ON THE INDIAN ORIGINS OF THE TIBETAN PRACTICE OF DEPOSITING RELICS AND DHARANISIN STUPAS AND IMAGES* YAEL BENTOR THE HEBREWUNIVERSITY Taking its point of departurein the Fifth Dalai Lama's argumentsin favor of the Indian origins of Tibetan practices of relic deposition, this study supplies an overview of relevant historical developments in the concept of 'relic' in Indian Buddhism, identifies the scripturalsources to which the Fifth Dalai Lama alludes, and discusses certain East Asian parallels. It is argued that relic deposition practices provide one specific example of a more general diachronic process of synthesizing various strands of Indian Buddhism on both the practical and theoretical levels, a process that did not stop at the Tibetan border. of just one special dhtrant, such as the 'essence of Interdependent Origination',even the least indication for the elaborateundertakingknown nowadays does not appear. The majorityof Indiancast images made of li-mal are actuallymadewithoutinsertingdharanis.Also, in examining decayingclay images madehere in Tibet in early times, we have seen no dharants whatsoever inserted in them." So they claim. This is Mara talking throughtheir mouths. In the sftras there are numerousteachings on the excelling merit of making clay images of the Tathagata,however small, which containrelics (ring-bsrel)-in comparisonto [themeritaccumulatedby] reverencewith requisitesto the Buddha together with many millions of communities of sravakasduringcountlessyears.Therearealso manykinds of relics-most importantly relics of the dharmakdya, identified as dharanis. The existence of detailed manuals on the methodof deposition of dharanis in Indiahas been establishedby both scripturalauthorityandreasoning(lung rigs). Even if there is no indication for the deposition of dhdranisin some Indianbooks, it cannotbe concludedthat this did not exist in India... Thereare some li[-ma] images withoutdhdranis.But as it is explainedthat BuddhaKagyapablessed the substance of li[-ma], what kind of dhdrani could be superiorto the blessing of a Buddha?... It is most unreasonableto arguethatthereis no standard for depositingdhdranisin some old clay images fromearly times. If, on accountof occurringin early times something becomes reliable, then in Tibet the teachings of Bon are earlier than the Buddhist teachings (nang-pa'i bstan-pa), the system of Hwa-shangis earlierthanthatof Kamalagila, TIBETANBUDDHISMLARGELY CAMETO SEEitself as no more than a faithful perpetuator of Indian Buddhism. For example, the standard said to have been invoked for including by Bu-ston Rin-chen-grub (1290-1364) in his collection is some scriptures Kanjur proof of their existence in India. The question of deviation from Indian precedents was often raised in Tibetan writings. The present paper examines one such instance with regard to the practice of depositing relics and dharanis (gzungs-'bul) in stfupas and images. In Tibet an elaborate practice of depositing many different types of relics and dharanis has long existed (Bentor, in preparation). Tibetans have composed various manuals for this practice, as well as various "indices" (dkar-chag) listing the actual contents of important stupas and images (Martin, forthcoming). One of these manuals, written by the Fifth Dalai Lama, contains the following rebuttal, directed toward certain persons who claimed that this 'elaborate' practice had no Indian origin. Some who are proudof their partialtalent, who are intellectually [too] blindto see [whatis in] the sitra[s], Sastra[s], and commentarieswithout discrimination,who are taken by the god of desire,exclaim the [following] evil wordsout of theirmisconceptions."Tibetanlamas insertdhdranisin images, stipas and so forthwhich they construct;yet in India there was no [such practice].As for the origin of this, in some Indianbooks, apartfrom describingthe insertion * I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Gregory Schopen, who both initiated and guided my research on this topic while I was a graduate student. Warm thanks also to Daniel Boucher for his kind comments on a previous draft of this paper. 1An especially appreciated alloy for images (see Tucci 1959; Dagyab 1977: 50-57). 248 BENTOR: Indian Origins of the Tibetan Practice of Depositing Relics and the views of the Jo-nang-paare earlier than those of the GreatVictoriousTsong-kha-pa.When this is the case, the necessity of saying thatthe earlierarecorrect,while the later are not, will cause inexhaustibleharm.2 In order to clarify these arguments, we need to survey the prior development of the concept of relics in India. A. PHYSICAL RELICS It is now well recognized that a wide range of views existed in India with regard to the cult of relics. While one influential doctrine asserted that the Buddha had passed into a state of nirvana, which leaves nothing be- 2 Yon-tan phyogs-re tsam-gyis dregs-shing/ mdo bstan-bcos dgongs-'grel ris-su ma-chad-pa-la Ita-ba'i blo mig mam-par Idongs-pa 'dod-pa'i lhas rjes-su bzung-ba la-la-dag-gis skugzugs dang mchod-rten sogs bzhengs-pa-la gzungs-gzhug 'bulba 'di-dag bod-kyi bla-ma-rnams-kyis byas-kyi/ rgya-gar-na med-do snyam-pa'i log-rtog-gi ngan smras-sgrog-cing/ de'i khungs-su/ rgya-gzhung 'ga'-zhig-na rten-'brel snying-po Itabu'i gzungs-dmigs-bsal re-re tsam 'jug zer-ba las/ deng-sang yongs-su grag-pa 'di-'dra byed-pa'i 'phros zur-tsam-yang mi snang-ba dang/'phags-yul-gyi sku li-ma-mams gar-lugs shasche-bas gzungs-gzhug med-pa mngon-sum-gyisgrub-cing/ bod'dir sngon-dus bzhengs-pa'i Ider-bzo zhig-pa mams-la brtags tshe-yang gzungs-gzhugji-bzhin mi 'dug-pa mthong-bas-so zhes zer mod/ de-dag ni bdud-kyiskha rnam-parphye-ba'i gtam-ste/ mdo-las/ sangs-rgyas nyan-thos-kyidge-'dun bye-ba phrag duma dang bcas-pa-la lo grangs dpag-tu med-par yo-byad-kyis bsnyen-bkur byas-pa las/ de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i sku-gzugs mtshon gang-pa ring-bsrel-gyi snying-po-can-zhig 'jim-pa-las bsgrubs-pa bsod-nams lhag-pa sogs mang-dugsungs-pas/ ringbsrel-la ram-grangs mang-yang/ gtso-bor chos-sku'i ringbsrel ni gzungs-la ngos-'dzin-pa'i-phyir/ gzungs-'bul tshul-gyi lag-len zhib-mo rgya-gar du yod-pa lung-rigs gnyis-kas 'grubcing/ rgya-gzhung 'ga'-zhig-tu gzungs 'bul-ba'i gsal-cha medpa tsam-gyis/ rgya-gar-du med-pa mi 'grub-ste/... li'i rgyurnams-la sangs-rgyas 'od-srungs-kyis byin-rlabs mdzad-par bshad-pas/ li'i sku 'ga'-zhig-la gzungs-gzhug med-kyangsangsrgyas-kyis byin-gyis brlabs-pa-las lhag-pa'i gzungs ci-zhig dgos/... sngon-gyi lder-bzo rying-pa 'ga'-zhig-la gzungsgzhug tshad-ldan mi 'dug-go zhes zer-ba ni shin-tu mi rigs-te/ snga-rabs-kyi dus-su byung-ba rgyu-mtshan-dubyas-te khungs btsun-par 'gyur-na/ bod-du nang-pa'i bstan-pa-las bon-po'i bstan-pa snga-zhing/ka-ma-la-shi-la'i ring-lugs-las hva-shanggi grub-mtha' snga-ba dang/ rgyal-ba tsong-kha-pa chen-po'i Ita-ba'i bzheng-pa-las jo-mo-nang-pa'i Ita-ba-dag snga-ba'i phyir-na/ snga-ma-mams-dag-gi phyi-ma-mams mi dag-go zhes smra dgos-par 'gyur-pa sogs gnod-byed mi zad-pa thog-tu 'bab-bo (pp. 400.6-403.4). (I would like to thankGeshe Thubten Tandharfor his help with this difficult passage.) 249 hind, there is plentiful evidence to show that the Buddha was conceived as present in his relics. In addition, between these two extremes, a spectrum of solutions to the problematic status of the Buddha in the present world of samsara was offered.3 Especially noteworthy are the implications of the various theories on the multiple bodies (kdya) of the Buddha,4 distinguishing his physical body, which gave rise to the bodily relics, from his body of dharmas (dharmakaya),5 and the other bodies of the threefold, fourfold and fivefold classifications. Though the body of dharmas does not leave any relics behind, as a phenomenon a relic is still possible. Just like the physical body, bodily relics are regarded as skillful means-benefiting sentient beings (see Such. 2,6 The Buddhabalacdhanavarnaprabhasottama, Sutra7). Hence, tensions pratiharya-vikurvdna-nirdesa with regard to the location of the true Buddha could be partly reconciled by means of theories on the multiple bodies of the Buddha. Archaeological evidence points to the prominence of the relic cult in the early centuries of Buddhist history. A stupa enshrining the relics of the Buddha or other Buddhist personages is found at the center of a significant number of Buddhist monasteries, serving as the main focus of worship.8 Foremost among the relics in the early Buddhist period were the physical remains (sartra, dhatu) of Sakyamuni Buddha. The locus classicus for accounts of the relics of the Buddha is the Mahaparinirvdna Sutra, which relates how these relics were divided and enshrined in eight stupas.9 The Buddhist scriptures contain further evidence for the practice of erecting stupas and images containing relics. Most often, such evidence is in the form of praises to the practice and of the merit deriving from its performance. One example is a passage found almost verbatim in three different scriptures: the Adbhutadharmaparyaya (Bentor 1988), the Kutagara Sutra (Toh. 332), and the Maharana Sutra (Toh. 208). Indeed, Ananda, the continent of Jarnbfdvipa is seven thousandyojanas in length and in breadth. In the north it is broad; in the south it has the shape of a cart. If it were made of the seven precious substances and some 3 See Falk 1977; Eckel 1985, 1992; Schopen 1987, 1988; Trainor 1990; Collins 1992: 235; etc. 4 Nagao 1973; Reynolds 1977; Williams 1989: 167-84; Eckel 1992: 97-109; Harrison 1992, etc. 5 A translation recently suggested by Harrison (1992). 6 Emmerick 1970: 7-8; see also Snellgrove 1987: 37. 7 Schopen 1978: 332 and 1987: 223, n. 58. With regard to images, see Lancaster 1974. 8 See Schopen 1991 and references there. 9 Dfgha Nikdya,II.166-67, translatedin Walshe 1987: 276-77. 250 Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995) believingson or daughterof goodfamilywereto offerit to the Stream-Enterers, Once-Returners, Non-Returners, orto thecommunityof monks Arhats,Pratyekabuddhas, of thefourdirections;orif someonewereto establishfor the Tathfgata,the Arhat,the Fully EnlightenedOne, who attainedcompletenirvana,a stfpa the size of an dmalakafruitmadefroma lumpof clay, and were to stickintoit a stfpa-polethesize of a needlewithanumbrellathe size of a juniperleaf, wereto makean image the size of a grainof barley,andwereto put into it [or establish]10a relic the size of a mustardseed, I say, Ananda,the meritof the latteris muchgreaterthanthe former.11 it" (Rahula 1956: 126). It may be recalled that the Fifth Dalai Lama specifically discusses the deposition of relics and dharanis in images. A reference to an image containing a relic is found already in the canonical text, the Bhiksunt-vibhaiga (Schopen 1993: 218, and n. 32). Archaeology, as well, provides evidence of the deposition of relics in images. For example, the base of an eight-foottall Buddha image in Nagfirjunakonda(site no. 6) contained a reliquarysimilar to those found in stupas. Betweenthe legs, 1'2"long and53/4" broad,is a socket drilledon the upperpartof the padmdsanawhichwas hiddenfromview by the perfectionof its close-fitting stonestopper(pl. XIV-A). Onremovingthestonepiece of stopper,thehole was foundto be 1/2"in diameterand We will encounter other similar types of arguments. When the Fifth Dalai Lama mentions numerous teachings found in the sutras, in which the making of clay images [or stupas], even in miniature size, but containing relics, is taught to be of superiormerit to countless offerings made to sravakas [and so forth], he is probably re- deep, and in it was found a gold tube 3/4" high and in diameter (p. XIV-B). This tube contained 95 pearls, one of them measuring 1/8 in diameter and the 13/4" 1/3" rest smallerthanmustardseeds, and bone(?)ash that hadslippedintothecavityas thebottomof thetubehad beenopened.Themouthof thetubewasclosedby hand pressure.The ash has not beenexaminedbutit maybe ferring to scriptures such as the Adbhutadharnnaparyiya, Kutaigra or Maharana sutras.12 During the centuries, in its outer form, the stipa came to symbolize the teachings, the enlightenment,the pathto enlightenment, the qualities of the Enlightened One, the Buddha,andreality as it is, thatis to say the dharmabody. Inside were deposited relics of the physical manifestation of the Buddha and other Buddhist personages. Hence, both physical and abstract aspects of the Buddha are found in the stupa.13 The cult of images was another solution to the problem of the presence or the representationof the Buddha in the samsaric world (Collins 1992: 235-36). Furthermore, the various solutions to the presence or representation of the Buddha were conjoined. Relics were deposited not only in stfpas but also in images. In fact, according to some of the Pali commentaries, "An image was considered importantonly if relics were enshrinedin 10 MSB of the Sanskrit,in all theparallelsections,as well as the Tibetanversionsof all three scriptureshave the reading 'put into' (praksipet, bcug), while MSA of the Sanskrit has 'establisha relic'(dhatumpratisthtpayet),whichmayreflecta formof the relic cult not yet associatedwith stupasor images (see Bentor1988:26-27). ll Bentor1988:41. This is a translationfromthe Adbhutadharmaparyaya. 12 Also the Puspakuta-Dhdranf(Toh. 516 and 886) contains similarargumentsin stressingthe superiorityof offeringsto a containingrelicsas smallas a mustardseed. stfpaof a Tathagata 13 For a comprehensive study of the stfpa, see Kottkamp 1992;specificallyon the symbolismof the stfpa, see, for example,Harvey1990. of bone.14 B. RELICS OF THE DHARMA The Buddhist teachings are another solution to the problem of the Buddha'spresence-he who has gone to nirvana-in the samsaric world. The Buddha was conceived to be present or representednot only in his relics and images, but also in his teachings, the dharma.15Frequently, the latter was represented as superior. The teachings were regardedas the true body of the Buddha, superior to his physical remains. The tensions between these two views were accommodated, to some extent, again, in the theory of the multiple bodies of the Buddha. One of the preoccupations of the Mahayana sutras is with "an equation of the presence of the dharmaparyaya with the presence of the Buddha" (Schopen 1975: 175). Such a view is found in "texts like the Saddharmapundarikaand Suvarnaprabhasottama,texts in which 'the text or book as a source of sacred power' is a fundamentalpreoccupation. This preoccupation, though little studied, is a clear characteristic of much of early and middle Mahayana sutra literature"(Schopen 1982: 105). Our concern here will be limited to the dharmain its written form. The worship of the book, as containing the presence or representationof the Buddha, found an 14 Ramachandran1953: 14. I would like to thank G. Schopen for this reference. 15 Schopen 1975; Mitomo 1984; Williams 1989: 167-84; Boucher1991;Harrison1992,etc. BENTOR: Indian Origins of the Tibetan Practice of Depositing expression, among others, in the deposition of Buddhist scriptures in stupas. Such a practice is mentioned, for example, in the Pratyutpanna Sutra. Here,in the presentage, theyreceivemy teaching; Theywill distributeandmakeofferingsto theserelics; Calmlyandcarefullythey will acceptandstudywhatthe Buddhahas taught, Theywill all reciteit andhavetheircommission. Theywill placeit in stfpas andin the mountains,... 16 These verses are found in the early translations of the Sutra into Chinese, dating from at least the early third century C.E.17Excavations of stufpasrevealed Buddhist Sanskrit texts as well. In fact, some of the most important discoveries of such manuscriptsin the modern age, including those found in Gilgit and Central Asia dated to the 6th-7th centuries, may have been the result of such a practice.18 The cult of the book "had to contend at every step with the historical priority and the dominance of the stapa/relic cult of early Buddhism in the milieu in which it was attempting to establish itself" (Schopen 1975: 168). Therefore, even though the cult of the book was originally antipathetic to the stupa cult, it was partly modelled on the relic cult. Special attention was already given in scholarly works to the passages in the Astasahasrikd-Prajnidpdaramita Sutra (chapters 3 and 4), which advocate the worship of that same Sutra as superior to the worship of the Buddha's relics in stupas.19 This is based on the argument that it is the teachings rather than the physical body of the Buddha that have enabled him to attain enlightenment. The style of argu16 Chapter13, verses 8-9, translationby Harrison,forthcoming.Note thatherealso the Buddha'steachingsareexplicitly calledrelics. 17 Paul Harrison,personalcommunication, Sept. 17, 1992. verAccordingto him,theseversesarefoundin "Lokaksema's sion,"i.e., T. 418 at 91lb27-28. However,thispartof thetext, withits versetranslations of thegdthas,is partof RedactionB, andmay datefromthe laterrevision(probablyearly3rdcenturyC.E.)of the originaltranslationby Lokaksema. 18It is also possiblethatBuddhistscripturesweredeposited in stfpas in a practiceanalogousto the Jewishgeniza(suchas the famousone in Alexandria),thatis to say, damagedbooks were 'buried'in a stfpa. Againstthis possibility,we may say thatsourcessuchas thePratyutpanna Sftra andotherscitedin Schopen1975,Mitomo1984,andHarrison1992notonly conceive the writtenscripturesas relics, but also suggestplacing themin stipas. 19Schopen1975;Lancaster1981;Mitomo1984;Kajiyama 1985;Snellgrove1987;Williams1989: 164-84; Eckel 1992: 97-99; Harrison1992,etc. 251 Relics ment in the passages in question consists of a comparison of one written copy of the Sutra to the entire world filled with the relics of the Tathagata. In correlation to the argument found in the Adbhutadharmaparyaya cited above, the relics are found here on the other side of the scale. During the centuries, however, "the cult of relics eventually coalesced with the cult of the book" (Harrison 1992: 76). The great majority of Indian stuipasdid not contain entire scriptures, but only parts of them. Hsiian Tsang observed the practice of placing written fragments of the scriptures, called dharmasarfra, in small stfpas, which were in turn collected in a large stipa (Hsiian Tsang, II:146-47). The most common piece of scripture deposited in strupaswas the verse of Interdependent Origination, considered to be the epitome of the Buddhist teachings.20Numerous clay seals stamped with the verse of InterdependentOrigination were found within stupas, mostly from the second half of the first millennium C.E. (Taddei 1970). As Boucher (1991: 15) has shown, this verse "became a manifestation of the Buddha's real presence at cultic centers ... in the same way as relics were thought to infuse the living presence of the Buddha in stupas." A scriptural authority for the practice of depositing the verse of Interdependent Origination in stupas is found in the Pratityasamutpada Sutra (Toh. 212, 520 and 980): "If a devotedson or daughterof good family were to make on an unestablishedplace (apratisthitedese or pradese)a stfpa the size of an dmalakafruit-with a yasti the size of a needleandan umbrellathe size of a bakulaflower-and were to put in it the verse of the Dharma-relic of Pratityasamutpada, he [or she] would generate brahmicmerit (brahmapunyamprasavet)." Af- ter theirdeath,they will be bornin Brahmaworlds.21 The description of a miniature stupa here is very similar to that of the Adbhutadharmaparyaya, yet the physical relic is replaced with the dharma relic of the verse of InterdependentOrigination. From the style of argument, it is clear that also here, as in the Prajiidparamitd Sutra mentioned above, well-established practices were used as the basis for comparison. The 20 Yedharmd hetuprabhavahetum tesdm tathagato hy avadat tesdm ca yo nirodha evam vadi mahdtramanah, "Those dhar- maswhicharisefroma cause,the Tathagata has declaredtheir cause.And thatwhichis the cessationof them,thusthe great renuncianthas taught"(tr.Boucher1991:11). 21 Translated by SalomonandSchopen1984: 117. The last sentencewas addedby the author. 252 Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995) basic assumption is that, as the physical relics are the essence of the Buddha, so the verse of Interdependent Origination is the essence of the teachings. But the Buddha is present in his teachings rather than in his physical remains. Hence, this verse could be said to contain both the teachings and the Buddha. When the Fifth Dalai Lama mentions that Indian books instruct one to deposit only one dharani, such as the "essence of InterdependentOrigination," he probably had in mind the Pratityasamutpada Sutra.22This sutra is mentioned by name in other ritual manuals as the scriptural authority for the practice of depositing dhdranis and relics (Padma-'phrin-las, p. 306; Kongsprul, p. 146, etc.). So far, the deposition of the verse of Interdependent Origination was presented as an alternative to the deposition of physical relics in stupas. The Sutra on the Merit of Building a Stupa, preserved in Chinese only (Boucher 1991), is similar to the Pratityasamutpdda Sutra. yet it provides the possibility of depositing within a miniature stipa both the physical relics of the Buddha and the dharma in the form of the verse of Interdependent Origination. Similarly, I Tsing, who witnessed the practice of making stupas in India in the seventh century, reports on the placing of both physical relics and the verse of InterdependentOrigination within the stupas (1896: 150-51). A much earlier Kharosti inscription on a relic casket in a shape of a stipa found in the KurramValley in Pakistan not only includes the limbs of the Pratityasamutpada, it also contains record of the deposition of a relic of Sakyamuni.23In these cases, two practices which correspond to differing views on the true location of the Buddha have been synthesized into a single practice. According to I Tsing, physical relics and the verse of Interdependent Origination were deposited not only in stupas, but in images as well. Other Indian examples (Boucher 1991: 14-15) show that the relic cult in stupas was translated to images. The content of Tibetan images differs only slightly from the content of stupas. C. DHARANIS AS RELICS24 The principle that a verse encapsulates the essence of the Buddhist teachings and may be deposited in stipas and images was extended around the middle of the first millennium C.E., with the emergence of a new genre of 22ForotherIndianworks,see below. 23 Mitra 24 On 1981-3, 2:412;see also Boucher1991:4. dhdranis,in general,see Winternitz(1939, 11:380- 87); Lalou (1957); Lamotte (1976: 1854-77); de Jong [Matsunaga] 1984: 95-96; etc. Buddhist Mahayana literature,called the dhdrani sitra. Several of these sutras advocate the practice of depositing their entire text, or at least the dharani or other mantras taught in them, inside stupas.25The reason for that, according to the Guhyadhatu,26 Wherever this text (chos-kyi ram-grangs, dharmaparydya) resides, a hundred thousand, ten million, as many as thereare sesame seeds, Tathagatasreside; bodily relics (sku gdung ring-bsrel) of inexplicable numbers27 of Tathagatasreside; the eighty-four thousand heaps of dharma28reside.29 Here, as the earlier Mahayana scriptures, this dharani sftra equates its presence with the presence of the Buddha. And like the developments surveyed above, the presence of this text is considered tantamount to the presence of the bodily relics of the Tathagata. Moreover, like the verse of InterdependentOrigination, this dharani sftra is regarded as the equivalent of the dharmain its entirety. In other words, this dharani sitra is synonymous with the various concepts of relics we have observed so far. The word dharant, which seems originally to have referred to the memorization of the teachings of the Buddha, has acquired additional meanings (Lamotte 1976: 1863-64). Here, the text and, as we shall see below, also its various mantras,are equivalent to the Buddha, his relics and the teachings. Indeed, the Guhyadhatu instructs one to place this text within a stupa or image. The Blessed One said: Vajrapani, if someone were to write this text (chos-kyi rnam-grangs) and place it inside a stfpa, [that stupa] would become a stfpa of the 25 Some of these dhtrani sitras were studied by Schopen (1982, 1985) and Scherrer-Schaub(forthcoming). 26 The full name of this sutra is Sarvatathdgatddhisthdnahrdaya-guhya-dhdtu-karanda-mudrd-ndma-dhdrani-mahdydnasutra(Toh. 507, 883; P. 141, 508; Tog Palace, no. 469, vol. 102, pp. 1-19). 27 This translation of khar-yas-khar-yas was suggested to me by Geshe Thubten Tandhar. 28 A reference to the entire corpus of the teachings of the Buddha. 29 Chos-kyi rnam-grangs 'di gang-na gnas-pa der/ de-bzhingshegs-pa 'bum-phrag bye-ba til-gyi gang-bu snyed gnasshing/ de-bzhin-gshegs-pa khar-yas khar-yas zhes bya-ba snyed-kyi sku-gdung ring-bsrel-rnams gnas-so chos-kyi phung-po brgyad-khribzhi-stong gnas-so [the word chos-kyi is mistakenly repeated] (Tog Palace, vol. 102, p. 8.5-7). Paraphrased in Schopen 1982: 103, where the entire sitra is summarized. BENTOR: Indian Origins of the Tibetan Practice of Depositing Relics relics (ring-bsrel) of the vajra essence of all Tathagatas. It would become a stfpa blessed by the secret essence of the dhdrani of all Tathfgatas. It would become a stipa of ninety-nine times as many as there are sesame seeds Tathagatas.It would be blessed as the stfpa of the usnfsa and eye of all Tathagatas.If someone were to insert it into any image or stfpa of the Buddha, [that] image of the Tathagatawould be blessed as if it were made of the seven precious substances.30 Note that, here, images serve as receptacles for these relics along with stupas. Additional dhdrani sfitras teach that the presence of their mantras within a stupa is equal to the presence of the actual Buddhas and their physical relics. The Vimalosni.a31 says: If someone were to make one hundredand eight stupas, write this hrdaya of the vidyd mantra,32insert it in the stfpa[s], and place [them] on top of a mandala, it would be as if they had placed inside each stfpa the bodily remains (sku-gdung) and relics (ring-bsrel) of Tathagatas as many as there are grains of sand in ninety-nine hundred thousand million billions of Ganges Rivers. It would also become the essence of relics (ring-bsrel-gyi snying-po).33 30 Bcom-ldan-'das-kyis bka'-stsal-pa/ lag-na-rdo-rje gangzhig chos-kyi rnam-grangs 'di bris-te mchod-rten-gyi nangdu bzhag-pa de/ de-bzhin-gshegs-pa thams-cad-kyi rdo-rje'i snying-po'i ring-bsrel-gyi mchod-rten-du 'gyur-ro/ de-bzhingshegs-pa thams-cad-kyi gzungs-kyi snying-po gsang-bas byin-gyis brlabs-pa'i mchod-rten-du 'gyur-ro/ de-bzhingshegs-pa til-gyi gang-bu snyed dgu-bcu rtsa dgu'i mchodrten-du 'gyur-ro/ de-bzhin-gsheg-pa thams-cad-kyi gtsug-tor dang spyan-gyi mchod-rten-du byin-gyis brlabs-par 'gyur-ro/ gang-zhig sangs-rgyas-kyi gzugs-brnyan-nam/ mchod-rten thams-cad-kyi nang-du 'jog-par byed-na/ de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i gzugs-brnyan rin-po-che sna-bdun-gyi rang-bzhin-du byingyis brlabs-par 'gyur-ro (Tog Palace, no. 469, vol. 102, pp. 12.7-13.4). This passage was partially translated in Schopen 1982: 104. 31 The complete name of this sftra is Samanta-mukhapravesa-rasmi-vimalosnfsa-prabhasa-sarva-tathdgata-hrdayasamaya-vilokita-ndma-dharani (Toh. 599, 983; P. 206, 608; Tog Palace 557, vol. 104, pp. 517-43. 32 For the different categories of mantras such as hrdaya, upahrdaya, vidyd, mantra, etc., see Mkhas-grub-rje 1968: 117. Various such mantras are taught in Vimalosnisa. 33 Mchod-rten brgya-rtsa-brgyad btab-pa-la rig-sngags-kyi snying-po 'di bris-te mchod-rten-gyi nang-du bcug-nas dkyil'khor-gyi steng-du bzhag-na/ gang-gd'i klung bye-ba khragkhrig 'bum-phrag dgu-bcu rtsa-dgu'i bye-ma snyed-kyi de- 253 Similarly, the Rasmivimala says,34 If any noble son were to write this secret mantra(gsang sngags) diligently ninety-nine times, were to place it on the four sides of the stupa-pole (srog-shing, yasti) and were to write, as well, the very book of this ritual and place it within the stfpa-pole; if he were to perform such a ritual it would be as if he has established a stfpapole for ninety-nine thousand st0pas. Furthermore, it would be as if he has established ninety-nine thousand stipas containing relics.35 The last example garbha,36 we will give here is the Bodhi- Vajrapani,any son or daughterof good family or monk or nun or lay [man or] woman .. ., who makes a good stipa at a junction of four roads,37or in front of a mountain, or at a bank [of a body of water], or at an entrance to a town, or at a major road, and inserts into that stupa the phyag-rgya38 of this dhtrani and also puts up a yasti, the stOpaof that son or daughterof a good family will be called a stupa of bodily relics of the Tathagata ... will be called a stfpa of the essence of the Buddha, will be called a stfpa of the essence of the Tathagata.39 bzhin-gshegs-pa-rnams-kyisku-gdung dang ring-bsrel mchodrten re-re'i nang-du bcug-par 'gyur-ro/ ring-bsrel-gyi snyingpor yang 'gyur-ro (Tog Palace, vol. 104, pp. 529.7-530.2; see also p. 541.5-6 for a similar statement). 34 The full name is Rasmi-vimala-viSuddha-prabhd-ndmadhdrani (Toh. 510, 982; P. 218; Tog Palace 559, vol. 104, pp. 563-93). 35 Rigs-kyi bu ci-nas-kyang gsang-sngags 'di nan-tan-du dgu-bcu rtsa dgur yi-ger bris-te/ mchod-rten-gyi srog-shing-gi ngos-bzhir gzhug-go/ de'ang cho-ga'i gzhung-'di nyid-kyang bris-te srog-shing-gi nang-du gzhug-go/ cho-ga de-ltar byasna mchod-rten dgu-khri dgu-stong-gi srog-shing btsugs-pa dang-'dra'o/ de'i gong-du'ang mchod-rten ring-bsrel-can dgukhri dgu-stong bzhengs-pa dang 'dra'o (Tog Palace, vol. 104, p. 575.1-3). 36 Bodhi-manddlanikra-ndma-dhdrani-upacara, included only in the Phug-brag Kanjur (microfiche, Institute for the Advanced Studies of World Religions, cf. Jampa Samten 1992: 120). Another version was found in Dunhuang,P.T. 555 (Scherrer Schaub, forthcoming). 37 Reading bzhi for gzhi. 38 A type of mantra. 39 Lag-na-rdo-rje rigs-kyi bu-'am/ rigs-kyi bu-mo-'am/ dgeslong-ngam/ dge-slong-ma-'am/ dge-bsnyen-ma gang-zhiggis ./. lam-gyi gzhi mdo-'am/ ri-drung-ngam/ chu-'grammam/ grong-khyer-gyi sgo-'am/ lam-po-cher mchod-rten legs- 254 Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995) The prescriptions of these dharani suitraswere actually put into practice. Such dharanis were found deposited in stupas in the Indian subcontinent, Sri Lanka, Tibet, China, Korea and Japan.40It should be noted that such dharanis were not found just within stuipas, but also inside images. The Vimalosnlsa Dharant exca- vated at Paharpur,for example, was written on a small clay tablet which was encased in a small terracottaimage of the Buddha. This image was, in turn, placed within a stfpa.41 In Ratnagiri the Vimalosnisa Dhdirant is found on the back of an image of the Bodhisattva Lokesvara (Mitra 1981-83, 1: 104). When the Fifth Dalai Lama mentioned Indian books that speak of the insertion of one special dhdranl in images, he most likely had in mind the dhdrant sutras mentioned above. The Tibetan tradition classifies four of these dharanis related to stupas, along with the verse of InterdependentOrigination, in a category called the Five Great Dharanils(gzungs chen sde Inga). These five are: 1. Gtsug-tor rnam-rgyal (Usnisavijaya), 2. Gtsugtor dri-med (Vimalosnfsa), 3. Gsang-ba ring-bsrel (Guhyadhatu), 4. Byang-chub rgyan 'bum (Bodhi[gar5. Rten-'brel snying-po (Pratftbha]alahkdralaksa), yasamutpdda).42 These are indeed the dharanis found said: "Four [types] of relics were taught. Among them, the relics of the dharmakdya,the dharani mantras,were taught as superior."44At the time these Tibetans wrote, a complete synthesis of the various depositions within stfpas and images had already taken place. It is the last phase in the development surveyed here that is dominant in these Tibetan writings. Another indication of this is the name for the practice of depositing the sacred objects within stupas and images, called in Tibetan gzungs-'bul (offering dhdranis) or gzungs-gzhug (inserting dharanizs); gzungs (dharanls) being the general name for all the deposits, including physical relics, dhtranis, books and so forth. To conclude, the Buddha was conceived to be present or represented in his physical relics, images and teachings. In our case the teachings are either entire books containing the teachings, or the verse of Interdependent Origination, or dharanis considered also to be the essence of the Buddha, his relics and his teachings.45 D. INDIAN ORIGINS The final point discussed by the Fifth Dalai Lama is whether detailed manuals for the practice of depositing dhdranfs and relics exist in India. He does not point out any such existing manuals. He declares only that their "existence in India has been established by both scriptural authority and reasoning." The scriptural authorities cited by Tibetan authors for such manuals are mostly the sutras encountered above, the Adbhutadhar- most frequently in stupas and on stone tablets throughout the Buddhist world. Also these dhdrani sutras advocate their own cult in preference to the well-known and established practices associated with physical relics and dharmarelics. When the Fifth Dalai Lama says, "there are also many kinds of relics-most importantly relics of the dharmakdya identified as dharantls,"he probably relies on the standpoint of these dharani sfitras.This position is shared by other Tibetan writers, who find support in the dharani sutras. Citing the Guhyadhatu,43the First Lcang-skya pcda sutras, as well as the various dharani sitras. In addition, also the Subahupariprccha,one of the four basic kriya tantrasis mentioned. While this tantradoes not par byas-te/ mchod-rten de'i dbus-su gzungs 'di'i phyag-rgyayang 'jug-te srog-shing-yang 'dzugs-par byed-na/ rigs-kyi bu'am/ rigs-kyi bu-mo de'i mchod-rten ni/... de-bzhin-gshegspa'i ring-bsrel-gyi sku-gdung dang bcas-pa'i mchod-rten ces bya/sangs-rgyas-kyi snying-po'i mchod-rtences bya/de-bzhingshegs-pa'i snying-po'i mchod-rten ces bya'o (Phug-brag Kanjur Rgyud Tsha, vol. 116, fols. 65b6-66a3). 40 Tucci, 1932/1988: 74; Liebenthal 1947: 23-24, 37; Schopen 1982 and 1985; von Hiniber 1987-88; Yuyama 1989. 41 Chandra and Dikshit 1936: 124-25 and plates LIX-LX there; see also Dikshit 1938: 84. 42 See Grags-pa-rgyal-mtshan (p. 240.4), The fifth Dalai Lama (p. 409.6), Padma-'phrin-las (p. 318), 'Jam-dbyangsbzhad-pa (vol. II, p. 487.6), Kong-sprul (p. 103), Krang-dbyisun (p. 2507). 43 The passage translated above. 44 Lta-bu'i rings [sic]-bsrel bzhi gsungs-shing/ de'i nang-nas chos-sku'i rings (sic)-bsrel/ gzungs-sngags mchog-du gsungsde/ (P. 6301, p. 89.4.4-5). A similar statement is made by the First Panchen Lama, p. 801. For the four types of relics, see Grags-pa-rgyal-mtshanbelow. 45 Note that Scherrer-Schaub (forthhcoming) comes to a different conclusion: "If the dhtrani very often have an apotropaic value or function, in our case the 'apotropy', with its etymology of 'deviating or deflecting' (greek apotrepein) intervenes between cause and effect (hetuphalasambandha),in other words it acts at the core of the causation theory. But the main feature of the ritual itself is to be a 'cleansing ritual', that is to say it purifies from evil and thereby it inflects future existences towardpureor happy abodes." No doubt, the texts provide many justifications for this conclusion, as well. maparyaya, Kutdgara, Mahdrana, and Pratftyasamut- BENTOR: Indian Origins of the Tibetan Practice of Depositing Relics elaborate on the practice,46 it does mention images containing relics, along with similar stupas. One of the few Indian works treating this subject is the relatively late Vajravalf by Abhayakaragupta (1064?-1 125?).47 Whenever you wish to make a special homage to relics (sku-gdung) of the Tathfgata, you should at the time of making [an image or stfpa] leave the head or back of an image or the center of a stfpa hollow. When completed, you should write on birch bark with saffron or bezoar: namo bhagavate sdtkyamunaye tathagatcya arhate samyak-sambuddhtya om mune mune mahdmuneye [read: mahamunaye] svdahi;ye dharmd hetu prabhavd hetun tesdn tathdgato hy avadat tesdii ca yo nirodha evam vddi mahdsramanah; and also special dhdranis. Wrap them around the relic which has been purified through the bathing ritual. While reciting: om mantradhdtu-garbhdya svdhd (om to the one which has as its essence [womb], mantras and relics svdah), place them in the hollow space. Then recite om vajra-dhatugarbhaya svdhd (om to the one which has as its essence [womb] the vajra relic svdhd) and block the door to the hollow space with vajra plaster. Perform the consecration (rab-gnas) as above.48 46 The first chapter of the tantra has the following: "For the sake of purifying sins, at a pure and isolated place, constantly make clay or sand stfpas of the Sugata containing the essence of Interdependent Origination. Offer praises, garlands, perfumes and butter lamps to images or stipas containing relics (ring-bsrel). With the highest devotion make offerings of parasols, victory banners, flags and music." gtsang-zhing dben-pa sa-yi phyogs-su ni/ 'jim-pa'am ni bye-ma-las byas-pa'i/ bdegshegs mchod-rten rten-'brel snying-po-can/ sdig-pa sbyangba'i phyir ni rtag-tu gdab/ ring-bsrel-can-gyi sku-gzugs mchod-rten-la/ bstod-cing phreng-ba dri dang mar-me dbul/ gdugs dang rgyal-mtshan ba-dan rol-mo dang/ mchog-tu dadpa-yis ni mchod-par bya Toh. 805, Derge Kanjur, vol. 96, p. 238). 47 For Abhayfkaraguptasee, Biihnemann 1992. Another Indian source mentioned by Kong-sprul (p. 102) was written by Vanaratna(1384-1468). 48 Gang-gi-tshe de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i sku-gdung-la bkur-sti'i khyad-par bya-bar 'dod-na/ de'i tshe sgrub-pa'i dus-nyid-du sku-gzugs-kyi dbu-'am rgyab dang mchod-rten-gyi dbus stongpar bya'o/ grub-pa-na gro-gar gur-gum dang gi-wang-dag-gis/ namo bhagavate sdkyamunaye tathagatdya arhate samyaksambuddhdyaom mune mune mahdmuneyesv~dh2.Ye dharma hetuprabhavd hetun tesan tathdgato hy avadat tesdni ca yo nirodha evam vtdt mahdsramanah zhes-pa dang/ gzungs-kyi khyad-paryang bris-nas/ de-khrus-byas-pa'igdung-la dkris-te om mantra-dhdtu-garbhayasvdhd/ zhes brjod-cing stong-bar 255 The relics and dhdranis deposited here are certainly not as numerous as in later Tibetan rituals. They specifically consist only of the relics of the Buddha and the dharani of Buddha Sakyamuni, together with the verse of the "essence of Interdependent Origination." Again, their deposition applies equally to both stfpas and images. The process of wrapping the dharanis around the physical relics emphasizes their equal status. This is expressed, as well, by the mantra recited during their insertion into the stupa or image. The stupa or image has for its essence both mantras and physical relics (mantra-dhatu-garbha). Attention should be drawn to the fact that various relics, books and dharants were found also within Buddhist images in China, Korea and Japan. For example, the Seiryoji Buddha, which was brought to Japan from K'ai feng in China by Chonen, contained various objects sealed within a cavity in 985 c.E.49 Besides the objects themselves, a catalogue was enclosed in the image. These objects included: inner organs made of textiles,50 the Suvarnaprathe Vajracchedika Prajnipdramita, and Saddharmapundarika sitras; pictures of bhasa, Sakyamuni Buddha, Manjus'r, Samantabhadra and Maitreya; coins, mirrors, bells, beads, fragments of textiles, as well as a small wooden pole which seems to be a yasti (srog-shing). A Japanese image of the Bodhisattva Jizo (Ksitigarbha), dated to 1249, which was opened at the Koln museum in 1983, contained a reliquary that was not opened, sutras, including the Saddharmapundartka Sutra, dharanis, small images of Sakyamuni, Amitabha and Ksitigarbha, pictures of Amitabha, etc., as well as a catalogue of its contents.51 A stone stupa at Pulguksa in Korea contained a Rasmivimala Dharanl Satra printed in 751 C.E., "reliquary vessels, Buddhist images, tiny pagodas, incense sticks, pieces of silk," a bronze mirror, etc. (Goodrich 1967: 377). In 770 C.E. the empress Shotoku of Japan ordered the production of one million small pagodas, each containing one of four dharanls.52 The Hangchow pagoda in China, which collapsed in 1924, revealed within its hollow gzhug-go/ de-nas om vajra-dhdtu-garbhdyaSvdah/ zhes brjodcing rdo-rje'i 'dag-pas stong-pa'i sgo bkag-nas snga-ma bzhindu de rab-tu gnas-par bya'o (Derge Tenjur, vol. 75, pp. 127.5128.1; see also P. vol. 80, p. 111.4.2-6). A version of the Sanskrit text can be found in Lokesh Chandra 1977: 170.5-171.3. 49 Henderson and Hurvitz 1956; and see also Kidder 1972: 127-46. 50 These included heart, lung, liver, kidneys, stomach, intestines, etc. 51 Goepper 1984; see also Cachia 1987. 52 Carter 1955: 46-53; Hickman 1975. Note the importance of dhdrants in the early history of printing! 256 Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995) bricks tiny printed scrolls of the Guhyadhatu Dharani Satra dated to 975 C.E. (Edgren 1972). These examples demonstrate that there were in East Asia also practices of depositing relics, books, and dharanis, which, more nearly than the Indian cases approach in complexity the Tibetan practices criticized by certain Tibetan authors. The problem of the Indian origins of these East Asian practices needs to be investigated, as part of the larger historical picture. It is hoped that further research on the content of Indian stupas and images also will be carried out, so that the nature of the Indian influence can be further specified.53 E. A TIBETAN EXAMPLE In order to illustrate the Tibetan practice of depositing relics and dharanis, I conclude with a translation of one of the earliest Tibetan passages on the subject that has come down to us. It was written by Rje-btsun Gragspa-rgyal-mtshan (1147-1216) as part of a work entitled Arga'i Cho-ga Dang Rab-tu Gnas Don Gsal-ba. In comparison to later Tibetan works, Grags-pa-rgyal-mtshan's manual is concise. Still, it includes most of the elements found in later Tibetan ritual works: The present topic is the method of inserting relics and so forthinto stfpas so thatthey abide there. In general, there are four types of relics: 1. bodily relics, 2. bodily relics which are like mustard seeds, 3. hairs and nails, which are called relics of the garb, 4. dhdranis, which are called relics of dharmaktya. The relics of dharmakdyaare the five dhdranis taughtto be placed in stfpas: Usnisavijaya, Vimalosnisa, Guhyadhdtukaranda,Bodhigarbhalatikiralaksa, Pratftyasamutpdda.Furthermore,the lamas taught that writing mantrasendowed with blessings that appear in the tantrasand sutrasand inserting them so as to abide [in stfpas] would [produce] immeasurable merit and great blessings. As for the levels of abidings of these [relics], even if there is no space for abiding at the very top [of the stfpa], one should insert, so as to abide in the upper wheel [of the stfpa], names, beginning with that of the Buddha up until one's own root guru, well scented with saffron and 53 It is true that in most cases the content of Indian images and stfpas had already been removed at the time of excavation. Yet, not many Indian images have been x-rayed. Seals found on the backs of images, carrying the verse of the "essence of InterdependentOrigination" and perhaps other dhdranis need further research. Evidence for the practice of blessing the sense-bases (in Tibetan, skye-mched byin-brlab) of Pala-Sena images is hardly available. so forth, together with the three letters om ah hum and with [the formula of] prostration and taking refuge. In short, write the names of the completely perfect [members] of one's own lineage. Then insert, so as to abide, the mantrasof one's own yi-dam deity. Om vajra ayuse svdih is the mantra of a firm life-wood (srog-shing, yasti), which abides on the four sides of the life-wood or, in case of something like an image, on its heart. Om sarvavidya svthd is the mantraof Great Knowledge. Insert it to abide in the harmikaof a stapa or the head of an image. Then in the vase [of a stupa, the bum-pa], insert so as to abide dhdrani-mantrasof stapa and any dhdrani endowed with blessing. Further insert, so as to abide, dhdrani-mantras of Mahfyoga Tantra, then of Yoga Tantra, then of Carya Tantra, then of Kriya Tantra. If the interior is spacious and is not filled with dhdranis, insert [dhdranis] in the upper part of the vase and below that the Tantraand Pitaka sections [of the Kanjur].Also, the dhdrantsinserted so as to abide on top are the supreme among the tantras, the so-called heart [mantra, snying-po, hrdaya]54 and dhdranis. The [specification of] tantras and sitras that are to be inserted at the base (rmang)55appears in other ritual works and detailed manuals of rituals. Even though [some] say that relics of lamas abide in the harmika, I consider that it accords with the dharma if they abide as high as possible, since [the lamas] are the essence of all the Buddhas. If there are [also] relics of the Tathagata, combine the [relics of the lamas] together with [the relics of the Tathfgata] without [any distinction of] superior and inferior, adorn with grain, incense, and precious substances and insert to abide. One should not insert into stipas remains of people other than lamas and supremepersonages.56It appearsfrom the scripturesthat this would harm sentient beings. If you nevertheless insert remains, examine them carefully, mix them with clay, make them such that their essence is dhdranis and relics [see above], make them into tsha-tshas and insert them to abide. According to my opinion, it is appropriate if you do so also for supreme personages. Write dhdrani-mantrasof the dharmaprotectors, such as Mahfakla, Ganapati,Jambhala,the seventy-five puretype protectors, and so forth. [Make them] abide in the lotus [throne]; command the protectors. Also insert the five medicinal herbs, the five grains, the five scents, 54 See Mkhas grub rje 1968: 117. 55 This is also the name of a part of the stfpa below the four steps (the bang-rim bzhi). 56 Also, according to the Vinaya-ksudraka-vastu of the Dharmaguptaka, "Ne pas enterrer de cadavre sous le stupa d'un Buddha" (Bareau 1962: 271). BENTOR: Indian Origins of the Tibetan Practice of Depositing the five precious substances and the five essences [which are] the twenty-five extracts.57Then draw the wheels of the nine yaksas and nine yaksis as they appear in the Dpa'-bo [Gcig-tu] Grub-pa Tantra.58Glue [the wheels] with butterand honey, generate them and make pleasing offerings. Before anything abides inside [the stfpa or image], performa short consecration [of the relics and dhdranis]. Then insert them to abide and, finally, attach the bottom piece [of the stfpa or image] with the wheel[s] which are made to please the yaksas. Even though I heard and saw many other procedures for the abiding of dhdranis, they are not embellished with scripturalauthority and reasoning. As for this [my instructions] I consulted tantras and sastras and embellished [my account] with the advice of lama[s], as well.59 57 See Carelli 1941: 17-19; Bentor 1991: 116-17. 58 Toh. 544; Tog Palace 504, vol. 102, p. 973.1-2; see also Mkhas grub rje 1968: 112-13. 59 Da ni mchod-rten-gyi nang-du ring-bsrel la-sogs-pa bzhugs-su gzhug-pa'i tshul ni/ spyir ring-bsrel ni rnam-pa bzhi ste/ sku-gdung-gi ring-bsrel dang/ sku-gdung nyungs [read: yungs]-'bru Ita-bu'i ring-bsrel dang/ dbu-skra dang sen-mo la sku-bal-gyi ring-bsrel zhes brjod-pa dang/ gzungs-rams-la chos-kyi sku'i ring-bsrel zhes brjod-pa yin-no/ chos-kyi sku'i ring-bsrel-la mchod-rten-gyi nang-du bzhugs-par bshad-pa'i gzungs Inga yin-te/ gtsug-tor ram-rgyal dang/ gtsug-tor drimed/ gsang-ba'i ring-bsrel za-ma-tog/ byang-chub snying-po rgyan 'bum/ rten-'brel snying-po-rnams yin-no/ gzhan-yang gsang-sngags-kyi rgyud-sde dang/ mdo-sde-nas 'byung-ba'i sngags byin-rlabs-can-rnams bris-nas bzhugs-su bcug-na bsod-nams dpag-tu med-cing byin-rlabs che'o-zhes bla-marnams gsung-ngo/ de-dag bzhugs-pa'i rim-pa ni/ tog dang togla bzhugs sa med-na-'ang/ 'khor-lo'i thog-mar sangs-rgyas-nas bzung-nas bdag-gi rtsa-ba'i bla-ma'i bar-gyi mtshan-rnams/ gur-gum la-sogs-pa'i dri bzang-pos yi-ge gsum dang spel-pa'am/phyag-'tshal-zhing skyabs-su 'gro-ba dang bcas-pa spel-la bzhugs-su gzhug/ mdor-na rang-gi brgyud-pa-rnamsyongs-su rdzogs-pa'i mtshan bri'o/ de-nas rang-gi yi-dam-gyi lha'i gsang-sngags-rnams bzhugs-su gzhug-go/ Om vajra dyuse Svdhd/ zhes bya-ba ni srog-shing brtan-pa'i sngags yin-te/ srog-shing-gi phyogs bzhi dang/ sku-gzugs Ita-buyin-na thugskar bzhugs-so/ Om sarva-vidyd Sviha zhes bya-ba ni rig-pa chen-mo'i sngags yin-te/ mchod-rten-gyi bre dang sku-gzugskyi dbur bzhugs-su gzhug-go/ de-nas bum-par mchod-rten-gyi gzungs-sngags dang/ gzungs byin-rlabs-can mtha'-dag bzhugssu gzhug-ste/ de-'ang thog-mar ral-'byor chen-po'i rgyud-kyi/ de-nas ral-'byor-gyi rgyud-kyi/ de-nas spyod-pa'i rgyud-kyi/ de-nas bya-ba'i rgyud-kyi gzungs-sngags-rnams bzhugs-su gzhug-ste/ nang yangs-shing gzungs-kyis ma khengs-na/ bum Relics 257 The types of relics listed here are identical to those known in India, with the exception of a further division of bodily relics.60 The list of dhAranfs covers five of the dharani sutras discussed above. These relics are deposited within stupas or images according to a hierarchical order which reflects the relative holiness of these sacred objects, an interesting subject in its own right. A more detailed discussion of the content of Tibetan stupas and images is the subject of another study that I am presently preparing. Here, only the fifth category of relics, common especially among the Bka'-brgyud-pa and Rnying-ma-pa, will be mentioned.61 These are the relics stod yan-chad-du de-dag bzhugs-su bcug-la/ de man-chad-du rgyud-sde dang sde-snod-rnams bzhugs-su gzhug-go/ de-'ang gzungs-rnams stod-du bzhugs-su gzhug-pa ni snying-po-'am gzungs/ zhes bya-ba rgyud-rnams-kyinang-nas dam-pa yin-la/ rgyud-rnamsdang mdo-sde-rnams rmang-du bzhugs-su gzhugpa ni cho-ga dang las-tshogs phra-mo'i cho-ga dang bya-ba'i rnam-grangs gzhan 'byung-bas-so/ bla-ma-rnams-kyi gdungmams ni brer bzhugs-so zhes-kyang zer-na/ ji-ltar mtho-bar bzhugs-na chos dang mthun-par mthong-ste/ sangs-rgyas thams-cad-kyi ngo-bo yin-pa'i phyir-ro/ de-bzhin gshegs-pa'i ring-bsrel yod-na de-dang Ihan-cig mtho dman med-par sbams-te 'bru dang spos dang rin-po-ches brgyan-la bzhugs-su gzhug-go/ bla-ma dang gang-zag mchog ma gtogs-pa'i rus-bu mchod-rten-gyi nang-du gzhug-par mi bya-ste/ sems-can de-la gnod-par 'gyur-ro/ zhes lung-las 'byung-ngo/ cis-kyang 'jugna-'ang rus-bu zhib-par btags-la 'jim-pa dang bsres-te gzungskyi ring-bsrel-gyi snying-po can-du byas-la sdtstshar btab-ste bzhugs-su gzhug-go/ gang-zag mchog-rnams-la-'ang de-ltar byas-na legs-so snyam-du sems-so/ padmar nag-po chen-po dang/ tshogs-kyi bdag-po dang/jambhala dang gtsang-rigs-kyi mgon-po bdun-cu rtsa-lnga la-sogs-pa chos-skyong-ba-rnamskyi gzungs-sngags bris-la bzhugs-te srung-mar bsgo'o/ gzhanyang sman-lnga dang/'bru Inga dang/ dri Inga dang/ rin-poche Inga dang/ snying-po Inga ste/ bcud nyi-shu rtsa-lnga-'ang gzhug-go/ de-nas dpa'-bo grub-pa'i rgyud-nas 'byung-ba bzhin gnod-sbyin pho dgu mo dgu'i 'khor-lo bris-la/ mar dang sbrang-rtsis bar-bsdams-te/ bskyed-la mnyes-pa'i mchod-pa bya'o/ nang-du bzhugs-pa thams-cad sngon-la rab-tu gnas-pa mdor bsdus-pa byas-la/ de-nas gdod bzhugs-su gzhug-par bya'o/ de-nas gnod-sbyin mnyes-par byas-pa'i 'khor-los zhabs bsdam-mo/ gzungs bzhugs-pa'i rim-pa gzhan kho-bos mang-du thos-zhing mthong mod-kyi/ lung dang rigs-pas ma brgyan-la 'di ni rgyud dang bstan-bcos-las-kyang mthong-zhing blama'i man-ngag-gis-kyang brgyan-pa yin-no (Grags-pa-rgyalmtshan, pp. 240.3.6-241.2.5). 60 On Tibetan classifications of relics, see Bentor (forthcoming). 61 Chos-kyi-grags-pa (pp. 281-83), Padma-'phin-las 305), (p. Kong-sprul (p. 102). 258 Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995) of the dharmaktya (chos-kyi sku'i ring-bsrel), as distinguished from relics of the dharma (i.e., dhdranis and books). The relics of the dharmakaya are small stupas and tsha-tshas,62which are said to symbolize the dharmakaya. We have seen above (? A) that the theories on the multiple bodies of the Buddha, among their other manifold implications, explain the worship of the physical relics of the Buddha, which are attributed to the Form Body. Interestingly, according to the fivefold concept of relics, also the dharmakaya (the Non-form Body) came to have relics. CONCLUSIONS Indian and Tibetan stfpas and images have contained a variety of items, all of which are classified as relics: repositories of the body, speech, and mind of the Buddha, offerings, and 'omens'. Upon his death, the Buddha left behind two legacies: his physical relics and the body of his teachings. Various teachings have located the absent Buddha either in his physical remains or in his words. Later also, images served to locate the Buddha in the samsaric world. Concepts of relics may have developed further because of tensions between these various views. They were also influenced by trends emphasizing the power of mantras and dharanis. Possibly also, problems of access to the physical relics or to sites housing them influenced a particular stand.63It should 62 Smallclay tablesstampedby molds,herein the shapeof stipas. 63 Accordingto Schopen1975,problemsthatnew sects had of access to majorBuddhistsites in Indiawere importantfor be noted, however, that in Tibet the problem that physical relics of the Buddha were in short supply was solved by means of 'multiplying relics'.64Hence Gragspa-rgyal-mtshan assumes that one may deposit a relic of the Tathagata (see above). However, the various answers to the question of locating the Buddha 'gone to nirvana'were synthesized. Already in India, both stupas and images had been made that contained both physical and dharma relics, thereby encompassing the various trends. In Tibet the different types of relics which had evolved throughoutthe history of Buddhism came to be used for sacralizing stuipasand images. With regard to the question of the Indian origins of Tibetan practice, the various types of relics deposited in Tibetan stufpas and images, with the possible exception of mustard seed like relics,65 have precedence in India. They are found in archaeological excavations of stupas and images, and are mentioned in Buddhist scriptures and in testimonies of Chinese pilgrims to India. Yet, even though the process of synthesizing the various deposits can be found already in India, it did not reach there the degree of elaboration it would acquire in Tibet. We can say that the basic notions of the Tibetan practice are certainly based on Indian precedents. 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