Distinctions, Definitions and Terminology

The choice of appropriate terminology is determined by two fundamental aspects of the phenomena subject to analysis: form and action, or appearances and func­tions. They configure both the term used to refer to the group under consideration and the course of the entire investigation.

Only separable in theory, the two aspects are bound up one with the other, just as "Meaning and artistic form are not easily separated in representations."1 Together they encompass the significance of the wrathful deity of Esoteric Buddhism as the "demonic-divine."

Esoteric Buddhist literature uses a host of terms to refer to the deities I have named krodha-vighnantaka. These include various combinations of vajra (adaman­tine, diamond wisdom), krodha (wrath), vidya (wisdom, dharani) maha (great) and raja (king) such as "Vajra Krodha," "Krodharaja," "Vidyaraja," "Krodha Vidyaraja" and "Maha Vajra Krodha."

Any of these is appropriate for Phase One and Two wrathful deities, but not for Phase Three. For example, "Vidyaraja" applies to per­sonifications of dharani, which appropriately describes many of the Phase One and Two wrathful deities. Despite the distinct conceptual and formal relationships between Phase Two and Phase Three krodha-vighnantaka, however, Phase Three deities like Hevajra and Samvara are not personifications of particular dharani.

Vidyaraja is thus inaccurate in the case of Phase Three. Both vajra and raja are lauda­tories which are neither descriptive of nor specific to the underlying iconography. "Krodha" by itself, though used frequently enough in the texts, is also ambiguous because it does not distinguish between wrathful protectors of a lower order of importance and the krodha-vighnantaka. There is then no satisfactory term with a usage sufficiently consistent, descriptive, unambiguous and appropriately compre­hensive to be of heuristic value.

I have therefore coined the term "krodha-vighnantaka" to designate the class of deities in Esoteric Buddhism made up of named deities of wrathful appearance who overcome obstacles to enlightenment and may or may not act as apotropaic guardians. The binomial term combines an

essential formal attribute (krodha) with a primary identifying function (vighnantaka). The Sanskrit term krodha means "wrathful" 2 and is one among a number of different terms used inconsistently by the Esoteric Buddhist texts to refer to a shifting group of such deities.3 The

Sanskrit vighnantaka means literally "destroyer of obstacles." In the evolving Esoteric Bud­dhist system, these obstacles vary from the external threats of demons and disease to the internal resistance to enlightenment caused by sloth, anger or lust.

The destruction of obstacles is the primary Buddhist function the krodha-vighnantaka deities perform. More than one member of the group integrates this into the etymology of their Sanskrit names. For instance, Ucchusma's name means "he who bums up impurities." Another member

of the krodha-vighnantaka class is known as vighnantaka. He and other members of the group sometimes trample the elephant-headed Vinayaka, the demon who comes to represent obstacles of all kinds. To avoid confusion, krodha-vighnantaka is used to refer to the class of deities and Vighnantaka to refer to the individual deity of that name.

Krodha as formal attribute

A wrathful appearance is one of the characteristic qualities of the group and its pri­mary formal attribute. As part of the process of defining the krodha-vighnantaka, we must distinguish other types of deities who share this formal trait. Other deities who are characterized by a wrathful demeanor are not included in the class because of the different status and functions which the Esoteric Buddhist system confers on them.

Since a wrathful appearance does not belong exclusively to the krodha­ vighnantaka group, the term krodha is not by itself sufficiently accurate as the name for a rigorously defined class.

Among the most important of the groups who share a wrathful demeanor but have different functions are the Lokapala and the dvarapala.

The Lokapala (Chinese tianwang, "Heavenly Kings") are four in number, and each is associated with one of the four cardinal directions. Dhritarashtra Virudhaka, Virupak a and Vaisravana correspond with east, south, west and north respectively. As for representations of the Lokapala within a monastic or temple setting, "since each sanctuary represents a 'realm of the Buddha,' they also serve to protect the temple in which they are sit­uated, and especially the central group of Buddhas in the main hall, against inimi­cal forces."

They each command armies of demonic beings who are sworn to uphold the Buddha's teaching within their assigned direction. The Lokapala set is relatively stable and may be traced back to early Mahayana in India, though indi­vidual members appear in inscriptions at

Bharhut of the ca. early first century BCE, and so may be even older. Like the krodha-vighnantaka, they derive from Yak a figures, the localized earth deities who were incorporated into Buddhism as pro­tectors at an early period. Vaisravana in the form of Kubera was the focus of a cult in India, Central Asia, China and Japan. In the latter he was known as Tobatsu Bishamonten.

Reflecting their identity as generals, the Lokapala invariably wear armor. The Lokapala's armor visually distinguishes them immediately from krodha-vighnantaka

images; whose figures are never similarly clad. Like the krodha-vighnantaka, however, the Lokapala usually hold weapons and sometimes trample on demonic figures. Despite general similarities in their function of protection and wrathful demeanor, the Lokapala are lower than the krodha-vighnantaka in the hierarchy of Buddhist beings. Lessing comments that the Lokapala play a menial role, "as the lamas some­

times facetiously put it, 'merely as policemen in the major services."' The lamas would never admit such a thing in relation to the krodha vighnantaka deities such as Samvara, who stands at the center of an altar the Lokapala might guard.

Compared to the four Lokapala, the dvarapala ("Gate Guardians," Chinese: lishi or menshen) are even lower on the hieratic scale. This is not to imply their role is unimportant. They too ward off enemies. The dvarapala has an aggressive stance, usually with one hand raised, naked to the waist, with bulging eyes, a grotesque facial expression and, at least in East Asia, emphatically developed musculature. Dvarapala are found in pairs, guarding the entryways to temple compounds or to the shrines and temples within the grounds. They are the markers which signify transition between profane and sacred space.

Some krodha-vighnantaka appear like the dvarapala, with only one head and two arms. One major difference distinguishing the appearance of the krodha-vighnantaka from the dvarapala is that the former do not have the hyper-developed muscular physique found in the latter. Otherwise they are often quite similar in appearance. Since the krodha-vighnantaka are higher on hierarchical scale of Esoteric Buddhism, their greater status and doctrinal importance is evident in their larger size in a com­position with dvarapala.

The variations in visual characteristics (e.g., armor for the Lokapala, developed musculature for the dvarapala) reflect differences in function among the various cat­egories of deities with wrathful appearance. The dvarapala, as already indicated, are charged with the protection of the sacred enclosure. They stand in pairs outside the sanctum and ensure that only the deserving are allowed inside.

Unlike the krodha­ vighnantaka, they are rarely named individually and have only minimal identities apart from being one of a pair of gate guardians. The contexts in which they are found are very limited, which helps to distinguish representations of them from the more adaptable krodha-vighnantaka.

The Lokapala have a more generalized defensive function of keeping recalci­trant non-human, non-Buddhist beings from devastating an area. They come to the aid of righteousness in general, and in particular to exemplary human kings who support Buddhism. The worship of Vaisravana in a special cult of Central and East Asia "was focused upon procuring for the devotee purely mundane benefits - chiefly security from enemy attacks and wealth." As we shall shortly see, in addi­tion to the mundane benefits which characterize the Lokapala, the krodha­ vighnantaka possess transcendent effects.

Other groups who are both protective and wrathful are the kshetrapala, the dharmapala and in part the dikpala. The iconography of the two former groups is rel­atively unstable. Functionally, however, their tasks are clear.

Kshetra means "field" or "territory" and pala means "protector," so these deities are also guardians of locales. The main function of the kshetrapala appears to be "protection of the field or rather plots of land."Kshetrapala were also considered to be in the class of dvarapala. Later Tibetan Buddhism enlists a set of eight kshetrapala to guard the eight cemeteries found along the perimeters of Tibetan paintings,18 but they do not appear in non-Lamaist East Asian contexts.

The dikpala, like dvarapala, kshetrapala and the Lokapala, are also guardians of territory or the directions. Dikpala are the guardians of the eight directions (the four cardinal directions plus the four intermediate directions). They are part of a pan-Indian tradition, but compared to their status in Buddhism they are much more prominent in later Hindu temple architecture.

Nevertheless, they are also included in the outer regions of some Esoteric Buddhist ma,:z a/a, including the Garbhadhatu ma,:i ala as it appears in Japan. Many of them are Vedic gods, like Indra, Agni and Varuna, who have fallen from pre-eminence but are not totally for­gotten. Yama, the guardian of the south who is associated with death, is often shown in a wrathful form with a huge belly and weapons, standing or sitting on a buffalo.

As we will see, these characteristics, as well as his name, relate him directly to the important krodha-vighnantaka, Yamantaka ("the destroyer of Yama"). Obviously the krodha-vighnantaka group must be distinguished from the dikpala, who are exclusively apotropaic guards of the eight directions. Apart from Yama and Agni's importance in Esoteric Buddhist homa rites the dikpala do not have a great deal of added prominence in the Esoteric Buddhist system.

As for the dharmapala, since dharma refers to the Buddha's teachings, and pala to protector, the dharmapala must also be protective deities, not of space or of terri­tory, but of the Buddha's teachings. Outside of the Tibetan context, the term dharmapala (Chinese hufa dashi) seems to be used as a generalized title for any of the classes of protective deities already discussed.

In Tibetan literature the term takes on more specific associations. In Tibet dharmapala (Tib. Ch'os-skyon) are still con­sidered defenders of the faith but there are ranks within this class. Stephen Beyer describes the main distinction quite clearly:

The highest of the protecting deities is called simply the "Lord," or sometimes the "Lord of Knowledge," to indicate his status as a fully enlightened Buddha and to distinguish him from the lesser oath-bound guardians who are occasionally addressed as lords; this generic distinc­tion is sometimes expressed as the difference between mundane and supramundane deities.

Wrathful deities belonging to the upper supramundane stratum of the dharmapala with status equal to the "fully enlightened Buddha," also belong to the krodha-vighnantaka class. This would include Mahakala and others like Acala, Yamantaka and Hayagriva, who are sometimes classed as dharmapala.

Others within the dharmapala category confined to the lower mundane ranks are largely indigenous chthonic Tibetan deities in origin. Owing to their local origin, lower status and limited responsibilities within the Esoteric Buddhism system, they do not belong to the group of krodha-vighnantaka, despite their wrathful appearance.

On the other hand, our category does include certain figures who in the Tibetan pantheon are members of a class known as yidam. The yidam are the "high patrons of the Tantras, the deities who preside over the great Tantras of the High­est Yoga."

Samvara, Hevajra and Vajrabhairava are examples. Not all Tibetan yidam deities are wrathful and not all belong to the krodha-vighnantaka class, but all wrathful yidam deities do belong to the class of krodha-vighnantaka.

In other words, the Tibetan classification system divides the class we are calling krodha-vighnantaka into two subgroups of the yidam and the dharmapala. Each subgroup in the Tibetan system also includes deities other than krodha-vighnantaka. Complicated as this may seem at first, I believe there is a simple explanation.

In the Prologue I alluded to the fundamentally a-historical exegetical methods, which are geared toward practice, of the Tibetan tradition. As Bharati notes in his discussion of the evolution of mantra, "the believer ... must deny the very possi­bility of its having been 'constructed' at any time - for being eternal and only revealed in time, 'construction' is precluded." In the same way, to say that texts of one sort - let us call them Phase One texts - are "earlier" than Phase Three higher status

texts implies that revelation occurred histor­ically, denying its transcendental origin. In order to account for substantial differences the Tibetans themselves observe among Eso­teric Buddhist texts, they ascribe the differ­ences no. t to historical development but to

the attainment each text demands of initi­ates. Loden Sherap Dagyab, who is part of the contemporary tradition of Tibetan schol­arship, has restated the traditional explana­tion:

These tantric teachings [of four classes of texts] were given by the Sakyamuni Buddha to meet the requirement of aspirants of varying degrees of mental and intellectual attainment . Of the four classes of tantra the last is the most profound.

A tradition which holds the texts to be authentic teachings of Buddha Sakyamuni, Buddha Mahavairocana, or one of the later (krodha-vighnantaka) interlocutors of Tantras, disregards historical circumstances. We will later attempt to demonstrate that, contrary to the a-historical Tibetan tradition, the Phase Three krodha­ vighnantaka are the historical descendants of Phase Two deities. But when texts of both sorts were translated into Tibetan in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, some attempt to come to terms with the differences within

The relationships among the krodha vighnantaka and other groups of wrathful deities the transhistorical framework was neces­sary. The krodha-vighnantaka deities fow1d in Phase One and Two texts were often placed in the category of dharmapala, while the krodha-vighnantaka deities of Phase Three texts were classified as yidam .

By this agency, the wrathful deities of every class share the same "a-historical time" and may be arranged synchronically in a hierarchical grid, the yidam (which from a historical perspective derive from a later phase of development) being given precedence over the dharmapala (from an earli­er phase of development).

Tibetan systems of classification quite rightly recognize basic differences in sta­tus among krodha-vighnantaka deities of Phases One, Two and Three. In most Tib­etan classificatory systems, the wrathful yidam are grouped with "peaceful patrons" (in other words, the Five Directional Buddhas) and afforded a higher status than other Buddhas and bodhisattva, below only the Guru.

The krodha-vighnantaka who are classified as dharmapala, on the other hand, from Phases One and Two, are linked with secondary guardian figures and come near the bottom of the hierar­chy.

This is an ingenious method of categorization as it preserves historical dis­tinctions, while at the same time casting them in non-historical terms . It also encapsulates the two poles of status between which the krodha-vighnantaka begin and end their ascendancy in Esoteric Buddhism : from simple guardian figures to deities which in a certain sense are equal to or above the Buddha .

Dvarapala, dikpala, the lower category of dharmapala, kshetrapala and the Lokapala belong to Mahayana Buddhism as a whole. (One might even say they belong to the pan-Indian culture widely conceived, including Brahmanical Hinduism and Jain­ism.) They cannot be particularly associated with one or another movement within Mahayana Buddhism. They do, admittedly, appear in Esoteric Buddhist art, but they do not play a large role. In Esoteric Buddhist contexts their functions are all relatively minor.

The fully developed krodha-vighnantaka, on the other hand, are not commonly found in Mahayana art outside of that inspired by Esoteric Buddhism. Phase Two and Three krodha-vighnantaka may be said to be exclusive to Esoteric Buddhism. It is true that they are also charged with the

tasks of protection and guarding. In many ma,:i ala we will find them at the four gateways, as well as in the corners, at the zenith and nadir, forming a group known as the "Ten Wrathful Ones." Likewise the "Eight Vajras" are evoked as protective deities in the introduction to tenth cen­tury copies of the Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra preserved at Dunhuang.

The krodha-vighnantaka perform other functions which also recall the apotropaism of the dvarapala, kshetrapala and Lokapala in other contexts. For instance, Esoteric Buddhist texts prescribe rituals devoted to one or another of the krodha-vighnantakas before starting a ritual cycle. The intent is that of purification of the grounds.

In the seventh fascicle of the Maha Vairocana abhisambodhi sutra (MVS), the mudra and dharani ritual of the "krodha Acala" is recommended for the bandhaya­ siman ceremony to delimit the site of the ma,:i ala-altar and exclude all evil influ­ences from it, and also for

atmarak?a, a ceremony which does the same for the adept's body. There are many more examples of this in Esoteric Buddhist texts of all periods, as we will explore in greater detail.

Vighnantaka as function

We have now seen that the krodha-vighnantaka deities are wrathful, specific to Eso­teric Buddhism and that they perform some of the same tasks of protection execut­ed by other classes of wrathful deities. The krodha-vighnantaka deities, however, have more important duties to

discharge. Ferdinand Lessing reports that in Tibetan-style Buddhist rituals, "the invocation of Hayagriva is essential on account of his power 'to dispel demons,' which is a metaphor for 'removing all obstacles,' par­ticularly all distracting thought preventing the efficacious fulfillment of the rites."

Lessing's observation precipitates two important distinctions. The first is between active/positive and passive/ defensive activities. The krodha-vighnantaka perform both, while the other wrathful types (Lokapala, Kshetrapala, etc.) for the most part perform the latter only. The second distinction is more profound, distinguish­ing between outer and inner obstacles, just as a text on the krodha-vighnantaka Acala explicitly differentiates inner and outer purification of karmic obstructions.

The outer obstacles may be objectified as demonic agents, hostile to well-being. The internal obstacles consist of mental tendencies, the klesa, the "poisons," karmic debt, and so forth, which bar the path leading to enlightenment. Without a doubt, these internal obstacles are often garbed in symbols or metaphors and disguised as enemies of Buddhism.

This is certainly the case with the Hindu gods who are tram­pled under the feet of Phase Two and Three krodha-vighnanta ka. Similarly, the Mahabala Sutra describes Vajrapani in the form of Mahabala subjugating Sakyamuni's old adversary Mara, the personification of delusion with his host of demons.38 But as Esoteric Buddhism evolved, progressing from Phase One to Phase

Three,' this metaphorical coating becomes increasingly transparent and the inner significance correspondingly apparent. The dichotomy between outer obstacles to well-being and inner obstacles to enlightenment is pivotal to understanding the

distinction between the krodha­ vighnantaka in Esoteric Buddhism and other protective figures in Buddhism at large. Esoteric Buddhism has always emphasized praxis, and it should come as no surprise that the functions of the krodha-vighnantaka are bound more closely to enlightenment-winning practice.

The duties of the lesser protectors common to all types of Buddhism are regu­larly of the outer sort, though the function of marking the passage'to sacred space is somewhat ambiguous. Most frequently they are appealed to for the cure of dis ease, the increase of wealth, the arousal of

affection, or the dissolution of enmity. This was the case of the Lokapala Tobatsu Bishamonten, whose widespread cult is documented by evidence from Dunhuang.

To be sure, the krodha-vighnantaka is also appealed to for the control of objecti­fied demons and the mental and physical diseases demons are believed to cause. One finds long sections of their texts devoted to rituals to cure illnesses, find hid­den treasures and the like. What distinguishes them from other classes of protective deities, however, is that ultimately their functions are homogenized with the destruction of barriers which prevent the experience of enlightenment.

In the Acala text just mentioned, after describing how to paint an image of Acala and use it in rituals, a long list of mundane benefits is given. These range from subjugating evil men and immobilizing enemy armies to arousing love. Notably, however, the very first boon is that "One will attain all the samridhi, and rise to the level of the bod­hisattvas." Buddhist goals of this nature always remain at the forefront of the krodha-vighnantaka iconography.

The primary activity of the krodha-vighnantaka deities, then, is not merely to protect sacred territory or the aspirant, but to destroy obstacles, both outer and inner, mundane and transcendental. Exactly how these obstacles are conceived, however, changes over time.

The importance of the obstacles and their symbolic linkage with inner conditions gradually escalate along with the status of the krod­ha-vighnantaka.

The more essential are their tasks, the greater status they enjoy. We will follow this correlative growth closely as it appears in both Esoteric Buddhist art and texts. The juxtaposition of a few passages and images from each of the three phases will demonstrate the interdependence of text and images as well as estab­lish the specific tasks of the krodha-vighnantaka within the Esoteric Buddhist system. A text which reflects the early stage of development is the Mafijusrimi1lakalpa (MMK).

By the late tenth century a version of it was translated into Chinese by Tian Xizai (T.20.1191), but according to Lamotte this translation utilized texts which had already been translated at the beginning of the eighth century.41 The surviving San­skrit version of the MMK shows evidence that it continued to be expanded in India.42 The sections of it that are relevant for our purposes are considered to have been written by the eighth century.

These actually reflect a considerably earlier and formative phase of Esoteric Buddhism, from the seventh or even sixth century. The text casts Yamantaka as a wrathful attendant to the Bodhisattva Manjushri.

The obstacles which Yamantaka overcomes in the MMK are primarily those of time and space. He manifests his magical power by instantaneously gathering together all the various beings in order to form an assembly to listen to the Buddha preach.

Manjushri assembles his "Vidyagana" and then addresses Yamantaka as the "grand slayer of Vighna" and commands him to "perform all my work! Remember your vow! Act on my behalf!" Yamantaka is commanded specifically "to

assemble all the beings by means of magical powers." Manjushri draws a circle over the "King of Krodhas" (i.e., Krodharaja Yamantaka) with his hand, and then Yamantaka is dispatched. "In an instant, the king of the Krodhas had gone to all regions of the world where he succeeded, thanks to his magic power, in mastering hostile beings and compelling them to enter into the circle of the Assembly."

Manjushri threatens the unruly portions of the host with reprisals by Yamantaka, and Yamantaka is repeatedly referred to as one who destroys demoniacal obstacles. The text spells out that these vighna-obstacles are human, natural and supenatural .

A sculpture of Manjushri attended by Yamantaka from the ninth or tenth centu­ ry [6] reflects the relationship between the two we have just encountered in the MMK. Instead of drawing a circle over Yamantaka's head, Manjushri stretches his hand out toward it, a gesture with a similar connotation of investiture. Yamantaka's pose is much more active than Manjusri's, denoting his ability to move quickly.

The Maha Vairocana abhisambodhi sutra (MVS) is a text which represents the stage of development of Esoteric Buddhism between the MMK and the Sarvatathagata tattvasamgraha (STTS).46 The MVS makes the connection between obstacles and the krodha-vighnantaka explicit. " Now, as for reciting the great protective dharani to remove obstacles, it causes all demons and evil ghosts to be gone. For this reason,

one should think of the Vidyaraja , krodha-vighnantaka ] who are 'hard-to-bear,' because those who create obstacles cannot bear them ."47 Representing a slightly later phase in the development of Esoteric Buddhism is the SIT S. Parts of it were translated into Chinese in the mid-eighth century, where it was considered among the most important texts .48 It was not translated into Chi­nese in full until the late tenth century, but it must reflect trends current in India in the eighth century.

In the ninth juan of the Chinese text (T.18.882), the first division of the sixth section, we are treated to an extended discussion of the tasks given to the krodha-vighnantaka Trailokyavijaya (lit. "Conqueror of the Three Worlds"), a wrathful form of Vajrapani.

No longer is it a bodhisattva who commands a krodha-vighnantaka. In the case of the STTS, Mahavairocana presides over and directs Trailokyavijaya . Mahavairocana is the central Buddha of the five directional Buddhas, or Tathagatas, and may be described as the highest and most enlightened entity of the dharmakaya .

Trailokyavijaya is ordered to subjugate the most elevated being, Mahesvara, the Lord of the Gods and Master of the Three Worlds. Mahesvara proves to be a diffi­cult "obstacle" to subdue, but Trailokyavijaya succeeds after Mahavairocana declines to accept

Mahesvara's submission directly. As Trailokyavijaya subdues Mahesvara, the latter appeals to the Buddha, asking how it can be that Vajrapani, whom in anger he has called a mere Y a, can be so strong, stronger even than the Tathagata as Lord of the Trikaya. Mahavairocana himself calls Vajr apa r:ii­ Trailokyavijaya the "Supreme Lord of All the Tathagatas."

This is an amazing promotion, from the quasi-coerced, vow-bormd assistant of a bodhisattva (as we saw in the MMK) to a being who fuses the wisdom of all five cosmic Buddhas in order to subdue the most powerful god of the universe. The task he performs reains the removal of obstacles, for the presence of Shiva-Mahesvara should not be interpreted here merely as the sectarian humiliation of a Hindu divinity. As I have argued elsewhere, Mahesvara is representative, not of a Hin­duism which must be humiliated, but of an egoism which must be vanquished.

A ca. tenth century sculpture of Trailokyavijaya is in all ways parallel to the ideas described in the SIT S. (7,141, 162-164] Trailokyavijaya is no longer an attendant to a bodhisattva, but a powerful independent deity trampling Mahesvara and his consort.

The dynamism implicit in his newly defined task has been developed visually to pro­ject a powerful understanding of the wrathful deity's up-graded role.

Sometimes the obstacles which the texts specify for destruction by the krodha­ vighnantaka are karmic in nature. In the Amrita ku,:,4ali . .

buddha-U?IJi?a sutra, for instance, translated by Dharmasena sometime during the Tang period and brought to Japan from Changan by Eun in 847,51 a set of eight krodha-vighnataka are described as they stand before the Buddha. He tells them , "If there are men or women of good families who hold to this ten-syllable dharani ,, you should never, day or night, abandon such a person

Their karmic obstructions of the three worlds should be dissolved by your order. By means of the divine power in your weapons, shatter this karma and command them to attain a state of purity."

Ucchusma is another krodha-vighnantaka deity whose very name speaks of burning up impurities ultimately karmic in nature. Bischoff has noted that "Ucchusma, by his pure compassion, attempts to save all beings, without avoiding contact with filth (stains): by his great radiance, like a scorching fire, he bums up the stains of klesa, of false views, of vikalpa, and purifies the spirit."

A ca. tenth-century stone sculpture depicts Yamantaka, who is specifically mentioned as one of the eight krodha-vighnantaka in the Amrita ku,:,Adi buddha­

U$,:ti$a sutra text mentioned above. His six arms bristle with weapons, including a hammer to shatter obstacles, a sword to cut them asunder and a noose to fetter them. He stands solidly on the back of the wild black buffalo and makes a threatening gesture with his primary left hand. Manjushri , who is mentioned in the text manifesting as Yamantaka, is no longer represented as the object of Yamantaka's reverence.

The Hevajra Tantra, a text from the third phase of Esoteric Buddhism, provides another instance of the variously conceived obstacles which the krodha-vighnantaka is capable of destroying. The text was translated into Chinese in the eleventh cen­tury, but it is believed to have been current in India before that time . It certainly rep­resents a later development than either the MMK or the SIT S.

Buddha and bodhi­ sattva have minor roles in the Hevajra Tantra. The chief interlocutor is Vajrasattva, considered to be a kind of "Adibuddha" whose "form comprises all the Buddhas" and who is ultimately identical with Hevajra himself. Vajrasattva answers the ques­tions of the Vajra-being or bodhisattva, Vajragarbha, and of yogini (female adepts). The text is solely devoted to the krodha-vighnantaka known as Hevajra, along with his troupe of yoginis.

We now find a krodha-vighnantaka at the center of the main ma,:,4nla in a ritual cycle, a much more important position than either the assistant to a bodhisattva, as was Yamantaka in the MMK, or even than Trailokyavijaya, who is at the center of one of a group of ma,:,4ala in the STT S, 54 but not the STTS' s pri­ mary ma,:i a /a.

In the Hevajra tantra, Vajrasattva tells the yoginis, who are led by Hevajra's primary consort, Nairatmya:

If he drinks strong poison, the simple man who does not understand it , falls senseless. But he who is free from delusion with his mind intent on the truth destroys it altogether. So tho se who know the means for release and make effort in Hevajra, are not held by the bonds of delusion and so on, by ignorance and the rest But when one has found Hevajra, who is the Means, Vajra Garbha of great compassion, one purifies the sp/zeres of sense, and gains the highest state

From this passage we realize that Hevajra destroys delusion, that which keeps sentient beings from realizing that "no being is not enlightened ." This is one of the "inner" vighna-obstacles which krodha-vighnantaka eliminate . Moreover the goal of

destroying karmic bonds of ignorance and delusion provides significant continu­ity with earlier texts. The theme is paramount throughout the development of the krodha-vighnantaka in Esoteric Buddhism . It is threaded through the images of Hevajra, Samvara and Heruka , , which appear plentifully at the same sites as the earlier Phase Two wrathful deities.

A commentary by Naropa (956-1040) on a section of the Kalachakra Tantra, a text devoted to the third phase krodha-vighnantaka Kalacakra, gives a mythic slant to their functions. The obstacles destroyed by the krodha-vighnantaka evoked during the krodhavesa ritual are conflated with the futile attacks of Mara's host on Sakyamuni.

It is highly significant that the deity mentioned by Naropa is Vajrapani in wrathful form, because Vajrapani forms a bridge between early Buddhism and Esoteric Bud­dhism.

The attack of Mara is one of the most important events in the legend of the Buddha. Mara created a series of obstacles in the way of the Buddha, but all were destroyed by the Buddha's powers of meditation and wisdom, and by the stockpile of merit which he accumulated through lifetimes of self-sacrifice and compassion.

In images and texts from Gandhara during the Kushan period (ca. 1-200 CE), Vajrapani assumes the role of companion-protector of the Buddha. Most impor­tantly for our purposes, in his early form Vajrapani destroys opposition in the guise of Naga or a recalcitrant Yak a.58 He has become, in effect, the personification of the Buddha's defeat of Mara .

The krodha-vighnantaka deity is the reincarnation, if you will, of this personification, which is directly traceable to the historical Buddha's legend. At both ends of the development, self-transformation and realization remains the goal, though the means are clothed in radically different garb.

These examples from Esoteric Buddhist texts have served to demonstrate that the destruction of obstacles is at the heart of the krodha -vighnanta ka. It also helps to explain and justify the choice of the term "vighnantaka" (destroyer of obstacles) as part of the binomial designation for this class of deities.

In summary, the binomial neologism "krodha-vighnantaka" is a descriptive term which is:

1) not a generalized laudatory epithet;

2) comprehensive enough to include the entire family of related deities from all phases; and

3) specific enough to exclude deities of a different order, however similar in appearance or partially overlapping in function.

The term "krodha-vighnantaka" describes the deities' pri­mary attribute (wrath) and function (the destruction of obstacles). It encapsulates a workable definition of the class, which in Esoteric Buddhism is comprised of named deities of wrathful appearance (a necessary but not sufficient. condition), male or female, whose function within Esoteric Buddhism relates to the over­coming of obstacles to enlightenment and may include but is not limited to apotropaic duties.