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Political Consciousness in Indian Buddhism

From Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia
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The relationship between Buddhism and Chinese politics is very complicated. Politics has played a very decisive role in shaping Buddhist culture; Buddhism, on the other hand, has always had a reactive approach toward politics and policies. One might wonder how Buddhism, a religion that advocates detachment from worldly matters, is in any way related to the real politics of dynasties in China. By what means does Buddhism infl uence politics? How can one characterize the role played by Buddhism in Chinese politics? What regularity does it reveal? Th ese are some of the questions that we will attempt to address in this chapter. Chinese Buddhism fi nds its roots in India. Hence, let us fi rst

summarize the attitude of Indian Buddhism toward politics. ??kyamuni, the founder of Buddhism, preached that everything around us, that is, everything worldly can be regarded as “suff erings,” and we can only achieve the ultimate goal of individual emancipation by detachment from the physical world and the termination of the vicious circle of life and death. During the early stages of evolution of Buddhism, wealth, honor, power, and rank were considered despicable, and politics considered as an impediment to individual

emancipation. Th e tenets of early Buddhism urged mankind to unshackle themselves from politics and transcend to new heights. However, Buddhism could not have survived, spread, or grown in strength without the support from the ruling classes. Hence, arose the issue of dependency on the ruling classes for support, and furthermore, the issue of affi rming and eulogizing state power, supreme rulers, and “royal laws.” Th e Vinaya-matrka Sutra, a Th eravada scripture that appeared during the period of Abhidharma (Sectarian)

Buddhism, clearly asserted that “there are two kinds of laws that cannot be violated: one is Buddhist dharma, and the other is the laws of Chakravartin (Wheel-Turning Sagely King).” Although it spoke of “two kinds of laws,” what it in fact meant was that the royal laws could not be violated; in other words, the laws of Buddhism need to comply with those of the monarchs. Within Buddhism, one can also fi nd “sutras safeguarding the states.” Th ese sutras discuss the ways to safeguard a state. For example, according to the Karunikaraja-prajñ?paramita Sutra, no matter how small or large a country is,

Once the king preaches or reads prajñ?paramita, seven types of calamities will disappear, seven kinds of blessings will be produced, the people will become peaceful and will be pleased, and the king will be satisfi ed…If all kings in a future world support the Th ree Treasures (the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha), I will dispatch fi ve powerful bodhisattvas to protect their countries. Th e fi ve bodhisattvas are the Roaring Bodhisattva of Vajra holding a wheel with excellent marks in his hand, the Roaring Bodhisattva of Nagraja holding a lamp with golden wheels in his hand, the Roaring Bodhisattva of Ten Fearless Powers holding a vajra stick in his hand, the Roaring Bodhisattva of Th

underbolt holding a net with a thousand treasures in his hand, and the Roaring Bodhisattva of Immeasurable Power holding a wheel with fi ve thousand swords in his hand. Buddhism upholds that all kings would be protected by various powerful bodhisattvas if they were ever threatened by calamities so long as they believed in and practiced Buddhism. Customarily, Buddhism also considers “Four Deva Kings,” namely, Dhritarashtra, Virudhaka, Virupaksa, and Vaisravana, as safeguarders of territories. Th e tenets of Mah?y?na Buddhism diff er from those of H?nay?na. Mah?y?na Buddhism states that the Buddha salvaged the world with his great kindness and sympathy, leaving no beings behind. Th is doctrine preaches that the attitude of detachment should be ingrained in all secular activities. Nagarjuna, the founder of the Mah?y?na school M?dhyamika, was supported by

his contemporary Iksvaku, as evidenced in his writings Ratnavali (Proper Th eory of King Bao-xing, ?????)1 and the Gatas for Advising the King (????), specially telling Iksvaku how to rule his country, how to treat his people, how to believe in and support Buddhism, and how to keep his distance from non-Buddhist teachings. Such special teachings for the ruler refl ected the political views of Mah?y?na. Th e subsequent Gupta dynasty despised Buddhism for a while; in response, some Buddhists wrote the book Rajadharma-nyaya-sastra (?????), asking the kings for protection, and the kings in turn would oft en consult the ?rama?a or Buddhist monks about political aff airs. Th at manifested the

dependence of Mah?y?na Yogacara upon the dynasty. Later on, the Mah?y?na was gradually integrated into Esoteric Buddhism, which supported the dynasty and vice versa. By the early thirteenth century, Buddhism gradually died out in India because of the Islamic repression. Indian Buddhism was introduced into China as an amalgamation of Mah?y?na and H?nay?na forms of Buddhism. Chinese Sangha accepted and embraced the attitude of Indian Buddhism of avoidance, dislike, and detachment from the secular world, as well as its

ideas of depending on kings for external safeguards and upholding laws (secular laws) and territories. In Chinese history, prominent Buddhists could largely be grouped into two, depending on their association with politics. Th e majority either advocated an assimilation of the secular world or stressed its convenient edifi cation; accordingly, they took an active part in politics and kept close ties with the dynasties, serving politics in 1King Bao-xing (???), namely Iksvaku, translated as King Yin-zheng by Xuan-xang and Yi-jing.

a uniquely religious manner. Th e others, who were the minority, either retreated into Buddhism because of their failures in life or professed themselves as pious Buddhists strictly adhering to the Way and their pride. Th e latter group stayed away from the state capitals and led a reclusive life in forests or old monasteries, disliking or even detesting civilian life, prosperity, and politics. In addition, Buddhism was also related to political changes, peasant uprisings, and bourgeoisie reforms in early modern

times. A basic approach to study Buddhism and Chinese politics is to review the relationship between Buddhism and the politics of various dynasties in China. Th e relationship between Buddhism and Chinese politics is not limited to the political attitudes or propositions of prominent Buddhist monks and nuns. Rather, Buddhism as a whole, also plays an indirect role in the politics of society via religious ideas and philosophical thoughts. Th erefore, a general investigation of the social and political implications of

Buddhist thoughts will constitute an important part of this chapter on the relationship between Buddhism and Chinese politics. In the arbitrary society of ancient China, Confucianism was an orthodoxy upheld by the government, which explained how to cultivate the mind, regulate a family, govern a state, and harmonize the world. Although Confucian scholars defi nitely adopted some Buddhist doctrines about mind and nature, they usually animadverted on Buddhism, particularly because the latter denied paternity and monarchy. Buddhist scholars were forced to answer, account for, comprise with, and conciliate such criticism, and this gave rise to the political side of Chinese Buddhism. Accordingly, the debates between Buddhism and Confucianism reveal, in a nutshell, the political views of Chinese Buddhism. Th is is another important way for us to research Buddhism and Chinese politics. We will discuss this aspect in detail in the next chapter.




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