Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism
Volume II:
Lives
Editor-in-chief
Jonathan A. Silk
Editors
Richard Bowring
Vincent Eltschinger
Michael Radich
Editorial Advisory Board
Lucia Dolce
Berthe Jansen
John Jorgensen
Christian Lammerts
Francesco Sferra
LEIDEN | BOSTON
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
Contents
Prelims
Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi
Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii
Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv
Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii
General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv
Section One:
Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 39
Section Two:
South & Southeast Asia:
Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... 73
Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... 85
Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ 92
Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... 95
Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... 109
Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... 121
Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ 125
Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. 141
Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. 156
Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. 168
Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. 173
Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... 179
Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... 186
Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... 191
Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. 196
Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. 198
Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ 204
Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... 211
Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... 214
Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... 218
Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... 228
Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. 261
Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. 264
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vi Contents
Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... 269
Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ 272
Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. 279
Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ 286
Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... 293
Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. 298
Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... 302
Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 325
Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... 332
Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. 335
Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... 348
Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... 357
Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... 363
Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... 366
Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. 371
Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... 374
Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... 378
Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ 382
Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. 383
Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... 391
Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ 398
Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... 409
Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. 420
Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ 437
Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... 443
Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... 452
Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. 456
Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... 458
Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... 463
Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... 474
Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... 479
Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... 481
Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... 490
Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. 492
Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... 507
Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 513
East Asia:
Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... 521
Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... 529
Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... 540
Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... 546
Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... 562
Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... 571
Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ 576
Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... 586
Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. 591
Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... 600
Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. 608
Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ 612
Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ 616
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Contents vii
China:
Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ 623
An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. 630
Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ 642
Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... 648
Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ 653
Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... 657
Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... 662
Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... 668
Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. 673
Huihong (see Juefan Huihong)
Huineng (see Shenxiu)
Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan)
Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... 679
Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... 684
Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ 689
Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ 700
Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... 707
Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... 711
Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... 722
Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben)
Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ 727
Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... 735
Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ 741
Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ 748
Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... 752
Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... 759
Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ 764
Shenhui (see Shenxiu)
Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... 768
Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... 777
Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... 782
Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang)
Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ 787
Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... 791
Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... 795
Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 800
Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... 806
Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... 810
Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... 814
Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... 818
Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. 826
Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu)
Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ 833
Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... 839
Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 844
Korea:
Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... 853
Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... 860
Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... 864
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viii Contents
Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... 869
Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. 873
Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... 877
Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... 882
Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ 887
Musang (see East Asia)
Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. 891
Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... 895
Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... 900
Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ 903
Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. 908
Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... 913
Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 918
Japan:
Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. 923
Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... 930
Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī)
Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... 933
Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... 941
Eisai (see Yōsai)
Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... 944
En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. 951
Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ 956
Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... 961
Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen)
Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... 967
Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. 971
Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... 976
Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ 980
Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... 987
Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi)
Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... 991
Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... 995
Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. 998
Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang)
Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. 1002
Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1006
Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... 1011
Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. 1016
Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1020
Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1026
Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1036
Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... 1041
Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1047
Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... 1057
Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... 1062
Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. 1066
Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1071
Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1076
Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... 1088
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Contents ix
Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... 1094
Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ 1097
Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1102
Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1107
Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... 1111
Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... 1117
Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1122
Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1128
Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. 1134
Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. 1139
Tibetan Cultural Sphere
Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ 1145
Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... 1159
Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. 1165
Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... 1171
Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... 1175
Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ 1181
The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... 1191
Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ 1197
The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ 1213
Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ 1226
Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. 1233
Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ 1239
Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. 1246
Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1254
Appendix To Volume I:
Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. 1269
Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ 1286
Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ 1294
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Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers
The Tibetan gter ma (treasure) tradition is primar- Buddhist figures of importance. The authority to
ily, but not exclusively, associated with the Buddhist access a revelatory cache as well as reanthologize
Rnying ma school. The practice is also a central fea- and develop preexisting material derives from this
ture of the Tibetan Bon tradition which possibly has connection. The purpose of gter ma is as a means to
earlier precedents (Achard, 2004, 2008; Kvaerne, maintain Buddhist doctrine and to ensure that the
1997; Martin, 2001). Legendary accounts drawn from blessings and instructions of the faith do not fade.
the hagiographies (rnam thar) of gter ston (trea- Additionally, of prime concern to a gter ston are the
sure revealers) relate that they receive an inventory, concomitant circumstances required for gter ma
sometimes from a mythical figure, deity, or protec- to emerge. Without the necessary conditions, gter
tor of the treasure. Such scrolls present instructions ma cannot issue forth. Further, although gter ma is
on where to find gter ma (→BEB I: Gter ma) and, if conservative regarding its content, the method by
needed, a key to unlock those encoded in magical which new texts, practices, and rituals emerge can
language or symbols. Treasure revealers are marked be considered innovation, in the sense that they
early on in their lives as unique, often as child prodi- introduce new material and rearrange material in
gies with an uncommon affinity for dharma teach- a new way.
ings. At some point in their childhood or early teens, The hagiographies of gter ston tend to be some-
they experience magical visions which guide them what formulaic, beginning with conception and
towards their gter ma lists. If the conditions are birth accompanied by miraculous signs such as
right and auspicious, they can proceed to discover flowers falling from the sky, multitudes of rainbows
caches of both tangible sacred objects as well as vast appearing, and similar kinds of marvelous demon-
visionary cycles of practices and teachings. Reveal- strations. The lifestory of a gter ston encompasses
ing gter ma is often contingent upon the support all aspects of their liberation and presents a spiri-
of a gsang yum (spiritual consort) whose presence tual “map” to enlightenment. Historical events are
catalyzes the process. There is ongoing contesta- not considered relevant unless they highlight a spir-
tion surrounding whether gter ma texts represent itual process or serve as religious allegory. There are
the authentic words of the Buddha or are merely aspects of these legendary accounts which naturally
creative apocrypha (Doctor, 2005; Germano, 2002). invite skepticism from a conventional viewpoint;
The primary intention of the gter ma tradition is for example, epiphanic visions, lifespans which far
to bring forth relevant sacred teachings or objects exceed the life expectancy of an average human,
according to specific needs, times, and situations. descriptions of logic defying miraculous occur-
Treasure revealers are paradoxically both innovators rences, and encounters with magical beings. These
and traditionalists; they modernize and yet are also stories can prove elusive when it comes to determin-
crucial links to the earlier figures of imperial Tibet ing whether they represent “history” and are better
(Hall, 2012, 196–201; Mayer, 2015). The 8th-century understood via a complementarity of emic and etic
mahāsiddha →Padmasambhava is at the heart of this approaches. Gradually, contemporary scholarship is
visionary tradition within the Rnying ma school. He becoming more expansive when considering these
functions as a bridge between teachings transmitted “transhistorical” accounts. (Achard, 2008, 15). The
to him – from a primordial buddha – which he then myths and legends of gter ston function as instruc-
teaches verbally to his disciples and then conceals to tional and inspirational devices invoking outer,
be revealed at a later auspicious time. inner, and secret (phyi, nang, and gsang) Buddhist
concepts and teachings, comprehended on mul-
tiple levels, dependent upon the spiritual propensi-
The Role of the Gter ston and the ties, qualities, and accomplishments of the reader.
Purpose of Their Myths and Legends Often in hagiographies, personal relationships are
less meaningful than spiritual authority. Through-
A gter ston’s role is to act as an intercessor on behalf out the narrative accounts of gter ston, Padma-
of sentient beings, creating a direct link with past sambhava and various Buddhist figures and deities
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Also available online – www.brill.com
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1166 Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers
appear in visions to issue teachings or directives. In contains myths and legends surrounding some key
these stories, gter stons often experience extreme gter ston, including the five kingly treasure revealers
difficulties. They may be met with scorn or disbe- (gter ston rygal po lnga).
lief by their families and their broader community,
they can suffer many trials and tribulations dur- Nyang ral Nyi ma ’od zer (1136–1204 or
ing their lives and in the process of revealing gter 1124–1192)
ma. A notable example is in the biography of the First of the five kingly treasure revealers and consid-
17th-century gter ston associated with the Dpal yul ered to be a physical emanation of Padmasambhava,
Rnying ma sect, Gnam chos Mi ’gyur rdo rje (1645– Nyang ral Nyi ma ’od zer was born in the southern
1667) who began revealing gter ma at the age of 13 Tibetan region of Lho ’brag. According to hagio-
and tragically died in his early twenties. Accounts graphic accounts (in the Rin chen gter mdzod chen
from his outer biography, Sprul sku mi ’gyur rdo rje’i mo, BDRC W1KG14 1: 427–433; Dudjom et al., 2002,
rnam thar kun khyab snyan pa’i ’brug sgra, relayed 755–759), he learned to read at a very young age and
by his teacher the renowned Bka’ brgyud scholar was able to memorize many advanced teachings
Karma chags med, (1613–1678) describe obstacles and practices, and experienced auspicious dreams
the young man experienced, including epileptic fits, and visions from a young age, most significantly
skin diseases, and falling into comatose states for of Padmasambhava, who confirmed his identity
days on end (BDRC W21578, 10: 169.6–191.4; Sonam and destiny as a gter ston. He is said to have first
& Amtzis, 2008, 71–81; Hall, 2007, 25). remembered sequences of past lives beginning with
The legends of treasure revealers include accounts the 8th-century Tibetan king Khri srong lde btsan,
of waking up from dreams holding texts that disap- (c. 742–800). He constructed a small hermitage in
pear once they are read, reaching into rock faces to Lho ’brag and remained there, eventually encoun-
draw out ritual items, texts, and religious statues, tering in a vision a mysterious yogic figure, who
and meeting with →ḍākinī (mercurial beings who provided him with an inventory of treasures to be
ameliorate spiritual practice). Often a gter ston’s revealed. Determining that this was an emanation
biography will feature a prophecy (lung bstan) of Padmasambhava, he understood the list to refer
issued from Padmasambhava predicting the sub- to a rock formation close to his hermitage. There he
ject’s divine birth and describing signs which indi- recovered his first significant treasure cache from
cate the treasure revealer’s special powers. Proph- a hidden cave. He found several essential cycles
ecies are a form of legitimizing device utilized to later known as the Ma ṇi bka’ ’bum. This collection
show that gter ma texts are not authored by the dis- includes foundational narratives for Tibetan myths,
coverer, but formulated by Padmasambhava in the establishing Avalokiteśvara as the patron bodhisat-
past, proving that the discoverer is, in fact, the des- tva of Tibet, promoting his cult and the practice of
ignated person to reveal the treasure. Gter ma is also the six-syllable mantra oṃ maṇipadme hūṃ (Kap-
legitimized by the spiritual powers of the gter ston, stein, 1992). He is best known for revealing the Bka’
evident in these biographical and sometimes auto- thang zangs gling ma (BDRC W4CZ20868; Hirsh-
biographical details of the individual discoverers’ berg, 2016), a primary hagiography of Padmasamb-
visionary gter ma adventures (Gyatso, 1993, 97–134). hava which introduces foundational narratives of
his conversion of Tibet in the 8th century. Nyang
ral Nyi ma ’od zer also revealed the Bka’ brgyad
Significant Figures of the Tibetan bde gshegs ’dus pa (in BDRC W1KG14, 14: 393–1043;
W22247).
Buddhist Treasure Tradition
There are numerous accounts of gter ston ranging Chos kyi dbang phyug, also known as Gu ru
from lesser known figures to those of critical impor- chos dbang (1212–1270)
tance to the culture found in all the primary schools The second of the five kingly treasure revealers,
of Tibetan Buddhism. A famous collection of gter Chos kyi dbang phyug or Gu ru chos dbang, was born
ston biographies complied by ’Jam mgon kong sprul in Lho ’brag and was considered a speech emana-
blo gros mtha’ yas (1813–1899) the Gter ston brgya tion of Padmasambhava, that is, a reincarnation of
rtsa’i rnam thar found in the Rin chen gter mdzod one of three aspects of the primal Padmasambhava
chen mo (BDRC W1KG14, 1: 341–765; W20539) (the others being his body and mind). Biographical
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Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers 1167
accounts (in BDRC W1KG14. 1: 436–442; W23802, material (BDRC W27866, 1: 84–90). Included in this
1. 65–151; Dudjom et al., 2002, 760–770) state that cache were numerous gter ma including texts of
he was a precocious child, who learned to read the primary Rdzogs chen teachings of the northern
and write at an early age and displayed immense treasure tradition, as well as scripts relating to the
knowledge of texts, practices, astrology, and divina- wrathful Vajrakīla practice (Boord, 2013). He orga-
tion. His career as a treasure revealer began at the nized the folios of these teachings and then taught
age of 13 when he came into possession of a trea- them to his close students. He also revealed guide
sure inventory that was supposedly so dangerous books (gnas yig) to various hidden lands (sbas yul)
that other ‘false’ treasure revealers had nearly died located along the shifting borderlands of Tibet
trying to follow it. His father hid the list from him, (BDRC W00KG01; Ehrhard, 1999). He eventually set-
but when he was 22, he retrieved it and, with a fur- tled in Sikkim in 1373, and is said to have performed
ther, supplementary inventory, followed it to reveal several miracles there. He passed away at the age of
a vast trove of treasure texts and objects. Chos kyi 71 in 1408.
dbang phyug was an early chronicler and eloquent
defender of the treasure tradition, which enabled Rdo rje gling pa (1346–1406?)
the practice of treasure revelation to become widely Third of the five kingly treasure revealers, Rdo rje
accepted (BDRC W23802, 2:75–193; Gyatso, 1994, gling pa was born in 1346 in Grwa nang dben rtsa. At
275–287). His spiritual consort was Jo mo sman the age of 15, he disclosed a large number of caches
mo (13th cent.), herself a gter ston (in the Rin chen including the Bla ma bka’ ’dus (in BDRC T1117: 14,
gter mdzod chen mo, BDRC W1KG14. 1: 538–543). He 279–316). By the age of 20, he had revealed many
revealed 18 troves of earth treasures (sa gter) as well treasure teachings. He seems to have originated the
as scriptural cycles. Among the most influential is practice of khrom gter, public revelation of trea-
the treasure cycle of Padmasambhava called the Bla sures in front of many witnesses. He was a wild fig-
ma gsang ’dus (in BDRC W1KG14. 6: 17–170). ure, considered mad by some, and spent three years
in the southern ‘barbaric’ regions of the Tibetan
Rig ’dzin Rgod ldem dngos grub rgyal mtshan borderlands revealing treasures and giving teach-
(1337–1408) ings. He passed away at the age of 60, and his corpse
Also known as Rgod kyi ldem ’phru can, Rig ’dzin is said to have remained without decomposing for
Rgod ldem dngos grub rgyal mtshan is considered three years (in BDRC W1KG14. 1: 486–491; Dudjom
a mind emanation of Padmasambhava, and known et al., 2002, 789–792; Karmay, 2000).
as the progenitor of the northern treasure (byang
gter) tradition, in contrast to the southern treasure Pad ma gling pa (1450–1521)
(lho gter) tradition of Nyang ral nyi ma ’od zer and The fourth of the five kingly treasure revealers,
Gu ru chos dbang. Like other gter ston, he dem- Pad ma gling pa was born in the Bhutanese area
onstrated impressive understanding and practice of Bum thang. While still young, he was sent to
of the Buddhist teachings from a very early age. live with his grandfather, a blacksmith. At the age
According to legendary accounts (in BDRC W1KG14. of nine, he began to apprentice with him, and he
1: 561– 564; W27866. 1: 53–152; Dudjom et al., 2002, continued to fashion items out of iron through-
780–783; Herweg, 1994), when he was around 12 out his life. According to biographic accounts (in
years old, three growths appeared on the top of his BDRC W1KG14. 1: 497–501; W20827, 1:466–470; Aris,
head; by the time he was 23, there were five of them. 1989; Dudjom et al., 2002, 796–800; Harding, 2005;
These growths had the appearance of vulture feath- Tshewang, 1995) as a child, he would pretend to be
ers, and after that, he gained his name “the one with seated on a throne, giving initiations and teachings,
vulture’s feathers” (rgod kyi ldem ’phru can). The and performing ritual dances. In his twenties, he
story of the revelations of the northern treasure is had a critical, visionary experience. Having fallen
detailed and elaborate, involving the discovery, in a asleep, a voice awakened him, and a scruffy monk
mountain cave, of a richly decorated casket guarded appeared, gave him a scroll, and then disappeared.
by a blue and yellow serpent. With elaborate deco- The paper instructed him to gather five friends and
rations on each side corresponding to the cardinal go to Sna ring brag on a full moon to reveal gter ma.
directions, this gter ston opened the various sides The manuscript contained a code to unlock the
of the casket to expose a vast cache of revelatory treasure. He followed the instructions, and together
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1168 Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers
with his five companions, went to the prophesied having studied with many of the leading lamas
site on the allotted night. Then, naked, he dove into of his time, and in particular for his collabora-
the small lake and swam to an underwater cave con- tion with ’Jam mgon kong sprul blo gros mtha’ yas
taining a throne and a stack of texts. He was given (1813–1899), and Mchog gyur gling pa (1829–1870).
one document by the guardian of the cave, and ’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po embodied
was propelled upward to the surface. No one could a ris med (nonsectarian) ideal of appreciating and
read it, but using the code from the scruffy monk’s exploring multiple traditions of Buddhism in Tibet.
scroll, he understood that the text was called Klong Due to his prodigious treasure revealing activity,
gsal gsang ba snying bcud (BDRC W26042). Having ’Jam mgon kong sprul counted him as the last in
decoded the entire treasure, Pad ma gling pa offered the group of five kingly treasure revealers. In 1892,
the teachings publically. Later, he had to prove him- ’Jam mgon kong sprul conducted the funeral of ’Jam
self to skeptics by diving once more into the lake dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po, washing his body
holding a burning butter lamp, which he claimed and preparing it for cremation (in BDRC W1KG14. 1:
would continue to burn when he returned with 676–693; Dudjom etal., 2002, 849–858).
more treasure. He resurfaced holding a small box,
sculpture, and the still burning butter lamp (BDRC
W1KG14. 1: 497.6–498.6). Many additional gter ma
revelations followed, but despite his discoveries, he
Contemporary Gter ston
was considered a controversial figure (see esp. Aris, The reemergence of gter ma revelation in East-
1989). ern Tibet in the 20th century demonstrates that
these modern visionary revelations are a means
’Jigs med gling pa (1729–1798) to reestablish ritual authority, codify new identi-
’Jigs med gling pa was born in the Yarlung Valley. ties, and encourage the continuation of ancient
According to hagiographical and autobiographi- Tibetan religious narrative. Gter ston activity in
cal accounts (in BDRC W1KG14. 1:736–744; Dudjom present day Eastern Tibet shows the continuity of
et al., 2002, 835–841; Goodman, 1992; Gyatso, 1999), an unbroken chain of transmission, via a fluid and
when he was 28, he entered a three-year retreat adaptable method (Germano, 1998; Terrone, 2009;
during which he had many visionary experiences, Gayley, 2016). Padmasambhava and other impe-
most famously one in where he found himself at the rial Tibetan figures are a critical link in the trans-
great stūpa in Boudhanath, Nepal. In this vision, a mission of treasure teachings; they are also part of
ḍākinī gave him the legendary Rdzogs chen mind the authoritative pantheon conferring legitimacy
treasure Klong chen snying thig (BDRC W21024). on the discoverer’s revelation. Drawing upon that
According the secret autobiographical account of previous material provides a distinct link to impe-
this vision, the Rtogs pa brjod pa ḍākki’i gsang gtam rial figures of the past as well as ensuring that the
chen mo, ’Jigs med gling pa recounts that the ḍākinī teachings are regularly updated and refreshed. This
demanded that he eat the texts, which he did, connection to the past has played a significant role
swallowing them whole so as not to destroy them in the comprehensive revitalization of the gter ma
(in the Klong chen snying thig, BDRC W1KG1358, tradition in Eastern Tibet and plays an integral part
1: 5–17) Between 1794 and 1798, ’Jigs med gling pa in the understanding of national pride and associa-
oversaw the printing of an edition of the Rnying ma tions with an idealized Tibetan past.
rgyud ’bum a compilation of all Rnying ma tantras, Significant 19th- and 20th-century gter ston include
in 28 volumes. He passed away in 1798, at the age Bdud ’joms gling pa (1835–1904; BDRC W20534;
of 69. W20534; W20205; Lingpa, 2011) and his successive
incarnation, Bdud ’joms ’jigs bral ye shes rdo rje
’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po (1904–1987; BDRC W8LS20851; W29259; Dongyal,
(1820–1892) 2008). Another important figure was Mkhan po ’Jigs
’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po was born in med phun tshogs (1933–2004; BDRC W1PD76232;
1820, in the village of Dil mgo in Eastern Tibet. As a Germano, 1998). Prominent female gter ston of this
young boy, he visited Rdzong sar dgon, an ancient era include Se ra mkha’ ’gro kun bzang bde skyong
Sa skya monastery where his family had connec- dbang mo (1892–1940; BDRC W3JT13368; Jacoby,
tions. Later he came to be identified as the mind 2014) and Ta re lha mo gnam mkha’i bu mo (1938–
incarnation of ’Jigs med gling pa. He is famous for 2003; Gayley, 2016). Gter ston active in western
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers 1169
cultures include Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987; Nyi ma bzang, po, 1983. “Sprul sku chen po ’i rnam thar
Trungpa, 2000; Midal, 2005); ’O rgyan sku gsum gsal byed nyi ma’i ’od zer (ga),” in: Byang gter lugs kyi
gling pa (1934–2009), Kun bzang bde chen gling pa rnam thar dang mang ’ongs lung bstan, vol. I, Gang-
(1928–2006; Hall, 2012), and Chos rgyal gnam mkha’i tok, Sikkim: Sherab Gyaltsen and Lama Dawa, 53–152.
BDRC W27866.
nor bu (1938–).
Nyi ma ’od zer, 1979–1980. Mnga’ bdag nyang ral, gzhan
Yet to emerge is any particularly credible non-
phan rdo rje. bka’ brgyad bde gshegs ’dus pa’i chos skor.
Tibetan or Himalayan gter ston. Despite the fact 13 vols., Paro: Ngodrup. BDRC W22247.
that reincarnate Tibetan Buddhist figures from a Pad ma ’od gsal mtha’ yas, 2000. Gter chen bdud ’joms yab
variety of countries around the globe are increas- sras kyi rnam thar. 1 vol., Khreng tu’u: Si khron mi rigs
ingly common, it may be some time before they dpe skrun khang. BDRC W20205.
begin to reveal widely accepted articulations of gter Rgod kyi ldem ’phru can, Sangs rgyas rdo rje, 2003. Sbas
ma. As much as there may be a resistance, it is prob- yul spyi dang bye brag yol mo gangs ra’i gnas yig. 1
able that at some point in the future, there will be vol., Kathmandu: Khenpo Nyima Dhondup, BDRC
the recognition of non-Tibetan reincarnations of W00KG01.
treasure revealers who will eventually reveal mind Tshe dbang don rgyal, 2003. Bdud ’joms ’jigs bral ye shes
rdo rje ’gro ’dul gling pa rtsal gyi rnam thar ye shes rdo
treasure (dgongs gter) and pure vision (dag snang)
rje’i ’od zer. 1 vol., Sarnath: Pema samye chokhor ling.
in other parts of the world.
BDRC W29259.
Tshe dbang rig ’dzin, 2015. Bdud ’joms ’gro ’dul gling pa’i
rnam thar. 1 vol. [s.l.]: [s.n.], BDRC W8LS20851.
Tshul khrims blo gros, Bsod dar rgyas, Bstan ’dzin rgya
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