INCARNATIONS of
DEVOTION
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Published by: Kapoor Assets, Inc.
Printed in New York, New York
All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in any part, in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of Kapoor Assets, Inc.
Photography by: Marcin Muchalski
Design and layout by: Laura Weinstein
Text by: Laura Weinstein, Sophia Williamson, Carly Johnson
Edited by: Laura Weinstein
Catalog production: Laura Weinstein, and finalized for print by Henry Houston
ISBN: 978-1-7337900-2-4
Cover illustration: Green Tara (cat. no. 71)
Exhibition framing and Design by Al Avci and his team at Art and Frame of New York
A Personal Foreword
The publication of this catalog served as a startling reminder to me, marking the one-year anniversary of first
entering this twilight, almost surreal atmosphere, that we have grown accustomed to in “Pandemic Life”. It
seems like it wasn’t too long ago that we thought this temporary shutdown would only be a week or two, and
that we might even be able to re-open for the tail end of Asia Week, 2020.
Now here we are, releasing our catalog for Asia Week 2021, still in lockdown- but with multiple vaccines
slowly rolling out to the public, an actual light at the end of the tunnel. An example to prove the interminable
alimentation of both Kapoor Galleries, and the Kapoor family’s stubbornness.
I would like to take this opportunity to send out a special thank you to my team at Kapoor Galleries, who made
this catalog happen and offered me the motivation to subsist despite how dark things seemed at times: Laura
Weinstein, Sophia Williamson, & Carly Johnson. Lastly, a more general thank you to all of our friends, clients,
partners, naysayers, and those of you in between. You all know who you are.
You’ve helped motivate me more than you will ever know, especially the naysayers.
Sincerely,
Sanjay Kapoor
3.11.21
Introduction
Over the past year, many aspects of our normal lives have come to a standstill amidst this global pandemic.
Although the art world has been forced to adapt to an increasingly virtual world, the perseverance and creativity
that members of this community have exhibited in doing so is inspiring. It is comforting to know that no matter
the circumstances, art and its appreciators will persist, and we look forward to when we can share these experiences
in person again with one another.
Thus, it is with great pleasure and pride that we present Kapoor Galleries’ 2021 catalog, Incarnations of Devotion.
This catalog is a celebration of the gallery’s forty-plus years of success as a family enterprise, and as such, is
dedicated to the memory of Urmil Kapoor (1941-2018). Together with Ramesh Kapoor, she helped bring the field
of Indian and Himalayan art to where it is today.
After India’s partition in 1947, Ramesh left Pakistan along with his parents and migrated from Lahore to Jalandhar,
India. There, the government allocated his father an empty store where he could establish his own business.
After a thrift merchant offered him an entire private library, Ramesh’s father started a rental library, catering to
Indian refugees whose displacement left them with ample time to read. This led to the acquisition of illustrated
books and manuscripts, which helped propel the Kapoor family into the field of the fine art of Indian miniature
painting. When Ramesh finished college in 1958 and joined his father in business, the two worked together to
establish relationships with museums and universities, supplying these institutions with coveted masterworks.
Ramesh and Urmil married in 1967, and witnessing an increasing European and American interest in Indian
Art, they immigrated to the United States and established Kapoor Galleries Inc. in New York City in 1975.
Since establishment, Kapoor Galleries Inc. has played an instrumental role in educating the public about the
ancient and classical fine arts of India and the Himalayas while encouraging interest amongst both collectors and
institutions. Ramesh Kapoor has guided some of the most significant public and private collections of the 20th
century, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Art Institute
of Chicago, the San Diego Museum of Art, the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, the Norton Simon Museum, the
Minneapolis Institute of Art, the Detroit Institute of Art, the Dallas Museum of Art, and Ball State Museum.
We would also like to take this opportunity to extend our deepest gratitude to those who have lent their
knowledge and support for this endeavor: Ramesh & Urmil Kapoor, Dr. Pratapaditya Pal, Dr. Daniel Ehnbom,
Dr. Gursharan Sidhu, Dr. Gautama Vajracharya, Mitche Kunzman, Dr. Amin Jaffer, Jeff Watt, Dr. Amy Heller,
Bob Del Bonta, Steve Kossak, Dr. Vidya and Jay Dehejia, Dr. Harsha Dehejia, Dr. John Guy, Pujan Gandhi,
and Dr. Emma Stein.
Enjoy this catalog, and we look forward to welcoming you to Kapoor Galleries!
1
Ganesha Enthroned
Guler, first generation after Nainsukh and Manaku, circa 1775-1780
Ink and opaque watercolor on paper
Image: 6 3/8 x 9 3/8 in. (16.2 x 23.8 cm.)
Folio: 8 x 11 1/4 in. (20.3 x 28.6 cm.)
Provenance:
Private New York collection.
Seated on a lotus flower at three-quarters view, the Lord
Ganesha is depicted here, carrying an elephant goad,
a rosary, and the god’s preferred sweet, ladoo. As the
remover of obstacles and god of beginnings, this image
of Ganesha would have been the opening folio of the
Gita Govinda series from which it was taken. The lush
and detailed landscape of the present composition
is representative of that which pervades and defines
the entire series. Artists from Guler often utilized a
technique of burnishing the backside of the painting
in order to deeply embed the colors into the paper
support—evidenced by the still-vibrant palette of this
eighteenth-century painting.
Painted by the generation following Nainsukh and
Manaku, the present image contains many stylistic
similarities to another Ganesha folio from the same
workshop, currently located at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art (acc. L.2018.44.23). Note the similar
treatment of the trees and vegetation, as well as the
rendering of the crown with five points that playfully
bend and are each surmounted by spheres; a stylization
of iconography extremely common among paintings
from the Guler atelier.
Sanskrit text on the verso reads:
One who has the face of an elephant, one
who is served by the Bhutaganas (celestial
attendants) and others,
One who partakes in the delicious kapittha
(wood apple) and jambu (rose apple) fruits;
Who is the son of Devi Uma and effects the
destruction of sorrows,
I Salute the Lotus-Feet of that Vighneshwara
(the ‘Lord Who removes the Obstacles’).
(translation by Navpreet Singh)
2
Ganesha
Northeastern India, Pala period, 11th century
Gray basalt
26 x 14 1/3 x 3 1/3 in. (66 x 36.3 x 8.4 cm.)
Provenance:
With Moreau-Gobard Gallery, Paris, by the early 1960s.
Acquired from the above by Mr. & Mme Michael Rade.
Thence by descent.
The elephant-headed god sits in the posture of royal
ease holding an axe, a fruit, a radish, and a bowl of
sweets. His corpulent belly hangs over the short striped
dhoti covering his lower body. A serpent draped
across his chest takes the place of the standard sacred
cord or yajnopavita worn by Hindu deities while he is
otherwise ornamented in jewels. An eight-petaled lotus
floats above his enshrined body while his foot rests on
another, met by the mouth of his vahana—the rat.
This charming image of the widely adored remover
of obstacles is carved into a niche with a decorative,
stepped architectural element atop resembling an
elaborate temple roof. Carved into a dark igneous rock
native to the northeastern Indian kingdom of the Pala
dynasty, the relief resembles many of those that graced
the exteriors of temples therein.
3
Illustration to Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda
Mewar, Udaipur, circa 1714
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 9 ½ x 16 ½ in. (24.1 x 41.9 cm.)
Provenance:
Purchased in the U.S. in 1972 and descended in the Steig family.
The present painting depicts a portion of the love story
between Krishna and Radha. Depicted in the lower left
corner along with two other figures is likely the poet
Jayadeva, author to the Hindu text, sharing it with
worshippers. The verdant landscape represented here is
Braj—a pastoral region in north central India along the
Jamuna river inhabited by Krishna. A verse at the top of
the folio sheds some light on the scenes before us:
May poet Jayadeva’s song
Bring joy to sensitive men.
Lord Hari,
Radha suffers in her retreat.
Gita Govinda 6.9.
(translation by Dr. Harsha Dehejia)
The lively composition is divided according to the
principle of kaksavibhaga or ‘zonal divisions’ utilized in
Sanskrit dramas; vegetation and architecture create four
separate scenes in the present painting. The horizontal
register of clouds atop and the style in which vegetation
in the form of multiple bowers encloses two of the four
scenes are both typical Mewari features.
The present painting closely resembles the style of a
widely dispersed manuscript completed in 1714 in honor
of Maharana Sangram Singh II of Mewar (r. 1710–34)
at the Royal Ontario Museum (971.281.4). The series
consists of 271 folios and the present is numbered
‘137.’ Dr. Gusharan Sidhu has identified ‘144’ of this
series, which he gifted to the Asian Museum of Art, San
Francisco (acc. 1990.217).
4
Krishna with Female Attendants
Bikaner, last quarter of the 17th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 8 3/8 x 5 3/8 in. (21.3 x 12.7 cm.)
Folio: 13 1/4 x 8 5/8 in. (33.7 x 21.9 cm.)
A light blue sky descends into a mossy green, where
the background meets the horizon line of a marble
terrace. Green and yellow honeycomb tiles atop the
garden pavilion’s roof bring out the fluid streaks of
golden clouds in the sky. Floral motifs fill the textiles
and panels that decorate the pavilion as well as the large
bed around which three elegant female attendants wait
on a regal figure, hand and foot.
The identity of the adored male herein is revealed by
his sky-blue skin and the obscured peacock feather on
the proper-left side of his five-pointed diadem. Krishna’s
crown style resembles that exactly of a Bikaner painter
Ibrahim’s 1692 Rasikapriya illustration in the collection
of the Brooklyn Museum of Art (acc. 81.192.3). The
present painting exhibits figures with cinched waists,
the use of linear perspective, and a gold-speckled
border—all typical features of paintings from Bikaner,
a major center of painting of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries within Rajasthan. The inscription
which appears under the lower right corner of the
painted image refers to the divine Krishna in a loving
Urdu epithet, “Mohan Lal.”
5
Bala Krishna
Southern India, Tamil Nadu, Chola period, 13th century
Copper alloy
4 1/4 in. (10.8 cm.) high
Provenance:
Private Newport Beach collection, acquired in 1962.
Private west coast collection, since 2005.
This bronze figure of the charming child Krishna conjures the god’s habit for mischief. In the tenth book of
the Bhagavata Purana, Krishna’s foster mother Yasodha
ties him to a wooden mortar to keep him from repeatedly trying to steal butter balls, like the one he holds in
his hand here. This bronze image captures the endearing butter thief crawling nude (although beneath elaborate jewelry), revealing his well-nourished and youthful
body. The present figure wears multilayered necklaces
that fit close to the chest, surmounted by a longer necklace with jewels at its center and floral elements at each
side, mirroring the central ornaments of his upper arm
bands and bracelets. He also wears a harness with a
kirtimukha fastening and a charm box. His backside is
given equal attention as his front.
The style of well-modeled and unique ornamentation
seen here is characteristic of the Chola period,
considered the height of Indian bronze casting.
Although images of Bala Krishna are extremely rare, the
divine figure in this image became an object of popular
worship in southern India by the medieval period. The
only other published example of a Chola-period Bala
Krishna image depicts him supine, with one of his
small toes in his mouth (R. Nagaswamy, Masterpieces of
South Indian Bronzes, Ahmedabad, 1983, p.162, pl.174;
also in Timeless Delight, Ahmedabad, 2006, p.227, fig.4).
The present child figure’s head is modeled with fine
hair and a leaf-shaped hairpin like the supine childgod while examples from the subsequent Vijayanagara
period donned high cylindrical headdress. As the
majority of examples appear to be much more schematic
imaginations of the deity than the present figure, it is
reasonable to conclude that despite direct comparable
examples, this bronze figure of Bala Krishna is a rare
and unique artifact of the Chola period.
6
Shiva and Parvati
Murshidabad, circa 1780
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 10 x 8 in. (25.7 x 20.3 cm.)
Folio: 11 x 9 in. (28.2 x 22.9 cm.)
The present painting depicts Lord Shiva and Parvati
seated under a tree atop Mount Kailash. An even line
of trees and palms dot the horizon, dividing a clear
blue sky and a vast expanse of green. Shiva, seated on a
tiger pelt, is adorned with serpents which curl around
his neck and arms. On his forehead is his third eye,
topped by a crescent moon. From his piled hair flows
the river of Ganges which splits the mountain in two.
He is equipped with two damaru—a divine instrument
which produces the sounds that create and regulate
the universe—one in his proper left hand, and another
hanging from his trident, along with pennants that
billow in the breeze. Beside him is Parvati, seated upon a
lotus flower. She holds her hands open in respect as she
gazes upon her lover. Both she and Shiva have glowing
nimbuses marking their divinity. Below the couple rests
Shiva’s faithful vahana, Nandi, the sacred bull.
7
Shiva and Parvati (Uma Maheshvara)
Northeastern India, Pala period, 11th-12th century
Phyllite stone
10 3/8 in. (25.4 cm.) high
Provenance:
From a private European collection, acquired in the 1980s, by repute.
The divine couple depicted here is referred to as ‘UmaMaheshvara’, as the god and goddess demonstrate their
loving union in this affectionate display. The present
sculpture was created according to a standardized
convention: Shiva (Maheshvara) sits atop a lotus in
rajalalitasana, the posture of royal ease, with Parvati
(Uma) on his left thigh. Shiva holds a partially opened
blue lotus in his upper right hand while his lower
right lovingly raises his consort’s chin. His lower left
hand wraps around Parvati’s waist, gently touching
the bottom of her left breast. Parvati holds a mirror
and wraps her opposite arm around Shiva’s shoulder
where her delicate hand rests. Shiva’s left hand holds
a large trident in a strong grip. Their pendant legs are
supported by Nandi and a lion, respectively. A devotee
is depicted to their lower left.
While the present stele is somewhat formulaic in terms
of iconography, it is enhanced with subtle details in
the deities’ countenances that convey desire. Moreover,
the animal vehicles or vahana, participate in the scene,
staring playfully and adoringly at their two masters.
This small stele is carved with significant depth and,
evidently, with great care. Many similar Pala-period
images of Uma-Maheshvara can be found in the Patna
Museum, where they are described as originating
from Bihar.
8
Vishnu
South India, Tamil Nadu, Vijayanagara period, 16th century
Copper alloy
28 in. (71.1 cm.) high
Provenance:
Henry Spencers and Son Auctioneers, The Square, Retford, January 1996.
Private New York collection, since the early 2000s.
The male deity stands on a lotus pedestal in powerful
samabhanga. Vishnu is richly clad in elaborate jewelry,
including anklets, a festooned triple-banded belt with
a kirtimukha ornament at its center, a beaded girdle, a
thick sacred thread or yajnopavita, bracelets, armlets,
necklaces, earrings and a tall cylindrical crown. His
identity is revealed by the flaming chakra and conch he
wields in his upper two hands.
Sculptors of the Vijayanagara period inherited their
techniques and style from the master casters of the
Chola period. The style of sculpture is, however,
distinguished from the earlier period by standardization
of deities’ ornaments and a more stolid appearance,
overall—perhaps because of the volume of image
production during this period of great Hindu patronage.
Just as those created in Tamil Nadu in prior centuries,
the present sculpture was both an important temple
commission as well as an object of transient worship, as
it is fitted for processions with bronze loops and tangs
at its base.
The present figure is representative of the Vijayanagara
style, with rigid pleats descending down the figure’s
dhoti and incised petals on the lotus base. Vishnu’s
cylindrical crown is also shared by most Vijayanagaraperiod bronzes, including a fifteenth-century figure of
Varaha in the Victoria Albert Museum (IM.6-1924).
This bronze Vishnu, however, has a lightness and life
which comes through his carefully-modelled hands
and soft belly. Such details transform his symmetrical
and impassive countenance into one of divine power
and perfection.
9
Matrika Lotus Mandala
Nepal, 16th-17th century
Copper alloy
7 1/8 in. (18.3 cm.) in diameter
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources, item no. 7628.
A bronze lotus springs from a stem decorated with
foliate sprays at each of the stepped base’s four corners.
Each of the eight movable petals is cast to convey several
layers of the closed lotus bud. The goddesses within
are identified by the implements they carry and their
vahanas (mounts), corresponding to those of their male
counterparts: Varahi atop a buffalo, Mahalakshmi atop
a lion, Maheshvari atop Nandi, Vaishnavi atop Garuda,
Indrani atop an elephant, Kumari atop a peacock,
Brahmani atop a goose, and Chamunda atop a corpse.
The present example bears a striking resemblance to
the sixteenth-century Navadurga lotus mandala at the
Newark Museum of Art (acc. 90.400).
10
Illustration to the Devi Mahatmya: Kali Withdraws from Vishnu
Jaipur, circa 1800
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 11 3/8 x 7 ½ in. (28.9 x 19.1 cm.)
Folio: 11 3/4 x 7 3/4 in. (29.8 x 19.7 cm.)
Provenance:
Private French collection.
The present scene depicts the first episode of the Devi
Mahatmya during the time of pralaya, the period between
the cyclical destruction and creation of the universe
when the primordial ocean is all that exists. Vishnu
is depicted in deep sleep amongst the cosmic waters
while Brahma prepares to create the next universal
cycle. Brahma’s efforts, however, are interrupted by two
demons who emerge to kill him. Alarmed, he attempts
to awaken Vishnu to slay the demons, singing a hymn
of praise. Brahma sings to the great goddess Mahamaya,
the personification of Vishnu’s sleep, and asks her to
release him from her spell. As Devi proceeds to retreat
from Vishnu’s body she appears before Brahma. Vishnu
then awakens and slays the demons, thereby acting as
Devi’s instrument in restoring cosmic order.
Here, Devi appears in her form as the ten-headed
Dasa Mahavidya Mahakali. This form of the goddess
is relatively rare in the Indian painting tradition, as
she is more commonly portrayed in her one-headed,
four-armed image, trampling Shiva. However, the
present form shares many iconographic attributes with
the more common form. Clad in a garland of severed
heads and skirt of dismembered arms, Kali holds items
representing the powers of each of the gods in her ten
hands: a severed head, trident, bow, mace, conch, sword,
and chakra. Her outstretched tongues, bared teeth, long
unruly hair, large nimbus and strong stance convey her
fierceness. Below, Vishnu reclines, and Brahma emerges
from Vishnu’s navel on a lotus, flanked by the demons
Madhu and Kaitabha. Fine lines of water and lotuses
comprise the cosmic ocean, while a horizon of foliage
bisects the background with a pale blue-grey sky above.
This partitioning of the background reinforces the
hierarchical scale of the painting and thus emphasizes
Kali’s great power.
11
Kali Trampling Shiva
Rajasthan, Jaipur, 18th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 7 1/8 x 4 ½ in. (18.1 x 11.4 cm.)
Folio: 9 7/8 x 7 1/4 in. (25.1 x 18.4 cm.)
Provenance:
Nik Douglas, British Virgin Islands, 17 December 1982.
The James and Marilynn Alsdorf Collection, Chicago.
According to Hindu mythology, there was once a
powerful demon named Raktabija who received a boon
allowing him to replicate himself whenever a drop of
his blood touched the earth. When the demon engaged
in battle with the gods, Kali spread her tongue over the
battlefield to prevent any of the demon’s blood from
hitting the ground, thus facilitating his defeat. Kali,
however, became drunk with bloodlust and after her
victory, the goddess went on a rampage. She proceeded
to kill anyone who crossed her path, adorning herself
with the dismembered parts of her victims. Afraid that
Kali would not stop until she destroyed all the cosmos,
Shiva laid down on the battlefield in her path. Upon
seeing her consort beneath her foot, she suddenly
realized her mistake and halted her spree.
This painting illustrates the moment Shiva pacifies Kali,
appearing in her form as Dakshinakali, the benevolent
mother. Dakshinakali is typically depicted with her right
foot on Shiva’s chest, while her more fearsome form as
Vamakali is usually shown with her left foot on his chest.
She holds a severed head and scimitar in two of her
four hands and wears a skirt of dismembered arms from
her rampage. Kali’s typical garland of severed heads is
replaced here with a string of severed heads around her
chignon, and her large, outstretched tongue drips with
the blood of her victims. A pale, prostrate Shiva lays
below, gazing up at Kali. By presenting Kali as literally
trampling Shiva, this archetypal image demonstrates
the extent to which Shiva’s transcendental power is only
possible through interaction with Kali.
12
Chinnamasta
Rajasthan, Jaipur, 18th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 7 1/8 x 4 ½ in. (18.1 x 11.4 cm.)
Folio: 8 7/8 x 6 7/8 in. (22.5 x 17.5 cm.)
Provenance:
Nik Douglas, British Virgin Islands, 17 December 1982.
The James and Marilynn Alsdorf Collection, Chicago.
In the Hindu tradition, Chinnamasta (or ‘Severed
Head’) is one of the ten mahavidyas (incarnations of the
great goddess Devi). According to the Pranatosinitantra,
Parvati was bathing in the wilderness with two yoginis,
Dakini and Varnini, when they became famished.
Parvati resolved to decapitate herself so that they may be
nourished by her blood, thus embodying Chinnamasta.
Here, the goddess appears seated on a throne,
worshipped by a ruler and his wife kneeling beside her,
holding a scimitar in her right hand and her own head
on a platter in her left. A crown sits just above her third
eye, while thin wisps of hair hang loose and her tongue
lolls. The goddess is adorned with pearl and emerald
jewelry, and her skin is rendered a characteristic
orange-red complexion. Thin streams of blood can
be seen flowing from her neck to the mouths of the
yoginis that flank her. Chinnamasta’s iconography
encompasses elements of both terror and heroism by
way of severing her own head and then offering her
blood for nourishment, ultimately symbolizing the
transformations of death and life.
13
Lalita Maha Tripura Sundari
Mandi, style of Sajnu, circa 1810
Opaque watercolor heightened with silver and gold on paper
Image: 9 1/8 x 5 7/8 in. (23.2 x 14.9 cm.)
Folio: 11 3/4 x 8 1/4 in. (29.8 x 21 cm.)
Provenance:
Royal Mandi collection.
Acquired by the present owner on the UK art market.
The majesty of this supreme shakti is perfectly captured
by this finely decorated Pahari composition. Her beauty,
as her name indicates, transcends the vast Tripura (three
demon citadels) within which she is believed to have
defeated many demons. For she is the transcendent
form of the supreme Devi Parvati and rules over the
Trimurti (divine triad) of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.
Thus, she is also known as ‘Raja Rajeshwari,’ meaning
the ‘Queen of all Kings and Rulers.’
Such worship consists in throwing kumkuma (vermilion
powder) over the yantra while speaking aloud the many
epithets of Lalita Maha Tripura Sundari.
The present subject is rare among published paintings,
however, one example can be found in the Victoria
and Albert Museum, though it is currently identified
as Kali (acc. CIRC.660-1969). The present painting,
however, differs quite distinctly in style as it can be
attributed to the style of Sajnu, the master artist who is
credited with bringing the sophistication of Kangra and
Guler paintings of the time to Mandi. Her profile, in
particular, resembles many subjects executed by Sajnu
(see Archer, W.G., Indian Painting from the Punjab Hills,
Sotheby Parke Bernet, London, 1973, Mandi no. 43).
The mahavidhya’s power is not only captured by her
elaborate enthronement and godly ornamentation, but
also by the ethereal gaze the artist rendered so well; her
wide and bright third eye clearly visible in this rendering
of the deity in profile. Her identity is revealed by her red
skin and her four arms, two of which hold an elephant
goad and a lasso.
Here, Lalita appears enthroned atop the terrace of a
marble palace; a pietre-dure arch between two marble
Her identity is corroborated by a small painted image, pillars frames the goddess. The black margin with floral
pasted within the border atop the painting folio petal and leaf scrolls in white and gold meets a reddepicting the Parvati yantra: a six-pointed star within speckled yellow border. This follows, as Sajnu is known
an eight-petaled lotus surrounded by a square with for the use of spandrels to frame his compositions and
gates in the four cardinal directions. It is typical to an exquisite use of florals.
find such an associated yantra as the worship of shaktis
always incorporates these diagrammatic mystic charms.
14
Uma (Parvati)
South India, Tamil Nadu, Chola period, 11th-12th century
Copper Alloy
15 x 8 ½ in. (38.1 x 21.5 cm.)
Provenance:
The estate of Kelly Brook, acquired in India in the 1950s.
Galleria Ethnologica, Forli, Italy, 2011.
Uma appears graceful yet powerful upon a tiered lotus
throne. A crown surmounts her discreetly smiling face,
modeled with wide eyes, a sharp nose and full lips.
Her sacred thread or yajnopavita, guides the eye from
her neck down her voluptuous torso and soft belly to
her lap, where her beautifully detailed skirt covers her
legs to her mid-calf, below which multi-banded anklets
and beaded ornaments decorate her down to her feet.
She sits in lalitasana, the ‘posture of royal ease,’ with
one leg retracted and the other hanging relaxedly off of
her throne.
Most images of Parvati in this seated posture belong to a
larger group referred to as ‘Somaskanda,’ which describes
the divine family constituted by Shiva, Parvati and
Skanda. The present figure of Parvati, or ‘Uma’ in the
native language of Tamil Nadu, was almost certainly part
of a larger group of sculptures which served an essential
role in a Shaivite temple centuries ago.
“According to Shaiva Siddhanta philosophy, only when he
is in the company of his consort Uma does Shiva bestow
grace upon an individual soul. A metal image of the god
together with Uma and their son Skanda is thus the
principal image of such individual grace, and every single
temple, wealthy or otherwise possesses a Somaskanda
image. ( V. Dehejia, The Sensuous and the Sacred: Chola
Bronzes of South India, New York, 2002, p.128.).” The
image is of such great importance that it may be used as a
substitute for any godly image needed for Hindu worship.
While the present sculpture, like most figures of its size,
was commissioned for and essential for temple worship,
the group of three portable bronze images were also
processional. Such is indicated by the holes fit for poles
seen here, which enable worshippers to carry the divine
figures into the streets for all to experience darshan—to
meet the gaze of the divine.
There are instances in which bronze Somaskanda
images were cast as a whole as well as instances in which
they have been cast separately, while intended to be
experienced together. One instance of a separately-cast
Somaskanda group, such as that from which the present
originates, can be found at the Puran Vitankar Temple in
Tirumangalakudi, dated circa-1100 by Dehejia (see ibid,
p.128, fig. 1). The present figure of Uma, however, differs
from this one stylistically.
The eleventh or twelfth century date for the present
figure is supported by the crown style, which follows that
of Parvati’s in a well known group depicting the marriage
of Shiva and Parvati from the Tiruvenkadu temple, circa
1012, now in the Tanjore Art Gallery (see V. Dehejia,
Art of the Imperial Cholas, New York, 1990, p. 72, fig.
55). The three tiers of the conical crown and the central
ornamented petal, as well as the simple layered necklaces
and arm bands framing her buoyant breasts with
articulated nipples, however, more closely matches that
of a Somaskanda image of Parvati at the Shiva Temple in
Paundarikapuram attributed to the late twelfth century
(see V. Dehejia, The Sensous and the Sacred: Chola Bronzes
of South India, New York, 2002, p. 43, fig. 22). Moreover,
the absence of the three distinct lines above Uma’s
abdomen (trivali tarangini), a later Chola convention,
supports the early dating of this bronze.
Six illustrations to a Rasikapriya series
Kangra, attributed to Purkhu, circa 1820
This group of six illustrations depicts the different
moods of lovers (nayakas and nayikas) as described by
the poet Keshav Das in his ‘Compendium of Courtly
Love,’ the Rasikapriya. Written around 1591, the
Rasikapriya explores love in all its myriad forms, often
through the ideal lovers Radha and Krishna, whose
romance is likened to the union of the soul with god.
His vivid musical style and deeply poetic depiction of
love’s turbulence and passion inspired generations of
poets and artists alike.
In particular, Rasikapriya subjects became especially
popular for the Pahari Painters of the Punjab hills
throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Their paintings reflected a deep culture of Vaishnavism–
the religion of love–in which the adoration of physical
beauty develops into divine love. Thus, Kangra
paintings often revolved around erotic sentiment,
a theme perfectly encapsuleted in the Rasikapriya.
(M.S. Randhawa, Kangra Paintings on Love, New
Delhi, 1962)
There are fourteen comparable paintings from a
Rasikapriya series in the collections of the Victoria and
Albert Museum. (W.G. Archer, Indian Paintings from
the Punjab Hills, London, 1973, Vol. I (text), no. 66
(i-xiv), pp. 305-307; Vol. II (plates), pp. 228-230).
15
Illustration to a Rasikapriya series: Krishna and Radha at a Jharokha Window
Kangra, attributed to Purkhu, circa 1820
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 10 3/8 x 6 ¾ in. (26.4 x 17.3 cm.)
Folio: 12 7/8 x 9 ¼ in. (32.8 x 23.5 cm.)
Provenance:
Royal Mandi collection.
Private English collection.
The present scenes depicts Krishna and Radha seated
in a Jharoka window. Two sakhis converse in the fenced
terrace below, overlooking a lush flower garden and
decorative fountain. Adorned in a peacock feather
crown, Krishna lovingly gazes at Radhas’s beautiful
visage, yet she will not meet his eyes. Instead she stares
at the small scratches scattered across her lover’s chest,
and pinches her dupatta in her left hand, pulling it as if
to shield herself. The folio number ‘193’ is inscribed in
the upper left corner and the reverse with ‘12ll.’
A line of black Braj Bhasa above refers to Radhika’s
secret state of heavy separation; the manifestation
of pride, or jealousy, induced by seeing or hearing
evidence of another woman. Guru mana is the strongest
mana, and reflects the fullness of one’s love, ultimately
enhancing it’s sublimity.
The verso is inscribed with a verse from the Rasikapriya
in alternating red and black script:
“Forgetting his quarrel with Radha, Krishna met
her and revelled in the enchantment of her beauty,
love and laughter. On seeing nail-marks on his person
beneath his garment, she turned her gaze away, and
her eyes drooped like a lotus flower at the sight of the
moon.”
(translation from M.S. Randhawa, Kangra
Paintings on Love, New Delhi, 1962, p.89)
The present illustration captures Radha’s reaction to
the scratches of another woman. While she is filled
with longing and jealousy when confronted with
Krishna’s countless love affairs, their pure and eternal
love always persists.
16
Illustration to a Rasikapriya series: Radha Seated with a Confidant in a Pavilion
Kangra, attributed to Purkhu, circa 1820
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 10 7/8 x 7 in. (27.6 x 17.7 cm.)
Folio: 13 x 9 1/4 in. (33 x 23.5 cm.)
Provenance:
Royal Mandi collection.
Private English collection.
Seated upon a lush carpet of scrolling florals, Radha
listens attentively to her sakhi, one hand resting on a
vibrant orange cushion as the other is raised to her chin.
Outside, blooming creepers peek out among the foliage
where two love birds sit apart among the branches, just
as the separated lovers Radha and Krishna. The yoniand lingam-shaped vessels behind Radha, as well as the
tall pointed minaret, are symbolic of desire and longing.
A line of black Braj Bhasa above rrefers to Krishna’s
manifested state of heavy separation and Radha’s state
of distress caused by quarrels with Krishna. The folio
number ‘196’ is inscribed in the upper left corner, the
reverse with ‘9ll.’
The verso is inscribed with a verse from the Rasikapriya
in alternating red and black script:
Sakhi to nayika: “If you have a complaint against
your dear one, you should speak of it only in private
to him; it would be wrong to disclose his guilts
publicly. If his eyes stray in undesirable directions,
you may try to restrain them, but not to prick them
with a knife. Remember, he is the same Syama,
separation from whom can kindle such a fire in the
hearts of women that a solution of camphor will
have to be sprayed to cool it. You should speak as
propriety demands, and not speak harshly to one
who has abandoned everything for the sake of your
love.”
(translation from M.S. Randhawa, Kangra
Paintings on Love, New Delhi, 1962, p.90)
17
Illustration to a Rasikapriya series: An Older Sakhi Comforts a Forlorn Radha
Kangra, attributed to Purkhu, circa 1820
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 10 x 6 ½ in. (25.4 x 16.4 cm)
Folio: 12 7/8 x 9 1/8 in. (32.8 x 23.1 cm.)
Provenance:
Royal Mandi collection.
Private English collection.
A forlorn Radha is seated on a terrace pavilion
overlooking a lake and hills. Typical of the Pahari
style, great attention is paid to the rolling hills in the
background—diminutive figures appear dispersed
amongst the countryside, rowing in boats, swimming,
and strolling in the fields. Lotiform columns frame the
scene, almost as if looking through a ‘window to the
past.’ Next to Radha sits an older sakhi (companion)
who comforts the separated lover amidst her bout of
malaise. The folio number ‘198’ is inscribed in the
upper left corner and the reverse with ‘8ll.’
A line of black Braj Bhasa above reads “radhika ko
prakas laghu mana” (“Radhika’s manifested state of
slight separation”). According to Keshav Das, mana is
the separation of lovers due to jealousy and obduracy.
Laghu mana occurs when the nayika herself sees the
nayaka with another woman.
The verso is inscribed with a verse from the Rasikapriya
in alternating red and black script:
Sakhi: “Even the pretence of annoyance with the
dear one is unworthy, and such indifference is indeed
unimaginable.”
Radha: “Who is dear, if he is himself indifferent?”
Sakhi: “Only yesterday he was sending his messages
of solicitude through me.”
Radha: “Why did you not come yesterday, if you
profess goodness?”
Sakhi: “Today I offer to act as a truce-maker.”
Radha: “It seems you will only cause a breach, for I
am disillusioned by the deeds of Krishna, who like a
kanera bud is white within, though red without.”
Sakhi: “Is there a witness who can be asked to verify
this accusation?”
Radha: “I would need no witness, for I have seen
things myself.”
(translation from M.S. Randhawa, Kangra
Paintings on Love, New Delhi, 1962, p.91)
18
Illustration to a Rasikapriya series: Krishna Enthroned
Kangra, attributed to Purkhu, circa 1820
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 10 1/8 x 6 3/4 in. (25.7 x 17.2 cm.)
Folio: 12 7/8 x 8 5/8 in. (32.4 x 21.9 cm.)
Provenance:
Royal Mandi collection.
Private English collection.
The present painting depicts a sakhi conveying a message
to Krishna from Radha, mediating between the two
on some matter of love. Krishna sits against an orange
bolster cushion on a celadon green throne. He wears
a vibrant saffron jama and is adorned in jewels–on his
head is his signature peacock feather crown. In the
background two lovebirds gaze at each other across the
foliage which is interspersed with pointed cypresses–a
symbol of Krishna’s passion for Radha. Storm clouds
lined in gold descend on the scene, perhaps reflective
of some turbulence forming between the fabled lovers.
A line of black Braj Bhasa above reads “pat ini ko
vachhan shri Krishna prati” (“conveying a message to Shri
Krishna”), folio number ‘262’ in the upper left corner,
the reverse with ‘10ll.’
The verso is inscribed with a verse from the Rasikapriya
in alternating red and black script:
Having loved her, why is it that you are involved with
other women? Do not confuse brass with gold. Even if
Saraswati teaches a crow, it cannot sing as sweetly as
a cuckoo. Those who like a mango cannot be satisfied
with a tamarind. Do desist from your misdemeanours.
12.29
(translation by Dr. Harsha Dehejia)
19
Illustration to a Rasikapriya series: Krishna Seated with Radha
Kangra, attributed to Purkhu, circa 1820
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 9 3/4 x 6 ½ in. (24.8 x 16.5 cm.)
Folio: 13 x 9 1/8 in. (33 x 23.2 cm.)
Provenance:
Royal Mandi collection.
Private English collection.
The iconic lovers gaze into each others’ eyes, Krishna’s
hand barely grazing Radha’s dress as she pinches her
dupatta in her right hand. Two sakhis (companions)
converse nearby. In the background, lush foliage
emerges over the terrace walls. Among the branches
sit two birds, resting under a vibrant pink and orange
sky framed by undulating clouds. A line of black
Braj Bhasa above reads “saatvik ki kriti udaharan” (an
example of an involuntary expression of emotion), folio
number ‘305’ in the upper left corner; the reverse with
‘12ll.’ This refers to the eight involuntary expressions
of emotions, as listed by Keshav Das: expressions of
“stupor, trembling, speechlessness, pallor, tearfullness,
perspiration, thrill and fainting.” (M.S. Randhawa,
Kangra Paintings on Love, New Delhi, 1962, p.51).
The verso is inscribed with a verse from the Rasikapriya
in alternating red and black script:
O foolish girl! Abandon all your desires and do not
get your heart on fire. Radha and Krishna are the
ideal romantic couple, better than Rati and Kama.
Even Parvati cannot sow discord between them, and
it would be foolish of Saraswati to come in between
them. The two of them are of the same mind, they
share the same thoughts and have one breath. They
may appear two in body but are united by their eyes.
15.9
(translation by Dr. Harsha Dehejia)
This is likely a conversation between the two sakhis, one
warning the other not to covet the handsome Krishna
or attempt to come in between the couple. Watching
the two together, she speaks to the divinity of Radha
and Krishna’s love, which reaches higher heights than
even that of the gods. Not even the god of love himself,
Kama, can compete with the depth of their love–and
who could, when the union of Radha and Krishna is
one and the same as the union of the soul with god?
20
Illustration to a Rasikapriya series: Krishna Conversing with a Sakhi
Kangra, attributed to Purkhu, circa 1820
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 9 3/4 x 6 3/8 in. (24.8 x 16.2 cm.)
Folio: 13 x 9 1/8 in. (33 x 23.2 cm.)
Provenance:
Royal Mandi collection.
Private English collection.
Seated against a floral lattice cushion upon a deep green
carpet decorated with scrolling vines, Krishna speaks
with Radha’s sakhi (confidante). Adorned in pearls,
with his signature peacock feather crown upon his head,
Krishna is the image of princely grace and male virility.
The outdoor terrace overlooks lush foliage interspersed
with pointed cypresses—symbols of Krishna’s ardent
desire for Radha. Flowering creepers, a common motif
in Kangra painting, curl among the branches. Upon
them, a pair of lovebirds sit apart, reflecting Krishna
and Radha’s “love in separation,” (one of the repeated
themes employed in Rasikapriya series). Above, a clear
blue sky belies billowing clouds tinged in bright orange
and outlined in silver. The folio number ‘308’ is
written in Braj Bhasa in in the upper left corner; the
reverse with ‘9ll.’
The verso is inscribed with verses from the Rasikapriya
in alternating red and black script:
When a poet combines sadness with romantic poetry
that is not good poetry. 16.6
A messenger speaks to the nayak:
O Rasiklal! (Krishna). Do not be stubborn, as that
nayika on seeing me will give up her pleasures and
abandon me as well. She has given up bathing, eating
and charity. She cannot think and it seems that she
will die any moment. Under these circumstances it
is not proper that I go there now as your messenger.
Taking a letter from you is out of the question. Even
at best she would only reluctantly take love messages
and stay away from her friends. These days a furnace
burns in her heart. In this state of grief how would
she receive me with a smile? 16.7
(translation by Dr. Harsha Dehejia)
21
A Nayika Writing a Note
Kangra, circa 1810-1830
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 8 1/4 x 6 in. (21 x 15.2 cm.)
Folio: 9 3/4 x 7 3/4 in. (24.8 x 19.7 cm.)
Within the frame of an arched window, a nayika
(heroine) sits on a carpeted terrace dressed in a flowing
green sari and orange veil with gold trim. She wears
large ear and nose rings, strands of pearls and numerous
jewels and ornaments. Her female companion awaiting
the finished note to deliver to her beloved. Below,
writing implements on a covered gold and jeweled
plinth appear along with a knife, scissors, a small gold
cup and a bowl.
The central female represents the consummate Kangra
heroine, with a demurely lowered gaze and an archetypal
profile, sharply defined features and jet-black hair. Her
fine nose, small red lips and shapely chin are enhanced
by her subtle smile. Whether the figure is a courtesan
or princess, this is an idealized rendering of a nayika,
her features displaying the classic look of a perfect
Pahari heroine found in countless miniatures since the
development of the Kangra style. The present painting
is a wonderful example the pan-Pahari style of Kangra
originated at Guler as a response to the increasing
influence of naturalistic Mughal painting.
22
Maiden with a Mirror
Kangra, circa 1810
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 4 7/8 x 3 5/8 in. (12.4 x 9.2 cm.)
Folio: 6 x 4 7/8 in. (15.2 x 12.4 cm.)
Provenance:
The Collection of Hellen and Joe Darion, New York, by February 1968 (no. 39).
The wide and focused eye of the young maiden directs
the viewer’s gaze directly to the figure’s hand with which
she applies kajal in a mirror held by an affectionate
child. She has already adorned herself with a tikka
(hair ornament), nath (nose ring), earrings, necklaces,
armbands, and rings. The vermillion on each of
her fingertips matches that of the three layers of her
diaphanous garments, decorated with green edges
matching the window valence above. She appears to
be preparing herself for an important event for which
the child below has already been groomed. The child’s
lavender dress matches the magenta and yellow textile
that hangs over the base of the window, creating a
pleasingly cohesive color palette.
The charming portrait is unmistakably Pahari,
epitomizing a bold and colorful tradition that
embraces naturalistic Mughal techniques. This type
of architectural framing (a view through a window) is
typical among paintings from Kangra, in particular, as
is the deep blue border with a gold foliate motif and a
secondary support of speckled pink paper.
23
Radha Watching a Storm
Signed ‘Mohammadi’, Mandi, dated 1824 (Samvat 1854)
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 9 1/3 x 6 5/8 in. (24 x 17 cm.)
Folio: 11 7/8 x 9 7/8 in. (30.3 x 25 cm.)
Provenance:
Theo Brown and Paul Woner, San Francisco, 1970s-1982.
Private collection, Los Angeles.
Bonhams New York, 19 Mar 2018, lot 3106.
Verso inscribed:
S[amvat] 30 re Bha [draprada] pra [vishte] 10 Shri Miyan
Sahaba ki nazar kita ch[tere]. Mahamadiye; translated,
“Presented to Miyan Saheb (exalted member of the
royal family) on the 10th day of the Bhadrapada
month of the year 30 (corresponding to 1854) by the
painter Mohammadi”.
The painter evokes the atmosphere of the monsoon
season with a turbulent sky of billowing rain clouds
and lightning bolts. The passionate nayika clad in a
richly ornamented dress looks back to her courtesans,
gesturing in the hope that the arrival of the rain will
hasten the return of her lover. The powerful and
brooding presence of the peacock signifies both the
arrival of the rainy season and amplifies the absence of
the nayak.
Mohammadi (Mohammad Bax) was the disciple of
Sajnu, whose prominence as a master artist became fully
realized under his new patron Raja Ishvari Sen of Mandi
after he left the court of Kangra around 1804. The style
favored in Mandi in the early decades of the nineteeth
century diverted towards curious subjects and a naïve
style under Shamsher Sen. Sajnu and Mohammadi
followed the conventions developed in the Guler and
Kangra school and focused on the classic Bharamasa
and nayika love poetry, such as that illustrated in the
present painting.
This work is important as it shows the high quality of
painting produced in the nineteenth century, indicated
by a date on the verso which corresponds to 1824 CE.
This remains one of the very few folios bearing the
artist’s signature. However, the name of the patron in
the inscription remains absent and is only referred to by
the honorific title “Miyan Saheb.” It is possible that this
inscription refers to Raja Bijai Sen, who ruled Mandi
from 1851 to 1902.
Compare the present painting with a similar scene in
the San Diego Museum of Art published in Goswamy
& Smith, Domains of Wonder, San Diego, 2005, pp.2523, fig.108. Also see a closely related work of similar size
dated to circa-1840, entitled, Palace Women Watching
the Approaching Storm, sold at Christie’s New York, 18
September 2013, lot 363.
24
Illustration to the Lanka Kanda of the Ramayana:
The Awakening of the Giant Kumbhakarna
Kangra, late 19th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 6 5/8 x 8 ½ in. (16.8 x 21.6 cm.)
Folio: 7 ½ x 9 1/4 in. (18.8 x 23.5 cm.)
The present painting illustrates a continuous narrative
in which two successive episodes of the Lanka Kanda
from Valmiki’s Ramayana are shown together in a
single picture. The narrative is broken up into its
sequential scenes by the clean straight lines of the
palace halls. On the right, a large convex room draws
your eye to the first scene in the narrative. There sits
the giant Kumbhakarna, who has just awoken from a
six month’s deep sleep. The large audience of demons
that surround him inform Kumbhakarna that Rama,
Lakshmana and Sugriva’s monkey army have gathered
outside the palace—their diminutive figures visible in
the background, under a tree on top of a mountain.
To the left, the zig-zagging palace staircases lead your
eye up to the next episode in which Kumbhakarna
goes to meet his older brother Ravana, the ten-headed
king of Lanka. With large horns and fangs, and a pearlstudded golden gada grasped in his right hand, the giant
dwarfs the size of the demons that surround him. In
the meeting hall above, the golden skinned Ravana
awaits with a black ram at his feet—an offering to sate
Kumbhakarna’s hunger after his long slumber. Upon
their meeting, Kumbhakarna admonished his brother
for kidnappig Sita, but nevertheless pledges to destroy
Ravana’s enemies out of familial loyalty.
This set is likely inspired by a well-known Guler Lanka
Kanda series produced in 1850. Two paintings of this
series were successfully sold at auctions (Bonhams New
York, 19 March 2018, lot 3095; and Christie’s New York,
The Collection of Paul Walter, 26 - 27 September 2017, lot
229). A third one is published in Court Paintings from
Persia and India, Francesca Galloway, London 2016, p.
98, no. 36.
25
Illustration from the Ramayana
Nepal, 18th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 8 x 11 3/4 in. (20.3 x 29.8 cm.)
Provenance:
Doris Wiener Gallery, inventory no. P1548 (label on frame).
The present painting, though lacking inscriptions,
seems to illustrate a portion of the Ramayana, as the
three figures on the right side of the composition
resemble the exiled triad at the center of the Indian
epic: Krishna’s avatar Rama, his betrothed, Sita, and his
brother Lakshmana. The seven sages depicted, however,
may very well be the saptarishi or celestial brothers born
from Brahma.
While the subject-matter is difficult to elaborate
upon, the present is discernibly Nepalese, particularly
in palette. The prominent bright reds and blues and
heightening with gold closely resemble the pigments used
in a well known dispersed eighteenth-century Nepalese
Bhagavata Purana series executed in a large format of
which two folios reside in the Metropolitan Museum
of Art (acc. 2019.64). The crown and ornamentation
style, however, very closely resemble the style of those
in a circa-1700 painting from Bilaspur depicting only
Sita, Rama, and Lakshmana on a red ground in the Los
Angeles County Museum of Art (acc. M.87.278.10).
Thus, the influence of Indian miniature painting is
also evident in this unusual Nepalese illumination of
a Hindu epic.
26
Two illustrations from the Ramayana: Sita in Ravana’s Palace
Mewar, early 18th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 8 3/4 x 15 in. (22.2 x 38.1 cm.)
Provenance:
Purchased in the U.S. in 1972 and descended in the Steig family.
In the present two contiguous illustrations (numbered
‘99” and ‘100’) of the Aranyakakanda book of the
great Ramayana, the demon King Ravana appears in
his palace surrounded by his wives and the daughters
of gods and other divine creatures he has previously
captured. Before him stands Sita, the wife of Rama, who
he has imprisoned. His fortress at Lanka is guarded by
his animal-headed minions.
Both folios are representative of a playful style associated
with the Rajput principality of Mewar. The red and
yellow borders, the prominence of primary colors in
the overall compositions, the execution of foliage with
pointed leaves splaying out in a circular fashion from
a central point; and the sharp profiles of each figure,
closely match that of a folio from a dispersed manuscript
depicting Rama and Lakshmana searching the forest
for Sita dated to circa 1680-1690 at The Metropolitan
Museum of Art (acc. 1974.148).
27
Rama
Eastern India, Orissa, 15th century
Brass
16 1/4 in. (41.2 cm.) high
Provenance:
Acquired in New York in the 1990s.
Despite his smile, Rama appears formidable in this
powerful stance with his arms out before him as if
holding his characteristic bow and arrow, with which
he is able to defeat any demon and deflect any weapon
in his way. Rama is the seventh avatar of Vishnu and
a legendary king of Ayodhya. He is a prominent figure
in the Hindu pantheon, and particularly important
within the Hindu tradition of Vaishnavism wherein
Vishnu is exalted. Many details of his life come from
the Ramayana, one of the epic poems of Ancient India
authored by the great Maharishi Valmiki. Rama’s life
and journey is one of perfect adherence to Dharma
despite the series of harsh tests he endures, such as his
own exile and the kidnapping of his wife Sita.
Here Rama is pictured as the ideal man, just as the
maharishi describe him—fear-striking and beautiful.
This marvelous bronze image from Orissa certainly
captures Rama’s divine qualities, as he appears only
semi-human with his perfect proportions and complete
physical symmetry. The artist evidently took great
care in matching each minute detail from one side to
the other.
Compare the present figure to a fifteenth-century brass
figure of Radha published by Vidya Dehejia in Devi
The Great Goddess: Female Divinity in South Asian Art,
Smithsonian Institution, 1999, p. 329, cat no. 77; also
sold at Sotheby’s New York, 21 March 2019, lot 917.
The treatment of the circular, tieried lotus base is nearly
identical, as are the lotiform designs that punctuate each
piece of jewelry that adorns Radha. The facial features
are also strikingly similar despite the difference in sex:
note the extremely wide eyes, the prominent nose with
a sharp and straight bridge, and the full smiling lips, all
beneath a discreet singular brow line. Equal attention
is paid to the backside of both images. The present
figure’s backside reveals an additional two small flowers
adorning each of Rama’s ears, finely incised strands of
hair, and neat tassles fastening each piece of jewelry he
wears—a few of many fine qualities of this masterwork
of Orissan bronze casting.
Three Folios from a Sakunavali series
Rajasthan, Udaipur, circa 1720
The following three folios come from an illustrated
Sakunavali (‘Book of Omens’ or ‘Book of Dreams’)
series, likely based on texts such as the Svapna Darshana,
which deals with the significance and interpretation of
dreams. Acting as a sort of visual codex, this series was
not used simply to analyze one’s inner consciousness, as
in the Western tradition of dream interpretation, but
instead to divine the future.
In Court Painting at Udaipur Art under the Patronage of
the Maharanas of Mewar (Zurich, 2002, p. 144), art
historian Andrew Topsfield writes: “For kings and
subjects alike, the interpretation of dreams and omens
could be as much a guiding factor in their enterprises as
the prescriptions of the astrologers. A cat crossing one’s
path might nullify plans for a journey. But a cricket
(sarabha), according to the present text, will bring
‘victory to one’s affairs, success in all undertakings.”
Each image is accompanied by a “grade,” ranging from
evil (asubham; e.g. a burgled house, families of dogs or
monkeys) and undesirable (neshta; e.g. a poor man), to
good (subham; e.g. cows in a byre), excellent (srestha; e.g. a
yogi in a hermitage, a king enthroned), or the best of all
(utamam; e.g. winged elephant, lions, a pride of lions).
The Sakunavali is quite a unique commission among
paintings from Udaipur. It’s patron, Sangram Singh
II (r. 1710-34) gave the royal ateliers unprecedented
freedom in which to widen the scope of their narrative
imagination. According to Topsfield, this resulted in
a “substantial reinvigoration of the stagnant tradition
of manuscript illustration,” thus resulting in the
wonderfully inventive and original series we see here
(ibid, p. 141).
Many of the dispersed folios from this 1720-Udaipur
set appear to have had their folio numbers and dream
grade ratings removed, as apparent in the present group.
Other examples from the same set, also with rubbed
out grade ratings, appear in B.N. Goswamy & Caron
Smith, Domains of Wonder, San Diego Museum of Art,
cat. 31 and the aforementioned Topsfield scholarship.
28
Four Cats
Opaque pigments on paper
Image: 9 x 5 1/8 in. (25 x 13 cm.)
Folio: 10 1/8 x 8 3/8 in. (25.8 x 21.4 cm.)
Provenance:
Private European collection.
Inscribed in Sanskrit:
Unpreventable obstructions, always,
Pride and futility,
Sorrow and discord,
All this is indicated by a cat.
(translation by Dr. Harsha Dehejia)
The present painting depicts four cats against a flat
green background. The cats appear to be different
breeds, one a pure snow white with a bushy tail,
another speckled gray with a striped tail, and yet
another a soft chestnut brown–all adorned in
golden collars. While three of the cats lounge, one
struts across the unlucky viewers path. Seeing a
group of felines such as this is a neshta (bad) omen,
and for the superstitious—grounds to cancel any
upcoming journeys.
29
The Boar
Opaque pigments on paper
Image: 8 3/4 x 7 in. (22.2 x 17.8 cm.)
Folio: 10 x 8 ½ in. (25.5 x 21.6 cm.)
Provenance:
Christie’s London, 12 June 2018, lot 28 .
Christie’s Amsterdam, 12 October 1993, lot 34.
Exhibited:
“Indian Miniature Paintings” c.1590–c.1850, Amsterdam, 1 October–30 November 1987, no.23.
Literature:
J. Bautze, Indian Miniature Paintings c.1590–c.1850, exhibition catalogue, Amsterdam, 1987, no.23, p.61.
Inscribed in Sanskrit:
Loss of property, mental anguish,
Death of sons, terrible fear,
Death, sorrow, suffering:
A boar indicates all this.
(translation by Dr. Harsha Dehejia)
The present image depicts a lone boar, standing at the
river’s edge. Its finely rendered hair and almost human
eyes belie a robust figure with dangerously pointed
tusks. The rust colored sky creates an ominous air—a
sense of danger. According to the Sakunavali, the boar,
categorized as ‘neshta,’ is an ill omen.
The rendering of the landscape, with the river’s
zig-zagging indentation of the foreground, and the
differentiated colored background in rust and blue, are
conventions of the Sangram Singh period. Compare
the treatment of the water’s edge to a folio from the Sat
Sai, produced in the same workshop (see A. Topsfield,
Court Painting at Udaipur Art under the Patronage of the
Maharanas of Mewar, Zurich, 2002, p. 144, fig. 116).
30
Lord Kubera
Opaque pigments on paper
Image: 8 3/4 x 7 in. (22.2 x 17.8 cm.)
Folio: 10 x 8 ½ in. (25.5 x 21.6 cm.)
Provenance:
Private European collection.
The present painting depicts the god of wealth, Lord
Kubera, adorned with jewels and holding a golden
gada. He sits upon a magical flying chariot with the
head of a hamsa bird, the Pushpaka Vimana. According
to the Ramayana, the Kubera was once the king of
Lanka, the legendary demon fortress located in the
towering peaks of the Trikuta Mountains. His brother
Ravana, however, overthrew the great king and took the
Pushpaka Vimana for his own. The mythical chariot was
eventually returned to Kubera by the hero Rama.
The Sanskrit inscription on the recto on the present
folio reads:
Health and pleasure,
A place of gathering for worship,
The benefit of a son’s birth and a life of comfort:
The Lord of Wealth, Kubera, indicates all this.
(translation by Dr. Harsha Dehejia)
Another folio from this set, which resides in the Los
Angeles County Museum of Art, resembles this one
closely. The LACMA folio depicts Chandra, the moon
god, who rides a flying chariot carried by a stag (Pal,
Pratapaditya, The Classical Tradition in Rajput Painting,
New York, 1978, cat. 30). Both these folios are likely
graded uttamam, which is the most auspicious type of
omen; however, because the inscriptions have been
rubbed out we cannot be sure.
See alternative imaginings of the Pushpaka Vimana in
five folios from a Mewari Ramayana series published
in J.P. Losty, The Ramayana: Love and Valor in India’s
Great Epic, London, 2008, plates 118-122. Therein the
chariot is carried by four hamsa birds rather than the
bird and chariot being one and the same.
31
Bahubali
Karnataka, 15th century
Brass
13 3/4 in. (34.9 cm.) high
Provenance:
With Kapoor Galleries since the 1990s.
The present figure depicts Bahubali, an important
subject in Jain art. According to legend, Bahubali was
born the second son to Rishabhanatha and queen
Sunanda. In a battle of succession, their first son
Bharata demanded homage from his 99 other brothers,
all of whom renounced their worldly claims, apart from
Bahubali. When the two brothers entered into battle,
just as Bahubali was about to strike his winning blow,
he realized the futility of his worldly existence and
ceased fighting.
Renouncing violence and pride, Bahubali became a
monk, plucking out his hair and abandoning all worldly
attachments including his clothes. In a performance of
penance, Bahubali meditated in ‘body-abandonment’
posture in the forest, allowing birds to roost on his head
and vines to creep up his body. After a year of fasting
and meditation, Bahubali became the first human of
this world-age to attain liberation.
This brass sculpture is from Karnataka, where a 65-foot
high statue of the figure built in 983 A.D. stands at
Shravanabelagola. The present fifteenth-century bronze
displays the same iconography, with equally pleasing
proportions and a soft meditative countenance.
32
Leaf from a Panch Kalyanaka series:
Prince Shreyans Achieves Jati-smaran Gyan
Rajasthan, Amber, 1720 - 1750
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 9 x 15 in. (22.8 x 38.1 cm.)
Folio: 10 ½ x 16 ½ in. (26.6 x 41.9 cm.)
The present image illustrates a Jain text which
describes the five auspicious events that occurred in
the life of Rishabhanatha, the first Jain tirthankara.
Rishabhanatha, with a golden complexion, appears here
nude, typical of priests from the Digambara (‘sky-clad’)
order. Standing against a flat green background, he is
depicted proportionally larger than the worshippers,
using hierarchical scale to denote his dignity and
importance. The three standing figures are royalty, as
indicated by their crowns, yet they hold their hands
together in prayer as they stand outside of the palace,
modestly awaiting an audience with the austere priest.
Below them, dressed in white, is Shreyans who bows in
awe and reverence upon seeing the monk,.
The inscription on either side of the kneeling figure,
which reads “Shreyans Jati,” denotes this particular
scene as one in which prince Shreyans Kumar (grandson
of Bahubali, and great grandson of Rishabhanatha)
rushes to meet his great grandfather. Thousands of
other citizens also come bearing gifts of gold and
jewels, but Rishabhanatha doesn’t even cast a glance
at their offerings, as he has completely renounced
worldly possessions. Living as a monk, Rishabhanatha
wandered under a vow of silence, asking for nothing
and only eating when offered.
When Shreyans bows down at the ascetic’s feet, he looks
up at Rishabhanatha and finds that he can no longer
shift his gaze. Shreyans then immediately acquires Jatismaran Gyan, the knowledge that opens up memories
of past births, and realizes that the monk had been
wandering for some time without food or water. This
moves Shreyans to offer the monk fresh sugar cane juice
and beg him to break his fast. Rishabhanatha accepts
his request and calls out, “Hail the alms giving.”
This leaf likely follows another from the same set in
the Norton Simon Museum, published by Dr. Pal in
Painted Poems (Pal 2004., 20-21, cat. 3). Several other
leaves from this Panch Kalyanaka series have appeared
in public collections, including two leafs in the San
Diego Museum Art (accession nos. 1990.0213 and
1990.0214), and a leaf in the Los Angeles County
Museum of Art (M.74.102.4; Pal 1981, 28-29, no.15).
Leaves from this series are primarily identified by their
prominent orange border with a meandering vine motif.
33
A Digambara Jina
Karnataka or Tamil Nadu, 9th century
Copper alloy
17 ½ in. (44.4 cm.) high
Provenance:
The collection of Mrs. Juliann B. Hermann, acquired in New York by 1969.
Thence by descent.
The immutable nature of this figure’s mental and
spiritual state is captured by the symmetry and stillness
of his posture. The great physical strength conveyed
is required to practice Jain austerities and to achieve
omniscience. To become a tirthankara one must embody
all forms of proper ethical behavior without striving to
become such. One must eliminate all negative karma
and attain omniscience through pure-intentioned and
egoless striving to realize the five essential Jain virtues:
non-violence, truth, non-stealing, chastity, and nonattachment. Complete freedom from passion and anger
is the perpetual state of the ‘ford-crosser’ or tirthankara
also known as a ‘jina’ or ‘conqueror.’
The present figure is depicted naked or “sky-clad”, in
austerity meditation, kayotsarga, or the posture of ‘bodyabandonment,’ pointing to its sectarian association
with the Digambara tradition of Jainism, which
strongly embraces asceticism and became concentrated
in the southern regions. In the south, Jains enjoyed
the committed patronage of Kings, royal families,
and common people. The early Pandyas of Madurai;
the Kalabhra dynasty of third to sixth centuries; the
Pallavas of the third to the beginning of the tenth
centuries; and the Chola rulers of the ninth through
fourteenth centuries, all supported the construction of
Jain temples and the creation of Jain images throughout
Tamil Nadu. The Chalukya rulers of the sixth to eighth
centuries; the Rashtrakuta rulers of the eighth through
tenth centuries; and the Hoysala rulers of the eleventh
through fourteenth centuries did the same in the nearby
state of Karnataka.
A bronze image of this size was likely created for a
temple in Karnataka or Tamil Nadu. Though it is
without a bronze base in its current state, its seventeeninch height is indicative of the context for which it was
created and the full form it once took. Scholarship
on extant bronzes suggest that Jains were the likely
pioneers in creating metal icons in India. The lost-wax
casting technique utilized to create this sculpture was,
for instance, used to create a late-third-century figure of
Jina Rishabhanatha found in Chausa village in Bihar
(which currently resides in the Patna Museum). While
high-copper-content alloys were used in the southern
regions, bright brass became popular in the northern
regions from the ninth century onward (see Pal, The
Peaceful Liberators, Los Angeles County Museum of Art,
1994, p. 24-25).
The present figure is cast in the high-copper-content
alloy which typically transforms into the dark, rich,
greenish patina we see today. This material quality
and several stylistic features evidence that this figure
originated in one of the southern states of Karnataka or
Tamil Nadu under the Rastrakuta or Chola dynasties.
Snail-curled hair, crescent-shaped brows over wide eyes,
pronounced noses, and distended earlobes, are features
that were common to Jina images of the ninth century.
This idealized human image is often endowed with
soft sloping shoulders, tubular arms, an attenuated
waist, and a fleshy abdomen such as the present. An
earlier image of Tirthankara Suparsvanatha protected
by a five-headed naga attributed to Tamil Nadu at
the Harvard Art Museum (acc. 2012.193), however,
displays a similarly placed shrivasta—a celestial mark that
is typically placed between the breasts—which may be
unique to jina images originating in the Tamil region.
34
Illustration to the Ashta Nayika: Abhisandhita Nayika
Kangra, late 19th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 8 1/4 x 11 7/8 in. (21 x 30.2 cm.)
Folio: 10 ½ x 14 1/8 in. (26.7 x 35.9 cm.)
Abhisandhita Nayika, the dejected lover, is she who
is estranged by a quarrel. Overcome with pride, this
heroine rejects her beloved and disregards his devotion
despite his apologies. Unable to soften her anger, he
departs. Her indifference is but a facade, though, and
in his absence she burns with remorse. The result is
vipralambha mana, love in separation on account of
pride, representing the intrusion of the ego between the
soul and Brahman. Hindi poet Keshav Das describes
mana as the feeling of pride incited by love.
The distraught nayika sits in the bottom left corner,
her face full of sorrow. Her sakhi consoles her while
musicians attempt to comfort her with soothing music.
Her beloved appears with his back turned at the opposite
side of the painting, solemnly leaving the palace.
Much of the composition features complex architectural
elements, including a lush courtyard housing detailed
foliage of various shades of green. Such verdant greenery
and precise architectural detail are characteristic of
nineteenth-century Kangra painting, as is the pastel
palette and soft, clean lines.
Depictions of love in all its forms were popular
subjects in Kangra painting. These artists incorporated
many fine aspects of Mughal painting, producing a
style characterized by brilliant colors, rhythmic line
drawings, and extreme attention to detail. The current
example leaves the viewer not only with a sense of the
impeccable artistry of the Kangra painters but also with
an overwhelming feeling of romance and all the trials
that come with it.
For another depiction of this subject from late nineteenth
century Kangra, see the Abhisandhita Nayika in the
collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum, London
(acc. IS.40-1949).
35
Ganesha Enthroned
Kangra, first half of the 19th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
10 3/4 x 11 in. (27.2 x 28 cm.)
The bestower of good fortune, remover of obstacles, and
god of new beginnings sits here enthroned, consuming
sweets. He appears at ease, his gaze as relaxed as his
posture, encouraging his snake to take part in the
snack. The tilaka and crescent moon which grace the
divine elephant-headed god’s temple are marks of his
divinity and transcendent knowledge. He is attended
to by two lavishly dressed women in full jewelry sets
and layered textiles in hues that create continuity in the
palette and connect the attendants to their object of
veneration. Playful patterns and bright colors give great
vibrancy to this miniature painting of the widely adored
god, Ganesha.
36
Dancing Ganesha
Central India, Madhya Pradesh, 10th century
Sandstone
21 x 15 ½ x 7 3/4 in. (53.3 x 39.4 x 19.7 cm.)
Provenance:
With Jean-Claude Moreau- Gobard by the 1960s.
Faithful attendants surround Ganesha expressing his
role as patron of the arts in a dance echoing that of
his father Shiva. He sways atop a platform supported by
two lions who flank a devotee seated in prayer. Stacked
rows of attendants with offerings and praise take the
place of columns and enshrine the god along with
the assembly of lotus-bearing male figures above. The
mouths of makara on either side of the male figures
release scrolling tree-like embellishments, mirroring the
movement of the snake’s curling head and tail which
Ganesha stretches overhead.
This deep sandstone relief of the elephant-headed god
filled with figures ornamented in large beads and clad
with striped dhotis is rendered in a style common to
medieval sculptures from central India. The present
form of Ganesha, albeit petite in comparison, is worthy
of studying beside a fine tenth-century image of Ganesha
attributed to Madhya Pradesh at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art (acc. 2007.480.2); see similarities in
the design of his jeweled headdress and manner of
depicting the god’s voluminous ears.
37
Folio from an Usha-Aniruddha series:
Chitralekha Visits Aniruddha in Dwarka
Garhwal, circa 1840
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
9 x 12 in. (22.9 x 30.5 cm.)
Provenance:
Private European collection.
The present painting comes from an Usha-Aniruddha
romance series in which Usha, daughter of Vana, King
of the Daityas, has a dream of a wonderfully handsome
prince with whom she instantly falls in love. Usha,
calling upon her friend, the magical Chitraleka, speaks
thus, “Listen carefully my friend. My husband is very
attractive, his eyes are beautiful like a lotus, his gait is
gracious like that of an elephant. If you do not produce
him before me I will die” (H. Dehejia, and V. Sharma,
Pahari Paintings of an Ancient Romance: the Love Story of
Usha-Aniruddha, New Delhi, 2011, p.28). Chitralekha
aids her in drawing portraits of all the princes until
Usha recognized Aniruddha among them–the grandson
of Krishna!
Here we see Chitralekha in the holy city of Dwarka,
built by the divine architect Vishwakarma. The majestic
palace is made of pure gold, its columns and arches
adorned with glittering jewels that sparkle like the
stars in the sky. Chitralekha, leaning against a golden
arch, gazes upon the sleeping figure of Aniruddha, his
princely crown beside him. When Chitralekha awakens
the prince, he explains that he too has had a dream
of a beautiful romance. Thus, he agrees to accompany
Chitralekha to Usha.
Sleeping in a chamber just to the left of Aniruddha
is Krishna, who has a nearly identical countenance to
his grandson–the only distinguishing feature being his
crown, which unlike Aniruddha’s, bears his signature
peacock feathers. The male figure beside him is likely
a messenger, there to alert Krishna that Aniruddha
has disappeared. When Krishna finds his grandson
gone, he wages war on Usha’s kingdom, and a great
battle ensues.
See a similar folio from a Kangra Usha-Aniruddha
series, currently in the Victoria and Albert Museum
(acc. IS.11-1968). In this folio, Chitralekha reveals her
portraits to Usha and then magically flies through the
sky on her way to find Aniruddha. The Garwhal and
Kangra traditions are both known for their exquisite
romantic charm. The present folio, however, is executed
in a palette that would surely steal the eye away from
a comparable pastel-colored Kangra illustration of the
same subject.
38
Makara Bangle (Makaranathi)
India, dated 1869
Gold and rubies
Length: 8 1/4 in. (20.9 cm.)
Provenance:
From the estate of Mary Jane Lampton Peabody
(1921-2015).
This stunning bracelet features elegant repoussé
details of foliate designs and two makara heads with
ruby eyes. The makara meet face-to-face at a round
sphere that holds the screw fastening mechanism, also
adorned with a ruby. In Hindu mythology, a makara
is a legendary sea creature similar to a crocodile. The
inside rim is inscribed “Eugénie” with crown and the
year 1869. Such bangles were worn and bestowed by
rajas and princes in south India during the nineteenth
century. Compare the present piece with a similar
nineteenth-century gold bangle in the collections of the
Victoria & Albert Museum in London (acc. 03291(IS)).
It is likely that this bangle belonged to Eugénie de
Montijo, wife of Napoleon III and the last French
empress. She was at the forefront of contemporary
fashion and enjoyed wearing jewelry, adorning herself
with surviving pieces of the crown jewels as well as new
pieces commissioned during her reign. Eugénie was
also known to have a love for India—as a young girl,
she even attempted to run away to India, going as far as
climbing aboard a ship at Bristol docks. Whether this
gift was inspired by her youthful eccentricities, or simply
French colonial interests in India, we cannot know.
After France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian war and
the overthrow of the Second Empire in 1871, the
empress and her husband fled to England. In a noble
gesture, she left the jewels that were paid for by the state
behind, but kept some of her personal favorites. Likely
pressed for funds, Eugénie sold a number of pieces
from her collection at Christie’s London the following
year. Additionally, in 1887, the Third Republic sold
the French crown jewels at auction, dispersing the
pieces they labeled as frivolous. Today, some are on
display at the Louvre and others appear occasionally
at auctions, although many were sold privately or have
never been recovered.
39
Seated Nobleman on a Terrace
Attributed to Pandit Seu and his family workshop, Guler, late 18th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 7 1/8 x 5 3/8 in. (18.2 x 13.6 cm.)
Folio: 11 ½ x 7 7/8 in. (29.1 x 20.1 cm.)
Provenance:
Christie’s New York, 20 March 2019, lot 713.
A nobleman in a vivid green jama with an elaborate
floral and jeweled belt, necklaces of rubies, emeralds and
pearls that match his embellished turban surmounted
by a feathered sarpech, appears dignified atop a white
marble terrace. He relaxes before an elaborate drawstring
bolster atop lavish textiles as he holds the end of a
hookah, before which a heated vessel sits emitting wisps
of smoke. The elegant composition is worthy of close
comparison to a figure in the same posture, garb and
environment as the present nobleman, attributed to the
master painter Nainsukh: a drawing of Mir Mannu in
the Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh
(acc. no. B-60), illustrated by B.N. Goswamy in Nainsukh
of Guler, Zurich, 1997, pp. 102-103, no. 27.
Since Akbar’s time, the Mughal Empire exerted
suzerainty over the small principalities within the rich
landscape of the Punjab Hills. The present painting is a
result of that influence, as it was very likely painted from
an imperial Mughal model. The painting is, nevertheless,
of the highest quality and thus attributed to the famed
atelier of Pandit Seu of Guler—an artist who credited
with aiding in the shift to a more formal style with the
transmission of Mughal techniques learned directly
from disbanded artists from Aurungzeb’s former atelier.
40
Women Drawing Water from a Well
Mughal, 18th century
Ink and opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 8 ½ x 5 1/8 in. (20.5 x 13 cm.)
Provenance:
George Halla, Czech Republic consul to New South Wales, 1948.
Thence by descent.
Private collection, Sydney.
The present painting depicts a bustling scene at a village
water well. Women busily go about their daily tasks,
transporting water in large clay pots—one carries two
at the same time, precariously balancing one atop her
head. Another heaves water up from the well, the sturdy
rope pooling at her feet. The central figure is dressed in
purple and gold with bright red cuffs that contrast the
muted tones of her surroundings. She modestly pulls
her veil to cover her bosom as she gazes down at the
young man, his hand outstretched to accept the offering
of water she pours from a brass vessel in her right hand.
The man, bare chested and simply dressed in a grass
skirt, is eclipsed by a man much more richly clad. Likely
a prince or a nobleman, he wears a white jama and a
red turban and carries a whole armory, complete with a
double ended spear, katar, sword, and shield.
Scenes of women at watering wells—a popular subject
in eighteenth-century Mughal paintings—were likely
inspired by literary sources such as the Persian poet
Muhammad Akrim’s story of Mohna Rani and Chel
Batao and Ghanimat Kunjahi’s 1785 Nairang-i ‘Ishq.
This scene is reminiscent of one from the Nairang-i
‘Ishq (‘Love’s Magic’) in which the protagonist Sahid
goes hunting and comes across a village well where
he meets the eyes of a beautiful woman, Wafa, and
instantly falls in love. The present painting is worthy of
comparison to a seventeenth-century Mughal painting
of “A Group of Women at a Well’’ in the Smithsonian
National Museum of Asian Art (acc. F1907.208). Both
these illustrations exhibit the same delicately rendered
form and attention to the naturalistic landscape seen in
the present painting which is characteristic of Mughal
paintings of the period.
41
Women in the Zenana
Mughal, 17th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 9 x 5 in. (22.5 x 12.5 cm.)
Folio: 11 ¾ x 7 ½ in. (30 x 19 cm.)
Outside in the secluded terrace garden, the women of
the zenana are coupled in loving embrace. One of the
seated figures turns towards the viewer as her female
lover pulls her in for a kiss. Reclining on a large cushion,
her gaze invites the eye into the scene as an attendant
refills her cup. Beside them,two standing women gaze
into each other’s eyes as they lavish one another in soft
caresses. One clutches at her partner’s skirt, pulling her
close as the attendant gazes at them from across the
terrace. Dressed in translucent golden veils and strings
of delicate pearls, the women are served never-ending
drinks and platters of ripe, plump fruit.
The repetition of the floral motif–from the formal
garden and the wild growths in the lower register, to
the intricate terrace flooring and the delicate molding
of the palace walls–denote the zenana as the feminine
domain, filled with women in full bloom. Amorous
zenana scenes such as in the present painting found
their initial imperial expression during the reign of
Shah Jahan (r. 1627-1658). The harems’ sumptuous
attire and leisurely pursuit of pleasure speaks to the
prosperity of the realm and provides a window into the
fantasies of the male artists and their patrons. Due to the
inaccessibility of the zenana and the speculated delights
therein, these imaginings of the women “behind-thewall” were archetypal and highly idealized depictions,
rather than individualized portraits.
The present scene most likely comes from a Ragamala
series as evidenced by its similarities to two other
Ragamala folios depicting women in the zenana. See
a circa-1760 set attributed to Hyderabad (see Falk and
Archer, Indian Miniatures in the India Office Library,
London, 1981, no. 426vi, p. 508) as well as a folio in
the Royal Collection Trust (RCIN 1005068.j).
42
Aurangzeb in Court
Pahari, probably Bilaspur, mid-18th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
8 ½ x 11 ¾ in. (21.6 x 29.8 cm.)
A nimbate Mughal ruler, likely a stylized image of
Emperor Aurangzeb, is shown seated on a silver throne,
leaning against a golden floral bolster as he gives
audience to a delegation of six gray-bearded Muslim
ministers who stand before him respectfully, perhaps
seeking appointments as governors or envoys. The
scene evokes cold overtones, as it is most likely wintertime in the Punjab Hills. The figures can be discerned
as Muslims by their long winter jamas which are tied to
the right (unlike Hindus who tie to the left), the style
of their boots and the manner of their neatly trimmed
beards. The emperor is seated on the terrace of an
outdoor pavilion, beneath a golden parasol, handling a
strand of prayer beads while an attendant stands behind
him waving a flowing chowrie.
Several features of this work are indicators of a Bilaspur
origin: the overall color palette with its flattened darkish
green-blue landscape accentuated by short parallel
strokes of dark green ground; the patterned lines of
trees and small bushes throughout the landscape;
and the prominent striped rug beneath the feet of the
subjects. Moreover, the painting is composed in a pothi
(horizontal) format.
The work is uninscribed so one cannot be sure of the
figures’ identities . However, their faces, defined with
individualizing features and distinctive beards, are
painted with Mughal naturalism, leaving open the
possibility of future identification. The characters
serve as representations of real individuals rather than
idealized types.
43
Baz Bahadur and Rupmati Riding at Night
Mughal, probably Awadh, circa 1800
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 7 3/4 x 10 1/8 in. (19.7 x 25.7 cm.)
Folio: 8 3/8 x 10 7/8 in. (21.2 x 27.6 cm.)
Provenance:
The Ehrenfeld Collection, California.
Sotheby’s New York, 6 October 1990, lot 19.
Carlton Rochell Asian Art, New York.
The Sterling Collection, U.S., 2011.
Published:
Daniel J. Ehnbom, Indian Miniatures: The Ehrenfeld Collection, New York, 1985, no. 30, pp. 76-77.
Baz Bahadur of Mandu, the last King of the Malwa
Sultanate (r. 1555-1562), is depicted here riding with
his beloved Rupmati on a pair of horses. They gallop
in sync through the darkened night landscape, rearing
up in perfect unison as the lovers gaze into each other’s
eyes. They seem to glow with an otherworldly radiance,
their energy illuminating the green bush behind them
like a spotlit stage. A lotus-filled pond with a pair of
birds bathing is depicted below.
Although the Muslim Baz Bahadur and the Hindu
Rupmati were historic figures who lived and loved
during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, their
inspiring story has transcended into folklore and poetry.
Baz Bahadur was initially led to Rupmati by music he
heard on a hunt. After years of palatial and romantic
bliss, the two were divided by the 1661 Mughal
conquest of Mandu, whereupon Rupmati chose death
over being taken captive. Thus, they are the archetypal
tragic lovers—an Indian version of Romeo and Juliet—
and are represented here in this stunning miniature as
idealized types, raised to heroic perfection.
While it is apparent that these are not actual portraits,
we can nevertheless immediately recognize them as
Baz and Rupmati with the help of longstanding visual
conventions associated with their story: Baz Bahadur
bears a long spear, two quivers of arrows, a bow, and a
sword. Their eyes meet as their caparisoned horses lift
them in a united stride.
44
Maharaja Abhai Singh Receiving Thakur Bhandari Girdhar Das
Jodhpur, circa 1725-1735
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
12 1/4 x 9 3/4 in. (31.1 x 24.8 cm.)
Provenance:
The collection of Robert O. Muller.
Christie’s New York, 14 September 2010, lot 203.
Published:
Rosemary Crill, Marwar Painting: A History of the Jodhpur Style, Mumbai, 2000, p. 75, fig. 46.
Maharaja Abhai Singh (b. 1702), who ruled Jodhpur
from 1724 to 1749, sits here larger than life on a silver
throne, holding a small ceremonial whisk and an upright
sheathed sword. Two courtiers stand behind him, one
waving a morchal (a peacock-feathered whisk) as a symbol
of his royal authority. He is receiving his thakur (vassal)
Bhandari Girghar Das, a Rathore nobleman from a
Marwari thikana or fiefdom who kneels respectfully at
his feet.
Abhai Singh sits looking blatantly up past the petitioning
vassal. He is dressed in a long, brilliant orange pleated
jama with a gold floral designed patka and strands
of pearls and precious gems which weigh down his
shoulders. His head is topped with a silk Rathore-style
pagri that sports ornate jewels and pearls, surmounted
by a fine sarpech, his bare feet resting on a small plinth.
The group is depicted like a frieze or still-life against
the marble wall of a white pavilion with two swimming
ducks and a fountain positioned below. He is depicted
here in his full majesty and authority–still a relatively
young man, probably in his late twenties.
45
A Ram’s Head Shamshir
Northeastern India, Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow, 19th Century
18 in. (47.7 cm.) high
Provenance:
Acquired on the UK art market.
The shamshir’s name comes from the radical curve
of its blade, translating to ‘lion’s claw’ or ‘lion’s tail.’
The blade itself is forged from wootz steel; the carbon
deposits within the iron ingots forming intricate wavelike patterns known as ‘damascus.’ A modern scabbard
of tooled black leather, attached with shell-shaped
brackets for suspension, accompanies the sword.
The present shamshir is a beautiful example of the
famed silver metalware produced in Lucknow during
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The diamondshaped quillion is made from engraved silver with fine
blue and green champleve and basse-taille enamelling
particularly characteristic of Lucknow. In the center is
a Hyderabadi poppy in aquamarine blue–a distinctive
motif in the Lucknow vocabulary which demonstrates
the fusion of Deccani opulence and Mughal naturalism.
(see Mark Zebrowski, Gold, Silver & Bronze from Mughal
India, 1997, p. 87, pl. 74.)
Perched above is a bird in blue and cherry red, its head
bowed and wings spread wide. A spiral of bristling
green leaves encircles the scene, and is flanked by two
birds in flight. On the border appears a quatrefoil
floral pattern on a blue ground, another characteristic
motif of Nawabi enamel. The quillon’s tapered ends
mirror the splendid offset pommel, which is formed
into a ram’s head. The fine etchings in the ram’s fur
and curling horns shine through the vibrant blue and
orange enamel, contrasting the animal’s brilliant silver
smile. The grip–extending as if the curving neck of the
ram–is made of translucent rock crystal, secured to the
tang with small pins.
Compare the present example to another fine ram’s
head shamshir from Lucknow currently housed at the
Metropolitan Museum of Art (acc. 36.25.1302a, b).
The scabbard exhibits similar enameled metal work
motifs such as the Hyderabad poppy, the scrolling green
foliage, and the quatrefoil floral border.
46
Rao Bishan Singh Watching an Elephant Fight
Bundi, circa 1804-1821
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
14 ½ x 12 3/4 in. (36.8 x 32.4 cm.)
Provenance:
Private European collection.
From an observation tower in the upper right portion
of the illustration, Rao Raja Bishan Singh watches a pair
of elephants in combat. A hectic scene unfolds below
him as the mahout seated atop one of the attacking
elephants struggles to control the crazed animal.
Handlers holding spears and forked blades scatter
for their lives as the elephants clash together, their
bells and streamers flying. The dynamic composition,
accentuated by the diagonal lines of the architecture
and tumbling elephants, creates a sense of drama as the
violent battle ensues.
During his travels to India, the French physician
François Bernier (1620-1688), gave an account of
elephant combat that speaks to the intensity captured
in the present painting:
“A wall of earth is raised three or four feet wide and five
or six [feet] high. The two ponderous beasts meet one
another face to face on the opposite sides of the wall...
The riders animate the elephants either by soothing
words, or by chiding them as cowards, and urge them
on with their heels, until the poor creatures approach
the wall and are brought to the attack. The shock is
tremendous and it appears surprising that they should
even survive the dreadful wounds and blows inflicted
with their teeth, their heads, and their trunks. There
are frequent pauses during the fight; it is suspended
and renewed, and the mud wall being at length thrown
down, the stronger more courageous elephant passes on
and attacks his opponent and, putting him to flight,
pursues and fastens on him with such obstinacy that
the animals can be separated only by means of cherkys,
or fireworks, which are made to explode between them.”
47
A Maiden Approaches a Nobleman
Kishangarh, circa 1740
Ink drawing with opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
10 ½ x 8 1/4 in. (26.7 x 21 cm.)
Provenance:
Doris Wiener Gallery, New York, inventory no. 43439.
Dorothy and Alfred Siesel, Washington, D.C., acquired from the above 14 December 1976.
A naturalistically depicted elder nobleman seated against
a bolster puffs from the metal tip of a winding hookah
stem, his eyes half shut with a sheathed sword and
shield laid out before him. A beautiful young maiden
looks intently out from behind a screen, coyly hiding
part of her body as if trying to be careful not to be seen.
Her angular face with its pointed nose and chin, pursed
mouth, almond-shaped eye and high brow, and black
hair tied back with three curls placed over her cheek
are reminiscent of Bani Thani—a poetess and courtesan,
considered the epitome of idealized Kishangarh beauty.
The scene could be the old man’s intoxicated dream; a
glimpse into the memory of a past love, now elevated
to perfection in the noble’s thoughts. Conversely, the
maiden could be taking the position of the archetypal
seductress, a universal subject serving as a trope of the
older man’s desire for a youthful woman.
This is an enigmatic scene often found in paintings
from Kishangarh and particularly from the period of
the artist Nihal Chand (ca. 1710-1782), whose training
in the Imperial Mughal workshops at Delhi helped
him create a popular new style that combined Mughal
naturalism with the romantic, poetic idealization
beloved at Kishangarh. The signature Kishangarh style
began to develop under Raj Singh (r. 1706-1748), and
reached full fledged actualization under Sawant Singh
(r. 1748-1764). As the present painting dates to the
mid-1700s, we know it was executed under one of these
rulers’ reigns. As such, it is a delightful example of the
evolution of Kishangarh painting during the century.
This idyllic, amatory manner so-valued within the realm
is well suited for the depiction of bhakti, the ecstatic
longing for the divine often anthropomorphized as
Radha’s love for Krishna.
48
Shah Jahan at a Jharokha Window
Mankot or Nurpur, mid-18th century
Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper
Image: 8 x 5 ½ in. (20.3 x 14 cm.)
Folio: 9 x 6 in. (22.9 x 15.2 cm.)
Published:
Pal, Pratapaditya, Romance of the Taj Mahal (Los Angeles County Museum of Art: 1989),
p. 234-236, no. 254.
Emperor Shah Jahan is best known for commissioning
the grand tomb of the Taj Mahal to memorialize his
queen, Mumtaz Mahal, who died prematurely in 1631
from complications in childbirth. He himself was
buried with her after his death in 1666.
Here, Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan sits in half-length
profile at an open window, gazing upward and holding
a sprig of blossoms. He wears a transparent jama tied
to the right and a gold, pearl and jeweled Mughal pagri
with multiple necklaces of gold, pearls and precious
gems. Two attendants stand to the left and right on
striped carpets, waving peacock morchals.
The color palette of oranges, yellows and greens as well
as the broad strokes may suggest a provincial origin in
the Punjab Hills, possibly from the orbit of Mankot or
Nurpur, as Dr. Pal suggests. Based on execution and
color palette, one may discern some influences from
folkish traditions in Rajasthan as well, and possibly
Sirohi given its vibrant clashing of yellows and oranges.
49
Print from the India and Southeast Asia series: “Taj Mahal No. 1”
Yoshida Hiroshi (1876-1950), Japan, 1931
Woodblock in colors
10 x 14 3/4 in. (25.4 x 37.5 cm.)
Yoshida Hiroshi, one of the most popular Japanese
artists of the twentieth century, was a leading figure
in the Shin Hanga (‘New Print’) movement revitalizing
Ukiyo-e art—a seventeenth through nineteenth-century
tradition of Japanese painting and printmaking
depicting the “floating world.” Among traditional
earthly subjects were famous sites (meisho) such as the
present. The Shin Hanga style, however, embraced
Western conventions of art such as the rendering of
directional light and realism.
When Yoshida Hiroshi visited India, he noted how
captured he was by the quality of light. The Taj Mahal
was, unsurprisingly, an attractive subject for the artist
who was drawn to ephemeral subjects like the reflection
of the magnificent marble human edifice in the pool
that fills this composition’s foreground. He conveys
the overwhelming size of the fantastic mausoleum at
Agra with miniature figures under the main entrance
and cleverly abstracts the artistically arranged Arabic
letters that fill the central archway in this charming
polychrome block print.
50
Pietra-Dura Marble Games Table
Agra, 19th century
24 ½ in. (62.2 cm.) sq; 22.5 in. (57 cm.) high
Provenance:
Sotheby’s New York, 28 October 1991, lot 182.
This pietra-dura inlaid masterpiece from nineteenth
century Agra was created with a painstaking and precise
technique of stone marquetry. The elaborate inlay is
reminiscent of the great Taj Mahal, with rich white
marble and semiprecious stones, including serpentine,
carnelian, red porphyry, breccia, granite, agate, lapis
lazuli, blood-stone, onyx, jasper, and slate.
51
Brahma
Northwestern India, Rajasthan or Gujarat, 11th century
Marble
32 x 13 x 6 ½ in. (81.3 x 33 x 16.5 cm.)
Provenance:
Private New York collection, since the 1990s.
This rare marble relief depicts the creator god Brahma,
whose four heads enable him to recite the four Vedas
simultaneously. While he is not as widely worshipped as
Shiva or Vishnu, those who seek knowledge pay homage
to Brahma. Thus, he holds a palm-leaf book (pustaka) in
his right hand. His remaining four hands would have
held a ritual ladle (dhruva) representing his role as the
lord of sacrificial offerings, a water pot (kamandalu)
symbolizing his cosmic energy, and a rosary (akshamala)
standing for his mastery of time. One day in the life of
Brahma consists of one kalpa—or 14 manvantara, each
of which comprises 71 mahayuga, while one mahayuga
consists of four yuga (4,320,000 human years).
The most significant of the small number of temples
dedicated to Brahma is located in Pushkar, Rajasthan,
where the god defeated a demon with a lotus flower.
Upon the descent of the lotus flower to earth, the
ground became a sacred place. It follows that the
present relief may have been made in proximity to that
site, somewhere in Rajasthan. However, the god is not
only represented on or inside of temples dedicated
to his worship as he is an essential part of the divine
Hindu triad.
A fine stele of Brahma at the British Museum (acc.
1872,0701.51) attributed to the eleventh century
displays the same modeling of coiled hair mounds and
a stylized beard, the overall style ornamentation, and
positioning and posture of the four diminutive attendant
figures at the god’s feet. The medium of the present
artwork, however, closely resembles that of the eleventhcentury tirthankara at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
attributed to Gujarat or Rajasthan (acc. 1992.131),
where there are vast deposits of white marble.
52
Shiva Vinadhara
Southern India, Tamil Nadu, late Chola period, 13th-14th century
Copper alloy
32 1/4 in. (82 cm.) high
Provenance:
J.R. Pons Collection, Spain, by the 1970s.
Private American collection, acquired from the above in 1995.
Shiva stands here in a fluid tribhanga, donning a short
veshti secured with a multi-banded belt punctuated at the
center with a modest kirtimukha or ‘face of glory.’ Shiva’s
face is perfectly symmetrical and equally composed
in countenance as it is in modeling, conveying his
transcendent power in a less explicit manner than his
clearly defined third eye. He holds a battle ax (parasu)
and a leaping antelope (mriga) in his upper hands
symbolizing his dominance over nature. His primary
hands project gracefully forward to the position where
they once held his characteristic vina, a long-necked and
pear-shaped lute.
According to Hindu practice, music has the power
to lead one to moksha (liberation) and the present
manifestation of the god Shiva embodies that notion.
In his collection of poems known as Thiruvilayadal
Puranam the Shaivite saint, Appar, describes an instance
in which Shiva appears in the form of a woodcutter
and plays the vina for one of his disciples. Therein
he describes the vina as particularly lively and spirited
among instruments for the ease with which it can be
played without interruption.
While this manifestation of the god Shiva is described
as ‘player of the vina,’ it is worthwhile to note that
there is no known sculptural example including the
actual instrument This element likely would have been
separately cast and, thus, its loss is consistent with the
figure’s age. The energy of the music Shiva represents
is, instead, conveyed through the tips of Shiva’s fingers,
which are modeled in position to steer the absent
instrument’s strings, and in the naturalistic sway of
his hips.
This striking bronze sculpture would have been
commissioned for a temple shrine, but fitted for public
procession for all to experience darshan—a sighting of
the divine, which can have a tangible impact on one’s
life. The practice of creating processional bronze figures
like the present began in South India in the Pallava
period (75-897 CE) and continued through the Chola
(848-1279) and Vijayanagara periods (1336-1646). The
present figure’s circular lotus base supported by a multitiered square plinth became common among Chola-
period bronzes. The lugs along the base allow for the
insertion of poles used to carry the image during festival
processions. These practical fixtures are also present in
Vijayanagara examples.
The present Shiva’s hair is styled in a high jatamukuta (a
pile of matted locks) sans protruding ornaments (such
as a crescent moon and serpent) although decoratively
elaborate. While this hairstyle appears to be a simplified
expression of earlier Chola-period hairstyles with
deeply defined locks and three-dimensional ornaments,
a thirteenth-century bronze figure of Shiva in his
manifestation as ‘The Lord Who Walked With Swaying
Gait’ (Vattanaigal Padanadanda Nayakar) based on a
poem by Appar from the twelfth century (Kulottunga I
era), which resides within the well-known Valampuram
temple of Nagapattinam, demonstrates that this style
was born by the late Chola period. The undeniable
likeness of the figures’ narrow faces with a sharp nose
and full lips suggests that the present figure may have
even been modeled on the twelfth-century Valampuram
Shiva. The present Shiva’s robust thighs, lifted buttocks,
and graceful tribhanga are a testament to this possibility,
as limbs seem to become increasingly less naturalistic
in later Vijayanagara artworks. Similarly robust thighs
and nearly identical understated jewelry displayed by
the present bronze, however, very closely match that
of a Vijayanagara example of Shiva Chandrashekhara,
which was once part of the renowned Pan-Asian
collection; sold at Christie’s New York, 17 March 2015,
lot 34.
As such, it is safe to date the present figure to the late
Chola or transitional period—a period when artists
remained committed to reproducing the elegance and
lifelike appearance of Hindu bronze deities that Chola
artists are lauded for. The present bronze figure of Shiva
is sensuous and supple, retaining the gravitas of the era.
53
Buddha Shakyamuni
Swat Valley, 7th-8th century
Bronze with copper inlay
3 3/4 in. (9.5 cm.) high
Provenance:
Bruce Miller, San Francisco, 9 June 1976.
The James and Marilynn Alsdorf Collection, Chicago.
Published:
U. von Schroeder, Indo-Tibetan Bronzes, Hong Kong, 1981, p. 89. Fig 8D.
Buddha Shakyamuni displays the boon-granting gesture
(varadamudra) with one hand and holds the end of his
robe with the other as he sits cross-legged on a lotus
throne. Copper-inlaid lips as well as a small circle of
copper at the top of the buddha’s cranial protuberance
(ushnisha) point to the accomplished hand behind
this compact figure, as do the lifelike hands which are
charmingly large in proportion.
The brassy metal alloy, and manner of modeling the
oval face with wide eyes and thin brows that intersect
at a circular urna, as well as the figure’s profile—upon
which you can draw a straight line from the forehead
to the tip of the nose—is attributable to both the Swat
Valley and Kashmir. The present figure, however, was
allegedly found in Afghanistan (see U. von Schroeder,
Indo-Tibetan Bronzes, Hong Kong, 1981, p. 89. Fig 8D).
The buddha, however, iconographically matches several
preceding examples in Indo-Tibetan Bronzes attributed
to the Swat Valley, one of which was discovered at
Charbagh (see ibid, fig. 8B).
54
Bodhisattva
Swat Valley or Kashmir, 9th century
Bronze with silver and copper inlay
5 ½ in. (14 cm.) high
Provenance:
Spink and Son, Ltd., London, 6 June 1980.
The James and Marilynn Alsdorf Collection, Chicago.
Published:
P. Pal, A Collecting Odyssey: Indian, Himalayan, and Southeast Asian Art from the James and Marilynn Alsdorf
Collection, Chicago, 1997, p. 136, cat. no. 176.
Exhibited:
The Art Institute of Chicago, “A Collecting Odyssey: Indian, Himalayan, and Southeast Asian Art from
the James and Marilynn Alsdorf Collection,” 2 August-26 October 1997, cat. no. 176.
The eight-armed bodhisattva with silver-inlaid eyes and
pink copper lips dons an elaborate crown with a central
petal resembling one side of a vajra. He is otherwise
simply ornamented, seated in a meditative posture,
holding a water pot in the lower proper-left hand and a
blossoming lotus at his proper-left shoulder. He is likely
a manifestation of the bodhisattva Lokesvhara, possibly
Amoghapasha (the ‘Unfailing Lasso’).
The present figure comes from the Swat Valley in
modern-day Pakistan. As the arts of Kashmir began
to flourish under the Karkota Kings (600-855), who
successfully ousted the Huns, the Swat Valley began
to absorb their sophisticated bronze-casting tradition.
This sculpture thus shares many qualities with
Kashmiri examples such as the sophisticated metal inlay
techniques and the style of the lion throne.
The throne style—a single row of lotus petals with an
additional plinth supported by two front-facing lions
around which a textile falls with tassels on either side—
is one that became standard for the northwestern part
of the Indian subcontinent for hundreds of years. The
earliest iteration of this particular style in Pakistan is
attributed by an inscription in Proto-Sarada to earlyseventh-century Gilgit (Rubin Museum of Art, acc.
C2005.37.2). The present figure, however, possesses
other qualities that place it later in history.
This serene bodhisattva’s large silver almond-shaped eyes
and long and thinly incised brows meeting at a circular
urna are strikingly similar to that of a ninth-century
figure of Maitreya from the Swat Valley published by
Ulrich von Schroeder in Indo-Tibetan Bronzes, Hong
Kong, 1981, p. 95, fig. 11H. The bronze Maitreya also
features the same lion throne style and simple jewelry.
While this figure was crafted in the Swat Valley or
Kashmir, the small traces of blue polychromy at the hair
and cold gold at the face and neck indicate that this
bodhisattva made its way to Tibet, where painting bronzes
is customary. Moreover, it is incised with the Tibetan
number “3” at the back of the throne, indicating the
position of the bronze within a larger set, perhaps along
with the aforementioned Maitreya.
55
Tara
Kashmir, 9th-10th Century
Copper alloy with silver inlay
7 ½ in. (19 cm.) high
Provenance:
Henry Spencers and Son Auctioneers, The Square, Retford, January 1996.
Paul M Peters Fine Art Ltd, Harrogate, North Yorkshire.
John Nicholson’s, Haslemere, Surrey, 18 April 2018, lot 141.
The Sanskrit name ‘Tara’ is derived from the Sanskrit
word ‘tarika’ which means ‘dilveress’ or ‘savioress.’
She first appears as an attendant to Manjushri in the
Manushrimulakalpa and, later, as an enlightened figure
in her own right, in the Taramulakalpa which was likely
authored sometime in the seventh century. The present
figure—a commanding image of the all-knowing goddess
Tara—is a product of the valley of Kashmir.
A flourishing center of Buddhist learning, the people
of Kashmir were great patrons of Buddhist works of art.
Kashmir’s location, bordering northern India, central
Asia, and the western Himalayas and its historical
shaping under the Gupta and Huna peoples made
it a racially and culturally diverse center for the arts.
The mid-seventh-century Karkota dynasty and midninth century Utpala dynasty were instrumental in
disseminating Buddhist ideas and arts from Kashmir,
exporting their cultural products to their neighbors.
Expertly inlaid precious metals exemplified by the
present figure’s three silver eyes are one of several
hallmarks of a perennially exquisite style of metal
sculpture born from Kashmir.
Tara’s diaphanous top is hemmed to reveal her
cruciform navel in a distinctly Kashmiri fashion,
decisively differentiating it from the Gupta aesthetic.
Such an attenuated waist, protruding belly, and large
hips are common among early images of female deities.
For another example of this type, see a four-armed
silver-inlaid bronze figure of Tara at the Ashmolean
Museum dated to the first half of the ninth century
(acc. EA2013.67). Dr. Pal describes a mode of facial
representation shared among Kashmiri sculpture of the
ninth century (Bronzes of Kashmir, New York, 1975,
pl. 47), as characterized by a full face, flat nose, and less
elongated eyes than earlier prototypes—qualities shared
by the present bronze and the Ashmolean example. The
present figure, though, shares the prominent chin of
earlier examples such as a Prajnaparamita or Sarasvati
which Pal attributed to the seventh century (The Arts of
Kashmir, Asia Society: New York, 2007, p. 94, fig. 98).
The present Tara’s ornamentation, however—
particularly her multi-stranded belt—closely matches
that of a tenth-eleventh century wooden relief fragment
depicting Tara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
(acc. 1994.488; ibid, p. 58, fig. 42.). While the Met
example has been ascribed to Himachal Pradesh, the
two modern states are known to have been historically
intertwined and, thus, it is typical to see sculptures such
as the aforementioned Ashmolean example attributed
to “Himachal Pradesh or Jammu and Kashmir” (see
P. Pal, The Himalayas: An Aesthetic Adventure, Chicago,
2003, p. 124, fig, 76.). The Ashmolean example, which
may have originated in Kashmir, also features heavy
beads and a belt with bells.
The lustrous and smooth surface of the present
bronze is relevant to a likely hypothesis about its early
provenance: that this fine Kashmiri bronze figure of
Tara made its way to a Tibetan Buddhist shrine. For
the sculpture appears not to have been ritually bathed
and repeatedly cleaned nor to have been excavated from
the ground, as it would if it were collected in Kashmir.
As Buddhism in Kashmir waned, Kashmiri artworks
such as the present remained ritually efficacious and
treasured objects in the places to which they were
exported. The inscription on its base, which appears to
be in Sharada script, has yet to be interpreted but could
reveal more about its provenance.
56
Vajravarahi
Tibet, Pala style, 12th century
Bronze with semi-precious inlaid stones
9 ½ in. (24 cm.) high
Provenance:
Koller, Zurich, 1986.
Sothebys, New York, March 19th, 2008, lot 301.
Private Swiss collection.
The present form of Vajrayogini, Vajravarahi or ‘Dorje
Phagmo’ to Tibetans, is a sow-headed manifestation
of the goddess, who is the principal female deity of
the Chakrasamvara cycle of tantras. Vajravarahi
is particularly significant within the Karma Kagyu
and other Kagyu traditions wherein she serves as an
important meditational deity or yidam. While she is a
fully enlightened being who embodies buddhahood in
tantric female form, she is often referred to as a dakini
or khandroma (‘sky goer’) in accordance with early
Indian traditions.
The goddess holds up a kartrika in her right hand and
a kapala in her left, She dons a skull tiara, a necklace of
pendant jewels and a heavy garland of severed heads
hung on twisted rope. Her semi-wrathful expression
is rendered with sharp canines emerging from the
corners of her mouth. The present figure of the dakini
is, nevertheless, elegant and poised. She dances on the
toes of her left foot with her right leg slightly raised,
demonstrating the lightness, space, and bliss that
come along with fully realizing emptiness. Blending
grace and power, the robust goddess centers her weight
effortlessly on flexed toes, achieving an accomplished
posture. The lifelike sow’s head that identifies her
projects boldly from the proper-right side of her head.
The present sculpture, cast in a beautifully-patinated
metal alloy is inset with colourful semi-precious
stones, inspired by the bronzes of Pala India of the
eleventh and twelfth centuries, from where the cult
of the deity herself originates. Compare the posture
and details such as the style of the severed heads hung
on twisted rope with a twelfth century Indian bronze
Vajradaka published by Ulrich von Schroeder in
Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet, Hong Kong, 2001, p. 295,
fig. 98E.
57
Yaksha
Northeastern India, Pala period, 10th-11th century
Black basalt
32 x 13 x 5 3/4 in. (81.3 x 33 x 14.6 cm.)
Provenance:
Sotheby’s New York, 29 March 2006, lot 207.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 7605.
This dwarfish figure, in a short dhoti, richly clad in
heavy jewelry, a sacred thread or yajnopavita, and a tall
crown, is a yaksha. Yaksha are semi-divine nature spirits
with a variety of manifestations in the Hindu context,
adopted and transformed by Mahayana and Tantric
Buddhists. In the context of Tantric Buddhism, from
which the present example emerges, yaksha are often
benevolent attendants of buddhas and bodhisattvas.
The present yaksha stands on a lotus pedestal, holding
a fruit or bud in his right hand and a lotus in the left.
Vidyadharas or ‘knowledge-bearers’ preside over him in
the clouds above, while attendants (also bearing lotuses)
stand at his sides.
While exact identification of this figure is not possible,
the origin of the sculpture is apparent. Gray schist
steles of this size and compositional style were typical
products of the Pala Empire in Northeastern India.
The ties for the yaksha’s diadem which billow out from
rosettes behind each ear are a stylistic trope that seems to
have begun with Pala sculpture. His cone-shaped crown
adorned with triangular petals and a rounded finial
point to its tenth- or eleventh-century date of creation.
58
Buddha Shakyamuni
Northeastern India, Bihar, Pala period, 11th century
Black basalt
27 x 14 1/3 x 6 ½ in. (68.6 x 36.3 x 16.5 cm.)
Provenance:
Private New York collection, since the 1990s.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 7676.
A small canopy surmounts this stele of the historical
Buddha Shakyamuni donning a crown given to him
by the buddhas of the ten directions. Floral motifs fill
the upper third of this perfectly balanced composition:
binding the beaded strands that comprise the buddha’s
halo, decorating each of his ears and his crown, and
stylized into triangular ornaments flanking his head.
Florets float on either side of a finely carved aureole
which appears like a gathering of beaded garlands,
naturally curved with the strands in rotation.
A bronze figure of Shakyamuni from Bihar, made in the
early eleventh century, at the Metropolitan Museum
of Art (acc. 1987.142.319) bears a close resemblance
to the present sculpture in terms of iconographic
interpretation and the Buddha’s physical proportions.
The Sarnath-style diaphanous sanghati with a double
hem and articulated undulations at either side as well as
the bronze’s now-missing inlaid ornaments flanking the
buddha’s head are patent stylistic similarities.
The present sculpture is carved in the black igneous
rock of Northeastern India typically used in Palaperiod stone sculpture. A close comparison of crowned
Shakyamuni in a lighter gray basalt, featuring a
cylindrical coronet with carved florette at the base of
each crown petal, triangular floral elements on either
side of the Buddha’s head and billowing ribbons
beneath them, can be found at The Indian Museum
in Kolkata (acc. 6574). The Kolkata example, however,
is seated in the earth-touching posture. This standing
image of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni possesses
an engaging quality that the seated image does not, as
he displays the abhayamudra or ‘gesture of fearlessness’
with his left hand.
59
Buddha Shakyamuni
Northeastern India, Pala period, 11th – 12th century
Black basalt
16 ½ x 11 3/4 x 2 ½ in. (41.9 x 29.8 x 6.4 cm.)
Provenance:
Private New York collection, since the 1990s.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 7677.
This stone stele depicts Buddha Shakyamuni expressing
his shared identity with Vairochana, flanked by two
attendants and surrounded by many buddhas. As
Shakyamuni ascends to the pureland of Akanistha
upon his enlightenment, he is crowned by the buddhas
of the ten directions and recognized as the nirmanakaya
or form-body or the cosmic buddha Mahavairochana.
Thus, here, he is shown donning a crown and turning
the wheel of the dharma in the ultimate paradise. The
historical buddha’s identity is distinguished from that
of the celestial buddha Vairochana only by his simple
sanghati in lieu of the heavenly ornamentation typically
worn by beings of the sambhogakaya. While the Buddha’s
three-pointed crown is referenced in Mahayana sutras,
the manner in which it is executed in stone, the arch
just above and the niche it surmounts, as well as the
beaded edge of the stele, point to the Vajrayana context
and Pala origin of this devotional work of art.
60
Crowned Buddha
Thailand, Khmer period, Lopburi, 13th century
Copper alloy
22 in. (55.9 cm.) high
Provenance:
The collection of Mrs. Julian B. Herrmann, acquired in the 1920s or 30s.
Thence by descent.
While the origins of the crowned buddha image in
Southeast Asia are unknown, it is likely that this serene
figure represents the historical buddha donning the
crowns and jewels of a royal. The figure displays the
vitarkamudra with both hands, indicating that he is in
discussion or transmitting Buddhist teachings.
The present figure of Buddha Shakyamuni is a product
of the ancient Mon city of Lopburi during the Khmer
period of Cambodian rule. The square face and full lips
give the face of the present figure a likeness to the last
phase of Khmer art of the Angkor period, which centers
around the art produced for the Temple of Bayon.
Native Thai Dvaravati influences are also apparent in
the sculpture’s frontality and balance.
A twelfth-century bronze figure of the Buddha at the
Asian Museum of Art San Francisco (acc. 2006.27.20)—
which displays a conical crown, a necklace with floral
pendants, highly-positioned arm bands, a jeweled belt
with ornaments hanging from its lower band, as well
as an overall symmetrical design—is attributed to either
Thailand or Cambodia. Comparison to a seated bronze
figure of Buddha attributed to the twelfth or thirteenth
century provincial Khmer capital of Lopburi at the
Metropolitan Museum of Art (acc. 2019.451), however,
provides more conclusive evidence that the present
figure originated in the ancient Khmer dominion of
Lopburi, in what is now Thailand.
61
Ganesha
Cambodia, Khmer, 12th-13th century
Bronze
2 ½ in. (6.4 cm.) high (excluding base)
Provenance:
Arts of Asia, Bangkok, before 1971.
Private collection of a Siam University professor, acquired from the above.
The Khmer Empire, which flourished from the ninth to
the fifteenth centuries, dominated much of Southeast
Asia. Its capital, Angkor, nurtured unparalleled
achievements in sculpture and architecture. Located
in northwest Cambodia, the city experienced cultural
crosscurrents from China and India which had a lasting
impact on the development of the empire. Sanskrit
functioned as the literary language of the court, while
Hindu and Buddhist traditions were honored and
patronized through artistic production. Although
discussion of Khmer sculpture often revolves around
stone temples, bronze sculpture played an important
role in the empire’s rich artistic tradition as well.
Bronze is a noble material representative of success
and prosperity.
The present sculpture depicts the Hindu god Ganesha,
elephant-headed son of Shiva, seated on a rectangular
plinth executed in the round, his divine power
emanating in all directions. The deity wears a sampot
with butterfly sash at the reverse and is adorned with
armbands, necklace, and a conical headdress. The
ornamentation is characteristic of sculptures from this
period; see the style expressed in another example at
the Minneapolis Institute of Art for reference (acc.
99.216.11). Although some refinement of the present
Ganesha’s detail has been lost overtime, the elegance of
this product of labor-intensive bronze artistry remains.
62
King Ralpachen
Tibet, late 17th century
Distemper on cloth
20 x 12 in. (52 x 31 cm.)
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 8078.
The king is depicted here with a slightly furrowed
brow and an otherwise serene expression, with soft
eyes that draw the viewer in. Discrete strands of hair
billow upward, filling the lower portion of his aureole
and conveying the energy of his practice. He holds a
vajra and bell pointing to his shared identity with the
bodhisattva Vajrapani. The enlightened figure, however,
dons garments that match his earthly and royal status:
flaming jewels, billowing sashes, and a large kirtimukha
belt buckle decorate layers of gold-embroidered
garments, each distinguished with a unique floral
design. The figure depicted beside the large bowl of
jewels before the king is likely a minister waiting to relay
a message.
The present painting is a rare depiction of King
Ralpachen, as he is typically pictured with Songtsen
Gampo and Trisong Detsen, who as a triad comprise
the “Three Dharma Kings.” Under King Ralpachen
(r.815-839), the forty-first king of Tibet, the Tibetan
Empire reached its greatest expanse. Creating artworks
such as the present, honoring Tibetan royalty of the
past, became a popular practice under the period of
consolidation under the Ganden Phodrang in the
seventeenth century.
63
Arhat Nagasena
Tibet, 18th century
Distemper on cloth
26 ½ x 18 in. (67.5 x 46 cm.)
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 88590.
Aged and dignified, the disproportionately large figure
at the center of this composition depicts an Indian
Buddhist master called Nagasena. He is one of sixteen
arhats who have pledged to remain on earth until the
future buddha, Maitreya, appears. His life story is
similar to that of Siddhartha’s in that he was born into
a royal family and gave up his kingdom to become a
Buddhist monk. Thereafter he gained esteem through
sage advice he offered to King Milinda of secondcentury northwestern India. The vase and mendicant
staff Nagasena holds distinguish his character from the
other arhats that would accompany him in the larger
set to which this painting belongs. He appears in a
shirt, multi-colored robes, and boots, as prescribed by
artists of the Chinese Tang dynasty who created the first
models for such figures.
Nagasena appears enthroned atop a rock formation
attended by a female figure offering jewels, a monk
displaying the dharmachakra mudra, and an Indian
mendicant with a precious offering. A very small
apparition of Green Tara is depicted in a small radiating
aureole, embedded within the craggy rocks behind the
elder. These rock formations are one of many features
within the present work which demonstrate great
Chinese influence resulting from the historical practice
of exchanging paintings between China and Tibet.
Others include the aforementioned garments, the
prominence and stylization of flowers, and lack of sky
typically given great breadth in Tibetan paintings.
A lengthy inscription along the lower edge of the
composition has been identified as one excerpted
from praises to the Sixteen Great Elders written by
the fifth Dalai Lama Ngagwang Lobzang Gyatso (see
himalayanart.org):
“The vase of Nagasena was offered along with many
other precious vessels by the Four Guardian Kings
in order to receive refuge in the Three Jewels and to
benefit all beings. The divine [water] of the vase will
cleanse karmic obscurations. Whoever hears the sound
of the staff will be cleaned of all sickness, freed from all
suffering and the afflictions will be pacified, and [all
will] obtain faith in the
Three Jewels.”
(translation by Jeff Watt)
64
Five-pointed Spear
Tibet, 17th-18th century
29 1/8 in. (74 cm.) long
Provenance:
Jean Claude Moreau-Gobard.
The Andrault Collection.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 7653.
This five-pointed spear has stylized prongs that blaze
with gilded scrolling flames, complementing the gilded
skull set in its base. As a weapon in the hands of wrathful
deities, the trident symbolizes, among other things, the
destruction of the three poisons that drive suffering in
samsara: ignorance, greed, and hatred. Trident banners
are often used to decorate the roofs of protector chapels
dedicated to such wrathful deities.
The present spear with its five points, though
symbolically synonymous with the trident, trisula, or
mdung-rtse-gsum, most closely resembles that which
accompanies an image of the state oracle of Tibet
known as Nechung Chokyong or ‘Religious Protector of
a Small Dwelling [a monastery]’ in the great collection
of the Potala Palace in Lhasa.
This Nechung Chokyong incarnation lineage has
held great sway over the Ganden Phodrang since the
seventeenth century and the ritual investiture of this
figure--who has the power to transcend his human
body and embody a protective retinue figure of Pehar
Gyalpo installed as an important protector by the Fifth
Dalai Lama and his minister—includes the present fivepointed spear.
The present ritual object is certainly rare. However,
a nearly identical trident resides within the Musée
Guimet in Paris (acc. M15918).
65
Konchog Bang
Tibet, 18th century
Ground mineral pigments on cloth
28 1/4 x 19 in. (72 x 48 cm.)
Provenance:
Private UK collection.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 88593.
An important text narrated by the great Indian pandit
Atisha explicating the essential practices of the early
Kadam tradition of Tibetan Buddhism describes
Konchog Bang as an Indian prince. Therein, Atisha
describes his foremost disciple as an incarnation of
the Great Compassionate One, Avalokiteshvara, and
Kongchog Bang’s story is one of his previous lives.
After refusing to marry the wife his father selected for
him, prince Kongchog Bang encounters a Buddhist
saint in the sky before him who advises him to go to the
land of Uddiyana where he will find the dakini Sangwa
Yeshe and bring her home as his betrothed. After a
treacherous journey riddled with demons he must battle
he finds the dakini in the company of Guru Vimala and
thousands of other dakini. There, he learns he will be
reincarnated as Tibetan King Songtsen Gampo and
Sangwa Yeshe will take the form of his Chinese wife.
The Secret Wisdom dakini (labeled ‘Sangwa Yeshe’
in Tibetan) floats in the upper right corner of the
composition and Guru Vimala (labeled ‘Lama Dri-mamed’) floats in the upper left holding a vajra and a bell.
An inscription in Tibetan Ume script on the back of
the painting makes reference to both figures:
By the compassionate moon rays of Vimala Guru and
Guhya Jnana,
Nurturing the lily garden,
Ripening the beings of the land of Uddiyana;
To the One Lord Konchog Bang I pray!
(translation by Jeff Watt)
The present painting comes from a well-known
thirteen-painting compositional design representing
Dalai Lamas and their pre-incarnations. The original
designs took the form of woodblock images which were
likely created at Narthang, where the thirteenth century
Kadam Legbam (the aforementioned source of Konchog
Bang’s identity), which began as an oral teaching, was
recorded by the ninth abbot Khenchen Nyima Gyeltsen
(1225-1305). However, this painting is not only a display
of that standard iconography, but of the careful hand of
a seasoned thangka painter whose skill is apparent.
Compare the present painting to a nineteenth-century
iteration of this composition in the Rubin Museum
of Art (acc. C2006.66.332), which lacks the nuances
of color and the capturing clouds displayed in the
present composition.
66
Arhat Kanakavatsa
Tibet, 18th century
Ground mineral pigments on cloth
36 1/4 x 24 in. (92 x 61 cm.)
Provenance:
Koller Zurich, June 1978, lot 46.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 36292.
The Sixteen Arhats emerge out of an early Sanskrit
Buddhist text called the Nandamitra describing
enlightened human disciples of the historical Buddha
Shakyamuni who vow to remain on earth until the future
buddha, Maitreya, arrives. The present aesthetic form,
however, is the result of earlier Chinese models of these
figures referred to as ‘luohan’ (the Chinese equivalent
of the Sanskrit term ‘arhat’). Tibetans, however, refer to
many of these figures as neten (Tib. Wylie: gnas brten)
which equates to the Sanskrit term for elder (sthavira).
Arhatship is a level of buddhist attainment for which
Tibetans use the word drachompa (Tib. Wylie:. dgra
bcom pa). The difference in such terms, therefore, leaves
in question what status Tibetan Buddhists attribute to
some of these figures Western art historians describe as
“arhats.” The present figure Kanakavatsa and the other
fifteen arhats are, nevertheless, very significant figures
in Tibetan Buddhist art.
Here, Kanakavatsa is depicted wide-eyed, holding
a jeweled lasso given to him by the protectors of the
Tantras known as nagas. He is barefoot, seated atop
a meditation cushion, and attended by a small male
figure holding a vase. Two large jewels are suspended
in the water at the foreground. The present painting
belongs to a painting set depicting either sixteen or
eighteen figures which includes Arhat Nagasena and
Arhat Bakula from this catalogue as well as two others
in private collections (see Himalayan Art Resources
items no. 21658 and 24114). The set is distinguished
by the golden bodies of each elder, the elaborate and
distinct golden patterns of each vibrant textile, the
rainbow of colors among clouds filling the bright blue
skies, the pure white moon and orange sun, and the red
cartouches with small gold inscriptions of homage.
67
Arhat Bakula
Tibet, 18th century
Distemper on cloth
36 x 24 in. (92 x 60 cm.)
Provenance:
Private European collection; acquired from Galerie Koller, Zurich, 1980s.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 36293.
The arhat Bakula was born prior to the historical
buddha and achieved enlightenment only eight days
after joining the original sangha. Thus, he is praised like
a bodhisattva capable of bestowing material needs on
those who seek dharma. He is depicted here according
to a twelfth- or thirteenth-century Tibetan set of praises
written by Kashmiri teacher Shakyashri Bhadra: as
an ordained monk seated on an animal skin, holding
a mongoose spitting jewels. His old age is conveyed
by somewhat hyperbolic wrinkles and white hair and
brows, which spill off the monk’s furrowed temples.
Below his grand throne topped with a flaming jewel and
kirtimukha, a Buddhist mendicant offers the honorable
Bakula a coral branch and an auspicious blue dragon
appears among clouds and water that coalesce with his
curling body.
The present painting belongs to a painting set depicting
either sixteen or eighteen figures which includes Arhat
Kanakavatsa and Arhat Nagasena from this catalogue as
well as two others in private collections (see Himalayan
Art Resources items no. 21658 and 24114). The set is
distinguished by the golden bodies of each elder, the
elaborate and distinct golden patterns of each vibrant
textile, the rainbow of colors among clouds filling the
bright blue skies, the pure white moon and orange sun,
and the red cartouches with small gold inscriptions
of homage.
68
Arhat Nagasena
Tibet, 18th century
Distemper on cloth
35 3/4 x 23 ½ in. (91 x 60 cm.)
Provenance:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 36291.
Arhat Nagasena was a direct disciple of the historical
Buddha and having swiftly attained enlightenment,
became an exemplar among other figures within equally
outstanding aptitude known as ‘worthy ones’ in ancient
India. Nagasena is depicted here with his mendicant
staff in the shape of two stupas in his right hand and
a vase emitting rainbow light streaming upward into
the mountain peaks behind him in his left. His bright
white, focused eyes appear as if they are drawing the
multi-colored rays of transcendent wisdom out of the
vase with his gaze. Multiple grottos, where adepts may
be found meditating, appear in the complex landscape
where he dwells.
The present painting belongs to a painting set depicting
either sixteen or eighteen figures which includes Arhat
Kanakavatsa and Arhat Bakula from this catalogue as
well as two others in private collections (see Himalayan
Art Resources items no. 21658 and 24114). The set is
distinguished by the golden bodies of each elder, the
elaborate and distinct golden patterns of each vibrant
textile, the rainbow of colors among clouds filling the
bright blue skies, the pure white moon and orange sun,
and the red cartouches with small gold inscriptions
of homage.
69
Bodhisattva
Nepal, early Malla Period, 14th century
Inlaid gilt-copper
8 ½ in. (21.5 cm.) high
Provenance:
Private European collection, acquired by inheritance.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 7612.
Downcast eyes and slightly upturned lips convey the
spiritual equipoise of this benevolent buddhist being.
The figure wears all of the garments of a bodhisattva: a
crown, necklaces, bracelets, a sacred cord, a festooned
belt around a floral dhoti, and anklets. This heavenly
manifestation is known as a sambhogakaya (Skt.)
appearance. In English, this Tantric Buddhist class
of beings are referred to as ‘enjoyment bodies.’ The
sambhogakaya is a realm one gains access to through
the highest dimensions of practice; it is where all
bodhisattvas reside. Sambhogakaya manifestations are
considered one of the primary means through which
buddhist truths are made manifest to human beings.
Buddhas often take on this appearance to teach highly
realized practitioners and bodhisattvas.
The five celestial buddhas are, therefore, depicted
in sambhogakaya or “bodhisattva appearance” with
great frequency. Thus, without a view of the present
sculpture’s equally-detailed backside, the meditative
posture and fear-dispelling gesture (or abhayamudra)
might lead one to identify the peaceful deity as the
buddha Amoghasiddhi of the North. However, a
protruding piece of metal on the back of the figure’s
proper-left arm indicates that there was once a lotus
stalk here, which would have supported another
iconographic element essential to identification of the
figure. Without this element present, the figure must
be described as an unidentifiable bodhisattva. Yet, the
origin of this figure is apparent.
The elaborate five-petaled diadem and tiered helmet with
a vajra finial are immediately telling of this fine bronze’s
Nepalese origin. The style is common to Nepalese
sculptures and mirrors worn by Vajrayana Buddhist
acharyas or priests in the Kathmandu Valley. The
inlaying of translucent semi-precious stones beside the
turquoise and lapis, which give color to the bodhisattva’s
heavenly jewels, is also much more common in Nepal
than Tibet. This finely cast, richly-gilded bodhisattva
clearly displays the naturalistic physiognomy, typical
aquiline nose, and precise decoration mastered by the
Newar artists of the Kathmandu Valley during the early
Malla period. A fifteenth-century figure of Manjushri
or Maitreya at the Rubin Museum of Art provides a
close comparison (Acc. C2003.33.2; see Himalayan Art
Resources, item no. 65255). This figure, too, is clearly
missing an iconographic element that would have
emerged from a lotus stalk attached to the back of the
proper-left arm.
Also see a comparable sculpture, identified as
Amoghasiddhi, sold at Christie’s New York (19 March
2013, lot 404). It is quite possible that these figures were
part of the same set of sculptures depicting the Eight
Great Bodhisattvas.
70
Vajrapani
China, 18th century
Distemper on cloth
43 1/4 x 28 ½ in. (109.8 x 72.5 cm.)
Provenance:
Private Swedish collection; acquired in the late 1930s.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 8076.
A parasol surmounted with flaming jewels and
symmetrically framed by five cumulus clouds, hovers
over an elaborate throne back presided over by a garuda
and containing the Six Ornaments—an elephant, a lion,
a sarabha, a dwarf, a makara, and a naga—on each side.
Within the bounds of these stacked creatures, black
transforms into a deep blue, and finally into a rainbow
of light, radiating from the core of the bodhisattva’s
golden body in an undulating aureole. A halo of pink and
green light frames the bodhisattva’s serene expression.
The ornaments that indicate his enlightened status are
particularly elaborate—decorated with both jewels and
delicate lotus flowers throughout. His multi-layered
dhoti is equally as opulent, detailed with delicate floral
and spiral motifs in gold.
The style employed here is associated with the Manchu
Qing imperial court, produced under a series of
emperors who considered themselves emanations of
the buddha Manjushri. The relationship between
hierarchs of the Gelugpa sect that presided over the
central Tibetan government and the Qing Emperors
followed the priest-patron model established by Kublai
Khan and Chogyal Phakpa in the thirteenth century.
As such, paintings like the present, were commissioned
to fill Tibetan Buddhist temples utilized by the court.
The style is distinguished most apparently by the
offering goddesses that appear within the clouds at the
top of the composition as well as the abundance of lush
lotuses styled as peonies and chrysanthemums.
The golden tone of this majestic figure’s skin belies
his identity as the bodhisattva Vajrapani, as the
deity is more typically depicted in blue or green. In
the Vajrayana tradition Vajrapani takes the place of
a narrator, relaying Tantric Buddhist teachings. He
appropriately holds a vajra and ghanta which, together,
embody his perfected state. The foreground below the
celestial figure is filled with large lotus flowers supporting
the Eight Auspicious Symbols of Tibetan Buddhism: a
parasol, a vase, an endless knot, a dharma wheel, two
fish, a victory banner, a conch shell, and a lotus flower.
Compare the present painting to those associated with
the eighteenth-century Xumi Fushou temple, erected
by the Qianlong Emperor as a replica of Tashi Lhunpo
monastery for the visit of the sixth Panchen Lama, such
as that of Samantabhadra in the Asian Art Museum of
San Francisco (acc. B72D67). While the compositional
arrangement is quite similar in style, the multi-colored
saw-tooth edge clouds in the present work, as well as the
ornamented trees in the forefront, and the small deer
hidden in the landscape to the bodhisattva’s right, point
to a more explicit influence of the contemporaneous
central Tibetan styles on the present work of art.
71
Green Tara (Syamatara)
Tibet, 14th century
Gilt-bronze with semi-precious inlaid stones
18 in. (47.7 cm.) high
Provenance:
Estate of Roy Kirk, San Francisco, acquired in Asia, 1960s, by repute.
J. Russell Wherritt Trust, purchased from the above, 1990s.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 2144.
The goddess imbued within this image is Green Tara
who patronized Tibet directly and was endowed by
Tibetans with the epithets, iconography, and functions
of enlightened male buddhas and bodhisattvas. Green
Tara is second only to the Buddha for many Tibetan
Buddhists. A great deal of laity know the praises of
her twenty-one forms by heart, just as well as the
monks. Syamatara’s Tibetan name ‘Jetsun Drolma,’
which means ‘Venerable Mother of Liberation,’ points
to that for which she is supplicated for—she can swiftly
remove obstacles.
The present image of Green Tara depicts her in a
form derived from early Indian sources, yet clearly
Tibetanized. The goddess is depicted in a way that
originated in the Taramulakalpa, composed in the
seventh century in India and transported to Tibet:
she is a youthful female seated in the position of royal
ease on a lotus throne with her right hand lowered in a
boon-granting gesture and her left raised in a teaching
gesture, a perfectly symmetrical figure, adorned with the
thirty-two marks of perfection, with a serene expression
and a high chignon with tresses of hair falling down on
both shoulders.
Despite the formulaic iconography behind this
efficacious ritual work of art, the lost-wax process
employed to create this sculpture ensures that this
important commission is entirely unique. The origin
and date of this richly-gilded bronze figure of Green
Tara is made identifiable by stylistic features such as her
rectangular urna, aquiline nose, prominent chin, soft
pursed lips, tubular limbs, pinched waist, and floral
ornamentation in both jewelry and incised patterns.
All reveal the influence of a sculptural style created by
the indigenous inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley—
the Newars.
The present masterwork exhibits a Nepalese style
developed for Tibetan patrons in central Tibet.
Previously, the present sculpture was appropriately
likened to murals of the Five Tathagatas in the South
Chapel of Shalu monastery (just south of Shigatse),
painted in the second quarter of the fourteenth century.
The crown in particular can be found in the Belri or
Nepalese style painting tradition that flourished in
Tibet, epitomized by the fifteenth-century Gyantse
Kumbum murals of Tsang Province (south-central
Tibet). Prominent west-central Tibetan monasteries of
the time, such as Shalu, Gyantse, Ngor, and Sakya, were
particularly active in reinterpreting and perpetuating
traditions associated with the Indo-Nepalese artistic
styles imported from Nepal during the second
dissemination of Buddhism. It is possible that the
present sculpture, given its magnificent quality and size,
was created for such a context. This large and beautiful
figure of Green Tara is, admittedly, more pleasing in
proportion, countenance, and ornamentation than
a comparable gilt-bronze figure of Tara held in the
aforementioned and important Shalu monastery (see
U. von Schroeder, Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet, 2001, p.
967, no. 233B). It is an undeniable masterwork of art.
72
Hevajra
Central Tibet, 17th century
Distemper on cloth
38 3/4 x 28 3/4 in. (98.6 x 72.8 cm.)
Provenance:
The Bortolot Collection, acquired in New York, September 1984.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 36291.
Hevajra, whose name is perhaps best understood in
English as “Oh, Vajra!” is the tantric manifestation of
the Buddha Akshobhya (the ‘Immovable One’). His
name epitomizes the adamantine nature of Vajrayana
teachings. Here, the skull-cup-bearing form of tutelary
deity Hevajra stands in pratyalidhasana with his consort
Nairatmya. The deities of the highest yoga tantra dance
atop a double-lotus trampling Vishnu, Indra, Shiva, and
Brahma in their stride. The eight-headed, sixteen-armed
Hevajra clasps skull cups holding a variety of beings in
each hand; an elephant and the earth-goddess Prithvi in
his primary hands. His proper-right hands hold a variety
of animals while his proper-left hold a retinue of other
Hindu deities. While it is often difficult to differentiate
the animals when this tantric deity is represented in
sculptural form, this painted image depicts each animal
distinctly and charmingly.
The lineage descending from the primordial buddha
Vajradhara (in blue at the top center of the composition)
is accordingly that of multiple Kagyu traditions
that emerged after the lifetime of one of Marpa’s
four principle disciple’s named Ngogton Choku
Dorje(1036-1097), accredited with the transmission
of the Hevajra teachings that gave birth to this image.
Descending down each side of the composition
are the Eight Offering Goddesses described in the
Hevajra sadhana (or meditation script). At the bottom
of the composition there are three forms of Hevajra
representing body, speech and mind (from left to
right, respectively).
The symmetrical style of the composition conforms to
an interpretation of the classic Menri style as practiced
by Khyentse Chenmo (b. 1420s) of Gongkar Chode
monastery and the Karma Kagyu tradition. The style,
thus known as “Khyenri,” is marked by a bright palette,
great attention to small detail, portrait-like faces, and
varied modes of fiery nimbuses and halos surrounding
each figure.
73
Chakrasamvara and Vajrayogini
Nepal, 15th-16th century
Gilt copper
8 ½ in. (22 cm.) high
Provenance:
Henri and Dolores Kamer, New York.
Private American collection, acquired from the above in the early 1990s.
Published:
Himalayan Art Resources (himalayanart.org), item no. 16809.
Chakrasamvara and Vajrayogini are important deities of
the highest class of yogic practice in Vajrayana Buddhism.
This small gilt-bronze sculpture of meditational deities
in union exudes an energy that reaches far beyond the
boundaries of its surface. Chakrasamvara is depicted
here according to Tibetan Buddhist convention, with
four faces and twelve hands, in alidhasana, embraced
by his consort Vajrayogini. Together they trample the
deities Bhairava (who lies prostrate) and Kalaratri (who
lies supine). The multi-headed tutelary deity holds
various attributes with his many arms radiating around
him, the principle arms holding a vajra and bell and the
uppermost holding the ends of a tiger skin which he
drapes over his back.
This lustrous gilt-bronze sculpture is representative
of the highest quality Nepalese craftsmanship. Its
magnificence is embedded not only in the semi-precious
inset ornaments that adorn the deities gleaming golden,
perfectly proportioned bodies, but perhaps more so in
the sweetness of the countenances and the apparent
meeting of the male and female manifestation’s gazes—
the intangible, yet most-human feature of this sculpture.
Compare the present sculpture to a fourteenth-century
sculpture of Chakrasamvara in union with Vajrayogini
from Central Tibet at the Rubin Museum of Art (acc.
C2005.16.16) which has repeatedly been attributed
to the hand of a Nepalese artist in exhibitions and
publications (see Collection Highlights: The Rubin Museum
of Art, New York, 2014, p. 106). The Rubin sculpture
appears to have been crafted in Tibet for a number of
reasons including the appearance of the metal alloy
beneath the gilding and the fixtures revealed on the
backside of the figure and base which indicate that it
would have been mounted on a larger structure, likely
a tashi gomang or a stupa of ‘many auspicious doors.’
The similarities between the present sculpture and the
Rubin example, in terms of craftsmanship and style
are significant as the Rubin sculpture more directly
evidences the significant relationship between Nepalese
craftsmanship and Tibetan Buddhist worship.
Newar craftsmen made Vajrayana buddhist figures such
as the present for both Nepalese and Tibetan patrons
in both Nepal and Tibet. However, the unfinished
backside of the present figure’s lotus base and the
remnants of red pigment thereon are telltale signs of a
geographical Nepalese provenance. The modeling of the
lotus petals and red pigment applied to the back of the
base can be observed on a stylistically similar sculpture
of Sahaja Chakrasamvara at the British Museum (acc.
1921,0219.1) attributed to the sixteenth century and
acquired directly from Nepal. The present bronze
group, however, is far more complex and impressive.
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Opposite: Himalayan Art Resources, item no. 36291 (himalayanart.org/items/36291)