Pramāṇa II
Pramāṇa, (Skt. pramāṇa; Tib. ཚད་མ་, tsema, Wyl. tshad ma) is a Sanskrit term, the primary meaning and most common translation of which is 'valid cognition', meaning the correct knowledge of a particular object. The term is also used to refer to the corpus of Buddhist teachings on epistemology (the science of cognition, i.e. how we know things) and ontology (which investigates the nature of existence), as these two are inextricably linked in Buddhism. The pioneers of these teachings are the Indian masters Dignaga and Dharmakirti. Pramana is taught in all shedras since it is the basis for debate, an important learning tool in traditional monastic universities. In this context the term is sometimes translated as 'Buddhist logic'.
Pramāṇa, (Sanskrit: “measure”), in Indian philosophy, the means by which one obtains accurate and valid knowledge (pramā, pramiti) about the world. The accepted number of pramāṇa varies, according to the philosophical system or school; the exegetic system of Mīmāṃsā accepts five, whereas Vedānta as a whole proposes three.
The three principal means of knowledge are
(1) perception,
(2) inference, and
(3) word. Perception (pratyakṣa) is of two kinds, direct sensory perception (anubhava) and such perception remembered (smṛti). Inference (anumāna) is based on perception but is able to conclude something that may not be open to perception. The word (śabda) is, in the first place, the Veda, the validity of which is self-authenticated. Some philosophers broaden the concept of śabda to include the statement of a reliable person (āpta-vākya). To these, two additional means of knowledge have been added:
(4) analogy (upamāna), which enables one to grasp the meaning of a word by analogy of the meaning of a similar word, and
(5) circumstantial implication (arthāpatti), which appeals to common sense (e.g., one does not see the sun move from minute to minute, but, as it is in a different place at different times of day, one must conclude that it has moved.
Definition
The standard definition of pramana is "a non-deceptive cognition" (Skt. avisaṃvādi-jñāna; Tib. mi bslu ba'i shes pa). There is some debate, particularly amongst Tibetan commentators, as to whether the definition should also specify that a valid cognition realizes something anew (gsar du rtogs pa).[1]
Subdivisions
According to the Instruments of Knowledge
In the Buddhist tradition, a valid cognition can either be:
a valid direct perception (Skt. pratyakṣa ; Tib. མངོན་སུམ་, Wyl. mgnon sum tshad ma) or
a valid inference (Skt. anumāna; Wyl. རྗེས་དཔག་, rjes dpag tshad ma)
This twofold division is said to correspond to the two types of object: particulars, which are known through direct perception and universals, which are understood through inference.
Conventional and Absolute
In Mipham Rinpoche's tradition, valid cognition is often divided into conventional valid cognition and absolute valid cognition and these categories are then further subdivided into two:
Conventional valid cognition (tha snyad tshad ma)
conventional valid cognition of ordinary limited vision, or valid cognition of ordinary limited vision investigating the conventional level of reality (ma dag tshur mthong tha synad dpyod pa'i tshad ma), and
conventional valid cognition of pure vision, or ==valid cognition of pure vision investigating the conventional level of reality)] (dag pa'i gzigs snang tha snyad dpyod pa'i tshad ma)
Valid cognition of the absolute (don dam dpyod byed kyi tshad ma)
Valid cognition of the categorized absolute (rnam grangs pa'i don dam dpyod byed kyi tshad ma)
Valid cognition of the uncategorized absolute (rnam grangs ma yin pa'i don dam dpyod byed kyi tshad ma)
Major Texts
Indian
Dignaga,
Examining What is Observed (Skt. Ālambana-parīkṣā; Tib. དམིགས་པ་བརྟག་པ་, Wyl. dmigs pa brtag pa),
དམིགས་པ་བརྟག་པ་, dmigs pa brtag pa
Compendium of Valid Cognition (Skt. Pramāṇa-samuccaya; Tib. ཚད་མ་ཀུན་ལས་བཏུས་པ་, Wyl. tshad ma kun las btus pa)
ཚད་མ་ཀུན་ལས་བཏུས་པ་, tshad ma kun las btus pa
Dharmakirti, Seven Treatises on Valid Cognition (Skt. Pramanavartikadisapta-grantha-samgraha; Tib. ཚད་མ་སྡེ་བདུན་, Wyl. tshad ma sde bdun)
Tibetan
Sakya Pandita, Treasury of Valid Reasoning
Alternative Translations
Logic & epistemology
Prime cognition
Verifying cognition
Pramana means ˜valid knowledge or ˜valid cognition. Pramana is a system of logic and epistemology that originated in Indian schools of philosophy. Pramana was adopted and refined by the Buddhist philosophical schools that became the foundations of the Mahayana and Tibetan/Vajrayana traditions. It also serves the purpose of setting guidelines for what can be termed valid knowledge in the construction of a logical argument and is applied in the Tibetan debate tradition. In the development of pramana it seems that many different types of reasoning have been employed. However, inductive reasoning and the use of syllogism seem to be especially important.
Why is Pramana important?
As I began to survey many of the materials posted in the information thread I realized that not only is pramana important, but profound.
1) One might posit that the development of pramana by philosophical schools contributed to new scriptural interpretation and the establishment of the doctrines we have today in the Mahayana and Vajrayana.
2) It would appear to be a valuable tool in pursuing knowledge in one's practice. The type of reasoning employed would certainly be important in our reflection, discussion/debate, and analytical meditations.
tshad ma
ཚད་མ།
Valid cognition; authentic (standard)/ standard of authenticity. [RB]
Genuine. Authority. [IW]
Reliable epistemic warrant. (Wayman)
Instrument of correct knowing. (Coseru)
1) true, non-deceptive; 2) pramāṇa; 2) logic, science of valid cognition. [IW]
In terms of a genre or area of study: Epistemology. (van der Kuijp)
Generally there are said to be two, three or four kinds of tshad ma:
(1) Direct Valid Cognition and
(2) Inferential Valid Cognition; those two plus Scriptural
(3) or exremely hidden (secret) knowing; or those three plus
(4) correct knowing through example.
The entry from [IW] below that says there are another three pramanas discussed is missleading. Those three, "manifest" mngon gyur, "hidden" lkog gyur and "very hidden" shin tu lkog gyur are levels of analysis related to the objects of one of the four tshad ma, not tshad ma's themesleves.
1) true, non-deceptive (smras pa tshar mar bzung ba;
2) pramana - rang yul la mi bslu ba'i shes pa pa ste rang yul gsar du rtogs pa'i blo mngon sum yang dag dang, rjes dpag yang dag rnams so);
2) logic, science of valid cognition - (rig gnas che ba lnga'i ya gyal, tshad ma rig pa'o) authenticity, validity, proof, pramana, logic, ideal, dialectics, epistemology, valid (cognition/ understanding), proof [of knowledge). three kinds. direct perception (mngon sum). inference, indirect (rjes su dpag pa). trustworthy scripture or testimony (yid ches pa'i lung). the study of pramana [in a monastic college]. authentic, genuine, convincing. right cognition/ understanding [free from illusion). valid source of knowledge, true knowledge, reasoning, ('thad pa), (rigs pa). there are three pramanas, direct perception, inference and scripture. Sometimes the following three pramanas are discussed, direct (mngon gyur), hidden (lkog gyur) and very hidden (shin tu lkog gyur). the (shin tu lkog gyur). pramana in the buddhist sense has to be known through the Buddha's teaching., since ultimately valid cognition comes down to the buddhas' perception of things as they are. [tse] [IW]
logic, (valid means of, genuine, correct) cognition, valid, epistemology, dialectics, logical basis, valid means of knowing, (prime, valid) cognizer, normal perception that is either direct or indirect, measure, rule, model, argument, proof, logical work, authority. [JV]
reasoning, 'thad pa, rigs pa. [RY]
true, proven, genuine; ideal, validity, valid cognition; authentic (standard)/ standard of authenticity; valid cognizer [when related to cognition); validating; authenticity, validity, proof, pramana, logic, ideal, dialectics, epistemology, valid (cognition / understanding), proof [of knowledge). three kinds. direct perception (mngon sum) inference, indirect (rjes su dpag pa) trustworthy scripture or testimony (yid ches pa'i lung) the study of pramana [in a monastic college]. authentic, genuine, convincing. right cognition / understanding [free from illusion). valid source of knowledge, true knowledge, reasoning, ('thad pa), (rigs pa). There are three pramanas, direct perception, inference and scripture. Sometimes the following three pramanas are discussed, direct (mngon gyur), hidden (lkog gyur) and very hidden (shin tu lkog gyur). The (shin tu lkog gyur) pramana has to be known through the Buddha's teaching. reasoning, 'thad pa, (rigs pa). [RY]
valid cognition, validity. [thd]
