JCCS-a Journal of Comparative Cultural Studies in Architecture 8/2015 – pp 20–32 Marek KALMUS Remarks on selected bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo Anmerkungen zu ausgewählten Brücken von Thangtong Gyalpo ABSTRACT This paper presents a brief overview of Thangtong Gyalpo heritage in the area of bridge building. It is focused mainly on his ingenuity in this ield. The author analyzed present conditions of Thangtong Gyalpo’s iron chain bridges and the changes affecting them over the last three decades. The present usage of the bridges is showing why many of them are falling into ruins or even disappearing. The paper is based on the author’s ield researches (1988 to 2009) and analyzes the literature on this subject, as well as on author’s numerous interviews with Tibetologists and Tibetan people. As a result of the discourse with Tibetan scholars the critical analysis of the text incised on the iron chain link from the Yuena bridge in the Drikung area is presented. The author analyzed pictures of the bridges as well as their chain links and construction details what helps to compare them and to proof the authenticity of some of the bridges, as illustrated by the photographs attached. In particular, it includes an overview of three bridges never before mentioned in literature in this context. Two of them are in Lhatse, South Tibet, and one is in Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh, India. The author is advancing a proposal to discuss them as Thangtong Gyalpo’s heritage. The paper concludes with author’s recommendations on how to stop a further destruction of Thangtong Gyalpo’s works, including the suggestion that they be recognized as part of the world’s cultural heritage. KEYWORDS Thantong Gyalpo, Thang stong rgyal po, Chakzampa, lcags zam, iron chain bridges, hanging chain bridges, Tibet, Bhutan, Himalaya. Conventions used in this essay Essential Tibetan terms have been transliterated according to the system of Turrel W. Wylie (1959). Common Tibetan terms except personal names and names of places are presented in phonetic transcription, their transliteration is given in brackets when irst noted. 20 JCCS-a 8/2015 KURZFASSUNG Dieser Beitrag präsentiert einen Überblick über Thangtong Gyalpo‘s Erbe auf dem Gebiet des Brükkenbaus, in welchem er sich durch seine Genialität auszeichnete. Der Autor analysiert den gegenwärtigen Zustand der Eisenketten-Brücken von Thangtong Gyalpo und diese betreffende Veränderungen innerhalb der letzten drei Jahrzehnte. Die gegenwertige Nutzung der Brücken zeigt, warum viele von ihnen verfallen oder sogar gänzlich verschwinden. Der Artikel beruht auf Feldforschungen des Autors (1988–2009) und analysiert die Literatur zu diesem Thema, sowie auf zahlreichen Interviews mit Tibetern und Tibetologen. Als Ergebnis des Diskurses mit tibetischen Gelehrten wird eine kritische Betrachtung eines auf einem Eisenkettenglied eingravierten Textes an der Yuena Brücke in der Gegend von Drikung vorgestellt. Der Autor untersucht Bilder der Brücken, von deren Kettengliedern und Konstruktionsdetails, um sie in Folge zu vergleichen und auf deren Authentizität zu prüfen. Insbesondere beinhaltet der Beitrag einen Überblick über drei nie zuvor in der Literatur in diesem Zusammenhang erwähnte Brücken. Zwei von ihnen beinden sich in Lhatse, im Süden Tibets und eine in Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh in Indien, welche in Verbindung mit Thangtong Gyalpo‘s Erbe diskutiert werden. Der Beitrag schließt mit Empfehlungen des Autors, wie weitere Zerstörungen von Thangtong Gyalpo‘s Werken vermieden werden könnten, einschließlich einem Vorschlag, sie als Weltkulturerbe anzuerkennen. SCHLAGWORTE Thantong Gyalpo, Thang stong rgyal po, Chakzampa, lcags zam, Eisenkettenbrücken, hängende Kettenbrücken, Tibet, Bhutan, Himalaya. Anmerkungen zu ausgewählten Brücken von Thangtong Gyalpo INTRODUCTION The author’s interest in the life and heritage of Thangtong Gyalpo (Thang stong rgyal po1, “King of the Empty Plain”) or Chakzampa (Lcags zam pa, “Iron Bridge Man”) dates back to 1986. This interest was inspired by Prof. Wolf Kahlen from Technical University of Berlin2. In 1987, the author joined an international research team involved in the Thang stong rgyal po Project led by Prof. Kahlen. In 1988, the author took part in an International Thang stong rgyal po Expedition to India, Nepal and Tibet. During this expedition (W. Kahlen 1989, 1992) the team discovered that the ancient Manipa ritual of pho bar rdo gcog (Breaking the stone on the stomach), introduced by Thangtong Gyalpo, is still being practiced though considered to have been extinct for ifty years3. In Tibet the team discovered and documented three iron chain suspension bridges attributed to Thangtong Gyalpo. These are located in Yuena, Drikung Qu and Chung Riwoche. A detailed photographic documentation of the big multi-chapel chorten Chung Riwoche Tashi Gomang Kumbum (Gcung Ri bo che bkra shis sgo mang) was conducted as well. In subsequent years, the author undertook an independent study into the inheritance of Thangtong Gyalpo (Kalmus 2009: 288−295), involving the exploration and documentation of iron chain suspension bridges and the phowa dokchog ritual. The latter is the subject of author’s doctoral dissertation of 20064. THANGTONG GYALPO AND HIS BRIDGES (a) Short biography Thangtong Gyalpo (1364−1485, or 1385−15095) was not only one of the most famous Tibetan Mahasiddhas and ‘crazy yogis’, but he was also a universal artist: the creator of Ache Lhamo and Manipa’s tradition, a builder of monasteries and large multi-chapel chortens, a master of geomancy, a physician, a geologist, a blacksmith, a sculptor, a poet and the famous author of some 60 iron chain suspension bridges, 60 wooden bridges, and 118 ferries. He was the founder of his own lineage: Chakzampa (lcags zam pa) (within the Jonangpa school of Sakya tradition), centred around monasteries of Chuwori (Chu bo ri) and Pal Riwoche (Dpal ri bo che) in Yarlung Tsangpo Valley, and Riwoche in Kham province. He also founded other important monasteries, including in Derge (Kham). In addition he is known as the greatest traveller and pilgrim in the Tibetan tradition. (b) A bridge builder Thangtong Gyalpo is the most famous iron bridge maker (see Fig. 2). He began constructing such bridges, referred to in this paper as chakzam (lcags zam), in 1430. His interest in building bridges originated in his being beaten and thrown out of a boat into the water by an aggressive coracle carrier on the Kyichu River. He decided there and then to ensure that those travelling, and in particular, those wishing to visit important monasteries and pilgrimage sites, would be able to cross big Tibetan and Himalayan rivers safely, regardless of the mood of boat owners. (c) A geologist and a blacksmith According to a tradition, Thangtong Gyalpo’s career as a geologist originated in a vision in which dakinis from Uddiyana informed him that iron deposits are located in Tsagong, Kongpo, a tribal area on the south-eastern border of Tibet. Thus advised, he went there in 1420 and discovered ledges of iron, material which was used later in construction of his iron chain bridges. He also relied on known iron deposits in Barshong, Eastern Bhutan6, from where ready-made iron links and fragments of chains were transported to different localities in Bhutan, and sometimes even to Tibet. For example, in 1434 alone, 7,500 horse-loads of raw iron and readymade chain links were thus sent (Gerner 2007: 12). Bridge chains Typically, Thangtong Gyalpo had bridge chains forged very often where iron ore deposits were found. His ingenuity lied in the fact that a small amount of arsenic (a bit more than 2.8%) was added to pure iron as admixture to facilitate working on them further on-site and protect the inal result from rusting (Kahlen, 1990: 97). Thus Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges Marek Kalmus 1 Capital letters are used in Tibetan transliteration only where personal or geographic names are given. 2 Wolf Kahlen is a professor of Inter-media Arts at Technical University of Berlin, Architecture Department. He has been leading the Thang stong rgyal po Project since 1986. He organized research expeditions, published several articles on the life and heritage of Thangtong Gyalpo, and made documentaries. He also established the Thang stong rgyal po Archive in Berlin. However, many materials gathered, including photographs, ilms and written records are yet to be made accessible to the public. 3 A brief description of this ritual was created by Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark, H.R.H. in 1938: The Tibetan Ceremony of Breaking the Stone, Folk Dansk Etnograisk Tidsskrift No. 4, 1961, pp. 65−70. A more detailed description was presented by George Roerich in his “The Ceremony of Breaking the Stone” (pho-bar rdo-gčog), published in Journal of Urusvati, Vol. II, 1932, pp. 25−51. 4 Marek Kalmus, Sy m b o l i k a i z n a c z e n i e tybetańskiego rytuału Pho-bar rdo-gchog (Ceremonia Rozbicia Kamienia), Jagiellonian University Library, Krakow, 2006. 5 Tibetan literature gives three different lengths of Thangtong Gyalpo’s life; thus it is claimed that he lived for between 78 and 125 years. The irst biography of Thangtong Gyalpo in the West was the one written by Janet Gyatso (Gyatso 1979). The most extensive biography of him is the one though written by Cyrus Stearns (Stearns 2007). Of particular importance is also the work of Manferd Gerner (Gerner 2007). 6 Barshong lies south of Tashigang, close to Khaling. According to Gerner, one of two biggest iron deposits in Bhutan is to be found there (Gerner 2007: 22). Fig. 1: A picture of Thangtong Gyalpo. In his right hand he holds an iron chain and in his left hand, the vase of longevity. Slate engraving, Simtokha Dzong, West Bhutan. (Photograph: author, 2009) Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 2: Chung Riwoche Chakzam. (Stearns 2007: 274) JCCS-a 8/2015 21 Marek Kalmus 7 Chain link sizes and thicknesses vary even at a single bridge or even within a single chain. Remarks on selected bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo could withstand the passage of time and today their iron chains are only covered by a violet and brown patina. The individual chain links vary in size from 22 cm to 37 cm in length7 and 7 cm to 8.3 cm in width, with a cross-section of 1.2 to 2.0 cm by 2.0 to 3.0 cm. The cross-section is rectangular in shape with faceted edges. Some links show the reliance on the technique somewhat similar to the one used in making Roman- or Damascene-type steel were a multilayer effect is achieved so as to increase the strength and hardness (see Figs. 3, 4 and 5). Each individual link is made of a bar the ends of which are lattened into a wedge like shape so as to allow for an overlap and a soldered joint (see Figs. 4 and 5). Fig. 3 (d) Engineering achievements As for his iron bridges they were of various length, from a few dozen meters to over a hundred meters. They were meant mostly to accommodate a pedestrian trafic, but some were also intended for beasts of burden. He built them in the territories that are now Tibet, Bhutan and North-East India. The loor of the bridges is typically made of bamboo mats, wooden boards or thin tree trunks, and, less commonly, of slabs of stone. Sometimes one has to walk though directly on iron chains running close together, as in Doksum or Chung Riwoche (see Fig. 6). The ingenuous geometry of Thangtong Gyalpo’s chain structures was meant to mitigate lateral and horizontal undulation. Thus usually his bridges have from four to eight or even nine load-bearing and undulation restricting chains. Chains were traditionally fastened to each other with yak leather straps or ropes made of vegetable ibres, including willow. As for the former, they were still to be found at Chung Riwoche as late as of 1988 (see Fig. 12). Today, steel wires are used instead. Stone and wood elements of bridge structures The chains are hanged from pylons that rest on abutments. Whenever the length of a bridge requires an intermediate pillar or a pylon is made for carrying the chains. Such pylons rest in turn on abutments sited on a sandbank or an islet. Sometimes, abutments submerged in water are protected against lood waters and ice loat by large stone spurs. This is clearly visible, for example, at Chung Riwoche (see Fig. 2). Fig. 3: Chakzam in Chasam (Tawang), Arunachal Pradesh, India − links chipped with several layers of iron. (Photograph: author, 2009) Abutments and pylons are always made of stone, reinforced often with wooden beams. Reinforcing beams are imbedded in a stone structure, both vertically and horizontally, forming a coherent whole (see Figs. 7 and 8). The common characteristics of abutments and pylons include the following: Fig. 4: Chain link of Chakzam in Chasam (Tawang), Arunachal Pradesh, India. (Photograph: author, 2009) Fig. 5: Chain link of Chakzam on the road to Trashigang, East Bhutan. (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 6: Extinct Doksum Chakzam (East Bhutan) bridge without a loor. (Photograph: author unknown, 1999) Fig. 4 22 JCCS-a 8/2015 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 (i) trapezoid shape with rounded off edges (e.g. at Doksum, Chung Riwoche or Drikung Dzong) (see Fig. 11); (ii) stone steps leading to the bridge (e.g. at Puntsoling); entrance gate structures covered with a gable roof (e.g. at Chasam in Tawang) (see Fig. 7), sometimes even with an extra floor to be used as a small chapel or storage room (e.g. at Chakzam in Trashigang or Chakzam near Paro) (see Fig. 28). (iii) Anchoring solutions Chains are anchored as follows: (i) a chain is imbedded in a wall and is blocked on the other side from slipping by a wooden or iron wedge or wedges or a chain link placed crossways; in case of certain bridges where some work was conducted during the last decades a wedge was replaced by a metal cross bar or rod (examples of both solutions being applied may be found, for example at Tamchog Chakzam near Paro or Chakzam in Tawang) (see Fig. 9); or (ii) a chain is rested on a stone wall and then threaded through a whole in a millstone wedged against that wall to be blocked from slipping by a wooden or iron wedge placed as above (e.g. at Yuena); the ingenuity of this solution lies in the fact that the downward pressure of the chain on the stone wall on which it rests facilitates more effective fastening of the millstone thus securing the entire anchoring structure from being ripped out; or (iii) a chain is anchored to an iron brace wedged deep in the rock (e.g. chains remaining below Drikung Dzong or those of Podho Chakzam in Lhundrup Xian). Anmerkungen zu ausgewählten Brücken von Thangtong Gyalpo Marek Kalmus 8 Until recent times, he was known by his name only in the local tradition (Ura 2006: 1−2, quoted: Gerner 2007: 20) Fig. 7 Fig. 8 THANGTONG GYALPO AND HIS SUCCESSORS (a) Sons and further descendants Thangtong Gyalpo had many successors. These include his son Nyima Tenzin Sangpo, active between 1485 and 1517. Nyima Tenzin Sangpo was skilled in bridge and crossing design, as well as their construction and repair. The main achievement attributed to him is his building a bridge on Tsangpo River at Nyago (Nya mgo). This bridge was situated near an important Densatil Monastery where a ferry crossing was located before. It was the largest bridge built in Tibet by then. For example, it had 32 intermediate pylons. It would allow for crossing even during major loods. It is now in ruins. The only elements that can be seen today, from a nearby steel and concrete bridge, include remnants of abutments (see Fig. 10). Then there was Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo8 from Merak, a nomad country located on a high plateau near the eastern borders of Bhutan, believed to be a Thangtong Gyalpo’s son too (Gerner 2007: 17−20). His mother was Drupthob Zangmo, famous aunt and teacher of the even more famous tertön (“Treasure Finder”) Pema Lingpa from Bhutan. It is claimed that Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo was, like his father, a bridge and river crossing builder very active in that general geographical area. The photograph of a statue from Merak, taken by Robert Dompnier, shows Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo as a young yogi holding a few chain links in his raised right hand (Gerner 2007: 19−20). According to Karma Ura, that yogi’s mummy and relicts are still to be found in a local temple in the village of Gengpo in Merak (Ura 2006: 1−2, quoted in Gerner 2007: 20). Gerner claims that “Merak village for a long time had to be home for Thangtong Gyalpo and his ‘wonderful’ family”. When we consider that he lived here for a long time, he could build a lot of bridges in that area. For example Tashigang and Doksum lie in the area, as well as the bridges Fig. 9 located south of Mongar that are only a few days walking distance away.” (Gerner 2007: 21−22). As for other descendants of Thangtong Gyalpo, these include Orgyan Tenzin Norbu and his two sons Losang Tobten Paljor and Ngawang Yongdak (1714−1767) from Chung Riwoche. They were all well-known bridge builders too that continued in the tradition of chakzampa lineage originated by their famous ancestor. They built new bridges and repaired old ones. For example, Orgyan Tenzin Norbu completely rebuilt (gsar du btsugs) the double-span bridge in Chung Riwoche (Stearns, 2007: 47). (b) Students and followers Some of Thangtong Gyalpo’s students or others inspired by his achievements were also involved in the building or repair of iron chain bridges, thus following in his footsteps. As a result, a tendency ensued whereby most ancient chain suspension bridges were and are attributed to Thangtong Gyalpo himself, even when they could have been or were built by others. The most famous among his followers include the following: (i) Jikten Wangchuk, a master in the Kagyu Taklung line, a builder of many bridges and crossings inspired by Thangtong Gyalpo (Stearns 2007: 46−47); (ii) Lozang Paldrup, known as the Iron Bridge Man (like Thangtong Gyalpo himself) who repaired many old bridges and built many new ones in Central and Southern Tibet during the irst half of the 18th century (Stearns, 2007: 47); (iii) Shabkar Natsok Rangdrol (1781−1850) who rebuilt Riwoche Chakzam after it broke and fell into the water (Stearns, 2007: 48). Fig. 7: Pylon reinforced with wooden beams with stone steps at Puntsoling, Tsang. (Photograph: author, 2006) Fig. 8: Rebuilt Tamchog Chakzam near Paro, West Bhutan. Photograph: author, 2009) Fig. 9: Wooden wedge chain anchorage − Tamchog Chakzam near Paro. (Photograph: author, 2009) Fig. 10 Fig. 10: Remains of abutments at Nyago Chakzam. (Photograph: Diana Lange, 2012) JCCS-a 8/2015 23 Marek Kalmus Remarks on selected bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo 9 Jonang Stupa of Glorious Qualities (Jo nang gi mchod rten dpal yon can). 10 Thangtong Gyalpo is believed to be Dolpopa’s next incarnation (Stearns 2007: 13−14). Fig. 12 Fig. 11 OVERVIEW OF SELECTED BRIDGES WITH THEIR LOCATION, DESCRIPTION AND CONDITION TIBET Thangtong Gyalpo built the greatest number of bridges ever built in Tibetan history. The bridges described below are located in Lhartse County, Meldo Gungkar County and Lhundrup County. (a) Chung Riwoche Chakzam One of the most important bridges ever built by Thangtong Gyalpo is the one on Yarlung Tsangpo River, completed in 1436. It lies about 250 meters upstream from the famous seven-loor multichapel chorten, erected by him, too. Both are located at the foot of Chung Riwoche Monastery (Gcung Ri bo che), referred to sometimes as Pal Riwoche, his great seat. The bridge has two spans, approximately 60 and 35 meters each, divided by a stone pylon sited on rocky shallows. A long spur provides robust protection against lood waters and ice loat (see Fig. 11). Railing bridge chains are fastened to each other with traditional leather yak straps or wool ropes (See Fig. 12). Fig. 11: Double-span Chung Riwoche Chakzam. (Photograph: author, 1988, Thang stong rgyal po Archive Berlin) Fig. 12: Railing chains fastened to each other with yak leather strap and wool rope at Chung Riwoche. (Photograph: W. Kahlen, 1988) The bridge is richly festooned with prayer lags throughout. A small square chorten, dedicated to protectors, is situated on the northern pylon facing the monastery. It is adorned with player lags, ixed on sticks. The bridge was commonly referred to as Rinchen Chakzam (Rin chen lcags zam; “Precious Iron Bridge”). It was commonly considered to be one of the most important bridges allowing passage over Yarlung Tsangpo River, en route to Western Tibet. Furthermore, according to an old legend, for as long as the bridge stands, Buddha Dharma in Tibet will lourish (Kahlen 1990a: 98). The bridge was still passable in 1988, but in need of a major repair. Many transversal straps and ropes were broken. The new hanging bridge was already providing safe passage nearby. Gerner reports that by 2002 Rinchen Chakzam was no longer passable, though still standing semi-intact, and there were no signs of conservation work being done since (Gerner 2007: 74). Fig. 13: Pylons and anchoring abutment at Puntsoling Chakzam, the latter at the foreground. (Photograph: author, 2006) Fig. 14: Iron chain links of Puntsoling Chakzam with patina. (Photograph: author, 2006) 24 JCCS-a 8/2015 Fig. 13 Fig. 14 (b) Puntsoling Chakzam Puntsoling (Phuntsholing, Pindsoling, or Pincoling (Phun tshogs gling)) Chakzam was built over Yarlung Tsangpo River, just below the conluence with Raga (Doksung) Tsangpo River. The bridge lies some 400 meters down hill from Puntsoling Monastery, where the famous master Taranatha lived, and at a distance of some four kilometres from the great stupa at Jonang9. The stupa founded by Dolpopa10 is the oldest multi-chapel chorten in Tibet. It is the most important structure of Jonangpa Monastery, founded by Dolpopa, too. The entire superstructure of the bridge was already gone by the second half of the nineties of the 20th century. There were only three somewhat rounded stone pylon structures, strengthened with wood beams, and one anchoring abutment left, all quite wellpreserved (see Fig. 13). Some elements of the iron chains are still there. They are well-preserved, with no rust. Only the patina so characteristic of Thangtong Gyalpo’s iron chains may be seen (see Fig. 14). Trafic that used to be served by Puntsoling Chakzam is served now by the nearby hanging bridge which can accommodate small trucks, built in the 20th century, and by the new steel and concrete bridge, sited few hundred meters downstream, built at the beginning of the 21st century. (c) Lhatse Chöde Chakzams Two Lhatse (Lha rtse) Chöde Chakzams are located in Tsang Province, South Tibet, below the Lhatse Dzong castle ruins and behind Lhatse Chöde Monastery, spanning two arms of Tsangpo River. The eastern one was comprised as of 2006 of the original structure built by Thangtong Gyalpo and the newer structure build of stone and mortar. The western one is extinct now. Only some ruins of abutments and pylons survived. As for original elements of the eastern bridge, these include stone abutments on both sides, fragments of pylons with wood beam reinforcements (see Fig. 15), and two iron chains threaded on two new steel cables hanging under the new bridge (see Fig. 17). Of particular interest are two Anmerkungen zu ausgewählten Brücken von Thangtong Gyalpo Marek Kalmus 11 Mr. Latö is a member of an aristocracy clan of Latö District (La stod), and the owner of the Tibetan Farmers’ Guesthouse in new Lhotse Xian, near the Friendship Highway. 12 Gyang Bumoche (Rgyang bu mo che) was the irst of great chortens erected by Thangtong Gyalpo (Vitali 1990: 129−132); it was built in a Tashi Gomang style. Fig. 15 13 The monastery was in ruins as at 1988. It was rebuilt at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. Fig. 16 14 A seat of many pilgrimage destinations including Ka t s a l G o m p a , Te r d r o m (Padmasambhava’s Hidden Valley), Drikung Til Monastery and one of the most famous sky burial places, located near Drikung Til. Fig. 17 wooden beams protruding from the old structure, as seen just off the path, at the eastern entrance to the bridge (see Fig. 16). As for remains of the original western bridge, these include fragments of iron chains, as well as ruins of both abutments and pylons with their original wooden beam reinforcement structure are well preserved, in spite of more than 500 hundred years of lood waters, ice loats and earthquakes (see Fig. 18). The pylon’s structure is typical of Thangtong Gyalpo, as at, inter alia, Puntsoling or Lhundrup (Podho Chakzam). The new western bridge, located nearby, is a modern structure constructed of stone and mortar with steel cables and a support pillar midstream (see Fig. 20). Contrary to Thangtong Gyalpo structures this stone and mortar pillar is already showing signs of decay. As for the remains of the old western bridge, some parts of two iron chains are still intact though showing a violet patina. These are of the typical size, shape and hammering patterns that are so characteristic of Thangtong Gyalpo style. The links which are lying lower on the ground show some rust. This is because they are exposed to excessive moisture during loods, and thus cannot dry as fast as if they were hanging in the air (see Fig. 19). According to the local tradition both bridges are attributed to Thangtong Gyalpo. This claim is supported by statements of locals, including Mr. Latö11, an educated Tibetan aristocrat. Though there is no mention of these bridges in the specialised literature on the subject, their characteristic futures make it more than likely that this claim is truth. Furthermore, it is known that Thangtong Gyalpo was very active in this general area over many years. For example, a few kilometres east of Lhatse there was a great multi-chapel Gyang Bumoche chorten12, built by Sonam Tashi, Sakya school master and Thangtong Gyalpo who was studying with him at that time (Chan 1998: 465). Lhatse was at that time on one of the important pilgrimage routes. (d) Yuena Rinchen Chakzam Yuena Rinchen Chakzam was built on Zorongchu River, tributary of the Kyichu (Skyid chu) River, about 100 meters downstream from the conluence with Mangra River (see Fig. 21). It was close to a small monastery in Yuena13. It served a major pilgrimage road from Drikung region14 to Reting Monastery, and further, to Damxung and Namtso Lake, one of the most holly lakes of Tibet. As at 1988, the bridge was already showing some repair and restoration. Two steel cables were added at the top, resting on wood beams lying across each of the gates. The rest of the bridge structure, including stone and iron elements, seemed to be as originally built by Thangtong Gyalpo. Among these, Fig. 15: Eastern bridge at Lhatse; both original and later elements visible in the foreground; in the background: remains of the original western bridge and its new replacement. (Photograph: author, 2006) Fig. 16: Wooden beams protruding from the original abutment of the eastern bridge. (Photograph: author, 2006) Fig. 17: Original iron chains hanging under the eastern bridge. (Photograph: author, 2006) Fig. 18 Fig. 18: The old western bridge ruins with wood beam reinforcement structure clearly visible. (Photograph: author, 2006) Fig. 19: Iron chain fragments of the old western bridge. (Photograph: author, 2006) Fig. 20: The new western bridge and old western bridge ruins. (Photograph: author, 2006) Fig. 19 Fig. 20 JCCS-a 8/2015 25 Marek Kalmus Remarks on selected bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo 15 „The term rin chen, which is often used, denotes that the bridge must have been made by, or in honour of, or in relation to, an important person, and/or must be situated at a holy place, etc.” (Kahlen 1992: 41). 16 The blacksmith who chiseled the characters on the link probably was not Thangtong Gyalpo. 17 It is not only in that case, but in many ancient Tibetan texts written and printed on paper such abbreviations of vowels on the syllables may be found. Fig. 22 Fig. 21 Fig. 23 the most ingenuous was a way in which iron chains were anchored. They were threaded through big millstones and blocked from slipping by wedges (see the detailed description under ‘Chain Anchoring Solutions’ above and Fig. 22). There were also some very old carved wood beams added (Kahlen 1990: 139−140). One may presume that they were taken at some point from the ruins of Yuena Monastery following its destruction during the Cultural Revolution. be written: རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག་ཟམ rin chen mchog zam which means “Rinchen’s most excellent bridge” − the great bridge (built by) Rinchen (Thangtong Gyalpo), or just a “Precious, excellent bridge”. 2. When the author was there as a member of the International Thangtong Gyalpo Expedition in 1988, the team discovered that two iron chain links bore the inscriptions. These inscriptions must have been made with a chisel while iron was still red hot. It can be read as: “khyi chu” (“Dog water”) and “Rinchen Chakzam”15 (rin chen lcags zam, “Precious Iron Bridge”) (see Fig. 23). temporary. Or maybe the blacksmith16 had just spelled it in a wrong way, because the sound of མཆག mchag and ལྕགས lcags (“iron”) is the same. And the last syllable could be ཟཾ་པ zam pa (even though it looks like ཟལ zal on that link, but it did not make sense if it is ཟལ zal) because the ཟ zam is contraction of ཟམ zam, (for instance, ལེཊ is contraction of ལེགས, སེངྒེ is contraction of སེང་གེ and སྡོཾ is contraction of སྡོང་བོ་ལོ་མ། and so on). It is usually used in this way, especially in ancient Tibetan, therefore, the last syllables could be ཟཾ་པ zam pa, (even the “ ཾ” is not clear on that picture, but probably it should be there originally). So it could be: རིན་ཆེན་ལྕགས་ཟམ་པ། rin chen lcags zam pa, because on history, when people mentioned Thangtong Gyalpo, usually called him ཐང་སྟོང་ལྕགས་ཟམ་པ། thang stong lcags zam pa or རིན་ཆེན་ལྕགས་ཟམ་པ། rin chen lcags zam pa. The irst one (khyi chu) is an evidence that the bridge was built by Thangtong Gyalpo. It suggests that the bridge was constructed either in 1382 or in 1442. Tibetan calendar is based on sixty year cycles − each year within a cycle is assigned one of 12 animals and one of ive elements. When one superimposes such lattice on the facts that are known from Thangtong Gyalpo’s life the only plausible date is 1442. Fig. 21: Yuena Rinchen Chakzam on Zorongchu River. (Photograph: W. Kahlen, 1988, Thang stong rgyal po Archive Berlin) Fig. 22: Yuena Rinchen Chakzam with its entrance pylons and millstone anchorages. (Photograph: W. Kahlen, 1988, Thang stong rgyal po Archive Berlin) Fig. 23: Incision on an iron chain link from Yuena Rinchen Chakzam which can be interpreted as ‘Precious Iron Bridge’. (Photograph: W. Kahlen, 1988, Thang stong rgyal po Archive Berlin) 26 JCCS-a 8/2015 The former is supposed to be rin chen lcags zam what is not so evident as described according to the opinion of W. Kahlen (Kahlen 1992: 41) since these syllables make literally any sense. There are several inaccuracies or maybe even mistakes. Some vowels are missing and some characters are different to what they should be in the sentence rin chen lcags zam. According Nyangshem Gyal (with whom the author consulted that topic): 1. If the irst two syllables རན་ཆན ran chan stand for རིན་ཆེན rin chen (even though both of their vowels are not written − maybe because of lack of space on the top of link), there also can be the vowel (like ན་རོ which means o) of the third syllable མཆག mchag, therefore, it could stand for མཆོག mchog. Furthermore, if the last syllable should be ཟམ zam (however it isn’t, as it is written differently, just ཟལ zal) the whole should For the word མཆག mchag no meaning could be found in a Tibetan dictionary, but maybe it was some archaic term which is not used 3. Or it can also be: རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག་ཟིལ། rin chen mchog zil (which means “the power of Rinchen’s iron chain”. In Tibetan མཆོག mchog means “great” or something what is very precious, so here མཆོག mchog should stand for “iron”, because in the 14th and 15th centuries when Thangtong Gyalpo lived, the iron was one of the most precious resources in Tibet during that time. ཟི ལ zil reminds of ནུས་པ nus pa (“power”), because the space on the iron chain link is limited, so in order to write it on the link, maybe they just abbreviated the all vowels on the syllables17. Anmerkungen zu ausgewählten Brücken von Thangtong Gyalpo Marek Kalmus 18 Connections between Thangtong Gyalpo and Dalai Lamas’ line of transmission seem to ind their expression in many facts. For example, the Great 5th Dalai Lama had a vision in which Thangtong Gyalpo appeared and gave him some teachings; the current, 14th Dalai Lama keeps a statue of Thangtong Gyalpo by his bedside. Fig. 24 Fig. 25 By the turn of 20th and 21st centuries Kyichu River Valley was looded as a result of a dam built a few hundred meters downstream from the bridge. The fate of the bridge is currently unknown. We do not know whether it is now under water, or was dismantled or destroyed (see Fig. 24). (e) Drikung Qu Chakzam Drikung Qu Chakzam was built on Kyichu River directly below Drikung Dzong fort that today is totally ruined, at a place where that river lows through a gorge. As at 1988, the bridge was suspended by steel cables but stood on original stone abutments and pylons with the structure so characteristic of Thangtong Gyalpo. Two original bridge chains hung below the deck, anchored to the rock. On one side of the river, near the anchor, there was a rock relief showing Thangtong Gyalpo. On the other side, near the bridge, there was a ‘self-arisen footprint’ (rang byung)18 that according to the local tradition was attributed to Thangtong Gyalpo. It was clearly darker in colour than the surrounding rock. Similarly to Yuena Rinchen Chakzam, Drikung Qu Chakzam is not longer to be seen as a result of a dam being built. As in the case of Yuena, the real fate of this bridge is currently unknown (see Fig. 24). (f) Podho Chakzam Podho Chakzam was built on Kyichu River, too. It is located in Lhundrup Xian, 200 meters upstream from the new reinforced concrete bridge. As at 1994, Podho Chakzam could no longer be used. Stone abutments and pylons which were still in a good shape were reinforced with a wooden beam structure. Four bridge chains are hanging between banks along with many prayer lags (see Figs. 26 and 27). There was no deck and some bridge chains were also missing. According to photographs from 2012, the condition of the bridge did not deteriorate much. The bridge used to serve important routes from Lhasa to Reting monastery, and from Drikung, via Damxung, to sacred Namtso lake. Fig. 26 Mistakenly quoting Kahlen, Gerner (2007: 76−78) though this is Rinchen Chakzam. Whereas Kahlen (Kahlen 1992: 41−42) referred to the bridge at Yuena in Drikung region, situated several kilometres downstream from Podho Chakzam. The author is certain of that as he visited this place together with Kahlen in 1988. BHUTAN Thangtong Gyalpo was also very active in Bhutan. It was the second most important country for him and for his work. His bridge building activities there were facilitated by the presence of rich iron deposits and many experienced blacksmiths. Not only that: A large number of iron bridge chains and unwrought iron was shipped from Bhutan for him to Tibet. (a) Tamchog Chakzam Tamchog Chakzam (Rta mchog) was built on Parochu River, close to Paro itself. It was built in 1433 and destroyed by a lood in 1969. It was restored in 2005, on the initiative of Jigme Singye Wangchuk, the King of Bhutan. To this end, four original iron chains were recovered from the ruins and another four were brought from East Bhutan, from the dismantled Doksum Chakzam (see below). The reconstruction works involved suspending the bridge higher than in the past to protect it better against loods. It is hung from two-storey gates built in the traditional Bhutanese style (Gerner 2007: 96). The bridge serves a route leading to the White Horse Gompa (Gtam dgon chos pa) also built by Thangtong Gyalpo and currently inhabited by his heirs. The bridge was restored with almost due care. But for the fact that some chains are ixed in the wall by modern steel bars (see Fig. 29) instead of iron or wooden wedges as the tradition would dictate (see Fig. 9) the restoration is not perfect. Furthermore, three railing chains on each side are stabilized now with steel bars and covered with steel mesh Fig. 24 The artiicial lake on Kyichu River with Yuena Monastery rebuilt on the right, and ruins of Drikung Dzong Fort on the left (on the top of a hill protruding from the water). (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 25: Original stone abutment with pylon and bridge chains of Drikung Qu Chakzam bridge, and new small pylons with steel cables and deck superimposed over the original structure. (Photograph: Wolf Kahlen, 1988, Thang stong rgyal po Archive Berlin) Fig. 26: Podho Chakzam near Lhundrub Xian. (Photograph: author, 1994) Fig. 27: Four iron chains of Podho Chakzam. (Photograph: Kalsang Dawa, 2012) Fig. 28: Tamchog Chakzam on Parochu River. (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 27 Fig. 28 Fig. 29 Fig. 29: Steel bars securing a chain at Tamchog Chakzam. (Photograph: author, 2007) JCCS-a 8/2015 27 Marek Kalmus Remarks on selected bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo Fig. 33 Fig. 30 Fig. 31 (see Fig. 30). Five chains hold the deck on which a bamboo mat was laid as a later addition. Many chain links are covered with rust. Some are bent inwards too. On the irst loor of a gate there is a small chapel with wall paintings showing Thangtong Gyalpo flanked by Buddha Sakyamuni on his right, and Tsepame (Tshe dpag med) on his left (see Fig. 31). Fig. 30: Railing comprised of chains, steel bars and steel mesh at Tamchog Chakzam. (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 31: Painting on a wall of Thangtong Gyalpo Chapel at Tamchog Chakzam. (Photograph: author, 2007) (b) Trashigang Chakzam Trashigang Chakzam was built on Drangmechu River just below Trashigang Dzong (Bkra shis sgang rdzong), in a place today known as Chakzam. The bridge is no longer in function. The badly damaged abutment may still be seen though resting on top of a left-bank cliff (see Fig. 33). A large, two-storey stone gate on the right bank of Drangmechu River is converted into a small gompa (see Fig. 33). On its irst loor, with its enlarged windows and covered skylight on the roof, so typical of Bhutanese temples, there are wall paintings showing Thangtong Gyalpo, Tsepame, White Tara, Sakya Lama, Amitabha and Vajradhara. On its ground loor − at the level of the former entrance to the bridge − now there is a small exhibition where fragments of original iron chains from Trashigang Chakzam are on display (see Figs. 5 and 34). The walls are also covered with paintings showing four Dharma Kings. Some 200 meters downstream there is a new full-sized steel and concrete bridge that provides passage to Trashigang. (c) Doksum Chakzam Doksum (Duksom, Druksum) Chakzam in East Bhutan was comprised of nine chains (see Figs. 6, 35 and 36). It was in use until 2004 till it was dismantled after its abutments were very badly damaged during a lood. Unfortunately, this time it was not repaired, unlike after the 1968 lood when it was reinforced with chain elements from Trashigang Chakzam (Gerner 2007: 99−100). As at 2009, there were only some remains of destroyed and dismantled bridge gate pylons at the Doksum village side, as some rubble and stones have been partially removed (see Fig. 37). Only the well preserved right abutment and a retaining wall above the dismantled gate pylon are still there (see Figs. 37 and 38). Just below the place of the former old bridge, on the right steep rocky bank, there are two small caves (see Fig. 39). According to an ancient tradition, Thangtong Gyalpo inhabited the irst cave during the construction of the bridge, and in the second cave the chain links were forged and turned into chains. Fig. 32: Panoramic view of Drangmechu River with Trashigang Dzong on the upper right and gate to the extant Trashigang Chakzam, converted into a gompa, on the lower left, with a new bridge just below. (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 33: Re m a i n s o f Tra s h i g a n g Chakzam with the gate converted into a Thangstong Gyalpo Chapel on the left and ruins of the left bank abutment barely visible just below a white chorten, on the right. (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 32 Fig. 33 Fig. 34 Fig. 34: Original iron chains and wall paintings on the ground loor of Trashigang Chakzam gompa. (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 35: Doksum Chakzam as at 1999. (Photograph: author unknown, 1999) Fig. 36: Doksum Chakzam as at 1999. (Photograph: author unknown, 1999) Fig. 35 28 JCCS-a 8/2015 Fig. 36 Anmerkungen zu ausgewählten Brücken von Thangtong Gyalpo Marek Kalmus 19 The number 108 is considered to be particularly symbolic and auspicious; for example this is the number prescribed for beads of a standard Buddhist rosary. Fig. 37 Fig. 38 Just below the place of the former old bridge, on the right steep rocky bank, there are two small caves (see Fig. 39). According to an ancient tradition, Thangtong Gyalpo inhabited the irst cave during the construction of the bridge, and in the second cave the chain links were forged and turned into chains. Four chains from Doksum Chakzam were shipped to Paro in 2005 where they were incorporated into Tamchog Chakzam, the structure of which was thus somewhat altered. INDIA (ARUNACHAL PRADESH) (a) Chakzam on Tawangchu Chakzam on Tawangchu River lies just below Chasam, a small village in Tawang District, Arunachal Pradesh, India, the land of Monpas, a few miles east of the border with Bhutan. Chakzam is a small village comprised of only a dozen houses. It lies on a side of a narrow Tawangchu Canyon. Tawangchu drains into Drangmechu, one of the biggest rivers of East Bhutan. The bridge used to serve a major ancient trade route linking Tibet with Assam. It was also an important pilgrimage route along which the great Tawang Monastery is situated, built later than the bridge with the birthplace of the 5th Dalai Lama situated just below the monastery. A local road from Tawang monastery to the bridge follows in parts that ancient route. Numerous Mani stone walls, small chortens, little chapels, gates and prayer mills along the path testify to its importance. Walls of prayer stones can also be seen on the other side of the river along the ancient route to the south. As for the ancient bridge itself, it was never described by Tibetologists before. The only mention of it can be found in Pema Wangchuk’s A Guide Book of Tawang Darshan (Wangchuk 2008: 7−8). Wangchuk reports that the bridge was built by Chak-Sam Wangpo during the reign of the 1st Dalai Lama. Wangchuk reports further, that Chak-Sam Wangpo “was one of the popular saints, who was one of the famous engineers and during his journey from Tibet to this place he built one hundred and eight magical iron chain suspension bridges over the great rivers and several of these bridges still survive”. According to the local tradition, cited by Wangchuk, Lama Chak-Sam Wangpo was meditating in the Chan-Gor Cave near the village of Kralling, before building the bridge in the early 17th century. The bridge was rebuilt in 1947−48, after sustaining severe damages during an earthquake (Wangchuk 2007: 7). Information cited above is marred by some inconsistencies and errors, further mentioned below. Nevertheless, it appears to the author that it cannot refer to anyone else but Thangtong Gyalpo, and the bridge described therein cannot but be attributed to him. The name Chak-Sam Wangpo seems to be somewhat imprecise rendering of Chakzampa, a title granted to Thangtong Gyalpo as an iron bridge builder. Wangpo refers to his greatness and might. Thangtong Gyalpo was recognized as a saint and great mahasiddha already during his life. This is also relected in his other title Thubtob (grub thob, “siddha”). We know from literature and tradition that before commencing work on a bridge, Thangtong Gyalpo would meditate and pray. He would do that often in some cave nearby a prospective building site. Such was the case, for example, in Doksum, East Bhutan (see. Fig. 39). He has built at least 10819 bridges, many of which are attributed special qualities. For example, there is a legend involving Cung Riwoche Chakzam cited above. The exceptional nature of Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges is also relected in the adjective associated with them, namely Rinchen Chakzam (“Precious Bridge”). As for the inconsistencies, the dates ascribed to the completion of the bridge are mutually exclusive. If, as described by Wangchuk, Chak-Sam Wangpo “was associate fellow-disciple of the 1st Dalai Lama”, who lived from 1391 to 1474, the bridge could not have been built “in the early 17th century”. The 1st Dalai Lama was a contemporary of Thangtong Fig. 37: Remains of abutments at Doksum. (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 38: Remains of a right bank abutment, bridge gate and retaining wall at Doksum. (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 39: Two caves used by Thangtong Gyalpo during the construction of Doksum Chakzam. (Photograph: author, 2007) Fig. 39 Fig. 40 Fig. 40: Chakzam on Tawangchu, just below Chasam Village. (Photograph: author, 2009) JCCS-a 8/2015 29 Marek Kalmus Remarks on selected bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo 20 Connections between Thangtong Gyalpo and Dalai Lamas’ line of transmission seem to ind their expression in many facts. For example, the Great 5th Dalai Lama had a vision in which Thangtong Gyalpo appeared and gave him some teachings; the current, 14th Dalai Lama keeps a statue of Thangtong Gyalpo by his bedside. Fig. 41 Fig. 42 Gyalpo. The possibility that Thangtong Gyalpo as Sakya tradition follower had relations of some sort with Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelugpa school and with Gedun Drup, Tsonghapa’s disciple and the future 1st Dalai Lama, may not be ruled out.20 As for the bridge itself, it has a span some 30 to 35 meters long (see Fig. 40). At both gate structures chains of different length are anchored in wooden cradles (see Fig. 41). Its features are characteristic of Thangtong Gyalpo, and in particular, of his bridges in Bhutan. Chain links seem to be attributable to him, insofar as their shape, structure and patina are concerned (see Fig. 42). The author examined them himself while visiting that place in early December of 2009. Just under the eaves of the left bank bridge gate there is a sheet of slate with a painted engraving showing Thangtong Gyalpo (Fig. 43). Both gates have in their walls facing the river phallic stones imbedded on both sides of their entrances. According to the popular Bhutanese belief, a phallus wards off evil spirits. It ought to be mentioned here that Thangthog Gyalpo was also recognised as capable of subduing evil spirits and demons. The bridge is currently in excellent condition and is used by local population on a daily basis. On the right bank there is a small gompa near the bridge, devoted to Thangtong Gyalpo (see Fig. 44). And just above Chasam village, there is a cave where, according to the tradition, Thangtong Gyalpo meditated. In view of the above examination, it seems that Fig. 41: Chakzam on Tawangchu as seen from its right bank gate. (Photograph: author, 2009) Fig. 42: Patina covered chains and a bamboo mat covered deck and railing at Chakzam on Tawangchu. (Photograph: author, 2009) Fig. 43: Engraving on a wall of the left bank gate of Chakzam on Tawangchu showing Thangton Gyalpo. (Photograph: author, 2009) Fig. 44: Gompa on the right bank of Tawangchu, dedicated to Thangtong Gyalpo. (Photograph: author, 2009) Fig. 43 30 JCCS-a 8/2015 Fig. 44 the bridge was built by Thangtong Gyalpo during a period when his live and work were centred in and around Eastern Bhutan. Though we know that it was also a geographic area where also his son, Buchung Gyalwa Zangpo of Merak, was building bridges. The preponderance of data seems to indicate that it was the father who was the builder of that bridge. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSIONS 1. PRECIOUSNESS As has already been mentioned before, the most important bridges built by Thangtong Gyalpo were commonly referred to as Rinchen Chakzam, a Precious Iron Bridge. The reason for that was because they were serving routes to major monasteries and other important places of worship thus allowing pilgrims to reach them more easily and safely. 2. THREATS OF MODERNITY Today, Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges face many threats. Economic growth and urbanization is accompanied by the development of new road infrastructures. That and modern construction methods applied indiscriminately threaten the integrity or even the very survival of his bridges. (a) Loss of originality Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges required repair and maintenance. In many cases we know with precision the speciic repair or reconstruction works that were undertaken. Usually, broken or damaged chain links were replaced or fastened together. On rare occasions entire additional chains were added, Anmerkungen zu ausgewählten Brücken von Thangtong Gyalpo recovered from other Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges (e.g. at Doksum in 1968). Sometimes, a lood or earthquake would result in an abutment, retaining wall, pylon or gate being damaged. The 20th century saw the introduction of steel cables, lime mortar, cement, steel rods, and steel mesh. The former were added in some places to strengthen railings, instead of traditional yak leather straps, vegetable ibre ropes or yak wool twines. As for lime mortar or cement, it was used in repairing damaged abutments, pylons or gates, to bond stones that were originally just carefully stacked together and reinforced with wood beams, as in, for example, Puntsoling or Lhatse Chöde (see Figs. 7 or 19), or else at Tawang Chakzam (see Fig. 40). As for steel rods, these were used to replace original iron or wooden wedges securing iron chains against slipping, or else, were added on to stabilize chains that comprise a railing, as in, for example, Tamchog Chakzam (see Fig. 27). As for steel mesh it was used to replace traditional bamboo mats, as in, for example, Tamchog Chakzam (see Fig. 28). The introduction of above-mentioned solutions has, on the one hand, no negative effect on the construction of Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges. Sometimes these can even improve the safety of people crossing the bridge and increase its robustness. On the other hand, some of them, and in particular cement, may not be the best in case of an earthquake. Structures made of stones bonded together are not resistant to strong vibrations, and unlike original Thangtong Gyalpo’s structures, are prone during an earthquake to develop cracks or even break all together. (b) Disappearance It is most unfortunate that in recent decades some Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges disappeared from the face of the earth due to demolition, neglect or destruction. Some were destroyed by loods. Some others fell into disrepair due to neglect as a result of a new bridge being built nearby that provides more safety and comfort (e.g. Lhundrup Xian, Puntsoling, or Chung Riwoche). Doksum Chakzam case Some Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges were dismantled. It is most incomprehensible especially in case of those in Bhutan. The country recognises Buddhism as its oficial religion. Thangtong Gyalpo is considered a saint there. His bridges are recognised as precious from a religious point of view (the concept of Rinchen Chakzam). Yet Bhutanese authorities took a decision to dismantle Doksum Chakzam to use some of its iron chains in the restoration of Tamchog Chakzam in West Bhutan. This is even more controversial when one considers the fact that the total cost of restoring that bridge would undoubtedly be lower than costs involved in designing and constructing a new one Thamchog Chakzam near Paro, using parts of chains of Doksum. Tshering Jamtsho, an experienced Bhutanese travel agent and a former employee of the Ministry of Tourism, believes that this decision was dictated by the desire to increase the attractiveness of West Bhutan where the vast majority of tourists visiting that country congregate, whereas Doksum located in East Bhutan attracts only a few. Yuena Chakzam and Drikung Qu Chakzam fate The probable destruction befell quite recently two Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges in Drikung Region of Tibet; namely Yuena Rinchen Chakzam and Drikung Marek Kalmus Qu Chakzam. We do not know though whether they were simply allowed to disappear under water as a result of a large dam being built downstream or were dismantled prior to that. 3. PROPOSED WAY FORWARD In view of the above, it is apparent that there is a need for the systematic documentation, further research, oficial recognition and protection, and professional restoration and preservation. Otherwise we risk losing an important element of the cultural heritage of ancient Tibet and Bhutan, and thus of the world, forever. (a) Systematic documentation Creating an accurate documentation would help save a lot of data the sources for which may disappear forever if more Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges were to be allowed to be damaged, destroyed, or dismantled, or else reconstructed in an unprofessional manner. Reliable documentation would also enable further research and comparative study. For now, of great importance are: the monograph devoted to Thangtong Gyalpo by Manfred Gerner (2007) and the monumental Thangtong Gyalpo biography by Cirus Stearns (2007). One of the appropriate solutions would be to gather all the available data and photographs relating to Thangtong Gyalpo bridges and the like and make them accessible via a special Website (e.g. www. chakzam.org) or via Facebook (e.g. Iron chain bridges in Tibet and Himalayas) which the author is currently planning to launch. (b) Further research Further research on bridges that are attributed to Thangtong Gyalpo or that could possibly be attributed to him is badly needed. Such research ought to cover, not only their characteristics and features, including structural elements, but also, Tibetan and Bhutanese iron deposits, sources of iron for chain links. A lot could also be learned from more thorough analyses of chain links’ structures and compositions. It would be useful to have them dated, too. All such measures combined could provide us with certainty, inter alia, in determining the authorship. (c) Oficial recognition and protection It would be advisable to have Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges and the like recognized by governmental and local authorities as important historical monuments, and thus subject them to legal protection they so deserve. In particular, measures should be taken to include the Chung Riwoche bridge, together with the adjacent multi-chapel chorten, in the UNSCO World Heritage List as soon as possible. If successful, such efforts would also improve the attractiveness of the relevant regions for tourists, as it is more than likely that they would be prone to visit places where Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges are to be seen. (d) Professional restoration and preservation The placement of Thangtong Gyalpo’s bridges under the protection of conservators would secure their professional restoration and preservation. It would be worthwhile to bring back from oblivion old blacksmithing and construction techniques to safeguard their authenticity. Thus it would be advisable to train local craftsmen to enable them to bring these bridges back to their original condition, whenever possible or required. JCCS-a 8/2015 31 Marek Kalmus Remarks on selected bridges of Thangtong Gyalpo The validity of such approach is conirmed by experiences gained from similar conservation and restoration projects, undertaken, for example, in Lo Manthang, the capital of Mustang, Northern Nepal. There, original wall paintings, statues and monastery structures are researched, restored and preserved by Luigi Fieni, an Italian expert, assisted by numerous local craftsmen. He has created and runs a program of training and supervising them since 1999. This project is funded by the American Himalayan Foundation. Another great example is provided by several projects carried out by Tibet Heritage Fund, established by André Alexander from Berlin, led by him until his premature death. Such projects resulted in numerous valuable documentations, restorations and preservations. REFERENCES Chan, Victor (1994). Tibet Handbook, Moon Publications. Gerner, Manfred (2007). Chakzampa Thangtong Gyalpo. Architect, Philosopher and Iron Chain Bridge Builder, translated from German by Gregor Verhufen, Thimphu, The Centre for Bhutan Studies. Gyatso, Janet (1979). “The teachings of Thang stong rgyal po”. Tibetan Studies in Honour of Hugh Richardson, By Michael Aris and Aung San Suu Kyi (eds.), Proceedings of the International Seminar on Tibetan Studies, Oxford, pp. 111−119. Kahlen, Wolf (1990). “Tibets Leonardo”. VDI-Nachrichten Magazin 11/90, Düsseldorf, pp. 90−98. Kahlen, Wolf (1992). “Thang stong rgyal po − A Leonardo of Tibet”. Anthropology of Tibet and the Himalayas, eds. Charles Ramble and Martin Brauen, Ethnological Museum of 4. PLEA FROM THE AUTHOR In closing, Thangtong Gyalpo’s works, and in particular, his iron chain bridges are more than deserving our attention and urgently need our protection as part of our common heritage. Otherwise we risk losing them forever. the University of Zurich. Kalmus, Marek (2009). Tybet. Legenda i rzeczywistość, Kraków, Wydawnictwo Bezdroża. Prince Peter of Grece and Denmark, H.R.H. (1961). “The Tibetan Ceremony of Breaking the Stone”, Folk Dansk etnograisk Tidsskrift, 4, pp. 65−70. Stearns, Cirus (2007). King of the Empty Plain. The Tibetan IronBridge Builder Tangtong Gyalpo, Boulder, Colorado Snow Lion. Ura, Karma (2006). The sacred Geography of Sakteng, expanded and translated from Lam Rinchen’s Narration, Manuscript, Timphu. Marek KALMUS PhD in Religious Studies and Researcher of Tibet and Himalayan Cultures; Graduate of Philosophy (Jagiellonian University, Krakow) and Geology (University of Science and Technology, Kraków). The main area of his interest are: sacred art of Tibetan Buddhism, Thangtong Gyalpo heritage as well as healing rituals derived on the border of Himalayan shamanism and Buddhist tantrism. Author of the books, inter alia: Świadomość zwyczajna, Świadomość przebudzona (rnam shes ye shes) (“Ordinary consciousness, awakened consciousness (rnam shes ye shes)”) (1995), Tybet. Wyprawy marzeń (“Tibet. Dream expeditions”) (2007) and monograph Tybet. Legenda i rzeczywistość (“Tibet. Legend and reality”) (2009) as well as numerous scientiic and popular-science articles and theses. Author and curator of several exhibitions of Tibetan Art and photographic exhibitions from Tibet (China) and Tibetan regions (in India, Nepal, Bhutan). Organizer of conferences and seminars (Tibetan Culture, Tibetan Buddhism, Conservation of Tibetan Art). Deeply involved in Chinese Medicine (chairman of Polish Society of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Director of the Institute of Chinese Medicine and Preventive Healthcare, Director of Chinese Medicine Centre). Guest lecturer in Comparative Studies of Civilizations, Far Eastern Studies and Comparative Religious Studies at Jagiellonian University, Krakow. 32 JCCS-a 8/2015 Wangchuk, Pema (2008). A Guide Book of Tawang Darshan. Arunachal Pradesh (India), New Delhi, Himalayan Publishers, pp. 7−8. Vitali, Roberto (1990). Early Temples of Central Tibet, London, Serindia Publications.