in grouping the asterisms. Indeed, they could have different
opinions on their constellations. Another explanation could consist in the
fact that the priests refer to different lunar mansions in judging the day’s
fortune according to the real time location of the stars. For example, LJZ
Daba Mupa has explained No. 19 as the star of “pig’s fat” and No. 18 as the
star of “pig’s tail”. Nevertheless, according to WJ Daba Awo and QS Daba
Dafa, No. 18 is the star of “pig’s fat” and there is not a star of “pig’s tail”.
In Daba Awo and Daba Dafa’s translations, from No. 19 the Constellation
“Mdzo” starts to be represented. On the other hand, LJZ Daba Mupa read
the No. 20 lunar mansion
as []ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫Tфޙ୫].
ૂ Literally, this name could
mean “the horns on the four sides of the ‘mdzo’”. It is the same as No. 19
in QS calendar, while it is the combination of No. 19 ([]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫@ ´WKH IRXU
VLGHVRIWKH¶PG]R·µ) and No. 20 ([]ӝ୭Tфޙ୫]
ૂ “the horn of the ‘mdzo’”) in WJ
calendar. The split and association happened to these three asterisms (the
star of “pig’s tail”, “the four sides of the ‘mdzo’”, and “the mdzo’s horn”)
could indicate the possibility that when Daba priests need to divine the
dates for rituals, they not only depend on what is the ‘written’ texts of their
calendar, but they also observe the tracks of stars in order to calculate the
one on duty.
In the following table (Table III-2), I give a schematic representation
of the groups of lunar mansions according to these three Daba priests, and
the key points of each local constellation as well. “Ausp.” is the
abbreviation for "auspicious".
60
Table III-2. Key Points of Daba Calendars
28&1
WJ
Key
Taboo: funeral
Points
14
Key
Ausp.: taming
Points
2
Taboo: horse
15
Ausp.: fishing and
hunting;
Taboo: taming
2
LJZ 28&1
Key
Taboo: wedding;
Taboo: horse
Points funeral
16~19
20~23
Ausp.: building up
Key
Taboo: pig
houses; erecting
Points
columns
28&1
2~3
QS
Taboo: horse
Key
Taboo: wedding;
Ausp.: trying new
Points funeral
grains
13
14~15
Key
Ausp.:
Ausp.: taming
Points everything
3~6
Taboo:
bull
16~18
7~8
Taboo: killing
livestock
19~23
Ausp.: building
Taboo: pig up houses;
erecting columns
3~6
7~8
Taboo:
Taboo: business
bull
24&25
26&27
Ausp.:
eating
Taboo: goat
4~5
6
9
10~13
Taboo: fire
Taboo: sheep
24&25
26&27
Ausp.: rituals
Taboo: killing
Taboo: goat
9~13
14~15
Taboo: sheep
Taboo: chicken
7~9
Taboo: building
Ausp.: moving
up houses;
into new houses
preparing clothes
19~23
24&25
Taboo: exchanges Taboo:
of livestock
everything
Ausp.:
funeral
16~18
Ausp.:
funeral
61
10~12
Ausp.: rites of
passage; moving
into new houses
26&27
Ausp.: killing
livestock
The divination meanings explained by the three Daba priests share
numerous common points. Especially, WJ Daba Awo and LJZ Daba Mupa
have almost the same groups of lunar mansions and have given the same
interpretations for No. 28&1 (the “Human Being” Constellation), No. 2
(the “Horse” Constellation), No. 3~6 (the “Frog” Constellation), No. 10~13
(the “Three Stars” Constellation25), No. 16~18 (the “Pig” Constellation),
No. 19~23 (the “Mdzo” Constellation), No. 26&27 (“Tou Xing” and “Wei
Xing”)26. Conversely, QS Daba Dafa shares relatively less similarities in
the divination meanings represented by the symbols. Identical content only
appears in No. 28&1 (the “Human Being” Constellation) and No. 2 (the
“Horse” Constellation). He has given, contrariwise, opposite explanations
of several lunar mansions ‘against’ WJ and LJZ Daba priests. For example,
WJ Daba considers that No. 15
(the “Eagle” Constellation) indicates
the taboo to tame livestock on the day when it is on duty. However, QS
Daba believes it represents a good day for taming bulls and horses.
Furthermore, the days when No. 26 (“Tou Xing”) and No. 27 (“Wei Xing”)
asterisms are on duty are considered taboo for goats’ exchanges in WJ and
LJZ, while they are days suitable for killing livestock in QS.
These three Daba priests are the chief masters of Daba culture in
their villages. They are the one passing down and teaching their knowledge
to younger disciples. Daba Mupa and Daba Dafa are the eldest Daba priests
in LJZ and QS, respectively. Daba Awo is the son of Daba Dawa (19292012), who has handed down all his knowledge to Awo. Since they are the
most reputed Daba priests in their villages, their interpretations of the Daba
characters are representative of the knowledge about Daba calendar.
Therefore, it is plausible to draw a conclusion: a stable amount of core
contents in the calendar’s divination is juxtaposed with some flexible
interpretations. The ‘free’ parts could represent different aspects of the
prescription obtained through the interpretation of the lunar mansions. The
differentiation can also be related to the local cultural context. QS is
25
In addition to the evidence of their homogeneity of opinions, both Daba Awo and
Daba Mupa considered these asterisms as the stars of sheep, i.e.: the “Sheep”
Constellation.
26
The literal meaning of their Chinese names can be “the head star” and “the tail star”.
However, we don’t know yet if they refer to the head and tail of some specific animals.
62
relatively far from WJ and LJZ. Moreover, they have been more influenced
by Tibetan Buddhism than the other locality. This can be inferred from: 1)
the amount of Tibetan symbols introduced in the Daba calendar; 2) the
bigger disparity between the number of Daba priests and Lama (3:7 in QS,
while it is 6:7 in WJ and 10:10 in LJZ).
Despite the variation of the divination meanings, Daba script are
quite unified among the villages in the perspective of their forms,
pronunciations, and meanings. Even though some of the Daba priests don’t
agree that the lunar mansions’ names have literal meanings (e.g.: related to
the body parts of animals), they are actually named with the daily
vocabulary of Na language. For example, No. 28 [Sф ୫PL୫] “Pami” (in the
“Human Being” Constellation), could be the constituted by the combination
of two words, [Sф ୭WɪL୫@“young man”, and >PL୭]ӝଠଖ] “young woman”. No. 2
[ॷZ ୫N؉୫@LVFRPSRVHGE\>ॷZ ୫@´KRUVHµDQG>N؉୫@´VWDUµ0RUHRYHU
WKHV\OODEOHV·PHDQLQJVDUHDOVRLQGLFDWLYHIURPWKHFKDUDFWHUV·VKDSH)RU
H[DPSOH No. 10
[VR୭Wфľ୫R୫] is composed by three circles, while
“three” in Na language is [so୫]. No. 15
[Nࣜ୭N؉୫] “Ying Xing” (the
“Eagle” Constellation) depicts the head of an eagle, in which the bird’s
peak is emphasized, while the word for “eagle” is [Nࣜ୩]. Also for this
reason, these 28 basic symbols are much more rooted in Daba culture, if
compared to the other three kinds of characters showing important Tibetan
features.
Conclusion
The first three sections of this chapter are aimed at the establishment of a
primary source for philological documentation and research on Daba script, with
an accurate transcription of and introduction to my field work data. Through
these translation work, I realized that in Daba calendars there are four categories
of symbols: 1) the 28 basic characters representing the lunar mansions in Daba
tradition; 2) the combinations of the two Tibetan icons related to “water” and
63
“rain” appearing non-periodically through the year; 3) the seven symbols
adopted from Qiyao (to calculate the weekdays) in Tibetan calendar; 4) the 20
icons of items in Tibetan Buddhism spread through the year. The first category
should represent the original Daba characters, while the other three categories
come from Tibetan context and highlight various layers of cultural exchange from
Tibetan Buddhism to Dabaism.
The fourth section comments the forms, pronunciations, and meanings of
these 28 original Daba symbols. Basing my analysis on these data, I would like to
establish some relevant hermeneutic points in describing the features of Daba
script: 1) these characters are pictograms; 2) they have relatively fixed forms,
pronunciations, and meanings; 3) they indicate certain divination aspects, but
their meanings can vary according to the approaches of different interpreters; 4)
they cannot write down the target langauge; 5) they are used by Daba priests, the
religious mentors of Na People living in the boundary area between Yunnan and
Sichuan Provinces. To sum up, Daba script should be interpreted as a kind of
ancient conventional symbols, at the earliest stage of the local writing systems
that are classified as a subgroup of ideograms in ځəࠄىݏѢ (1987: 77).
References
Chen Zungui. 1980. Zhongguo Tianwenxue Shi [History of Chinese
Astronomy] (Vol. 1). Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe.
Chen Zungui. 1987. Zhongguo Tianwenxue Shi [History of Chinese
Astronomy] (Vol. 4). Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe.
Истрин Виктор. Zuo Shaoxing (trans.). 1987. ɀͬڇѢ֖ىѢڇȹʄѢىʄ ځ
ݧãͬȿىࠄىʄ Җىəȹ؎ã [The Emergence and Development of Writing].
Beijing: Peking University Press.
Song Zhaolin. 2003. Mosuoren de Xiangxing Wenzi [Hieroglyphic Writing
of Mosuo People]. Southeast Culture, 19 (4): 86-93.
Online database: Geonames. URL: http://www.geonames.de/days.html.
64
Chapter IV
The Lunar Mansions in Daba Calendar
From the dawn of time, Daba culture has developed a specific and
original methodology in choosing stars / asterisms in order to calculate the
dates. Being its cognate branch, Dongbaism uses a similar astrological
system.
Due to sound changes happened in local languages, some
appellations of the lunar mansions have remained unclear and they could
not be related to the current vocabulary. Nevertheless, closer observation
on both calendar systems reveals that the designations of the lunar
mansions in Dabaism and Dongbaism share the same meanings, but have
different pronunciations according to the local dialects. Thanks to the
similarities between Daba and Dongba, it is possible to study more in depth
the meanings of the stars.
Moreover, since the studies on Dongba culture have started almost
one century in advance, if compared with the work of scholars analyzing
Daba culture, there are quite strong researches on the topic of Dongba
astrology.27 These materials have shown to be an important key in mapping
the Daba lunar mansions recorded by their script to their counterparts in
other major cultures in this area, such as Chinese, Tibetan, and Sanskrit.
Further on, taking analytic reference from the western designations
(including European constellations) of these asteroid clusters, we are
allowed to consider the Daba astrological universe in a more
comprehensive scenario.
27
Dongbaism has been investigated since the mid Nineteenth century (from, at least,
1867, cf. Yang Fuquan 1991: 55), when Christian missionaries first noticed the unique
pictographic writing of its people, the Dongba Script.
65
66
1. The 28 Lunar Mansions in Dongbaism
Many scholars have investigated the twenty-eight lunar mansions in
Dongbaism. For example, RJ (1972: 513-517) 28 , Yang Zhonghong (cf.
Zhou Yin 2012: 28-30)29, FGY (1981: 92-97)30, LLC (1972: 7-9), ZRC (cf.
ZBT 1985: 319-320)31, ZBT (1985: 314-315), He Zhiwu (1989: 145-148),
LGW (2006), Li Lifen (2003: 377), Tian Song (2008: 33), Bao Jiang (2008:
226-228), and Wang Shiying (2008: 399).
The characters of the stars / asterisms have been collected from
various regions and the Dongba priests had different interpretations of the
related characters. Among these data, those provided in LLC (1972) have
been considered the more convincing version, as they have reached the
agreement of many Dongba priests and their locations have been counterchecked with the stars in the sky. Besides this version, fieldworks
conducted by ZBT in E’ya Village and LGW in E’luoju Village in Dadong
Township have also yielded reliable information on the Dongba’s twentyeight lunar mansions. 32 Moreover, RJ (1972) shows a complete set of
28
The dictionary by RJ was published in 1963 and 1972, while the fieldwork had been
conducted at the end of 19th century and at the beginning of 20th century. The phonemic
system of this encyclopedic dictionary was elicited from the villages located to the
north-west of Lijiang area in the Yangtze Valley (RJ 1963: XXVI-XXVII).
29
Yang Zhonghong’s dictionary of the writing system of Dongbaism was written in
1930. However, it has not yet been published. In this book, I take reference from the
scanned pages cited in Zhou Yin’s master degree thesis. The scanned pages have been
collected by Professor Yu Suixheng.
30
FGY (1981) has recorded the star atalases of the 28 lunar mansions. The author tried
to correlate them to the Chinese constellations. However, the order of stars shows to be
very different from the traditional one in Dongba lunar mansions. The author has
presented just seven pictograms representing mansions in the northern part of the sky.
31
ZRC’s material has been collected in 1958. It has been cited in a confidential way in
ZBT (1985: 319-320). ZRC has translated the Dongba classic named “Boge Figure”.
The Chinese translation of “Boge Figure” is “the Figure of Frog” according to LGW
(2006: 108).
32
Here is a brief note on the different field works. Data about the 28 lunar mansions in
LLC (1972) were collected from Zhongdian County, Diqing Prefecture, Yunnan
Province. The first-hand materials in ZBT (1985) were collected in their fieldwork in
E’ya Village, Muli County, Sichuan Province, with the cooperation of three Dongba
priests in 1981. The information about their fieldwork has been documented in Zhou
Yin (2012: 36). The Divination Figure interpreted in LGW (2006) was discovered from
E’luoju Village, Dadong Township, Lijiang, Yunnan Province.
67
Dongba lunar mansions, including variants, and referable transcriptions of
these characters.
There are atavistic figures of the 28 Mansions in Dongbaism. One
example is the Divination Figure documented in LGW (2006), as reported
in Figure IV-1. The inner circle lists the twelve stars “on duty” of the first
days of each month. The outer circle displays the twenty-eight lunar
mansions.
Figure IV-1. Divination Figure Interpreted in LGW (2006)
The pictographic writing system used in Dongba classics can also
write down the lunar mansions’ names, transcribing the sentences that
interpret the divination meanings of the stars to some extent. Table IV-1 on
the next page is an example of Dongba Classic record related to the 28
lunar mansions. It is elicited from Volume 92 of Naxi Dongba Guji Yizhu
Quanji [An Annotated Collection of Naxi Dongba Manuscripts].
68
Table IV-1. Example of Interpretation of Dongbaism Stars
Vol. 92, “Yi Sizhe Wangling de Shiri, Yue, Xing, Zhan Wangling de
Dongxiang” [Astrology about the Movement of Dead according to the day,
month, and star “on duty”]” 33
Dongba Script
IPA
L̸িঽ
SHিঽ
Chinese
English
yi yue
the 1st month
WV¶Hূূ
GRিঽ
G؉িঽ
نLূূ
yue
month
xian
see
yi
the 1st
ri
day
___
___
WR
G̸Uূূ
Dongba Script
IPA
S\ূূ
EXিঽ
NYূূ
Chinese
English
Trans.
benbugu
shang lun
Altair
Loc.
on duty
The first day of the first month, Altair is the star on duty.
Moreover, comparative studies of the twenty-eight lunar mansions
with the main cultures around Dongbaism have been conducted. For
example, the correspondence of the twenty-eight lunar mansions among
Naxi, Chinese, Tibetan, and Sanskrit was investigated by RJ (1972: 513517). However, there are also scholars who consider the twenty-eight lunar
mansions knowledge originated from the astronomical observation of
ancestors of Na and Naxi People and passed down through the local
religious classics (cf. Guo Dalie 1991: 301).
33
The example is cited from Zhou Yin (2008: 47-48), who has added annotations to
each Dongba characters on the basis of the original philological work in Naxi Dongba
Guji Yizhu Quanji [An Annotated Collection of Naxi Dongba Manuscripts]. The title of
this Dongba classic in Chinese is written as: «5Ñ¥´&Ã8ÃOÑ¥´Ø
A. According to the additional annotations in Zhou Yin (2008: 47-48),
is a Geba
character, a branch in the pictographic writing of Dongbaism, which is generally called
Dongba Scripts.
69
2. Comparative Methodology
As mentioned above, Dabaism and Dongbaism are the eastern and
western branches of the same local religion. The local dialects of Dabaism
and Dongbaism are also considered eastern and western dialects of the
same language. The eastern dialect is called Na and the western dialect is
called Naxi according to the endonyms in each of the dialects. People
speaking different dialects, Na or Naxi, could not communicate without
learning each other’s dialect. However, linguistic studies have discovered
systematic phonemic correspondences between the two dialects (cf. He &
Jiang 1985: 112-113; Gai Xingzhi & Jiang Zhuyi 1990). Considering the
sound correspondences between Na and Naxi, I take the relationship of the
stars from Dabaism and Dongbaism reflected by pronunciation of the stars’
names into first account, while I consider the graphic similarities of the
symbols / characters of the stars as secondary criteria.
For the Daba characters, I have chosen the symbols from LJZ as the
representative script of Dabaism lunar mansions, since they are ancient, but
also clearly written. The interpretations of the symbols are based on the
interview with Daba priests from WJ, LJZ, and QS (cf. Chapter III for
complete information), with justification according to my knowledge of the
local language.
For Dongbaism stars / asterisms, I have used the pictograms from the
Divination Figure in LGW (2006), which shares the similar starting point
of the 28 lunar mansions to Daba calendar. The starting point is the star
related to human being, with respect to the habits of Daba priests I have
interviewed during fieldwork, who always explain the 28 lunar mansions
from “Pami”.
LGW (2006) has given the transliteration of the stars’ names and
some hypotheses of the interpreted meanings. Hence, for the translations of
the asterisms, I took reference of the homophonic items from the material
collected by LLC and ZBT. Variations appearing in RJ (1972) are noted
under the chart of each group of the lunar mansions. The notes on the stars’
70
atlases depicted by ZRC are additional references for the interpretations of
the stars’ names.34
Scholars of Naxi studies could have used different IPA symbols to
mark the tones. But they correspond to the same tonal categories in Naxi
language. Despite the difference among the dialects mentioned in the
current study, there are four tonemes in Naxi language: low, mid-level,
high-level, low-rising. In Naxi pinyin, they are represented by: q, no mark,
l, f. In LLC (1972), the four tones are: ୭, ୫, ୩, ଠଖ. They correspond to the
superscript number 1-4 in RJ (1963; 1972). In ZRC (1958), the tonal
symbols include: ୭ (ଣଔ), ୫, ଖ. In ZBT (1985), they are written as: ଣଔ, ୫, ୩, (not
attested)35. In LGW (2006), they are marked by: িঽ, ূূ, , (not attested).
3. Local Constellations of Daba and Dongba
Materials accessible so far suggest both similarities and differences
in the twenty-eight lunar mansions between Dongbaism and Dabaism,
according to the perspective of the stars’ names and their characters’ forms.
In this section, I explain the details of the comparison between Dabaism
and Dongbaism mansions. These asteroid clusters have been grouped
according to the meanings of their appellations, which are generally named
after animals, or body parts of animals / human being.
34
For the information on data sources, cf. footnotes 2, 4, and 5, p. 44.
Even though the fourth tone syllables are not attested in ZBT (1985) and LGW (2006),
the former three tonal symbols are identical to the tonal system documented in FGY
(1981), where the symbols applied are: ଣଔ, ୫, ୩, ଦଗ. They are equivalent to the numeral
35
marks: িঽ, ূূ, , িৄ. The notion “tone letters” or “five-point scale” was designed by Chao
Yuen-Ren for Chinese (Chao Yuen-Ren, 1930: 24-27) and taken up in the IPA as one of
two competing set of symbols for tone, the other being the system originally used by
specialists of Subsaharan tone systems. They are symbols used to represent the stylized
time course of F0 over a syllable.
71
Group 1.
Daba Script
28.
1.
IPA
Sф ୫PL୫
نL୫˅ӝ୫
Chinese
“Pami”
“Nizhi”
1.
2.
Dongba Script
IPA
S\ূূEXিঽNYূূ S\ূূEXিঽP ূূ
Chinese
Niulang Shen Niulang Wei
In Dabaism “Pami” and “Nizhi” are from “Ren Xing” that could be
entitled as the “Human Being” Constellation. Daba Awo considers this
constellation corresponding to “Niulang Xing” in Chinese (“Deneb” in
English).
According to the notes of ZRC (1958), the two stars belonging to the
“Human Being” Constellation are: “Niulang Shen” ([S\୫E\ଣଔNYૂ୫], “the body
of the human being”) and “Niulang Wei” ([S\୫E\ଣଔP ୫], “the tail of the
human being”). In RJ (1972), the corresponding items are
2
[2bpö-1bö-
gkv] (No. 22) and
[2bpö-1bö-2man] (No. 23).
In the materials collected by LLC and ZBT, the counterpart to the
“Human Being” Constellation is “Haozhu Xing” (
[py˧bo˩] /
[pybu], literally it means “the star of the porcupine”), which is the
Dongba designation for Chinese lunar mansion “Niu ”.
72
Group 2.
Daba Script
2.
IPA
ॷZ ୫N؉୫
Chinese
Ma Xing
Dongba Script
3.
IPA
ॷXDূূWVHূূ
Chinese
Ma Xing
“Ma Xing” can be named as the “Horse” Constellation. It
corresponds to
[2zhwua-3dsä] (No. 24) in RJ (1972),
[ॷXľ୫PR୫WV͑୩N؉ଣଔ] in LLC (1972: 9), and
[ॷXľ୫G]H୫] in
ZBT(1985).
Group 3.
Daba Script
3.
4.
5.
6.
IPA
Sࣜ୫NфZࣜ୫
Sࣜ୫Gॼ؉୫
Gॼ؉୫N؉୫
Sࣜ୫N؉୭Sф؉୭
Chinese
Wazui
Xing
Waniao
Xing
Shui Xing
Baiwa Xing
Dongba
Script
4.
5.
6.
7.
IPA
SDূূN¶Rূূ
SDূূS\ূূ
QDূূJRিঽ
W¶DিঽN̸
Chinese
Wazui
Xing
Wazhi
Xing
Waweijian
Xing
Shiwei Xing
This group can be named as the “Frog” Constellation, since most of
the designations of these lunar mansions are related to the body parts of a
frog. “Wazui Xing” means “the mouth of the frog”, “Waniao Xing” is “the
urine of the frog”, “Baiwa Xing” is “a white star from the frog”, “Wazhi
73
Xing” is “the limb of the frog”, and “Waweijian Xing” is “the tail-peak of
the frog”.
“Shui Xing” in Daba calendar means “the star of water”. Since it is
between “Waniao Xing” and “Baiwa Xing”, it is possible to include it in
the “Frog” Constellation. “Shiwei Xing” means the star of “the tail of time”,
which could be semantically linked to “Waweijian Xing”. In ZBT’s data,
there is one additional asterism called [Sľ୫P ୫] “Wawei Xing” (No. 26
), which means “the tail of the frog”.36
Group 4.
Daba Script
7.
8.
IPA
Tфޙ୩Wߋ
୩Tфޙ୫
ૂ
Tфޙ୩Wߋ
୩СYૂ୫PL୫
ૂ
Chinese
“Kezha” Jiao
“Kezha” Shen
8.
9.
IPA
Wߋ¶XDWV¶̸িঽN¶Rূূ
Wߋ¶XDWV¶̸িঽNYূূ
Chinese
Liuxing Jiao
Liuxing Shen
Dongba Script
Group 4 could be called the “Six Stars” Constellation according to
the Chinese translation of the Dongba lunar mansions. Therefore, “Kezha
Jiao” is “the horn of the six stars”, while “Kezha Shen” is “the body of the
six stars”. In LLC (1972), only one star / asterism from the “Six Stars”
Constellation has been chosen to mark the days. 37 It is written as
[Wߋ¶Zľ୩WV¶ࣜ୭] and translated as “Xiongdi Xing”. Literally, it means “the star
of the brother”.
36
Data of RJ (1972) and LLC (1972) have the same four members (according to their
names) as those in LGW (2006).
37
RJ (1972) and ZBT (1985) both have two lunar mansions from the “Six Stars”
Constellation as they appear in the material reported in LGW (2006).
74
Group 5.
Daba Script
9.
VR୭Wфľ୭ نM ୭KYૂ୫
IPA
Chinese
Hongyan Xing
Dongba Script
10.
IPA
PL̸িঽK\িঽQRN̸িঽ
Chinese
Hongyan Xing
“Hongyan Xing” can be translated as the “Red Eye” Constellation.
The corresponding star in the other three sets of Dongba data has the
shorten name with the first two syllables of [PL̸িঽK\িঽQRN̸িঽ]. For
example, in LLC (1972), the appellation is [PLࣜ୭Kौ୭].
Group 6.
Daba
10.
Script
11.
12.
VR୭Wфľ୭Wߋф
IPA
VR୭Wфľ୭Rଠଖ
VR୭Wфľ୭ORଠଖ
Chinese
Sanxing Tou
Dongba
Script
11.
IPA
VOূূW¶RিঽN¶Rূূ VOূূW¶RিঽNYূূ
Chinese
Sanxing Jiao
Zࣜ୫PL୫
Sanxing
Shou
12.
Sanxing
Chuomi
13.
VR୭Wфľ୭N؉୫Sф؉୭
Sanxing Baixing
13.
---
Sanxing
Shen
---
14.
N؉িঽS¶̸িঽ N؉িঽS¶̸িঽ
GॼLিঽN¶Rূূ GॼLিঽP ূূ
Shuitou
Xing
Shuiwei
Xing
Group 6 is the “Three Stars” Constellation. “Sanxing Tou” means
“the head of the three stars”, “Sanxing Shou” means “the hand of the three
75
stars”, “Sanxing Chuomi” is “the ‘Chuomi’ (the meaning of the word is
still unknown) of the three stars”, “Sanxing Baixing” is “a white star from
the three stars”; “Sanxing Jiao” is “the horn of the three stars”, “Sanxing
Shen” is “the body of the three stars”. The latter two lunar mansions in
Dongbaism correspond to “Sanxing Baixing” in Dabaism according to the
pronunciation of their names. “Shuitou Xing” means “the head of the
water” and “Shuiwei Xing” means “the tail of the water”.38
In RJ (1972) and ZBT (1985), the first two stars of group 6 have the
same meanings as those in LGW (2006). In LLC (1972), the second
member from the “Three Stars” Constellation is
[V؉୫W¶RଣଔOľଣଔ]
(“Sanxing Shou”, which means “the hand of the three stars”). The star atlas
of “Sanxing Shen” in ZRC’s data is
. It has a shape similar to the
symbol of the 11th star in Dabaism. Moreover, the meaning of “Chuomi” is
still unknown. Hence, a possible evidence of a match between “Sanxing
Shen” and the 12th star in Dabaism is weak. In other words, the first two
stars from the “Three Stars” Constellation chosen to mark the days are the
head and the hand of the “three stars” in Dabaism. In Dongbaism, on the
contrary, they are the horn and the body of the “three stars”, or the horn and
the hand of them, according to different versions.
The No. 6 and No. 7 stars in RJ (1972: 514) have names similar to
No. 13 and No.14 in LGW (2006): [1gkü-1p’ĕr-2gyi-2gkv] and [1gkü-1p’ĕr2
gyi-2man]. The star
[N؉ଣଔS¶XUଣଔGॼࣜଣଔNYૂ୫] in LLC (1972: 7) is identified
as “Tianlang Xing” (“Sirius”). Its shortened form,
[GॼLଣଔNX୫] “Shuitou
Xing”, appears in ZBT (1985: 314, 320). Similarly, the star
38
Some Daba priests call this groups of lunar mansions the constellation of “sheep”.
However, the first syllable in these Daba and Dongba lunar mansions means “three”. In
Naxi language, the word “three” is [V؉୭] (LLC 1972: 118, No. 1537) in most of its
dialects, while in Na language the word “three” is [VR୫]. Moreover, the lunar mansions
are depicted by three circles in Daba calendar. In Dongba writing, these lunar mansions
are composed by three circles with additional symbols indicating the pronunciation of
some syllables of the lunar mansions’ names.
76
[N؉ଣଔS¶XUଣଔGॼࣜଣଔP ୫] in LLC (1972: 8), identified as “Nanhe Xing”
[GॼLଣଔP ୫] “Shuiwei Xing” in ZBT
(“Procyon”), is shortened as
and ZRC’s materials. Basing my analysis on the pronunciations of the two
stars’ names transcribed in LLC (1972: 8-9) and LGW (2006), I connect
“Tianlang Xing” (or “Shuitou Xing”) and “Nanhe Xing” (or “Shuiwei
Xing”) with the star “Sanxing Baixing” in Daba calendar, since the first
two syllables of two stars’ names in Dongbaism are the same as the last two
syllables of the star in Dabaism.
Group 7.
Group 8.
14.
15.
IPA
KR୫N؉୫
Nࣜ୭N؉୫
Chinese
Yeji Xing
Ying Xing
16.
15.
IPA
Wߋ¶XিঽN¶Rূূ
IYN̸
Chinese
Yeji Xing
Ying Xing
Daba Script
Dongba Script
Group 7 “Yeji Xing” can be transcribed through the title of the
“Pheasant” Constellation and Group 8 “Ying Xing” as the “Eagle”
Constellation. The records in ZRC’s data are similar (according to the
perspective of characters’ shape and pronunciation) to these two asterisms
in Dabaism:
[IY୫N؉ଣଔ] and
[С̸୫N؉ଣଔ]. However, the two
corresponding items in LLC (1972) and LGW (2006) show some
discrepancies in need to be clarified.39
The “Pheasant” Constellation correspond to the Beehive Cluster in
Western astronomy In LLC (1972: 8), the one in the position of “Yeji
Xing” is
[Wߋ¶Yૂ୭N¶R୫]. It corresponds to “Gui Xiu” (the Chinese “Ghost”
39
The two lunar mansions (No.8 and No. 9) in RJ (1972) are in the same order and with
similar names as No.15 and No.16 in LGW (2006).
77
Mansion, i.e.: “Beehive Cluster” in English). The pictogram in the upper
part of the character also indicates the shape of this asterism as “flour
spread into the sky”, which coincides with the astronomical characteristics
“Ying
of Beehive Cluster. Its shape and pronunciation resemble to
Xing” in LGW (2006).
[IY୫O͑୫Nࣜ୩N؉ଣଔ] “Ji Xing” (or “Nan Dou” in Chinese,
“Dipper” in English) in LLC (1972: 9), could be the counterpart of
in LGW (2006), considering the pronunciation and shape of the
character. The corresponding asterism in RJ (1972: 514) and ZRC’s notes
(cf. ZBT 1985: 319) is named as [2ffǔ-2llü-3gko] and [IY୫O؉ଖNࣜ୭],
respectively. In other words, the Naxi name for “Ying Xing” is
[IY୫O͑୫Nࣜ୩N؉ଣଔ], [IY୫O؉ଖNࣜ୭] (equivalent to [2ffǔ-2llü-3gko]), or [IYN̸].
In this case, the “Pheasant” Constellation and the “Eagle”
Constellation are in the reverse order in Daba and Dongba lunar mansion
systems.
Group 9.
Daba Script
16.
17.
18.
19.
IPA
ER୭NфZࣜ୫
ER୭Gॼ؉୫
ER୭P ୫
ER୭Pľ୫
Chinese
Dongba
Script
Zhuzui Xing
Zhuniao Xing Zhuwei Xing Zhuyou Xing
17.
18.
IPA
EXিঽN¶Rূূ
EXিঽGRিঽ
Chinese
Zhuzui Xing
Zhuyao Xing
19.
EXিঽPD
Zhuyou Xing
Group 9 contains lunar mansions named after the body parts of a pig.
Therefore, it can be called the “Pig” Constellation. “Zhuzui Xing” is “the
mouth of the pig”, “Zhuniao Xing” is “the urine of the pig”, “Zhuwei
Xing” is “the tail of the pig”, “Zhuyou Xing” is “the fat of the pig”, and
“Zhuyao Xing” is “the waist of the pig”.
78
The composition of the “Pig” Constellation is concordant among
most versions of Daba and Dongba calendars, respectively, with the
exception of the calendar from LJZ, which enrolls four stars from the “Pig”
[ER୭P ୫], is the one not included in
Constellation. The third one,
other calendars of Dabaism and Dongbaism. The similar pronunciations of
the two words, [P ୫] “tail” and [Pľ୫] “fat”, could be the origin of this
additional mansion.
Group 10.
Daba
Script
20.
21.
22.
23.
IPA
]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫Tфޙ୫
ૂ
]ӝ୭זL୩
]ӝ୭نMࣜ୫
]ӝ୭СYૂ୫
Chinese
Pianniu
Jiao
Pianniu
Yan
Pianniu
Zhang
Dongba
20.
Script
IPA
Si Pianniu
Er
21.
]\িঽNYূূO\ূূ ]\িঽN¶Rূূ
Chinese Rui Tou
Rui Jiao
22.
28.
]\িঽKHূূ
]\িঽS̸িঽ
Rui Er
Rui Jiaoban
The designation of this lunar mansion group’s main figure has been
translated according to different ways in available reconstructions. The
phonemic transcription of the constellation’s name in Na is []ӝ୭୫], whose
Romanized equivalence is “Zi”. Daba priests from WJ and LJZ did not give
a shared and well-established translation of the name of the constellation
called “Zi”. They consider it just as a name. Daba Dafa from QS translated
it as “pianniu” (“mdzo” in English). “Mdzo” is the Tibetan form for a kind
of local livestock, which is also called “yak-cow hybrid” in English.
In various versions of Dongba’s 28 lunar mansions the constellation
of “Zi” is read as []\୭] (LLC 1972, equals to []\ଣଔ] in ZBT 1985, [1zü] in RJ
1972) or [Gॼ\୭] (ZRC 1958). LLC (1972: 8) and ZRC (cf. ZBT 1985: 320)
have kept the symbol as the translation of this word in all the related entries.
79
ZBT (1985: 314-315) has translated it as “Zhinv”, the legendary fairy in the
story of “Deneb and Vega”. LGW (2006: 111) used the Chinese character
“Rui z” as a close transliteration of the local word and suggested that it
could be a kind of animal.
Since the pronunciation of the constellation’s name is similar among
all the versions of calendars, while the translation has not yet been
recognized and shared, I propose an interpretation according to different
points of view: a) the stars from this constellation are different parts of its
body including “horn”; b) QS Daba priest have given a plausible
explanation, “pianniu”, indicating this animal, which is common in their
region. In this book, I prefer to call it the “Mdzo” Constellation in the
current stage, using the translation of QS Daba.
The “Mdzo” Constellation contains nine lunar mansions in all the
five versions of Dongba calendar under comparison. In LGW (2006), they
are from No. 20
[]\িঽNYূূO\ূূ] “Ruitou Xing” (“the head of the
mdzo”) to No. 28
[]\িঽS̸িঽ] “Rui Jiaoban” (“the foot sole of the
mdzo”). In LLC (1972), they are from No. 13
[]\୭QY୩] “
[]\୭P ୫] “
Zui” (“the mouth of the mdzo”) to No. 21
Wei”
(“the tail of the mdzo”). In ZBT (1985), they are from No. 13
[]\ଣଔQY୩] “Zhinv Zui” (“the mouth of the mdzo”) to No. 21
[]\ଣଔE̸୫] “Zhinv Jiaozhang” (“the foot sole of the mdzo”). In ZRC (1958),
they are from No. 20
to No. 28
[Gॼ\୭N¶R୫] “
[Gॼ\୭Eࣟ୫] “
Jiao” (“the horn of the mdzo”)
Xing Jiaoban” (“the foot sole of the mdzo”).
In RJ (1972: 515-516), they are from No. 13
[1zü-3lv-2gkv] to No. 21
[1zü-2boa].40
40
According to RJ (1972), [1zü-3lv-2gkv] has a synonym in [1zü-3nun-2gkv]. This could
be the explanation of the difference of the first star from the “Mdzo” Constellation
80
There could be some differentiations in the asterisms sequence. For
example, there is not the star of the eye of “mdzo” nor the star of the body
of “mdzo” in the Divination Figure (LGW 2006), which is included in
other versions of Dongbaism twenty-eight lunar mansions. However, as a
compensation for the number of stars, it contains []\িঽWɪ̸ূূ] “Ruibo Xing”
(the neck of the “mdzo”) and []\িঽWV¶Lিঽ] “Ruijian Xing” (“the shoulder of
the mdzo”), while other versions of Dongba twenty-eight lunar mansions
maintain one of these two stars.
In Daba calendar, this is a constellation with four (LJZ) or five (WJ;
QS) components. No. 20
[]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫Tфޙ୫]
ૂ “Pianniu Si Jiao” (“the horns on
the four sides of the mdzo”) in LJZ Daba calendar (the same in QS
version)41 semantically corresponds to No. 19
(“four sides of the mdzo”)42 and No. 20
[]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫] “Pianniu Si”
[]ӝ୭Tфޙ୫]
ૂ “Pianniu Jiao” (“the
horn of the mdzo”) in WJ version. For the following three: “Pianniu Er” is
“the ear of the mdzo”, “Pianniu Yan” is “the eye of the mdzo”, “Pianniu
Zhang” is “the foot sole of the mdzo”. In QS, there is not the star named as
“the foot sole of the mdzo”, but “Pianniu Shen” (“the body of the mdzo”),
which is written as
.
between LGW (2006) and LLC (1972) & ZBT (1985) as well:
[]\୭QY୩] /
[]\িঽNYূূO\ূূ] and
[]\ଣଔQY୩] are derived from two alternative pronunciations
of a single asterism. The pictograms and
were used in order to distinguish the
segments “ly” and “nv” in the star’s name. However, due to the similar pronunciation of
[3lv-2gkv] with the word for “head” ([NXূূO\ূূ], cf. Pinson 2003: 160) in modern Naxi
language, Dongba priest has misinterpreted the character
as “the head of mdzo”.
In QS Daba calendar, No. 19 lunar mansion has the same name as No. 20 in LJZ
version, but it shares a similar shape with No. 19 in WJ version.
42
Literally, the name means “the whole body of the mdzo”.
41
81
Group 11.
Daba Script
24.
/
25.
IPA
Oľ୫KYૂ୭ NфZࣜ୭
ߋL୭G]ӝ୭GYૂଠଖ
Chinese
Huzui Xing
Roushi Xing
The 24th and 25th asterisms from Group 11 in Daba calendar are not
attested in Dongbaism materials of the twenty-eight lunar mansions.
“Huzui Xing” literally means “the mouth of ‘tiger’”. “Roushi Xing” is
called “Shezidu” in local language. According to my knowledge of the
language, the first syllable could mean “meat” and the second syllable
could be “to eat”.
Group 12.
Daba Script
26.
27.
IPA
ߋZ ୫TфZࣜ୫
P ୭TфZࣜ୫
Chinese
Tou Xing
Wei Xing
11-b.
12-b.
IPA
ߋXľଣଔN¶Xľଣଔ
K\ଣଔN¶Xľ୫
Chinese
Ji Xing
---
Dongba Script
The stars numbered as “11-b” and “12-b” are the 11th and 12th stars
in LLC (1972: 8) that are similar to the 26th and 27th stars in Daba calendars
according to the shapes of the characters and the names of the stars. 43
However, they do not appear in other Dongba astronomical materials44. As
annotated under the two entries by LLC (1972), the locations of these two
stars had not been confirmed in the sky. According to the meaning of the
syllables, the two asterisms names could be “the higher star” and “the
lower star”.
43
I add “-b” after the number in order to distinguish the sequence in LLC (1972) from
that in LGW (2006).
44
Cf. ZBT (1985: 314-315, 319-320), LGW (2006).
82
4. Correspondence between Daba and Dongba Constellations
Starting from the detailed comparison among the stars produced in
last section, we can realize that the twenty-eight lunar mansions in Dabaism
are quite unified, shared, and widespread, since they are almost the same in
five versions of the calendar from four villages. Conversely, the four
versions of Dongba’s twenty-eight lunar mansions show various
differences, from the stars’ names to their order. Some of the variations
could be errors generated when the traditional knowledge about astronomy
was passed down by the masters to their disciples.
In this section, I present the simplified table providing the
correspondences of the twenty-eight lunar mansions between Dabaism and
Dongbaism. Data in Table IV-2 are the conclusion of the analysis done in
last section, from a multiple perspective taking into account also the
pronunciation of the star name, the meaning of the star name, the stars atlas,
and the order of the stars. As mentioned above, I consider the “Human
Being” Constellation as the starting point, following the traditional
interpretation of Daba priests reconstructed during my fieldwork. The
number in parentheses refers to the asterisms chosen from each
constellation in order to mark the days.
Table IV-2 shows the similarities of the lunar mansions between
Dabaism and Dongbaism. They can be divided into several star groups,
which could be called Daba/Dongba constellations. The ten constellations
in both Dabaism and Dongbaism include: the “Human Being”
Constellation, the “Horse”, the “Frog”, the “Six Stars”, the “Red Eye”, the
“Three Stars”, the “Pheasant”, the “Eagle”, the “Pig”, and the “Mdzo”.
“Tou Xing” (the star of “head”) and “Wei Xing” (the star of “tail”) in
Dabaism are named as “the higher star” and “the lower star” in Dongbaism.
The fixed order of these star groups provides an important clue in
order to figure out the locations of some stars that have been noted in
researches as still non-interpreted. For example, “Tou Xing” and “Wei
Xing” are two stars appearing in all the versions of Dabaism calendars, but
not included in most of the Dongbaism twenty-eight lunar mansions with
the exception of LLC (1972: 8). In that dictionary, two stars with similar
83
names and written through similar ideograms have been recorded. However,
the locations of them in the sky have remained unknown. In this case, the
relatively unified Dabaism calendars could be a reference for discovering
the identities of these two stars.
Table IV-2. Correspondence of the Local Constellations
Daba
Ren Xing (2) Ma Xing
Wa Xing (4)
NiulangXing
Wa Xing (3- Shiwei
Dongba
Ma Xing
(1-2)
4)
Xing
Constellation Human Being Horse
Frog
Hongyan
Daba
“Kezha” Jiao “Kezha” Shen
Xing
Hongyan
Dongba
Liu Xing (1-2)
Xing
Constellation Six Stars
Red Eye
Daba
San Xing (3) San Xing (No.4)
Dongba
San Xing (2) Shuitou Xing Shuiwei Xing
Constellation Three Stars
Zhu Xing (3- Pianniu
Daba
Yeji Xing
Ying Xing
4)
Xing (4-5)
Pianniu
Dongba
Yeji Xing
Ying Xing
Zhu Xing (3)
Xing (9)
Constellation Pheasant
Eagle
Pig
Mdzo
Daba
Huzui Xing
Roushi Xing
Tou Xing
Wei Xing
“the higher “the lower
Dongba
----star”
star”
Constellation unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
Table IV-2 also summarizes the discrepancies between Daba priests
and Dongba priests in selecting stars in order to mark the days. For
example: 1) two lunar mansions from the “Human Being” Constellation are
chosen in Dabaism, while one or two stars are chosen in Dongbaism; 2) the
“Frog” Constellation is used to mark four days in Dabaism, while it marks
four to five days in Dongbaism; 3) “Shiwei Xing”, possibly belonging to
84
the “Frog” Constellation in Dongbaism, has not a counterpart in Dabaism;
4) two stars are from the “Six Stars” Constellation in Daba’s lunar
mansions, while one or two come from this constellation in Dongbaism; 5)
there are two stars, “Shuitou Xing” and “Shuiwei Xing”, from Dongbaism,
corresponding to the fourth lunar mansion from the “Three Stars”
Constellation in Dabaism; 6) the “Pig” Constellation is on duty for three to
four days in Daba calendar and three days in Dongba calendar; 7) the stars
from the “Mdzo” Constellation in Dabaism are four or five, while in
Dongbaism nine on twenty-eight are from this constellation; 8) “Huzui
Xing” and “Roushi Xing” in Dabaism have not counterparts in Dongbaism.
5. The Starting Lunar Mansion
According to the materials published so far, the stars and their order
are almost the same among Dongba calendars. In most versions, the
twenty-eight lunar mansions start with the star called [Wߋ¶Zľ୩WV¶ࣜ୭] (the
“Six Stars” Constellation) and end with [W¶ľ୩N؉୭]45.
A plausible reason for this could be due to a tradition highlighted in
the beginning of the studies on this topic. Scholars investigating the
similarity of Naxi People’s lunar mansions with Chinese constellations
generally started with the “Six Stars” Constellation. In RJ (1972), one of
the earliest works on Dongba lunar mansions,
[3Ch’wua-1ts’ĕr-2k’o]
and
[3Ch’wua-1ts’ĕr 1gv] are the first two asterisms. The second of
them corresponds to “Kang Xiu” Òï, the constellation of the “neck” (of
the “dragon” in the east) in Chinese twenty-eight lunar mansions, which is
the second in the series. Yang Zhonghong also connected the first lunar
mansion of “Liu Xing” with “Jiao Xiu”, the constellation of the “horn” (of
the “dragon” in the east) in Chinese twenty-eight lunar mansions. It is
possible that they paralleled these two lunar mansion sequences starting
from Dongba’s “Six Stars” Constellation and Chinese “Jiao Xiu”,
45
The transcriptions of the stars’ names are different in various versions because of a
dialect issue. Here I use the transcription from LLC (1972).
85
considering that “Jiao Xiu” is the first in Chinese lunar mansions and
“the horn of the ‘six stars’” is the first star in Naxi
People’s lunar mansions, respectively. LLC (1972) followed this tradition,
as well as ZBT (1985).
The only exception is the Divination Figure interpreted in LGW
(2006), which starts with the star called [S\ূূEXিঽNYূূ] and ends with
[]\িঽS̸িঽ]. In this Figure, “Liu Xing”,
[Wߋ¶XDWV¶̸িঽN¶Rূূ], is the
eighth in the sequence of lunar mansions.
The lunar mansions from this Divination Figure have been
deciphered with the contribution of Dongba He Kaixiang from Ludian
Township, Yulong County, Yunnan Province. They start with
[S\ূূEXিঽNYূূ], the star from the “Human Being” Constellation. Dongba
classics with the records of the stars on duty on the first day each month
have also been presented in LGW (2006). According to these records, the
star on duty on the first day of the first month is
[S\ূূEXিঽP ূূ],
which also belongs to the “Human Being” Constellation.
Zhou Yin (2012: 47-54) has collected records about the star on duty
on the first day of each month among the one-hundred volumes of Naxi
Dongba Guji Yizhu Quanji [An Annotated Collection of Naxi Dongba
Manuscripts]. These records show that the star [S\ূূEXিঽNYূূ] (“the body
of the human”) is on duty for the first month and the star
[WߋKXDWVK̸UিঽСYূূ] (“the body of the six stars”) is on duty for the fourth
month.
Since the twenty-eight lunar mansions follow a certain order to mark
the days, the chosen starting point does not add much change to the
interpretation of them. However, records about the star on duty on the first
day of each month in Dongba classics could be an evidence of the tradition
that the “Human Being” Constellation is the starting point of the 28-lunar
mansion system. The exceptional case in Dongbaism stars, actually,
coincides with the situation in Dabaism stars: Dabaism calendars I have
86
seen during fieldwork all start with the star from the “Human Being”
Constellation.
Nevertheless, I suggest that the first lunar mansion from the “Human
Being” Constellation (e.g.: [S\ূূEXিঽNYূূ] “Bibugu” in LGW 2006; [S\୫ER୭]
in LLC 1972) could be the starting point of the twenty-eight lunar mansions.
This proposal should be more consistent, if linked to the tradition of
Dongba culture.
6. International Designations (Chinese, Tibetan, Sanskrit, &
European)
Most of the locations of Daba and Dongba lunar mansions and their
relationship with Chinese and European star names have been discovered
by LLC (1972), with cooperation of Dongba priests. Later on, ZBT (1985)
has made complementary discoveries and observations for some of the nonidentified stars on the basis of that previous work. In Section 6, I try to
present the 28 lunar mansions in Dabaism and Dongbaism in other
Cultures’ background by listing the corresponding stars in Chinese, Tibetan,
and Sanskrit, with reference to the comparative studies of the 28-lunar
mansion systems in different cultures by Huang Mingxin (2002: 50-52),
Chen Zungui (1982: 308-309), Jacques (2007), and Fu Qianji (2014). For
the additional reconstructions of mid-Chinese and old-Chinese, Baxter
(1992) and Sagart (1999) have been used as references.
As mentioned above, the lunar mansion groups have their own
names in Dongbaism and Dabaism. The different designations from
Chinese or European constellations reflect different perspectives and ideas
about the stars. The appellations of the stars in Dabaism and Dongbaism
show their own cultural characteristics, which are also shared among other
ethnic groups in South-West China: the notions of animals are widely used
in order to give the stars their names (stars’ naming process). For example,
the constellation covering the same area as “mdzo” is called “bharal” in
Pumi’s lunar mansions Chen Zongxiang (1992: 81), while the
corresponding region in Yi People’s lunar mansions is occupied mainly by
the constellation “rhinoceros” (Chen Jiujin et al 1984: 106).
87
However, the 28-lunar mansions system is shared among India,
Babylon, Arabia, and China. A (especially Tibetological and Indological)
comparison could provide more elements in order to identify the position of
Dabaism/Dongbaism as a local religion in the whole cultural background.
Table IV-3 (pp. 89-93) shows my comparative attempt. The reference to
the International star names could be found in the last two columns.
From Table IV-3 we can see that besides local cultural elements in
the naming process of stars, etymological traces indicate plausible deep
correspondences among some of the lunar mansions in different cultures.
For example, the name for Pleiades in Tibetan means “six girls”. It is
analogous to the Indian idea according to which the six stars of this
constellation are six nannies of the god Skanda, even if the Sanskrit name
for it means “something sharp for cutting” (Jacques 2007: 6-7). In a similar
way, the Pleiades in Dongbaism have an informal name meaning “six
brothers” that defines the constellation. It is said that there were sixty stars
in the asterism. They would have been eaten by Big Dipper and only six
would have been retained, which are now called “six brothers” (LLC 1972:
7). Taking “Aldebaran” as another example, its Tibetan name derives from
the adjective “red” and means “red girl”, while the Daba/Dongba name for
it means “red eye”. Moreover, “The Orion’s Belt” and “the Orion’s
Broadsword” are the same constellation in Tibetan (lag) and Sanskrit
(bāhū). Their name means “the two hands”. Further on, the two lunar
mansions named as “chu stod” and “chu smad” in Tibetan, literally
meaning “upper water” and “lower water” (Jacques 2007: 7-8), are also a
pair with similar meanings in Dabaism and Dongbaism. The main syllables
of the lunar mansions’ names, [TфZࣜ୫] in Na and [N¶Xľଣଔ] in Naxi, could be
“footprint” in the vocabulary. This interpretation could also correspond to
the illustration of “Ji” and “Dou” as “footprint of ox” and “footprint of
elephant” in Modengjia Jing c « m ÿ [A Classic of Buddhism Entitled
Matangi]. The two modifiers in the lunar mansions’ names mean “upper”
([ߋZ ୫] in Na and [ߋXľଣଔ] in Naxi) and “lower” ([P ୫] in Na and [K\ଣଔ] in
Naxi), respectively.
88
Table IV-3. Daba / Dongba Lunar Mansions Compared to the Ones in Tibetan, Chinese, and Sanskrit Contexts
European
Local
Tibeta
Sanskrit
English
Constella
Constell Chinese
Dabaism
Dongbaism46
n
tion
ation
Sф ୫PL୫
S\୫ER୭
Hegu-2 ã+¼47
(gro
human
(vis̩ n̩u)
Altair
Aquila
S\ূূEXিঽNYূূ
ha←*gaj
bzhin)
being
نL୫˅ӝ୫
kuX←*kaʔ
S\ূূEXিঽP ূূ
ॷXľ୫PR୫WV͑୩N؉୭
ॷZ ୫N؉୫
ॷXDূূWVHূূ
horse
Sࣜ୫NфZࣜ୫
Sľ୫N¶R୫
frog
Sࣜ୫Gॼ؉୫
Sľ୫Eौ୫
Hugua ? 48
bæw←*bru
kwæ←*kʷra
Shi Ô
syit←*s-tit
Bi ñ
pjiek←*pjek
Delphinu
s
(byi
(abhijit)
bzhin)
Hugua
pūrvakhrum pros̩ t̩ hapadās
s stod (pūrvabhādrapadās)
khrum uttaras smad pros̩ t̩ hapadās
Markab and
Scheat (α
Pegasus
Peg and β
Peg)
Algenib and Pegasus
Sirrah
(γ and
46
In this column, I have cited the transcriptions of lunar mansions’ names mainly from LLC (1972). It is a dictionary compiled according
to a comprehensive linguistic investigation, and, indeed, it shows to be the version with more precise IPA documentation. For the different
asterisms, I annotated with the data from LGW (2006), which contains alternative designations, for completeness of information. The lunar
mansion called [Sľ୫P ୫] in Row 5 is attested only in ZBT’s field work data. I put it in parentheses in order to distinguish it from the other
two attestations.
47
“Hegu-2” belongs to the Chinese constellation “Niu ” (ngjuw←*ŋwɨ).
48
“Hugua” belongs to the Chinese constellation “Nv £” (nrjoX←*nraʔ).
89
(uttarabhādrapadās)
Gॼ؉୫N؉୫
Sľ୫P ୫
Sࣜ୫N؉୭Sф؉୭ Qľ୭غСY୭
W¶ľ୩N؉୭
Tфޙ୩Wߋ
୩Tфޙ୫
ૂ
ૂ Wߋ¶Zľ୩WV¶ࣜ୭
Tфޙ୩Wߋ
୩СYૂ୫
ૂ
Wߋ¶XDWV¶̸িঽN¶Rূূ six stars
PL୫
Wߋ¶XDWV¶̸িঽNYূূ
نM ୭KYૂ୫
PLࣜ୭K\୭
VR୭Wфľ୭Rଠଖ
V؉୫W¶R୭
VR୭Wфľ୭ORଠଖ
V؉୫W¶R୭Oľ୭
(Kui ~
kwej←*kkhwe)
(nam
gru)
Lou 4
luw←*C-ro
Wei ó
hjwɨjH←*ɢwɨts
Mao d
mæwX←*mmruʔ
tha
skar
bra
nye
unknown 52
red eye
three
stars
Bi
pjit←*pit
Shen ò
srim←*s-r-lɨm
Fa @ (Punishmet)
bjot←*bjat
49
(revatī)
aśvayujau
Peg and α Androme
da
And) 49
Androme
(Legs)
da
and
Pisces
Bond
Aries
(Asterism)50
bharan̩ī
Stomach 51
smin
drug
kr̩ttikās
---
Pleiades
snar
ma
robin̩i
(brāhmī)
Aldebaran
lag
ārdrā (bāhū)
Aries
Taurus
Orion’s Belt
Orion’s
Broadsword
Orion
The combination of “Shi” and “Bi” in Chinese constellations is the “Great Square of Pegasus” in European constellations.
The Chinese constellation “Lou” refers to the asterism “Bond”, which includes Hamal (α Ari), β Ari and γ Ari.
51
The asterism “Stomach” (translation of Chinese constellation “Wei”) includes 35 Ari, 39 Ari, and 41 Ari.
52
According to ZBT (1985), [Wߋ¶Xľ୩WV¶ࣜ୭СR୫PR୫] is split from the Chinese constellation “Bi ”, even if the pronunciation of the stars
suggests these two stars belong to the same constellation in Dabaism/Dongbaism.
50
90
VR୭Wфľ୭WߋфZࣜ
୫PL୫
VR୭Wфľ୭N؉୫S
ф؉୭
N؉୭S¶XU୭Gॼࣜ୭NYૂ୫
N؉୭S¶XUଣଔGॼࣜ୭P
୫
KR୫N؉୫
Wߋ¶Y୭N¶R୫
Nࣜ୭N؉୫
IY୫O͑୫Nࣜ୩N؉୭
ER୭NфZࣜ୫
ER୭N¶R୫
ER୭Gॼ؉୫
ER୭W¶R୩
unknown
---
Tianlang Xing Y,O
then←*hlin
lang←*C-rang
Nanhe Xing ãO53
nom←*nɨm
ha←*gaj
pheasan Gui l
t
kjwɨjX←*kwɨjʔ
Wudizuo-1 ÄM×0
eagle
nguX←*ngaʔ
tejH←*teks
Xuanyuan Shisi Å
q
xjon←*xjan
pig
hjwon←*wjan
Xuanyuan Shi’er Å
q¼ 54
53
(nabs
so)
---
unknown
Sirius
Canis
Major
Procyon
Canis
Minor
(punarvasū
[yamakau])
rgyal
br̩has-pati
Beehive
Cluster
Cancer
---
---
Denebola
Ursa
Major
(mchu
(maghās)
)
Regulus
Leonis
Algieba
“Tianlang Xing” and “Nanhe Xing” are two stars belonging to the Chinese constellation “Jing Å” (tsjengX←*s-kenŋʔ).
LLC (1972) describes “Xuanyuan Shi’er” and “Taiweiyouyuan” as the head and leg of the constellation “Leonis”. They have been
identified as the Chinese stars corresponding to [ER୭W¶R୩] and [ER୭Pľ୭] in ZBT (1985). “Xuanyuan Shi’er” (γ- Leo) belongs to the Chinese
54
91
ER୭Pľ୫
ER୭Pľ୭
]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫
]\୭QY୩
]ӝ୭Tфޙ୫
ૂ
]ӝ୭זL୩
]\୭K͑୫
]ӝ୭نMࣜ୫
]\୭PLࣜ୭
]\୭WV¶L୭
]\୭Eľ୭
]\୭GY୭
]ӝ୭СYૂ୫
]\୭ߺ¶؉୩
]\୭Eࣜ୫
]\୭P ୫
Taiweiyouyuan Z Þ
#Ó
thajH ←*hlats
--Mjɨj←*mjɨj
hjuwX/H←*wjɨʔ(s)
hjwon←*wjan
mdzo 55
The area between
“Jiao
kæwk←*krok”
and
“Ji Å ki←*kɨ”, i.e.:
“Azure Dragon”, one
of the four Symbols in
Chinese
constellations, located
in the eastern part of
the sky
---
Two among
σ Leo, ι
Leo, θ Leo,
and δ Leo
The
area
between the
(nag
Horn
–
pa - (svāti
mansion
pūrvās̩ ād̩hās)
chu
(Spica) to
stod)
Winnowing
Basket
Mainly
located in
the area
covered
by
Scorpius.
constellation “Xing O” (seng←*seŋ). “Taiweiyouyuan” belongs to “ Taiweiyuan” (the Supreme Palace Enclosure), one of the three
enclosures in traditional Chinese astronomy.
55
This asterism has been located in the region between “Jiao kæwk←*krok” and “Ji Å ki←*kɨ” and mainly coincides with the
constellation “Scorpius” (LLC 1972: 8; ZBT (1985: 323). The star in Dongbaism called []\୭GY୭] is interpreted as “Dahuo Xing WO” in
Chinese, corresponding to “Antares” (α Sco) in English. It belongs to the Chinese constellation “Xin ó” (sim←*sɨm).
92
Oľ୫KYૂ୭ NфZࣜ୭
unkown unkown
——
——
ߋL୭G]ӝ୭GYૂଠଖ
unkown unkown
(Ji Å
ki←*kɨ”)56
unkown
(Dou Ç
tuwX←*toʔ)
——
(chu
stod)
(chu
smad)
——
ߋZ ୫TфZࣜ୫ ߋZľ୩N¶Zľଣଔ
P ୭TфZࣜ୫
56
57
Kौ୭N¶Zľ୫
——
——
Winnowing
(pūrvās̩ ād̩hās)
Basket 57
(viśve-devās)
Dipper
——
——
Sagittariu
s
The limited clues, their positions in the sequence of 28 lunar mansions, and the Tibetan names of the corresponding stars, indicate that
could be “Winnowing Basket”, while
could be “Dipper”.
“Winnowing Basket” consists of γ Sgr, δ Sgr, ε Sgr, and η Sgr.
93
It is possible to find also traces of the original naming process of the
28 lunar mansions in Dabaism/Dongbaism, Tibetan, Indian, and Chinese,
through my comparison. Some stars in Dabaism and Dongbaism are the
same as the ones in other main cultures. As it is shown in Table IV-3, the
asterisms from the “Frog” Constellation coincide with four stars in the
commonly shared 28 lunar mansions; the “Beehive Cluster” is also chosen
in all the five versions of 28 lunar mansions listed above. However, some
are chosen from the same asteroid clusters, even if not being the
determinant stars used to name the constellations in other 28-lunar
mansion systems. For example, “Hegu-2” (Altair) and “Hugua” (Hugua) in
Dabaism and Dongbaism belong to the “Niu (ngjuw←*ŋwɨ)” and “Nv
£ (nrjoX←*nraʔ)” in Chinese mansions, respectively. Moreover, besides
some non-identified stars, Wudizuo-1 (“Denebola”) and Taiweiyouyuan
(“Right Wall”, two among σ Leo, ι Leo, θ Leo, and δ Leo) are two
stars/asterisms from the Sanyuan 9 Ó (“Three Enclosures”) system
located in the central area of the sky surrounded by the 28 lunar mansions.
The use of stars in the middle area of the sky could be a relic of ancient
astronomical systems recorded in Chinese literature, where the sky is
divided into five regions: east, south, west, north, and middle (cf. Chen
Zungui 1982: 290).
I have also discovered an interesting error in the transmission of this
astronomical knowledge. In the fifth row, the lunar mansion [Sľ୫P ୫] in
Dongbaism is reported only in the materials of ZBT (1985: 315). The
star’s name means “the tail of the ‘frog’”. According to Chen Zongxiang
(1992: 81), it is the Naxi translation from Yi People’s asterism called [QRغ
WVX], which is a local name for Tibetan “nam gru” by Yi People. As a
‘shift’ of stars, [Qľ୭غСY୭], the star located as “Lou 4 ” (Bond) in
Dongbaism has the name of “Kui ~” in Tibetan system, while the one
corresponding to “Wei ó” (Stomach), [W¶ľ୩N؉୭] of Dongba, is indeed the
Tibetan designation for “Lou 4” (“tha skar”).
94
Conclusion
In this chapter, I have analyzed the Daba lunar mansions in a broader
context: the main neighboring cultures such as Tibetan, Sanskrit, and Chinese,
and the Western astronomical framework.
The first four sections contain exhaustive details about my comparative
work on the twenty-eight lunar mansions of Dabaism and Dongbaism, including:
1) the materials of Dongba calendar I use, comparing them with new data on
Daba calendars collected from my fieldwork, 2) the methodology I apply in order
to highlight the correspondences inherent in the asterisms from these two
cognate religions, 3) the naming process of the local constellations, and 4) a
summary of the result of my comparative study.
Section 5 highlights my discovery concerning the choice of the starting
lunar mansion (the first on the first day of a new year) in Dabaism and
Dongbaism. Since the classics and the traditional knowledge of Dabaism and
Dongbaism have been mainly transmitted orally, variations have been generated
among different families / clans. Following the records on the stars / asterisms
“on duty” on the first day of each month in Dongba classics, I suggest that the
“Human Being” Constellation should be the starting point of the year in their
tradition. In this case, the starting lunar mansion in Daba calendar could be an
additional written proof of this pattern.
In section 6, basing my analysis on the foundation of the correspondence
of Daba lunar mansions with their Dongba counterparts, I figure out their
connections with astronomical terminology in main-stream cultures.
The high uniformity among Dabaism calendars could suggest that they
were records of a commonly used astronomical system in that region at a certain
period in history and could provide data in order to explore more in depth the
Dongba’s twenty-eight lunar mansions. My comparative research, focusing on
Daba stars, as well as on the commonly shared 28-lunar mansion systems among
Tibetan, Sanskrit, and Chinese, has solved some questions in previous studies on
Dongba stars.
95
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on the 28 Lunar Mansions of Pumi People]. Xinan Minzu Xueyuan
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Li Lifen. 2003. Naxizu Gudai Tianwen yu Lifa Jianjie [A Brief
Introduction to Ancient Astronomy and Calendar of Naxi People].
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Song Zhaolin. 2003. Mosuoren de Xiangxing Wenzi [Hieroglyphic
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Yang Xuezheng. 1994. Zangzu, Naxizu, Pumizu de Zangchuan Fojiao –
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98
Chapter V
The Antiquity of Daba Script
During the interviews, several Daba priests have told me the story of
the loss of Daba script. It is said that once Dabaism had the same writing
system as Dongbaism. However, Daba characters were written on a piece
of pig’s leather, while Dongba characters were transcribed on paper. One
day, the ancestor of Daba and Dongba priests were starving during their
trip. Dongba priest suggested eating the pig leather, which was the only
food they had. Since then, Daba priest has lost their writing system.
This is a legend that can have been created according to a real
historical background. What happened, in remote times, to Daba script?
99
100
1. Initial Evidence of the Kinship between Daba and Dongba
Script
While comparing the twenty-eight lunar mansions of Daba and
Dongba scripts, I have discovered that the Daba script are single
graphemes that are generally the symbols for the stars’ atlases or the
ideograms related to the pronunciation of the stars’ names. Their
counterparts in Dongba writing, conversely, are mostly ligatures consisting
of several pictograms. They could be the symbols for stars’ atlases or the
syllabic transcriptions of the mansions’ names or the combinations of both
kinds. For example, [ॷZ ୫N؉୫] “Ma Xing” is written as
(WJ, LJZ) or
with lines between the circles as
(QS) in Daba calendar. In Dongba
writing system, besides the star atlas composed of circles, the pictogram of
“horse” is added in, e.g.:
(RJ 1972),
(LLC 1972),
(ZBT
1985), and
(LGW 2006).
There are also variations of Dongba script for the lunar mansions. In
LLC (1972: 7-9), small circles are written around the syllabic transcription
of the mansions’ names to ensure that they are characters for astronomy.
For example:
[ER୭N¶R୫] “Zhuzui Xing” (“the mouth of the pig”),
[ER୭W¶R୩] “Zhuyao Xing” (“the waist of the pig”), and
[ER୭Pľ୭] “Zhuyou Xing” (“the fat of the pig”). However, in the Divination
Figure collected by LGW (2006), the small circles utilized as ideograms
are not used in the corresponding stars:
[EXিঽGRিঽ], and
[EXিঽN¶Rূূ],
[EXিঽPD].
Comparing the pictograms in Daba and Dongba calendars, we can
notice that Dongba script provides more precise records for the segments
in the stars names, since it has developed the function of syllabic
transcription. A plausible path of development is inferable among Daba
symbols and different versions of Dongba characters of the 28 lunar
101
mansions. This evolutionary process indicates that Daba script could be the
initial stage of Dongba writing, while the variations of Dongba pictograms
represent a kind of diachronic spectrum of this progress. I will discuss this
hypothesis in the following sections of this chapter.
2. Composition of Daba and Dongba Scripts for Lunar
Mansions
The materials I use for comparison are already presented in Chapter
III or mentioned in Chapter IV. Here is a brief for quick review. Daba
script data include those from WJ, LJZ, and QS, which are located in the
boundary region of Sichuan Province adjacent to Yunnan Province.
Materials of Dongba writing are elicited from the documentation in LLC
(1972: 7-9), RJ (1972: 513-517), ZBT (1985: 314-315), and LGW (2006:
108-113).
LLC (1972) is a dictionary aimed at tracing back the origin of every
Dongba hieroglyph (Li Lincan 1984: 2). Therefore, it is possible to find
out the literal meaning of each unit in one character. RJ (1972) did not
present the literal meaning of each lunar mansion. Hence, when I try to
figure out the compositions of the stars’ signs, I choose the first definition
of each component listed among all its homophonic words, which could be
the basic meaning when the pictogram was created.
(1) The “Human Being” Constellation [Altair from Aquila]
In Daba calendar, two lunar mansions are interpreted as belonging to
the “Human Being” Constellation (“Ren Xing”) and both are pictograms.
The star “Pami” ([Sф ୫PL୫]) is written as a human face in QS (
), while
it is transcribed in a more abstract way as
in WJ and LJZ.58 The other
one called “Nizhi” ([نL୫˅ӝ୫]) is written as
(WJ; LJZ) or
58
(QS).59
This could be derived from the image of the man member of the legendary couple
(Niulang and Zhinv, “Deneb and Vega” in English) carrying the two children on his
shoulder. In Chinese legend, they were punished by the gods to live on either side of
102
The related Dongba lunar mansion is
[Sौ୫ER୭] (LLC 1972,
No. 88) and has been translated as “Haozhu Xing” (the star of the
“porcupine”) in ZBT (1985). The left part of the character is
and is read as [S\୫] in Naxi language. The right part is
60
sounds as [ER୭]. In addition, the symbol
“liter”
“pig”, which
identifies the meaning of the
character as a star’s name.
The No. 22 star in the calendar documented by ZBT (1985) is
written as
[S\ଣଔEXଣଔ]. The upper unit of the whole character similar to
a comb should be the phonetic mark, while the three circles under it are the
indicators of the pictogram meaning as a star.
According to LGW (2006), two stars from the “Human Being”
Constellation are chosen in the local Divination Figure. They are
[S\ূূEXিঽP ূূ]. The first two syllables in the
[S\ূূEXিঽNYূূ] and
names, [S\ূূEXিঽ], are the same as the word “porcupine” in the other two
versions of Dongba calendars. The third syllables, [NYূূ] and [P ূূ],
meaning “head” and “tail” respectively, are transcribed through their
homophones in Naxi:
[NY୫] “garlic” and
[P ୫] “tail”.61
The situation is the same in RJ (1972). The No. 22 and No. 23 stars,
[2bpӧ-1bӧ-2gkv] and
[2bpӧ-1bӧ-2man] are composed of:
, a
the silver river and to meet only once per year. The same symbol (identical both in
shape and pronunciation) is attested in YXZ (1994: 32-24), where it is interpreted as
“vagina”.
59
The star “Nizhi” is generally considered related to “penis” (cf. SZL 2003: 86-88).
When we were conducting field work in LJZ, this word has shown to be a taboo. Once,
Dr Li Wenshan was talking with the Daba Dexi’s sisters about the stars we have
learned about Daba calendar. Daba Dexi was very offended by this word.
60
The translations of the two pictograms are cited from LLC (1972): 91, No. 1142; 69,
No. 845. “Liter” is called “sheng w” in Chinese. It is the container to measure the
volume of one liter.
61
The translations of the two pictograms are cited from LLC (1972): 84, No. 1039; 73,
No. 882.
103
phonetic marker for [1bpӧ];
[1bӧ] “flour”;
[2gkv] “head”; and
[2man] “tail”.62
(2) The “Horse” Constellation [Hugua from Delphinus]
The names of “Ma Xing”, literally meaning “the constellation of
horse”, start with the word for “horse” in Na and Naxi languages. It is
called [ॷZ ୫N؉୫] in Daba calendars, [ॷXľ୫PR୫WV͑୩N؉୭] (LLC 1972: 9, No.
89) or [ॷXDূূWVHূূ] (LGW 2006) in Dongba calendars.
In the Daba calendars, “Ma Xing” is composed of four circles. It is
written as
in WJ and LJZ, or with lines connecting the four circles as
in QS. Among Dongba characters, the pictogram for “horse” is used
in order to write down the star name.63
(3) The “Frog” Constellation [Great Square of Pegasus, Legs, Bond,
and Stomach from Aries]
The “Frog” Constellation (“Wa Xing”) includes several stars /
asterisms representing various body parts of a frog. The stars’ names
include the root of “frog” with body parts in the local language. For
example: “Wazui Xing” (Markab and Scheat from Pegasus) is [Sࣜ୫NфZࣜ୫]
in Daba’s calendar, [Sࣜ୫] is “frog” and [NфZࣜ୫] is “mouth”. The name of
the star literally means “the mouth of frog”. In Naxi area, the word for
“frog” is [Sľ୫]. For that reason, the names of the three stars from this
constellation all start with the syllable [Sľ୫].
In the calendar of Dabaism, there are four days marked by stars from
the “Frog” Constellation. The first star “Wazui Xing” is an ideogram
62
The ideograms and translations are cited from RJ (1963): 32, 25, 134, 249,
respectively.
63
All the animal images in
and
(LLC 1972),
(RJ 1972) reproduce horses.
104
(ZBT 1985),
(LGW 2006),
imitating the mouth of a frog. It is written as
in QS Daba’s calendar.
However, in the other three versions, the symbols are more abstract,
similar to
(LJZ). The second star [Sࣜ୫Gॼ؉୫] “Waniao Xing” (“the
urine of the frog”) is written as two connected circles, like
as a tadpole (a circle with a tail), like
(LJZ), or
(QS). The third star is called
[Gॼ؉୫N؉୫] “Shui Xing” (“the star of water”), with the structure “water +
star”. Its location remains unknown. Its symbol is close to the star “Waniao
Xing”, while the direction of the tail could be either horizontal or vertical.
In LJZ and QS Daba’s calendar, a smaller circle is added inside the circle
(“the star of water”) and
with a tail, in order to distinguish
tail of the pig”),
(“the star of water”) and
(“the
(“the urine of the
frog”). The fourth star is [Sࣜ୫N؉୭Sф؉୫] “Baiwa Xing”, which means “a
white star of the ‘Frog’ Constellation”. It is written as a circle, like
(WJ
and LJZ), or as concentric circles, like
(QS).
In Dongbaism, the “Frog” Constellation could contain four or five
mansions. They include “Wazui Xing” (“the mouth of the frog”), “Wazhi
Xing” (“the limb of the frog”), “Wawei Xing” (“the tail of the frog”),
“Waweijian Xing” (“the tail-peak of the frog”), and “Shiwei Xing” (“the
tail of time”).
The characters of the first three contain the “frog” ideogram (written
as
,
,
, and
in the four versions of Dongba 28 lunar
mansions documented by RJ, LLC, ZBT, and LGW). It transcribes the
syllable of “frog”, [Sľ୫]. The other syllables in the stars names find their
roots from the body parts of the frog, including:
(homophone for “mouth”);
[N¶R୫], “door”
[Eौ୫], “strong” (homophone for “limb”);
105
[mæ˧], “tail”.64 Additionally, in LLC (1972), the first two mansions
from the “Frog” Constellation have the star symbol (consisting of three
circles) in their transcriptions marking the character as an asterism’s
designation:
(1972).
and
. This format is similar to the one in RJ
The annotation of the fourth star [Qľ୭غСY୫] in LLC (1972) explains
the structure of the character
as “a spear poking towards a black
point”. In the ligature of this lunar mansion in ZBT (1985), the left unit,
, means “black”.65 The right component of this star in LGW (2006), ,
also uses a dot in order to mark the syllable for “black”. This asterism is
written as
in RJ (1972). The two units involved are
[1na],
“phonetic marker”, and
[2ngv], “thunder”. 66 In other words, the
appellation [nɑ˩ŋɡv˧] is written through two ideograms in all the four
versions of Dongba mansions. These ligatures could be phonetic
equivalents to “nam gru” in Tibetan, which literally means “Tian Zhou”
(“the boat from heaven”, cf. Chen Zongxiang 1992: 81). Its meaning in
Dongba context, “Waweijian Xing” (“the tail-peak of the frog”), is not
related to the pictograms.
The next star in the sequence, called [W¶ľ୩N؉୭] “Shiwei Xing”, is
also a local designation for Tibetan “tha skar” (that literally means “small
stick”, cf. Chen Zongxiang 1992: 81). It is not represented in Daba
calendars. The ideogram of “tower” (
[W¶ľ୩]) 67 is used in order to
transcribe the first syllable in its related Dongba pictogram, for example:
64
The three entries cited here are from LLC (1972): 91, No. 1148; 54, No. 666; 73, No.
882. The grapheme
[E“ ]ڤflour” used in RJ (1972) should be homophone of
“limb”. Cf. RJ (1963): 25.
65
Cf. LLC (1972): 122, No. 1595, No. 1597.
66
Cf. RJ (1963): 298, 338.
67
Cf. LLC (1972): 118, No. 1534.
106
(RJ 1972),
(LLC 1972),
(ZBT 1985), and
(LGW
2006). In RJ (1972) and LGW (2006), the ideogram of “eagle” has been
used in order to represent the second syllable “star”.
(4) The “Six Stars” Constellation [Pleiades from Taurus]
The “Six Stars” Constellation (“Liu Xing”) refers to the Pleiades.
The two mansions are
[Tфޙ୩Wߋ ୩Tфޙ୫] and
(written as
in QS)
[Tфޙ୩Wߋ ୩СYૂ୫PL୫] in Daba calendars. In WJ, Daba Awo explained the
previous one as “throat” of the “Kezha” (Romanized transcription of the
first two syllables in the star name). According to him, the latter one is just
a name without specific meaning. QS Daba Dafa interpreted them as the
“throat” and the “body” of the constellation. Daba Mupa from LJZ
considered them just names without meaning.
However, according to the perspective of phonetics, the third
syllable in [Tфޙ୩Wߋ ୩Tфޙ୫]
ૂ means “horn” in Na language, while the last two
syllables in [Tфޙ୩Wߋ ୩СYૂ୫PL୫] are equivalent to the word for “body”.
Considering its grammatological shape, the asterism
also shares
similarities with the ideogram for the word “horn” in Dongba star
“Zhinv Jiao” (“the horn of the mdzo”). Moreover, the first syllable of both
stars, being the same as the word “six”, coincides with the number of
circles in the symbol for the asterism
. The counterparts of these two
stars in Dongba astronomy are [Wߋ¶Xľ୩WV¶ࣜଣଔN¶ľ୩] “Liuxing Jiao” (“the horn
of the six stars”) and [Wߋ¶Xľ୩WV¶ࣜ୭СR୫PR୫] “Liuxing Shen” (“the body of the
six stars”). Due to this consideration, as well as to the resemblance in the
words pronunciations, it is reasonable to reconstruct the meaning of the
two stars in Daba calendars as, respectively, the horn and the body of the
“six stars”.
Dongba designation of the “Six Stars” Constellation is [Wߋ¶Zľ୩WV¶ࣜ୭].
It literally means “sixty” (the first syllable means “six” and the second
107
“ten” in old Naxi language). According to LLC (1972), it is used in order
to mark only one day and is written as
. In the materials collected by RJ,
ZBT, and LGW, two stars from this constellation are selected for the
calendar: the horn of the “six stars” and its body.
In ZBT (1985) they are written as
(with the addition of the
indication for “horn” on the top of the star atlas of “six stars”) and
.
In LGW (2006), the ideograms for “horn” and “bear” are used for the
syllabic transcription of [N¶Rূূ] “horn” and [NYূূ] “body”. In practice,
and
are inserted on the right of the star’s symbol
.68 That happens
also to the lunar mansions in RJ (1972):
“horn” and
“egg” (RJ
1963: 199, 147) serve as phonetic equivalents to the segments in the names
of
and
, respectively. Moreover, the number
“sixty”, which
is homophonic with the word [3ch’wua-1ts’ĕr] in the asterisms names, has
been used in place of the ideogram of “six stars” attested in the other
databases.
(5) The “Red Eye” Constellation [Aldebaran from Taurus]
The “Red Eye” Constellation (“Hongyan Xing”) is called [نM ୭KYૂ୫]
in Daba’s calendar, meaning literally “red eye” (the first syllable for “eye”
and the second for “red”). The Daba symbol for it is in the shape of a
conch, for example:
(LJZ). However, “conch”, in their vocabulary, is
[E؉୭Tфޙ୫] and it is not related to the star name. Daba Dexi from LJZ
translated the star name as “Huo Shen” (“the god of the fireplace”), since it
looks similar to the fireplace god in Daba culture.69 The “fireplace god” is
68
The translations of the two entries here are from LLC (1972). (1) The ideogram
in LGW (2006) includes the ears below the horns, if compared with the character in
LLC (1972): 72, No. 857. (2) The ideogram
, [СY୭], “bear”, appears with the
distinguishable feature of the ears in LLC (1972): 65, No. 781.
69
Daba Awo from WJ and Daba Dafa from QS translated it as “Hongyan Xing” (the
star of “red eye”). Daba Mupa from LJZ explained it as one of the stars of the “sheep”.
108
called “Zanbala” []ľ୭Sľ୫זľ୫] in Na language. It is ideally located in the
shrine behind the fireplace. When the owner of the house receives some
gifts, he dedicates them to “Zanbala” before using them. “Zanbala” is
considered the god of fire that keeps warm of a family. It is possible that
the red color of fire is at the origin of the connection between “Zanbala”
and the “Red Eye”.
This constellation is called [PLࣜ୭Kौ୭] in Dongbaism, and it is
written as the combination of “eye” and “fire”, i.e.:
(ZBT 1985).
The pronunciation of “eye” is [miʌ˩] in Naxi language, indicating the first
syllable of the star name. The ideogram “fire” is extended in its meaning to
represent the “red” color, and its pronunciation is [hʏ˩] as the second
syllable in the star’s designation. 70 In LGW (2006), it is transcribed as
, with the addition of the symbol consisting of three circles as
the mark of star’s name, similar to
in RJ (1972).
(6) The “Three Stars” Constellation [Orion’s Belt and Orion’s
Broadsword, Sirius from Canis Major, and Procyon from Canis
Minor]
The “Three Stars” Constellation (“San Xing”) in Dabaism includes
asterisms (possibly each) consisting of three stars:
[VR୭Wфľ୫R୫]
“Sanxing Tou” (“the head of the three stars”; Orion’s Belt),
[VR୭Wфľ୫ORଠଖ] “Sanxing Shou” (“the hand of the three stars”; Orion’s
Broadsword),
[VR୭Wфľ୫WߋфZࣜ୫PL୫] “Sanxing Chuomi” (“the ‘Chuomi’
of the three stars”, its identification is unclear), and
70
[VR୭WфľଠଖN؉୫Sф؉୭]
The two entries mentioned here are cited from (LLC 1972): (1) No. 576: “
,
[PLࣜ୭], eyes” (p. 49); (2) No. 1357:“
, [PL୫], fire, often can be read as [hʏ˩] and
stands for ‘red’ or ‘low’. Possibly it is because the fire is red, so this character is also
used for the word ‘red’. Further on, it is also borrowed for the word ‘low’, which is
homophone of ‘red’.” (p. 105)
109
“Sanxing Baixing” (“a white star from the three stars”, possibly an
asterism containing Sirius and Procyon).
The constellation itself is called [VR୭Wфľ୫]. In this name, the first
syllable means “three”. In the stars denominations, the syllable [R୫]
means “head” and [ORଠଖ] means “hand”. The meaning of the word
[WߋфZࣜ୫PL୫] is still unclear. The last two syllables in the name of the fourth
star mean “star” and “white”, respectively. The four symbols listed above
are from LJZ (the same as in WJ), while the symbols from QS are more
“ideographic”: “Sanxing Tou” is written as
and “Sanxing Shou” is
.
In Dongbaism, there are also four stars from the “Three Stars”
Constellation. In LLC (1972), the first two are
Jiao” (“the horn of the three stars”) and
[V؉୫W¶R୭] “Sanxing
[V؉୫W¶R୭Oľଣଔ] “Sanxing Shou”
(“the hand of the three stars”). The ideogram for “hand” has been added
into the second character in order to distinguish it from the first one.
According to the annotation,
has a variant:
, with the pictogram
for “horn”. In the other two versions of Dongba lunar mansions, the two
stars from the “Three Stars” Constellation are [V؉୫W·R୩N¶ľ୩] (“the horn of
the three stars”) and [V؉୫W¶R୫СR୫PR୫] (“the body of the three stars”),
according to ZBT’s transcription. The ideograms in the collection of ZBT
are
and
. The symbol for “horn”, as an indicator, has been added
on the top of the pictogram (or of the star atlas) of “San Xing” that consists
of three circles. The characters in LGW (2006) are written through
ideograms transcribing the syllables of the stars names: [VূূޡW¶RিঽN¶Rূূ] is
written as
and [VূূޡW¶RিঽNYূূ] as
. It is the same in
RJ (1972): the character for [2sso-1t’o-2k’o] is
and the one for [2sso-
110
1
t’o-2gv] is
. The ideograms used for the words “horn” and “body”
are identical to the ones utilized in the mansions from the “Six Stars”
Constellation analyzed in this chapter, section 2 (4). The name of the
constellation, “Three Stars”, is transcribed through
[2sso] “the rustling
noise at high altitude” and
[1t’o] “to lean; the original meaning could
71
be ‘sword hilt’” , as in RJ (1972).
The latter two asterisms’ names correspond to the word “water”.
According to LLC (1972) and LGW (2006), they are called “Shuitou
Xing” (“the head of the water” - Sirius) and “Shuiwei Xing” (“the tail of
the water” - Procyon). They correspond to the Daba star
[VR୭WфľଠଖN؉୫Sф؉୭] and their similar names are strong evidence of it. In LLC
[N؉୭S·XU୭Gॼࣜ୭NY୫] “Shuitou Xing” is a combination of three
(1972),
units:
,
, and
. The first syllable in its name means “star” and is
“star”. The second syllable for the
transcribed through the ideogram
word “white” is transcribed through the ideogram of its homophone
“to untie”. The third syllable is transcribed through the ideogram
that
means “weight”. 72 The Dongba character for the following star
71
The graphemes are cited from RJ (1963: 408, 444). The first one has its possible
counterpart in LLC (1972): No. 1177
[VR୫] “big scale” at p. 93, which has also
variants written as:
,
, or
. The pictogram
in LGW (2006) could be
derived from these characters. For the second syllable, the meaning “to lean” represents
a homophonic word of this pictogram. The verb “to lean” has more pictographic forms
in LLC (1972: 31): No. 368
and No.369
[W¶R୭@ ´WR OHDn on”. According to the
perspective of the shape, a pictogram comparable to
is findable in LLC (1972: 121):
No. 1588,
[W¶R୫] “to mold”.
The translations of each pictogram are cited from LLC (1972): 6, No. 59; 123, No.
1610; 94, No. 1181, in sequence.
72
111
[N؉୭S·XU୭Gॼࣜ୭P ୫] “Shuiwei Xing” lacks of the first two pictograms
transcribing the first two syllables in the star “Shuitou Xing” (while
keeping the ideogram
for the third syllable) and uses the ideogram
“tail” for the fourth syllable. The circle in the upper part of the
character is the symbol used in order to identify a star’s name. However, in
Daba script, the asterism with such a denomination, [VR୭Wфľ୫N؉୫Sф؉୫], is
written as
, which has no unit for syllabic transcription.
These two mansions in LGW( 2006) are written through ideograms
transcribing the syllables. The first one, called [N؉িঽS¶̸িঽGॼLিঽN¶Rূূ] in the
local dialect of Naxi, is symbolized by
. The first ideogram
corresponds to the syllable [S¶̸িঽ] and the second one refers to [N؉িঽ],
while the third and fourth ones represent the last two syllables. The
meanings of the four syllables are “star”, “white”, “water”, and “horn”, in
sequence, while the meanings of the four pictograms are “to untie”,
“egg”73, “water”, and “door”, respectively. The star [N؉িঽS¶̸িঽGॼLিঽP ূূ]
is transcribed as
. Since the two stars are neighbors in the
Divination Figure, the ideogram
“water” for the third syllable has been
omitted. The fourth syllable is represented by the ideogram
“tail”.
In ZBT (1985), the two stars names are shortened in two syllables
[GॼLଣଔNX୫] and
transcribed by two ideograms:
Here, the ideogram
[GॼLଣଔP ୫].
represents the syllable [GॼLଣଔ] “water”, while the
other units mean “head” and “tail”, respectively, in the two characters. In
, the upper part has two graphemes:
[P؉୫] “sky” and
“female”, which is an euphemistic term for “head”.
73
[P͑୫]
74
The pronunciation is [NY୫]. Cf. LLC (1972): 62, No. 751.
The translations of graphemes are cited from LLC (1972): 1, No.1; 54, No. 673. In
Naxi culture, the morpheme [P͑୫] has the meaning of “big”, when it appears as a suffix
(cf. Pinson 2012: 263). Therefore, the ligature combined with the graphemes of “sky”
74
112
RJ (1972) did not explain the meanings of the components in each
lunar mansion’s character, but these two shows to be a syllable-to-syllable
transcription of their names. The No. 6 star
includes
[2gv] “egg”,
[1p’ĕr] “white”,
[1gkü-1p’ĕr-2gyi-2gkv]
[1gyi] “water”, and
[2gkv] “head”. The No. 7 asterism
[1gkü-1p’ĕr-2gyi-2man] changes the
2
last syllable into [ man], which is written through a homophonic word
“tail”.75
(7) The “Pheasant” Constellation [Beehive Cluster from Cancer]
In Daba calendar,
[KX୫N؉୫] “Yeji Xing” (the “Pheasant”
Constellation) corresponds to the Beehive Cluster in Western astronomy.
The crest of the pheasant is used as the distinguishing feature in the
ideogram representing this bird, compared to the next lunar mansion,
[Nࣜ୭N؉୫] “Ying Xing” (the “Eagle” Constellation ), in which the beak is
emphasized.
On the Dongba side, the character is written as
ZBT’s materials. In LLC (1972), “Beehive Cluster” is
[IY୫N؉ଣଔ] in
[Wߋ¶Yૂ୭N¶R୫]
“Gui Xiu” (the “Ghost” Mansion in the Chinese constellations). The upper
part of it, written as
([Eौ୭] “flour”. 102: No. 1308), is the imitation
of the star atlas as the image of flour thrown towards the sky. The lower
part of it has two ideograms transcribing its name:
[Wߋ¶Yૂ୫] “glass
and “female” means “big sky”, a respectful way to tell “sky”, as well as a metaphoric
expression for “head”.
These five pictograms are cited from RJ (1963): 147, 377, 152, 134, and 249,
respectively.
75
113
water/gall” (20: No. 210) and
[N¶R୫] “door” (91: No. 1148).76 This is
[1ts’u-2k’u], and to LGW (2006),
similar to a character in RJ (1972),
[Wߋ¶XিঽN¶Rূূ]. However, the pictogram
in RJ’s dictionary is
defined as “spring”, with the meaning of “fountain”. The character depicts
the image of water bubbling through sand. The middle part of it,
is more similar to
, which
in LGW (2006), is noted as a “phonetic marker”.77
(8) The “Eagle” Constellation [Denebola from Ursa Major]
As mentioned above, the “Eagle” Constellation in Dabaism is
[Nࣜ୭N؉୫]. It is written as
in ZBT (1985). In LLC (1972),
“Denebola” is referred to as
[IY୫O͑୫Nࣜ୩N؉୭], which contains the
words for both “pheasant” [IY୫] and “eagle” [Nࣜ୩] (58: No. 712; 59, No.
722). The Divination Figure documented in LGW (2006) is similar to this
one. There, it is possible to find a star written as
[IYN̸]. The
two syllables are represented by the two ideograms for “pheasant” and
“eagle”. The counterpart in RJ (1972),
[2ffŭ-2llü-3gko], has one
additional grapheme used in order to transcribe its name: the head part of
[2ffŭ] “the stone pheasant”,
image of
[3llü] “tick”, and the reversed
[3gko] “hawk”.78
76
The translations of words are mainly cited from LLC (1972). In order to be concise
in quotation, I use a simplified format: the numbers in parentheses indicate (page: the
number of the entry).
77
The translations of the two pictograms,
and , are cited from RJ (1963): 460, 458.
The translations of the three words are from RJ (1963): 109, 230, and 126,
respectively.
78
114
(9) The “Pig” Constellation [Regulus, Algieba, Two among σ, ι, θ, and
δ Leo]
In Daba calendars from WJ and QS, three mansions are from the
“Pig” Constellation:
pig”),
[ER୭NфZࣜ୫] “Zhuzui Xing” (“the mouth of the
[ER୭GॼL୫] “Zhuniao Xing” (“the urine of the pig”),
[ER୭Pľ୫]
“Zhuyou Xing” (“the fat of the pig”). In QS, the ideogram for “Zhuzui
Xing” is different from the ones from the other villages. It is the head of a
pig, written as
. 79 In LJZ, there is a fourth star from the “Pig”
Constellation written as
. Daba Mupa explained it as [ER୭Pľ୫]
“Zhuyou Xing”, while he interpreted the one before it,
, as [ER୭P ୫]
80
“Zhuwei Xing” (“the tail of the pig”).
Dongba lunar mansions contain three asterisms from the “Pig”
Constellation: “Zhuzui Xing” (“the mouth of the pig”; Regulus), “Zhuyao
Xing” (“the waist of the pig”; Algieba), and “Zhuyou Xing” (“the fat of the
pig”; two among σ, ι, θ, and δ Leo). According to the version from LLC
(1972), they are written in sequence as:
[ER୭N¶R୫],
[ER୭WR୩], and
[ER୭Pľ୭]. The ideograms used in order to transcribe the segments
of body parts in the names are: “door”,
“plank”, and
“butter”.81
The structures of the characters for the “Pig” Constellation are quite
concordant among the four versions of Dongba stars. They all are
represented by the compound “pig + body part”. The markers of the stars’
names consist of two circles in the upper part of the characters, as shown
79
The first three ideograms in this paragraph are from LJZ. Those in WJ and the latter
two in QS are the same.
80
There is, indeed, one character similar to
in the three stars from the “Pig”
Constellation in both versions of calendars from WJ and QS. However, Daba priests
from these two villages explained it as a star from the “Mdzo” Constellation. In reality,
the calendar from LJZ contains one star less in the following constellation of “mdzo”.
81
It is possible to find more details on the three pictograms here, cf. LLC (1972): 91
No. 1148; 90, No. 1128; 102: No. 1310.
115
in LLC (1972), while the circles are three in RJ (1972). Those symbols do
not appear in the Divination Figure provided by LGW (2006). In ZBT
(1985), only the star called “Zhuzui Xing” shows the symbol composed of
four circles.82
(10) The “Mdzo” Constellation [the Area of Scorpius]
This series of stars composes different parts of the “Mdzo”
Constellation (Pianniu Xing). The first one is written as
(WJ) or
(QS). Daba Awo from WJ explained it as []ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫], which means “the whole
body of the mdzo”. In QS, Daba Dafa interpreted it as []ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫Tфޙ୫],
ૂ which
means “the horns on the four sides of the mdzo”; the syllable [ॷYૂ୫] means
“four” in the local language.83
The other four stars in this series are quite similar among all the
Daba calendars, including:
mdzo”);
[]ӝ୭Tфޙ୫]
ૂ “Pianniu Jiao” (“the horn of the
[]ӝ୭זL୫] “Pianniu Er” (“the ear of the mdzo”);
“Pianniu Yan” (“the eye of the mdzo”);
[]ӝ୭نM ୫]
[]ӝ୭СYૂ୫] “Pianniu Shen” (“the
84
body of the mdzo”) . We can see that these symbols are ideograms,
imitating the shape of horn, ear, and eye, with the exception of the fourth
one. The characters
from WJ,
from LJZ, and
from QS, do
not have a clear graphic connection with the items they try to depict.
82
The three stars are written in sequence as:
[EXিঽPD] (LGW 2006);
[EXଣଔN·X୫],
[EXিঽN¶Rূূ],
[EXিঽGRিঽ],
[EXଣଔWɬ୫],
[EXଣଔPľଣଔ]
[1bu-1dto];
[1bu-2ma] (RJ 1972).
(ZBT 1985);
[1bu-2k’u];
As mentioned in Chapter 4 and in footnote 10 in this section, it is considered a star
from the “Pig” Constellation in LJZ.
83
84
The character analyzed here is from LJZ. In QS, it is written as
. In WJ, the star
[]ӝ୭СYૂ୫] is represented by
and explained as “Pianniu Zhang” (“the foot sole of the
mdzo”). However, the syllable [СYૂ୫] indicates that the literal meaning of this
designation is “the body of the mdzo”. In Na language, the word for “body” is [СYૂ୫PL୫],
while “foot sole” is >Eࣜ୫].
116
In the 28 lunar mansions of Dongbaism, this group of stars occupies
nine positions. ZBT (1985: 323) pointed out that they are mainly located in
the area covered by Scorpius. “Mdzo” is translated as the original symbol
in LLC (1972) and ZRC (1958), as the Chinese fairy “Zhinv” in ZBT
(1985), and as the Chinese character “Rui z” in LGW (2006).
The collection of the stars from this constellation in LLC (1972)
includes:
[]\୭QY୩] “
[]\୭K͑୫] “
Er” (the ear of the
(the eye of the
),
[]\୭Eľ୭] “
),
[]\୭GY୭] “
Zui” (the mouth of the
[]\୭PLࣜ୭] “
),
[]\୭WV¶L୭] “
Yin” (the vagina of the
foot sole of the
), and
) 85 ,
Yan”
Jian” (the shoulder of the
Wei” (the stomach of the
Yao” (the waist of the
),
[]\୭ߺ¶؉୩] “
),
[]\୭Eࣜ୫] “
[]\୭P ୫] “
),
Jiaozhang” (the
Wei” (the tail of the
).
There are also characters not listed in this dictionary, but
documented in other versions of Dongba lunar mansions. For example,
[]\িঽN¶Rূূ] “Pianniu Jiao Xing” (the horn of the
)86 appears in RJ
(1972), ZBT (1985), and LGW (2006). The neck of the “mdzo”,
[]\িঽWɪ̸ূূ], is also witnessed in these three sets of data. However, the
character in ZBT’s documentation, written as
the one representing the star
called “
, is quite similar to
Jian” in LLC (1972) and
[1zü-2ds’ĭ] in RJ (1972). Moreover, there is also the mansion
[]\ଣଔСX୫] “Zhinv Shen” (“the body of Zhinv”) in ZBT (1985) and RJ (1972).
The star
[]\িঽNYূূO\ূূ] “Zhinv Tou” (“the head of Zhinv”) has been
documented only in LGW (2006). A possible counterpart of it could be
85
According to the annotation of this entry, it could also be read as []\ଣଔ]\୭СY୫], which
means the body of “mdzo”.
86
Theis character is cited from LGW (2006).
117
[1zü-3lv-2gkv] in RJ (1972), which is also the beginning star of the
“Mdzo” Constellation. Despite these variations, the different calendars
choose nine stars from the “Mdzo” Constellation in order to mark the days.
The ligatures for these lunar mansions are all combinations of the
symbols for “mdzo” (e.g.:
in LLC 1972) plus the pictograms for body
parts. Most of them are ideograms, including:
593);
, [K͑୫], ear (49: No. 588);
, [WV¶L୭], shoulder (72: No. 872);
, [QY୩], mouth (50: No.
, [PLࣜ୭], eye (49: No. 576);
, [KR୩], stomach (53: No. 643);
, [P ୫], tail (73: No. 882);
,
[Eࣜ୫], foot sole (55: No. 675). In addition, it is possible to list also
,
, [ߺ¶؉୩], waist (53: No. 650);
[N¶Zľ୫], horn (71: No. 857), which is not spotted in LLC’s collection of
lunar mansions, but is included in the other databases. The ideogram
[Pľ୭] “butter” (102: No. 1310) is used for the syllable [PDিঽ] “fat” in the
[]\িঽPDিঽ] “Ruiyou Xing” (“the fat of the mdzo”, LGW
star
87
2006).
In this context, we can notice also the use of homophones. For
instance, “vagina”, being a taboo in that culture, is written as the word
“flower” in LLC (1972, e.g.: No. 993
[Eľ୭]), RJ (1972), ZBT (1985),
and LGW (2006).
Another example: in the calendar translated by ZBT (1985), the star
“Zhinv Zui” is written as
, using the word
[QY୭] “soy” for
the transcription of the homophone for “mouth” (LLC 1972: 83, No. 1031).
RJ (1972) uses three pictograms in order to transcribe this star’s name,
written as
or
. Besides the symbol of [1zü]
87
, the single
These translations are cited from LLC (1972). The simplified format for quotation in
parentheses after each character is (page: the number of the entry).
118
[2lv] “stone”,
pictograms are:
[2gkv] “head”,
[1nun] “yellow
pea”.88 According to RJ (1972: 515), the choice between
[2lv] and
[1nun] depends on the two alternative ways of reading the star name. Such
a ‘polyphonic’ background has possibly aroused the misinterpretation of
the name of
in LGW (2006): with the pictogram
1
body part of [ zü]
1
3
indicating the
, Dongba priests read it as []\িঽNYূূO\ূূ]. The
2
meaning of [ zü- nun- gkv]/[1zü-3lv-2gkv] “the mouth of the mdzo”,
therefore, has been changed into “the head of the mdzo”. Nevertheless, this
mis-transmission does not change the fact that the ideogram
[O\୫]
“spear” (LLC 1972: 114, No. 1473) acts as a phonetic symbol in the
character
.
Moreover, the syllable [СX୫] for “body” in the star “Zhinv Shen”
(
ZBT 1985;
RJ 1972) is transcribed through the word “egg”,
[NY୫] (LLC 1972: 62, No. 751), which has similar pronunciation.
In LGW (2006), the star
“Ruiwei Xing” (“the stomach of the
mdzo”) uses the character of a ghost’s name for the syllable “stomach”:
[GY୭] (LLC 1972: 138, No. 1809). In modern Naxi, the word “stomach” is
[KR୩] (LLC 1972: 53, No. 643) / [KX] (Pinson 2012: 183). Since it is
different from the syllable in the star name, which is possibly a word from
old Naxi,
is used for a more precise transcription of its name.
Besides the examples mentioned above, the ideograms utilized as
homophonic transcriptions in RJ (1972) include also:
88
[2tgkye] “oil
The translations of the three words are from RJ (1963): 242, 134, and 349,
respectively.
119
,
lamp”,
[2tgkye] “phonetic marker”89,
“sole of the foot”.90
[3ds’ĭ] “goat”, and
[2boa],
(11) Two Local Stars in Dabaism: “Huzui Xing” & “Roushi Xing”
These two stars are only found in Daba’s calendars. The star “Huzui
Xing” is called [Oľ୫Kࠩ୫TфZࣜ୫]. In the local language [Oľ୫Kࠩ୫] means “tiger”
and [TфZࣜ୫] means “mouth”. The name is written as the ideogram of
“tiger”, for example:
abstract:
(LJZ). The character in WJ is relatively more
, which could resemble the claw of a tiger.
The latter star is called [ߋࣜ୭G]ӝ୭GYૂ୫] “Shezidu” in the local language.
Its etymological original meaning remains unclear. The designation,
passed down from generation to generation, has lost, among speakers, its
ancestral meaning and the memory of its naming process. Even Daba
priests are no more able to exactly explain the star name. Daba Awo
interpreted “Shezidu” as “the star of those carnivores”. Being a syllabic
transcription, according to my knowledge of the language, the first syllable
could mean “meat” (whose pronunciation in modern Na is [ߋL୫]) and the
second one could indicate “to eat”. As far as the third segment, it is
obscure. If we follow the explanation “the star of those carnivores”, it
could represent “bobcat”, “stomach”, “ghost”, etc. It is written as a triangle
with grids, like:
(LJZ).
(12) “Tou Xing” [Winnowing Basket] & “Wei Xing” [Dipper]
“Tou Xing” literally means “the star of the head”, and “Wei Xing”
means “the star of the tail”. They are written as
[ߋZ ୫TфZࣜ୫] and
[P ୭TфZࣜ୫] (LJZ & WJ), while in QS they are transcribed as
89
and
.
However, a similar pictogram in LLC (1972: 51, No. 617),
[kɛ˧] “neck”, has a
recognized meaning.
90
The translations of the four words are from RJ (1963): 431, 431, 72, and 23,
respectively.
120
In both versions the parts of head and tail have been emphasized in the
ideograms.
In published Dongba materials, similar mansions are only recorded
in (LLC 1972):
[ߋZľ୭N¶Zľ୭] and
[K\୭N¶Zľ୫]. These two
asterisms are represented by complex characters, with two units per each
transcribing the syllables of their names and symbols marking the star
identification in the former one. The ideogram
(95: No. 1190) and
[ߋZľ୭] means “high”
[PL୫] indicates “fire”. The meaning of
can
be extended to “red”, the color of fire, and, further on, it can be used to
represent the adjective “low”, a homophone of “red” (105: No. 1357). The
[N·Zľ୫] literally means “horn” (71: No. 857).91
ideogram
3. Grammatological Classification of Daba and Dongba
Lunar Mansions
3.1 Daba Script’s Classification
The twenty-eight Daba characters are all single graphemes, while
the names of the stars vary from two to four syllables. Basing the
cataloguing on the characters listed in the relatively more ancient versions
from LJZ and WJ, the Daba script for 28 lunar mansions can be divided
into three categories:
(1) Abstract Symbols (8/28)
[ॷZ ୫N؉୫], the “horse” [Hugua];
(LJZ & WJ) /
(QS), [Sࣜ୫N؉୭Sф؉୫], “a white star from the
frog”;
[Tфޙ୩Wߋ
୩СYૂ୫PL୫], “the body of the six stars” [Pleiades];
ૂ
91
The parentheses after each character indicates (page: the number of the entry) in LLC
(1972).
121
[VR୭Wфľ୫R୫], “the head of the three stars” [Orion’s Belt];
[VR୭Wфľ୫ORଠଖ], “the hand of the three stars” [Orion’s Broadsword];
[VR୭Wфľ୫WߋфZࣜ୫PL୫], “the ‘chuomi’ of the three stars”;
[VR୭WфľଠଖN؉୫Sф؉୭], “a white star from the three stars”;
[]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫] (WJ), “the whole body of the mdzo” /
[]ӝ୭ॷYૂ୫Tфޙ୫]
(QS), “the horns on four sides of the mdzo”.
(2) Ideograms Related to Their Names (16/28)
[Sࣜ୫NфZࣜ୫] (LJZ & WJ), the mouth of the “frog” [Markab and
Scheat];
[Sࣜ୫Gॼ؉୫], the urine of the “frog” [Algenib and Sirrah];
(LJZ) /
(QS), [Gॼ؉୫N؉୫], the star of “water”;
[Tфޙ୩Wߋ
୩Tфޙ୫],
ૂ
ૂ the horn of the “six stars” [Pleiades];
[KX୫N؉୫], the “pheasant” [Beehive Cluster];
[Nࣜ୭N؉୫], the “eagle” [Denebola];
[ER୭NфZࣜ୫], the mouth of the “pig” [Regulus];
[ER୭GॼL୫], the urine of the “pig” [Algieba];
[ER୭Pľ୫], the fat of the “pig” [2 among σ Leo, ι Leo, θ Leo, &
δ Leo];
[]ӝ୭Tфޙ୫],
ૂ the horn of the “mdzo”;
[]ӝ୭זL୫], the ear of the “mdzo”;
[]ӝ୭نM ୫], the eye of the “mdzo”;
122
[]ӝ୭СYૂ୫], the back of the “mdzo” (LJZ) /
[]ӝ୭СYૂ୫], the foot
[]ӝ୭СYૂ୫], the body of the “mdzo”
sole of the “mdzo” (WJ) /
(QS);
[Oľ୫Kࠩ୫TфZࣜ୫], the mouth of the “tiger”;
[ߋZ ୫TфZࣜ୫], the star of the “head” [Winnowing Basket];
[P ୭TфZࣜ୫], the star of the “tail” [Dipper].
(3) Pictograms between the Two Categories, Difficult to be
Defined (4/28)
[Sф ୫PL୫], “Pami” [Altair];
[نL୫˅ӝ୫], “Nizhi” [Altair];
[نM ୭KYૂ୫], the star of “red eye” [Aldebaran];
[ߋࣜ୭G]ӝ୭GYૂ୫], “Shezidu”.
The characters in the calendars from QS are more ‘pictographic’, if
compared with those in the versions from WJ and LJZ. For example,
“Wazui Xing” (“the mouth of the frog”) is written as
head of a frog. Moreover,
, imitating the
[Sф ୫PL୫] “Pami”, the character classified
into category (3) from the calendars in WJ and LJZ, is written as
(pictogram of the head of a man, which should belong to category 2) in QS.
The abstract symbols in the first list could be considered as the stars
atlases, sort of imaginative representation of asteroid clusters in the sky by
Daba priests. The ideograms in the second category are less linked to the
need of a graphical representation of the stars atlases. They show an
evolution connected with the phonetic aim of indicating the pronunciation
of lunar mansions’ names. The four symbols in the third category are
123
unclear: Daba priests have not been able to explain the meaning of them,
nor to suggest the shape of what they represent). Only for the “red eye”,
there are some hints: Daba uses the pictogram for “conch”, the symbol for
the “fireplace god”, to refer to the “Red Eye” Constellation.
Daba calendars are used by the priests, as mentioned, in selecting
auspicious days for rituals. During the field work in which I have tried to
decipher these complex symbols, I noticed that Daba priests recite by heart
the 28 lunar mansions names, rather than reading them one by one. In
other words, they depend more on their memory of the star system than on
the written texts.
3.2 Dongba Script’s Classification
In Dongba writing system, the stars names are mostly ligatures,
complex characters consisting of several units. These units generally work
as syllabic transcriptions of the stars names. According to the characters
structures, these ligatures could be interpreted as three groups with four
subgroups. In the following part, I explain in detail the classification and
the criteria I have used in distinguishing the writings.
(1) Abstract Symbols
Abstract symbols refer to the pictograms which consist of
circles depicting the stars atlases. They are similar to the first
category of Daba writing. Some examples in this group include:
the “six stars” [Pleiades] (LLC 1972);
stars’” [Orion’s Belt] (LLC 1972);
,
, “the horn of the ‘three
, “the body of the ‘six stars’”
[Pleiades] (ZBT 1985); and
“the body of the ‘three stars’”
[Orion’s Broadsword] (ZBT 1985).
(2) Abstract Symbols + Ideograms for Syllabic Transcription
This group contains the characters for stars which are
combinations of abstract symbols and single graphemes for syllabic
transcriptions. Basing the analysis on the different functions of the
124
abstract symbols, it is possible to distinguish two subgroups: (2A)
and (2B).
(2A) Abstract Symbols Indicate Some of the Syllables in
the Stars Names
In this subgroup, the abstract symbols consisting of circles are
the main part of the complex characters representing the
constellations. In other words, they indicate some of the syllables in
the stars names.
The single pictograms as components of complex characters
(ligatures) are mainly phonetic transcriptions, while some of them
have the same meaning of the segments in the stars names. For
instance, the No. 69 star
[V؉୫W·R୭Oľ୭] “the hand of the ‘three
stars’” [Orion’s Broadsword] in LLC (1972) uses the additional
ideogram for “hand” joint to the abstract symbol (if compared to No.
68) in order to transcribe the syllable [Oľ୭] for “hand” in its name.
[Wߋ¶XDWV¶̸িঽN¶Rূূ] “the horn of
Another example: the star
the ‘six stars’” [Pleiades] utilizes the ideogram for “horn” beside the
abstract symbol for the atlas of the “Six Stars” Constellation in order
to constitute the syllable [N¶Rূূ] “horn”. Furthermore, eight out nine
of the “Mdzo” Constellation in the LLC (1972) are written with the
addition of pictograms representing body parts in their names,
joined to the abstract symbol of the “Mdzo” Constellation. The only
one not containing the corresponding pictogram of body part is a
euphemism: they use “flower” to refer to “vagina”. In fact, this
indirect appellation has also been transcribed by the ideogram of it.
A few of the graphemes used in order to transcribe syllables
are homophones of the words in the lunar mansion designations. For
example, the right part of the star
“the body of the ‘six stars’”
in LGW (2006) represents a bear. It has been utilized for the syllable
for “body”, since “bear” and “body” are homophones in Naxi.
Another example is given by the star
125
“the mouth of the
‘Zhinv’” in ZBT (1985). The ideogram
“soy” has been used in
order to mark the syllable for “mouth”.
Another interesting situation is represented by the units
transcribing the syllables: they are indicators rather than ideograms.
In ZBT (1985), for example, the star
“the horn of the ‘six
stars’” is written with the addition of the mark on the top of the star
atlas symbol of the “Six Stars” Constellation, which is transcribed as
. The mark could be considered as the ideogram itself of
“horn”, while its position in the ligature is in any case relevant in
expressing the meaning. A similar case is findable in the star
“the horn of the ‘three stars’”, in which the mark/ideogram of
“horn” has been added on the top of the star atlas symbol of the
constellation “three stars”. Furthermore,
,
, and
all
apply this strategy in ‘depicting’ lunar mansions. Other examples
include
and
in RJ (1972), and
in LGW (2006).
(2B) Abstract Symbols with the Function of Indicators
Identifying the Characters as Stars’ Names
In this subgroup, besides the ideograms for the syllabic
transcriptions of the stars names, the stars atlases are composed of
circles working as indicators for the identification of the characters
as stars’ names, but not aimed at marking syllables as they do in
subgroup (2A).
For example, the character for lunar mansion
[S\୫ER୭]
(the star of the “porcupine”, [Altair]) is composed of the two
syllables of “porcupine”:
measuring one liter” and
[S\୫] “liter, the container for
[ER୭] “pig”. A circle has been written
on the top of the complex character in order to identify this symbol
as a word for the star.
126
Other samples are findable among the characters for the
“Frog” Constellation. In the stars
‘frog’” and
[Sľ୫N¶R୫] “the mouth of the
[Sľ୫E\୫] “the limb of the ‘frog’” (these two
together constitute the “Great Square of Pegasus”),
“frog”,
[N¶R୫] “door”, and
[Sľ୫]
[E\୫] “strong” are transcriptions
of the names, while three circles are added in order to mark their
identities as stars’ names.
[Wߋ¶Yૂ୫N¶R୫] “the
Furthermore, the character of star
pheasant” [Beehive Cluster] shows three units:
, in the upper
part, represents the star atlas of the constellation;
[Wߋ¶Yૂ୫] and
[N¶R୫], in the lower part, are the transcriptions of the name.
The three stars of the “Pig” Constellation in LLC (1972),
[ER୭N¶R୫] “the mouth of the ‘pig’” [Regulus],
“the waist of the ‘pig’” [Algieba], and
[ER୭WR୩]
[ER୭Pľ୭] “the fat of
the ‘pig’” [two among σ Leo, ι Leo, θ Leo, and δ Leo], are all
composed of two ideograms transcribing the two syllables in the
names and the abstract symbol consisting of two circles identifying
the characters as stars’ names.
More examples can be found in stars like
“the star of
‘porcupine’” [Altair],
“the horse” [Hugua],
“the
mouth of the ‘pig’” [Regulus] (ZBT 1985), and in asterisms like
,
,
, and
(LGW 2006).
RJ (1972) also includes the ideogram
“star” with the aim
of marking the character as a designation of lunar mansion.
However, it is a unified icon on the upper part of all the 28 ligatures,
not as the ones in group (2B) varied from one to another. Therefore,
127
my classification among the ligatures of the 28 stars in RJ (1972) is
established according to the body part of each character.
(3) Characters for Syllabic Transcription
The symbols in this category are all combinations of single
pictograms transcribing the syllables of the lunar mansions names.
The single characters can have the same meaning of the syllables or
can be homophones of the syllables.
Let’s consider the star called [W¶ľ୩N؉୭] “the tail of time”
[“Stomach”], for instance. It is written as
in LGW (2006). Its
two units are graphemes for syllabic transcription, meaning “tower”
and “eagle”, respectively. The version in LLC (1972) is
. Here,
the grapheme on the left is the same, while the one on the right
means “star”, the same meaning of the syllable in its name.
Some of the Dongba characters do not have a one-to-one
correspondence with the syllables of the stars names. Instead, they
just transcribe some of the syllables. For example, the star called
[N؉িঽS¶̸িঽGॼLিঽN¶Rূূ] “the head of water” [Sirius] is written as
, and the four single symbols transcribe the four syllables in
its name from left to right; however, in the combined character for
the star
[N؉িঽS¶̸িঽGॼLিঽP ূূ@ the pictogram for the third
syllable is omitted, while it is written as
in the former star.
Another significant example, the star
[С̸୫N؉ନଔ] “Ying
Xing” (the “Eagle” Constellation), is a specific case needing to be
clarified. It is written only through a single grapheme, the ideogram
for eagle, which marks the first syllable of the star name. Its
function, therefore, is similar to the second category of Daba writing:
ideograms related to the star names.
Applying these criteria, the Dongba characters for the 28 stars can
be classified as shown in the following Table (Table V-1, pp. 130-131). An
128
additional point in differentiating the ligatures under each subgroup is the
hermeneutic question asking whether the graphemes are identical or
homophonic to the words in the lunar mansions names. I have located
these two secondary subgroups in two lines in Table V-1. However, my
intention is not to differentiate them for other reasons.
A number of Dongba graphemes have gained extended meanings
besides their original ones. In other words, additional/frequently used
expressions could have been fixed, over time, in certain graphemes.
For example, the symbol
[PL୫] was the imitation of
“fire”. During the long history of the usage of this character, it has
assumed the meaning of “red” and “low” (read as [Kौ୭]), since it has
been often utilized to indicate these two words (LLC 1972, 105: No.
1357).
[2gkv] means “head” in RJ (1963: 134), while it is
explained as an image of “garlic” in LLC (1972: 84, No. 1039).
Moreover, the pictogram
“limb” in
, representing the syllable
, is a ligature in itself:
([Eौ୭] “flour”) and
([WߋࣜU୩] “joint”).
has a phonetic function according to RJ (1963: 431), while
through its resemblance with , it maintains its original meaning of
“neck” in LLC (1972: 51, No. 617).
Some of the lunar mansions interpretations remain still unclear. We
know that the star
is used as a metaphoric way to indicate the
“vagina of the ‘mdzo’” using the grapheme “flower”, while
is also a
transcription based on the meaning of “the head of water”. However, there
are others characters showing an obscure naming process.
129
Table V-1. Classification of Dongba Characters for the 28 lunar mansions
Abstract symbols + Ideograms for syllabic transcription
Abstract symbols with
Ideograms for syllabic
Abstract Abstract symbols indicating some
function of indicators
transcription
symbols of the syllables in the stars’
identifying the characters
names92
as stars’ names
(
Zhongdian
County,
Diqing
Prefecture
);
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
LLC 1972
;
;
E’ya
Village,
Muli
92
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
The ligatures in parentheses are variants documented in the dictionaries.
130
;
;
;
;
;
;
County
;
ZBT 1985
;
;
;
;
;
E’luoju,
Dadong
Township,
Lijiang
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
LGW
2006
;
;
;
;
;
RJ 1972
;
;
;
;
);
(
;
;
;
;
(
;
;
;
villages
northwest
to Lijiang,
in the
Yangtze
Valley
;
);
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
131
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
For example, the star called [Wߋ¶Yૂ୭N¶R୫] 93 , written as
1972),
(RJ 1972), or
(LLC
(LGW 2006). The graphemes used for its
phonetic transcription are
“grass water/gall” or
“spring” with
“door”. However, it is translated as “Gui Xiu” (the Chinese “Ghost”
Mansion) in LLC (1972), and no other literal meanings of this asterism are
given. Therefore, it is difficult to judge if the different units are semantic
components or just phonetic transcriptions.
Moreover, some ligatures are partly phonetic transcriptions and
partly semantic equivalents. For example, a number of the lunar mansions
named after the animals body parts are represented through the ideogram
of the animal with (homophonic) pictograms related to the body parts
(
,
;
,
,
, etc.).
4. Reconstruction of the Developmental Path from Daba to
Dongba Writing
As mentioned in Section 3, according to the correspondence
between writing system and language, Daba characters can be classified
into three categories: (1) abstract symbols; (2) ideograms related to the
lunar mansions names; (3) and pictograms ‘blowing’ between the two
categories and difficult to be defined.
Conversely, Dongba characters can be classified into three groups
with four subgroups: (1) abstract symbols; (2) abstract symbols +
ideograms for syllabic transcription; and (3) ideograms for syllabic
transcription. The second group could be divided into two subgroups: (2A)
abstract symbols for the stars indicating some of the syllables in the lunar
mansion names; and (2B) abstract symbols for the stars working as
indicators identifying the characters as lunar mansions’ names. Pictograms
used for syllabic transcriptions are classifiable according to two categories:
93
Its counterpart is
ZBT (1985).
[IYૂ୫_N؉ଣଔ] “Yeji Xing” (the “Pheasant” Constellation) in
132
identical to the syllable or homophonic to the syllable. However, there is a
transitional zone among them.
The first categories of Daba and Dongba scripts both consist of
abstract symbols possibly depicting the stars atlases. The second category
of Daba writing is similar to the third group of Dongba writing. However,
Daba scripts are all single characters. Even if there are some ideograms
corresponding to syllables in the stars names, they are conventional
religious symbols spread among a small number of users, the Daba priests.
The functions of this kind of ideograms, indicating the stars names, are
different from those in Dongba writing transcribing syllables, since some
of them are difficult to be explained for the item they are trying to describe.
Dongba characters for 28 lunar mansions have developed phonetic
units for syllabic transcription, while Daba ideograms show abstract
patterns consisting of circles representing the stars atlases. Among the
single characters for syllabic transcription, most are ideograms and a few
are abstract indicators. Furthermore, the ideograms could have the same
meaning or could be homophones of the syllables in the stars names.
Basing my work on the analysis of the functions of the abstract
symbols constituting the stars atlases and on the investigation of the
invention of the syllabic transcription among Dongba characters, I have
reconstructed a general path for the possible development of Dongba/Daba
scripts. It could be: (1)→(2A)→(3)→(2B). In other words, the abstract
symbols for stars’ atlases would have been created at the earliest stage of
writing, in which the intellectual and writing skills in graphically
indicating the pronunciation were weaker; later on, speakers would have
established ligatures, complex characters with a combination of abstract
symbols and ideograms for syllabic transcriptions. The third stage
highlights the invention of single characters widely used in order to write
down the syllables. With the enrichment of the vocabulary, some
indicators would have been added in order to distinguish the meaning of
words.94
94
In this meaning, the characters of 28 lunar mansions in RJ (1972) should be all
classified into category (2B), since they are all marked with the grapheme of “star” in
the upper part of each character. Nevertheless, it could be considered as a kind of
133
Noticing that the Dongba characters for the stars names collected
from the Divination Figure in LGW (2006) and RJ (1972) are all ligatures,
without single ideograms, another interesting point could be established:
the connection between the complexity of the lunar mansion characters and
their geographic locations. Dongba characters for stars interpreted by ZBT,
LLC, RJ, and LGW are from E’ya in Muli County in Sichuan province,
Zhongdian County of Diqing Prefecture in Yunnan province, villages
located north-west of Lijiang area in Yangtze Valley, Dadong Township in
Lijiang City in Yunnan Province. These areas are geographically extended
from north to south, starting from a remote mountainous region and
arriving to a border territory characterized by more contacts with the
contemporary world. The fact that Dongba characters in Lijiang area have
a stronger capacity of transcribing syllables than in other territories could
to some extent indicate the developmental tendency of Dongba writing: the
hieroglyphs would have improved in speakers the skill of syllabic
transcription from the earlier forms representing multi-syllabic words as a
whole. In that process their usefulness in transcribing language would have
evolved. In other words, Dongba script would have become more mature
as a writing system.
5. Script Created for the Astronomical Calendar
The path of development of the characters analyzed in the last
section is a diachronic reconstruction based on the synchronic comparison
of several versions of the 28 lunar mansions of Dabaism and Dongbaism.
The most remote point of the reconstruction could reach the earliest
stage in which Daba and Dongba cultures were transmitted orally. In that
context, the priests relied on their memory, not on written texts. Over time,
due to the changes in language, the priests of the last generations could
have been able to remember the names of the stars in their old
pronunciation, but could not have been able to relate them with common
and contemporary words. For that reason, they could not have been able to
ideographic symbol. In order to distinguish the different layers of development among
these characters, I analyzed their structures apart from the unified ‘heading’.
134
understand the remote meanings of the stars. In order to write down the
stars names in a more efficient way, the priests started to use indicators,
pictograms for the syllables, and homophones.
It is necessary, here, to clarify a hermeneutic aspect. The priests did
not necessarily have the conception of syllables. Nevertheless, in their
writing systems, a character (regardless of whether it is a single character
or a ligature, a complex character consisting of several units) expresses a
meaning (one-to-one), the name of the star. In this procedure, some
homophones are chosen because they are more commonly used or since
they are more closely related to the syllables. In other words, the need to
transcribe the language would have been at the origins of the writing
system. Moreover, increasing the number of characters, the symbols used
as indicators would have also been added in order to distinguish the
meanings of the words. Looking back at this procedure, we can see that
Daba characters (which are used as religious symbols conventionally
applied among small communities of Daba priests) have displayed the
sprout stage of Dongba script, which had already developed the function of
syllabic transcription.
Daba script, as a writing system at the primordial stage, writes down
the language in a more iconic/pictographic way. Besides the fact that the
total number of its characters is very limited, 28 original symbols, each of
them record the information/language as a phrase, or compound. Dongba
script, on the other hand, shows to be developed from the notion of
ideogram (a character carries a meaning expressed by a phrase, or idiom,
or sentence). From the early discovery and documentation of Dongba
script, this system appears to be a kind of pictographic writing. Several
symbols composing a picture express a certain meaning, which can be read
in different ways.95 Later on, Dongba script seems to go towards the form
of the pictogram: one character corresponds to a certain syllable in the
language. Therefore, Dongba script could be divided into two categories: 1)
pictograms and 2) ideograms.96 Ideogram is a symbol reflecting a certain
idea that can be read / interpreted in different ways, while pictogram is
95
96
Cf. Zhou Youguang (2003): 41.
Cf. Fu Maoji (1982): 1-9.
135
more precise in expressing a meaning that could be represented by a fixed
word or syllable. Recently, the phonetic transcription function of Dongba
script in secular documentation97 is considered as an important evidence of
the development of these symbols towards / into a more mature writing
system. I have had the opportunity to observe the different chronological
stages of Dongba writing also during my fieldwork from 2011 to 2014. In
that context, I have been able to interpret the Dongba classics and Dongba
blessing letters. Since the formal and official documentation requires
precise records, Dongba writing has been introduced among Naxi people
and gradually adapted to the need of writing down the language on a wordby-word basis.
Writing is considered one of the most important inventions in
human history. It has made possible the transmission of knowledge and the
communication among people without the limitation of time and space.
There are different chronologies about the origins of writings all over the
world, in China, in South America (Maya), and in the Middle East
(Cuneiform), for example. In the Middle East prehistoric clay tokens have
been recently unearthed by archaeologists. Some scholars have discovered
that these tokens, representing cones, strings, and heads of animals, are the
predecessors of the cuneiform writing. Their functions were mainly linked
to calculation (Schmandt-Besserat 1996: 7). This theory reminds us of the
long path of the development of writing systems. The initial forms of
writing could appear to us, paradoxically, not as writing at all.
Naxi People, or ancient Mosuo People, have elaborated their own
unique writing, Dongba script, over their long history. It is reputed as the
only living pictographic writing system in the current world. However,
their forms in their ancestral origins are still unknown. Daba calendars
called Gelimu are the only written literature of Dabaism discovered so far.
My work interpreting them and the collection of related materials has
unveiled to me their underlying connection with the Dongba characters for
the lunar mansions.
97
Secular documentation refers to letters and contracts of property. Cf. Yu Suisheng
(2008): 124-250.
136
The use of the stars for the elaboration of a calendar, the
identification of days, and the calculation in economic exchanges and
trades were all basic requirements in people’s lives. This explains why the
characters for astronomy or numbers have been first created also among
Daba and Dongba cultures. Moreover, the predecessor of Chinese
characters, the oracle bone script, was also created for divination: people’s
need to know future.
Conclusion
In this chapter, I have applied a comparative approach and hermeneutic
analytical methodology in order to illustrate my hypothesis according to which
Dongba writing is derived from the ancestral Daba characters.
The subjects under discussion include the 28 lunar mansions of Daba script
(my first-hand materials on this limited number of Dabaism’s written texts) and
the characters of 28 lunar mansions (mainly four versions collected by RJ, LLC,
ZBT, LGW) among the around 1500 Dongba pictograms. Basing my analysis on
the functions of the graphemes in each ligature, I have illustrated the different
diachronic layers of Daba and Dongba characters. On this foundation, I have
reconstructed their plausible path of development. Further on, I propose my
epistemological hypothesis according to which Daba script could represent the
initial stage of Dongba writing.
References
Chen Zongxiang. 1992. Pumizu Ershiba Xiu Chutan [A Preliminary Study
on the 28 Lunar Mansions of Pumi People]. Xi’nan Minzu Xueyuan
Xuebao, (6): 80-89.
Fan Guoyu. 1981. Naxi Xiangxing Wenzi Pu [A Dictionary of Naxi
Pictographic Characters]. Kunming: Yunnan Renmin Chubanshe.
137
Fu Maoji. 1982. Naxizu Tuhua Wenzi he Xiangxing Wenzi de Qubie [The
Difference between Hieroglyphs and Ideograms of Naxi People].
Minority Languages of China, (1): 1-9.
He Zhiwu. 1989. Naxi Dongba Wenhua [Dongba Culture of Naxi People].
Jilin: Jilin Jiaoyu Chubanshe.
Li Guowen. 2006. A Study of the Pictographic “28-Star Divination” of the
Naxi Nationality. Journal of Yunnan Nationalities University, (5):
108-113.
Li Lincan, Zhang Kun, He Cai. 1972. A Dictionary of Mo-So
Hieroglyphics. Taipei: Wenshizhe Chubanshe.
Li Lincan. 1984. Mosuo Yanjiu Lunwenji [Collection of Papers on Mosuo
Studies]. Taipei: National Palace Museum.
Pinson Thomas. 2012. A Naxi-Chinese-English Dictionary. Kunming:
Yunnan Minzu Chubanshe.
Rock Joseph. 1963. A Na-Khi-English Encyclopedic Dictionary (Part I).
Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
Rock Joseph. 1972. A Na-Khi-English Encyclopedic Dictionary (Part II).
Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
Schmandt-Besserat Denise. 1996. How Writing Came About. Austin:
University of Texas Press.
Yu Suisheng. 2008. Naxi Dongbawen Yanjiu Conggao (2) [Miscellaneous
Researches on Naxi Dongba Culture (II)]. Chengdu: Bashu Shushe.
Zhou Youguang. 2003. Shijie Wenzi Fazhanshi [The Developmental
History of Writing Systems in the World]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiaoyu
Chubanshe.
Zhu Baotian & Chen Jiujin. 1985. Naxizu de Ershiba Xiu yu Zhanxingshu
[Twenty-eight Lunar Mansions and Astrology of Naxi People]. // In:
Guo Dalie & Yang Shiguang (eds.). Dongba Wenhua Lunji
[Collection of Studies on Dongba Culture]. Kunming: Yunnan
Renmin Chubanshe. pp. 311-32.
138
Appendix
139
140
Appendix A
From Daba to Dongba:
Catalog of 28 Lunar Mansions
141
Local
Lunar
Constellation Mansion
Human
Being
WJ
Daba Script
LJZ
QS
Dongba Script
E’ya (ZBT) Ludian (LLC) E’luoju (LGW) Lijiang (RJ)
body
tail
Horse
mouth
urine
Frog
water/tail
white star
tail-peak
tail of time
Six Stars
horn
142
body
Red Eye
horn
hand/body
Three Stars
“chuomi”
head of water
tail of water
Pheasant
16.
Eagle
15.
143
9.
8.
mouth
Pig
urine/waist
tail
fat
four
/mouth
sides
/
horn
ear
Mdzo
eye
neck
/
palm/torso
(waist)
19.
144
tail/fat
21.
stomach
18.
vagina
17.
shoulder
16.
foot sole
“Huzui”
tiger’s mouth
“Roushi”
carnivore
/
20.
“Tou Xing”
“Wei Xing”
Note: The numbers are marked when the order of the lunar mansions is different from the one of their
counterparts in most of the other sequences.
145
146
Appendix B
Profile of the Phonemic System of Na Language
During my field works in Na villages, I have developed a
preliminary documentation of the language spoken there. In order to
analyze the phonemic system, I have collected around 2000 words from
the daily vocabulary of Na people and I have elaborated tables of
homophones. Phonemes are almost identical among WJ, LJZ, and QS,
while some words are different, due to language change. This profile is
organized according to the accent in WJ. It is aimed at providing a brief
illustration of my transcriptions of Daba calendars through IPA.
147
148
1. Initials (42 Units)
Uvula
Glo
ttal
N Nф T Tф
প
Bilab Labio- Alveo Retrofl AlveoVelar
ial
dental lar
ex
palatal
Plosive
Nasal
Fricative
S Sф
W Wф ߺ
E
G
˅
С
P
Q
ل
ن
غ
I
V
ߋ
ɪ
ट
K
]
ॷ
ॼ
ז
O
ޙ
WV WVф Wߋ Wߋф Wɪ Wɪф
G]
Lateral
Fricative
Approxi
mant
Affricate
Gॷ
ߺф
Gॼ
Examples:
(1) Bilabial and Labio-Dental Initials
S S ୫
“to persuade”
S؉ଠଖ
“comb”
SYૂ୫
“to dry”
Sф Sф ୫
“to tie”
Sф؉୫
“price”
SфYૂ୫
“male”
E E ୫
“kind (cl.)”
E؉୫
“yak”
EYૂ୫
“strong”
P P ୫
“low (seat) ”
P؉୫
“sky”
I
I ୫Wɪф\L୭ “tomato”
IYૂ୫
149
“like, love”
(2) Alveolar Plosives, Nasals, and Approximants
W Wľ୫
“only”
WR୫
Wф Wфľଠଖ
“sharp”
WфL୫WфR୭ “to lean on”
G Gľଠଖ
“to weave” GR୫
“see”
Q Qľଠଖ
“black”
QR୫
“you”
ن
نR୫
“trumpet”
نL୫
“day”
ז זľ୫Vľ୫ “Tibet”
זR୫
“rib”
זL୫
“month”
O Oľ୫
ORଠଖ
“thick”
OL୫
“to look”
“tiger”
“hug (cl.)”
O͑୫WL୭
“to chisel”
WфL୩
“to plane”
GLଠଖ
“to chase”
ॷࣜ୭ QLଠଖ “close”
(3) Retroflexive Plosives, Nasals, and Approximants
ߺ ߺ ଠଖ
“to close”
͑୭ߺӝ୫
“neck”
Сࣜ୭ߺL୫
“to get up”
ߺф ߺф ୫
“itchy”
ߺфӝ୫
“to drink”
ߺфL୫
“tired”
˅ ˅ ୫
“short”
˅ӝ୫
“big”
˅R୫
“ritual”
ل
ޙ
ޙ୩
“to aim”
СLଠଖلӝ୭ “feel”
ޙӝ୫
“to plough”
(4) Velar Initials
N
NR୫ߋL୫
NYૂ୫
“garlic”
N؉୫ “star”
Nф NфR୫Sф؉୫ “uncultivated land”
NфYૂଠଖ
“year”
Nф؉୫ “thread”
С
СR୫
СYૂ୫
“nine”
غ
غYૂ୫
“silver”
ࣜغ୫
“flea”
“pain”
“I”
(5) Uvular Initials
T
TR୫
“LOC.”
Сࣜ୭TYૂ୩ “wooden floor”
T؉୫ “real”
Tф TфR୩
“to kill”
TфYૂଠଖ
“to peck”
ट
टR୫
“porridge”
टYૂ୫
“pheasant”
Rଠଖ
“needle”
Yૂ୫ޙӝ୭
“head”
؉୫ “bull”
150
(6) Alveolar Affricates and Fricatives
WV
WVL୩
“spleen”
WVR୩
“central room” WVľ୩
WVф WVфL୫
“salt”
WVфR୫
“to jump”
WVфľ୫WVф͑୭ “cabbage”
G] G]L୫
“sugar”
G]R୫
“hail”
G]ľ୫
“bad”
V
VL୫
“to walk”
VR୫
“three”
Vľ୫
“ramie”
]
]L୩
“beautiful”
]R୫
“son”
]ľଠଖ
“go down”
“to dig”
(7) Retroflexive Affricates and Fricatives
Wߋ
WߋL୫
WߋYૂଠଖ
“earth”
Wߋф Qľ୭Tф͑୫WߋфL୭ “black”
“sweat”
WߋфYૂ୫ “breakfast”
Wߋ ୩
“bone joint”
Wߋф ୫
“to wash”
Gॷ GॷL୫
“money” GॷR୫ “cold”
Gॷ ୫
“to ride”
ߋ
ߋL୫
“meat”
ߋR୫
“clean”
ߋ ୫
“long”
ॷ
ॷL୫
“arrow”
ॷR୫
“light”
ॷ ୫
“to smile”
(8) Alveolar-Palatal Affricates and Fricatives
Wɪ Wɪ؉୫
“cloud”
O͑୭WɪR୫ “to walk around” WɪL୫
Wɪф Wɪф؉୫
“sweet”
WɪфR୩
“long spoon”
WɪфL୫ “thorn”
Gॼ Gॼ؉୫
“water”
GॼR୫
“have”
ɪ
ɪ؉୩
“incense”
ɪR୭OL୫ “flute”
ॼ
ॼ؉ଠଖ
“monkey” ॼR୫
“sore”
ɪL୫
“hundred”
“sheep”
ॼL୫
“come”
“hair”
(9) Glottal Fricative and Stop
K
K؉ଠଖ
“lake”
K ୫
“gold”
KYૂ୫
প
পľ୫]L୫
“slowly”
প ୫
“EUDVV”
151
1RWHV
1 When bilabial plosives [SSфE] are followed by [Yૂ؉], the “trill
»
of the lip” (“Chun Chanyin %Ô#” in Chinese) occurs. When the initials
are uvular consonants, e.g.: [T Tф ट ], there is the “trill of
uvula”(“Xiaoshe Chanyin ?<Ô#” in Chinese). These are two specific
phonations spotted in Naxi and Na languages (cf. He & Jiang 1985: 7;
Michaud 2008: 176).
2 Phoneme [I] appears mostly in Chinese loan words. In local
»
vocabulary, it just combines with [Yૂ], e.g.: [IYૂଠଖ] “net”.
3 Retroflexive initials can be followed by [ ], but not by [ľ].
»
Conversely, alveolar affricates and fricatives, i.e. [WV WVф G] V ]], can be
followed by [ľ], but not by [ ]. However, the combinations of alveolar
plosives with both [ ] and [ľ] have been found. For example: [Q ୫]
“temminck’s tragopan” (the Chinese vernacular name of this kind bird is
“Wawa Ji 33Q”) and [Qľ୭Qľ୫] “secretly”.
In WJ Na, alveolar and retroflex consonants are phonemes in
»
contrast, while they are conditional variations in Naxi (He & Jiang 1985:
7). SRPHPLQLPDOSDLUVKDYHEHHQUHFRQVWUXFWHG)RUH[DPSOH >O͑୫WL୭@“to
chisel” and [Сࣜ୭ߺL୫] “to get up”; [WфL୩] “to plane” and [ߺфL୫] “tired”; [GR୫] “to
see” and [˅R୫] “ritual”.
5 WJ Na has both velar and uvular consonants, which are
»
conditional variants in Naxi (He & Jiang 1985: 7). Their contrasts when
followed by [R Yૂ ؉] have been listed in the examples. There are also
minimal pairs when their following vowels are with glide. For example:
[NZࣜ୫] “chain (cl.)” and [TZࣜ୫EL୭] “Guabie (place name)”; [NфZࣜ୫] “piece
(cl.)” and [TфZࣜ୫] “smart”.
152
2. Rhymes (24 Units)
(1) Monophthongs (11 Units)
L ͑
ľ ࣜ R ؉ ӝ Yૂ Pૂ ૂޙ
Examples:
؉]
(i) The High Vowels [i], [ɨ], and [؉
WVL୩
“spleen”
WVӝ୫
“chili”
WV؉୫
“to block”
WVф؉୩
“goat”
WVфL୫ “ten”
WVфӝ୫ “slim”
ߋL୫
“meat”
ߋӝ୫
“seven”
WߋL୫
“earth”
Wߋӝ୫
“claw”
ɪL୫
“hundred”
ɪ؉୩
“incense”
WɪL୫
“small”
Wɪ؉୫
“cloud”
Notes:
1 The rhymes >L@ DQG >؉@ DUH VRPHWLPHV IUHH YDULDWLRQV )RU
»
H[DPSOH´EXOOµFDQEHUHDGDV>؉୫@RU>L୫@ZKLOH´UDLQµFDQEHUHDG
DV>K؉୫@RU>KL୫@
2 The phonetic values of [؉] after alveo-palatal initials are
»
corresponding fricative allophones. For example, [Wɪ؉୫] “cloud” is realized
as [Wɪɪ୫ૂ ], [ɪ؉୩@ “incense” is realized as [ɪɪ୫ૂ ], and [Gॼ؉୫] “water” is
realized as [Gॼॼ୫ૂ ].
153
(ii) The Front Vowels [LL], [͑], and [ ] & The Back Vowel [ľ]
VL୫
“to walk”
V͑୫
Vľ୫
“ramie”
OL୫
“to look”
˅ӝ୭O͑ଠଖ “together”
Oľ୫
“tiger”
זL୫
“month”
ז୫
“group”
Сࣜ୫זľ୫ “god”
T͑୫
“trigger”
T ୫
“to move”
Tľ୫
“to help”
ट͑୩
“lime”
ट ୫
“Chinese People”
टľ୫
“meal”
“blood”
Note: the rhyme [ ] is sometimes nasalized in some words, like
[প ଠଖ] “chicken” that can sound as [প ଠଖ]. However, no minimal pairs have
been documented so far.
(iii) The Unrounded Back Vowels [؉], [ࣜ], and [ľ]
E؉୫
Eࣜ୫
“Pumi People”
WфL୫Eľ୭ “to step on”
P؉୫ “fire”
Pࣜ୫
“not”
Pľ୫
N؉୫ “star”
Nࣜ୩
“hawk”
“worm”
“fat, oil”
(iv) The Mid-High Vowel [R] & The Syllabalic Consonants [Yૂ],
[]ޙ,ૂ and [Pૂ ]
TфR୫
“to stack”
TфYૂଠଖ
TR୫
“LOC.”
Сࣜ୭TYૂ୩ “wooden floor” P ୫Tޙ୭
ૂ “tail”
ER୫
“bright”
EYૂ୫
“to peck”
Tфޙ୩
ૂ
“six”
“strong”
WфL୫WфR୭ “to lean on” WфYૂ୫
“to arrive”
WߋYૂଠଖ
“sweat”
Wߋޙ୫
ૂ
“cough”
WߋфYૂ୫
“breakfast”
Wߋфޙ୩
ૂ
“lung”
Note: the rhyme [Pૂ ] appears isolated, without initials. For example:
[পľ୫Pૂ ୭] “elder sister/brother” and [Pૂ ୭Eࣜ୫] “foot sole”.
154
(2) Rhymes with Glides (6 Units)
jɛ jʌ jæ wʌ wæ wɑ
Examples:
WфM͑୫WߋфZ ୫ “to hide”
M
Сࣜ୫WфMࣜ୭ “upside” WɪфM ୭نMࣜ୫ “often”
Wߋфӝ୭نM͑ଠଖ
“this
kind”
نMࣜଠଖ
TфZࣜଠଖ
“bowl”
TфZ ୩ “broken” TфZľ୩
“to hack, to
chop”
“to
speak”
ॷZ ୫
˅Z ୫
“pond”
“dinner”
WߋфZ ୩ “deer”
لZ ୫
“milk”
Z ॷZࣜ୫
WߋфZࣜ୫
“early”
“horse”
نM ୭WVӝଠଖ
“fish”
Note: no minimal pairs distinguishing [Z ] and [Zľ] after retroflex
initials have been documented so far.
(3) Nasalized Rhymes (7 Units)
ҩ
}
Yૂ
ૂޙ
ľ
Zľ Zࣜ
Examples:
ҩ
Kҩ୫
“people”
Kҩ୩
´WRVWDQGµ
}
K}୩
“eight”
Yૂ
KYૂ୫
“hair”
KYૂ୫
´UHGµ
ૂޙ
পޙ୫
ૂ
“bone”
Kҩ୫Kޙ୭
ૂ
´PDGPDQµ
ľ Kľ୫
“to yawn”
Kľ୩
´VWD\RYHUQLJKWµ
Zľ পZľ୩
“light”
Zࣜ KZࣜ୫
“slow”
P؉୫ পZľ୭
KZࣜ୫
155
´ILUH FO µ
´VLOYHUSKHDVDQWµ
Note: in QS, words with the rhyme [Z ] have been recorded. For
example: [KZ ୫Sф ୫] “hoe”, [NфZ ୩@´UXJµ, as well as a possible Chinese
loan word [VR୫KZ ୭] “later” (=C /shao huan/).
(4) Loan Words
Words that have been borrowed in remote times from Chinese could
have been adapted to the local phonemic system, while the
more recent ones have not yet been. Therefore, some rhymes are
derived from the reading of Chinese loan words (for example, some
nasalized vowels, since there is not nasal coda in Na language). These
‘derivative’ rhymes are findable in the last three lines of the following
Table (Table B-1).
Table B-1. Chinese Loan Words in WJ Na
1D
English Chinese
1D
English
Chinese
ɪR୭OL୩
flute
Û /xiao li/
זL୫EL୭
radish
á /lai fu/
KR୫PL୭
flour
\
mian/
PR୩
mushroom ) /mo/
ॼࣜ୫
tobacco /yan/
ॼࣜ୭KR୫
match
; /yang
huo/
ॼࣜ୭ॼL୫
potato
;»
yu/
পľଠଖ
goose
u /e/
পľ୫Gľ୫
father
oW /a da/
Gľ୭Nфࣜ୩
drum
W+ /da gu/
I ୫Wɪф\L୭ tomato
4 /fan qie/ SфYૂ୭Wфɬ୫
grape
4 /pu tao/
V̈୫Wɪľ୫
O
/sheng
KZľ୫V̈୫
jiang/
peanut
á O
sheng/
ginger
PM͑୭WфMɬଠଖ noodle
\
tiao/
/hui
/yang
/mian
PM͑୭KZľ୫ cotton
156
/hua
ù á /mian
hua/
Some words introduced from Tibetan can also be highlighted in Na.
For example: [V؉୭С؉୫] “lion”, [Сࣜ୫זľ୫] “god”, [זL୫NYૂ୭] “musk”, [זľ୫Vľ୫]
“Tibet” (Na People use the name of the administrative center “Lhasa” in
order to refer to Tibet).
3. Tonemes
WJ Na has three tonemes for monosyllabic words: a mid one (୫); a
low-rising tone (ଠଖ); and a high tone (୩). The mid tone has two free
variations: [33] and [43]. The high tone can have the phonetic value as [35]
or [55] according to the five-point scale (Chao Yuen-Ren 1930).
Category
Mid
Low
High
Tone Letter
୫
ଠଖ
୩
Phonetic Value
33/43
13
35/55
Examples:
PR୫
“corpse”
PRଠଖ
“soldier”
PR୩
“mushroom”
ॼ؉୫
“to leak”
ॼ؉ଠଖ
“to take”
ॼ؉୩
“to sleep”
E ୫
“rope”
E ଠଖ
“to sweep”
E ୩
“to run”
পľ୭Gľ୫ “father”
Gľଠଖ
“to weave”
Gľ୩
“to chop”
OL୫
OLଠଖ
“tea”
OL୩
“WREDVN”
“to look”
Note: a low-falling tone is attested in multi-syllabic words. It is
marked by [୭] in this book. It can be considered as a tonal variant. For
example, [СLଠଖ] “after” becomes a low-falling tone segment in the word
[СL୭]ӝ୫] “younger brother”; [ॷZ ୫] “horse” turns into this tonal variant in
[ॷZ ୭WɪL୫] “saddle”.
157
4. Syllabic Structure
Syllabic structure in Na language is (C)(G)V. C is a consonant, G is
a glide, and V is a vowel or syllabized consonant. In this syllable
composition, C and G are optional. Here are examples of the four types of
possible syllabic structures:
CV
Сࣜଠଖ
“to shoulder”
CGV СZࣜ୩ “to sing”
প ଠଖ
“chicken”
পZľ୩ “light”
GV
Zࣜ୩ “again”
ZX୫
V
Yૂ୫
Pૂ ୭Eࣜ୫ “foot sole”
“pot”
“hard”
References
Chao Yuen-Ren. 1930. A System of Tone Letters. Le Maître phonltique,
45: 24-27.
He Jiren & Jiang Zhuyi. 1985. Naxiyu Jianzhi [A Brief Description of Naxi
Language]. Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe.
Michaud Alexis. 2008. Phonemic and Tonal Analysis of Yongning Na.
Cahiers de Linguistique - Asie Orientale, 37 (2): 159-196.
158
Postscript
Almost six years have passed since my first encounter with Daba
script. From that time, I started to work on different topics related to Daba
and Dongba culture. In the meantime, my exploration of Daba script, the
only ancient [proto-]literature of this local religion documented so far, was
intermittently continued.
Dabaism currently remains at the stage of oral tradition and lacks a
relatively mature writing system as the one developed by Dongbaism. At
the beginning, I had to try to basically analyze Daba characters, since there
was not a unanimous definition for them. Scholars were not yet agreed on
whether they are script or just symbols. When I first collected the
attestations of lunar mansions during my field work, I did not imagine their
real correspondences with the astronomical constellations. The experience
in the field of Dongba studies, to some extent, has broadened my horizon
on this specific issue. I started to look for data answering my questions on
Dongba lunar mansions. Then I tried to figure out Daba stars in their
cultural context, with comparisons from Tibetan, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Yi
People cultures. My intention was to show the correspondence between
Daba asterisms and the astronomical map. Step by step, noticing the
underlying kinship between the Daba and Dongba pictographic writing
systems, I have been able to substantiate with data and evidences my
hypothesis inherent in the developmental path from Daba to Dongba script,
according to which Dongba writing would be derived from Daba
characters and symbols.
In this book, I have tried to identify Daba lunar mansions in Dongba
context and, further on, in Chinese, Tibetan, Sanskrit, and European
cultures. I have also reconstructed the possible grammatological
development from Daba writing to Dongba script. It is not scientific to
exclude a priori the possibility according to which Daba script appearing
in the 28 lunar mansions were imported from other cultures, for example
from the Tibetan Bon Religion. Nevertheless, no records on this hypothesis
159
have been developed so far. Moreover, if compared with the three kinds of
Tibetan loan symbols adopted in Daba calendars, these 28 pictograms
show to be much rooted in Daba culture.
I would like, here, to thank very much Prof. Zhao Liming (THU,
China), who has introduced me to this field, giving me the opportunity to
work on this challenging (and outstanding) writing system. I would like
also to thank very much all Daba priests I have worked with, especially
Daba Awo, Daba Mupa, and Daba Dafa.
For their long-lasting encouragement and support, I express my
sincere gratitude to Associate Professor Crossland-Guo Shuyun (NTU,
HSS, Division of Chinese, Singapore), to Assistant Professor Lim Ni Eng
(NTU, HSS, Division of Chinese, Singapore), and to Associate Professor
Yang Jiehong (CASS, PRC). Last, but not least, dear thanks to my family,
my other half, Francesco, who is also my tree and dinosaur.
I thankfully take the opportunity offered to me by Lambert
Academic Publishing to present this rare and unveiled pictographic writing
system of Dabaism, with my latest hermeneutic progresses on this topic. I
hope it will prove to be a good gift to reciprocate, at least a little bit, all
those people who have kindly helped me, also taking care of me.
Xu Duoduo
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
August, 2016
160
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