Academia.eduAcademia.edu
N Nārāyana ˙ Shakuntala Gawde Department of Sanskrit, University of Mumbai, Mumbai, India particularly and Vaiṣṇavism in general. Nārāyaṇa is also mentioned as inseparably associated with the sage Nara. Nara – Nārāyana ˙ Synonyms Nara Nārāyaṇa; Puruṣa Nārāyaṇa; Puruṣottama Definition Nārāyaṇa is important God of Vaiṣṇava cult. It is generally referred as another name of Viṣṇu. Historically Nārāyaṇa was different God than Viṣṇu which later got identified with Viṣṇu and also got intermingled into Vaiṣṇava pantheon. In later literature, Nārāyaṇa and Viṣṇu are used alternatively to refer to same deity. Introduction Nārāyaṇa and Viṣṇu are considered almost synonymous in Purāṇas and later Upaniṣads. Rāmānuja considered Nārāyaṇa-Viṣṇu as Parabrahman. He became the important god in Purāṇic period and attained the status in Trinity of Hinduism. Nārāyaṇa was the main god of Pañcarātra sampradāya. Syncretic deity Nārāyaṇa-Viṣṇu got associated with Bhāgavata sampradāya Nārāyaṇa is also known as one among two ṛṣis known as Nara-Nārāyaṇa. Dharma, son of Brahmā was his father. Dharma married to ten daughters of Dakṣa and four sons namely, Hari, Kṛṣṇa, Nara, and Nārāyaṇa were born to him. Nara and Nārāyaṇa were inseparable samnyāsins. They did tapas for thousand years on the slopes of Himalaya to please Brahmā ([10], p. 532). Many scholars have given the etymology of the word Nārāyaṇa from Nara. Nārāyaṇa is a gotra name derived from the word Nara ([5], p. 33). Jaiswal quotes the views of Barnett and D. C. Sirkar. So according to this view, Nārāyaṇa was a sage born in the family of another sage Nara. Nara and Nārāyaṇa are considered two ṛṣis. Nārāyaṇa is the composer of Puruṣasūkta. Nara and Nārāyaṇa were advocates of solar worship which led to their identification with sun god. According to Jaiswal, this interpretation of terms clearly ignores the view that in the Mahābhārata the sage Nara is born out of the austerities performed by Nārāyaṇa and not vice versa ([5], p. 34). Constant association of Nara and Nārāyaṇa is seen in several stories but there is no mention of Nārāyaṇa as a god in early references. From the © Springer Nature B.V. 2020 P. Jain et al. (eds.), Hinduism and Tribal Religions, Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_194-1 2 views of Jaiswal, it can be said that Nārāyaṇa attained the status of god who was initially a sage. Symbolism of Nara-Nārāyaṇa is also seen from philosophical viewpoint. R. G. Bhandarkar unfolds allegory of Nara-Nārāyaṇa with the metaphor of two birds – one dwelling on tree and other enjoying sweet and bitter fruits. That one of those who is called the lord and the onlooker is in the present tradition Nārāyaṇa and the other who is engaged in eating the fruit of the tree Nara. The old idea was transferred to the new conception of Nārāyaṇa as the resting place or abode of all men ([2], p. 32). Rao cites Manusmṛti to explain the symbolism of Nara- Nārāyaṇa in philosophical temperament. Nara means that which does not perish (na rī yate kṣī yate) and the word refers to the cosmic spirit of the soul, which creates the endless stretch of the primeval water (which therefore is called nāram); the supreme spirit that lies hiding in this watery mass is Nārāyaṇa (meaning abiding Nāra) ([8], p. 81). There are different narratives about NaraNārāyaṇas which throw light on the nature of the Nārāyaṇa. Vettam Mani mentions one story from Devi Bhāgavata, 4th skandha, which is about the tapas of Nara-Nārāyaṇas which was hindered by Indra. The whole world was burnt by intense tapas of Nara-Nārāyaṇa. Indra went to Badarikāśrama to break their tapas in order to save his position of Indra. He asked them to choose a desired boon but they didn’t even recognize him or answer him. Then he decided to disturb them with his māyā. He created ferocious animals, storm, rain, flood but they were unmoved. Then Indra appointed Kāmadeva for this task. Kāmadeva came to Badarikāśrama with all apsarās. They started singing and dancing before these two sages. Understanding the diplomacy of Indra, they decided to take away his pride by creating more beautiful apsaras. Beautiful woman was created from Nārāyaṇa’s thigh (uru) known as Urvaśī. All were wonderstruck by her beauty. They felt ashamed. Munis asked them to take her to Devaloka ([10], p. 532). Nārāyaṇī ya section of the śāntiparvan from Mahābhārtata mentions Nārāyaṇa. Nārada goes to Badarikāśrama to see Nara and Nārāyaṇa. The Nārāyana ˙ later was engaged in the performance of religious rites. Nārada asked Nārāyaṇa whom he worshipped, while he himself is the Supreme Lord. He uttered that he worshipped his original Prakṛti (nature) which is the source of all. Nara, Nārāyaṇa, Kṛṣṇa, and Hari called as sons of Dharma are represented as the four sons of Supreme. Nārada flies into the sky to see the original nature, i.e., Prakṛti of Nārāyaṇa and alights on the peak of Meru mountain. He saw people without senses, with heads like umbrellas, making sound like thundering and devoted to Bhagavat. Yudhiṣṭhira asks Bhīṣma about these people. Then Bhīṣma told the story of King Vasu Uparicara who worshipped Lord with the Sātvata vidhi. He was very pious king honoured by Indra. Citraśikhaṇḍins were the original promulgators of Sātvata. The mountain Meru was the place where they revealed it. They were seven consisting of Marīci, Atri, Aṅgiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, and Vasiṣṭha. Eighth was Svāyambhuva from whom emanated excellent śā stras. This they promulgated to Bhagavat who said to ṛṣis that you have composed hundred thousand verses which contain rules of affairs of men which are in harmony with Yajus, Sāman, Ṛc, and Atharvāṅgiras. I created Brahman from my peaceful and Rudra from wrathful nature. This śāstra will be handed over from person to person till reaches to Bṛhaspati. Then it will be passed to Vasu Uparicara, a first disciple of Bṛhaspati. The king will follow this śāstra and will become my devotee. After his death, this śāstra will be lost. From the above stories, it can be observed that cult of Nārāyaṇa discloses prominent influence of the nature of asceticism and it is very probable that it was dominated by them in its early stages. Origin and Development of Deity Nārāyana ˙ First reference of the deity Nārāyaṇa can be traced back to Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa XIII.6 in connection with Paῆcarātra sattra. Here he is referred as Puruṣa Nārāyaṇa (Puruṣo ha Nārāyaṇah akāmayat|) He sent forth Vasus, Rudras, Ᾱdityas by means of morning, mid-day, and evening Nārāyana ˙ offerings. Prajāpati asked him to sacrifice again. Nārāyaṇa placed in all the worlds, the gods, the Vedas, the vital airs, etc. Prajāpati asked him to sacrifice again; and by means of sacrifice Nārāyaṇa placed himself in all the worlds, gods, Vedas, vital airs, etc. Nārāyaṇa became superior to all. Nārāyaṇa gained superiority by this and became identical with all beings. Here Nārāyaṇa is not connected with Viṣṇu. According to Rayachaudhuri, in Taitiriya Āraṇyaka (X.11.1), Nārāyaṇa is brought into direct connection with Viṣṇu [9]. Nārāyaṇa appears as the deity “eternal, Supreme and Lord” and receives the name Hari. There is one view that Nārāyaṇa is the deity of Dravidian origin, his name being composite of three words nār-ay-an. Dravidian nī r meaning water, ay meaning “to lie in a place,” and male personal termination “an.” So it means a deity lying on the water. In the Mahābhārata, this etymology of Nārāyaṇa is explained as “waters were called as Nāra, I have assumed their name that being my abode (ayana).” ([6], p. 250) Manusmṛti I.10 etymologizes the word Nārāyaṇa from Nāra meaning water. Keny says that Nārāyaṇa is originally non-āryan god but incorporated later on by Brāhmaṇas while writing the great epic. They have in fact, āryanised a non-āryan god, probable of the people who had a high sea commerce and identified him with the present Viṣṇu of the āryan pantheon ([6], p. 252). According to Keny, the very word śeṣa-śāyī corroborates the Dravidian character of Nārāyaṇa. The representation of pure āryan god with a nāga would not be quite suitable, Śeṣa being the king of Nāgas, who were Dravidian tribe. It was the ārynanisation of the Dravidian deity of sea. He was identified later on with Viṣṇu and thus incorporated in Āryan pantheon ([6], p. 254). Later on Keny propounds that representation of Nārāyaṇa on the tree, which is being surrounded by waters all around in Mahābhārata, vana parva has remarkable parallelism with the Supreme Being of Mohenjo Daro which is also represented as being on a tree. This Nārāyaṇa of the āryan pantheon seems to be the Supreme Being of the Mohenjo Daro ([6], p. 255). Suvira Jaiswal derives the connection of Pañcarātra sattra with Puruṣamedha sacrifice on 3 the basis of references from Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa XIII.6.1 (sa etam pañcarātram puruṣamedham yajñakratumapaśyat |). The ritual killing of man was a universal development from cannibalism through which human civilization had to progress. Nārāyaṇa signified the collectivity of men; it was for the good of human tribe that human being was killed originally to provide food (medhā means lit. food) ([5], p. 35) He traces traits of original association of Nārāyaṇa with human sacrifice as preserved in the ritual of Nārāyaṇa bali. Nārāyaṇa bali is performed for those who die unnatural death, commit suicide, or are slain and for all those persons for whom cremation is forbidden. It was specially ordained for whom the cremation was forbidden ([5], p. 36). He traces the concept of universal form or viśvarūpa which became popular in Bhagavadgī tā as originally associated with Nārāyaṇa. Mārkaṇḍeya’s entry into the mouth of Nārāyaṇa and his vision of the whole universe as existing inside the body of the deity is described in Āraṇyaka Parva, Mahābhārata ([5], p. 36). Jaiswal traces the origin of Nārāyaṇa to Indus Valley civilization. He shows Nārāyaṇa’s connection with śrāddha ceremony as observed in Mahābhārata XII.333; XII.322.19f where offering of black sesamum is an essential rite and rituals connected with sesamum are an inheritance from the Harrappa culture ([5], p. 47). R. G. Bhandarkar shows the similarity of the word Nārāyaṇa with Nāḍāyana which is formed by Pāṇini’s Sūtra IV.1.99 and means the gotra Nāḍāyana. The term is significant and means in this case the resting place or the place to which Nāḍa or collections of Nāḍas go. Therefore, Nārāyaṇa may be construed as the resting place or goal of gods ([2], p. 30). Nārāyaṇa is also associated with primeval waters. Waters were called as Nāras because they were the sons of Nara. He is considered as creator at many places including Purāṇas which can be taken as the identity which was established in Brahmā and Nārāyaṇa. Cosmological function of Brahmadeva was transferred to Nārāyaṇa by assigning him prime position of creator. Brahmadeva sprang from the lotus in the navel of Nārāyaṇa or Viṣṇu (Mahābhārata III.12,34 and 4 XII.349.18) is evident to prove that superiority of Nārāyaṇa or Viṣṇu is established over Brahmā. Nārāyaṇa is represented as lying on the body of huge serpent in the ocean of milk. Identification with Visnu and Krsna ˙˙ ˙˙ ˙ Nārāyaṇa is considered synonymous with the Viṣṇu so much so that these two terms are alternatively used. Āgamic literature considers Nārāyaṇa as vyūha incarnation of Viṣṇu. According to Pañcarātra treatise, Nārāyaṇa descends from Vāsudeva who is the vyūha avatāra of Viṣṇu ([4], p. 217) Sātvata Samhitā XII includes Nara- Nārāyaṇa in the vibhava avatāra. Same is told by Ahirbudhnya Samhitā. Nārāyaṇa is sometimes identified with Prajāpati Brahmā. Cosmic activities are assigned to Nārāyaṇa. Evidently Nārāyaṇa is a powerful God in his own right, which conduces to his identification first with Brahmā and next with Viṣṇu ([4], p. 49) Kṛṣṇa got identified with Viṣṇu Nārāyaṇa in later times. Rayachaudhuri finds the identification of Vāsudeva with Viṣṇu Nārāyaṇa in the Taitirīya Āraṇyaka ([7], p. 68). Rayachaudhuri states the active propaganda of Ashoka that led the Vedic priests to identify Vāsudeva with Nārāyaṇa-Viṣṇu. Regarding the question as to why Kṛṣṇa was identified with Viṣṇu and not any other Vedic God; Rayachaudhuri suggested that Viṣṇu was connected from earliest Vedic times with a work of deliverance for mankind in distress ([7], p. 69). Brāhmaṇic identification of Vāsudeva with Nārāyaṇa-Viṣṇu was not accepted by the bhāgavatas in the pre-Christian centuries. Ghosūṇḍī inscription does not prove any connection between the worship of Nārāyaṇa and the cult of Saṅkarṣaṇa Vāsudeva in second century BCE ([7], p. 69). Bhāgavatas ultimately accepted the identification of their master with these deities, as is evident not only from the Garuḍa Pillar inscription but from the Nārāyaṇī ya, the Tusām Rock Inscription, and epigraphic records of the Paramabhāgavata emperors of Gupta line ([7], p. 70). R. G. Bhandarkar also opines that Nārāyaṇa was evolved as a Supreme Being in the later Brāhmaṇic period was prior to Vāsudeva and in Nārāyana ˙ epic times when worship of later arose, Vāsudeva was identified with Nārāyaṇa ([2], p. 32). He has cited the story from Mahābhārata Vanaparvan (Chaps. 188, 189). There is description of the time of dissolution of the universe. There was water everywhere and a boy lying on a couch on a branch of Nyagrodha tree. He opened his mouth and took Sage Mārkaṇḍeya, who roamed inside and saw the whole universe and was again sent out. Again, sage Mārkaṇḍeya saw water everywhere. At that time boy said, formerly I gave waters the name Nārah and those were my resting place (ayana) and therefore I am Nārāyaṇa. The burden of the whole Nārāyaṇīya section is establishing identity between Vāsudeva and Nārāyaṇa according to R. G. Bhandarkar ([2], p. 32). Nara and Nārāyaṇa are often identified with Arjuna and Vāsudeva. In Mahābhārata, Udyogaparvan (49, 19) it is said that “the two heroes, Vāsudeva and Arjuna who were great warriors are the old Nara and Nārāyaṇa.” Identification of Nārāyaṇa suggests assimilation of Nārāyaṇa cult into Viṣṇu cult. Cult of Nārāyaṇa which was originally associated with asceticism (as known from Mahābhārata) or the performance of Puruṣamedha (as known from Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa) got assimilated in the cult of Viṣṇu. Epigraphy and Iconography Though there are several references of Viṣṇu in inscriptions, references to Nārāyaṇa can be found in inscriptions of specific regions. In Andhra, Viṣṇu became popular by the name Nārāyaṇa. Around fourth century CE, cult of Viṣṇu had penetrated deep into the south. There is an inscription related to God Viṣṇu found from Andhra Pradesh in the fourth and fifth century CE. In this, God Viṣṇu is mentioned as Nārāyaṇa. A copper plate of the time of Pallava king Skandavarman recovered to the gift of land to a temple of God Nārāyaṇa ([4], p. 61). Viṣṇu is referred as Nārāyaṇa in the inscriptions of Maharashtra. Narendradeva inscription of Vikramaditya III found in Narendra village of Dharwad district eulogize Nārāyaṇa. Kolhapur Nārāyana ˙ inscription equates the Mahāmaṇḍaleśvara Gaṇḍara deity with Nārāyaṇa in calmness. Another Kolhapur plate of Vijayāditya compares the Śilāhāra kings with Nārāyaṇa ([4], p. 103). Description of Vīra- Nārāyaṇa is also found in the inscriptions of Rāṣṭrakūtas ([4], p. 101). VīraNārāyaṇa form is described as Nārāyaṇa resting on Ananta. Generally, iconography of Nārāyaṇa is same as Viṣṇu. He is four armed, arms representing four vyūhas, i.e., conch, discus, mace, and lotus. Other characteristic marks are the Śrī-vatsa on the chest and the garland of wild flowers (vanamālā) around his neck. He wears yellow silken garments (pī tāmbara). Nārāyaṇahṛdaya describes his body color as that of the rising sun and Kālikā Purāṇa, Chap. 22, describes his complexion like a pure crystal. It is more usual to describe his complexion as dark blue ([8], p. 79). In Sātvata Samhitā, XII.139–142, iconography of Nara- Nārāyaṇa is described in NaraNārāyaṇa-dhyānam. Nara is described as having coral-lustre, half-open eyes, expressions as emotions internalized, and whose mind is unified with Śabdabrahma, having the akṣasūtra in hand made of crystal beads, his left hand is engaged in counting the revolutions of akṣasūtra. God Nārāyaṇa is described as having complexion of white lotus, hands are in the posture of Brahmāñjali, displaying tranquil mind focussed on heart lotus. Lakṣmī-Nārāyaṇa is Viṣṇu as Nārāyaṇa in the company of goddess Lakṣmī. Goddess is generally on the left of the god. She holds lotus in the left hand. Right hand of the goddess is around the neck of god. Nārāyaṇa’s left hand is around her waist. Siddhi decorated with ornaments stands near Lakṣmī- Nārāyaṇa with a cāmara in her hand. There is also image of Garuḍa slightly below on the right. Images of Yoga- Nārāyaṇa are found in different parts of India. In such sculptures, Viṣṇu is seen sitting with his lower hands in a meditating posture while the upper two hands carry his usual weapons. Numerous Yoga- Nārāyaṇa images have been recovered from Rājapūtānā. R. C. Agrawala has cited unique image of YogaNārāyaṇa found in Jodhpur Museum where 5 weapons in the hands of Yoga-Nārāyaṇa are not seen. He dates the sculpture around ninth century CE. With the analysis of inscription from Nāḍol (Jodhpur division) refers to harmonious relationship existing between the members of Jain community and the followers of Brahmanic faith. R. C. Agrawala concludes that this idol of Viṣṇu was fashioned in such a way to suit the taste of all, to serve the purpose of being worshipped by non-Vaiṣṇavas as well ([1], pp. 236, 237). Thus, different changes took place in the iconography of God Nārāyaṇa as he got associated with different gods. Abode Śvetadvīpa is the abode of Nārāyaṇa. In the Harivamśa (XIV, 384), it is stated that yogins or Kāpilasāmkhyas who desire for mokṣa go to the white island or Śvetadvīpa. Even Kathāsaritsāgara (54.19, 21, 23) mentions Naravāhanadatta is represented to have been carried to the white island by Devasiddhi and to Hari by reposing on the body of serpent Śeṣa and attended by Nārada and other devotees. After identification with Viṣṇu, Nārāyaṇa got associated with Vaikuṇṭha which is considered the divine realm belonging to Viṣṇu. Supreme Reality Nārāyaṇa enjoys the position of Supreme reality in Āgamic as well as philosophical and religious literature. Mahānārāyaṇa Upaniṣad considers Nārāyaṇa as the Supreme Reality. Nārāyaṇa is Highest Brahman, Highest light and Highest Self. (Mahānārāyaṇa Upaniṣad XIII.4Nārāyaṇah param brahma tattvam Nārāyaṇah parah | Nārāyaṇa parah jyotirātmā Nārāyaṇah parah |) whatever is seen in this world, heard outside as well as inside is pervaded by Nārāyaṇa. (Mahānārāyaṇa Upaniṣad XIII.5). Nārāyaṇa Upaniṣad of Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda describes the entire creation from Nārāyaṇa. Brahmā, Śiva, and Indra are equated with Nārāyaṇa. Nārāyaṇa is considered one without second. There is also mention of mantra “Om 6 namah Nārāyaṇāya.” One who studies this eightsyllabled mantra is supposed to attain liberation by going to Vaikuṇṭha. Great fruit is attached to the recitation of this Upaniṣad. Whosoever knows thus, attains sāyujya of Nārāyaṇa, i.e., becomes one with Nārāyaṇa. Mahopaniṣad states that in the beginning Nārāyaṇa existed. It denied the existence of Brahmā and Rudra ([3], p. 153, f. 30). Nārāyaṇa Upaniṣad states that in the beginning Puruṣa Nārāyaṇa willed to create the beings. It clearly states that from Nārāyaṇa was born Rudra, Indra, etc. It also asserts that the only one reality is Nārāyaṇa (śuddho deva eko nārāyaṇah) and whole universe is pervaded by Nārāyaṇa (Nārāyaṇa evedam sarvam) ([3], p. 137). Srinivasa Chari cites the etymology of the word Nārāyaṇa as befitting for the concept of Ultimate reality. He says that the word Nārāyaṇa, which is a far more comprehensive term implying all the characteristics of the ultimate reality, bears the same etymological meaning as that of Viṣṇu and Vāsudeva ([3], p. 133). He cites the etymologies from Ahirbudhnya Samhitā. Nāras stands for sentient and non-sentient beings (nara sambandhino nārāh) and nara means the Supreme Being (puruṣottama). Ayana means abode or ground so Nārāyaṇa means one who is the ground of all sentient and nonsentient entities in the universe (nārāṇām ayanam). It can also mean one who is immanent in all (nārāh ayanam yasya sah) ([3], p. 134). Superiority of Nārāyaṇa in the Trinity is propounded in many texts. Varāha Purāṇa (25–26) explicitly says that Nārāyaṇa is the primary deity of the universe and from Him was born Brahmā, Brahmā in turn caused Rudra. In the same Purāṇa (90–93), it is mentioned that Nārāyaṇa is the Supreme Being and from Him was born Caturmukha Brahmā ([3], p. 140). Nārāyana ˙ Rāmānuja’s theology considers Brahman as the ultimate reality. He refers the Supreme reality as Bhagavān, Viṣṇu, Puruṣottama, Nārāyaṇa, Hari, etc. Cross-References ▶ Rāmānuja ▶ Śrīvaiṣṇava ▶ Vaiṣṇavism, Overview ▶ Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta ▶ Viṣṇu References 1. Agrawala RC (1954) A unique image of YogaNārāyaṇa from Rājapūtānā. Artibus Asiae 17(¾):235–237. Artibus Asiae Publishers 2. Bhandarkar RG (1913) Vaiṣṇavism Śaivism and minor religious systems. Trübner, Strassburg 3. Chari S (2000 [1994]) Vaishnavism: its philosophy, theology and religious discipline. Motilal Banarasidass, New Delhi 4. Jain S (2016) Viṣṇu with special reference to epigraphy and coins. Sharada Publishing House, New Delhi 5. Jaiswal S (1967) Origin and development of Vaiṣṇavism. Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi 6. Keny LB (1942) The Origin of Nārāyaṇa. In: Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, vol 23, No. 1/4. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, pp 250–256 7. Panda H (2007) Prof. H. C. Raychaudhuri, as a historian. Northern Book Centre, New Delhi 8. Rao S, Ramachandra K (2009) Viṣṇu Kosha. Sri Satguru Publications, New Delhi 9. Rayachaudhuri H (1920) Materials for the study of the early history of the Vaishnava Sect. University of Calcutta, Calcutta 10. Vettam M (2006 [1964]) Purāṇic encyclopaedia. MLBD, Delhi