GLOSSARY: EARLY MYTH AND THE GODDESS IN ANCIENT CHINA Bennett Blumenberg ANCI ENT HI STORY and RELI GI ON TI MELI NE PROJECT © Blum enberg Associat es LLC 851 S. Kihei Rd, # B212 Kihei ( Maui) , HI 96753 USA Fax: 206.984.3105 Blum enbergAssociat es@ahrt p.com m erlynne6@eart hlink.net ht t p: / / ancient hist ory.ahrt p.com This m anuscript m ay be freely dist ribut ed wit hin educat ional inst it ut ions and not - for- profit organizat ions provided t hat public acknowledgem ent is given t o Blum enberg Associat es LLC. This license prohibit s resale or incorporat ion of t his m anuscript int o any com m ercial product in any m edium . Docum ent t ext and cont ent m ay not be alt ered or edit ed, digit al file copies or hard copy print out m ust adhere t o t his provision. Post ing of t his file on a web sit e for eit her download or browser display is a violat ion of t his license. For perm ission t o quot e t ext , please cont act Blum enberg Associat es LLC. " When m an creat ed language wit h wisdom , As if winnowing cornflower t hrough a sieve, Friends acknowledged t he signs of friendship, And t heir speech ret ained it s t ouch." Rg Veda 10.71 " What ever is happening is happening for good...." Krsna t o Arj una in t he Bhagvad Git a 9/ 11/ 2006 11: 51 PM 1 A Ah a b - Th e son a n d su cce ssor of Om r i, Kin g of I sr a e l ( c.8 5 9 - 8 5 0 B.C.) . Ah a b’s qu e e n w a s Je ze be l w h o w a s t h e da u gh t e r of Et h ba a l Kin g of Tyr e . Ah a b’s r u le pr om ot e d st r on g a n d st a ble gove r n m e n t a n d h e su cce ssfu lly de fe n de d I sr a e l a ga in st t h e Ar a m e a n k in gdom of D a m a scu s. H e w a s a lso t h e fir st k in g of I sr a e l t o do ba t t le a ga in st t h e Assyr ia n e m pir e a n d in 8 5 3 B.C., h e pu t 2 ,0 0 0 ch a r iot s a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 soldie r s in t h e fie ld a ga in st Sh a lm a n e se r I I I a t Qa r qa r . Th e Bible focu se s u pon Ah a b’s e n cou n t e r w it h t h e pr oph e t s a n d j u dge s h im r a t h e r h a r sh ly, m ost lik e ly be ca u se h e a llow e d Je ze be l t o follow t h e cu lt of Ba a l. a n ce st or w or sh ip - Th e w or sh ip a n d ve n e r a t ion of fa m ily a n ce st or s so a s t o pa y r e spe ct s t o t h e e lde r ly a n d t h e w ise st m e m be r s of t h e cla n is on ly on e a spe ct of a n ce st or w or sh ip. I n Ch in a a n d e lse w h e r e , a n ce st or s cou ld e x e r t a pow e r fu l in flu e n ce on t h e e ve n t s of t h is w or ld t im e a n d so w e r e su pplica t e d a n d pr a ye d t o bot h in pr iva t e m om e n t s a n d st r u ct u r e d r it u a ls. Su ch a n ce st or s w e r e n ot a ccor de d t h e st a t u s of de it ie s, h ow e ve r . Th e y w e r e in e ffe ct , pow e r fu l bu t h u m a n im m or t a ls livin g on a n in visible pla n e . An ce st or w or sh ip so dom in a t e d Ch in e se r it u a l fr om t h e Ch ou D yn a st y on w a r ds t h a t it h a d t h e e x t r a or din a r y e ffe ct , in con j u n ct ion w it h Con fu cia n ism , of r e du cin g m yt h a n d t h e w or ld of t h e gods t o a r e a lm of se con da r y a n d le sse r im por t a n ce . Se e t h e discu ssion in t h e t e x t . An n a ls of M a st e r Lu - Lü - sh ih ch ’u n - ch ’iu w a s com pile d by M a st e r Lü w h o die d in 2 3 5 B.C.. Th e r e is a H a n D yn a st y com m e n t a r y u pon it w r it t e n by Ka o Yu in 2 0 5 - 2 1 2 A.D .. An ya n g Pe r iod - La t e in t h e Sh a n g D yn a st y, t h e ca pit a l w a s m ove d t o An ya n g w h ich is n or t h e a st of t h e m ode r n cit y of t h a t n a m e . Ex ca va t ion s h a ve u n cove r e d a pa la ce a n d t e m ple com ple x , h ou sin g for t h e a r ist ocr a cy a n d com m on e r s, a n d w or k sh ops. Th e r e is a lso a r oya l ce m e t e r y of sh a ft t om bs a n d sa cr ificia l bu r ia ls, a ppr ox im a t e ly 1 2 0 0 of w h ich a r e h u m a n . Th e An ya n g Pe r iod la st e d fr om c.1 2 0 0 t o c.1 0 4 0 B.C. a n d e n com pa sse d t h e r u le of e igh t or n in e k in gs. Th e va st m a j or it y of t h e in scr ibe d or a cle bon e s of t h e Sh a n g D yn a st y com e fr om t h is pe r iod. Th e r it u a l a ct ivit ie s of Sh a n g r u le r s a r e u n u su a l in t h e e x t r a or din a r y r e lia n ce t h a t se e m s t o h a ve be e n pla ce d u pon divin a t ion t h r ou gh or a cle bon e s w h ich w e r e m ost oft e n m a de fr om t h e pla st r on s of t u r t le s. Se e divin a t ion a n d or a cle / or a cle bon e s be low . Alt h ou gh t h e Sh a n g a r ist ocr a cy w r ot e w it h a pict ogr a ph ic scr ipt w h ose ch a r a ct e r s a r e t h e pr e cu r sor s of t h ose in m ode r n Ch in e se , t h e on ly su r vivin g e x a m ple s of t h e ir w r it in g a r e t h e divin a t ion s in scr ibe d on t h e or a cle bon e s. Th e r e is n o e vide n ce of a lit e r a t u r e of a n y k in d, be it m yt h ic h ist or y or poe t r y, n or of t h e m or e pr osa ic bu sin e ss r e cor ds w h ich pr ovide so m a n y e x a m ple s of e a r ly scr ipt s a n d w r it in g in t h e N e a r Ea st . As discu sse d e x t e n sive ly in t h e book t e x t , Sh a n g m yt h h a s on ly r e ce n t ly be e n t e n t a t ive ly r e con st r u ct e d by a pr oce ss of ba ck w a r d e x t r a pola t ion fr om Ch ou a n d H a n D yn a st y t e x t s a s t e st e d a ga in st de scr ipt ion s r e cor de d on t h e or a cle bon e s. 2 Ar ist ot le - Th e e x t r a or din a r y ge n iu s of Ar ist ot le n e e ds n o in t r odu ct ion . H e w a s bor n in 3 8 4 B.C., t h e son of a ph ysicia n , a n d die d in 3 2 2 B.C.. At t h e a ge of 1 7 h e e n t e r e d Pla t o’s Aca de m y in At h e n s a n d r e m a in e d t h e r e u n t il Pla t o’s de a t h in 3 4 7 B.C.. H e t h e n j ou r n e ye d fir st t o Assos a n d t h e n t o M yt ile n e on t h e isla n d of Le sbos, m a de fa m ou s by t h e 7 - 6 t h ce n t u r y B.C. poe t e ss Sa pph o. Fr om 3 4 3 t o 3 4 0 B.C., Ar t ist ot le t u t or e d a you n g Ale x a n de r ( soon t o be ca lle d “Th e Gr e a t ”) a t t h e in vit a t ion of h is fa t h e r Ph ilip of M a ce don . I n 3 3 5 h e r e t u r n e d fr om M a ce don ia t o At h e n s a n d fou n de d a sch ool ou t side t h e cit y in gr ove sa cr e d t o Appolo Lyce iu s a n d t h e M u se s. H e colle ct e d m a n u scr ipt s a n d m a ps a n d or ga n ize d r e se a r ch in a ll t h e scie n ce s, h ist or y a n d r e ligion . Ar ist ot le ’s r e pu t a t ion r e st s u pon h is su r vivin g w or k s in ph ilosoph y a n d r e ligion w h ich w e r e n ot pu blish e d u n t il 8 4 B.C. by Su lla in Rom e . At a d - At a d is de r ive d fr om t h e Ak k a dia n e t idu a n d m e a n s ‘t h or n s’ or ‘br a m ble ’. I n Ge n e sis it is t h e n a m e of t h e t h r e sh in g floor e a st of t h e Jor da n w h e r e Ja cob’s fa m ily m ou r n e d h is de a t h . At a d m a y h a ve a n obscu r e bu t im por t a n t r it u a l sign ifica n ce : se e t h e t e x t . a x is m u n di - A cosm ic pilla r , or a x is m u n di, is a con n e ct ion be t w e e n ‘e a r t h ’ a n d ‘h e a ve n ’ a n d t h e r e for e be t w e e n se cu la r a n d sa cr e d t im e . Th e cosm ic pilla r m a y e x ist in t h is ‘w or ld’ a n d be a sym bolic obj e ct con st r u ct e d by h u m a n s; or it m a y r e side in su pr a n a t u r a l dim e n sion s a n d be for e ve r ‘in visible a n d ‘m yt h ica l’. ¦¦}} B Ba a l - Ba a l w a s a N e a r Ea st e r n t h u n de r - sk y god w it h ligh t e n in g a s h is w e a pon w h o w a s ca st fr om t h e t ypica l I n do- Eu r ope a n m old. As a w e a t h e r god, t h e w in dow s in h is pa la ce w e r e ope n in gs t h r ou gh w h ich r a in flow e d a n d h e w a s t h e r e for e a god of fe r t ilit y e sse n t ia l t o a gr icu lt u r a l pr ospe r it y. Uga r it ic lit e r a t u r e pr e se r ve s h is m yt h cycle a n d t e lls of h is ba t t le s a ga in st t h e Le via t h a n Lot a n , Ya m m ( Se a ) a n d M ot ( D e a t h ) . Ba a ls’ cu lt w a s w ide spr e a d in Syr ia a n d Pa le st in e du r in g t h e t im e s of t h e Old Te st a m e n t a n d h is con sor t w a s Ash e r a h a n d/ or Ast a r t e . Th e I sr a e lit e s w h o follow e d t h e ir ow n t h u n de r - sk y god Ya h w e h sa w t h e m se lve s a s w a gin g con st a n t ba t t le a ga in st t h e follow e r s of Ba a l a s is n a r r a t e d in bot h Kin gs a n d Ju dge s. Alt h ou gh Ya h w e h a n d Ba a l w e r e n e a r ly ide n t ica l in t h e ir pr im a r y r ole s a s t h u n de r - sk y gods, r e con cilia t ion w a s n ot possible be ca u se Ba a l’s cu lt pr a ct ice in clu de d e r ot ic se x u a l r it u a ls t h a t de e ply offe n de d t h e I sr a e lit e s. Ba a l w a s a pow e r fu l n a t u r e god w h ile t h e I sr a e lit e Ya h w e h w a s u lt im a t e ly t r a n sce n de n t a n d vision a r y. ¦¦}} 3 C Ch ’a n g- h si - Th e M ot h e r of t h e Tw e lve M oon s ( Ch a n g Xi) is t h e con sor t of t h e God of H e a ve n Ti Ch ü n a n d pla ys a m a j or r ole in t h e M u lbe r r y Tr e e M yt h of t h e Sh a n g D yn a st y. Sh e w a sh e d e a ch m oon a ft e r t h e ir n igh t t im e j ou r n e y. Se e t h e t e x t . Ch ’ ia - Th e a ct ive for ce of t h e ce n t e r is a com ple x ph ilosoph ica l con ce pt ce n t r a l t o Ta oism . Ch ’ia is a n e m pt in e ss t h a t lin k s t h e ‘t w o’ in t o a for m e qu iva le n t t o t h e or igin a l st a t e of u n it y. Th is is a pa r a dise con dit ion of t ot a l h a r m on y w h ich or de r s t h e in t e r a ct ion a n d syn t h e sis of t h e du a l pr in ciple s yin a n d ya n g. Yin a n d ya n g cycle t h r ou gh a con t in u e d pr oce ss of goin g ou t ( r isin g, sw e llin g, e x pa n sion ) a n d r e t u r n in g ( con t r a ct ion , coa gu la t ion , low e r in g) w h ich is m e dia t e d by t h e ‘e m pt in e ss’ of t h e ce n t e r . I n e a r lie st Ta oist t h ou gh t , ch ’ia is t h e pr im or dia l pr in ciple t h a t con t in u a lly con n e ct s a ll ph e n om e n a l for m s w it h t h e M ot h e r a n d t h e r e by r e ve a ls t h e pr e se n ce of a M ot h e r Godde ss in e a r ly ( ?Sh a n g) m yt h w h ich is n ow a lm ost be yon d r e con st r u ct ion ( Gir a dot 1 9 8 3 : 6 1 ) . Th e pr a ct icin g Ta oist h ope s t o e m br a ce Ta o so a s t o be r e n e w e d by e x pe r ie n cin g t h e con dit ion of ‘t h r e e ’ - du a lit ie s in for m e d by ch ’ia . Ch ’in g D yn a st y - Th e Ch ’in g D yn a st y w a s fou n de d in 1 6 4 4 by t h e M a n ch u a n d la st e d u n t il 1 9 1 1 w h e n it w a s su cce e de d by t h e ill- fa t e d Re pu blic. Th e M a n ch u pe ople of Ch in a a r e de sce n da n t s of t h e n om a dic Ju r ch e n s, w h o h a d bot h m a le a n d fe m a le sh a m a n s. Th e M a n ch u fir st im pa ct t h e r e cor de d h ist or y of Ch in a w h e n t h e y con qu e r e d por t ion s of t h e n or t h e a st a n d e st a blish e d t h e Jin D yn a st y in 1 1 1 5 A.D . D u r in g t h e Ch ’in g D yn a st y t h e M a n ch u w e r e a t t h e h e igh t of t h e ir pow e r a s t h e y h a d con qu e r e d a n d r u le d a u n ifie d Ch in a . Ch a n g O - Ch a n g O w a s m a r r ie d t o Yi t h e Ar ch e r a n d sh e st ole t h e e lix ir of im m or t a lit y fr om t h e Qu e e n M ot h e r of t h e W e st . Sh e a sce n de d t o t h e m oon a n d w a s t r a n sfor m e d in t o a t oa d, w h ich e x pla in s t h e u n u su a l a ssocia t ion of t h e t oa d w it h bot h t h e m oon a n d im m or t a lit y. Ch in D yn a st y - Th is sh or t - live d dyn a m ic dyn a st y ( 2 2 1 - 2 0 6 B.C.) w it n e sse d t h e fir st u n ifica t ion of Ch in a a n d t h e e st a blish m e n t of a n e m pir e by it s fou n de r Em pe r or Sh in - h u a n g. D u r in g t h is pe r iod t h e Gr e a t W a ll w a s bu ilt a n d in 2 1 3 B.C., t h e r e w a s a t e r r ible in t e lle ct u a l cle a n sin g of h ist or y w h ich sa w a n a t t e m pt t o bu r n a ll h ist or y a n d lit e r a t u r e book s a n d s scr olls t h a t w e r e u n r e la t e d t o Ch in . Ch iu k o - Th e N in e H ym n s a r e a colle ct ion of e le ve n ( !) r e ligiou s poe m s for ce r e m on ie s in w h ich sor ce r e sse s a ddr e ss va r iou s de it ie s a n d t h e y r e ve a l im por t a n t de t a il a bou t r it u a ls. Th e y w e r e w r it t e n by Yü a n of Ch ’ü ( c.3 5 0 c.2 8 5 B.C) w h o is con side r e d on e of Ch in a ’s gr e a t e st poe t s. Ch ou D yn a st y - Abou t 1 0 4 0 B.C., t h e Sh a n g w e r e ove r t h r ow n by t h e Ch ou a n d t h e ch a n ge w a s r e volu t ion a r y: a com ple t e r e a lign m e n t of t h e polit ica l 4 a n d m yt h ic la n dsca pe t ook pla ce . Th e Ch ou or igin a t e d in a n a r e a of t h e pr e se n t - da y n or t h Ch in a pr ovin ce of H on a n , w h ich w a s ge ogr a ph ica lly diffe r e n t fr om t h a t of t h e Sh a n g pe ople : se e t h e m a p in t h e t e x t . As discu sse d a t gr e a t le n gt h in t h e book , t h e Ch ou r e pla ce d t h e ce n t r a l Sh a n g m yt h of t h e M u lbe r r y Tr e e a n d r e du ce d t h e n u m be r of su n s fr om t e n t o on e , a s t h e t a le of Yi t h e Ar ch e r r e la t e s. Th e ir e t h n icit y a n d m yt h o- poe t ics w e r e ve r y diffe r e n t fr om t h e Sh a n g. Th e Ch ou pr odu ce d Ch in a ’s fir st r e cor de d lit e r a t u r e , ph ilosoph y, m yt h a n d poe t r y, som e of w h ich pr e se r ve d fr a gm e n t s of Sh a n g t h ou gh t . Th e ir fir st k in g w a s W u W a n g a n d h e e st a blish e d t h e W e st e r n Ch ou D yn a st y w h ich la st e d u n t il 7 7 1 B.C. a n d h a d se ve r a l ca pit a ls, t h e m ost im por t a n t of w h ich w a s H a o. W u W a n g con qu e r e d t h e cr ow n pr in ce of t h e Sh a n g, W u Ke n g, a n d h is su cce ssor Ch ’e n g W a n g u n ifie d Sh a n g a n d Ch ou t e r r it or ie s in t o a sin gle e m pir e . Re pe a t e d in cu r sion s by n om a ds in t h e n or t h w e st for ce d t h e ca pit a l t o be m ove d t o Lo- ya n g in t h e e a st in 7 7 1 B.C. a n d t h is e ve n t in it ia t e d t h e Ea st e r n Ch ou D yn a st y w h ich la st e d u n t il 2 2 1 B.C.. Th e n u m be r of w a lle d cit y- st a t e s gr e a t ly in cr e a se d a s pr ovin cia l fe u da l lor ds be ca m e pow e r fu l a n d in de pe n de n t . Th e Ch ou e st a blish e d Ch in a ’s lon ge st live d dyn a st y a n d t h e fir st t o r u le m ost of w h a t is n ow pr e se n t - da y Ch in a . Ch u a n g Tzu - Th e Ch u a n g Tzu is a ve r y im por t a n t e a r ly Ta oist book t h a t is a va lu a ble sou r ce for e a r ly m yt h . Alt h ou gh it be a r s t h e n a m e of t h e gr e a t Ta oist ph ilosoph e r Ch u a n g Tzu ( c.3 6 9 - 2 8 6 B.C.) , it is a com posit e w or k r e pr e se n t in g se ve r a l a u t h or s of dive r ge n t vie w s w or k in g in diffe r e n t ce n t u r ie s. Gir a dot ( 1 9 8 3 ) fin ds t h a t a u n ifie d st r u ct u r e u n de r lie s t h e fir st se ve n ch a pt e r s a n d t h e e a r lie st m a t e r ia l m a y da t e fr om t h e 4 t h ce n t u r y B.C.. Cla ssic of H ist or y - Th e Sh u ch in g is a lso k n ow n a s t h e Sh a n g sh u or ‘An cie n t H ist or y’. I t is a com pila t ion w h ose se ct ion s w e r e w r it t e n be t w e e n t h e la t e Ch ou D yn a st y a n d t h e 3 r d ce n t u r y A.D . a n d it w a s r e ga r de d a s t h e r e cor d of t h e gove r n m e n t a n d in st it u t ion s of t h e Sa ge Kin gs, w h ich w a s t o be u se d a s m ode l for a ll occu pa n t s of t h e ‘dr a gon t h r on e ’. A t w e n t y ch a pt e r com m e n t a r y w a s w r it t e n in t h e 2 n d ce n t u r y B.C. by K’u n g An - k u o a n d a se con d com m e n t a r y w a s a u t h or e d by K’u n g Yin g- t a ( 5 7 4 - 6 4 8 A.D .) . Th e se ct ion e n t it le d “D ocu m e n t s of t h e Sh a n g D yn a st y”, w h ich h a d be e n r e qu ir e d st u dy for t h e officia l gove r n m e n t e x a m in a t ion s for ce n t u r ie s, w a s sh ow n by Ye n Jo- ch ü ( 1 6 3 6 - 1 7 0 4 ) t o be a for ge r y. Cla ssic of M ou n t a in s a n d Se a s - Th e Sh a n h a i ch in g ( Sh a n h a ij in g) is a com pila t ion of la t e Ch ou a n d H a n D yn a st y n a t u r a l h ist or y a n d m yt h w r it t e n be t w e e n t h e 3 r d ce n t u r y B.C. a n d t h e 1 st ce n t u r y A.D ., w h ich e x ist s in se ve r a l ve r sion s a n d is con side r e d a pr im a r y r e fe r e n ce for h ist or ia n s. I t su ppose dly is a r e cor d of t h e spe e ch e s a n d a ct s of t h e Sa ge Kin gs a n d ot h e r im por t a n t figu r e s of t h e le ge n da r y Golde n Age of t h e r e m ot e pa st . Accor din g t o Bir r e ll ( 1 9 9 3 ) , t h e Cla ssic of M ou n t a in s a n d Se a s pr ovide s n u m e r ou s e x a m ple s of t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion of m yt h in t o ‘su ppose dly r e a l’ h ist or y. Con fu ciu s - D e t a ils of Con fu ciu s’s life a r e difficu lt t o de t e r m in e w it h pr e cision . H is pr ope r n a m e is K’u n g Ch ’iu a n d h e w a s bor n a bou t t h e m iddle of t h e 6 t h ce n t u r y B.C. a t Tsou , a sm a ll for t ifie d pr ovin cia l t ow n of w h ich h is fa t h e r w a s gove r n or . H is fa m ily cla im e d de sce n t fr om t h e D u k e s of Su n g, t h e a n cie n t Sa ge Kin gs. H is fa t h e r h a d m a r r ie d a t se ve n t y a n d t h e fa m ily 5 w a s ve r y poor . W e k n ow n ot h in g a bou t t h e ch ildh ood or e du ca t ion of Con fu ciu s. I n t h e la st ye a r s of t h e 6 t h ce n t u r y, h e a t t a ch e d h im se lf t o a you n g n oble m a n w h o a t t e m pt e d t o u su r p t h e posit ion of t h e Pr im e M in ist e r of Ch i, on e of t h e t h r e e gr e a t st a t e s of Ch in a a t t h is t im e . Th e a t t e m pt fa ile d a n d Con fu ciu s t h e n a cqu ir e d a posit ion w it h t h e Pr im e M in ist e r w h ose fa m ily h a d h e ld t h is h e r e dit a r y posit ion . H e be ca m e a t r u st e d a dm in ist r a t or of a n im por t a n t Ch i cit y, Ch u n g- t u . I n 4 9 2 B.C. a n e w Pr im e M in ist e r did n ot sh ow h im fa vor a n d h e w a s for ce d t o r e sign h is post s a n d le a ve t h e cou r t . Con fu ciu s, w it h se ve r a l follow e r s, t h e n w a n de r e d fr om on e st a t e t o a n ot h e r a n d h e be ga n t o de ve lop h is ph ilosoph y of gove r n m e n t , w h ich w a s a look ba ck w a r d t o t h e a ssu m e d m or a lit y a n d filia l pie t y of t h e Sa ge Kin gs. Be ca u se of t h e fa vor a ccor de d a n im por t a n t disciple , h e w a s a ble t o r e t u r n t o Ch i a n d h e or ga n ize d a for m a l sch ool in t h e ca pit a l. Th e r e a r e n o w r it in gs fr om Con fu ciu s h im se lf w h ich h a ve su r vive d, in de e d it is n ot cle a r if h e e ve r se t dow n h is ide a s in w r it in g: t h a t t a sk w a s a ppa r e n t ly le ft t o h is disciple s. H e a cce pt e d a ll st u de n t s e v e n if t h e y cou ld n ot pa y h is fu ll fe e . Con fu ciu s is oft e n por t r a ye d in ou r t im e s a s a ce r e br a l, in t e lle ct u a l ph ilosoph e r bu t su ch w a s h a r dly t h e ca se . H e be lie ve d t h a t t h e D u k e of Ch ou , br ot h e r of t h e le ge n da r y Kin g W e n spok e t o h im in dr e a m s a n d con ve ye d t o h im t h e w isdom of t h e Sa ge Kin gs. H e cla im e d t o t r a n sm it a n cie n t t r a dit ion , n ot cr e a t e a n e w ph ilosoph y. H e t a u gh t a n cie n t book s, r it u a l a n d polit ics. I n dividu a lit y w a s of n o con ce r n t o Con fu ciu s. Th e Vir t u e of t h e e m pe r or , w h ich de r ive d fr om t h e M a n da t e of H e a ve n , de t e r m in e d t h e ba la n ce of good a n d e vil in t h e pe ople a n d t h e r e for e t h e e m pe r or w a s dir e ct ly r e spon sible for t h e be h a vior a n d con du ct of h is pe ople . Ye t , e ve r y m a n cou ld im pr ove h im se lf a n d ch a n ge by st u dyin g t h e a n cie n t t e x t s a n d a ct in g w it h a su pe r ior m or a lit y a n d a lt r u ism . Th e a n cie n t r it e s h old t h e k e y t o t h is pr ogr a m of se lf im pr ove m e n t a n d t h e syst e m w a s a r ist ocr a t ic t o t h e cor e . Th e u lt im a t e goa l w a s t o h a ve a su pe r ior m a n a cqu ir e a h igh posit ion in gove r n m e n t a n d t h e r e by be a ble in flu e n ce t h e pe ople - a t - la r ge . cosm ic sn a k e - Th e e a r lie st m yt h ic sn a k e , a s it a ppe a r s in t h e Pa le olit h ic a n d con t in u e s t h r ou gh ou t t h e N e olit h ic, w a s n ot a sym bol of e vil bu t a cr e a t u r e of 1 ) e t e r n a l r e n e w a l a n d im m or t a lit y a s e x e m plifie d by t h e slou gh in g off of it s sk in du r in g e a ch m olt ; a n d 2 ) a r e pr e se n t a t ive of dyn a m ic, e n dle ssly cr e a t ive life e n e r gy. Th e com pr e sse d spir a l a ssu m e d by a coile d sn a k e is a n a r ch e t ypa l sym bol of pow e r fu l, la t e n t e n e r gy a bou t t o be r e le a se d. W h e n t h e Godde ss be ca m e a n t h r opom or ph ize d du r in g t h e e volu t ion of N e olit h ic socie t ie s, on e of h e r m a j or e piph a n ie s w a s t h a t of t h e Sn a k e Godde ss w h o com bin e d t h e se sym bols in t o a pow e r fu l m e t a ph or . Sn a k e Gods a r e n on e x ist e n t in t h e N e olit h ic cu lt u r e s of Old Eu r ope a n d ve r y r a r e e lse w h e r e . ( Or ie n t a l dr a gon s a r e n ot sn a k e s, a lt h ou gh som e sch ola r s be lie ve t h e ir a n ce st r y in clu de s in pu t fr om t h e I n dia n a ga se r pe n t .) Th e a u t h or s of Ge n e sis, r e w r ot e t h e ch a r a ct e r of t h e Sn a k e D e it y in a m a n n e r w h ich h a s h a d a pr ofou n d im pa ct on W e st e r n m yt h , r it u a l a n d psych ology e ve r sin ce . As t h e a n cie n t I sr a e lit e s be ca m e a dom in a n t polit ica l a n d m ilit a r y pow e r in t h e r e gion , t h e Sn a k e Godde ss of t h e N e a r Ea st , be ca m e su bse r vie n t t o a n I n do- Eu r ope a n t h u n de r sk y god ca lle d Ya w h e h . Th e Sn a k e Godde ss pe r for m e d a la st a ct of spit e fu l be t r a ya l a ga in st h e r m a st e r w h ich w a s t o h a ve e n or m ou s con se qu e n ce s. Th e sn a k e in t h e Ga r de n of Ede n m a n ipu la t e s Eve in t o e a t in g t h e a pple of t h e Tr e e of Kn ow le dge a n d sh e in t u r n se du ce s Ada m t o do t h e sa m e . I n t h e pa st , gn osis br ou gh t for t h a st a t e of su blim e spir it u a l gr a ce a n d gr e a t u n de r st a n din g. H ow e ve r , Ya w h e h 6 is a j e a lou s, de fe n sive a n d pow e r fu l god w h o w ish e s t o r e se r ve u lt im a t e Un de r st a n din g for h im se lf. H e doe s n ot t ole r a t e t h e a ch ie ve m e n t of t r u e in sigh t by h u m a n be in gs. Ra t h e r t h a n r e w a r d Ada m a n d Eve , a s w ou ld h a ve be e n don e in n on - Ch r ist ia n m yt h a n d r e ligiou s ph ilosoph y, t h e y a r e pu n ish e d for bot h de sir in g a n a t t r ibu t e of t h e gods a n d a ct u a lly a cqu ir in g a bit of it . Th e Sn a k e Godde ss h a s pe r for m e d h e r m ission a s in e on s pa st bu t Sh e is n ow cu r se d by Ya w h e h t o for e ve r cr a w l in t h e du st on h e r be lly. H e r a colyt e s su ffe r t e r r ibly fr om t h e be st ow a l of h e r gr a ce , a s t h e y a cqu ir e a k n ow le dge of good a n d e vil. Th e y w ill be for e ve r pla gu e d by sin a n d gu ilt , a s t h e ir be h a vior is la be le d a r r oga n t a n d de se r vin g of a com ple t e fa ll fr om Ya w h e h ’s fa vor . Ya w h e h h a s e st a blish e d h is dom in a n ce in t h e ope n in g ch a pt e r s of t h e Old Te st a m e n t , n ot by u n de r st a n din g or com pa ssion , bu t by r e w a r din g w h a t in for m e r t im e s w ou ld h a ve be e n t a k e n a s a n im por t a n t spir it u a l ch a n ge w it h a cr u e l pu n ish m e n t , a pu n ish m e n t t h a t w ill be r e pe a t e d a ga in a n d a ga in a s I sr a e lit e h ist or y of t h e fir st m ille n n iu m B.C. u n folds. Th a t le ga cy, in t u r n , w a s t r a n sm it t e d t o Ch r ist ia n it y. cosm ology - Cosm ology is t h e scie n ce of u lt im a t e be gin n in gs, t h e se a r ch for t h e Fir st Ca u se , a n d h ow it ca t a lyze d t h e e volu t ion of t h e u n ive r se a n d t h e ‘w or ld’. Pr ior t o t h e Eu r ope a n ‘En ligh t e n m e n t ’ a n d ‘Scie n t ific Re volu t ion ’, cosm ology w a s a de e p con ce r n of a ll r e ligiou s ph ilosoph y a n d m ost cr e a t ion m yt h s be gin w it h a t a le of fir st be gin n in gs. Toda y Cosm ology r e se a r ch is con du ct e d w it h t h e t ools of m ode r n a st r oph ysics, in de e d h a s be com e a for m a l br a n ch of scie n t ific a ca de m ic st u dy, a s t h e m e ch a n ism s u n de r lyin g t h e or igin s of t h e ph ysica l u n ive r se a r e in t e n se ly st u die d. ¦¦}} D D a e da lu s - D a e da lu s is a Gr e e k god w h ose biogr a ph y con t a in s Cr e t a n , D or ia n a n d At t ic e le m e n t s. H e w a s a le ge n da r y cr a ft sm a n , t h e in ve n t or of ca r pe n t r y a n d it s t ools, a s w e ll a s sh ip m a st s a n d r iggin g. Am on g h is cr a ft a ccom plish m e n t s a r e t h e la byr in t h for t h e M in ot a u r on Cr e t e , w h ich h e bu ilt for Kin g M in os, a n d t h e sa cr e d t h r e a d of Ar ia dn e . H e w a s a sk ille d m e t a lw or k e r a n d bu ilt w oode n st a t u e s t h a t w a lk e d. En r a ge d by t h e a id D a e da lu s ga ve Pa siph a e , Kin g M in os im pr ison e d h im a n d h is son I ca r u s. D a e da lu s con st r u ct e d t w o pa ir s of w in gs for h im se lf a n d h is son . Th e y e sca pe d fr om Kin g M in os bu t w h e n I ca r u s fle w t oo n e a r t h e su n , t h e w a x in h is w in gs m e lt e d a n d h e plu n ge d t o h is de a t h . D a r k La dy - Th e obscu r e Ch in e se Godde ss of W a r w h o t a u gh t t h e Ye llow Em pe r or m ilit a r y st r a t e gy. D a w e n k ou Cu lt u r e - A N e olit h ic cu lt u r e of Ch in a ’s e a st coa st w h ich pr e da t e s t h e Sh a n g a n d pr odu ce d pot t e r y ve sse ls w h ose le gs a r e scu lpt e d t o r e se m ble fe m a le br e a st s. Se e t h e t e x t . Bu r ia ls w it h r ich gr a ve goods spe a k t o t h e e m e r ge n ce of a n a r ist ocr a cy w h o pa r t ook of t h e be n e fit s of a fa r flu n g t r a din g n e t w or k . 7 divin a t ion - Th e pr im a r y de fin it ion of ‘divin a t ion ’ in t h e Am e r ica n H e r it a ge D ict ion a r y is “t h e a r t of for e t e llin g fu t u r e e ve n t s or r e ve a lin g occu lt k n ow le dge by m e a n s of a u gu r y or a n a lle ge d su pe r n a t u r a l a ge n cy.” ‘To divin e ’ is t o de t e r m in e t h e w ill of t h e gods a n d su ch r it u a ls w e r e w ide spr e a d t h r ou gh ou t t h e w or ld in m a n y cu lt u r e s in bot h t h e a r ist ocr a t ic low e r cla sse s. N a n cy Re a ga n , w ife of t h e Am e r ica n Pr e side n t Ron a ld Re a ga n , con su lt e d a st r ologe r s on a r e gu la r ba sis. Th e Tibe t a n gove r n m e n t h a s a lw a ys h a d a st a t e or a cle , w h o is con su lt e d on a ll im por t a n t e ve n t s. St a t e or a cle s a dvisin g a r u le r w e r e com m on t h r ou gh ou t t h e w or ld in m a n y n on Ch r ist ia n cu lt u r e s. ( I t sh ou ld be se lf e vide n t w h y on e w ou ld w a n t t o k n ow t h e de sir e s of t h e gods in a dva n ce of a ct u a l e ve n t s.) I n a n cie n t Ch in a , a n d t o a le sse r e x t e n t in Ja pa n a s w e ll, divin a t ion w a s pe r for m e d u sin g a n im a l bon e s. Th e se bon e s w e r e su bj e ct e d t o in t e n se h e a t fr om a fla m in g br a n ch a ft e r a qu e st ion a ddr e ssin g a n im por t a n t con ce r n h a d be e n in scr ibe d u pon t h e m by t h e divin e r . Th e pa t t e r n of cr a ck s w h ich t h e n e m e r ge d a ft e r in t e n se h e a t w a s in t e r pr e t e d by t h e divin e r w h o w a s t h e on ly fu n ct ion a r y t r a in e d t o do so. Th e Sh a n g r u lin g fa m ilie s a n d cou r t w e r e obse sse d w it h divin a t ion a n d t h e y u se d bu ffa lo sca pu la a n d t h e pla st r on s ( ve n t r a l h a lf of t h e ‘sh e ll’) of t u r t le s a s t h e m e diu m for con t a ct in g t h e gods. M or e t h a n 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 su ch or a cle bon e s h a ve be e n fou n d a n d ca t a logu e d. Th e ir in scr ipt ion s a r e a bou t r it u a l pr oposit ion s a n d t h e pr ope r offe r in gs t o be m a de t o a n ce st or s a n d n a t u r e spir it s in or de r t o in flu e n ce im por t a n t e ve n t s. Th e goa l of t h e divin a t ion w a s t o a sce r t a in w h e t h e r or n ot t h e k in g h a d obt a in e d t h e fa vor of t h e spir it s or H igh Lor d. Th e pr oble m s a ddr e sse d r e ve a l m u ch a bou t t h e Sh a n g st a t e a n d polit ics of t h e t im e . M u ch le ss is r e ve a le d a bou t m yt h bu t t h a t w h ich is r e cor de d is of gr e a t im por t a n ce : se e t h e t e x t . ¦¦}} E E H u a n g - Th e t h ir d w ife of Ti Ch ü n is E H u a n g w h o ga ve bir t h t o t h e Tr ibe of t h e Th r e e Bodie d Pe ople . Sh e is a lso n a m e d a s w ife of t h e Sa ge Kin g Sh u n : se e t e x t . Elij a h - Th e Biblica l de scr ipt ion of Elij a h su gge st s t h a t h e ca m e fr om a fa m ily of sh e ph e r ds in Tr a n sj or da n . H e w a s a n im por t a n t I sr a e lit e pr oph e t w h o live d du r in g t h e r e ign s of t h e k in gs Ah a b a n d Ah a zia h in t h e fir st h a lf of t h e 9 t h ce n t u r y B.C.. H e fou gh t vigor ou sly a ga in st t h e Tyr ia n cu lt of Ba a l w h ich h a d be e n im por t e d in t o I sr a e l by Ah a b’s w ife Je ze be l. As r e la t e d in 1 Kin gs 1 6 , in or de r t o e st a blish Ya h w e h ’s su pr e m a cy, h e ca lle d for t h a dr ou gh t a s a dir e ct ch a lle n ge t o Ba a l a s a fe r t ilit y god a n d t o pu n ish I sr a e l for it s idola t r y. Th e dr ou gh t occu r r e d a n d Ya h w e h w on t h is pow e r con t e st ; t h e pr ie st s of Ba a l w e r e k ille d. H e su r vive d a pu r su it by Je ze be l t o con t in u e h is con fr on t a t ion w it h t h e cu lt of Ba a l. 8 e piph a n y - Th e m a n ife st a t ion of a de it y in sym bolic for m , a s dist in ct fr om t h e dir e ct a ppe a r a n ce of a god or godde ss in t h e ir pr im a r y a n t h r opom or ph ic for m , is a n e piph a n y. Th e Bir d Godde ss oft e n m a n ife st s a s a sw a n : t h e sw a n is h e r e piph a n y. Th e Godde ss of D e a t h oft e n m a n ife st s a s a vu lt u r e : t h e vu lt u r e is h e r e piph a n y. Th e a ppe a r a n ce of t h e Gr e a t Godde ss w it h t h e for m of a h u m a n fe m a le w ou ld n ot be con side r e d a n e piph a n y; t h e r e is lit t le , if a n y, sym bolism t o in t e r pr e t in t h is ca se . Th e a n t h r opom or ph ic de it y in dica t e s t h a t ‘w h a t you se e is, in fa ct , w h a t is’. N on e t h e le ss, t h e a bse n ce of a n e piph a n y doe s n ot in dica t e a n a bse n ce of m e t a ph or , m e r e ly t h a t su ch m e t a ph or ca n n ot be e a sily pe r ce ive d in t h e ou t w a r d ph ysica l for m of t h e de it y. Esa u - Th e olde st son of I sa a c a n d Re be cca h , h e for fe it e d t h e pr im a r y bir t h r igh t a n d ble ssin g of h is fa m ily e it h e r be ca u se of h is ow n foolish n e ss or Ja cob’s t r ick e r y. H e w a s t h e r e j e ct e d son displa ce d by t h e you n ge r Ja cob a n d t r a dit ion por t r a ys h im a s t h e gr a ciou s olde r br ot h e r . I n la t e r w r it in gs, Esa u is lin k e d w it h Edom w h ich w a s I sr a e l’s r iva l a n d t h u s be com e s focu s for h ost ilit y a n d polit ica l con flict . ¦¦}} F Fe n g Su T’u n g - Th e Ex pla n a t ion of Socia l Cu st om s w a s com pile d by Yin g Sh a o w h o live d fr om c.1 4 0 t o c.2 0 6 A.D .. Fu H a o - Th e m ost e x t r a or din a r y w om a n of a n cie n t Ch in a k n ow n t o u s by n a m e is Fu H a o, t h e con sor t of W u Tin g t h e fou r t h Sh a n g k in g t o r u le a t An ya n g. H e r r oya l t om b w a s discove r e d in t a ct a n d u n dist u r be d in 1 9 7 6 . Fu H a o w a s a w om a n of e x t r a or din a r y ch a r a ct e r a n d st r e n gt h . Sh e le d m ilit a r y e x pe dit ion s on be h a lf of W u Tin g a n d occa sion a lly pr e side d a t st a t e sa cr ifice s. A n u m be r of Sh a n g or a cle bon e s a r e in scr ibe d w it h divin a t ion s t h a t w e r e u n de r t a k e n on h e r be h a lf. Qu e st ion s w e r e a sk e d a bou t ch ild bir t h , r it u a ls a n d h e r m ilit a r y e x pe dit ion s. Som e of t h e in scr ipt ion s r e fe r t o h e r a s r oya l con sor t or fe u da l va ssa l bu t ot h e r s de scr ibe h e r a s a m ilit a r y com m a n de r w it h t h e t it le of ge n e r a l. Fu - h si - H e is t h e con sor t of t h e godde ss N ü - k u a a n d m a le h a lf of t h e pr im e va l divin e cou ple , Fu H si is de pict e d on Sh a n g br on ze s a s a sn a k e de it y, h is low e r body, a s is t h a t of N ü - k u a , is se r pe n t in e . H e e m e r ge s in e a r ly m yt h a s a cu lt u r e h e r o, t h e in ve n t or of h u n t in g, fish in g n e t s, t h e Eigh t Tr igr a m s, cook in g a n d is oft e n de pict e d h oldin g a ca r pe n t e r ’s squ a r e a n d k n ot t e d r ope . Fu Sa n g Tr e e - Th e sa cr e d M u lbe r r y Tr e e of t h e ce n t r a l Sh a n g m yt h is t h e Fu Sa n g Tr e e . I t gr ow s in t h e Ea st a n d a t it s foot is t h e Va lle y of t h e Su n w h ich con t a in s a pool of w a t e r in w h ich t h e Te n Su n s ba t h e . Th e ‘Ye llow Spr in g’, 9 w h ich r a n e ve r yw h e r e be n e a t h t h e e a r t h , ca m e t o t h e su r fa ce a t t h e fe e t of t h e Fu Sa n g a n d it s cou n t e r pa r t in t h e W e st , t h e Ru o Tr e e . Th e Te n Su n s w h ich ba t h e d in a pool of w a t e r a t t h e foot of t h e Fu Sa n g a n d dw e lt on it s br a n ch e s w e r e bir ds. Th is is a n e x t r e m e ly com ple x m yt h w h ose e x plica t ion is ve r y con cise : se e t h e discu ssion in t h e t e x t . ¦¦}} G Godde ss of Sa lt Rive r - D e fe a t e d by t h e Lor d of t h e Gr a n a r y in a m yt h r e cor de d fr om a H a n D yn a st y t e x t , t h is pe t u la n t Su n Godde ss r e ve a le d a w a n t on de st r u ct ive n a t u r e t h a t e n da n ge r e d t h e ‘w or ld’. ¦¦}} H H a n D yn a st y - Th e H a n con t in u e d t h e le ga cy of t h e ir sh or t - live d pr e de ce ssor s, t h e Ch in . Th e y e st a blish e d a st r on g ce n t r a l gove r n m e n t a n d e m pir e t h a t la st e d for m or e t h a n fou r ce n t u r ie s, fr om 2 0 2 B.C. t o 2 2 0 A.D ., a n d sou gh t t o soft e n t h e br u t a l e x e r cise of pow e r w ie lde d by t h e Ch in . Th e gove r n m e n t it se lf be lie ve d t h a t it h a d a du t y t o in ve st iga t e t h e w or k in gs of t h e u n ive r se a n d H a n in t e lle ct u a ls spe n t e n or m ou s e n e r gy in cla ssifyin g ph e n om e n a in t o a h ie r a r ch ica l syst e m so t h a t a ll m igh t be u n de r st ood. Th is obse ssion w it h t h e cr e a t ion of a sin gle com pr e h e n sive scie n ce r e ca lls t h e con vict ion t h a t gr e w ou t of t h e Scie n t ific Re volu t ion in t h e W e st t h a t t h e pr a ct it ion e r s of r e du ct ion ist , qu a n t ifia ble , a n a lyt ic scie n ce w e r e j ou r n e yin g u pon t h e on ly pa t h t h a t cou ld le a d t o com ple t e a u n de r st a n din g of t h e u n ive r se . N on e t h e le ss, Con fu cia n ph ilosoph y of t h e H a n D yn a st y r e st e d u pon loft y, ye t pr a gm a t ic pr in ciple s. H e a ve n , e a r t h a n d m a n for m e d a divin e t r in it y. I t w a s t h e du t y of h u m a n k in d t o u n de r st a n d t h e la w s of H e a ve n in bot h t h e r e ligiou s a n d scie n t ific se n se . Econ om ic w e lfa r e , w h ich h a d it s fou n da t ion in a t t e n t ion t o t h e e a r t h a n d a gr icu lt u r e , w a s de e m e d t h e ba sis of m or a lit y. M or a l de fe ct s in t h e com m on pe ople r e fle ct e d m or a l de ficie n cie s in t h e e m pe r or w h o h a d be e n u n a ble t o cr e a t e t h e con dit ion s t h a t w ou ld a llow pe ople t o be vir t u ou s. Th e pa t h t o pr ofit a n d vir t u e m u st be ide n t ica l be ca u se t h e m a sse s de sir e a n d de se r ve m a t e r ia l w e a lt h a n d ca n n ot be e x pe ct e d t o a dopt t h e life st yle s of e n ligh t e n e d sch ola r s w h o de libe r a t e ly ch oose pove r t y t o e n h a n ce t h e ir spir it u a lit y. Pe a ce a n d pr ospe r it y a r e t h e fou n da t ion of t h e socie t y. M or a l t r a in in g a n d e du ca t ion a r e a ccom plish e d t h r ou gh r it u a ls a n d r it e s, m u sic a n d t h e st u dy of lit e r a t u r e . Th e u lt im a t e pr odu ct of t h is syst e m is t h e sa ge w h o be ca u se of 10 h is im m e n se le a r n in g h a d de ve lope d t h e m ost a cu t e a n d r e fin e d m or a l se n se possible . Th e pr ope r r ole of t h e sa ge is n ot t o t e a ch or r e t ir e in con t e m pla t ion t o t h e w ilde r n e ss bu t t o e n ga ge in gove r n m e n t se r vice a n d t o a dvise t h e e m pe r or . Th e r e by w ill h is in flu e n ce be m ost pr ofou n d a n d a ffe ct t h e gr e a t e st n u m be r of pe ople . Th is sh or t su m m a r y ou t lin e s t h e Con fu cia n ph ilosoph y w h ich dom in a t e d t h e H a n e r a a n d ir on ica lly, it s e lit ist t on e pe r m e a t e d a dyn a st ic e r a w h ose fou n de r Liu Ch i w a s of com m on or igin s ( se e de Ba r y 1 9 6 0 : 1 4 5 - 1 4 9 ) . H e sych iu s - A le x icogr a ph e r of t h e 5 t h ce n t u r y A.D ., h is m a j or w or k is k n ow n on ly fr om a ba dly pr e se r ve d 1 5 t h ce n t u r y copy. W h a t r e m a in s, h ow e ve r , is in va lu a ble for t h e close t e x t u a l st u dy of Gr e e k dia le ct s, in scr ipt ion s a n d poe t r y. H ou - t ’u - Em pr e ss Ea r t h is a sh a dow y pr im e va l de it y in Ch in a a bou t w h om lit t le is k n ow n bu t h e r e x ist e n ce se r ve s t o e st a blish t h e pr e se n ce of a n e a r t h godde ss in t h e N e olit h ic. Sh e w a s t h e gr a n dm ot h e r of K’u a - fu , w h o w it h e x t r e m e h u br is, ch a lle n ge d t h e su n t o a r a ce a ga in st ligh t a n d t im e t h e r e by ca u se h e r ow n de a t h fr om t h ir st . I n la t e r Ch in e se m yt h a n d ph ilosoph y, t h e Ea r t h is divin e a n d sa cr e d bu t of in de t e r m in a t e se x . Con fu cia n ism ’s r e le n t le ss pu r su it of t h e pr a gm a t ic, de m yt h ologize d t h e sa cr e d a n d pr odu ce d a bst r a ct con ce pt ion s of de it y t h a t a t fir st gla n ce a ppe a r t o be pr im it ive . Th is ‘pr im it ive n e ss’ is a n illu sion a n d ‘de ge n e r a t e ’ w ou ld be a m or e a ppr opr ia t e de scr ipt ion a s t h e y a r e t h e pr odu ct of a n ove r w r ou gh t in t e lle ct u a l dist illa t ion . H si- H o - Sh e ( Xih e ) is t h e M ot h e r of t h e Te n Su n s a n d con sor t of t h e God in H e a ve n , Ti Ch ü n . Se e t h e e x t e n sive discu ssion in t h e t e x t . H si H o is a lso t h e n a m e of t h e ch a r iot e e r of t h e su n w h o in som e t r a dit ion s is e x plicit ly fe m a le . H si a n d H o a r e a lso t h e n a m e s of t h e olde st son s of t w o fa m ilie s w h ose du t ie s w e r e t o ca lcu la t e t h e ce le st ia l m ot ion of t h e su n . H sia ( Xia ) D yn a st y - Th e dyn a st y w h ich pr e ce de d t h e Sh a n g is k n ow n a s t h e H sia a n d it m ost lik e ly e n com pa sse d t h e t im e spa n c.2 0 1 0 - 1 3 2 4 B.C.. Th e H sia live d in sou t h e r n Sh a n si a n d n or t h w e st H on a n , w h ich is t h e a r e a of t h e e a r lie st Sh a n g civiliza t ion . A r oya l ge n e a logy is k n ow n fr om fr a gm e n t s of pr e - Ch in t e x t s a n d w a s a lso or ga n ize d in t h e Sh ih ch i. Som e a r ch e ologist s ide n t ify t h e low e st le ve l of t h e e x ca va t ion a t Er h - li- t ’ou a s r e m n a n t s of t h e H sia D yn a st y a n d it da t e s t o 2 0 1 0 t o 1 7 8 1 B.C.. Above t h is le ve l is w h a t m ost a r ch e ologist s a gr e e is t h e sit e of Po, t h e ca pit a l cit y e st a blish e d by Kin g T’a n g w h o fou n de d t h e Sh a n g D yn a st y in 1 7 6 6 B.C. a ccor din g t o t r a dit ion a l ch r on ology a lt h ou gh m ode r n a r ch e ology a ssign s h is r e ign t o 1 4 6 0 - 1 4 4 1 B.C.. Ke igh t le y ( 1 9 8 3 ) se e s a ll le ve ls a t Er h li- t ’ou a s pr ope r ly be lon gin g t o t h e H sia . Cla y ph a lli poin t t o t h e w or sh ip of m a le a n ce st or s a n d divin a t ion w it h bovid sca pu la w a s pr a ct ice d. Th e H sia a lso m a n u fa ct u r e d t h e fir st br on ze ve sse ls in Ch in a a n d u n de r t h e Sh a n g t h a t t e ch n ology pr odu ce d som e of t h e w or ld’s gr e a t e st a r t . W h e t h e r or n ot t h e H sia w e r e a t r u ly dist in ct dyn a st ic lin e a ge or t h e e a r lie st ph a se of t h e Sh a n g is a qu e st ion st ill de ba t e d by som e a r ch e ologist s, a lt h ou gh t h e e vide n ce se e m s t o fa vor it s dist in ct ide n t it y. H u a i- n a n Tzu - Th is cla ssica l t e x t pr e se n t s t h e vie w s of se ve r a l ph ilosoph ica l sch ools, m ost ly t h ose of Ta oism . I t w a s com pile d a n d pa r t ly 11 w r it t e n c.1 3 9 B.C. by Liu An , a m e m be r of t h e H a n r oya l fa m ily. Th e t it le of t h e book com e s fr om h is t it le , Kin g of H u a i- n a n . Th e H u a i- n a n Tzu con t a in s va lu a ble m yt h ologica l w r it in gs a m on g w h ich a r e se ve r a l ve r sion s of e a r ly Ch in e se cosm ology. H u a n g O - Th e Son of t h e W h it e Em pe r or su cce ssfu lly cou r t e d t h e godde ss H u a n g O a s t old in a 6 t h ce n t u r y A.D . t e x t . Th e ir ch ild w a s t h e god Sh a o H a o, on e of w h ose ot h e r n a m e s w a s Ch ’iu n g Sa n g or Ex h a u st e d M u lbe r r y. Th e r e fe r e n ce t o t h e Sh a n g w or ld t r e e of t h e e a st , t h e Fu Sa n g or sa cr e d M u lbe r r y, is u n m ist a k a ble . H is ot h e r n a m e s a r e Ph oe n ix Bir d a n d M e t a l Sk y a n d a lt h ou gh t h e la t t e r r e fe r s t o t h e w e st , Sh a o H a o r u le d ove r t h e e a st a n d h is t om b is be lie ve d t o be in Sh a n t u n g, t h e bir t h pla ce of Con fu ciu s. h u n - ch ’e n g - Ta o is t h e pr im or dia l sou r ce pr in ciple , or ‘t h in g’ w h ich con t r ols t h e cr e a t ion of h e a ve n a n d e a r t h fir st , t h e n t h e pr im or dia l w or ld. I t w a s a pe r fe ct , t ot a l or com ple t e fu sion of a ll t h in gs: a cosm ic t ot a lit y. Cosm ic t ot a lit y is h u n - ch ’e n g, w h ich m a y be a cor r u pt ion of a n in t e r pola t ion for h u n - t u n , ‘Pr im a l Ch a os Cr e a t r e ss’! Th e r e for e in t h e e t ym ology of h u n ch ’e n g, t h e r e is a w isp of e vide n ce t h a t a pr im a l Cr e a t r ix e x ist e d in Ch in e se m yt h ology du r in g t h e N e olit h ic. Ot h e r e vide n ce poin t s t o t h e sa m e con clu sion a s discu sse d in t h e t e x t . h u n - t u n - Gir a dot ( 1 9 8 3 : 6 4 ) be lie ve s t h a t in Ch a pt e r 4 2 of t h e Ta o t e Ch in g, “H u n - t u n m u st be ide n t ifie d w it h t h e sym bolism of a fe m a le cr e a t r e ss, pe r h a ps t h e divin g bir d in Sh a n H a i- Ch in g a n d a lso w it h h e r offspr in g ( e m br yo, e gg, se e d, gou r d, dr u m , cocoon , sa ck , be llow s) ”. Th e pr a ct icin g Ta oist is h opin g t o e m br a ce Ta o so a s t o be r e n e w e d by e x pe r ie n cin g t h e con dit ion of ‘t h r e e ’ du a lit ie s in for m e d by ch ’ia . H e is fe e din g fr om t h e pr im a l M ot h e r of All Th in gs. Th e con dit ion a ch ie ve d is ch ildlik e or w om b- lik e ( Gir a dot 1 9 8 3 : 7 4 ) . Th e Ta oist w ish e s t o r e t u r n t o t h e Pr im a l Ch a os Cr e a t r ix a n d so r e in t e gr a t e w it h cosm ic t ot a lit y. h u n t e r / ga t h e r e r - Th e e con om y of n on a gr icu lt u r a l t r iba l pe ople s in volve s som e com bin a t ion of h u n t in g a n im a ls a n d ga t h e r in g pla n t foods. ¦¦}} I I Ch in g - Th e Book of Ch a n ge s is on e of t h e m ost fa m ou s book s in a ll h ist or y. I t w a s fir st w r it t e n in t h e la st ce n t u r ie s of t h e Sh a n g D yn a st y a n d t h e e a r ly pa r t of t h e Ch ou D yn a st y. Th e I Ch in g is a m a n u a l of divin a t ion ba se d u pon a be lie f in t h e syn ch r on icit y of t h e u n ive r se ; a ll e ve n t s occu r r in g a t a pa r t icu la r t im e a r e in t e r r e la t e d by bot h ve r t ica l a n d h or izon t a l ca u sa lit y. Tr a dit ion a lly, ya r r ow st a lk s or coin s w e r e t h r ow n t o con st r u ct e a ch of t h e 6 4 h e x a gr a m s. As w it h Ta r ot a n d Ast r ology, in t h e cr u de st of h a n ds t h e I Ch in g be com e s a su pe r st it iou s ch ild’s pla yt h in g or a du lt pa r lor ga m e w it h w h ich t o for e t e ll t h e fu t u r e . W ie lde d by a su bt le , e du ca t e d a n d r e fin e d cr e a t ive in t u it ion , it be com e s a va lu a ble de vice w it h w h ich t o 12 con t e m pla t e t h e pa st , pr e se n t a n d fu t u r e . W it h in t h e in t e r pr e t a t ion of t h e h e x a gr a m s lie s im por t a n t a spe ct s of yin - ya n g ph ilosoph y a s w e ll a s som e of t h e m ost e sot e r ic Ta oist t e a ch in gs. Au t h or sh ip of t h e I Ch in g is a t t r ibu t e d t o fou r in dividu a ls: Fu H si, on e of t h e le ge n da r y Sa ge Kin gs of t h e N e olit h ic; Kin g W e n a n d h is son , t h e D u k e of Ch ou , w h o w e r e a ct ive in t h e 1 1 t h ce n t u r y B.C.; a n d Con fu ciu s. Ex ce pt for Fu H si, w h ose h ist or ica l e x ist e n ce ca n n ot be con fir m e d, e a ch of t h e se in dividu a ls lik e ly h a d im por t a n t in pu t in t o t h e t e x t . Kin g W e n a n d h is son w r ot e im por t a n t in t e r pr e t a t ive t e x t for e a ch of t h e 6 4 h e x a gr a m s a n d for e a ch of t h e six lin e s w h ich com pr ise e a ch h e x a gr a m . Con fu ciu s is k n ow n t o h a ve e dit e d t h e I Ch in g, a n d w r ot e a n im por t a n t com m e n t a r y w h ich is n ow in cor por a t e d in t o t h e body of t h e t e x t . H e is r e por t e d t o h a ve w ish e d for fift y m or e ye a r s of life in or de r t o fu r t h e r h is st u dy of t h e Book of Ch a n ge s. icon ogr a ph y a n d icon s - I con s a r e im a ge s cr e a t e d for r e ligiou s con t e m pla t ion a n d oft e n h a ve a ct ive u se in r it u a l; t h e for m e r con n ot a t ion h a s com e t o pr e dom in a t e . I con ogr a ph y r e fe r s t o a coor din a t e d ‘libr a r y’ of su ch im a ge s w h ich ca n be ide n t ifie d w it h in t h e a r t ist ic pr odu ct s of a cu lt u r a lly dilin e a t e d r e ligiou s syst e m . ¦¦}} J Ja cob - Ja cob, w h ose n a m e in H e br e w m e a n s ‘h e e l gr a bbe r ’ or ‘su ppla n t e r ’ is a n Old Te st a m e n t pa t r ia r ch w h o is t h e br ot h e r of Esa u a n d t h e son of I sa a c a n d Re be k a h . Ja cob m a y be a sh or t e n e d for m of Ja cob- e l, ‘m a y God su ppla n t ’. H e is t h e fa t h e r of D in a h a n d t w e lve son s, e a ch of w h om fou n de d on e of t h e fa m ou s t w e lve t r ibe s of I sr a e l. Ja cob’s n a m e w a s la t e r ch a n ge d by Ya h w e h t o ‘I sr a e l’ a n d h e e m bodie s t h e n a t ion . H e ca r r ie s m a n y a t t r ibu t e s, t h a t of a t r ick st e r figu r e , r e ve r e n t w or sh ippe r , pe n it e n t br ot h e r a n d be n e vole n t fa t h e r . Tr a dit ion loca t e s Ja cob in n or t h e r n I sr a e l a n d Tr a n sj or da n a n d t h e h ist or ic Ja cob m a y da t e t o c.1 7 2 0 - 1 5 7 0 B.C. or t h e e a r ly I r on Age c.1 2 0 0 - 9 0 0 B.C.. Lik e Abr a h a m a n d I sa a c, Ja cob r e ce ive s a divin e pr om ise of la n d a n d ple n t ifu l ch ildr e n . ¦¦}} 13 L La o Tzu - Th e Cla ssic of t h e W a y a n d t h e Pow e r is a t t r ibu t e d t o La o Tzu of t h e 3 r d ce n t u r y B.C. a le ge n da r y ph ilosoph e r w h ose h ist or ica l ide n t it y h a s ye t t o be pin poin t e d. Th e Cla ssic of t h e W a y a n d t h e Pow e r is a ph ilosoph y of gove r n m e n t a n d gu ide for a life of h igh pr in ciple for t h e a r ist ocr a cy, ye t it is ba se d u pon t h e Ta o a n d is r ich in Ta oist doct r in e . M u ch of t h e t e x t discu sse s Th e W a y ( Ta o) a s t h e u n k n ow a ble fir st pr in ciple w h ich , if follow e d, pr odu ce s a life de void of st r ife , de sir e a n d coe r cion a n d fille d w it h spon t a n e ou s, e ffor t le ss a n d in e x h a u st ible a ct ion . Th e ide a l e m pe r or w ou ld be a Ta oist sa ge w h o w ou ld gu ide t h e pe ople ba ck t o t h e pr im e va l st a t e of in n oce n ce , sim plicit y a n d h a r m on y w it h t h e Ta o. Com pa r e t h is vie w of gove r n m e n t w it h t h a t of t h e Con fu cia n ist s a s su m m a r ize d u n de r t h e H a n D yn a st y a bove : t h e r e se e m s t o be lit t le in com m on . Lor d of t h e Gr a n a r y - Th e Lor d of t h e Gr a n a r y a n d t h e Godde ss of Sa lt e n ga ge in a m yt h ic pow e r con t e st be t w e e n com ple m e n t a r y for ce s a s t h e ir m yt h discu sse d in t h e t e x t e x pla in s. H e is t h e vict or ove r a pe t u la n t a n d w a n t on ly de st r u ct ive su n godde ss w h ose a n ge r a t be in g r e j e ct e d t h r e a t e n s t h e a ll livin g t h in gs in t h e ‘w or ld’. ¦¦}} M m a im e d k in g - W ide ly dispe r se d in t im e a n d spa ce t h r ou gh ou t t h e N e olit h ic w e r e k in gdom s a n d st a t e s t h a t r e qu ir e d t h e ir k in g t o be r it u a lly m a im e d, u su a lly by a se ve r e in j u r y t o t h e foot or t h igh . Th is r it u a l, w h ich st r ik e s u s a s ba r ba r ic, is discu sse d a t le n gt h in t h e t e x t . Th e r a t ion a le be h in d su ch a se e m in gly br u t a l a ct w a s t o m a k e visible t o t h e pe ople , w it h im a ge r y t h a t cou ld n ot be m isu n de r st ood, t h a t t h e pr ice de m a n de d of t h ose w h o w ie ld a bsolu t e pow e r w a s t e r r ible in de e d. Su ch pe r m a n e n t in j u r ie s w e r e a m a r k of divin it y, a n u n m ist a k a ble sign t h a t t h e Godde ss h a d ch ose n h e r con sor t a n d t h e r e for e h e r be n e fice n ce w a s a va ila ble t o t h e pe ople . An a ddit ion a l m ot ive m a y a lso h a ve be e n t o im pr e ss u pon t h e r u le r in t h e st r on ge st t e r m s possible , t h e a w e som e n a t u r e of h is r e spon sibilit y w h ich cou ld n ot be bor n w it h ou t con se qu e n ce s. I m a gin e t oda y’s polit ics if w e r e qu ir e d a se r iou s ph ysica l sa cr ifice fr om ou r le a de r s t h a t som e h ow con fir m e d t h e pow e r a n d r e spon sibilit y of office w it h in t e gr it y. A w illin gn e ss t o su bm it t o e x h a u st in g w or k sch e du le s a n d m e dia h u m ilia t ion h a r dly su ffice s in m yt h ic t e r m s. M a n ch u - Th e M a n ch u pe ople of Ch in a a r e de sce n da n t s of t h e n om a dic Ju r ch e n s, w h o h a d bot h m a le a n d fe m a le sh a m a n s. Th e y fir st im pa ct t h e r e cor de d h ist or y of Ch in a w h e n t h e y con qu e r e d por t ion s of t h e n or t h e a st a n d e st a blish e d t h e Jin D yn a st y in 1 1 1 5 A.D .. D u r in g t h e Ch ’in g D yn a st y ( 1 6 4 4 - 1 9 1 1 ) , t h e M a n ch u w e r e a t t h e h e igh t of t h e ir pow e r , for t h e y 14 con qu e r e d a n d r u le d a u n ifie d Ch in a . By t h is t im e , t h e ir r oya l h ou se s h a d n e a r ly lost t h e ir or igin a l cu lt u r e a n d w e r e a ccu lt u r a t e d a ccor din g t o t h e t im e le ss H a n pa r a digm . Th e y sou gh t t o st r e n gt h e n im pe r ia l pow e r by pr om ot in g t h e officia l w or sh ip of a su pr e m e de it y a n d t h e H a n Ch in e se “M a n da t e of H e a ve n ” con ce pt t h a t ve st e d pow e r in t h e e m pe r or . Toda y, r e m ot e M a n ch u com m u n it ie s in n or t h e a st e r n Ch in a r e t a in som e of t h e ir or igin a l cu lt u r e . M e solit h ic - Th is is t h e cu lt u r a l st a ge t h a t follow e d t h e Uppe r Pa le olit h ic a n d is dist in gu ish e d by t h e a bse n ce of a gr icu lt u r e a n d a gr e a t dive r sit y of food a cqu ir in g e con om ie s. Big ga m e h u n t in g a s a pr ior it y occu pa t ion for m a n y pe ople s w a s n o lon ge r a va ila ble a s t h e gr e a t h e r ds of m e ga fa u n a h a d de cr e a se d a n d r e t r e a t e d n or t h w a r d w it h t h e sh r in k in g ice sh e e t s a n d gla cie r s. m e t a ph or - Se e sym bol vs. m e t a ph or . M ot h e r of t h e Te n Su n s - Se e H si- H o. M u lbe r r y Tr e e M yt h - Se e Fu Sa n g Tr e e . m yt h o- poe t ics - Th is t e r m e m ph a size s t h e poe t ic n a t u r e of m yt h ic con st r u ct s. Robe r t Gr a ve s be lie ve s t h a t poe t r y fir st a r ose t o sin g t h e pr a ise s of t h e gods, w or sh ip t h e M u se ( Godde ss) a n d t o e x pr e ss divin e r a pt u r e . Th e r e is m u ch e vide n ce t o su ppor t t h is t h e or y; poe t r y in t h e se r vice of pe r son a l fe e lin gs w it h ou t a n y r e fe r e n ce t o ‘h e a ve n ’ is de cide dly r a r e in t h e a n cie n t w or ld, w it h on ly a h a n dfu l of e x a m ple s e x t a n t fr om Su m e r a n d Egypt . Th ose cu lt iva t e d se n sibilit ie s t h a t r ode t h e cr e st of t h e in t e lle ct u a l t ida l w a ve in Gr e e ce a n d Rom e m or e e a sily por t r a ye d t h e ir pr iva t e w or lds, bu t t h e n t h e y w e r e t h e pr odu ct s of cu lt u r e s in w h ich con sciou sn e ss a r ose in t h e br e a k dow n of t h e bica m e r a l m in d. Th e sa m e m a y be sa id of t h e gr e a t poe t s of cla ssica l Ch in a . I n de e d Con fu cia n ism , a n d t o a le sse r e x t e n t Ta oism , ca n be se e n t o h a ve pr om ot e d in Ea st Asia w h a t is de scr ibe d by Ju lia n Ja n e s in t h e Or igin of Con sciou sn e ss in t h e Br e a k dow n of t h e Bica m e r a l M in d. Re a d Ju lia n Ja yn e s ( 1 9 7 6 ) if you h a ve n ot ye t don e so. H is w or k is on e of t h e gr e a t in sigh t s of t h is ce n t u r y a n d if you t a k e you r m yt h a n d poe sy se r iou sly, you r t h in k in g a bou t t h e m w ill n e ve r be t h e sa m e a ft e r r e a din g t h is w or k . ¦¦}} N N e olit h ic - Th e a r ch e ologica l/ cu lt u r a l e r a t h a t follow s t h e M e solit h ic is t e r m e d t h e N e olit h ic. Th e r e fe r e n ce t o ‘lit h ic’ - st on e t ools - is a ca r r yove r fr om 1 9 t h ce n t u r y a r ch e ology. M a n y of t h e m ost e x t r a or din a r y de ve lopm e n t s of h u m a n h ist or y be ga n du r in g t h is pe r iod: t h e Agr icu lt u r a l Re volu t ion ; in cipie n t u r ba n ism w it h la r ge t ow n s; h ie r a r ch ica l a n d cla ss st r u ct u r e d socie t ie s; la r ge sca le , h igh ly or ga n ize d w a r fa r e ; t h e r ise a n d fa ll 15 of Old Eu r ope a n Godde ss cu lt u r e a n d t h e a ppe a r a n ce a n d r a pid spr e a d of t h e I n do- Eu r ope a n s. n ode - A n ode is a poin t or r e gion of m in im u m ( ze r o) a m plit u de in a pe r iodic syst e m . I t is a lso e it h e r of t w o dia m e t r ica lly opposit e poin t s a t w h ich t h e or bit of a pla n e t in t e r se ct s t h e e clipt ic, or t h e t w o poin t s a t w h ich t h e or bit of a sa t e llit e in t e r se ct s t h e or bit a l pla n e of it s pla n e t . Ast r on om e r s in a n cie n t Ch in a a n d e lse w h e r e w e r e a w a r e t h a t t h e ph a se s of t h e m oon w e r e a m plit u de va r ia t ion s in a pe r iodic syst e m . Th e a w a r e n e ss of su ch a st r on om ica l k n ow le dge a s ge n u in e scie n ce did n ot pr e ve n t it s in cor por a t ion in t o t h e fu n da m e n t a l m e ch a n ism s of a st r ology; in fa ct , it e n h a n ce d a n d le git im ize d a st r ology. N u - k u a - Th e t r a n sfor m a t ive pr im e va l Godde ss in a n cie n t Ch in a w a s t h e Cr e a t r ix of h u m a n k in d a n d sa vior of t h e cosm os. As w a s h e r con sor t Fu H si, sh e w a s fir st de pict e d a s a t h e r iom or ph w it h a se r pe n t in e low e r body. I n la t e r m yt h sh e m a r r ie d h e r br ot h e r a n d t h is a ct e st a blish e s t h e pa r a digm of m a r r ia ge . H e r life a n d t im e s, m yt h s a n d de e ds, a r e discu sse d e x t e n sive ly in the text. ¦¦}} O or a cle bon e s - Se e divin a t ion . Or igin of H e r e dit a r y Fa m ilie s - Th e a u t h or of t h e H a n e r a Sh i pe n is u n k n ow n . Th e r e is a n e x t e n sive com m e n t a r y w r it t e n by Su n g Ch u n g in t h e la t e 2 n d or e a r ly 3 r d ce n t u r y A.D .. ¦¦}} P P’a n Ku - P’a n Ku is a gr e a t t it a n w h o a ppe a r s in Ch in e se m yt h se ve r a l ce n t u r ie s a ft e r t h e e a r lie st r e cor ds of N ü - k u a . H e w a s bor n w h e n sk y a n d e a r t h w e r e se pa r a t e d a t cr e a t ion : P’a n m e a n s coile d a n d Ku m e a n s a n t iqu it y. On h is de a t h , h is body pa r t s ga ve r ise t o t h e diffe r e n t pa r t s a n d in h a bit a n t s of t h e u n ive r se : h is body lice be ca m e h u m a n s. Th e m yt h of a gr e a t god or t it a n w h ose body pa r t s give r ise t o t h e ‘t e n t h ou sa n d t h in gs’ is a r ch e t ypa l a n d fou n d in m a n y cu lt u r e s w or ld w ide . Bir r e ll ( 1 9 9 3 ) be lie ve s t h is m yt h or igin a t e d in sou t h w e st Asia a m on g a n on - Ch in e se pe ople . 16 Pa le olit h ic - Pa le olit h ic m e a n s St on e Age a n d is a n a r ch e ologica l de sign a t ion a pplie d t o t h e fir st st a ge s of h u m a n cu lt u r e w h e r e in t h e r e w a s a n e x t e n sive u se of st on e for m a k in g t ools. Th e Uppe r Pa le olit h ic is t h e la st of t h r e e Pa le olit h ic st a ge s a n d m a k e it s fir st a ppe a r a n ce in t h e a r ch e ologica l r e cor d in Eu r a sia , c.1 0 0 ,0 0 0 B.C., a ppr ox im a t e ly coin cide n t w it h t h e be gin n in g of t h e la st gr e a t ice a ge . Th e la st pa r t of t h e Uppe r Pa le olit h ic w h ich st a r t e d c.3 5 ,0 0 0 B.C. sa w t h e a ppe a r a n ce a n d spr e a d of H om o sa pie n s sa pie n s - a n a t om ica lly m ode r n h u m a n s in dist in gu ish a ble fr om ou r se lve s. Th e se pe ople cr e a t e d t h e m ost e la bor a t e cu lt u r e of t h e Uppe r Pa le olit h ic a n d t h e ir a r t a n d scu lpt u r e be a r s w it n e ss t o a com ple x m yt h ology a n d r e ligion w h ich I h a ve discu sse d e lse w h e r e ( Blu m e n be r g 1 9 9 3 , 2 0 0 6 ) . A globa l w a r m in g, w h ich be ga n a bou t 1 2 ,0 0 0 B.C., br ou gh t a n e n d t o t h e r a pid su cce ssion of ice sh e e t a dva n ce a n d r e t r e a t , a n d ca t a lyze d a r a pid dw in dlin g of t h e gr e a t h e r ds of m e ga fa u n a . Uppe r Pa le olit h ic cu lt u r e h a d com e t o a n e n d, de pe n de n t a s it w a s u pon t h e h u n t in g of big ga m e , a n d t h e M e solit h ic e r a be ga n . Plin y - Ga iu s Plin iu s, k n ow n a s Plin y Th e Elde r ( c.2 3 - 7 9 A.D .) , w a s bor n a t Com u m a n d e du ca t e d a t Rom e . H e spe n t t w e lve ye a r s in t h e Rom a n ca va lr y m ost ly in Ge r m a n ia . H e dislik e d N e r o’s r u le bu t fou n d Ve spa sia n con ge n ia l a n d, t ow a r d t h e e n d of h is life , w a s a cou n se lor t o bot h Ve spa sia n a n d Tit u s. H e w a s a ppoin t e d com m a n de r of t h e fle e t a t M ise n u m a n d w h e n obse r vin g t h e e r u pt ion of Ve su viu s fr om a boa t offsh or e h e w a s ove r com e by t h e volca n ic fu m e s a n d die d. Se ve n m a j or w r it in g pr oj e ct s of h is a r e k n ow n bu t on ly h is 3 7 volu m e N a t u r a lis H ist or ia , w h ich se t a n e w st a n da r d for com pr e h e n sive n e ss, h a s su r vive d. Plut a r ch - L.( ? ) M e st r iu s Plu t a r ch u s of Ch a e r on e a , t h e fa m ou s ph ilosoph e r a n d biogr a ph e r , w a s bor n c. 5 0 A.D . a n d die d c. 1 2 0 A.D .. H e visit e d Egypt a n d I t a ly a n d t a u gh t in Rom e . H e w a s sch ola r of a n t iqu it ie s a n d for t h e la st 3 0 ye a r s of h is life se r ve d a s a pr ie st a t D e lph i. A ca t a log of Plu t a r ch ’s w or k s list s 2 2 7 it e m s, m a n y of w h ich h a ve su r vive d t h a n k s t o Byza n t in e sch ola r s. Plu t a r ch ’s w r it in gs a n d h ist or ie s h a d a pr ofou n d in flu e n ce on t h e Re n a issa n ce . ¦¦}} Q Qu e e n M ot h e r of t h e W e st - Sh e ( Xi M u ) w a s a w ild a n d u n k e m pt Godde ss w h o a ppe a r s in e a r ly Ch in e se m yt h ology. Sh e r u le s a m ou n t a in k in gdom in t h e W e st a n d sh e be a r s a st r on g r e se m bla n ce t o t h e Gr e e k Ar t e m is. Th e Qu e e n M ot h e r of t h e W e st h a s a pa n t h e r ’s t a il a n d t ige r ’s fa n gs. W ild be a st s a n d bir ds br in g h e r m e ssa ge s a n d food. H e r sa cr e d m ou n t a in r a n ge is K’u n - lu n w h ich is a n a x is m u n di, a sa cr e d n oda l pla ce t h a t lin k s H e a ve n a n d Ea r t h . I t is a pa r a dise w h e r e m or t a ls w h o a r e fa vor e d be com e im m or t a l a n d ca n com m u n ica t e w it h t h e gods. Lik e Ar t e m is, sh e is a n a ve n gin g Godde ss a n d ca n br in g t h e pla gu e ; in t h is la t t e r a spe ct sh e r e se m ble s t h e Godde ss of D ise a se in I n dia a n d Tibe t . 17 ¦¦}} R Re cor d of I m m or t a ls - Th e Yu n g- ch ’e n g ch i h sie n lü w a s com pile d in Yu n gch ’e n g by Tu Ku a n g- t ’in g ( 8 5 0 - 9 3 3 A.D .) . Re se a r ch e s of Lost Re cor ds - Th e Sh ih yi ch i is a t t r ibu t e d t o W a n g Tzu - n ie n w h o w a s a ct ive c.3 3 5 t o 3 8 6 A.D .. Th e t e x t w a s r e con st r u ct e d by H sia o Ch ’i in t h e 6 t h ce n t u r y A.D .. ¦¦}} S Sa ge Kin g - Sa ge Kin g is a t it le give n t o six m a le cu lt u r e h e r oe s of t h e Ch in e se N e olit h ic, w h o m a y or m a y n ot h a ve be e n e n t ir e ly m yt h ica l. Th e t r a dit ion a l da t e s a ssign e d t o t h e m a ll fa ll in t h e la t t e r ce n t u r ie s of t h e Ya n gsh a o cu lt u r e w h ich pr e ce de s t h e fir st ‘dyn a st y’ in Ch in e se h ist or y. Se e t h e in t r odu ct or y t a ble a n d it s foot n ot e s in t h e t e x t . sh a m a n ism - Sh a m a n ism is n ot a r e ligion pe r se , a lt h ou gh it is fr e qu e n t ly m ist a k e n ly ca t e gor ize d a s su ch . Sh a m a n ism is oft e n fou n d in con j u n ct ion w it h a n im ism a n d t r iba l godde ss cu lt u r e . I t is a su it e of ‘t e ch n iqu e s of e cst a sy’ of gr e a t difficu lt y a n d t h ose w h o h a ve m a st e r e d t h e m e t h odology a r e sh a m a n s. Th e t e ch n iqu e s fa cilit a t e sou l j ou r n e ys t o ‘ot h e r w or lds’, oft e n t h e u n de r w or ld or t h e D r e a m t im e , in or de r t o com m u n ica t e w it h spir it s a n d de it ie s of va r yin g de gr e e s of sign ifica n ce . Sh a m a n s a r e obliga t e d by t h e ir ve r y r e side n ce w it h in t h e com m u n it y, a n d t h e ir u n u su a l sk ill in t h e se m a t t e r s, t o com m u n ica t e t h e fr u it s of su ch e x pe r ie n ce s t o a ll m e m be r s of t h e cla n . Su ch com m u n ica t ion e n su r e s t h a t t h e ir e x t r a or din a r y in sigh t s a r e a va ila ble t o a ll. Th e r e for e , e ve r yon e m a y de r ive be n e fit fr om t h e k n ow le dge ga in e d fr om su pr a dim e n sion s a n d t h e n , w it h in t h e lim it of on e ’s a bilit y, in t e gr a t e it in a pe r son a l m a n n e r a n d gr ow spir it u a lly. Su ch k n ow le dge is pow e r fu l a n d sh a m a n s h a ve a pa r t icu la r r ole in h e a lin g. D e pe n din g u pon t h e cu lt u r e , t h e pr ofe ssion is e it h e r h e r e dit a r y or on e is ‘ca lle d t o it ’ by vir t u e of n a t u r a l in clin a t ion . Alt h ou gh it or igin s a r e in t h e dim m ist s of t h e Pa le olit h ic, sh a m a n ism su r vive s t oda y bot h in r u r a l a n d cit y e n vir on m e n t s a n d is ce n t r a l t o t h e cu lt u r a l r e - a w a k e n in g of t h e in dige n ou s pe ople s in t h e Am e r ica s a n d Au st r a lia . Sh a n g D yn a st y - Th e Sh a n g pe ople e st a blish e d dyn a st ic r u le fr om a ba se in sou t h e r n Sh a n si a n d n or t h w e st H on a n , c.1 4 6 0 t o 1 0 4 0 B.C., a n d t h e ir 18 cu lt u r e is t h e fir st in Ch in a for w h ich w e h a ve a gr e a t de a l of in for m a t ion be side s a r ch e ology. D u r in g t h e ir la t e r pe r iod, t h e ir r u le r s be ca m e obse sse d w it h divin a t ion u sin g or a cle bon e s: se e divin a t ion a n d An ya n g a bove . Th e e a r lie st Ch in e se m yt h ology t h a t w e ca n r e con st r u ct in de t a il com e s fr om t h e Sh a n g, a n d it s su bst a n ce a n d in t e r pr e t a t ion a r e discu sse d e x t e n sive ly in t h e text. Sh ih ch i - Th e Re cor ds of t h e H ist or ia n or H ist or ica l Re cor ds w a s t h e fir st com pr e h e n sive h ist or y of t h e Ch in e se n a t ion a n d com pr ise d 1 3 0 ch a pt e r s. I t w a s w r it t e n by Ssu - m a Ch ’ie n ( c.1 4 5 - 8 6 B.C.) . Ex t e n sive com m e n t a r ie s w e r e w r it t e n by P’e i Yin in t h e 5 t h ce n t u r y A.D ., Ssu - m a Ch e n in 7 3 0 A.D . a n d Ch a n g Sh ou - ch ie h w h o w a s a ct ive fr om 7 2 5 t o 7 3 7 A.D .. Sh u o- w e n ch ie h t zu - An Ex plica t ion of W r it t e n Ch a r a ct e r s ( Sh ow e n ) w a s w r it t e n by H su Sh e n c. 1 0 0 A.D . a n d e dit e d by H su H su a n in 9 8 6 A.D .. Son of H e a ve n - D u r in g t h e Ch ou D yn a st y t h e e m pe r or w a s de e m e d t h e Son of H e a ve n , e m pow e r e d t o r u le by t h e gr e a t Lor d in H e a ve n , Ti Ch ü n . Th is a ppe lla t ion con t in u e d t o be a pplie d t o e m pe r or s u n t il t h e fa ll of t h e la st Ch in e se dyn a st y, t h a t of t h e M a n ch u , in 1 9 1 2 A.D .. As w it h m a n y a n cie n t m yt h o- poe t ics, Con fu cia n va lu e s dict a t e d t h a t t h e e m pe r or s ph ysica l h e a lt h a n d m or a lit y w ou ld dir e ct t h e w e ll be in g a n d be h a vior of h is su bj e ct s. Th is r e la t ion sh ip de fin e s on e of t h e gr e a t gu lfs be t w e e n Ea st a n d W e st . I n t h e Old Eu r ope a n cu lt u r e s of pr e - I n do- Eu r ope a n Eu r a sia , t h e k in g w a s t h e se m idivin e con sor t of t h e Godde ss a n d e m pow e r e d t o r u le by H e r . Pu blic in a u gu r a t ion ce r e m on ie s e st a blish e d t h is st a t e of be in g w it h r it u a ls t h a t in de libly im pr e sse d t h e k in g w it h h is se m i- divin e st a t u s, se pa r a t ion fr om t h e u su a l h u m a n pe r son a , a n d h is a w e som e r e spon sibilit ie s w h e r e t h e good a n d t h e t r u e cou ld on ly flow fr om t h e k in g’s be in g. Th e im a ge r y in t h e se e m pow e r m e n t r it u a ls w a s e x t r e m e ly pow e r fu l a n d de sign e d t o be im possible t o for ge t by pa r t icipa n t s a n d on look e r s a lik e . Son gs for Su bu r ba n Sa cr ifice , in 1 9 Pa r t s - Th e se t of h ym n s w e h a ve fr om t h e r e ign of t h e H a n Em pe r or W u is ca lle d Son gs for Su bu r ba n Sa cr ifice , in 1 9 Pa r t s. Som e of t h e son gs pr a ise de it ie s a ssocia t e d w it h t h e se a son a l cycle a n d ot h e r s ce le br a t e con t e m por a r y ‘h ist or ica l’ m ir a cle s. Em pe r or W u ( 1 4 1 - 8 7 B.C.) w a s a lon g live d, pow e r fu l r u le r w it h a de e p in t e r e st in t h e a r t s a n d r e ligion . H e pe r son a lly in t e r ve n e d a t t h e h igh e st policy le ve ls t o im pose h is t a st e u pon lit e r a r y, m u sica l a n d lit u r gica l for m s. I n 1 1 3 B.C. h e e st a blish e d de vot ion t o T’a i- i, Gr e a t Un it y du r in g t h e w in t e r solst ice of 1 1 3 B.C. a n d a lso t h e h on or in g of a Spir it M ist r e ss in t h e im pe r ia l pa r k . H e fou n de d a n d in t r odu ce d m a n y cu lt s a n d r it u a ls du r in g t h e se t w o ye a r s a n d pe r son a lly a t t e n de d w or sh ip a t m a j or ce r e m on ie s. H ym n s for r e ligiou s r it u a ls w e r e pu t in t o a fr a m e w or k of con t e m por a r y m u sic a n d da n ce . Son gs of Ch ’u - Th e Ch ’u Tz’u ( Ch u ci) is a t r e a su r e t r ove of e a r ly h ist or y a n d m yt h ology. I t w a s com pile d w it h a com m e n t a r y du r in g t h e H a n D yn a st y by W a n g Yi ( 8 9 - 1 5 8 A.D .) . 19 Son gs t o Se t t h e W or ld a t Ea se , for Pr iva t e Pe r for m a n ce - Th e se ‘son gs’ a r e a se t of h ym n s fr om t h e r e ign of t h e fou n de r of t h e H a n D yn a st y Em pe r or Ka o- t su ( c.2 0 0 B.C.) . Th e y h a d be e n se t t o m u sic by a con sor t of Em pe r or Ka o- t su , La dy T’a n g, w h o w a s sk ille d in Ch ’u m u sic. Th e 1 7 h ym n s r e cit e d t h e e t h ica l va lu e s of Con fu cia n ism a n d w e r e pe r for m e d a t bot h r it e s of w or sh ip for t h e im pe r ia l a n ce st or s a n d cou r t ba n qu e t s. sym bol vs. m e t a ph or - Sym bols a r e code s for t h e a ct u a l t h in g. Th e y a r e t h e sim ple e le m e n t s ou t of w h ich com plica t e d m e t a ph or s a r e con st r u ct e d a n d t h e ir in t e r pr e t a t ion is u su a lly lin e a r . Re d de n ot e s w a r m t h or blood; w h it e oft e n st a n ds for pu r it y a n d goodn e ss; bla ck ca n con n ot e coldn e ss a n d de a t h ( for I n do- Eu r ope a n s) , e t c. M e t a ph or s a r e com plica t e d m u lt ila ye r e d icon s or n a r r a t ive s in w h ich sym bols in t e r a ct a n d com bin e t o m a k e a de e p, t e x t u r a l st a t e m e n t . Th e le ge n d of Kin g Ar t h u r m a y be r e a d a s a m e t a ph or for t h e w ise , com pa ssion a t e , bu t old socie t y of a n y t im e le ss t im e , figh t in g t o su r vive t h e on sla u gh t of a n a ggr e ssive in va de r w h o la ck s t h e w isdom a n d in sigh t of t h e e st a blish e d or de r . ¦¦}} T Ta lie sin - An e a r ly a n d im por t a n t W e lsh ba r d ( or dr u id?) w h o w a s a ct ive c.5 4 0 A.D .. Se ve r a l poe m s su r vive t h a t a r e a t t r ibu t e d t o h im . Ta lu s - Ta lu s w a s t h e son of a sist e r of D a e da lu s a n d t h e in ve n t or of t h e sa w , com pa ss a n d ot h e r m e ch a n ica l in st r u m e n t s. H is u n cle be ca m e j e a lou s of h is fa m e a n d e it h e r m u r de r e d h im or t h r e w h im dow n fr om t h e cit a de l of At h e n s. Th e gods t h e n ch a n ge d Ta lu s in t o a pa r t r idge . Ta o - Th e pr im or dia l sou r ce pr in ciple , or ‘t h in g’ w h ich fir st con t r olle d t h e cr e a t ion of h e a ve n a n d e a r t h , t h e n t h e pr im or dia l w or ld. Ta o is a pe r fe ct , t ot a l or com ple t e fu sion of a ll t h in gs: a cosm ic t ot a lit y - “a ch a ot ica lly com ple t e on e body” ( Sh a o Po- w e n 1 0 5 7 - 1 1 3 4 A.D .) . Se e ch’ia a n d La o- Tzu . Ta o Te Ch in g - Th e Cla ssic of t h e W a y a n d Pow e r is m ost lik e ly n ot t h e pr odu ct of a sin gle a u t h or su ch a s La o Tzu bu t “t h e r e su lt of a pe r iod of or a l com posit ion t h a t la st e d ... fr om cir ca 6 5 0 B.C. t o a ppr ox im a t e ly 3 5 0 B.C.. D u r in g t h is pe r iod, it w a s com m on for ph ilosoph e r s t o t r a ve l fr om st a t e t o st a t e w it h in t h e disin t e gr a t in g Ch in e se [ Ch ou ] e m pir e , look in g for a k in g w h o w ou ld pu t t h e ir ide a s in t o pr a ct ice . I n it ia lly t h e ir doct r in e s w e r e for m u la t e d or a lly a n d t r a n sm it t e d in t h e sa m e fa sh ion fr om ge n e r a t ion t o ge n e r a t ion a m on g t h e ir follow e r s. Fin a lly on e of t h e a dh e r e n t s w ou ld t a k e it u pon h im se lf t o r e cor d t h e t e a ch in gs of h is ph ilosoph ica l sch ool or m a st e r in sh or t , pit h y, cla ssica l Ch in e se st a t e m e n t s. St ill la t e r , ot h e r s m igh t m a k e a ddit ion s or cor r e ct ion s” ( M a ir 1 9 9 0 : 1 2 0 ) . 20 Ti Ch u n - Th e e a r lie st pe r son ifica t ion of t h e h igh Lor d in H e a ve n is Ti Ch ü n . H e is t h e con sor t of bot h t h e Su n Godde ss H si- H o a n d t h e M oon Godde ss Ch ’a n g- h si in Sh a n g D yn a st y m yt h . H e is fa vor e d by t h e bir d of pa r a dise . Ti Ch ü n ga ve Yi Th e Ar ch e r t h e bow a n d a r r ow s w it h w h ich t o sh oot dow n t h e Te n Su n s w h e n t h e y a ll r ose a t on ce fr om t h e br a n ch e s of t h e sa cr e d M u lbe r r y Tr e e . H e a lso or de r e d Yi t o go dow n t o e a r t h a n d sa ve m a n k in d. Tr e a t ise on Ex t r a or din a r y a n d St r a n ge Th in gs - Th e Tu yi ch ih w a s com pile d by Li Ju n g w h o live d du r in g t h e Ta n g D yn a st y c.8 4 6 - 8 7 4 . Tr e a t ise on Re se a r ch in t o N a t u r e - Th e Po w u ch ih is a t t r ibu t e d t o Ch a n g H u a ( 2 3 2 - 3 0 0 A.D .) bu t m a y be a n a n on ym ou s w or k w r it t e n du r in g t h e Six D yn a st ie s. ¦¦}} V ve sse l t ype s: bi, h u , li, j u e , k u a n g, yu a n d zu n - Th e se a r e som e of t h e t ype s of br on ze a n d/ or pot t e r y ve sse ls, w it h a n d w it h ou t le gs, t h a t w e r e m a n u fa ct u r e d fr om t h e Sh a n g D yn a st y on w a r ds. Con su lt Ch a n g ( 1 9 7 7 ) or La w t on ( 1 9 9 1 ) for illu st r a t ion s. ¦¦}} W w a t e r sym bolism - W a t e r sym bolism , su ch a s pa r a lle l w a vy lin e s or r e ct a n gu la r a r e a s fille d w it h dot s, pe r m e a t e s t h e icon ogr a ph y of N e olit h ic Old Eu r ope a n d is fou n d in t h e N e olit h ic cu lt u r e s of Asia a s w e ll. W a t e r w a s vie w e d a s a n e n dle ss sou r ce of divin e cr e a t ivit y a n d a w e llspr in g of a ll life . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t a Gr e a t Godde ss live d in a n a n cie n t cu lt u r e a s t h e pr im a l cr e a t r ix , sh e w ou ld be close ly a ssocia t e d w it h cosm ic w a t e r . W a t e r sym bolism a lso m e r ge s w it h t h a t of t h e cosm ic sn a k e ( se e a bove ) w h ose sin u ou s for m is a lso a sym bol for cosm ic w a t e r . w a t t le a n d da u b - An a n cie n t t e ch n iqu e of ligh t w e igh t bu ildin g con st r u ct ion in w h ich a n in t e r la ce d w a ll of st ick s a n d t w igs ( w a t t le ) is cove r e d w it h pla st e r or cla y ( da u b) . W om a n Ch ’ou - Th e r e a r e t w o m yt h s of W om a n Ch ’ou in t h e Cla ssic of M ou n t a in s a n d Se a s w h ich a r e qu it e im por t a n t be ca u se t h e y su gge st t h a t fe m a le sh a m a n s du r in g t h e Sh a n g a n d Ch ou D yn a st ie s in Ch in a m a y h a ve 21 u n de r gon e a r it u a l m u t ila t ion w it h fir e du r in g a r it u a l t h a t ca lle d for t h r a in t o cou n t e r t h e e ffe ct s of a life t h r e a t e n in g dr ou gh t . I t is k n ow n t h a t m a le sh a m a n s w e r e t or t u r e d a n d k ille d t o br in g r e lie f fr om su ch n a t u r a l ca la m it ie s. ¦¦}} Y Ya n g Sh a o Cu lt u r e - Th e Ya n g Sh a o is on e of t h e e a r lie st fa r m in g cu lt u r e s of t h e Ch in e se N e olit h ic. I t dom in a t e d t h e H u a n g H o Va lle y a n d pe r sist e d for a ve r y lon g t im e ( ~ 5 7 0 0 t o 2 1 0 0 B.C.) . Th e t r a dit ion a l da t e s a ssign e d t o t h e le ge n da r y Sa ge Kin gs pla ce t h e m in t h e la st ce n t u r ie s of t h e Ya n g Sh a o. Th e H u a n g H o Va lle y w a s a lso t h e loca t ion of t h e fir st t h r e e h ist or ic dyn a st ie s: H sia , Sh a n g a n d Ch ou . Villa ge s w e r e ch a r a ct e r ize d by a com m u n a l h ou se a t t h e ce n t e r of a pla za su r r ou n de d by sm a ll h ou se s w h ose door s fa ce d t h e ce n t e r . A pot t e r y m a k in g ce n t e r w a s loca t e d ou t side t h e villa ge pr ope r a s w a s a villa ge ce m e t e r y. Fe m a le sym bols a n d t h ose of cosm ic w a t e r a n d cosm ic sn a k e a r e com m on on Ya n g Sh a o pot t e r y, w h ich su gge st s t h a t t h e e a r ly N e olit h ic godde ss w a s pr e se n t in Ch in a . Ya odia n or ‘An n a ls of Ya o’- Th e Ya odia n ( An n a ls of Ya o) is t h e fir st ch a pt e r of t h e Sh a n g sh u ( Cla ssic of H ist or y) a n d is w r it t e n in a n a r ch a ic la n gu a ge . I t da t e s fr om t h e Ch ou D yn a st y bu t w h e t h e r c.8 0 0 B.C. or c.3 0 0 B.C. is t h e cor r e ct da t e is a t t h is t im e a n u n r e solve d pr oble m . I n t h e Ya odia n t h e se con d se ct ion con ce r n s t h e h e a ve n s a n d t h e ca le n da r a n d is im por t a n t t o t h e a t t e m pt t o r e con st r u ct e a r ly m yt h . Ye llow Em pe r or - Th e Ye llow Em pe r or is n a m e d Ch i, w a s bor n of Sh a o Tie n a n d is t h e h a lf br ot h e r of t h e Fla m e Em pe r or w h om h e de fe a t e d in a con t e st for t h e w or ld. Usin g t h e e le m e n t a l w e a pon of w a t e r h e a lso de fe a t e d t h e God of W a r , Ch ’ih Yu , a n d t h e n pr oce e de d t o con qu e r a n u m be r of de it ie s. I n la t e r m yt h ic t r a dit ion , t h e Ye llow Em pe r or is por t r a ye d a s a cu lt u r e h e r o w h o ca r r ie d w it h h im k n ow le dge of boa t s, oa r s, a gr icu lt u r e , t h e fir e dr ill a n d m u sica l in st r u m e n t s. H e w a s t a u gh t t h e se cr e t s of t h e cosm os a n d su pe r n a t u r a l be in gs by t h e Be a st of W h it e M a r sh a n d t h e m ilit a r y a r t s of w a r by t h e D a r k La dy. Th e Ye llow Em pe r or is t h e t h ir d of t h e six le ge n da r y Sa ge Kin gs of la t e Ya n g Sh a o t im e s a n d h e be ca m e t h e su pr e m e de it y of Ta oism . Yi Th e Ar ch e r - I n Ch ou m yt h ology, Yi w a s give n a divin e bow a n d a r r ow s by t h e Lor d of H e a ve n Ti Ch ü n a n d or de r e d t o sa ve t h e pe ople of e a r t h by sh oot in g n in e of t h e Te n Su n s w h e n t h e y r ose in t h e e a st fr om t h e br a n ch e s of t h e sa cr e d M u lbe r r y Tr e e . Ex a ct ly w h y su ch a m yst e r iou s a ct sh ou ld be vie w e d a s sa vin g h u m a n k in d is a com plica t e d m a t t e r . Th is m yt h , w h ich is e x a m in e d in de t a il in t h e t e x t , t e lls of t h e su ppla n t in g of t h e ce n t r a l Sh a n g m yt h - t h a t of t h e sa cr e d M u lbe r r y a n d it s t e n su n s - by t h e m yt h o- poe t ics 22 of t h e Ch ou w h o con qu e r e d t h e m a n d be lie ve d in on ly on e su n . Yi a lso r e ce ive d t h e e lix ir of im m or t a lit y fr om t h e Qu e e n M ot h e r of t h e W e st bu t it w a s st ole n by h is w ife w h o a sce n de d t o t h e m oon a n d m e t a m or ph ose d in t o a t oa d. H e w a s la t e r k ille d by h is r iva l Fe n g M e n g. yin - ya n g - Th e su bt le t y of Ta oist yin - ya n g ph ilosoph y h a s be e n m a n gle d in t h e W e st by t h e fa m ilia r list of opposit e s j oin e d in pa ir s: m a le - fe m a le , h ot cold, da r k - ligh t , e t c. N on e t h e le ss, t h e r e is a gr a in of r e a lism in e n u m e r a t in g su ch pa ir s be ca u se yin - ya n g r e fe r s t o t h e u n ion of com ple m e n t a r y for ce s w it h ou t w h ich t h e r e ca n be n o t r u e u n it y, n o com ple t e w h ole n e ss. Th e u n ion of su ch com ple m e n t s is a m e ldin g in w h ich t h e ide n t it ie s of t h e in dividu a l com pon e n t s a r e n ot lost e ve n w h ile t h e y h a ve for m e d a n e w com ple t e n e ss. Ta oist s t h u s spe a k of 1 + 1 = 3 ; i.e . t h e t w o in dividu a l com pon e n t s h a ve n ot be e n lost e ve n w h ile t h e y h a ve com bin e d. Yin plu s ya n g plu s t h e n e w u n ifie d cr e a t ion e qu a l t h r e e ‘t h in gs’. Se e ch’ia a bove . ¦¦}}¦¦}}¦¦}} References Acht em eirer, P. J. 1985. Harper’s Bible Dict ionary. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Allen, S. 1991. The Shape of t he Turt le: Myt h, Art and Cosm os in Early China. Albany: St at e Univ. of New York Press. Birrell, A. 1993. Chinese Myt hology. Balt im ore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Blum enberg, B. 1993, 2006. Origins of Myt hology Waldoboro, ME, Kihei HI : Blum enberg Associat es eBook: ht t p: / / ancient hist ory.ahrt p.com / eBooks/ eBooks.ht m l Chang, K- C. 1977, 3rd ed. The Archeology of Ancient China. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. Cleary, T. 1986, t ransl. The Taoist I Ching. Bost on: Sham bala. De Bary, W. T. et al. 1960. Sources of Chinese Tradit ion: Vol. 1. New York: Colum bia Univ. 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