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Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Culture
Dr. Jagbir Singh
Assistant Professor, Department of History, Satyawati College (Evening)
(University of Delhi), Ashok Vihar, Delhi – 110052
Email: jagbir2006@gmail.com
The introduction of Buddhism in first century CE is one of the most important events in
Chinese history. Since then, it has been a major factor in Chinese civilization. It has influenced
Chinese religion, philosophy, art, literature, Science etc. Buddhism gave a new way of life to the
Chinese people and for over a thousand years the Chinese mind was dominated mainly by
Buddhism. Even after the decline of Buddhism in China during the last few centuries we can
trace the strong and deep influenced of Buddhism on Chinese culture in many ways. Although
being a strong and self-confident civilization, China accommodated Buddhist ideas into her own
texture of life. In other words, Buddhist elements have been ‘digested’, they have been absorbed
into the mainstream of Chinese culture and almost lost their specific Buddhist nature in the
process.
The impact of Buddhism on Chinese culture can be observed in practically every aspect
of Chinese cultural life but we will study only the key areas through the following headings:
Religion and Religious Life
It is in the religious life that Buddhism had its greatest influence on Chinese people.
Through its pantheon of compassionate Buddhas and bodhisattvas who offered refuge to those in
need, its promise of salvation to all, its emphasis on piety and—silent meditation, the colorful
pageantry of its rituals and festivals, its restraint of the passions, its universality and its tolerance,
the religious life of the Chinese people got enriched, deepened, broadened, and made more
meaningful in terms of human sympathy, love, and compassion for all living creatures. The
thoughts and teachings of Buddhism encouraged the Chinese to establish the charitable
institutions such as hospitals, orphanages, dispensaries, rest houses, or homes for the aged.
Neo-Confucianism: It is the most outstanding product of the cultural mingling between
Buddhism and Chinese thought. It was a kind of a renaissance for Confucianism under impact of
Buddhism in the Sung and Ming dynasties. A new change came in the field of idealism, now
Confucian scholarship became socially conscience. Influenced with the element of ethical
universalism of Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism, Confucian scholar was first worrying about
the world's troubles and last in enjoying his pleasures. Buddhism became so intimate a part of the
intellectual minds of the Chinese people and it was impossible for the Sung thinkers to escape
from Buddhism entirely. Neo-Confucianists interpreted terms used in the Confucian classics in
the light of the dominant Buddhist atmosphere, and it can be said that the Neo-Confucian system
was well familiar with the prevailing Buddhist ideas of the age. For example, the idea of Chang
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Tsai’s extension of the meaning of jen to embrace all under heaven was taken from the idea of
all-compassionate bodhisattva, ever ready to save all sentient beings, played a role. NeoConfucianists also appear to have been influenced by the Buddhists for their idea of
concentration of mind as Buddhist mental discipline emphasizes, among other things,
mindfulness, meditation, and equanimity. This Confucian idea of sagehood was also probably a
response to the Buddhist emphasis on the attainment of bodhisattvahood. Sung philosopher, Shao
Yung (1011-1077) in his cosmological speculations had a theory that at the end of an epoch,
which he said spanned 129,600 years, the present world system would come to an end to be
replaced by another. Such an idea was alien to the Chinese and was undoubtedly influenced by
the well-known Indian concept of aeons and recurring world systems.
Buddhist influence on Taoism:
Not only Neo Confucianism Buddhism but the other major sect of China, Taoism also got
influenced from Buddhism. When Buddhism reached on Chinese soil it took help of Taoism
(with borrowing from it) to spread the ideas, but in later centuries it was the Taoism that
borrowed from Buddhism. The Taoists never had any idea of their system as a religion and
therefore lacking of any literature. Only after Buddhism had reached in China and gained
widespread acceptance, Taoists took over the idea of a religion from the Buddhists. Having done
so, they decided to imitate the Buddhist example. When Buddhism reached in China in Han
period, it was feared that it would be swallowed up by Taoism but just opposite happened later as
the Taoists were themselves overwhelmed by the Buddhists. They borrowed their views on
cosmology from Buddhism, well as their pantheon, their literature, and their doctrines. Taoist
term, “indefinable Tao” is very close to the indeterminate “thusness” of Buddhism. This is also
notable fact that the Taoists themselves admitted that they borrowed the practice of making
statues images on the Buddha. It is in the field of literature that the Buddhist contribution to
Taoism is most obvious. From the fifth century on, Taoists started copying the Buddhist sutras.
So hasty and slipshod was this wholesale copying that the Taoists left behind numerous traces of
their unethical practice. In general it seemed that what the Taoist did was to take over a Buddhist
sutra and then substitute Lao-tzu for the word Buddha whenever it appeared, but very often the
copyist was not attentive enough to make all the changes. The Buddhist concepts of karma and
rebirth were also accepted by the Taoists, in contrast with the earlier Taoist doctrine of the
transmission of burden. The Buddhist concept of the three worlds--the world of desire, the world
of forms, and the formless world---was taken over in toto by the Taoists.
Literature
In the field of literature, Buddhism made Chinese writings more systematized, lucid, and logical.
Indian hetuvidya, methodology, and Buddhist translation, written both in prose and verse, a
literary form unknown in China at the time, led to a new era in literature. When Buddhism
reached with its treasure of literature, the Chinese started giving freedom to their imagination.
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Chinese learned the art of story-telling from the Indians. The best example of this imagination
can be found in the novels Hsi-yu-chi (Record of a Trip to the West) and the Feng-shen-chuan
(Annals of the Investiture of Deities), both of the Ming Dynasty. This kind of freedom of the
Chinese mind under the influence of Mahayana literature enabled the Chinese scholars to
produce the rich, romantic, and imaginative literature such as the novels and short stories of the
Ming and Ch'ing Dynasties.
There was neither epic poetry nor short story form until the Tang period; no recorded dramas
until the Mongol period; and no development of the novel until the Ming period. In a recent
study, a Chinese scholar, Lai Ming, says that a significant feature in the development of Chinese
literature has been “the immense influence of Buddhist literature on the development of every
sphere of Chinese literature since the Eastern Chin period (317 A.D.). We can say that without
this the Chinese literature would have remained static and only poetry and prose been its
principal literary forms, but we can safely say that it certainly would have been different from
what it is today.”
The literary masterpieces of the Buddhist poet Asvagosa, Buddhacharita-kavya, translated into
Chinese by Dharmaraksha, influenced not only Chinese Buddhism but Chinese literature as well.
The long Chinese poems, A Heroine of the Molan and the Peacock Flying towards the Southeast, reflect the style of Buddhist literature. The novels and dramas of the Yuan and Ming
dynasties were also influenced by Buddhism, either directly or indirectly. Buddhist influence on
the rise of story-telling can be seen in the collections of tales published in the period of the
Northern Southern dynasties : for example, Yuan Hun Chi (Accounts of Avenging Spirits) by
Yen Chih-tui, and Ming Hsiang Chi (Records of Mysterious Manifestations) by Wang Yen. The
stories found in the Buddhist sutras were changed into Chinese scenes and characters and passed
of possibly unconsciously, as Chinese stories. For example, the story A Scholar of Yang Hsien",
included in the Sequel to Teles of Chi-hsieh, is a replica of Buddhist story found in the
Samyuktavadana Sutra.
A Chinese style of essay writing called san wen or pien-wen, consisting of short prose which
combines straight narration, rhymed verses, descriptive prose, and allegories, is also of Buddhist
origin. Buddhist monks used to explain the often obscure meaning of Buddhist sutras by telling
anecdotes with a moral in order to arouse and hold the interest of the people to propagate
Buddhism. This method of expounding the sutras in story-telling form proved very effective and
popular, and gradually gave rise to the pien wen style of writing.
Drama
Chinese drama adopted Indian features in three stages: First, they borrowed the story, characters,
and technique all from India: Secondly, Indian technique gave way to Chinese, and finally the
story was modified and the characters became Chinese. There are many dimensions to Chinese
drama, and it is not easy to place them accurately in history. However, the twelfth century
provides the first known record of the performance of a play. It a Buddhist miracle-play called
Mu-lien Rescues his Mother, based on an episode in the Indian epic Mahabharata.
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Art and Architecture
Indian art reached China through central Asian and sea routes. Monks and traders brought
Buddha statues, models of temples, and other objects of art to China. Chinese pilgrims also
collected works of art on their travels. Fa-hsien made drawings of images while at Tamralipti,
Hsuan-tsang returned with him several golden and sandal wood figures of the Buddha and Huilun with a model of the Nalanda Mahavihara. Wang Hsuan-tse, who went to India several times,
collected many drawings of Buddhist images, including a copy of the Buddha Image at
Bodhgaya. However, with the time, this influx of Indian art was absorbed by Chinese art, which
had a strong tradition of its own. This combination resulted in a Buddhist art of exceptional
beauty.
Art: Three main centres of Buddhist art developed in China—Tun-huang, Yun kang (in the
north of Shansi), and Lung-men (near Loyang). Tun-huang is located on the north-western
frontier of China near an oasis known as Yumen, or the Jade Gate, where the northern and
southern routes from central Asia converged. For travellers to China it marked the last stage of
an arduous journey, and became a thriving center for Buddhist activities. These travellers,
including monks contributed to Tun-huang's importance as a center of Buddhist learning.
Buddhist Monks and devotees carried the task of carving images, painting different pictures and
other activities in these three centers.
From the T'ang period onwards, Indian art was increasingly absorbed by Chinese art traditions.
Indeed, the faces of all the Buddhist deities became Chinese in appearance. In the Tun-huang
caves, one can see how the distinct Indian figures of the Wei period went through
physiognomical changes to become Chinese by the Sung period.
Painting: Chinese painting also influenced by the Indian painting styles, works of some Indian
painters was much esteemed in China. We have come across the names of three Indian paintersSakyabuddha, Buddhakirti, and Kumarabodhi. Xiche (Sie Ho), an artist who lived under the Qi
(Ts'i) dynasty of the south (An 479-501), is said to have formulated the following six great
principles of painting which were inspired from the sadanga or the six essential things relating to
painting as described in the ancient Indian literature. By the time of the Tang period Indian
influence appears to have found a dominant place in Chinese painting. For example, the Tang
deal of feminine beauty in a more pointed face and rounded figure (compared to the slender
elegance of previous periods), with hair collected around and above the head, and an air of
cheerful health, was the result of this influence. The most splendid paintings of the T'ang period
were of Buddhist inspiration, such as those by Wei-chih I-seng, Yen Li-pen, and the greatest of
all Chinese painter, Wu Tao-tzu.
Chan, A remarkable school of painting, directly connected with Indian thought, was inspired by
Dhyana Buddhism. The Ch’an doctrine holds that Buddhahood or the spiritual essence of things
may be found in man, animal, plant, flower, mountain, stream, and so on. The voice of Buddha
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may speak in the songs of birds, the silence of the mountains, the crashing of waterfalls, or the
whisper of trees in the wind. The landscape artist spent his time in silent meditation on various
aspects of nature, hoping to find the spiritual essence of things hidden under the cloak of outward
forms. If the vision of this spiritual essence were to be recorded in paintings, it had to be done in
the shortest time possible.
By the thirteenth century, Indian influence in painting waned, although images of the Buddha
continued to be made in the traditional manner. With the decline of Buddhism in China,
Buddhist art also declined.
Architecture: Buddhist architecture in China also got some Indian influence. It is believed by
that the pagoda type of the temples with superimposed storeys was carried from India to the Far
East. One of the oldest Buddhist temples of this type, probably a temple in the Indian style, built
in China was probably the Yongningsi at Luo-yang constructed in AD 516 under the Wei. It was
an enormous Buddhist temple in nine storeys, more than 90 chang height. In fact, a special type
of architecture was known in the Song period as the Indian style which was different from the
T’ang style of architecture. This style of architecture was not officially recognized in China but
was in private use. It was much in vogue in Shanxi where the Indian influence was much more
dominant than elsewhere in China.
Language
In Chinese language also, Buddhist influence can be traced. Buddhists coined many new terms
gradually which found their way into the Chinese vocabulary, and gradually accepted by the
Chinese, who never suspected that they originated from some foreign language. These terms can
be divided into two categories: First comprises those which are translations of Buddhist concepts
like k’u-hai, sea of misery; hsi-,t’ien, the Western Paradise; wu-ming, ignorance; chung-sheng,
sentient beings; yin-yuan, karma; ch’u-chia, leaving the household life, Second category
comprises those terms which are transliterations of Sanskrit words like ch’a-no, an instant, from
kshana; t’a, pagoda, from thupa, which is a Pali word; p’u-sa, from bodhisattva; lo-han, from
arhat or arahan; mo-li, jasmine, from mallika; seng, a monk, from sangha. Buddhist scholars
enriched the Chinese vocabulary by more than thirty-five thousand words. Even today words of
Buddhist origin are widely used in China from the folklore of peasants to the formal language of
the intelligentsia.
Phonology: Phonological studies also influenced with the introduction of the Sanskrit alphabet
into China. Fan-ch’ieh system or the using of two characters was introduced to indicate the
pronunciation of the third character. Earlier the Chinese had attempted to indicate the
pronunciation of a character by the use of homonyms, but in the fan-ch’ieh system the initial
sound of the first character is combined with the final sound of the second to give the
pronunciation. This method was undoubtedly influenced by the Chinese experience with the
Sanskrit alphabet. Another innovation of great importance in phonology was the formulation of
the thirty tzu-mu or phonetic radicals by the monk Shou-wen during the latter half of the Tang
Dynasty. The thirty radicals were divided into the following categories: labials, languals,
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gutturals, dentals, and glottals. Such a division could have been possible only if the monk was
familiar with the different divisions of the Sanskrit alphabet. There is still another phonological
contribution of Buddhism is the reconstruction of Chinese pronunciations of the past. While the
pronunciations of the Chinese phonetic transcriptions have changed during the thousand or so
years since the Tang Dynasty, the pronunciation of the Sanskrit has not, since it is a phonetic
language. By comparing the Chinese transcriptions with the original Sanskrit text, valuable data
is derived to reconstruct the Chinese pronunciations of the Tang Dynasty. In 489 AD a new
theory, called the “Theory of four tones”, was established to differentiate between the Chinese
language for reading Buddhist sutras and for chanting the verses: ping or “soft” tone, and three
“hard” tones, shang or acute tone, chu or grave tone, and ju or abrupt tone.
Astronomy and Mathematics
Like India, Astronomy and astrology played a very important part in ancient Chinese culture. It
was believed in both countries that the planets influence and guide the destiny of men. There is
some evidence that works on Indian astronomy were in circulation in China well before the
T’ang period. In the annals of the Sui dynasty numerous Chinese translations of Indian
mathematical and astronomical works are mentioned, such as the Po-lo-men Suan fa (The Hindu
Arithmetical Rules), and Po-lo-men Suan King. Imperial bureau in China took the services of
Indian astronomers to prepare accurate calendars. There were three Indian, astronomical schools
at Changan in T’ang period: Gautama (Chhuthan), Kasyapa (Chiayeh), and Kumara (Chumolo).
In AD 684 a member of the Gautama school named Luo presented a new calendar, ‘Guong Zi’ to
Empress Wu which was in use for three years. In 718, another member of the school, Hsi-ta
(Siddhartha), presented to the emperor a calendar, Chiu-che-le, which was almost a direct
translation of an Indian calendar, Navagraha Siddhanta of Varahamihira, and which is still
preserved in the T'ang period collection. It contained a calculation of the moon's course and the
eclipses. In AD 721 the Buddhist monk Yixing adopted a new method of calculation evidently
based on Indian sources which he had studied well. He undertook the compilation of a calendar
named Da-yan-li. Yixing died in AD 727 before the work could be completed. By the imperial
order the work was continued and completed in AD 729. The work was not without the influence
of Indian astronomy as it introduced in the Indian fashion nine planets, the sun, the moon, the
five planets, and two new ones, the Rahu and the Ketu, by which the Indian astronomers
presented the ascending and the descending nodes of the moon. This is to be noted that Sui
period and the Tang period Indian astronomers were serving in the official astronomical bureau
and that Indian astronomy and mathematics were esteemed in China.
Medicine and Surgery
Buddhism stressed the great importance of health and paid a good deal of attention to the
prevention and cure of maladies. Buddha was the great healer whose teachings were a therapy
for the ills of the world, and one of the important Buddhas in the pantheon was Bhaishajyaguru,
the master of medicine. Among the Buddhist monks in China there were a number noted for their
proficiency in medicine. We can see the evidences of Indian influence on Chinese medicine with
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more definite examples. The Indian theory of the balance of four great elements (earth, water,
fire, and air) was introduced to China and adopted by the Chinese. The most eminent Taoist
Tang physicians, Sun Ssu-miao (nicknamed “New Vimalakirti), was interested in Buddhism. In
his medical treatise Ch’ien-chin yao-fang (Book of Prescriptions worth a Thousand Gold) there
is a passage showing that he fully subscribed to the Indian theory of the four elements. More
interesting, in the introduction he wrote that in order to be a great physician one must not only
read the Confucian and Taoist works but also the medical literature of the Buddhists.
The T’ang emperors patronized Indian thaumaturges (Tantric Yogis) who were believed to
possess secret methods of rejuvenation. Wang Hsuan-chao, who returned to India after the death
of Harsha, had been charged by the Chinese emperor in 664 to bring back Indian medicine and
physicians. A number of medical treatises, of a purely Buddhist character, are found in the
Chinese Buddhist collection. Ravana Kumaratantra treatise on the method of treatment of
children's disease by spell as well as by fumigation was translated in the eleventh century from
Sanskrit. Another small text (a fragment of a well-known Ayurvedic compendium called
Kashayasamhita) on the treatment of pregnant women's disease was translated in the same period
Chinese are also indebted of Buddhism in Certain surgical techniques, such as laparotomy or
removal of abdominal walls, trepanation or surgery of the skull, removal of cataracts, and
inoculation for smallpox. These all were influenced by Indian methods. Jivaka’s surgical
accomplishments became known to Buddhism through the translations of An Shih-kao in the
second century.
Music
The Chinese did not regard music as an art to be cultivated outside temples and theatres and it
was almost exclusively confined to temple worship, religious rites, and court ceremonies. When
Buddhism reached in China, Buddhist monks brought the practice of chanting sacred texts during
religious rites. Hence, Indian melody was introduced into Chinese music which was rather static
and restrained. There was no well-organized class of professional music teachers, no
accomplished amateur musicians practicing music purely for aesthetic satisfaction, and ballads
and folk-singing were not very common.
The Chinese annals tell us that music was cultivated in their country in a Brahmanical family
called Cao (Ts'ao) and the representative of that family, Miaoda went to China in the period AD
550-77. In the sixth century, Indian music became so popular in China that the Chinese Emperor
Gaozu (Kao-tsu) (581-595AD) tried to proscribe it by a decree, but without any effect. His
successor Yang Di was so fond of this music that he got a number of airs composed in this style.
By the end of the sixth century Indian music had been given state recognition. During the T'ang
period, Indian music was quite popular, especially the famous Rainbow Garment Dance melody.
There were Indian, central Asian, and southeast Asian orchestras at the T'ang court, and each
year the emperor invited musical parties from abroad.
The earliest known opera of China, po-tow (The Wedge), is reported to have been introduced
from India. By the end of the period of the Northern and Southern dynasties, many musical
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instruments were introduced into China through central Asia. Many foreign instruments also
came during the T'ang period, ya-cheng (a stringed instrument) played by rubbing the strings
with a slip of bamboo, came through Tibet, of the time, the kiung-hou (A popular stringed
musical instrument), came from India during the Han period. The Chinese hu-ch’in, a foreign
importation, is exactly like the two-stringed sitara of India. The Chinese guitar, pi p’a also
possibly came from India during the Han and Tang dynasties.
Science
A major Buddhist influence on Chinese science was in scientific thought itself. Buddhist
concepts, like infinity of space and time, the plurality of worlds and of time-cycles or kalpas
(chieh), stimulated Chinese inquiry, broadened the Chinese outlook and equipped it to
investigate scientific problems. The Indian doctrine of karma (tso-yeh) or metempsychosis
influenced Chinese scientific thought on the process of biological change involving both
phylogeny and ontogeny. Buddhist Iconography was also having a biological element. Buddhism
also introduced a highly developed theory of logic, both formal and dialectical, and of
epistemology.
Sports
The famous Shaolin style of boxing is attributed to Indian influence. Bodhidharma, who believed
in the theory of a sound mind in a sound body, taught the monks in the Shaolin temple this style
of boxing for self-defence and for rejuvenating the body after exacting meditation and mental
concentration. Indian racing games also reached China in the first millennium. Karl Himly
(expert on the history of Chinese games), by quoting a passage from the Hun Tsun Su (a work of
the Sung period), suggests that the Chinese game T’shu-p’u Show was invented in western India
and spread to China in the time of the Wei dynasty (220-265). T’shu-pu is in fact the Chinese
adaptation of the Indian chatush-pada (modern chaupur). Chess was also introduced from India
to China through the ancient trade route from Kashmir. Cubical dice game (ch’u-p’I or yu-p’i),
although found in ancient Egypt as well as in India, is generally believed to have reached China
from India. Arthur Waley is of the opinion that the prominence of the number six in the Book of
Changes was derived from the six sides of the cubical dice.
Concluding Remarks
Now the question arises, why Buddhism was able to make so many contributions to so many
different facets of Chinese life? Actually, after its introduction and spread in China, it gradually
became more and more Sinicized or adjusted itself to the Chinese environment. The example of
such change and adaptation might be seen in the establishment of such schools like the Tien-t'ai,
Pure Land, and Ch’an. The Buddhist sangha in China also transformed significantly. During the
Tang and Sung Dynasties the monasteries through their ownership of land and their commercial
and industrial installations participated closely in the economic life of the country, and thus
played a similar role to that of the native landlords and the aristocratic families.
Buddhist temples (organized and supported by the state) also, performed religious ceremonies
for the welfare of the ruling house and the state, and as such might be considered as a sort of
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