PASHU, VIRA, AND DIVYA: THE PATH OF THE LEFT HAND by Julius Evola

In the first chapter we learned that Tantrism is a multiform phenomenon. It is crucial to make an initial distinction between the popular versions of Tantrism, which should be considered the survival or, better, the revival of cults and of religious practices found in the pre-Aryan substratum, and the

higher forms typical of initiatory and yogic practices. The latter forms, aside from the specific direction imparted to them by Shaktism and Shaivism, are characterized by the pursuit of the highest ideal of Hindu spirituality, which is the "great liberation," or the attempt to free a human being from all

kinds of conditioning. We are not going to pursue the popular versions of Tantrism, since they are the subject matter of ethnology. In them we encounter the cult of Devi, which sometimes is associated with witchcraft and orgies. Later on I will refer to such versions only to point out how they have been

incorporated into various types of Tantric sadhana. It is possible to relate the main expressions of this sadhana to a typology and to the problem of individual qualifications (adhikaras). It is a well-accepted opinion that different spiritual paths correspond to different situations. A path that is fit for a particular individual's situation may not be so for another's, and therefore it

ought to be discouraged or even interdicted to him. Sir John Woodroffe, talking about experiences that some may consider disturbing, suggested that we should say instead, "This is not good for me."1 The abovementioned typology is based on the theory of the three gunas. There are people informed by tamas,

by rajas, or by sattva, in whom the respective qualities of each category are predominant. The Tantras make a general distinction between beings belonging to the first type (tamas) and those belonging to the other two types (rajas and sattva), and insist that only the latter two types are fit to engage in

sadhana and yoga. A characteristic Tantric notion is that of pashu, which is applied to the first category. Pashu means "animal" and may designate an animalistic and impulsive individual, who is driven by lower instincts. The word pashu comes from the verb pac, "to bind." It designates not only those

beings who are subject to primitive urges and in whom the material and animal nature predominates, but also those beings who are passively bound by social and moral concerns, and who conform, without possessing "knowledge," to various norms and rituals. Tamas's obtuse and limited nature is amply revealed in

such individuals. This, however, does not imply that pashu is necessarily an "evil" thing; according to the common opinion, it is considered a good thing. The Tantras say that during the Kali Yuga, the last age, there exist, mainly though not only, pashu-nature beings. We must acknowledge that such an idea,

which was formulated many centuries ago, describes rather accurately the times we live in. A recurrent theme in the Hindu Tantras is the attribution to pashu of all religious and devotional practices. They even consider the Vedachara, the collective Vedic-brahmanic rituals, as something related to pashu,

or at best, to the lower grades of the next group, that of the viras. Vira is a term with the same Latin root vir, which does not describe an ordinary man (homo), but rather an eminent man. The term denotes a manly and

"heroic" nature (vira is sometimes used as a substitute for "hero"), which is essentially determined by the rajas guna. Viras in turn have often been divided into many categories. According to the Kularnava-Tantra,2 there are right-hand viras (Dakshinachara) and left-hand viras (Vamachara). The latter

are considered superior to the former, and the text describes them as warriors (kshatriyas), to emphasize the virtues of strength, boldness, and indifference toward danger. Next come the Siddhas and the kaulas, whose path - Kaulachara - knows no equal. Developing a

Buddhist simile, a text says that "as the footmarks of all animals disappear in the footmark of the elephant, so do all other dharmas disappear in the kula-dharma."3 The word Siddha denotes perfection and fulfillment; thus it may be considered the equivalent of "adept." The word kaula, instead, derives

from kula. This term, with the ordinary meaning of "great family" or "noble clan," came to designate an organization or an initiatory chain, in which Shakti's real presence is supposed to take place. In this context the Devi is called "the Lady of the Kula." Kaulas are those who belong to any such

organizations. If viras are characterized mainly by the rajas guna, this quality, by ascending the hierarchical levels we just mentioned, becomes pure and turns into the sattva guna, which characterizes the divya (from devas, "gods"), the third element in the tripartite classification of pashu, vira, and

divya.4 Ascending from lower levels to higher, viras are subject to increasingly fewer limitations and ties. Rites, practices, and traditional cults may be retained, but only according to the distinction between those who have knowledge (prabuddha), or those who are aware of their nature and of their superior

esoteric, initiatory values, and the common folks (mudha). The secret ritual, the so-called panchatattva, is the prerogative of the viras. This ritual, which I will discuss in Chapter IX, includes the use of sex and of intoxicating beverages. Nothing is forbidden to the kaula and to those who have achieved

the condition of a true siddha-vira, since they are and they know. They are lords of their passions, and they fully identify with Shakti. As the supreme Shakti, or Parashakti, is over and beyond any pair of opposites, likewise the kaula is beyond good and evil, honor and dishonor, merit and sin, and any

other value cherished by ordinary people, the so-called pashus. Like Shakti, who is absolutely free, the kaula is called svecchakari, which means "one who can do as he or she pleases." Because of his behavior, ordinary people may fear, shun, or condemn a kaula.5 There is a significant difference between the

two Tantric paths, that of the right hand and that of the left hand (which are both under Shiva's aegis). In the former, the adept always experiences "someone above him," even at the highest level of realization. In the latter, "he becomes the ultimate Sovereign" (cakravartin = world ruler).6 This means

that the duality between the integrated person and the dimension of transcendence, or between the human and God, has been overcome. All differentiations and subordinate relationships are rendered obsolete once the Shiva condition is achieved. Quite often, in the Buddhist Tantras, Buddha proclaims the viras'

and kaulas' law (dharma) to be "beyond the Vedas" and free from the conditionings to which the pashus are subject. The kaulas are said to be extremely powerful both in granting favors and in striking down their enemies, as well as to be capable of enjoying every sensible object without becoming addicted to it. They act under the different disguises of men who comply with moral and social laws (shishta), of men who break those laws (brashta), and even of

supernatural and incorporeal beings. Again, in the Buddhist Tantras, Buddha paradoxically upholds the relativity of every moral precept, the uselessness of worship, the insignificance of the five precepts of early Buddhism, and even of the triple homage (triratna) of Buddhist tradition (to the Buddha, to the

law [[[dharma]]] and to the monastic community [[[sangha]]]), in terms so blunt that at monastic gatherings the bodhisattvas, those who are on their way toward enlightenment, faint, while the tathagatas, the enlightened ones, remain unmoved. Hindu Tantras share a similar perspective: the siddha remains pure and

unblemished even while performing actions the mere mention of which would automatically damn anybody else. Some explanations are in order. First, it is necessary to draw a distinction between an ideal (and those who have truly fulfilled it) and what applies to a specific discipline. Generally speaking,

India has overlooked moralism, which conversely has become predominant in the West. In India moral precepts have never been given an absolute, categorical value. Vis-a-vis the spiritual dimension, they are considered simply means to higher goals. Hence the well-known Buddhist simile in which the moral law

(sila) is compared to a raft that is built in order to cross a river and that is left behind once one arrives at the other bank. Second, and not without relation to what has been said, we find constant mention of the invulnerability of those endowed with transcendent knowledge. The Manava-Dharmashastra, the

oldest Indo-Aryan code, almost flaunts what a Brahman endowed with spiritual knowledge may do without being defiled as a consequence of his actions.7 Such a knowledge is compared to a fire that in the process of burning consumes every fault (or at least what other people consider a fault). In the Upanishads

this theme is reiterated a few times. The lot of those who know brahman is not influenced by good or by evil deeds, since these deeds are other than they and have no power over them.8 In other words, they are over and beyond karma, which is the law of cause and effect. We may add that transcendence of common laws is even encountered in popular versions of

Shaivism, in which Shiva is considered the god or patron saint of those who do not lead a normal existence, and even of outlaws. The Tantras merely take the coherent doctrine of nonduality (advaita-vada) to its logical conclusion. They claim that Vedanta and other speculative schools abound with

metaphysical disquisitions concerning nonduality. But how can they be reconciled with the interdictions and restrictions found in them? If brahman of sacred tradition (shruti) is truly "one without a second," then what is the sense of distinguishing between good and evil, pure and impure, and between

what ought to be done and what should be avoided? This contrast in values exists only for those who are dominated by maya-shakti, rather than dominate it. Since there is no other (the other in brahman being only the power of manifestation to which it is inseparably joined) on a metaphysical rather than on an

ethical plane, there is not one thing that is not pure, good, and right. The doctrine of cosmic play (lila), or of Parashakti's freedom, which has nothing above her, and who is not subject to any law, helps to emphasize the point I am trying to make. The Tantras, while upholding these metaphysical truths,

remain true to their pragmatic orientation when dealing with individual practical situations. For all practical purposes, it cannot be ignored that the starting point is given by a conditioned being and that even those who have a vira's qualifications and calling must recognize that liberation from encumbrances and differentiation from pashus represent a goal, a task to be accomplished, rather than the starting point. The doctrine of cosmic play and of Shakti's freedom constitutes the background to all of this. A particular living being, a jiva, is definitely not Parashakti, however, and as long as it

remains a finite being, it does not have the freedom to do as it pleases. It may even indulge in antinomianism and have no respect for laws. In this case a jiva will have to endure the consequences of its actions on the existential plane in which it lives and by which it is conditioned. Generally speaking,

this conditioning may be related to the Hindu notion of dharma. Dharma in this context refers to the nature of a given being. It characterizes it on a samsaric plane and makes it different from other beings. Dharma, which constitutes a being's inner law, is eventually translated into a social norm (a

caste's dharma corresponds to the norms regulating its members' conduct). This law may or may not be recognized and followed. From this choice retributive effects arise, according to the law of karma. Karma causes all beings to reap the consequences of their actions, whether they are direct and immediate or

indirect and deferred. This is not an extrinsic law, based on moral judgment, but rather an immanent and impersonal law, since an action produces a given result almost mechanically. Therefore, the correlation of dharma and karma defines the conditioned existence of all beings who live in the manifested order of reality. We should speak of determinism only in a relative sense, since the possibility of acting contrary to or violating dharma (adharma) is as real

as the consequences that will ensue. It is like a person who ingests a damaging food regardless of the consequences. From an ontological rather than moral point of view, the consequence of adharma for any conditioned being usually consists in descending along the hierarchy of beings. In such a being, adharma

represents the predominance of the chaotic, formless, and purely Shaktic element over the stable, formal element. The popular equivalent of this notion is "going to hell." The highest Hindu ideal of liberation, moksha, is synonymous with the radical deconditioning of one's being, and thus it implies going

beyond dharma and karma. On a social plane, Hinduism did acknowledge one's right to leave dharma and to be excused from obligations to one's caste in order to pursue the Absolute through asceticism and contemplative yoga. I find it necessary to emphasize the absolute nature of the ultimate goal, which somehow

eludes most Westerners. The goal consists in transcending and in subordinating to oneself every form of existence, whether divine, human, subhuman, material, or spiritual. It has been suggested that a divine nature is subject to conditionings like every other nature, in the same fashion that a human is

bound, be it by a gold or iron chain.9 We are dealing here with a worldview according to which the world, which is opposed to the formless Absolute, may turn out to be the right key to paradise (sukhavati) just as a holy person whose life conforms to dharma may inherit this state of bliss as a consequence

of karma. Going from one plane in the heavenly hierarchy to another is not important, since they all are forms of conditioned existence. There is a saying: "Matter and place may vary, but the modality [of a conditioned being] remains the same in both the lord of all gods and in the vilest animal."10 When

dealing with tattvas, we saw how the lord himself, Ishvara or Brahma (i.e., the God of theism), is believed to be a part of the manifestation, even though he represents its peak and boundary. According to a drastic Buddhist saying, which incidentally attributes to Brahma a subordinated position with regard to Buddha,11 the gods may not experience liberation because they are "dulled" by heavenly pleasures.

According to another point of view, professed by both Patanjali's, the great yoga teacher, and by the Tantras, the gods should be considered enemies of the yogin, because as powers presiding over the natural order of things, they attempt to block the path of those who want to become free from it and dominate

it. After this clarification, let us proceed to determine how liberation is experienced by the Tantric Siddha and kaula. In this context, antinomy, the destruction of bonds and adharma (an action against dharma) are considered means to an end and a discipline to be followed. Generally speaking, such a

behavior is destructive, because if it is carried out by an ordinary person (pashu) it would destroy him and cause him to descend along the hierarchy of beings. On the contrary, the adept (vira) imparts to this process an orientation leading him upward, acting in a positive way and freeing him from various

bonds. We may then say that the elementary Shaktic nature underlying dharma is activated over and against dharma. Thus adharma turns into a ritualistic and transcendental catharsis. It is like unveiling an original reality; or like evoking a Shaktic world in which good and evil, human and divine, high and low

no longer have any meaning; or like transcending forms; or like breaking free from the chains; or like experiencing an abyssal depth, which is capable of devouring Ishvara himself. The goal is to experience all of these things without being overwhelmed, to be transformed and to gain access to the Absolute.

One of the fundamental principles of Left-Hand Tantrism consists in never becoming separated from the powers of pravritti-marga, namely, the descending, Shaktic phase of the manifestation. A kaula should rather assume those powers and bring them to the highest degree of intensity whereby they consume

themselves. This is the Tantric teaching of Indrabhuti's Jnanasiddhi, which should nevertheless be kept secret and communicated only to initiates, least immeasurable evils should follow: "The yogin obtains liberation through the same actions that should keep in hell any other man for ages unending."12

The risk involved is evident. In the Tantras an aspirant is compared to a snake that is made to go up a hollow bamboo. It must ascend and escape at the top, at the peril otherwise of falling down. The texts mention the danger of deviations and the possibility that what is meant as an instrument to reach

the goal may malfunction.13 On the one hand, the Tantras contend that one who has obtained the privilege of being born as a human being and yet does not learn to transcend the human condition is like one who commits suicide. On the other hand, they claim that walking on the

viras' and kaulas' path is as difficult as walking on a razor's edge or as riding a wild tiger.14 The Tantras continuously repeat that the hero's path is filled with dangers and that the pashu, a person with an animal nature - that is, a being who is weak and fettered, unable to rise above his fears - must

avoid it at all costs. Thus the ritual of panchatattva is kept secret in order to avoid both the dangers inherent in it as well as the misunderstandings and criticisms of outsiders, who are unable to comprehend its deeper meaning. It is therefore necessary to examine oneself, one's nature, capabilities, and

vocation, since it is also claimed: "Hard is the great path and few are they who travel it to the end, but greatly guilty is he who, after entering the way of yoga, gives up his journey and turns back."15 This person is said to be digging his own grave. It is now evident that adequate preparation and

orientation are required. I shall deal with the issue of preparation in Chapter VII, when discussing purification of the will, the symbolism of the Virgin, and the escape from everyday life's nooses (pasha). The main goal of this preparation is to awaken in oneself the Shiva principle and to become firmly

rooted in it before evoking the power of elementary shakti. As far as the orientation is concerned, it would be a serious mistake to think that the viras' path is equivalent to that of Nietzsche's superman, or of the hero's path fancied by various individualistic and anarchical theories (e.g., Stirner's).

Tantrism does not intend to empower human nature to the highest degree, but rather wishes to cauterize it, thereby consuming the individualistic I and its hubris in the attempt to overcome the human condition. Before the spread of Tantrism, the Hindu tradition had debated which actions do not bind and which

ones do not create karma. A distinction was established between sakama-karma and nishkamakarma. The former is an action performed out of desire and passion, since the samsaric I is attracted to various objects. The latter is a pure act, and an action performed for its own sake, with sacrificial and

ritualistic overtones. Religiously speaking, it is an offering to the Absolute; metaphysically speaking, it is an attempt to reach the unconditioned.16 In the Bhagavad-Gita the second type of action was facilitated by the lifting of various prohibitions typical of an ascetic ethics and morality, one of which,

for instance, was ahimsa, the precept of nonviolence. In the Gita the god Krishna incites Arjuna to fight on and to kill even those friends and relatives militating on the enemy's side, declaring that his actions would not generate karma and be considered sinful as long as they were

performed in a pure, detached, impersonal way, that is, beyond the ideas of victory and defeat, joy and suffering, good and bad luck, I and Thou.17 In this text dharma appears to be limiting the warrior's (kshatriya's) way of life and ethical norms. In the end this limitation is not absolute, especially after Krishna, who is the metaphysical foundation and the ultimate goal of the Gita's teachings, reveals to Arjuna the dimension of transcendence and the nature of the Absolute. This Absolute is a power that on the plane of finite beings acts in a destructive fashion, almost as Dionysus Zagreus brings havoc to all

things. Therefore, the teaching transmitted to Arjuna culminates with a vision that is characteristic of this dimension of the godhead and that corresponds to the destructive and horrifying attributes of Shiva and of the Tantric Kali.18 The problem is thus resolved by specifying what kind of action does not

generate karma and conditionings, thus bestowing freedom and becoming the path toward total liberation. The presupposition of these worrisome aspects of the Path of the Left Hand consists in a similar orientation toward transcendence, and in purity of action. We may say that purity also consists in an

ascetic action permitting experiences, such as orgies and cruelty, that were forbidden in the strictest forms of penitential and mortifying asceticism. According to a fundamental Tantric principle, while in other philosophical systems yoga (in the general sense of sadhana, the practice leading to

overcoming the human condition) and bhoga (sheer enjoyment; to be open to every mundane experience) are mutually exclusive, in the kaulas's path they coexist. Such a principle applies to the path as well to the siddha's conduct. A Siddha is one who has arrived at the end of the journey; thus he can do

anything he wants and go through all kinds of experiences as long as he remains detached and free from his ego's desires. In this situation karma does not take hold of him, since he is beyond both dharma and karma. The difference from an individualistic superman, not to mention from people like the Marquis de

Sade, is rather obvious. According to another Tantric principle, spiritual realization may occur precisely through the obstacle that caused one to stumble. Stumble is an improper term, since it has nothing to do with the religious notion of "fall" or "sin." In the words of Aryadeva: "The world, being subject

to passions, may achieve liberation only through them. As copper is transformed into gold through alchemical practices, likewise, those who have gained knowledge use passions as the key to liberation."19 What is being considered here is an inner

change (ragacharya) by virtue of which a pure power (shakti) is extracted from what the pashu experiences as passion. This power in turn nourishes the inner flame and leads one to enlightenment (more on which later). In this context intensity acquires a new meaning. Several Tantric Buddhist texts

underscore the relativity of all moral precepts, but also declare that passions lose their impure character once they become absolute and once they turn into elementary forces such as fire, water, earth, wind, and so forth. This transformation occurs when they depersonalize the individual (a Hermetic-

alchemical expression is "to wash by burning"), thus promoting experiences found outside the conditioned consciousness. The difference between the two methods is very apparent. Yoga, especially the one influenced by Sankhya, intends to cauterize, so to speak, the source of samsaric "infection." The goal

of this yoga is to remove the source of passions and concupiscence, through specific disciplines and techniques, right from the subconscious and preindividual roots, after duly isolating them. Generally speaking, the strategy employed requires nonaction, since any action brought about by karma

generates new karma, that is, a further conditioning. The ultimate goal of the Tantric viras is not so different. The method they employ requires not the isolation but rather the evocation and the radical absorption of the shaktic element present in their being. This is done in order to originate a self-

consuming process culminating in an ecstatic catharsis. Both yoga and Tantrism follow a sadhana that excludes anything resembling a repression. In our day and age repression is a rich subject for the so-called depth psychology and for psychoanalysis. In yoga, consciousness is expanded until it sheds light on the darkest recesses of the human psyche. The doctrine of samskara and of vasana teaches that the psychological, mental, and emotional states of the ordinary conscious life of the individual (chittavritti) are not to be confused with their roots, which, as we have seen, may even have a preindividual and

prenatal character, and whose substratum they represent. According to traditional yoga, it is not enough to modify chittavritti simply by excluding or by favoring certain inclinations, and by repressing or sublimating certain personal traits or characteristics, as some contemporary moral systems suggest. In

fact, according to the doctrine of samskara, once the forms in which a samskara takes root in ordinary wakeful state are removed or eliminated, it does not necessarily follow that the subconscious root itself has been removed. Usually a samskara will remain underground and flourish again, with the aid of favorable

circumstances, almost like a fire that only needs new material in order to gain new strength. According to yoga, in order to overcome certain dispositions

and spiritual moods, one must reach and inexorably burn down those roots, as if they were sources of infection. If behavioral modifications are to take place, and if these dispositions are to be transformed, one must introduce changes capable of producing a lasting impression on the samskaras, which are

the deepest strata of the human psyche. A different attitude permeates the viras practices and rituals. It is necessary at this point to provide some further explanations concerning the Tantric way of dealing with passions. The idea of the purification of passions acquires in this context a special

meaning, namely, that of a passage from the subjective-mental plane to a plane in which powers are reduced to bare essentials (to purify = to strip down). Those who follow this path and the disciplines associated with it eventually come to realize, through a direct experience, that passions, emotions, and

impulses are only mitigated, variously conditioned manifestations and faint echoes of powers. What has been said about the theory of the mahabhuta concerning the world of nature may be applied in this situation too. The "great elements" exist in and of themselves, beyond their visible manifestations.

For instance, the fire of any given flame is only a particular and a contingent apparition caused by certain constant conditions that are mistaken for its cause, namely, fire itself. Thus, once concupiscence, hatred, anger, and sadness are manifested in various individuals because of different circumstances,

they can all be identified with corresponding shaktis or beings (devatas), in other words, with metasubjective forces. Therefore, one should not say, "I love," "I hate," and so forth, but rather, "A given force is now manifested in me as love, or as hate," etc. The proof of this theory relies both on the

compulsiveness of passions and of emotions and on the little power that people can exercise over them, regardless of what people may think. It is claimed that an immediate experience of this truth may cause a psychological breakdown. Such a breakdown may occur when a person becomes aware of

being dominated by supernatural forces acting under the disguise of manifestations taking place in one own's soul (since the soul is merely the instrument of such manifestations). What ensues is a collapse of an illusory world, of the notions of "I" and "mine." A breakdown may also occur when emotions are no longer experienced as subjective reflections but rather as sheer forces. In such an instance they acquire an intensity

and simplicity that may result in a serious imbalance in one's personal life. Figuratively speaking, it is as if a diaphragm performing a protective function was suddenly removed. The Tantric method seeks out such experiences in order to achieve a higher freedom. The secret of its success consists in transforming passivity into activity. Whenever a passion or an impulse manifests itself as a rising surge, one should neither react nor passively endure it, but should rather open up and actively identify with it, taking care to reserve some strength, so as not to be carried away, but to remain in control of the situation. This state is progressively intensified, bringing the roots to the surface. What is taking place is the union of Shiva, represented by the active Siddha, with a Shakti. One should be careful to prevent Shakti from becoming predominant, lest unpleasant forms of obsession should take place, relegating the individual to a "demonic" condition and to a passive instrument of the force that one evoked with the illusion of dominating it. We shall

see later on that at a certain level of the secret ritual, the techniques applied to some of its elements are not very different. If one makes it through this crucial point, and if similar experiences develop in a positive way, the result will be the elimination of one's needs and the demise of the tyranny

of various passions and emotions. One then becomes "Lord of Passions," an expression designating much more than just the capability of keeping passions under control, or of totally suppressing them. As "Lord of Passions" one is able to freely dispose of them. According to yogic doctrine, he who "knows" the

element (bija) of fire does not need ordinary means to start one. Conversely, if all the conditions necessary to cause combustion are present, he can prevent the fire from flaring up. Likewise, he who follows the Tantric path can acquire the power of evoking or suspending at will any passions or

emotions, independently from those objects and situations that usually cause them to arise. This may occur with an ease unknown to ordinary people, who are inclined to believe that feelings and passions cannot be controlled and that the only true and authentic feelings are those that are passively experienced

rather than those that are consciously induced. In the siddha's case, the passions' shaktis become part of his own being, and part of his own powers. In him, the Tantric principle of the unity of bhoga (enjoyment) and yoga (discipline) is actualized. Thus it is clear that the Siddha or kaula can do as he pleases, all the while remaining spiritually invulnerable.

Let us now turn to some practical instructions given to those who follow an analogous discipline. The starting point is a constant, attentive calm. A simile is employed, according to which water, when not stirred, becomes transparent, thus allowing one to see what is or what appears to be at the bottom. A text goes on to say:

Whatever thoughts, or concepts, or obscuring [or disturbing] passions arise are neither to be abandoned nor allowed to control one; they are to be allowed to arise without one's trying to direct [or shape] them. If one does no more than merely recognize them as soon as they arise and persists in doing so,

they will come to be realized [or to dawn] in their true [or void] form through not being abandoned. By that method, all things which may seem to be obstacles to spiritual growth can be made use of as aids on the Path. And, therefore, the method is called "The utilizing of obstacles as aids on the Path."20

This is a schematic outline of what should be done in order to experience passions as forces and as shaktis, and not just their psychological and affective

dimensions. Their absorption and incorporation into one's being will eventually occur at a later stage. Until now we have mainly examined the paths available to the vira, a being whose nature is informed by the rajas guna. It is important to recall that such a being may engage not only in experiences related to the secret ritual and in the above mentioned techniques, which lead to a liberation from all conditionings, but also and especially in magical

and evocatory rituals. These rituals grant an immediate perception of supernatural forces, beyond the world of exterior forms and natural phenomena. The

forces appear under the species of shaktis, since they are forms and manifestations of the supreme Shakti (Parashakti). Thus a magical and highly symbolic view of the world constitutes the foundation of the entire ritualistic system of intermediate Tantric degrees, as well as of other systems. It is also the

foundation of most techniques found in yoga, in the strict and spiritual sense of the word. Such, in fact, is the foundation of the theory and practice of mandalas and yantras, which are graphic symbols widely employed by every Tantric school. Mandalas are not conceived as artificial signs, helpful at best to

evoke suggestive feelings, but rather as signaturae rerutn: expressions of the supernatural and objective structures of reality. A magical and symbolic worldview also constitutes the foundation of

the doctrine of mantras and bijas, the supernatural form-giving forces that are the "soul" and the thaumaturgical principles of the "name of power" and of the "word in action." Again, it is the foundation of asanas and mudras, which are postures and gestures with magical and initiatory overtones. It is through this worldview that a part of the spirit of the early Vedic age, despite all, remains alive in the Tantras. In that age humans did not live as

ascetics, struggling with the world and with samsara, but rather as free, uninhibited forces, in the company of various gods and spiritual powers, experiencing forms of enlightenment and supernatural energies, rapt in a state of cosmic and triumphant bliss. As we have seen, besides those beings who

live under the aegis of tamas (the pashus) and of rajas (the viras and the kaulas), there are beings in whom sattva is predominant; these are the divyas, purely spiritual beings (literally, "divine beings"). The Tantras do not mention them often, maybe because in the last age, the Kali Yuga, they are

difficult to find. In order to define this third category in the context of Tantrism, we may say that the divya follows mainly an inner path. He does not care about rituals promoting a violent self-transcendence, and not even about magical ritualism. He becomes detached from the dimension of action, like the

followers of Sankhya and of early Buddhism. The realm to which he belongs is yoga, the term referring to techniques applied to the hidden forces enclosed in one's organism. In order to clarify the difference between the divya and the vira, we may recall what a Tantric divya had to say: "What need do I have

for an outer woman? I have an inner woman within myself." He does not practice the sexual rituals of the viras, who are rejoined with Shakti through sexual intercourse with a woman. Rather, he strives to awaken Shakti in his own body in order to achieve his goal. The peculiar characteristic of Tantric yoga

lies in the valorization of the body. A classic expression of the Kularvana-Tantra is: "The body is the temple of the god. Jiva is Sadashiva [[[Shiva]] in his pure aspect of 'being']. He should give ignorance [[[avidya]]] away as if it were an offering, thinking in his heart: 'I am Him.'" In no way is the body to be

considered an enemy, and in this context the method of pure intellectual contemplation is not recommended. Tantric schools, both Hindu and Buddhist, perceive the body in metaphysical terms and establish through it analogous magical relationships between the macro- and microcosm. These schools also try to achieve a supreme unity through the correct employment of the body, which must be totally awakened, known, and

mastered, in its inner and occult dimension. The hierarchy of the body's elements and powers is believed to mark different stages on the way to the supreme goal. According to an Upanishadic saying, "Every god is enclosed here, in the body." We do not find here a contempt for the body, but rather its employment in the exploration of the secrets and of the powers that it contains. A further distinctive trait of Tantric yoga consists in a specific form of hatha yoga, called kundalini yoga, in which the acting principle is Shakti, who is present in the human organism. The key to a successful awakening and union with Shakti is to be found inside the human body: "Kundalini is the mainstay of all yoga practices."21 This characterizes Tantric yoga over and against the yoga of knowledge, jnana yoga, or dhyana yoga. In the latter the body plays a subordinate role; it is valued only in the asanas, which are body postures

facilitating meditation, and in the practice of pranayama, the control and regulation of breathing. Outside Tantrism, hatha yoga was and still is conceived

as a body of techniques aimed at maintaining a healthy and strong organism. These techniques have a hygienic and therapeutic value, but no higher meaning, so it is proper to speak of "physical yoga." Hatha yoga has been and still is considered, at best, a preliminary or auxiliary phase in relation to the yoga

of knowledge. That is because the prerequisites of the latter yoga are a perfect condition of the body and the absence of any disorder and of any organic imbalance that might interfere with the development of the spiritual process. By itself hatha yoga has no deeper value than any other gymnastic exercise.

It is indicative of the intellectual level of most Westerners that yoga has enjoyed in these days a widespread popularity, both in the United States and in Europe, essentially under its trivial and ordinary physical aspects, with the exception of otherwise insignificant occultist fads.

In Tantrism, on the contrary, hatha yoga enjoys a different dignity, meaning, and role. As I have said, it becomes the yoga through which it is possible to shatter the ordinary level of consciousness, as well as to decondition one's being and to achieve transcendence. All this happens through a basic power in

which both the mind and the vital strength of every individual are rooted. This power is called kundalini-shakti, which is Shakti's primordial and immanent "presence" in humans. Thus it becomes an integral and inseparable part of an authentic raja yoga, of the "royal yoga" in the nobler meaning of the word, which reminds us of an analogous designation used by one of the main European initiatory

esoteric currents, the Hermetic-alchemical ars regia. The term hatha, which implies the idea of violence, may establish a connection between royal yoga and the way proper to viras and kaulas. Some Tantric orders are inclined to believe that there is a substantial difference between hatha yoga and other forms

of yoga, not only in the method employed, but also as far as the general result is concerned. More specifically, hatha yoga is believed to grant an exceptional power over one's body. Not only it is said to produce jivanmukti, absolute liberation before the separation from the body following death, but

also it is believed to grant the power to subdue the laws regulating organic decay, aging, and even death; to prolong beyond normal limits the span of human life; to preserve all psycho-physical energies; and to have control over one's own life and death, owing to the real capability of committing suicide

through an act of the will. The expression used here is "to put an end to the body's life without employing physical means." We shall deal later on with this power when discussing the exceptional siddhis that integrate the human will on the path of Tantric hatha yoga.22 Naturally, the chief problem

associated with hatha yoga is that of establishing contact with those secret forces in the body constituting the so-called occult corporeity. This is so because the vast majority of organic processes take place automatically. They also elude ordinary consciousness and are taken up again in the unconscious,

both in their physical procedures and in their spiritual counterparts. Perhaps the designation of divya, as applied to those people commonly associated with yoga, refers not only to a spiritual disposition but also to an existential condition. We are dealing here with a human type in whom the awareness of

subtle forces at work in the organism has not yet been atrophied, as has happened in the course of time to most people. The type being alluded to is one for whom the doors of "occult corporeity" are not entirely barred, or better, one who is still capable of removing the barriers blocking access to it (more

on this later). In order to avoid misunderstandings it is important to underline that the opposition between hatha yoga and jnana yoga is not such that the former can be practiced without recourse to mental/ contemplative disciplines, and without disciplines that are supposed to strengthen the will. Such

disciplines are the presupposition of every type of yoga. Tantric yoga is indebted to Patanjali's yoga for several of its techniques, since without the mental power of intense concentration, as it is described in the Yoga-Sutras, it is not possible to remove the limits of ordinary sense perception and

to walk along the path. What is required of the vira in the Rudrayamala is obviously required of the yogin too, namely, to be pure (shuchi), capable of proper discrimination (viveka), absolutely free from the inclinations typical of pashus, and capable of self-mastery regarding pleasure, pain, anger, and other passions. In the following chapter we shall focus on this preliminary work as well as on other aspects of some required qualifications.