Melbourne AABS Abstract Role Reversals in Buddhist Rituals The process whereby Buddhism assimilated the Hindu gods and goddesses has been well documented. This process, however, was not merely one of absorbing these deities into the Buddhist pantheon to act as guardians of the Dharma. There are other layers of interaction with the Hindu divinities that perhaps are not so familiar. In Buddhist rituals involving Hindu divinities there is a recurrent theme of the reversal of the roles played by benign and malignant beings in the Hindu epics. In Buddhist rituals of subjugation evil demons are invoked to subjugate the very same gods and goddesses who the epics record as having conquered them. The theme is developed by reference to the Sanskrit mantras and seed syllables used in rituals of subjugation (chōbukuhō) practised in the Shingon School of Japanese Buddhism. ————— This paper is given in the context of my current project, which is a study of the iconography of Japanese Buddhist images. I have been working on this on and off for many years, and the descriptions of thousands of images of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Mantra Kings, gods, goddesses, and so on and so on has been compiled, and a dossier of photos and drawings of the various forms has been completed. The dossier runs to about fifteen hundred pages of text and about two thousand illustrations. Whereas I have given detailed analyses of the meanings of the implements held by the images, their mudrās, āsanas, thrones and vehicles, robes, adornments, number of faces, hands and legs, whether wrathful or benign, etc., it has slowly dawned on me that a concentration on the image taken as an isolated object — a sculpture or a painted form — only conveys a partial aspect of the total meanings associated with the image. The image is the focus of ritual, and its meanings are only fully understood when seen in the context of ritual practices. [This is especially true of the ritualistic schools of Buddhism, such as the Tendai and the Shingon, but also applies with the images found in the exoteric schools, even those that are considered to be non-ritualistic, such as the Jōdo-shin and Zen. Every image, whether of esoteric or exoteric Buddhism, has associated rituals.] The figure does not simply stand or sit there to inspire good thoughts or to remind the viewer of certain Buddhist doctrines. It is the focus of rituals of offerings, of sutra recitations, etc. In the esoteric schools, the Shingon (Tōmitsu) and Tendai (Taimitsu), the performance of ritual is the paramount practice. As I have already indicated, unless the scholar gives some indication of how an image fits into the context of ritual practice, only part of the story is told. Looking at iconography in this context, the first thing to notice is that in the Mahāyāna, and more particularly in the Esoteric Schools, the anthropomorphic image is not the only way of conveying the meanings associated with a particular form. This is codified in the Shingon School, the Japanese form of Tantrism. The meanings associated with a particular Buddha, Bodhisattva, Mantra King, god, goddess or whatever are conveyed not only by the anthropomorphic image but by a number of other means, which all come into play in the ritual associated with the form. Foremost among these is the dhāraṇī (darani) or mantra (myō) used in the ritual as an invocation of the form. The importance of these in Esoteric Buddhism is indicated by the fact that the term shingon, for which the Tōmitsu Japanese esoteric sect is named, means ‘true word’, which is a synonym for dhāraṇī or mantra. In fact the Shingon School is alternately known as the Darani-shu, and the Mantara-shu. It is the school that specialises in dhāraṇīs. I must emphasise at this point that dhāraṇīs are not meaningless, as has been suggested by some scholars who should know better. There is a very large literature devoted to untangling the meanings they convey. The dhāraṇī of a particular divinity is condensed into or encapsulated within a seed syllable (shuji, bīja), a syllable comprising a number of the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet. Typical examples are hūṃ, phaṭ, khaṁ, and so on. Here again, these are not meaningless, but can be ‘unpacked’ to reveal their meanings by following rules relating to the visual characteristics of their written forms and the component sounds they bring together. The accompanying tables indicate the starting point in these researches. [See Slides 15, 16, 17.] Each letter of the Sanskrit alphabet has a specific meaning, which combines with the meanings of the other letters making up the seed syllable to give complex layers of significance. Once again, there is a very large literature on the meanings of seed syllables. For example, Kōbō Daishi (Kūkai), the founder of the Shingon School in Japan, wrote a whole volume on the meaning of the syllable hūṃ, the Unjigi (‘The Meaning of the Syllable Hūṁ’). Another way in which the image is represented in rituals is by mudrā, the making of signs with the hands. It is important to distinguish the mudrās made by images and those made by the ritualist at the same time as he utters the dhāraṇī associated with a particular figure. The mudrā and the shingon form a closely interconnected pair, known together as an ingon (‘seal and word’). The mudrās made by the ritualist do not necessarily coincide with the forms of hand gesture made by the iconographic image, and they have meanings that are closely associated with the seed syllable and the dhāraṇī. Whereas books such as that of Dale Saunders (Mudrā) have studied the former in some depth, little has been done on the latter. Another way in which the meanings of a figure are conveyed is by what is termed its samaya form. The Sanskrit word samaya (Jap. sammaya) means ‘a coming together, and agreement’ and refers to a symbol that represents a divinity and ‘brings together’ what the particular form means. It is an implement or weapon that expresses the Original Vow (hongan) and other qualities of a divinity. Here again, there is a compendious literature on this subject. Even images, that is sculptures and paintings, carry different meanings depending on whether they are coloured or uncoloured. Whereas coloured images are intended to indicate the manner in which the figure forms part of an inter-merging of the world of the dharmas and the Dharma Body of the supreme Buddha, Dainichi Nyorai (Mahāvairocana Tathāgata), uncoloured images are depictions of the actions of the form in the world of sentient beings, The former are called Mandalas of the Elements (dai-mandara, dhavata-maṇḍala) and the latter are Action Mandalas (kamma-mandara, karma-maṇḍala). The point that I wish to make is that the meaning of a divinity is only partially conveyed by any of these means of representation taken in isolation. The image, the Shingon, the mudrā, the seed syllable and the samaya form a mutually inter-reflecting and mutually reinforcing network, each adding another aspect of the total meaning of the representation. They are strands that interweave to convey meaning, and in this connection it is to be remembered that the Sanskrit word tantra, which gives Tantric Buddhism its name, is etymologically related to ‘weaving’. It is to be noted in passing that one of the main meditational practices in Shingon Buddhism involves visualizing the seed syllable of the divinity, then transforming it into the samaya form, which in turn is changed into the Action Mandala, which finally changes into the Mandala of the Elements, the iconographic image in full colour. In summary, it is my contention that the iconography of a figure cannot be fully understood except in its ritual setting, and this involves a study of the mudrā and dhāraṇī, that is, its ingon, the seed syllable and the samaya form. This study is what currently fills my days. What I have said up to this point is in the manner of a prolegomenon to what follows. In studying the dhāraṇīs of the hundreds of figures that make up the Buddhist pantheon, certain patterns start to emerge, patterns that at some stage I would like to elaborate in a publication. For one thing, there are noticeable characteristics associated with the figures that act as the honzon, the focus of the ritual, in the six types of ritual, which are named on the powerpoint. [See Table 2]. Given time restraints, I am only here going to look at the dhāraṇīs used in one type of ritual, namely, the Ritual of Subjugation (chōbuku, abhicāraka), in which the ritualist calls upon the five great Mantra Kings (myō-ō, vidyarāja) to subjugate malignant enemy demons. [See Slide 2] I quote some relevant material from my book, The Matrix and Diamond World Mandala in Shingon Buddhism: The Shimangikōshō says, ‘Chōbuku means to subjugate and render powerless the force of evil and the actions of the passions’. The Junteigi says, ‘The ritual of subjugation should be performed to awaken compassion in beings who disregard the (Hell of the) Five Non-Intervals, who revile the Vaipulyas and the Mahāyāna, who destroy the Buddha Nature, disobey the ruler, and corrupt the Right Dharma’. The performance of this ritual calls into play extremely powerful forces, which if not correctly controlled, can be dangerous and destructive, adding to the evils they are intended to subdue. The texts caution that it should only be performed from motives of compassion, when the ritualist has attained the siddhis, and when the emergency that prompts the use of the ritual is of grave importance, as when some great evil predominates, when the destruction of the three Jewels is imminent, or when it is desired to stop the arising or spread of evil. It should always be followed by a performance of the ritual for the prevention of calamities, so that any destructive forces unwittingly released will be cancelled. The ritual calls upon the services of the five Myō-ō, the Mantra Kings, namely, Fudō (Acalanatha), Gōzanze (Trailokyavijaya), Gundari (Kuṇḍalī ), Daiitoku (Yamāntaka) and Kongōyasha (Vajrayakṣa). To demonstrate my thesis I will only cite the dhāraṇī of one of these, namely Gōzanze Myō-ō, but my point could equally be made by reference to the mantras associated with any of the other four Mantra Kings. The name of this Myō-ō, Gōzanze, means ‘Victory in the Three Worlds’ the ‘three worlds’ being the three poisons of greed, anger and ignorance (tonjinchi-no-sandoku). The larger mantra of Gōzanze is: (I won’t read it, because it might work, and I’m not a siddhi.) ‘Oṁ sumbha nisumbha hūṁ grihnā grihnā paya hūṁ ānaya ho bhagavāṁ vajra hūṁ phaṭ.’ [Om, Sumbha Nisumbha (the names of ashuras) /hūṁ/ grihnā, seize paya, leave, get rid of /hūṁ/ ānaya, catch, come /ho/ bhagavāṁ, Bhagavat /vajra, diamond/ hūṁ phaṭ.] ‘Oṁ, Sumbha and Nisumbha, seize! seize! go! seize and come! O diamond Bhagavat, hūṁ, phaṭ.’ The smaller mantra is, ‘Oṁ Nisumbha vajra huṁ huṁ phaṭ’. That is, ‘Oṁ Nisumbha diamond huṁ huṁ phat’. By means of these shingons the performer of the ritual is invoking not a member of the Buddhist pantheon, but two particularly malignant Titan (Asura) brothers, Sumbha and Nisumbha. The story, told in the Purāṇas, is of one of the great battles between the titans and the gods, in which Umā or Parvatī, the consort of Śiva, took on the form of Kāli (‘Black One), also known as Kāli Ma (Black Mother). When she engaged in combat with the brothers she smote them with her weapons, but from every drop of their blood that fell on the ground sprang a thousand warriors as powerful as they. Kāli, going into a frenzy, drank all the blood of her adversaries. Having thus conquered them she began to dance with joy so wildly that the earth shook. Terrified, the gods begged her husband, Śiva, to make her stop. He confronted her and begged her to stop her dance, but in her sacred madness she did not even see him, but cast him down among the dead and danced upon his body. When at last she came to her senses she was deeply ashamed and repentant. [Slides 4-11] Images of Gōzanze show him trampling on the prone figures of Maheśvara, that is Śiva, and Umā, his consort, she who turns into Kāli in the Hindu myth. [Slides 12-14, 18] The standard iconographical descriptions say that here Śiva represents the hindrance of the passions and is therefore pressed down forcefully, whereas Umā represents the lesser hindrance of mundane knowledge, and the foot therefore rests lightly upon her. Now what I find interesting in this is that the performer of the ritual calls upon the very forces of evil that are so dramatically defeated by Kāli in the Hindu myth. Not only that, but Gōzanze is identified with the two evil brothers, to the extent that Sumbha (Sōba) and Nisumbha (Nisōba) are two of his names, or else the names are combined and he is known as Sōba-nisōba Myō-ō (Sumbha-nisumbha Vidyarāja). Thus it is that when the performer of the ritual invokes Sumbha Nisumbha he is calling upon Gōzanze. With another name, Gōzanze has become identified with the very forces of evil he is called upon to crush in the ritual. What conclusions, if any, can be drawn from this reversal of roles. It would, I would suggest, require some revision of our notions concerning the assimilation of the Hindu gods and goddesses into the Buddhist pantheon. The generally accepted version of this story is that the Buddha or Bodhisattva overcomes the Hindu deity and compels him or her to become a protector of the Dharma. In the case of the five Myō-ō, however, the story is more complicated. The Hindu deities are not simply defeated by the superior strength of a Buddhist opponent, but are defeated by the very forces of evil that they had battled against. This is hardly ‘assimilation’ but rather the reversal of everything conveyed by the Hindu myths. mudrā (Jap. in) ‘seal’, a ritual hand gesture āsanam (Jap. za, 座) seating posture dhāraṇī (Jap. darani) ritual invocation (in Sanskrit) vidyarāja (Jap. myō-ō) Mantra King Shingon ‘True Word’ = dhāranī bīja (Jap. shuji ) seed syllable hūṁ, phaṭ, khaṁ (Jap. un, hatta, kan) Unjigi (‘The Meaning of the Syllable Hūṁ’), by Kōbō Daishi (Kūkai) ingon ‘seal and word’ = mudrā + dhāraṇī samaya (Jap. sammaya) ‘coming together, agreement’ hongan original vow Mahāvairocana Tathāgata (Jap. Dainichi Nyorai) ‘Great Sun’ Buddha Mandala of the Elements (dhavata-maṇḍala, dai-mandara) Action Mandala (karma-maṇḍala, kamma-mandara) The six types of ritual (rokushuhō): ritual of subjugation (abhicāraka, chōbuku-hō) ritual for preventing calamities (śāntika, Jap. sokusai-hō) ritual for increasing prosperity (pāuṣṭika, Jap. zōyaku-hō) ritual of hook-summons (kōchō-hō) ritual of reverence and love (vaśikarana, Jap. keiai-hō) ritual for the prolongation of life (emmei-hō) Five Great Mantra Kings (godai-myō-ō): Acalanātha Vidyarāja (Fudō Myō-ō), ‘Immovable’ Trailokyavijaya Vidyarāja (Gōzanze Myō-ō), ‘Victory in the Three Worlds’ Kuṇḍalī Vidyarāja, Gundari Myō-ō, ‘Water Pot’ Yamāntaka Vidyarāja (Daiitoku Myō-ō), ‘Killer of Yama’ Vajrayakṣa Vidyarāja (Kongōyasha Myō-ō), ‘Diamond Demon’  Oṁ sumbha nisumbha hūṁ grihnā grihnā paya hūṁ ānaya ho bhagavāṁ vajra hūṁ phaṭ. [Oṁ, take refuge Sumbha Nisumbha (the names of two ashuras)/ hūṁ: destroy grihnā ghrinā: seize, seize paya: leave, get rid of hūṁ: destroy ānaya: catch, come ho: crush bhagavāṁ: Bhagavat vajra: diamond hūṁ phaṭ: destroy and strike Oṁ, Sumbha and Nisumbha, seize! seize! go! seize and come! O diamond Bhagavat, hūṁ, phaṭ. ————— Oṁ Nisumbha vajra huṁ huṁ phaṭ’ Oṁ Nisumbha diamond huṁ huṁ phaṭ ————— Sumbha-nisumbha Vidyarāja (Sōba-nisōba Myō-ō)  PAGE 1