Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism
Volume II:
Lives
Editor-in-chief
Jonathan A. Silk
Editors
Richard Bowring
Vincent Eltschinger
Michael Radich
Editorial Advisory Board
Lucia Dolce
Berthe Jansen
John Jorgensen
Christian Lammerts
Francesco Sferra
LEIDEN | BOSTON
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
Contents
Prelims
Contributors .............................................................................................................................................................
xi
Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii
Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv
Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii
General Abbreviations ..........................................................................................................................................
xlii
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................
xliv
Section One:
Śākyamuni: South Asia ..........................................................................................................................................
Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................
3
39
Section Two:
South & Southeast Asia:
Ajātaśatru ..................................................................................................................................................................
Āryadeva....................................................................................................................................................................
Āryaśūra.....................................................................................................................................................................
Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha).......................................................................................................................................
Bhāviveka ..................................................................................................................................................................
Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ......................................................................................................................................
Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................
Buddhas of the Past: South Asia .........................................................................................................................
Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ...............................................................................
Candragomin ...........................................................................................................................................................
Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................
Ḍākinī .........................................................................................................................................................................
Devadatta ..................................................................................................................................................................
Dharmakīrti ..............................................................................................................................................................
Dharmapāla ..............................................................................................................................................................
Dharmottara.............................................................................................................................................................
Dignāga ......................................................................................................................................................................
Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ...................................................................................................................................
Gavampati in Southeast Asia ...............................................................................................................................
Gopadatta .................................................................................................................................................................
Guṇaprabha..............................................................................................................................................................
Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................
Haribhaṭṭa .................................................................................................................................................................
Harivarman...............................................................................................................................................................
Harṣa ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Hayagrīva...................................................................................................................................................................
Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ......................................................................................................................
Jñānagarbha .............................................................................................................................................................
Jñānapāda .................................................................................................................................................................
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70
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81
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92
95
109
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125
132
141
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168
173
179
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196
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204
209
211
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218
228
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Contents
Jñānaśrīmitra ...........................................................................................................................................................
Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................
Karuṇāmaya .............................................................................................................................................................
Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................
Kumāralāta ...............................................................................................................................................................
Mahādeva..................................................................................................................................................................
Maitreya.....................................................................................................................................................................
Mārīcī .........................................................................................................................................................................
Mātṛceṭa ....................................................................................................................................................................
Nāgārjuna ..................................................................................................................................................................
Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ...................................................................................
Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia.....................................................................................................
Prajñākaragupta ......................................................................................................................................................
Ratnākaraśānti.........................................................................................................................................................
Ratnakīrti ..................................................................................................................................................................
Saṅghabhadra ..........................................................................................................................................................
Śaṅkaranandana .....................................................................................................................................................
Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................
Śāntarakṣita ..............................................................................................................................................................
Śāntideva ...................................................................................................................................................................
Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................
Śāriputra ....................................................................................................................................................................
Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism .............................................................................................................
Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................
Siddhas.......................................................................................................................................................................
Śrīlāta .........................................................................................................................................................................
Sthiramati .................................................................................................................................................................
Śubhagupta...............................................................................................................................................................
Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia .....................................................................................................
Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism .....................................................................................
Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin ..........................................................................................................................................
Upagupta ...................................................................................................................................................................
Vāgīśvarakīrti ...........................................................................................................................................................
Vasubandhu ..............................................................................................................................................................
Vināyaka ....................................................................................................................................................................
Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism .....................................................................................................
269
272
279
286
293
298
302
325
332
335
348
357
363
366
371
374
378
382
383
391
398
409
420
437
443
452
456
458
463
474
479
481
490
492
507
513
East Asia:
Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ......................................................................................................................................
Arhats in East Asian Buddhism ..........................................................................................................................
Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) .........................................................................................................................
Avalokiteśvara in East Asia...................................................................................................................................
Dizang/Jizō ...............................................................................................................................................................
Jianzhen (Ganjin) ...................................................................................................................................................
Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................
Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions......................................................................................................
Mañjuśrī in East Asia .............................................................................................................................................
Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)......................................................................................................................................
Musang (Wuxiang) .................................................................................................................................................
Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................
Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................
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540
546
562
571
576
586
591
600
608
612
616
Contents
vii
China:
Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................
An Shigao ..................................................................................................................................................................
Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................
Daoxuan ....................................................................................................................................................................
Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................
Faxian .........................................................................................................................................................................
Fazun ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Hanshan Deqing .....................................................................................................................................................
Hongzhi Zhengjue ..................................................................................................................................................
Huihong (see Juefan Huihong)
Huineng (see Shenxiu)
Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan)
Jigong..........................................................................................................................................................................
Juefan Huihong .......................................................................................................................................................
Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................
Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................
Luo Qing ....................................................................................................................................................................
Lushan Huiyuan ......................................................................................................................................................
Mazu Daoyi...............................................................................................................................................................
Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben)
Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................
Nenghai......................................................................................................................................................................
Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................
Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................
Paramārtha ...............................................................................................................................................................
Qian Qianyi...............................................................................................................................................................
Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................
Shenhui (see Shenxiu)
Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui .........................................................................................................................
Śubhākarasiṃha......................................................................................................................................................
Wumen ......................................................................................................................................................................
Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang)
Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................
Xiao Ziliang...............................................................................................................................................................
Yinshun......................................................................................................................................................................
Yixing .........................................................................................................................................................................
Yuan Hongdao .........................................................................................................................................................
Yuanwu Keqin ..........................................................................................................................................................
Zhanran .....................................................................................................................................................................
Zhi Qian .....................................................................................................................................................................
Zhili.............................................................................................................................................................................
Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu)
Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................
Zhongfeng Mingben...............................................................................................................................................
Zhuhong ....................................................................................................................................................................
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777
782
787
791
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800
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810
814
818
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Korea:
Chinul.........................................................................................................................................................................
Hyujŏng .....................................................................................................................................................................
Ich’adon .....................................................................................................................................................................
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viii
Contents
Kihwa .........................................................................................................................................................................
Kim Sisŭp ..................................................................................................................................................................
Kyŏnghŏ.....................................................................................................................................................................
Kyunyŏ .......................................................................................................................................................................
Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................
Musang (see East Asia)
Pou ..............................................................................................................................................................................
Tosŏn ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Ŭich’ŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................
Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................
Wŏnch’ŭk ..................................................................................................................................................................
Wŏnhyo......................................................................................................................................................................
Yi Nŭnghwa ..............................................................................................................................................................
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877
882
887
891
895
900
903
908
913
918
Japan:
Amaterasu Ōmikami ..............................................................................................................................................
Annen.........................................................................................................................................................................
Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī)
Dōgen .........................................................................................................................................................................
Dōhan.........................................................................................................................................................................
Eisai (see Yōsai)
Eison ...........................................................................................................................................................................
En no Gyōja ..............................................................................................................................................................
Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................
Ennin ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen)
Genshin .....................................................................................................................................................................
Hachiman .................................................................................................................................................................
Hakuin .......................................................................................................................................................................
Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................
Ikkyū Sōjun ...............................................................................................................................................................
Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi)
Ippen Chishin ..........................................................................................................................................................
Jakushō ......................................................................................................................................................................
Jiun Sonja ..................................................................................................................................................................
Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang)
Jōjin.............................................................................................................................................................................
Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................
Kakuban ....................................................................................................................................................................
Keizan Jōkin .............................................................................................................................................................
Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................
Kūkai ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................
Menzan Zuihō .........................................................................................................................................................
Monkan .....................................................................................................................................................................
Mugai Nyodai ...........................................................................................................................................................
Mujaku Dōchū .........................................................................................................................................................
Musō Soseki ..............................................................................................................................................................
Myōe ...........................................................................................................................................................................
Nichiren .....................................................................................................................................................................
Nōnin..........................................................................................................................................................................
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Contents
Raiyu...........................................................................................................................................................................
Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................
Saichō .........................................................................................................................................................................
Saigyō .........................................................................................................................................................................
Shinran.......................................................................................................................................................................
Shōtoku Taishi .........................................................................................................................................................
Tenjin .........................................................................................................................................................................
Tenkai .........................................................................................................................................................................
Yōsai/Eisai .................................................................................................................................................................
Zaō ..............................................................................................................................................................................
ix
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1097
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1107
1111
1117
1122
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Tibetan Cultural Sphere
Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................
Ge sar of Gling .........................................................................................................................................................
Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers .............................................................................................
Gtsang smyon Heruka ...........................................................................................................................................
Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ...................................................................................................................................
Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................
The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage .......................................................................................
Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................
The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................
Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................
Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha .................................................................................................................
Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................
Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors ..................................................................................................
Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet .....................................................................................................................
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1165
1171
1175
1181
1191
1197
1213
1226
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1239
1246
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Appendix To Volume I:
Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan .............................................................................................................
Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................
Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................
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Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers
The Tibetan gter ma (treasure) tradition is primarily, but not exclusively, associated with the Buddhist
Rnying ma school. The practice is also a central feature of the Tibetan Bon tradition which possibly has
earlier precedents (Achard, 2004, 2008; Kvaerne,
1997; Martin, 2001). Legendary accounts drawn from
the hagiographies (rnam thar) of gter ston (treasure revealers) relate that they receive an inventory,
sometimes from a mythical figure, deity, or protector of the treasure. Such scrolls present instructions
on where to find gter ma (→BEB I: Gter ma) and, if
needed, a key to unlock those encoded in magical
language or symbols. Treasure revealers are marked
early on in their lives as unique, often as child prodigies with an uncommon affinity for dharma teachings. At some point in their childhood or early teens,
they experience magical visions which guide them
towards their gter ma lists. If the conditions are
right and auspicious, they can proceed to discover
caches of both tangible sacred objects as well as vast
visionary cycles of practices and teachings. Revealing gter ma is often contingent upon the support
of a gsang yum (spiritual consort) whose presence
catalyzes the process. There is ongoing contestation surrounding whether gter ma texts represent
the authentic words of the Buddha or are merely
creative apocrypha (Doctor, 2005; Germano, 2002).
The primary intention of the gter ma tradition is
to bring forth relevant sacred teachings or objects
according to specific needs, times, and situations.
Treasure revealers are paradoxically both innovators
and traditionalists; they modernize and yet are also
crucial links to the earlier figures of imperial Tibet
(Hall, 2012, 196–201; Mayer, 2015). The 8th-century
mahāsiddha →Padmasambhava is at the heart of this
visionary tradition within the Rnying ma school. He
functions as a bridge between teachings transmitted
to him – from a primordial buddha – which he then
teaches verbally to his disciples and then conceals to
be revealed at a later auspicious time.
The Role of the Gter ston and the
Purpose of Their Myths and Legends
A gter ston’s role is to act as an intercessor on behalf
of sentient beings, creating a direct link with past
Buddhist figures of importance. The authority to
access a revelatory cache as well as reanthologize
and develop preexisting material derives from this
connection. The purpose of gter ma is as a means to
maintain Buddhist doctrine and to ensure that the
blessings and instructions of the faith do not fade.
Additionally, of prime concern to a gter ston are the
concomitant circumstances required for gter ma
to emerge. Without the necessary conditions, gter
ma cannot issue forth. Further, although gter ma is
conservative regarding its content, the method by
which new texts, practices, and rituals emerge can
be considered innovation, in the sense that they
introduce new material and rearrange material in
a new way.
The hagiographies of gter ston tend to be somewhat formulaic, beginning with conception and
birth accompanied by miraculous signs such as
flowers falling from the sky, multitudes of rainbows
appearing, and similar kinds of marvelous demonstrations. The lifestory of a gter ston encompasses
all aspects of their liberation and presents a spiritual “map” to enlightenment. Historical events are
not considered relevant unless they highlight a spiritual process or serve as religious allegory. There are
aspects of these legendary accounts which naturally
invite skepticism from a conventional viewpoint;
for example, epiphanic visions, lifespans which far
exceed the life expectancy of an average human,
descriptions of logic defying miraculous occurrences, and encounters with magical beings. These
stories can prove elusive when it comes to determining whether they represent “history” and are better
understood via a complementarity of emic and etic
approaches. Gradually, contemporary scholarship is
becoming more expansive when considering these
“transhistorical” accounts. (Achard, 2008, 15). The
myths and legends of gter ston function as instructional and inspirational devices invoking outer,
inner, and secret (phyi, nang, and gsang) Buddhist
concepts and teachings, comprehended on multiple levels, dependent upon the spiritual propensities, qualities, and accomplishments of the reader.
Often in hagiographies, personal relationships are
less meaningful than spiritual authority. Throughout the narrative accounts of gter ston, Padmasambhava and various Buddhist figures and deities
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BEB, vol. II
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Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers
appear in visions to issue teachings or directives. In
these stories, gter stons often experience extreme
difficulties. They may be met with scorn or disbelief by their families and their broader community,
they can suffer many trials and tribulations during their lives and in the process of revealing gter
ma. A notable example is in the biography of the
17th-century gter ston associated with the Dpal yul
Rnying ma sect, Gnam chos Mi ’gyur rdo rje (1645–
1667) who began revealing gter ma at the age of 13
and tragically died in his early twenties. Accounts
from his outer biography, Sprul sku mi ’gyur rdo rje’i
rnam thar kun khyab snyan pa’i ’brug sgra, relayed
by his teacher the renowned Bka’ brgyud scholar
Karma chags med, (1613–1678) describe obstacles
the young man experienced, including epileptic fits,
skin diseases, and falling into comatose states for
days on end (BDRC W21578, 10: 169.6–191.4; Sonam
& Amtzis, 2008, 71–81; Hall, 2007, 25).
The legends of treasure revealers include accounts
of waking up from dreams holding texts that disappear once they are read, reaching into rock faces to
draw out ritual items, texts, and religious statues,
and meeting with →ḍākinī (mercurial beings who
ameliorate spiritual practice). Often a gter ston’s
biography will feature a prophecy (lung bstan)
issued from Padmasambhava predicting the subject’s divine birth and describing signs which indicate the treasure revealer’s special powers. Prophecies are a form of legitimizing device utilized to
show that gter ma texts are not authored by the discoverer, but formulated by Padmasambhava in the
past, proving that the discoverer is, in fact, the designated person to reveal the treasure. Gter ma is also
legitimized by the spiritual powers of the gter ston,
evident in these biographical and sometimes autobiographical details of the individual discoverers’
visionary gter ma adventures (Gyatso, 1993, 97–134).
Significant Figures of the Tibetan
Buddhist Treasure Tradition
There are numerous accounts of gter ston ranging
from lesser known figures to those of critical importance to the culture found in all the primary schools
of Tibetan Buddhism. A famous collection of gter
ston biographies complied by ’Jam mgon kong sprul
blo gros mtha’ yas (1813–1899) the Gter ston brgya
rtsa’i rnam thar found in the Rin chen gter mdzod
chen mo (BDRC W1KG14, 1: 341–765; W20539)
contains myths and legends surrounding some key
gter ston, including the five kingly treasure revealers
(gter ston rygal po lnga).
Nyang ral Nyi ma ’od zer (1136–1204 or
1124–1192)
First of the five kingly treasure revealers and considered to be a physical emanation of Padmasambhava,
Nyang ral Nyi ma ’od zer was born in the southern
Tibetan region of Lho ’brag. According to hagiographic accounts (in the Rin chen gter mdzod chen
mo, BDRC W1KG14 1: 427–433; Dudjom et al., 2002,
755–759), he learned to read at a very young age and
was able to memorize many advanced teachings
and practices, and experienced auspicious dreams
and visions from a young age, most significantly
of Padmasambhava, who confirmed his identity
and destiny as a gter ston. He is said to have first
remembered sequences of past lives beginning with
the 8th-century Tibetan king Khri srong lde btsan,
(c. 742–800). He constructed a small hermitage in
Lho ’brag and remained there, eventually encountering in a vision a mysterious yogic figure, who
provided him with an inventory of treasures to be
revealed. Determining that this was an emanation
of Padmasambhava, he understood the list to refer
to a rock formation close to his hermitage. There he
recovered his first significant treasure cache from
a hidden cave. He found several essential cycles
later known as the Ma ṇi bka’ ’bum. This collection
includes foundational narratives for Tibetan myths,
establishing Avalokiteśvara as the patron bodhisattva of Tibet, promoting his cult and the practice of
the six-syllable mantra oṃ maṇipadme hūṃ (Kapstein, 1992). He is best known for revealing the Bka’
thang zangs gling ma (BDRC W4CZ20868; Hirshberg, 2016), a primary hagiography of Padmasambhava which introduces foundational narratives of
his conversion of Tibet in the 8th century. Nyang
ral Nyi ma ’od zer also revealed the Bka’ brgyad
bde gshegs ’dus pa (in BDRC W1KG14, 14: 393–1043;
W22247).
Chos kyi dbang phyug, also known as Gu ru
chos dbang (1212–1270)
The second of the five kingly treasure revealers,
Chos kyi dbang phyug or Gu ru chos dbang, was born
in Lho ’brag and was considered a speech emanation of Padmasambhava, that is, a reincarnation of
one of three aspects of the primal Padmasambhava
(the others being his body and mind). Biographical
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Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers
accounts (in BDRC W1KG14. 1: 436–442; W23802,
1. 65–151; Dudjom et al., 2002, 760–770) state that
he was a precocious child, who learned to read
and write at an early age and displayed immense
knowledge of texts, practices, astrology, and divination. His career as a treasure revealer began at the
age of 13 when he came into possession of a treasure inventory that was supposedly so dangerous
that other ‘false’ treasure revealers had nearly died
trying to follow it. His father hid the list from him,
but when he was 22, he retrieved it and, with a further, supplementary inventory, followed it to reveal
a vast trove of treasure texts and objects. Chos kyi
dbang phyug was an early chronicler and eloquent
defender of the treasure tradition, which enabled
the practice of treasure revelation to become widely
accepted (BDRC W23802, 2:75–193; Gyatso, 1994,
275–287). His spiritual consort was Jo mo sman
mo (13th cent.), herself a gter ston (in the Rin chen
gter mdzod chen mo, BDRC W1KG14. 1: 538–543). He
revealed 18 troves of earth treasures (sa gter) as well
as scriptural cycles. Among the most influential is
the treasure cycle of Padmasambhava called the Bla
ma gsang ’dus (in BDRC W1KG14. 6: 17–170).
Rig ’dzin Rgod ldem dngos grub rgyal mtshan
(1337–1408)
Also known as Rgod kyi ldem ’phru can, Rig ’dzin
Rgod ldem dngos grub rgyal mtshan is considered
a mind emanation of Padmasambhava, and known
as the progenitor of the northern treasure (byang
gter) tradition, in contrast to the southern treasure
(lho gter) tradition of Nyang ral nyi ma ’od zer and
Gu ru chos dbang. Like other gter ston, he demonstrated impressive understanding and practice
of the Buddhist teachings from a very early age.
According to legendary accounts (in BDRC W1KG14.
1: 561– 564; W27866. 1: 53–152; Dudjom et al., 2002,
780–783; Herweg, 1994), when he was around 12
years old, three growths appeared on the top of his
head; by the time he was 23, there were five of them.
These growths had the appearance of vulture feathers, and after that, he gained his name “the one with
vulture’s feathers” (rgod kyi ldem ’phru can). The
story of the revelations of the northern treasure is
detailed and elaborate, involving the discovery, in a
mountain cave, of a richly decorated casket guarded
by a blue and yellow serpent. With elaborate decorations on each side corresponding to the cardinal
directions, this gter ston opened the various sides
of the casket to expose a vast cache of revelatory
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material (BDRC W27866, 1: 84–90). Included in this
cache were numerous gter ma including texts of
the primary Rdzogs chen teachings of the northern
treasure tradition, as well as scripts relating to the
wrathful Vajrakīla practice (Boord, 2013). He organized the folios of these teachings and then taught
them to his close students. He also revealed guide
books (gnas yig) to various hidden lands (sbas yul)
located along the shifting borderlands of Tibet
(BDRC W00KG01; Ehrhard, 1999). He eventually settled in Sikkim in 1373, and is said to have performed
several miracles there. He passed away at the age of
71 in 1408.
Rdo rje gling pa (1346–1406?)
Third of the five kingly treasure revealers, Rdo rje
gling pa was born in 1346 in Grwa nang dben rtsa. At
the age of 15, he disclosed a large number of caches
including the Bla ma bka’ ’dus (in BDRC T1117: 14,
279–316). By the age of 20, he had revealed many
treasure teachings. He seems to have originated the
practice of khrom gter, public revelation of treasures in front of many witnesses. He was a wild figure, considered mad by some, and spent three years
in the southern ‘barbaric’ regions of the Tibetan
borderlands revealing treasures and giving teachings. He passed away at the age of 60, and his corpse
is said to have remained without decomposing for
three years (in BDRC W1KG14. 1: 486–491; Dudjom
et al., 2002, 789–792; Karmay, 2000).
Pad ma gling pa (1450–1521)
The fourth of the five kingly treasure revealers,
Pad ma gling pa was born in the Bhutanese area
of Bum thang. While still young, he was sent to
live with his grandfather, a blacksmith. At the age
of nine, he began to apprentice with him, and he
continued to fashion items out of iron throughout his life. According to biographic accounts (in
BDRC W1KG14. 1: 497–501; W20827, 1:466–470; Aris,
1989; Dudjom et al., 2002, 796–800; Harding, 2005;
Tshewang, 1995) as a child, he would pretend to be
seated on a throne, giving initiations and teachings,
and performing ritual dances. In his twenties, he
had a critical, visionary experience. Having fallen
asleep, a voice awakened him, and a scruffy monk
appeared, gave him a scroll, and then disappeared.
The paper instructed him to gather five friends and
go to Sna ring brag on a full moon to reveal gter ma.
The manuscript contained a code to unlock the
treasure. He followed the instructions, and together
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Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers
with his five companions, went to the prophesied
site on the allotted night. Then, naked, he dove into
the small lake and swam to an underwater cave containing a throne and a stack of texts. He was given
one document by the guardian of the cave, and
was propelled upward to the surface. No one could
read it, but using the code from the scruffy monk’s
scroll, he understood that the text was called Klong
gsal gsang ba snying bcud (BDRC W26042). Having
decoded the entire treasure, Pad ma gling pa offered
the teachings publically. Later, he had to prove himself to skeptics by diving once more into the lake
holding a burning butter lamp, which he claimed
would continue to burn when he returned with
more treasure. He resurfaced holding a small box,
sculpture, and the still burning butter lamp (BDRC
W1KG14. 1: 497.6–498.6). Many additional gter ma
revelations followed, but despite his discoveries, he
was considered a controversial figure (see esp. Aris,
1989).
’Jigs med gling pa (1729–1798)
’Jigs med gling pa was born in the Yarlung Valley.
According to hagiographical and autobiographical accounts (in BDRC W1KG14. 1:736–744; Dudjom
et al., 2002, 835–841; Goodman, 1992; Gyatso, 1999),
when he was 28, he entered a three-year retreat
during which he had many visionary experiences,
most famously one in where he found himself at the
great stūpa in Boudhanath, Nepal. In this vision, a
ḍākinī gave him the legendary Rdzogs chen mind
treasure Klong chen snying thig (BDRC W21024).
According the secret autobiographical account of
this vision, the Rtogs pa brjod pa ḍākki’i gsang gtam
chen mo, ’Jigs med gling pa recounts that the ḍākinī
demanded that he eat the texts, which he did,
swallowing them whole so as not to destroy them
(in the Klong chen snying thig, BDRC W1KG1358,
1: 5–17) Between 1794 and 1798, ’Jigs med gling pa
oversaw the printing of an edition of the Rnying ma
rgyud ’bum a compilation of all Rnying ma tantras,
in 28 volumes. He passed away in 1798, at the age
of 69.
’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po
(1820–1892)
’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po was born in
1820, in the village of Dil mgo in Eastern Tibet. As a
young boy, he visited Rdzong sar dgon, an ancient
Sa skya monastery where his family had connections. Later he came to be identified as the mind
incarnation of ’Jigs med gling pa. He is famous for
having studied with many of the leading lamas
of his time, and in particular for his collaboration with ’Jam mgon kong sprul blo gros mtha’ yas
(1813–1899), and Mchog gyur gling pa (1829–1870).
’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po embodied
a ris med (nonsectarian) ideal of appreciating and
exploring multiple traditions of Buddhism in Tibet.
Due to his prodigious treasure revealing activity,
’Jam mgon kong sprul counted him as the last in
the group of five kingly treasure revealers. In 1892,
’Jam mgon kong sprul conducted the funeral of ’Jam
dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po, washing his body
and preparing it for cremation (in BDRC W1KG14. 1:
676–693; Dudjom etal., 2002, 849–858).
Contemporary Gter ston
The reemergence of gter ma revelation in Eastern Tibet in the 20th century demonstrates that
these modern visionary revelations are a means
to reestablish ritual authority, codify new identities, and encourage the continuation of ancient
Tibetan religious narrative. Gter ston activity in
present day Eastern Tibet shows the continuity of
an unbroken chain of transmission, via a fluid and
adaptable method (Germano, 1998; Terrone, 2009;
Gayley, 2016). Padmasambhava and other imperial Tibetan figures are a critical link in the transmission of treasure teachings; they are also part of
the authoritative pantheon conferring legitimacy
on the discoverer’s revelation. Drawing upon that
previous material provides a distinct link to imperial figures of the past as well as ensuring that the
teachings are regularly updated and refreshed. This
connection to the past has played a significant role
in the comprehensive revitalization of the gter ma
tradition in Eastern Tibet and plays an integral part
in the understanding of national pride and associations with an idealized Tibetan past.
Significant 19th- and 20th-century gter ston include
Bdud ’joms gling pa (1835–1904; BDRC W20534;
W20534; W20205; Lingpa, 2011) and his successive
incarnation, Bdud ’joms ’jigs bral ye shes rdo rje
(1904–1987; BDRC W8LS20851; W29259; Dongyal,
2008). Another important figure was Mkhan po ’Jigs
med phun tshogs (1933–2004; BDRC W1PD76232;
Germano, 1998). Prominent female gter ston of this
era include Se ra mkha’ ’gro kun bzang bde skyong
dbang mo (1892–1940; BDRC W3JT13368; Jacoby,
2014) and Ta re lha mo gnam mkha’i bu mo (1938–
2003; Gayley, 2016). Gter ston active in western
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Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers
cultures include Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987;
Trungpa, 2000; Midal, 2005); ’O rgyan sku gsum
gling pa (1934–2009), Kun bzang bde chen gling pa
(1928–2006; Hall, 2012), and Chos rgyal gnam mkha’i
nor bu (1938–).
Yet to emerge is any particularly credible nonTibetan or Himalayan gter ston. Despite the fact
that reincarnate Tibetan Buddhist figures from a
variety of countries around the globe are increasingly common, it may be some time before they
begin to reveal widely accepted articulations of gter
ma. As much as there may be a resistance, it is probable that at some point in the future, there will be
the recognition of non-Tibetan reincarnations of
treasure revealers who will eventually reveal mind
treasure (dgongs gter) and pure vision (dag snang)
in other parts of the world.
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Amelia Hall