ASIA II MB00/ • ! CORNELL UNIVERSITY* LIBRARY Date Due r >Sf{JviV e RftPP -Af v^r- tjy J > )9 -&h—2 A j£ **'lr *7 i !! in ^_ fc-£r Pg&diJBii'* Cornell University Library NB 1001.K92 South-indian images of gods and goddesse 3 1924 022 943 447 AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF MADRAS GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS. IN INDIA. Barraud & Co. (Late A. J. Combridge & Co.)> Madras. R. Cambrav & Co., Calcutta. E. M. Gopalakrishna Kone, Pudumantapam, Madura. Higginbothams (Ltd.), Mount Road, Madras. V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Esplanade, Madras. G. C. Loganatham Brothers, Madras. A. G. S. Murthv & G. A. Co., Madras. Natesan & Co., Madras. The Superintendent, Nazair Kanun Hind Press, Allahabad. P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras. D. B. Taraporevala Sons Thacker & & Co., Bombay. Co. (Ltd.), Bombay. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta. S. Vas & Co., Madras. S.P.C.K. Press, Madras. IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. Blackwell, 50 and 51, Broad Street, Oxford. Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C. Deighton, Bell & Co. (Ltd.), Cambridge. T. Fisher Unwin (Ltd.), j, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W. B. H. \ Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. (Ltd.), 68— 74, iCarter Lane, London, E.C. and 25, Museum Street, London, W.C. Henry S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, London, E.C. X P. S. King & Son, 2 and 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W.Luzac & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. B. Quaritch, 11, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, London, W. W. Thacker & Co.^f*Cre<d Lane, London, E.O? Oliver and Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh. *' • E. Ponsonby (Ltd.), 116, Grafton Street, Dublin. ON THE CONTINENT. Ernest Leroux, 28, Rue Bonaparte, Paris. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES OF GODS AND GODDESSES [PRICE, 5 rupees 8 annas.] [8 shillings 3 •pence.'] The Tanjore temple. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES OF GODS AND GODDESSES BY H. KRISHNA SASTRI, b.a., Rao Saheb, Assistant Archceological Superintendent for Epigraphy-, Southern Circle. Published under the authority of the Government of Madras. MADRAS GOVERNMENT PRESS. 1916. M */. ' , 1 ! ' " 'f. / 1; V] ,^ y.r s v. ,/ * i \> AGE, TH by His IS little book owes its origin to a suggestion made Excellency Lord Carmichael, when he was Governor of Madras in the year 19 12. He felt that, while there was a multitude of books dealing with Hindu religion and incidentally with Hindu iconography, there was no popular handbook which would give information about the images one commonly sees in temples or museums in Southern India, and that it would be a The distinctly useful thing to supply that want. Madras Government entrusted the task to me, presumably because my official duties bring me very often to visit the various temples in the Province and to study and classify the images found therein. When I accepted the task, I was not fully aware of In the first place, the difficulties that lay before me. there were very few printed books, in Sanskrit or in translations, that gave the orthodox description and And when significance of the images set up in temples. managed to collate notes from a few old manuscripts I treating of this subject, it was almost impossible in several instances to reconcile the discrepancies which they showed or even to understand the technical terms which abounded in them. In some cases, the description of a particular image found in the local chronicles or Sthala-Purdnas could not be traced in the I am not altogether sanguine that I Agamas. have steered clear of these difficulties and succeeded in presenting a clear and readable account to the average reader. PREFACE vi My information in compiling this chief source of book has been an excellent work entitled " Tattvanidhi," published by the SrI-Venkatesvara Steam Press at Bombay, and compiled by His Highness the Maharaja Mummadi Krishnaraja Vodeyar Bahadur of Mysore. A short bibliography of other Sanskrit works consulted by me is given at page xv. Among me the in this task, Marshall, Kt., many my who have friends special thanks are c.i.e., m.a., litt.d., f.s.a., kindly helped due to Sir J. H. Director-General and his assistant Mr. V. Natesa Aiyar, b.a., for extracts from ancient manuscripts on the subject of Indian iconography to Mr. A. H. Longhurst, Archaeological Superintendent, Southern Circle, for the numerous illustrations without which the book would be almost unintelligible and to Mr. C. S. Anantarama of Archaeology, Simla, ; ; Aiyar, the Under Secretary to the Government of much valuable criticism which has been of great assistance to me. My thanks are also due to Mr. T. Fisher, Superintendent, Government Press, Madras, Madras, for his many kind suggestions about the get-up of the book and a practical arrangement of the numerous for illustrations. OOTACAMUND, April igi6. ist H. KRISHNA SASTRI. — — ; TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. PAGES Temples and images, the Agamas and subject of Silpa-Sastras origin of ; stone temples in the Pallava period (page if.)— Their development in the Chola period (2) Signs to distinguish a Saiva temple from a — Vaishnava temple festivals (31".) followed in temples temples of village-deities (7) ritual generally ; — Ritual in CHAPTER annual ; 1—9 II. BRAHMA. Not worshipped as the chief deity in a temple description (10) —Various forms ; ; his illustrations CHAPTER images and general 10—-16 (n) III. VISHNU. — — His general description (17) Incarnations (22) Boar incarnation and the reverence paid to it by the early South-Indian kings (22f.) Manlion incarnation Rama and its varieties (24!.) —Dwarf — incarnation (3of.) incarnation (35f.)— Krishna incarnation and varieties (37L.) Buddha and Kalki incarnations (47)^— Anantasayin, Padmanabha or Ranganatha (5of.) Jalasayana, Vaikuntha-Narayana, LakshmiNarayana, Garuda-Narayana and Yogesvara- Vishnu (S2f.) The 24 general forms of Vishnu ; Panduranga, Hayagriva and Venkatesa (55f.)— Pradyumna or Manmatha, Vishvaksena and Garuda (62f.) Hanuman (64f.) Sudarsana(66f.) Saligram a stones (7of.) ... — — — CHAPTER IV. SIVA. His temples and their non-sectarian nature its significance, description in a Siva temple ; and varieties ; liuga, (72f.) symbol of — Subsidiary importance attached to his sportive forms Siva images (74f.) and varieties; Panchadehamurti and Maha-Sadasiva (76f.)--Nataraja and his several dancing postures (77f.)— The Chidambaram temple ; its history (88f.) Dakshinamurti and his various forms (89X)— Lingodbhava (93f.)— Mohinl (97f )— Kankalamlirti (103)— KalyanaBhikshatana and Somaskanda and allied forms (i07f.) (i03f.) sundaramurti The general foim.Rudramurti ; its . — description 17 — 71 —— TABLE OF CONTENTS viii — — — Chandrasekharamurti (U4f.) Ardhanari Vrisharudha (I I3f.) Harihara (125) Gajahamurti (i25f.) Gangadhara (l2gf.) — Kalaharamurti (i32f.) Nilakantha (I37f.) Tripurantakamurti (I20f.) — — — — — Kiratarjunamurti (141 — Chandesanugrahamurti Sarabhamurti (147/.) — Pasupatamurti, Rakshoghnamurti, (I40f.) f.) murti, Bhairava and Mahakala and forms, various his (l43f ) AghoraKalagni- — Virabhadra and his various forms (iSSf.) — Kshetrapala (iS9f.) — Chandesa, Nandisa, Bhringlsa and Jvaradeva (i6if.) Ganapati and his various forms his popularity (i65f.) — Skanda and Rudra (l48f.) ; his different forms ; the antiquity of his worship CHAPTER ( 1 77 f.) ., ... , 72 — 183 V. SAKTI-GODDESSES. — Their significance (184) Their division into three classes and their worship on chakras, yuntras and pithas (185) Sarasvati and her Lakshmi and her different forms (i87f.) different forms (iS5f.) — — The eight energies of Vishnu personified (189) of Gauri or Parvati (190) —The — General description — Saptamatrikas (igof.) Sakti goddesses holding Vaishnavite symbols Chainunda, Durga, Mahishasura: mardini and Maha-Lakshmi (196— 211) — Kalaratrl, Bhairavl, Vajraprastarini, Sura, Surapriya, Svasthavesini, Satruvidhvamsini, Dhumravati, Ugra-Tara, Sulini, Bhiitamata and Sivaduti Bala-Tripurasundari, Saubhag- Trikantakidevi, Pratyangira, SJtaladevi, (2iif.) Tvarita, Tripura- SrividyadevI, Pranasakti, —Jyeshtha-Lakshml (2i6f.) — yabhuvanesvari, Annaptirna, Gayatri, Savitri and Sarasvati, TuiajaBhavani, Rajamatangl, Laghusyamala, \'aruni, Ivurukulla and — Vindhyavasini t2l8f.) Lalita, Tripurasundari and Rajarajesvari; their worship on Bala-yantra and Sri-chakra (220f.) ... ... 184 CHAPTER — 222 VI. VILLAGE DEITIES. Their origin traceable to Tantrik goddesses ; names of a few of them (223f.) — Their worship and worshippers (226) Ceremonies peculiar to temples of village deities ; Draupadi temples a.n&iaragam (226f.) — Sati-worship — and the fire-walking ceremony (229) Village gods Hero-worship; devil-dances Aiyanar and Karuppannasami (229f.) — : 223—234 ( 2 34) CHAPTER VII. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES. The nine Planets (235) (235f.)--The — The Sun Moon and ; his description and the Surya-yantra — The Dikpalakas Yama, Nairrita, Varuna, Vayu and Kubera (24if.) The Nagas (248L) The demi-gods Yakshas, Vidyadharas, etc., and Dvarapalas (25 if.)— Saints and sages (254^)— The three religious Saiva and Vaishnava saints (259^) Jaina imao-es reformers Pedestals, postures, symbols, weapons and jewellery of (262f.) the other Planets (239f.) : — Indra, Agni, — ; — images (265^) : — 235—272 OF ILLUSTRATIONS. LIST The Tanjore temple. Gopura, Naxasimha temple Mangalagiri Back view of central shrine, Siva temple Gangaikonda Frontispiece. Fig. 1. 2. ..... ; ; 4- solapuram Mannargudi Haridranadi tank Processional images (metal) Madura S- Lamp 6. Brahma 3- 7- 9. lo. II. 12. 1314. IS16. i7- 18. ; Tiruvadi ..... ; Vishnu (Ashtabhuja) Conjeeveram Vishnu Bellary Paramesvaramangalam Do. Vishnu and his consorts Ariyambakkam Boar incarnation of Vishnu Seven Pagodas Narasimha bursting forth from the pillar Ahobalam do. Ugra-Narasimha Madras Museum (metal) Do. 25- 26. 27. 28. 29. 3°3 1 - 32. 33. . ; ; ; ; ; ; Yoga-Narasimha 24. 9 12 13 14 ; Trivikrama 2 3- . Brahma and Sarasvati Kandiyur Brahma on swan vehicle Chidambaram 19- 21. Uttattur ; .... Kumbakonam Do. Do. 20. 22. 8 ; and /#/a-utensils Seven Pagodas patterns 5 6 ; ; ; Tirupati Hill .... Kumbakonam Do. Vamana Namakkal Rama and group (metal) Ramesvaram . ; Krishna tied to a mortar Penukonda Butter-dance of Bala-Krishna (metal) Madras Museum do. Serpent-dance of Kaliya-Krishna (metal) ; ; do. Venu-Gopala Madana-Gopala Little Conjeeveram Govardhana-Krishna Seven Pagodas Krishna on the punnai-tree (wood) Kumbakonam Parthasarathi teaching Bkagavad-Gitdto Arjuna Pushpa. ; ; .... gin Anantasayin; Seven Pagodas Vaikuntha-Narayana Namakkal ; 18 19 20 21 23 25 27 28 29 Seven Pagodas ; 16 ; 31 33 34 36 39 40 42 44 45 46 48 ; 49 Si S3 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 77. 78. 79- 80. 81. 82. 83- Ardhanari Tanjore Do. Tiruchchengodu Do. Dharasuram Do. Tiruvadi Sankaranarayana Namakkal Gajahamurti Dharasuram Do. Tirutturaippundi . ; . ; ; 87. Gangadhara Gangaikondasolapuram Do. (metal) Vaidlsvarankoyil Gangadhara Tanjore Do. Trichinopoly 88. KalaharamOrti 84. 8S86. 89. XI ; ; ; ; Do. Pattisvaram Chandragiri . Chidambaram 90. Tripurantakamurti 91. Kiratarjunamurti 92. 104. Do. Chidambaram Chandesanugrahamurti Gangaikondasolapuram Sarabhamurti Dharasuram Pasupatamurti Chidambaram Aghoramurti Pattisvaram Bhairava do. Kala-Bhairava Durgi Kalagni-Rudra (?) do. Virabhadra throwing the head of Daksha into the Tanjore Virabhadra Mudikondam Kshetrapala Tiruvarangulam Chandesa Tiruvottiyur Nandisa and his consort (metal) Valuvur 105. Bhringi 106. Jvaradeva Bhavani Ganapati standing Lepakshi (metal) Pattisvaram Do. 93- 94. 95- 96. 9798. 99. too. IOI. 102. 103. 107. 108. 109. no. in. 112. ; Pushpagiri ; . . ; ; .... .... ...... .... .... ..... .... .... . ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Srisailam ; ; ; seated Siyamangalam Do. dancing Gangaikondasolapuram Do. Maha-Ganapati Madura Heramba-Ganapati (metal) Negapatam ; ; ; ; . 116. Skanda Tiruvottiyur (Shadanana) Madura Do. Skanda and his consorts Samayapuram fighting with giants Chidambaram Do. 117. Sarasvati 118. SamSnya-Lakshmi "3114. "5- fire . ; . ; ; ; ; Bagali ; Seven Pagodas . ... ; . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XII PAGE Fig. 119. T20. 121. 122. I23. I24. I2 5 . Parvati; Bolumampatti 191 Do. Paramesvaramangalam Do. in penance I92 . Pattisvaram ; 193 The Seven Mothers Tanjore Chamunda (Mahakali) Tiruchchengodu 195 ; ; Durga Do. Do. Do. Seven Pagodas ; I98 ... . do. 200 20I 130. Srimushnam Dharasuram Durga- Lakshml Tirumalisai Mahishasuramardini Gangaikondasolapuram Do. Dharasuram 203 204 2°5 207 208 132. Do. Durgi Durga-Mahishasuratnardim Seven-Pagodas 209 2IO !33- Pratyangira 134- Do. 126. I27. 128. I29. r 3S- 136. 137138. J 39 ; ; ; ; Jyeshtha 214 Tiruchchengodu (metal) (?) 2I 5 Tiruppalatturai ; 217 Tiruvellavayil ; Saubhagyabhuvanesvari Dharasuram Rajarajesvan Ramesvaram 219 ; 221 ; Mutyalamma Avani Group of images in 225 ; Draupadi-amman temple the ; Kumbakonam 140. Aiyanar (metal) 228 ; Do. Do. 141. 142. Tiruppalatturai Valuvur . 231 . 232 . Ramesvaram Kumbakonam 2 33 2 37 H3- Surya 144. 238 145- Chidambaram Rahu and Ketu Chidambaram 146. Indra do. 242 147. Agni do. 244 148. Yama do. 149. Nairrita 150. 152. Varuna Vayu Kubera r l5 l - ; Do. 240 ; 2 Ahobalam Lepakshi 247 do. 249 do. 250' Chidambaram Ramesvaram 53- Adisesha 154- Kinnari iS5156. Dvarapala Do. 157- Narada 158. Agastya 159- Gaulisvara (Gaudapada ; ; ; vottiyur 45 246 ; 252 2 Tiruvottiyur Dharasuram Chidambaram S3 2 SS 256 2 S7 . do. 258 ?) and Sankaracharya Tiru- 260 — LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii PAGE Garuda (l>) Vedanta-Desika (c) Vishvaksena (d) Ramanujacharya (i?) Tirumangai-Alvar Namakkal Manikkavasagar (metal) Tiruvarangulam Karaikkal-Ammai Madura Fig. 160 (metal). (a) ; ; ; „ 161. „ 162. Plate I. „' II. „ III. IV. ..... ; ; Pedestals, postures, etc. do. do. do. .... .... .... .... . ; Do. Do. Do. ; . . . . . 261 263 264 269 270 .271 272 SANSKRIT BOOKS CONSULTED. Mayamata. Manasara. Chaturvargachintaroani (Hemadri). Brihatsamhita (Varahamihira). Kasyapa-Silpa (from the Bhanumat or Amsumat-'rantra). Brahmiya-Silpa. Silparatna. Silpasangraha. Silpasara. Tattvanidhi (with numerous quotations ; printed at the Sri- Venkatesvara Steam Press, Bombay). Sabdakalpadruma (the Encyclopaedia of Sanskrit Raja Radhakanta Deo printed in Calcutta). ; Bhaa;avata-Purana. Literature by SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES OF GODS AND GODDESSES CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. I Almost every village of any importance in Southern India its temple, round which centres in a very large measure the corporate civic life of the community which lives in it. -The casual visitor is at once attracted by the temple and has when he goes there he sees various images in all sorts of incongruous postures and is generally puzzled to know what they mean or what they represent, and how they serve to evoke the religious feelings of the people worshipping them. An attempt will be made in the succeeding pages to describe and classify them in various groups so as to make them more intelligible to the ordinary visitor. Elaborate rules have been laid down in the ancient Agamas and Silpa-Sastras as to the place where temples are to be built, the kinds of images to be installed there, the materials with which such images are to be fashioned, and even the dimensions and proportions of various kinds of images, to vary which will result in untold calamity to the maker and the worshipper alike. The curious reader may, for example, refer to Sukranitisdra (Chapter IV, Section IV, 1 verses 130 et seq.). II Temples must have existed in this part of the country from time immemorial. But the earliest inscriptional evidence of the existence of temples takes us back only to the age of the Pallava kings, which is supposed to be between the fourth ' Pages 166 to 1S2 of Vol. XHI of the " Sacred Books of the East " series, published by the Panini Press, Allahabad. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES The more ancient temples were probably made of wood and other such perishable material, as we find to this day in parts of Malabar. Perhaps the Pallavas were among the very first in Southern India to build temples of durable material. In fact one of the most famous of these Pallava kings, Mahendravarman I, who reigned about the beginning of the seventh century A.D., was known by the title Chetthakari, i.e., the maker of chaityas or temples." The earliest Pallava monuments so far discovered are those of Mahabalipuram or the Seven Pagodas- They consist of solid rathas cut out of a single rock and of temples scooped out of the living boulder. The form of these rathas and temples served perhaps as models to the later temples in cut stone, such as those of the Shore Temple there, the Kailasanatha and Vaikuntha-Perumal temples at Conjeeveram, and other Pallava temples elsewhere. HI The Pallavas were succeeded by the Chola kings, who are greatest temple-builders of Southern India. About 90 per cent of the temples now found were erected in their" time. They are generally dedicated either to Siva or Vishnu, and in their simplest form consist of a cell called the Garbha-griha, the central shrine, surmounted by a spire or dome, with a hall in front, called Mukha-mandapa and a narrow passage or vestibule connecting the two, called the Ardha-mandapa, which is open on two sides to permit of the priestly worshippers circumambulating the central shrine. In the Mukha-mandapa or just outside it will be placed the image of the deity's chief vehicle, the Nandibull in Siva temples and the Garuda-bird in Vishnu temples. This is generally the limit up to which the non-Brahman classes are allowed to come. Round and outside of these are the Maha-mandapa, the big hall, and other pavilions in which on special occasions processional images of the deity justly entitled to be regarded as the — are placed there will be 1 and worshipped. Next after the Maha-mandapa two raised platforms, one behind the other, on one The Buddhist stupas at Amaravatl and other villages in the Guntur district, Sankaram in the Vizagapatam district, and the caverns with rock-cut beds in the Madura and Tinnevelly districts are certainly much older but cannot n any sense be called temples. Some of these last may, however, have been used as temples in a much later period either by Buddhists or by Jainas. = Simultaneously with Mahendravarman I, in the Pallava dominions rockthe stupa at cut temples appear to have come into existence (Kongu) countries under the patronage of in the Pandya and the Chera their respective sovereigns. INTRODUCTORY which 3 planted the flagstaff or dhvaja-stambha, made of or metal, and on the other is offered what is called the Sribali, when sacrificial cooked food and flowers are offered to the minor divinities or powers who have to be appeased in order to ward off all evil and to prevent disturbance to the ordinary conduct of the daily worship. It is only up to this limit that foreigners are allowed to enter the temples by the orthodox Hindu. of stone, is wood In temples of any importance there for the goddess, but generally will be a separate shrine on a smaller scale than that of the chief deity. There are separate places for the kitchen where the offerings are prepared with scrupulous regard to ceremonial purity there are storehouses where the articles required for a year's consumption in the temple are stored; and there is generally a fresh water well which is often the best source of drinking water in the village. The whole group of buildings is surrounded by high prakara walls, whose gateways are surmounted by the characteristic towers (figs. I and In some cases 2) which lend distinction to a temple city. there will be outside the temple a big pleasure tank (fig. 3), generally square in size, built round with stone steps on all sides, and with a central mandapa, where once a year the god and goddess are taken in procession for the floating festival. ; IV The outer walls and the lofty flagstaff will easily show to the sight-seer whether the temple is dedicated to a Saiva divinity or to a Vaishnava god. In the former there will be seen images of the Nandi-bull in a recumbent posture, while the' latter will show similar images of the Garuda-bird. Temples other, than those of Siva and Vishnu are not uncommon and can easily be identified by similar marks of the characteristic vehicle of the god. Vishnu temples may also show the symbols of the conch and the discus and the caste mark (nam am) of the Vaishnavas painted on the walls. V The ritual followed every day in the temples of Siva and Vishnu may be generally described as rajopachara, or the paying of royal honours. Thus in rich temples there will be elephants and camels with their appropriate paraphernalia, the royal umbrellas and chauris mounted on gold or silver handles, palanquins and other vehicles, a troupe of dancers and musicians, a host of other temple servants to wash the god, anoint him with sandal or decorate him with flowers and I-A SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. i. — Gofiura, Narasimha temple ; Mangala<nri. INTRODUCTORY o SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES INTRODUCTORY 7 so on. Crowns and other rich and costly jewellery, set with gems and pearls (fig. 4), and often presented by Rajas and Chieftains or other rich devotees, are a special pride of the wealthier tsmples. The Brahmana priest is to purify himself by bath and prayers early morning, and then open the doors of the sanctum and gently wake up the god, who is supposed to be sleeping, by chanting appropriate hymns in his praise. Then, after duly worshipping the guardian deities, he washes the feet of the chief deity, bathes the image, clothes it properly, decorates it with the usual jewellery, sandal and flowers, waving incense and lamps of diverse pattern (fig. 5) in front of the god and finally offering him the cooked food or naivedyam and the final betel leaf and nut. At stated intervals the god comes out in procession and perhaps sees to the comfort of his attendant deities. Usually there is an important annual festival, representing in some cases the marriage of the god or some other special event in the doings of the god registered in local chronicles or Puranas. On such occasions the procession is carried on different vehicles, both common and special, the latter being such as the kalpa-vriksha, the wish-giving celestial tree or the kamadhenu, the wish-giving The most celestial cow, or the mythic animal gandabherunda. important procession will generally be the car festival when the god goes round in the huge car through the main streets where his worshippers live and receives worship and offerings at their very homes. VI In the temples dedicated to the village deities the cereBrahmanas however rarely is not much different. officiate and animal sacrifices are generally offered, especially when the village is threatened with an epidemic or with Vedic incantations are not serious scarcity or famine. monial littered in these temples. With this now proceed brief general description of the temple, we can to study the various images which are found represented in them. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 4. — Processional images (metal) ; Madura.. INTRODUCTORY ID T3 C a. a. S 5 J o s ; CHAPTER II. BRAHMA. from Brahman, the all-pervading Eternal of the Hindu Triad. His principal function is creation. Independent shrines dedicated to him are rather rare. Still, figures of this god are commonly found decorating one of the niches in the north wall of the central shrine in a Siva temple. Images of Brahma may sometimes also be seen on pillars, ceilings or other parts of a temple but the one point that deserves to be noted is that though 1 often pictured the god is not worshipped as the chief deity members of the Triad, Vishnu in a temple, like the two other Brahma, distinct Spirit, is the first member Brahma- and Siva. According Mdnasara, one of the standard works on images sculpture, ; general type, to Brahma is represented with four heads. He has, however, only one body and four hands. The image may be standing or seated and made of metal or of stone. The palm of the left lower hand exhibits the posture of conferring boons (varada) while the right lower indicates protection fabhaya). The corresponding upper hands hold the water-pot (kaman- and the rosary (akshamdld) or sometimes the sacrificial and spoon (sruva). The following ornaments are dalu) ladle (srik) seen in a finished picture of Brahma : — (i) pendants fashioned like the face of a crocodile ; ear-rings (2) or the sacred thread yajnasiitra hanging right across the body from above the left shoulder; (3) the scarf (uttariya) thrown round the neck so as to stretch down to the knees (4) the udarabandhana z or literally, a girdle going round the belly; (5) necklace and torque (6) armlets, arm-rings, wristlets, anklets, waist-zone, finger-rings set with gems, etc. His hair is made ; ; 1 receive According to the Brahmavaivarta- Parana he was cursed by MohinI not to any worship ; see also below, p. 93. In the Telugu and Canarese we occasionally find temples dedicated to Traipurusha, i.e., the three gods Brahma, Vishitu and Siva. Curiously enough the place of Brahma is here occupied by Surya, the Sun-god; see Babu Nagendra Natha Vasu's Mayurabhanja, From the Nrisimkaprasada quoted in Tattvanidhi we learn that one p. xxiv. variety of Brahma is of the form of Sun-god. districts set 3 In the Tanjore inscriptions this ornament is mentioned as made of gold and with gems; see, e.g., South-Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, p. 189. 1 BRAHMA . 1 up in the fashion known as jata-makuta and he is attended by the two goddesses * SarasvatT (on the right) and Savitrl (on the left). Another representation shows .Brahma riding on a chariot Various drawn by seven swans (hamsa 2). His right lower hand rests forms on the palm of the left lower, the two other hands holding the usual rosary and the water-pot. He is seated on a full blown " with his eyes closed in a meditative posture. Savitrl is seated on his left thigh. 3 There are various other representations of Brahma drawn purely from the imagination of the sculptor or painter and sometimes also based on Purdnic legends. But the mainpoints which distinguish Brahma from the other gods are the same in all. Hemadri mentions some forms of Brahma such as Prajapati, Visvakarma, 4 Lokapala and Dharma. It may be noted that the swan vehicle and the goddesses are rarely, if at all, found in the figures of Brahma generally set up in South-Indian temples. An old picture of Brahma from Seven Pagodas (fig. 6) and a later one from Kumbakonam (fig. 7) illustrate the standing posture described above. In the latter the left lower hand rests freely on the waist of the god and does not show the posture of conferring boons. The sitting attitude of Brahma surmounted by a parasol and chauris the symbols of supreme power is beautifully illustrated by a picture from Tiruvadi near Tanjore (fig. 8). Another figure, which is unfortunately mutilated, shows the same position, but includes the standing figure of SarasvatT on the right side of Brahma (fig. 9). It is noticeable that in this figure the right upper hand of Brahma An image is made to hold a lotus instead of the usual rosary. from Chidambaram (fig. 10) shows Brahma on his swan vehicle folding two of his hands in a worshipping posture and holding the rosary and water-pot in the other two. lotus-flower, The goddess — — Kor a description of these goddesses, see below, pp. 185 f. and 218, note 3. also the two goddesses, the ghee-pot on the left and the Vedas in front, together with a number of attendant sages engaged in meditation 2 The conventional bird hamsa is represented in Hindu sculpture with a high neck, a crest (stufii) on its head, white body, red feet and a beak of golden yellow. 3 Brahma with Savitri on his left side, is called Prajapati-Brahma. He has only one face and no swan vehicle. 4 Visvakarma has ten hands and holds the characteristic symbols of the three gods Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesvara. One of his symbols mentioned in the Silpasara is the mana-datida, ' measuring rod.' He rides on an elephant and has 1 The Kaiiki-Purana mentions his body besmeared with all the three gods, is ashes. the Sun. objects of his desire to sage Atri. Another such god, who partakes of the nature of Still He is Dattatreya who granted the represented as a wandering mendicant another is with ashes rubbed over his body and followed by the four Vedas in the form of four dogs. Dattatreya is considered to be a form of Vishnu. illustrations 12 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 6. — Brahma ; Seven Pagodas. BRAHMA KjG. 7. —Brahma f Kupibakonam. 13 14 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 8.— Brahma; Tiruvadi. BRAHMA Fig, 9. — Brahma and Sarasvati 15 ; Kandiyur. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 16 Fig. io. — Brahma on swan vehicle ; Chidambaram. CHAPTER III. VISHNU. I the second member of the Hindu Triad- His principal function is that of the protector of the universe. He is worshipped in South-Indian temples in various forms and under various names. The general description of Vishnu without reference to any of his particular incarnations is given Vishnu is — He has four arms and two eyes, Manasara as follows wears a high crown and a yellow scarf on his breast is the auspicious mark Srivatsa he holds the discus and the conch in his upper arms and the club and the sword (or lotus) in the lower and wears the garland (vanamala) of flowers, reaching down to the knees. In some cases the lower arms exhibit the in the : ; ; A and the boon-conferring postures (fig. il). prominent nose, broad eyes and smiling countenance are other features of Vishnu. The goddesses Sri or Lakshmi (wealth) and Mahi or PrithvT (Earth) are usually represented on his 2 The discus is generally right and left sides respectively. conch in the left; but this held in the right hand and the image found in the an case of in the reversed arrangement is 1 protecting Bellary district (fig. 12). According to the Kdsyapa-Silpa the left lower hand of Vishnu may, without showing the varada or boon-conferring posture, rest on his waist freely (fig. 13) and the goddesses need not always be represented with him. Figures of Vishnu may be seen standing, seated receive different names in their different symbols, viz., the discus and Vaishnava postures; but the the auspicious mark Srivatsa and vanamala garland the conch, always remain the distinguishing features of Vishnu. Fig. 14 or reclining. They 5 This figure shows, however, four more hands holding a bow and arrow and a sword and shield. The Pancharalra2 For a description of these goddesses, see below, p. 187. gatna mentions also the goddess Niladevi and describes her as seated with few hands in two of which she holds lotus flowers. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 18 FIG. II. — Vishnu (Ashtabhuja) ; Conjeeveram. VISHNU Fig. 12. 2-A —Vishnu 19 ; Beiiary. 20 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 13.— Vishnu; Paramesvaramangalaw. VISHNU 21 . SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 22 from Ariyambakkam in the Chingleput district illustrates the sitting form of Vishnu with the goddesses Sri and Bhu and two kneeling devotees. II His ten incarnations. The more popular forms of Vishnu, worshipped in the temples, generally refer to his numerous avatars or incarnaThere are ten such avatars recognized as of primary tions. importance but of these only five are commonly represented for worship. They are (i) Varaha "the Boar incarnation"; " the Man-lion incarnation " (2) Narasimha (3) Vamana "the Dwarf incarnation," developing eventually into Trivikrama; and (5) Krishna, the (4) Rama, the hero of the Ramayana pastoral -god and the chief actor in the great war of the Mahabhdrata. The other five incarnations of Vishnu, viz., the Fish, the Tortoise, Parasurama, Buddha and Kalki though represented largely on walls, pillars and ceilings of temples being either carved or painted, are not generally worshipped, as the chief deity in a temple. 1 ; ; ; Ill Varaha or Boar incarnation. Varaha, also known as Adivaraha, Dharanlvaraha or Bhuvaraha, is beautifully illustrated by the image in the Varaha-Perumal cave-temple at. Mahabalipuram. Here the boar-faced Vishnu is seen standing with his right foot resting on the hood of the serpent-god Sesha. On the right thigh is 2 seated the godde>s Earth, supported in position by the two lower arms of the god. He wears a high crown and has in his two upper hands the discus (held sideways) and the conch. As these images however have recently been covered with a thin coating of plaster and painted fantastically in variegated colours, it is not possible to say what sculptural peculiarities the original may have exhibited. Fortunately, a panel representing this same War aha- avatar of Vishnu (fig. 15) with attendant deities, is found in another rock-cut mandapi^ at that village and is decidedly a true copy of the sculptures 1 Parasurama, " the a:;e-bearer, Rama" is supposed to be the founder of the it from the encroaching sea. west-coast country, having miraculously reclaimed He is, therefore, often Siva temples with the owe worshipped in Malabar name Parasuramesvara in special shrines dedicated to him. are common and these are believed their existence to Parasurama. In the Kachchhapesvara temple at Conjeeveram, on a stone set up under a tree, there is a representation of the Tortoise incarnation of Vishnu, worshipping Siva. This is reproduced by Mr. Rea in his Madras Archreological Survey Report for igio-i:, Plate V, fig. i. to 2 on the The Brakmiya-Silpa side of Varaha. states that Lakshmi (i.e. Sri) is also to be depicted VISHNU 2j — SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 24 the shrine of the Varaha-Perumal cave-temple. The scene depicts the primeval Boar rescuing from the depths of the ocean the goddess Earth, who had been kidnapped thither by the demon Hiranyaksha, an enemy of the gods. Sesha, on whose wide-spread hoods the earth is generally supposed to rest, is also represented as rising from the ocean along with the Boar-god. He is folding his hands in the attitude of worship. The devas worshipping the god from above, the sages on the right, and Brahma and Siva on the left indicate the joy felt by the entire universe on this occasion. This representation exactly follows the description given by Hemadri in his Chaturvarga-Chintdmani. The hand with the discus is sometimes also shown as raised in the act of killing Hiranyaksha. The god may be represented as smiling after having killed Hiranyaksha and revived him by divine grace. Figures of the Man-boar in meditation or of a full Boar digging the earth in the midst of many demons, are also sometimes represented. In the pictures of Lingodbhava (Siva) noted in the sequel, is seen the full Boar form of Vishnu digging the earth. Temples dedicated to the Boar-incarnation of Vishnu are not many. This incarnation was a particular favourite of the Western Chalukya kings in the early centuries of the Christian era. fine sculpture of Varaha carrying the goddess Earth is found in the Chalukyan rock-cut temple at Badami {bid. Ant., Vol. VI, p. 354). 1 In later times, too, the Kakatiyas, the Reddis of Kondavldu and the Hindu sovereigns of Vijayanagara, paid particular reverence to Varaha, adopting the boar as their royal crest. At Snmushnam in the South Arcot district is a beautiful big temple dedicated to this god and so also is another at Tiruvadandai near Mahabalipuram in the Chingleput di&trict. found in A IV Narasimha or the Man-lion incarnation. Narasimha or Nrisimha, the Man-lion is more popular Varaha. A large number of families in the south, Brahman and non-Brahman, own him as their tutelary deity. than In Tamil, the name is corrupted into Singa (Sanskrit Simha) or Singa-Perumal, and in the other vernaculars into Narasa (a contraction of Narasimha). The story of this incarnation of Vishnu is briefly as follows : and Hiranyakasipu were two demon naturally hostile to Vishnu. Hiranyaksha was killed Hiranyaksha brothers, 1 See also Visvakarma, Part VI, No. 99. VISHNU Fig. 16. — Narasimha bursting forth from the pillar - f Ahobalain, — SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 26 by Vishnu in his Varaha-avatar. Hiranyakasipu then became eternal war with Vishnu. His young son, Prahlada, however, became a devoted adherent of Vishnu and was always praising him as the allExasperated with this, pervading lord of the universe. Hiranyakasipu asked the young boy whether his god Vishnu, if he was all-pervasive, could be found in the pillar in front of him and then hacked at it with his sword. The pillar cleft in twain and out burst from it, to the astonishment of Hiranyakasipu, the angry god in the shape of a Man-lion, (fig. 16), who forthwith tore to pieces the impious demon king. UgraThe angry god is called Ugra (the terrible)-Narasimha Narasimha. When, however, his anger subsided at the (figs. 17 and 18). earnest prayers of Prahlada he became serene and in this form he is known as Lakshmi-Narasimha. Yoga-Narasimha (fig. 19) LakshmiNarasi.mha is another form in which the god is seen squatting in a YOGANarasimha. meditative mood. Simhachalam in the Vizagapatam district, Ahobalam in the Kurnool district and Namakkal 1 in the Trichinopoly district may be mentioned among the places sacred to Narasimha. The usual Vaishnava symbols, sankha (conch) and chakra (discus), are seen in the two upper hands the king of the demons and vowed ; image of Narasimha in all his forms. The monolithic Ugra-Narasimha found in the ruins of Vijayanagara was there established by king Krishnaraya in A.D. 1528. It may be noted that here the god, though called Ugra-Narasimha, is of the not represented, as may be expected, in the posture of splitting open the bowels of the demon Hiranyakasipu. Hemadri states that Narasimha must be represented with muscular shoulders, a stout neck and a slender waist. Half man and half lion, his face must be fiery and so also the mane round it. Standing with his right foot bent forward he splits with his sharp nails the breast of the tyrant Hiranyakasipu, who, as the wise men say, is an embodiment of ignorance. The Pancharatrdgama thus describes the form of Narasimha suited for meditation " (Terrible) like flaming fire, he has a lion-face with a human body, furious fangs, a protruding tongue, an open mouth, a thick mane and muscular chest. He stands in the alidha posture in an angry mood and splits the breast of the giant, thrown flat upon his thigh, with the sharp nails of both his hands. In his two other hands he holds the symbols of the club and the discus." The Mayamata, while. giving almost (alidha) : is 1 A detailed description of the images in the rock-cut temples at Namakkal given in the Madras Epigraphical Report for 1906, Part II, pp. 75 and 76. VISHNU Fig 17. — Ugra-Narasimha ; Ah6balam, 57 28 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 18.— Ugra-Narasimha (metal) ; Madras Museum. VISHNU Fig. 19. —Yoga-Narasimha 29 ; Tiiupati Hill. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 30 same description of him, states that the cruel form of Narasimha is installed on mountain-tops, caves, forests or the enemy's territory when the enemy has to be destroyed; when installed, however, in villages and towns he has four hands, two of which wear the conch and the discus. the V VAMANAor the Dwarf incarrauon. Vamana or the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu is wor- shipped in its ultimate manifestation, under the Sanskrit name Trivikrama or the Tamil IJlagalanda-Perumal. The former means " the god who took three strides " and the latter " the lord who measured the universe (with three strides)." The story is that a powerful demon king named Bali, the great-grandson of Hiranyakasipu mentioned above, conquered the three worlds and ruled them, in spite of his birth, in charity Indra, the chief of gcds, was thus superjustice. Vishnu as the avowed destroyer of the demons (danavas) and the upholder of the gods had to restore Indra Vishnu could not go to war against to his legitimate position. So he went in the guise of a Bali, as he was a virtuous king. Dwarf Brahmana, a student of the Vedas (brahmacharin), and begged of Bali for three feet of land on which he could sit and meditate on Brahman undisturbed. The generous Bali granted the request. But what was his astonishment when he saw the cunning god grow to a height transcending the world, take in at one step the whole earth, covering the sky Tiuvikrama. with the next, and demanding of Bali to show him room for the third. True to his promise, Bali offered his own head, on which the god placed his foot and sent him down to the and with seded. lower regions. Greatly pleased with the king's nobility and firmness of character, Vishnu is still supposed to be guarding as his servant the palace of Bali in the world below. There are not many temples dedicated to this god. At Tirukkoyilur in the South Arcot district is a celebrated shrine Another one is the Ulagalanda-Perumal of Trivikrama. temple at Kanchl. In the Varaha-m andapa at Mahabalithe Varaha-avatdr opposite to puram, on the panel 1 described above, is a fine representation of Trivikrama (fig. on arm Here the god has eight hands. The foremost 20). the right side is artistically made to support the lintel, while the remaining three hold the discus, club and the sword. Of the arms on the left side two hold the bow and the shield; 1 There is jalso a pane] in Trivikrania with more details. the rock cut temple at Namakka 1 , representing , VISHNU 31 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 32 the third has the conch and the fourth is pointed towards Brahma seated on the lotus. This Brahma has four hands and four faces (?). He reverently touches with one of his hands the toe of the uplifted leg of Trivikrama and with another touches the finger of the god pointed towards him. On the corresponding right side of Trivikrama is found apparently The Sun and Moon, with circles Siva, also on a lotus-seat. perhaps to distinguish their heads, of light behind their in the air half way down flying seen are functions, respective the high face of the god. Two other heavenly beings, one of which is on a level with the head of Trivikrama and has a horse-face, 1 are also flying in the air. The seated figures at the foot of Trivikrama are apparently Bali and his retinue who are struck with amazement at the sudden transformation of the stunted In the Vamana into the all-pervading Trivikrama. Ramasvamin temple at Kumbakonam is a sculptured on which the story of the Vamana-avatar is well represented. The lower section shows Bali and his wife granting boons to Brahmanas. In the upper section is the god Trivikrama under a floral arch. His right foot is placed in the two open palms of the Earth- On his right is the image On the left of the Dwarf. His vehicle Garuda is behind him. side are evidently Bali and his wife standing. This description of Trivikrama exactly coincides with what has been given above, except that the hand supporting the lintel in the Mahabalipuram panel is here shown as offering protection. Tumburu is also seen above on the floral arch, flying in the air. The exact form of Vamana, prior to his manifestation as Trivikrama, is, according to Hemadri, that of a fat young student of the Vedas with crooked joints, holding a staff in his hand and wearing on his back the skin of a black buck (krishnajina) (fig. 22). Representations of Vamana figures 8 with water-pot in one hand and an umbrella in the other on demarcation stones of fields granted in charity, were quite common even down to the end of the nineteenth century. This auspicious figure evidently denoted fortune and was appropriately connected with boundary stones and the measurement of land. A festival in honour of Bali is still observed by the people of Mysore on the first day after the ~D\Qa.va\\-Amavdsya. In Malabar people connect Bali with pillar (fig. 21) Evidently Tumburu with drum in hand, leading the hosts of gods. Mr. Venkayya takes the same figure in the Namakkal lock-cut temples to be Jambavat; see Madras Epigraphical Report for 1906, p. 76. ' 2 This is the description of Vamana as given in the Panchara/ragama, VISHNU Fig. 21. —Trivikraraa ; 33 Kumbakonam. 34 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES .tain.. Fig. 22. — Vamana ; NamaUkal. — VISHNU 35 harvest festival, the Onam, in which they worship a clay figure of this high-minded emperor. It is supposed that the king is permitted by Vishnu to visit every year the fair earth over which he once ruled and to satisfy himself that the people are quite as happy and glad as in his their national time. VI We now come to the avatar of Ramabhadra, the hero Rama, Ramachandra or Rama incar Ramdyana, which nation, of the beautiful epic in its various aspects has permeated the life of the Indian people and moulded their character to a great extent. Rama was the eldest son of Dasaratha, the king of Ayodhya (Oudh). As such, his images do not, like those of the avatars so far described, avatars which were sudden outbursts of divine energy exhibit either the four arms of the gods or the distinguishing Vaishnavite symbols of conch, discus, club and Human in form, but god in essence, Rama is always lotus. represented as a royal personage of bewitching beauty, welj developed in body, having broad eyes, long arms, curly tresses, ornaments and auspicious marks that indicate high birth and noble character. Paintings of Rama's life are numerous and cover the whole period of his history from his birth to his passing away bodily from this world into the depths of the Sarayu river. In many South-Indian temples may be observed scenes from the Ramdyana, either painted on the walls or cut into panels, forming continuous belts round the central shrine or the prdkdra wall. 1 When represented as the consecrated deity within a temple, Rama is generally seen to be a standing figure with his queen Sita on the left and his faithful brother Lakshmana on the right. He and his brother hold bows and arrows. The bow is called kodanda and so Rama with the bow is sometimes known as Kodanda-Rama'. In the accompanying illustration of metallic images from Ramesvaram (fig. 23) the positions of Sita and Lakshmana are interchanged and the arrows and quivers are missing. The two images at either extreme represent their faithful servant Hanuman (see below p. 64). As stated in the Silpasangraha, the figures of Rama are distinguished as independent and dependent. In the former case he stands alone and has four arms, two of which hold the bow and the arrow and the other two, the conch and the discus. In the latter he has two arms and may be accompanied by his three brothers, his queen — in the 1 For example, in the Hazara-Ramasvamin temple at Hampi Ramasvamin temple at Kumbakonam and in the Tennapuram temple at Chandra; ; giri, Chittoor district. 3-a 36 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES ! VISHNU 37 Sita, the monkey hosts and the Rakshasa chiefs headed by Vibhishana. Rama with Sita on his side is generally contemplated upon as seated in the aerial car Pushpaka in the virasana posture within a golden pavilion and underneath the celestial In his front stands Hanuman reading, explaining the mystery of philosophy to the crowds of sages who gather round him along with his royal brothers Bharata, Lakshmana and Satrughna. tree (kalpa-vriksha). while Rama is 1 VII Krishna the next avatar of Vishnu 2 which is highly vener- Krishna atedby the Hindus. The Bhagavata-Pwrawa which describes incarna in detail the early life of Krishna in Brindavana (Brindaban) has provided more material for iconology than his subsequent career as the moving spirit of the Mahdbhdrata-war, the author of the " Divine Song " Bhagavad-Gitd or the benevolent chief of Dvaraka (Dwarka, Baroda). Three stages in the life of Krishna have been marked out to be the most prominent. As a baby, not yet weaned from his mother's breast, he is represented in the arms of YasOda. This form of Krishna receives the name Santana-Gopala. santanaAlso as a baby divine, identified with Supreme Vishnu, Gopala. he is sometimes pictured as lying on a banyan-leaf (Vatapa- Vatapatratrasayin) sucking the toe of his leg held by the hand. These sAyin pictures of the baby-god are commonly seen in paintings. Krishna is also represented as a winsome boy, full of fun and frolic and fond of thieving milk and butter from the neighbouring cottages of cowherds living at Brindavana. It is said that on one occasion YasOda punished him by tying him up to a mortar. The child then ran along, dragging the mortar behind him but in trying to pass between two tall and stout trees standing close together, the heavy mortar was caught between and felled them down when lo is - ; ; Rama is perhaps to Rama is stated be traced to the fact that in the work to have given lessons in philosophy The story of the Ramayana as described by to his family priest Vasishtha. the poet Valmiki, is said to be referred to in the Mantra of the Rig-Veda, beginning with the words bhadro bhadraya, etc. The explanatory comment (nirukta) is, however, not included in Yaska's Nirukta. The historical development of Rama and Krishna cults have been fully dealt with by Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar in his Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc. 2 The verse which is usually quoted -in connexion with the ten avatars of 1 This conception of called Vasishtharamayana, Vishnu, mentions Balarama or Haladhara " the bearer of the plough,"as the incarnawhich came next after the epic hero Rama. Krishna, the younger brother of tion Balarama, being, however, considered to be Vishnu himself, receives divine honours The famous temple at Puri-Jagannath contains figures of Balarama and Krishna with their sister Subhadra standing between them. in preference to Balarama. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 38 the trees assumed the shape of the two sons of Kubera, the god of riches, who being cursed by the sage Narada to assume the shape of trees had been waiting long to be thus restored by the Lord Krishna to their original form. The first part of this is represented in fig. 24. In South India pictures of Krishna with a pot of butter under his left arm and eating out of a ball of it placed in the palm of his right hand are not uncommon. On either 1 side of him are represented shepherd girls of Brindavana. incident This form of Krishna, though very often meditated upon and sung about even in nursery rhymes, is rarely worshipped as Bala. Krishna. the chief figure in temples— a famous exception to this being Udipi in the South Canara district, where a big temple, richly endowed, is maintained for the worship of the god BalaKrishna. 2 In the Madras Museum are two metallic images of dancing Krishna, one of which holds in its right hand a ball peacock's feather stuck into the tuft of of butter 3 (fig. 25). A hair knotted overhead is, along with the other golden jewellery peculiar to children, a special feature of Krishna as a boy. Gold and silver images of this form of Krishna in miniature are among the set of idols worshipped daily in an orthodox Vaishnavism in its various forms prevailing throughout India praises the child form of Krishna in the sweetest of strains with an overflow of devotion peculiar to that creed alone. Another story of the boy Krishna is represented in his dance on the head of a serpent named Kaliya (the black). Kaliya was hiding in a pond in the Yamuna river and making the whole neighbourhood poisonous to all living beings. One day the cattle tended by Krishna and his companions strayed into this region and were thereby poisoned. Krishna then plunged into the pond and holding the viper by the tail Brahmana's house. KaliyaKrishna. 1 The name given referred to. is Santana-Gopala, already described as a young playful baby to this figure in the Silparatna Krishna under this designation is decorated with the jewels of children, holding fresh butter in his hand and surrounded by Go/j-women. He wears also a necklace with a pair of tiger's claws decorating it. A variety of this same Krishna is sometimes represented to be riding on a chariot and to have four arms sankha and chakra. 2 A.D., Krishnaraya, the well in two of which are seen the Vaishnava symbols known Vijayanagara king of the sixteenth century stated to have installed in the Krishnasvamin temple near Hampi, an image of Bala-Krishna which he had brought as a trophy from Udayagiri (Nellore is have given many ornaments and villages to it. refers to the dance of Krishna called Navantta-nritla " the butter-dance " in which the god bends his legs and dances stretching out one district) 3 and to The Brakmiya-Silpa of his arms. VISHNU 39 o a SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 40 Fig. 25.— Butter-dance of Bala-Krishna (metal) ; Madras M 11st um VISHNU 41 one hand began to dance heavily on his raised hoods. The demon writhed under the pressure of the god's tiny feet, in vomiting blood profusely from each of his several mouths, and was completely exhausted and overcome. Then at last the serpent Kaliya recognized the Lord and took himself away to a remote island in the far-off sea. The esoteric sense is clear. The serpent represents the embodiment of that is vile and wicked in this world the dance of Krishna represents the fight with evil and its final conquest by the of this all ; Divine Spirit. Kaliya-Krishna is found only as a decorative figure in temples but not as the object of worship in the central shrine. As in the case of Bala-Krishna, miniature figures of Kaliya-Krishna are often found among the images of worship in a Brahmana's house. A copper idol representing this sport of Krishna was discovered some years ago among the treasure trove found at Kattu-Edayaru in the South Arcot district (fig. 26). The figure has two hands, a jewelled crown and the usual ornaments. Being a copper image it may be inferred that the idol was used only for processions in the temple to which it originally belonged. According to the Silpasara the right foot of Kalingamardana Kaliya-Krishna) is slightly bent and the left raised up. Of the two arms the left is stretched out in the abhaya posture and the right holds the tail of the serpent. The figure is fully decorated with ornaments and is dark in colour. The illustration from Kattu-Edayaru shows the same features except that the positions of the right and left legs are interchanged. (i.e., The and the most divine sport of Krishna is his dance on the sand-banks of the Jumna in the company of the damsels of Brindavana. The inspired poet third moonlight Lllasuka, describing this dance, says that " there, in the circle of dancers (filled with love for Krishna) was seen between damsel and damsel a Madhava (Krishna) and between Madhava and Madhava a damsel and in the centre of the group again, was the son of Devaki playing upon his flute," thereby indicating in poetic language the mystic significance Of the many Gdpl (cow-herd) girls thus in of the dance. attendance on Krishna in his early life in Brindavana the most beloved was Radha, so much so that Radha-Krishna is KadjiaKrishna the name by which he is addressed by the most ecstatic of the zealous Vaishnava cult. Images of the flute-playing Krishna generally called VenuGopALA Venu-G5pala (Muralidhara) without, however, the circle of dancers, are largely worshipped in temples. He stands on his left leg with the right bent across and resting on the toe, ; - SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 42 Kig. 26.— Serpent-dance of Kaliya-Krishna (metal) ; Madras Museum. VISHNU 43 flute. When the figure is intended for worship in temples the two upper hands will hold the conch and the discus and there will usually also be the images of his two consorts Rukmini and Satya on either side (fig. 27). 1 In the hundred-pillared mandapa of the Varadarajasvamin temple at Little Conjeeveram is a figure of the flute-playing Krishna with ten arms (fig. ,28). The Pancharatrdgama calls this form of Krishna by the name Madana-Gopala. In paintings Madana. Venu-Gopala is often represented as leaning against a cow, G ° PALA and plays upon the - with one foot bent crosswise and resting on the toe. Cows and cow-herds are also often shown gathering round him. The dance with Gopls, with which the flute-playing Krishna is intimately connected, is found only in drawings. The esoteric sense of this flute-play and the dance is the supreme joy which the devotees experience in moments of. overflowing love in the presence of the object of their devotion. Another well-known sport of Krishna during his boyhood Gov ar. was the lifting up of the hill called Govardhana. He is said to ^^na have held the hill aloft so as to give shelter to the cow-herds of Brindavana from a continuous down-pour of rain sent down by Indra in anger in order to flood their small village. A beautiful old representation of this scene comes from' the Seven Pagodas (fig. 29) where, in the so-called Krishnamandapa, Krishna stands in the centre with his left hand raised straight up to support the hill, while his right hand is held in the posture of offering boons (varada). 2 All round the god are seen cows and cow-herds, men and women, the latter carrying pots of milk, butter, curds or other cooked offerings to the god, and leading their young ones by the hand or accompanying their husbands. The ornaments of Krishna in They are the usual" large earrings peculiar to the sculpture of the Pallava period, bracelets, armlets and the waist-band. The high crown on the head is also a noticeable feature. This representation differs, however, from the description given in the Silpasara where the god is described as having one hand with flute resting on his waist and the other supporting the hill. this picture are very sparing. 1 At Turaiyur in the Trichinopoly district the god worshipped in the shrine has only two hands. Hemadri states that the image of Gopala playing on the flute and two arms. is made with the head ornament of peacock feathers, blue body The Silpasangraha adds that he is chiefly found in a standing attitude. = Dr. Vogel ;ays that the central figure of the group is Balarama (Baladeva), the brother of Krishna (Archseological Survey Report for 1910-n, p. 51, note 1). He is seen throwing his left hand round the neck of a cow-herd boy who rests his hands crossed on the head of a long hatchet. 44 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES s mi* a VISHNU Fjg. 28— Madana-Gopala ; 45 Little Conjeeveram. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES VISHNU 47 Again Krishna on the tree is a familiar figure-in paintings GopIvastraand decorative sculptures of temples. The story is related in PAHARAKA the Bhagavata- Purdna how one day Krishna saw the cow-herd girls bathing naked in the Jumna leaving their clothes on the sand banks of the river and how he took away their clothes and got up a tree standing near by. He did not restore the - clothes to the girls they confessed their error in bathing till naked against the teaching of the Sdstras. One of the usual processional vehicles in Vishnu temples is the punnai-tree with the naked Gopis standing round it and begging for the return of their clothes (fig. 30). After leaving Brindavana, Krishna became the clever and partha. astute statesman and warrior of Dvaraka and took an active sarathi. part in the war between Kauravas and Pandavas described in the Mahdbhdrata. He was on the side of the Pandavas he was an intimate friend of Arjuna (or Partha) and even served him as his charioteer on the battle-field. Hence Krishna ; is also known by the name of Parthasarathi, the name of It was on this the god in the famous temple at Triplicane. occasion in the battle-field, when Arjuna was dismayed at the prospect of a bloody war with his relatives, that the divine charioteer Krishna is said to have delivered to Arjuna fine the famous discourse known as the Bhagavad-Gitd. illustration of the scene comes from the Kesavasvamin temple The story runs that Arjuna and at Pushpagiri (fig. 31). Krishna 'were bosom friends in far earlier ages, when under A the names Nara and Narayana they performed penance in are supposed to have Badarikasrama. VIII Two other avatars of Vishnu, viz., Buddha and Kalki may be noticed. The latter is only a prospective incarnation appear as a powerful hero in which the god is to suppress the growing in hand, sword horse-back, riding on wickedness of the Mlechchhas.. The Buddha incarnation of Vishnu is, no doubt, counted among the ten avatars but is Buddha is rarely found worshipped in Hindu temples. expected to 1 1 The Brahmiya-Silfa does not include Buddha in the avatars of Vishnu. mentions Krishna in the place of Buddha. The Mcmasara gives a complete description of the figures of Buddha which it says must be made of white stone, very much like the images of Jina (below, p. 262f.) seated or standing on a lion-pedestal under the pipal or the wish-giving celestial tree, with two hands, ushnisha (crown), a yellow cloth, broad forehead, long ear-lobes, big eyes, high nose, smiling countenance, long arms, broad chest, fleshy limbs and body. When standing, his arms It must be made to hang down loosely. Buddha ? nd Kalki SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 48 2FIG. 30. — Krishna on the punnai-Utit (wood) ; Kumbakonam. VISHNU Fig. 3r.— Parthasarathi teaching' the Bhaqavad-Giia to Arjuna 49 ; Pushpagiri. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 50 regarded by some as an avatar designed to lead the asuras by giving them bad advice. Others like Jayadeva regard him rightly as an incarnation of mercy who came to teach the people the essential cruelty of animal sacrifices. into ruin IX Besides the avatars mentioned above, there are other forms Vishnu which are also often found in South-Indian temples. The most important of such is his reclining form, known by thllvltcirs. Anantasatne names Anantasayin (or Seshasayin), Padmanabha and 1 The temples at Srirangam and Trivandrum Padmanabha Ranganatha. or Rangama y be specially mentioned as the places where this form of Vishnu is worshipped. In Tamil he is known as Palligondan. A good illustration (fig. 32) comes from the old sculptures at Mahabalipuram. In the so-called Mahishasma-mandapa, on the proper right wall of the front verandah is depicted the scene under reference. Here on the coils of the serpent Ananta sleeps on his back a gigantic figure of Vishnu with two arms. The right hand is carelessly thrown on the body of the serpent while the left hand is raised up at the elbow. The god wears a cloth round the waist, which reaches down to the feet. The Giber forms ? f i ^ ? b '}" not of ! usual xidarabandhana is also tied round the lower part of the stomach in the form of a girdle, its ends gracefully hanging down and touching the right side of the serpent couch. The garland round the neck (i.e., the vanamald) has slipped down the right arm of the god, thus emphasizing his sleeping By the side, of the serpent couch, near the feet of posture. Vishnu, is the figure of Lakshmi kneeling down and worshipping him with folded hands. In front of her are two other figures also seated by the side of the serpent couch. These may be the two colleagues of Vishnu, viz., Brahma and Siva, or the attendants Jaya and Vijaya- Above the sleeping god in the air are two flying figures, one a female and the other a fat figure, probably a goblin. Beyond his feet and looking him straight in the face are two stalwart figures standing one in a defiant attitude with a club in his hand and the other dissuading him from what looks apparently like a murderous attack on the god. The Padma-Purdna gives a 1 of The Mayamata five or seven hoods, " he of may be Padmanabha means says that the serpent, the couch of Anantasayana, its the lotus- navel " ; whiLe colour indicating great and we see, in bliss. figures of Anantasayana, the navel of the god sending forth a stock at the end of which is a lotus flower and in it the four-faced Brahma. Ranganatha is " the lord of the ranga, the assembly-hall," It might be noted that in the illustrations of Anantasayana the central is surrounded by all the other gods as if in an assembly-hall. Vishnu figure of VISHNV S 1 a < o 4-A SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 52 description of Vishnu, which comes very near to what has been depicted above- It says " The god of gods sleeps on the serpent. One of his legs lies on the thigh of LakshmT, while He has two the other is placed on the body of the serpent: hands, one of which is stretched along the right thigh and the other is placed over his head- Brahma is comfortably seated on the lotus which springs from the navel of Vishnu. Entangled in the stem of the lotus stand the demons Madhu and Kaitabha. The symbols of the god, viz., the conch, discus, club and lotus are all represented about him, each assuming a similar description is given by Hemadri under the body-" 1 Jalasayana. term JalasayanaGod Vishnu seated comfortably on the serpent couch is A Vaikuntha Narayana. Vaikuntha-Narayana - (fig. 33). The left leg is down and the right is bent at the knee the left hand rests on the knee-joint, while the right hand rests carelessly thrown back on the head of the serpent the two back hands hold the weapons sankha and chakra. The image is decorated with jewels and by its side are his consorts Lakshmi and PrithviLakshmi-Narayana is another of Vishnu's seated forms where, to the left of the god, by his side or sometimes on his thigh, is found seated the image of Lakshmi throwing her right hand round the neck of the god while she holds in her The left hand of Vishnu similarly passes round left a lotusthe waist of Lakshmi. A female deity called Siddhi stands near, with a fly^whisk in her hand. The vehicle Garuda is named stretched ; ; LakshmiNarayana. on the right side at the foot of the god- The sankha and chakra not being held by the god are carried by two dwarf male figures standing in front of him Brahma and Siva also stand by, worshipping Vishnu with folded hands 3 (fig. 34); 1 Vasudeva described by Hemadri as a standing Vishnu figure of four arms, holds in the two upper hands the lotus and the conch and instead of having in the two lower, the weapons chakra (discus) and gada jclub), he places the palms of these hands on the heads of two dwarf figures, one male and one female, holding and looking at the face of the god These dwarf figures are weapons chakra znAgada ; (see Mayurabhanja, fig. l6, on plate facing p. xl). The descriptions given by the same author of Sankarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha other standing forms of Vishnu refer chauris in their hands stated to be the personified — — also tu personified weapons. 2 See the Madras Epigraphical Report for 1906, p. 76. The BrahmiyaSilpa calls this same figure Adimurti and describes him as being attended by gods and rishis in a worshipping attitude. 3 Hemadri. According to the Silpasangraha, Lakshmi-Narayana has four arms in which he displays the conch and the discus and the protecting and the boon-giving postures. Nilagunda (Bellary Mr. Rea portrays a fine picture of Lakshmi-Narayana from on Plate LIU of his Chalukyan Architecture, district) VISHNU illinium I 1 Hi iiu Fig. 53 iiiiiiiiiiii|iiiiiMiniiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiii.Hmiiiii]iii|iiiiiiiiii i m|Mnuii™iiILiin«i[iWHIi I 33.— Vaikuntha-Narayana ; Namakkal. 54 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 34. —Lakshmi-Narayana ; Namakka], VISHNU 55 The Silpasdra mentions an image called Garuda-Narayana Garuda. wherein Vishnu is seen riding on Garuda, holding a bow and NarAyana arrow, conch and discus. An illustration from Chidambaram (fig- 35). which is mutilated, is apparently one of GarudaNarayana. On a pillar in the Ramasvamin temple at Kumbakonam is a fine representation of this form of Vishnu in the attitude of blessing the elephant (gajendra) after rescuing it from the attack of a crocodile- The scene is generally known Gajendra- - as Gajendra-moksha (fig. 36). moksha. Figures of Vishnu, with four arms seated in a meditative yogesvaraposture, are probably those of Yogesvara- Vishnu, described Vishnu. by Hemadri as seated on a lotus, with eyes half-closed and directed towards the tip of the nose. An image (fig. 37) from the ruined Vishnu temple at Huvinahadagalli (Bellary district) illustrates this form. Another image, probably of this same form of Vishnu but seated on the serpent couch, comes from Kumbakonam (figHere the god is bathed by two 38). goddesses with pots in their hands. The twenty-four well-known names of Vishnu repeated by the Brahmanas in their daily prayer known as sandhydvandana, are represented each by a standing figure of the god with four hands holding the four symbols sankha (conch), chakra (discus), gada (club) and padma (lotus), in different combinations. Consequently we may often find in Vishnu temples images named Trivikrama, Vamana, Padmanabha, Narasimha or Krishna represented as plain standing figures of Vishnu, without reference to any of the Purdnic scenes connected with these gods. Four of the above mentioned twentyfour forms, viz., Vasudeva, Sankarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha are sometimes represented by different weapons. Twenty-four general forms Vishnu. The two illustrations in the accompanying plates (figs. 39 and 40) show another form of standing Vishnu, known as panduranga Panduranga or Vithoba. The characteristic feature of the or Vithoba. image is that it has two arms which, being bent at the elbow, A poem in praise of this form of are placed on its hips. Vishnu, entitled Pdndurangdshtaka, is attributed to Sankaracharya of about the eighth century A.D. Hayagrlva is still another form of standing Vishnu, HayagrIva. represented with the head of a horse. Hemadri describes him as having a white complexion, and placing his feet on the hands of the goddess Earth. He has eight hands, in four of which are held the Vaishnavite symbols conch, discus, club and fied. With the others he carries the four Vedas personiThe Pdnchardtrdgama mentions only four hands in lotus. which are seen the conch, rosary, book and the jndna-mudrd. 56 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Kig. 35. — Garuda-Narayana ; Chidambaram. VISHNU FIG. 36.— Garuda-Narayana and Gajendra moksha 57 ; Kumbakonam. 58 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 37. — Yogesvara- Vishnu ; Huvinahadagalli, VISHNU Fig. 38. -Yogesvara- Vishnu (?) 59 ; Kumbakonam. 6o SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 39.- Panduranga ; Tirupati. VISHNU Fig. 40. — Panduranga 61 ; Ahobalam. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 62 Venkatesa or Venkataramana (also called Srinivasa) is a of Vishnu applied to the god on the Tirupati Hill. He is in form like one of the twenty-four images of Vishnu Veotcatesa. name described above. 1 X Pradyumna, 01 Manmatha Pradyumna, which is mentioned among the twenty-four names of Vishnu, occurs in the Sanskrit lexicon Amarakosa as a synonym of the god Kamadeva or Manmatha, who is recognized as a son of Krishna- Vishnu. His consort This god of Love was reduced to ashes by is 'Love' (Rati). Siva. His form that was thus destroyed is still alive but is visible only to Rati. The metaphysical meaning of the story Rati and Manmatha are often found is more or. less clear. S enera ^ among the sculptures in a temple. The latter is represented as a graceful youth of unparalleled elegance. He has eight hands in four of which he holds the conch, lotus, bow and arrow. The four other arms embrace his four beautiful wives called Rati (love), Prlti (pleasure), Sakti (power) and BhedaSakti (jealousy). Kama has five arrows, each arrow being a fragrant flower the crocodile (makara) is his banner. More often he is represented with two hands, riding on a chariot (or a parrot) with his chief queen Rati by his side (fig. 41). Vasanta, the Spring, is his intimate friend and ally. His five arrows are the flowers of lotus, asoka, mango, jasmine, and blue-lily and he shoots them with his graceful bow of sugarcane. Mayamata says that Manmatha's arrows are made of the cruel teeth of women and are called tapani, " the tormentor," dahini " the consumer," sarvamohini " that which completely infatuates," visva-mardini " the all-destroyer " and ; ; XI Vish- vaksena. Vishvaksena, a synonym for Vishnu also found in the lexicon Amarakosa, is recognized as a Vaishnava god who, like Ganesa of the Saivas (described below), is worshipped by the SrI-Vaishnavas, at the beginning of every ceremony in orderto avoid obstacles. He has his face turned towards the south and is a guardian deity in Vishnu temples. In three of his hands he holds the usual Vaishnavite symbols, viz., the conch,' 1 It is i.e., " and perhaps on reasonable grounds, that the image on the a combined form of Vishnu and Siva. The name Vrisha-saila, believed, Tirupati Hill is Bull-hill " applied to the mountain on which the temple of the god. In later times, the hill of the serpent god Sesha " came to be applied to it. also the Saiva nature is name situated, indicates Sesha-saila " the VISHNU Fig. 41.— Rati-Manmatha; Chidambaram. 63 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 64 discus and the club and in the fourth exhibits the threatening finger-pose called tarjani. He is seated with his right leg hanging down from the pedestal and the left bent crosswise and placed on the same [fig. 160 (c), below]. Garuda. Vishnu's vehicle Garuda is installed in every Vaishnavite temple right opposite to the central shrine and is a standing human figure of stone or mortar, with a beak-shaped nose and with spreading wings proceeding from his back on either side. He has his two arms folded over the breast in a worshipping posture (fig. 42). 1 When made into a processional image of metal, Garuda is represented as kneeling on the left knee, the right foot being firmly placed on the ground and a serpent 2 decorating bis head. XII hanuman. Hanuman, the monkey-god, has been already referred to as a great devotee of Vishnu intimately connected with the In Southern India he is very incarnation Rama-avatar. popular, even insignificant villages containing a shrine for Hanuman. He is represented in two postures,. 3 When included in the group of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita, he stands at a distance on one side, or opposite to them, in a humble and devotional attitude, with the two hands folded together, the tail hanging down close 4 to his feet. In shrines exclusively 1 According to the Silparatna, Garuda figures may also be shown with the tw_o hands pointing the abhaya and "the varada postures. Occasionally, Garuda may be made to carry in his right hand a pot of nectar. This is evidently a reference to the story that Garuda while young carried away from Indra the pot of nectar, in order to fulfil his mother's promise to Kadru, the mother of serpents. 2 The Silpasangraha describes a form of Garuda who has fierce protruding teeth and eight arms in six of which he has the conch, discus, club, lotus and the nectar-pot while the others are stretched out to receive the feet of the Lord It is further stated that the eight lords of serpents are worn as jewels (Vishnu). by him, thus showing that Garuda had completely subdued the Nagas. Garuda when represented with four arms is called Vainateya. It may be noted that' the bird Garuda is of Vedic fame, his body being supposed to be completely made up A Vedic sacrifice called Garuda-chayana is performed by offering of the Vedas. oblations to the gods on a platform built in the shape of Garuda. Vishnu is \sometimes known as Yajna-purusha— the personified god of sacrifice'. 3 The Silparatna mentions a third posture in which Hanuman is described as ayogin, teaching philosophy. to a number of pupils who surround him. * See above, fig. 23. Here, at the right end of the picture Hanuman is seen in a submissive attitude while anotherfigure of his at the left end, carries in both hands two Siva.4ingas which Rama had ordered him to bring for establishing al Ramesvaram, on his way back from Lanka. Visvakarma, Part VI, Plate 100, gives a metallic figure of Hanuman from Ceylon, with his hands stretched indicating evidently a mixed feeling of wonder and despair. also out, VISHNU Fig. 42. — Garuda ; 65 Tanjore. 66 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES dedicated to him he is always the heroic Hanuman, who, on seeing his beloved masters Rama and Lakshmana faint with fatigue on the battle field of Lanka, flew in an amazingly short time to the Himalayas and, uprooting a whole hill containing drugs that have power to raise a dead man to life, returned to revive Rama and Lakshmana and with them also the millions of dead monkeys. His heroism, strength and devotion are always admired and the one aim of sculptors in cutting a figure of Hanuman is to give effect to these three special characteristics. No wonder that even the Muhammadans (or, rather Muhammadan converts of later ages) who set high value on physical strength and individual heroism came to appreciate the story of Hanuman and to erect shrines for him. There is inscriptional evidence to prove that in the Ceded districts, where the Muhammadan influence has been very strong, certain classes of Mussalmans are still devoted to this heroic servant of Rama. This must also have been the object of Chiefs in erecting shrines for Hanuman at the gates of their forts, viz., to infuse into the hearts of their fighting men the spirit of loyal attachment to their masters and indomitable heroism. Sometimes Hanuman may also be represented with hands showing the abhaya and the varada postures. XIII Sudarsana. Of the Vaishnava symbols and weapons referred to in the previous paragraphs as being sometimes personified, the discus (chakra) under the name Sudarsana deserves special mention, it being separately worshipped in the Sri- Vaishnava temples under the name Chakra-Perumal (figs. 43 and 44). The Silpasdra describes Sudarsana to be brilliant as fire, with sixteen arms holding the weapons conch, discus, bow, axe, sword, arrow, trident, noose, goad, lotus, thunderbolt, shield, plough, pestle, club and spear. The figure has protruding teeth, fiery hair and three eyes. It is fully decorated and stands in front of a shatkona or hexagon. Dancing thus amidst the flames of the discus, the Sudarsana is supposed to kill all enemies. Sometimes the image may be represented with eight or four arms holding the discus in all of them. Mr. Longhurst has supplied two other photographs (fig. 45) in the first of which Sudarsana appears to be similar in all details to the Tirupati figure No. 43, but has at the back of it an equilateral triangle within which is the seated figure of Nrisimha in the yogdsana attitude (see above, fig. 19) with flames of fire proceeding from hi$ crown. This form of Nrisimha is VISHNU FIG. 43. 5-A — Sudarsana ; 67 Tirupati. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 44. — Sudarsana, back view ; Tirupati, VfSHNU 69 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 70 evidently what is fiery Nrisimha." " the popularly known as Jvala-Nrisimha It may be noted that the famous ChakraKumbakonam is dedicated to the discus temple at Sudarsana of Vishnu. pani XIV Saligrama stones. Apart from the various forms of Vishnu detailed above, every Hindu worships certain formless stones, called Saligrama, as these more satisfactorily answer to the idea of the formless Brahman. The Saligrama stones are generally picked up from the bed of the river Gandaki (in North Bihar) or are made of a particular kind of stone procurable at Dvaraka. The former are perfectly smooth and rounded pebbles and are heavier than ordinary stones. The belief is that within them is found gold or other heavy metal. The Saligrama stones are believed to possess certain mystic and sacred virtues. In the country of Avanti, at the foot of the sacred hill known as Hariparvata, is stated to be a big pond called Chakratlrtha, from which flows the river Gandaki. On rare and auspicious occasions, within this pond, are produced the Saligrama stones, which, after remaining for 1,000 years in water, become the abode of Vishnu, who then assuming the form of a brilliant little insect called vajrakita enters into them and bores a hole with his mouth, forming therein a discus (chakra) of numerous varieties. The stones are of many colours and sizes and are distinguished by these chakras to represent either garbha (blue), (dark-green), Pradyumna Narasimha Vasudeva (white colour), Hiranya(red), Vishnu (black), SrI-Narayana (tawny), or Vamana (deep-blue). Eighty-nine varieties are recognized, each bearing a different name of Vishnu. One well-known test of their suitability for worship consists in placing them in milk or in rice, when, a genuine Saligrama is supposed to increase in size and in weight. strange feature about these stones is that, while they mostly represent the forms of Vishnu, some are stated to be also forms of Siva, Sakti, Surya (Sun), Ganapati and the Planets. The Sali gramas are never fixed on pedestals as the lingas of Siva (see below, p. 72) or as the images of other gods. In many of the South-Indian temples of Vishnu, garlands of Saligrama stones are hung round the necks of images. Saligrama forms the most important object of daily worship in every orthodox Brahmana's house in Southern India. The water poured over it is most holy and like the Ganges water which Brahmanas generally preserve in their homes in sealed vessels, is offered to the dying man in order that A VISHNU 71 his soul may become pure and depart in peace. The gift of Saligrama stones to Brahmanas is considered one of the most meritorious acts and is as highly prized as the presentation of gold itself. Strictly religious people never sell or purchase Saligramas but only acquire them by gift or by transfer. Of the sectarian Vaishnavas of the South, viz., the SriVaishnavas and the Madhvas, the latter show greater respect to the Saligrama stones than even for sculptured images of Vishnu. CHAPTER IV- SIVA. i Siva temples. Siva is the third member of the Hindu Triad and in Southern India is more widely worshipped than Vishnu. Hundreds of Siva temples of historic fame are found in Southern India, round which are centred traditions of Saiva saints whose period may be assigned roughly to the seventh century A.D. One noticeable peculiarity of these ancient Siva temples is that they enshrine within them images of Vishnu as also of various other gods of the Hindu Pantheon, whereas Vishnu temples are exclusive in this respect. Exception must, however, be made in the case of some very old Vishnu temples 1 sung in the hymns of the Nalayiraprabandham which are as ancient as the corresponding Saiva Here we find Siva scriptures collectively called Devdram. and Vishnu often mentioned together as located in the same temple and, in a higher philosophical sense, as forming different aspects of one and the same Divine Energy. II Siva-«»g«. generally worshipped in the form of the phallus (linga) fixed on a pedestal. The phallic cult has been traced to very ancient times, its origin, however, being still involved The worship of the creative energy of God, in mystery. interpreted by the sense-perception of man and represented by the symbols yoni and linga in union, has apparently been as old as man himself. Whatever may be the origin of lingaworship, there is no doubt that it has come to be recognized like the Vaishnavite Saligrama described above, a perfect symbol of the formless, all-pervading Divine Being, unlimited by time and space. The Skfinda.- Purana says: "The sky is the shaft and the earth its pedestal all gods dwell in the linga; Siva is — ; 1 E.g. Tirumala and Kadalmallai. SIVA 73 Since the whole creation finds its origin and rest there, it receives the name linga." 1 In the introduction to his translation of the Vishnu-Purana (p. lxix) Professor H. H. Wilson makes the following remarks on the linga- worship in India : The linga is twofold, external and internal; The ignorant who need a visible sign, worship -Siva through a mark or " ' ' ' type wood ' which or stone is ; the proper meaning of the word linga— of but the wise look upon this outward emblem and contemplate inscrutable type which is Siva as nothing in their himself. minds the invisible Whatever may have been the origin of this form of worship in India, the notions upon which it was founded according to the impure fancies of European writers are not to be traced even in the Saiva Puranas." Mr. Havell thinks that it " was in all probability originally derived from the votive stupa of Buddhism." 2 If Saivism is, however, granted to be older in its origin than Buddhism the Sakyas themselves among whom Buddha was born being mentioned as having Siva for their tutelar deity 3 —this theory cannot be upheld. Various forms of the linga are worshipped, from the crude uncut conical gneiss usually believed to be svayambhu or self-born * to the highly polished — and hand-made shaft of 8, 16, 32 or more facets of the Pallava period. Lingas, whether self -born or artificial are equally venerated, the latter being associated as regards their origin with the Sun, Moon, the Lords of the quarters or ancient sages of by- gone millenniums. The linga is generally fixed in a circular or quadrangular receptacle on a high monolithic pedestal as yoni, pdnivattam or avadaiyar. It is a common adage that Siva is as fond of bathing as Vishnu is fond of decoration and the surface of the pedestal which receives the linga is so fashioned as to drain off the large quantity of water 5 poured over the god every day from a copper vessel with a hole at its bottom, hung directly known 1 In Sivarahasya, a chapter of Saura-samhitd, it is stated that the linga has a fivefold significance and denotes the primeval energy of the Creator. of the creation all gods find their resting place in the linga, intojthe right, 2 3 * Janardana (Vishnu) into the Ideals of Indian Art, p. 87. See Epigrafihia Indica, Vol. V, p. The left At the end — Brahma being absorbed and Gayatri into the heart. 3. describes this to be a long or short shaft of shattered board and many cornered with crooked horns. Bana is another kind of linga which is shaped by nature and not by the chisel. Silparatita appearance, flat like a According to the Mayamata all kinds of pedestals, whatever may be their must have a duct on tlieir left side to carry off the surface water. These ducts are to be well decorated. 5 pattern, SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 74 the shaft. In a linga considered as a symbol of Brahman, the quadrangular bottom of the shaft is believed to represent Brahma, the octagonal middle Vishnu and the 1 Sometimes a single linga is circular upper portion Siva. known by the name Sahasra (" the thousand ")-linga (fig. 46). j t j g ^j v j ^ e£j j ntQ t wen ty.five facets, each of these latter having miniature representations of forty lingas and making up thus the number one thousand. over Sahasra. imga. HI Round the sanctum of a Siva temple, on its outer wall, are usually enshrined in specially formed niches the images of Ganapati and Dakshinamurti on the south, LingOdbhava (or sometimes, Vishnu) on the west, and Brahma and Durga on the north. In the enclosing verandah round the central shrine may be installed the images of the sixty-three Saiva Saints, lingas which devout adherents might choose to establish for the merit of themselves or of their ancestors, the nine Planets (Navagrahas), which, since the time astrology was established in India, have been receiving divine homage, and a host of other gods and goddesses such as Kumara (Skanda), Vlrabhadra, Bhairava, etc. Nataraja or Sabhapati " the lord of the divine congregation " is placed in a separate shrine, generally the Sabha-mandapa or " the assembly hall." The goddess Parvati, the consort of Siva, who receives all kinds of fanciful names and surnames according to local traditions, is also enshrined separately. Sometimes it is found that every important subordinate deity has a separate shrine for itself, smaller, of course, in size than the sanctum. It may be noted that, while worship is offered in the central shrine of a Siva temple only to the formless stone linga, for processional purposes images made of metal are used and these are of various forms and go by various names, such as SOmaskanda, Vrisharudha, Gangadhara, Kalyanasundara, Ardhanari, Bhikshatana, Nataraja, etc. Instances are not uncommon where images of Siva in one of his processional forms receives more attention from the worshippers than the linga itself. In Chidambaram, for example, the image of Nataraja receives more attention and ; 1 The sirovartana or the shaping of the top of the linga which, according to may be cucumber-like, umbrella-like, crescent-like, egg-like or bubble-like, distinguishes the four different lingas worshipped by the four the Silparaim, The same work sets down that images may also be carved on the linga. Superior lingas are stated to vary from 7 to 9 cubits in height. Fixed lingas are worshipped in temples and movable lingas in houses. castes. SIVA Fig. 46.— Suhastn-linga 75 ; Tiruvottiyur. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 76 is more famous than the movable which linga of pebble is known as Ratnasabhapati, or the stone linga of Mulasthana. At BhikshandarkOyil in the Trichinopoly district the mendiworshipped. ArdhanSri is the god is worshipped at Tiruchchengodu (Salem) and so is the bronze image of Somaskanda (under the name Tyagaraja) worshipped cant form of Siva at Tiruvarur. IV Ruuramurti. Before describing some of the popular Siva-images 1 it useful to give a general description of Siva when he The common name is represented in the form of an image. then applied to him is Rudramurti. 2 He has four hands, of which the two upper ones hold the dhakkd (kettle-drum) and the deer, the two lower hands showing the abhaya and the varada postures. His matted hair is made up in the form of a crown (jatdmakuta) on whose left chines the crescent of the moon and whose right is decorated with the jewel known as arka-pushpa. The face of a woman (i.e., of the goddess Ganga representing the river Ganges) appears over the matted He has three eyes, which represent hair, on the right side. the Sun, Moon and Fire, the last being on the forehead. He is clothed with a tiger skin above his knees and wears an undergarment and a scarf and the usual ornaments, necklace and torque, girdle round the waist, wristlets, waist-zone, armlets, arm-rings, finger-rings set with gems, anklets, and the sacred thread. The left ear of the god wears a woman's ornament called lamba-patra while the right wears a man's ornament called makara-kundala. The left side of the neck is marked with the blue scar (caused by his having swallowed the poison kalakiita 3 ). This general form of Siva may be represented either standing or seated -on the lotus-pedestal with an aureola, and with or without his consort ParvatI on the left side. The pedestal may also sometimes be the maha-pitha, when, instead of the aureola behind the image, there may be the celestial tree (kalpa-vriksha). may be , 1 Sixteen of these are mentioned in the Silpasara. Vaivahika, Umasahita (according Tripurantaka or Purari, to the They are Mayamata Umaskanda), : - Sukhasana, Vrisharudha, Nataraja, Chandrasekhara, Ardhanari, Harihara, Chandesvara (Mayamata gives Chandesanugraha), Kamari, Kalanasa, Dakshinamurti, Bhikshatana, Sadasiva [Mayamata gives Mukhalinga) and Lingodbhava. The Raranagama mentions twenty-five. 2 Hemadri describes Rudra as riding on a bull and having five faces -all of which are mild-looking, except the one on the right side of the central face. He has ten arms and wears garlands of skulls. 3 See below, p. 137 f., under Srlkantha. ; SIVA 77 Standing images of Siva generally belong to the class Ashtamurth EkA as Ashtamurtis or Ekadasa-Rudras. The former have a generally four hands and three eyes and wear the jatamakuta. tous. known ^ " The fore-arms exhibit the protecting and the boon-giving while the hind arms hold the tanka and the antelope. The Ekadasa-Rudras are almost similar to Rudramurti in form, with the black scar on the neck, the crescent on the head and the scarf of tiger-skin. In place of the dhakka postures ; The right upper hand is seen the axe (parasu). A form of Siva combining five bodies in one is known as Panchadehamurti. Though not found in any of the temples Panchadeha examined so far, it is often mentioned in the Tanjore inscrip- Mf!RTI tions as having been installed in the Rajarajesvara (i.e., the modern Brihadisvara) temple by the Chola king Rajaraja in - or his subordinates, in the first quarter of the eleventh century The Panchadehamurti consisted of five images, four of which stood in the four directions and the fifth was placed in the middle, its head being higher in level than the others. 2 One of these was called Aghora. The linga with five faces called Panchamukha-//«^<2 is only the five-bodied PanchadehaA.D. murti translated in terms of the symbolical phallus. 3 It has the heads of four Siva-images figured on its four sides. The from Tiruvanaikkaval (fig. 47) does not show any the top. The Sk.&nd3.- Purana mentions a seated Mahaform of Siva called Mahakailasa or Maha-Sadasiva which is o^mTharepresented with twenty-five faces and fifty hands, wears Sadasiva. a garland of skulls and is clothed in tiger's skin. illustration face at V Images answering pati, in the to the Hindu Pantheon, two names Nataraja and Sabha- Nataraja are identical in design. Nataraja well-known dancing form of has four arms and a body besmeared with ashes. The back arm on the right side holds the kettledrum (udukkai, as it is called in Tamil) while the other presents the raised palm of protection (dbhaya). Of the pair on the left, the upper holds a fire-pot and the lower is bent round (the prince of dancers) is the god Siva. 1 * According It to Hemadi-i these may be substituted by the club and the Jaina images called Chaturmukha or stone. The Chaumukhl are often made trident. of a single four identical images on the four sides are surmounted by a series of common to all, which appear like the spire of a temple (see Epigraphia Indica, Vol. X, p. 115). The Buddhists also seem to have possessed such figures see N'agendra Natha Vasu's Mayurabhanja, p. 41. 3 A linga placed at the entrance into an old Siva temple at Raichur (Hyderabad State) shows a combination of five lingas, four on the sides and one at the umbrellas top. Sabhapati or - 78 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES •»ni« Fig. 47.,- Panchamukha-W»ga ; Tiruvanaikkaval, SIVA 79 across the breast to the right side, its fingers gracefullypointing below, towards the left leg which is raised in a dancing posture. The position of this hand is known as "the elephant-trunk." The ecstatic and violent nature of the dance, described as Ananda-tandava in the sequel, whirling quickly round on one leg, placed on the back of the demon Musalagan or Apasmara 1 is indicated by the matted hair (jatd) stretching out on both sides of the head in wavy lines one above the other and by the cloth, partly tied round the waist and partly thrown over the left shoulder, also flying in the air (fig. 48). The right hand which shows the dbhaya has on its wrist a serpent, which is the usual ornament of Siva and may have I, 3, 5 or 7 hoods. Another serpent, in the hand of the demon below, is explained by Mr. Havell {Ideals of Indian Art, p. 79) to be the corresponding wrist ornament on the left arm which had dropped down in the dance. are told in the Kdsyapa-Silpa of the AmsumatTantra that a serpent with raised hood is to be shown playing near Apasmara on his left side, the right hand of the demon pointing towards it (vyala-mudraf). The head of Siva wears peacock's feathers, or an ornament fashioned like them, which is a special characteristic of the image. The aureola (prabha), which every metallic image necessarily has, is, in this case, somewhat peculiar and significant, being surmounted all round with flames of fire similar to the one which is held in the pot or cup in one of the two left arms of the image. 2 The pedestal on which the figure rests is a double lotus flower placed back to back. Sometimes the jatas are not spread out but are tied and made up in the form of jatamdkuta (fig. 49). Siva is said to dance in the evening in the presence of the goddess ParvatT in order to relieve the sufferings of the devas. The dance of Nataraja is believed to symbolize the action of cosmic energy in creating, preserving and destroying the visible universe. The Puranas say that during these dances the whole congregation of gods, demigods and saints present themselves to render their obeisance Hence the name Sabhapati, " the lord of the to Siva. gaja-hasta, , We 1 Rai Bahadur V. Venkayya describes him s a hideous malignant dwarf, who sprang from the sacrificial fire of the rishis of the Darukavana forest and was subdued by Siva by being pressed under the tip of his foot (S.I.I. Vol. II, Introduc Perhaps he is the personification of the disease epilepsy tion, p. 33, footnote). wherein the victim is enveloped in complete mental darkness. 2 The Silparatna remarks that the aureola of Nataraja represents the ravimandala or the sun's disc." This perhaps accounts for the flaming rays proceed' ing from the aureola. 8o SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES SIVA Fus. 49. — Nataraja (metal) 8l ; Ramesvaram. a : SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 82 The asterism Ardra occurring in the bright half of the solar month Margali (December-January) is sacred to Nataraja. All Siva temples celebrate a festival on that occasion by taking out in procession miniature representations of Nataraja or, where such do not exist, the chief processional image of Siva. In Chidambaram, of course, where the worship of Nataraja is the most prominent and where the Sabhd-mandapa (assembly hall) is covered with gold plate, the festival is the grandest held in the year. Two main forms of dancing Siva may be distinguished one with the raised leg' as shown in the illustrations given above and the other with the same lifted up higher, to the level of the head. The latter is called Urdhva-tandava— dance which is locally believed to have been first performed by Siva at Tiruvalangadu near Arkonam. The origin of this form of dance is as follows. There was once a dispute between Siva and his consort Kali as to who was better in the art of dancing- Siva danced many a dance and Kali successfully followed him; till at last, in order to suppress her pride, Siva lifted up one of his legs to the level of his crown and danced Kali was too modest to imitate Siva in this performance on. and she accepted the superiority of Siva (fig. 50). Images of Nataraja are sometimes also seen with a small antelope prancing on his left side near the foot, the Ganga (Ganges) and the crescent decorating the head, 2 the sages Patanjali assembly " of gods. 1 The Karanaqama has the following about Sabhapati — " On the top of the Kailasa mountain, in front of the goddess Gauii (I'arvati) who is seated on a jewelled throne, Siva with the crescent on his head dances in the evenings. All the divas attend the dance Brahma plays on cym1 : ; Hari (Vishnu), on pat ah a Tumburn and Bharati (Sarasvati\ on the lute the Sun and music; and Nandiand The Mayamata also mentions ether gods and goddesses in the congregation, such as Vighnesa (Vinayaka), Kali and the Seven Mothers. It adds that Siva then performs the dance called Bhujattgatrasita with the serpent Karkotaka on him see Burgess's Blura Cave Temples, Plate bals ; a. Moon, on flutes; Kumara (Skanda) beat drums. " ; ; Narada supply vocal ; XLI1I, - fig. 5. The description of the image of Adavallan (i.e., Nataraja) given in the Tanjore Inscriptions, mentions " "the expert hair (Jala), the goddess Ganga-bhattaraki on the braided hair garlands. The goddess Umaparamesvari who formed a dancer,'' four arms, nine braids of and seven flower part of the group was standing on a separate pedestal." Another image of a similar description in the same temple was Tanjai-Alagar with whom was connected also the figure of a Of the sages Patanjali and Vyaghrapada who usually accompany the Ganapati. dancing image of Nataraja, the Tanjore Inscriptions describe the former as a solid image which measured " three-quarters and one-eighth (of a mulam) in height from the tail to the hoods (pkana). It had five hoods ; one face in the midst of these hoods, one crown (ma&itia), two divine arms, above the navel, a human body, and below the navel three coils " ; (S././., Vol. II, Introduction, 5IV4 Fig. 50. 6-A — Urdhva-tandava 83 ; TirnppanandaJ. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 84 (with the serpent-body, feet, fig. 52) standing on the Ananda. TANDAVA. SandhyaTANDAVA. Uma-tandaVA. GauriTANDAVA. KalikaTANDAVA, fig. 51) and Vyaghrapada (with tiger's worshipping on either side and the goddess ParvatI left. The Agamas speak of seven dancing postures .of Siva. The first, called Ananda-tandava or the joyous dance, has been described above. 1 The second is his evening dance Sandhya-tandava. In this form the demon Apasmara is absent and the symbols in the two left arms are the peacock-feathers and the pose of wonder called vismaya. The third is the Uma-tandava, i.e., dance with his consort Uma. In this Siva has two more arms, the additional right hand holding the trident (trisula) and the three left hands exhibiting the skull, vismaya, and the gaja-hasta. The left leg is placed on Apasmara and the right leg is stretched towards the left, and the goddess Uma stands on the left side. The fourth, Gauri-tandava, is almost similar to the first, but one of the left hands of the god is held a serpent. Nandi 2 stands on the right side and Gauri (Parvati) is on the left. In the fifth form, called Kalika-tandava,the god has only two eyes, but eight arms. Three of the right arms hold the trident, noose and kettle-drum and the corresponding left hold the the two remaining arms exhibit skull, fire-pot and the bell the abhaya on the right and gaja-hasta on the left (fig. S3). 3 The dance of Siva, with sixteen arms and as many symbols, having Gauri and Skanda on the left and right sides respectively,* receives the name Tripura-tandava. The last dance called Samhara-tandava " the death-dance " shows the god with three eyes and eight arms. The left leg is placed on Apasmara and the right leg is raised. In the right in ; TripuraTANDAVA. SamharaTANDAVA. This description closely agrees with the figure of Patanjali on the eastern p. 33). gopura of the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram. On the same gopura is the image of Vyaghrapada in which the sage is represented as having tiger's claws on both his hands and feet. The sage is carrying on his right shoulder a hook and a flower basket. 1 According to the Silpisangraha and the Mayamala, the dance is performed under the vata or the banyan tree. 2 This same dance is described in the Mayamala as Bhujangalalita in which by quick changes in the position of the legs, the fire in the hand is blown into a blaze, and the braided locks are spread out into five, seven or nine. On the left side stands Vishnu in place of Gauri, and on the right Nandi. 3 In the illustrations the weapons and symbols are seen just as they are mentioned in the Agamas. The position of the legs in the one, and the abkaya and the gaja-hasla poses 4 The Silparatna in the other, are, however, reversed. Skanda stands on the same side her by the hand, and shows fear, love and wonder in his fa.ce. says that as Gauri holding SIVA Fig. 51. - Patanjali ; 85 Chidambaram. 86 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES in) Fig. 52. — Vyaghrapada ; Chidambar; i«»i uj— i SlVA .. . :.: .,:, 'I.mm, •.,' <flfc -« f 87 B- """"iamiuM Fig. 53. -Kalika-tandava (metal) ; Nallur. w' tumM Hfl ' . "JttiJffif 88 Urdhva- Chidam- m htst US ' SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES hands are seen the abhaya, trident, noose and the kettle-drum ; the left hands exhibit the skull and the fire-pot and the postures vismaya and gaja-hasta. On the right and left sides respectively^ are Nandi and Gaurl. Other Agamas again, refer to 108 dancing forms of Siva nine of which are said to be celebrated. Of these latter the only one that deserves to be noted is that in which the god has his right leg raised straight up so as to reach the top of the crown (ushnisha). Perhaps, this is the Urdhva-tandava, described already. He may have four, eight or sixteen arms. No account of Nataraja could be complete without a short history of Chidambaram and its temple. Tradition has it that y ears a S° a king from the north, called Simhavarman, came south on a pilgrimage. All this part of the country was then one huge forest. The king happened to bathe in a well, and immediately found himself transformed into a bright golden figure. He assumed the name Hiranyavarman " the gold-armoured " on that account and covered with gold the It is Siva temple which he discovered near that well. stated that before him the sages Patanjali and Vyaghrapada Simhavarman and Hiranyavarman had worshipped there. names and denote that the origin of the temple may be roughly traced to that period. Historically, it was the Chola king Parantaka I, surnamed Vlra-Chola and Vira-Narayana (A.D. 907 to about 951) who covered the are Pallava Chidambaram temple with gold, perhaps for the first time. Successive Chola kings, after him, are known to have added 1 to the grandeur of it later Pallava chief of the thirteenth century A.D. called Perunjingadeva boasts of having conquered the four quarters and utilized the booty secured, in decorating the eastern gopura of the Chidambaram temple which he had himself constructed. 2 The great Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya of the sixteenth century A.D. built the north gopura of the same temple after his victorious return from - A 1 The devotion of Rajaraja I to the god at Chidambaram and the rich presents which he must have made to the temple there, evidently earned for him the titles Sri-Rajaraja and Sivapadasekhara ; Rai Bahadur Venkayya thinks that Rajaraja built at Tanjore the big temple of Rajarajesvara (i.e., Brihadlsvara) in order to commemorate the conferring of these titles. He consecrated therein the god Siva and called hiin Adavallan, i.e., the expert dancer, after the famous Nataraja of Chidambaram. 2 The gopura is It is from this gopura that the best illustrations are secured. very rich in sculptures and has various forms of Siva and his attendant gods. In gopura are also found illustrations of the 108 postures in dancing, mentioned Bharaliy a-Naly asastra (vide. Madras Epigraphic-.il Report for 1913-14, Plates I to IV). They are appropriately meant to be connected with Nataraja the king of dancers. this in the SlVA 89 a campaign in the north. It is well known that as a sacred place of pilgrimage Chidambaram is intimately connected with the Saiva saint Manikyavachaka (Manikkavasagar), the Pariah saint Nandanar— both of whom attained their salvation there and with the Saiva philosopher and scholar AppayaDlkshita who was much devoted to that temple. The place ^ — is mentioned is called Tillai. in the may have once to a Saiva hymns of the Devaram, The 3,000 Brahmana in which lived there but have at present dwindled few hundreds) claim Siva to be it families of Tillai (which down one of them and worship Nataraja as their family deity. VI The Agamas mention, as already stated, 1 twenty-five spormost of which are usually met with in South-Indian temples. One of the more important of these is Dakshinamurti. In Chola temples this image generally tive forms (lila-murtis) of Siva, occupies a niche in the south wall of the central shrine. Dakshinamurti or Dharma-Vyakhyanamurti is the form of Siva dakshina engaged in yoga or philosophic contemplation. Once upon a m °rti. time Daksha, the father-in-law of Siva, insulted him and his consort Uma, by not inviting them to a sacrifice which he was performing. Uma nevertheless went uninvited to her father's house, but being grossly neglected jumped into the sacrificial fire-pit and destroyed herself. Siva was furious ; he created out of a lock of his hair the terrible Virabhadra (see below, Siva then retired to a forest p. 155) who destroyed Daksha. and sat underneath a again with the resolve not to marry banyan tree deeply engaged in meditation. The gods were much concerned for it meant that the world would loose the benefit of Siva's direct intervention in its affairs. They 3 accordingly induced Kama, the god of love, to stir up once again in the mind of Siva the dormant embers of love. The fool-hardy Kama incautiously approached the god engaged in meditation and shot his flowery arrows at him and hit him. Siva then opened his eye of fire and looked straight at Kama, 8 Still when lo! he was at once reduced to a heap of ashes. Kama had succeeded. For, soon afterwards Siva gave up his ; Above, p. 76, footnote 1. Described above, p. 62. of 3 This incident has given rise to the recognition of another sportive form The scene is depicted on one of the Siva called Kamari or KamadahanamSrti. in the Ekamresvara temple at pillars of an unfinished mandapa near the tank has four arms in KamadabanamSrti Karanagama, the to Conjeeveram. According He is seated on a lotus which are seen the abhaya, varada, «. deer and the tanka. pedestal and is fierce in appearance. 1 * SOUTH-INDlAfr IMAGES §0 penance and married once again Uma, who had now incarnated as ParvatI, the beautiful daughter of Himavat (the Himalayas). This is the story of Dakshinamurti- 1 He is always conceived to be a youthful teacher, seated beneath a banyan tree, teaching aged pupils and removing their doubts by his very silence. The general posture of the images of Dakshinamurti show him with his right leg bent vertically at the knee and placed 2 on the body of the dark demon Apasmara and the left leg bent across so as to rest upon the right thigh. He has a calm countenance, indicative of perfect peace within. His matted locks are either dishevelled or are formed into ajatdmakuta tied together by a serpent (fig. 54). The body is besmeared with ashes and all the usual ornaments of Siva decorate him. The sages Narada, Jamadagni, Vasishtha and Bhrigu sit at his feet on the right side, receiving instruction, while Bharadvaja, Saunaka, Agastya and Bhargava sit on the left. The bullvehicle of the god, the denizens of the forest, Kinnaras and other demi-gods are also seen on the Kailasa mountain on which the god is seated. 3 His right fore-arm points the jndnamudrd (the pose conveying philosophical knowledge) and the back arm holds the rosary (or, the serpent) the left fore-arm shows the boon-conferring (varada) attitude or is sometimes freely stretched, the back of the palm resting in either case on the left knee. Some illustrations show a book in the place of the varada posture. The remaining hand on the left side holds the fire-pot, the deer, the kettle-drum or the rosary. When Dakshinamurti holds in his fore-arms the lute (vlnd) and changes the posture of his left leg apparently for keeping he is called Vinadhara-Dakshinamurti vinadhara- the vind in position Uakshina(fig 55) Jnanamurti is another form of the same god in which Jnanamurti the symbol jndna-mudrd of the right fore-arm is raised close and Yogato the heart with the palm of the hand turned inwards. The MURTI. name Yogamurti (or Yoga-Dakshinamurti) is applied when the legs crossing each other from the root of the thigh are held in position by the belt yogapatta, passing round the waist and the ; — — 1 Havell, Ideals of Indian Art, p. 83f. 2 The Silpasangraha mentions a serpent playing by the side of Apasmara. 3 The description of Dakshinamurti given in the Tanjore inscriptions is very interesting and instructive, They say that the mountain on which the god is seated "had two peaks on which there were two Kinnaras and two Kinnaris. Under the foot of the god was Musalagan. On the mountain were four rishis, a snake, two mentioned in the Ramayana, who had enough to allow their hands to be passed through in the act of worshipping) and a tiger. A banyan tree was also on the mountain and had nine main branches and forty-two minor ones. A wallet was suspended from the tree and a bunch of peacock's feathers was one of the accompaniments of the god " ; S.I. I., Vol. II, Introduction, p. 33. Karnapravritas (i.e., devotees of Siva ear-lobes with holes big (?) sivA FlG. 54. — Dakshinainurti 9i ; AvQr. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES t)2 Fig. 55. — Yinadhara-Dakshinanmrti ; Chidambaran SIVA 93 below the knee. The front arms are in this and rest freely on the knees, while the back arms hold the rosary and the water pot. The illustration (fig. 56) differs, however, in the symbols. In this, the upper hands hold the water-pot and the antelope and the lower hands the rosary (with jnana-mudrd) and the book. A fine old picture (fig. 57) coming from Tiruvengavasal (Pudukkottai State) shows Dakshinamurti in a different position and fore-legs, a little case, stretched out with different symbols. vn Lingodbhava " the /^^-manifestation, " is a familiar figure LlNGGiD of Siva seen on the west wall of the central shrine of Siva bhava. temples built in Chola times. As his name implies, he is represented within a huge linga, the portion of the feet below the ankles being hidden in the linga. Brahma in the form of a swan is seen soaring up on the left side of Siva while, on the right side, Vishnu is delving below into the depths of the earth in the form of a boar. 1 Also these gods (i.e., Brahma and Vishnu) in their true glory stand on either side of Siva with folded hands. The figure emanating from the middle of the linga (fig. 58) has four hands like Chandrasekhara (described below) and holds in its back arms the axe and the antelope and in the front hands, the abhaya and the varada postures. In the illustration given, the left hand is, however, seen resting freely on the waist. In the Tanjore inscriptions, Lingodbhava is mentioned by the name Lingapuranadeva, i.e., the god of the ~Lmga-Purana which describes the greatness of the linga. The story runs that a dispute arose between Brahma and Vishnu as to who is the greater of the two. Siva told them that whoever first saw the top or the bottom of ; own fiery linga-form and came back to report, he would be considered the greater. Brahma soared on his swan to see the top of the Siva-linga, while Vishnu as a boar dug down and down to see its bottom. Ages passed away and neither came to his goal. At last Brahma saw one ketaki flower coming down. It had fallen from Siva's head ages ago. Brahma suborned it to give false evidence and then came back and uttered a lie, saying that he had seen the top of the linga, citing the ketaki flower as his witness. Siva knew the lie and cursed Brahma that he should thenceforward go without any worship in temples. Brahma had five heads at this time2 his 1 The swan and the boar are in some pictures found to be half-man and half- animal. 2 On the east main gopura of the Chidambaram, temple bhava surrounded by flames of fire, is an image of Lingod- . ' SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 94 Fig. 56. — Yoga-Dakshinamurti ; Conjeeveram. SIVA FIG. 57. — Dakshinamurti ; Tiruvengav a sal. '95 96 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES I io. 58. — Lingodbhava ; Tanjore. SIVA 97 Siva also cut off the head which uttered the lie. The flower ketnki too, which abetted the crime, was excluded from the flowers dear to Siva. On an apology being offered, the latter was however accepted, as a special case, during the worship on the night of the Sivaratri festival which falls on the fourteenth day of the dark half of Magha (January-February) in each year and is held sacred in honour of the lingamanifestation of Siva. Perhaps, images called Ekapadamurti or Ekapada- Ekapada Trimurti, in which the gods Brahma and Vishnu, with folded m0rti hands and characteristic symbols, are represented as proceeding out of the body of Siva at his waist as in the Tiruvottiyur image (fig. 59) or from behind his knee as in the image from TiruvSnaikkaval (fig. 60) are either developments of LingOdbhava wherein the superiority of Siva over the two other members of the Hindu Triad was established, or an invention of the Indian sculptor in which is symbolized the underlying 2 The Kdranagama mentions Ekapada unity of the three gods. sportive forms of Siva and describes him murti as one of the three eyes and four arms in which are foot, one as having seen the tanka and deer and the varada and the abhaya posturesOn the right and left sides of Siva, almost touching his shoulders, are Brahma and Vishnu holding their symbolical weapons in two hands and worshipping Siva with the other 1 - two. single foot which is the characteristic feature of these figures, is, in the case of the Tiruvanaikkaval image, placed on the back of the bull. In it are also seen the vehicle of Brahma, viz., the swan, at the right bottom and, at the corresponding left bottom, the standing Garuda vehicle of The Vishnu and a sage— perhaps Narada. Apparently Ekapadamurti has to be connected with Ajaikapad, a name 3 given in the Rig-Veda to one of the Ekadasa-Rudras. VIII The to another form bhiksha. TANA as Bhikshatana, very often seen in Souththe heads of of one off cut temples. When Siva of Siva, Indian story of LingOdbhava introduces us known The Karauagama mentions a sportive form of Siva cutting off one of the four arms holding the thunderheads of Brahma. The image is stated to have the trident and Brahma's skull in the left. bolt and the axe in the right hand and Vishnu occupying the central place. On 3 Accordingly, we sometimes find » ' goddess Gayatri was absorbed into it was noted that the p 73 above, footnote 1, and Vishnu entered the sides of it. the centre of the liuga while Brahma Introduction, p. xxxi. 3 See Nagendra Natha Vasu's Mayurabhanja, - SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 98 Fig, 59. — Ekapada-Trimuni ; Tiruvottiyur SIVA 99 z<ra<5 Fig. 7»A 60.— Ekapada-TrimurtiJ; Tiruvanaikkaval. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 100 Brahma, he incurred the sin of killing a Brahmana and the Brahma, it is stated, stuck to Siva's palm and would not drop down. In order to get rid of the sin and this incriminating skull, Siva had to wander about as a naked beggar (bhikshdtana) until he reached the place still known as Brahma-kapalam, on the slopes of the Himalayas, where he was released from the sin and the skull fell down of its own accord. 1 Local chronicles connect Bhikshatana with the ValuvQr and Tirutturaippundi temples in the Tanjore district, and mention that the god Siva assumed a beautiful naked form and came out as a wandering beggar to test the fidelity of the wives of certain sages of the Darukavana forest, who were proud of their chastity. At the same time Vishnu is stated to have taken up the form of Mohini in order to tempt the sages. In accordance with this story, we occasionally see naked figures of women and of Mohini (fig. 6l) depicted in ; skull of close proximity to Bhikshatana. hand of the The tip of the lower right The image touches the mouth of an antelope. upper right hand holds the kettle-drum. A trident with — peacock-feathers (not seen in the illustration fig. 62) 3 or a big bunch of them placed across the shoulder, decorates the upper left arm, while the lower left, shows the boon-conferring posture. In it is also seen the kapdla (skull). serpent encircles his waist and he stands on sandals. The right leg is slightly bent (kunchita) and the left is firmly placed in the Above the right ankle attitude of one inclined to walk on. is tied a bell (bhringipada) which gives notice of the approach of the divine mendicant. demon called Kundodara, with protruding teeth, stands on the left side of the god, carrying on his head a begging bowl. The Bhikshatana-murti at PerQr has eight arms and holds different weapons in each of them 3 fine figure of Bhikshatana (in Tamil, Pichchandar) is found in a niche on the south wall of the central shrine of the big temple at Tanjore. copper image of this god, with a goblin carrying the begging bowl and an antelope following, is said to have been presented to that temple by Lokamahadevi, the chief queen of Rajaraja I. This god was to witness every day the Sribali ceremony conducted in the temple. A A A A M 1 ahaiharata refers to a similar story and states that a riski called The Mahodara got himself relieved of the skull of a giant that had stuck to his knee, by bathing a in the sacred tank called Kapalamochana-tirtha. This image 1911-12, Plate is published in the Archaeological Survey Report, Madras, for hut without the two accompanying figures of the deer and I, fig. 2, the demon. 3 The Mayamata says that this form of Siva may have four, six or eight arms, SIVA Fig. 6i. — MShini (metal) 101 ; Valuvur. 102 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES yjsi&m Fig. 62. — Lihikshatanamurti (metal) ; Valuvur, SIVA 103 IX Kankalamurti form closely allied to Bhikshatana and Kankat.a MUEI1 According to the Mayamata, Kankalamurti is draped in a fine cloth and is surrounded by lovely women. In his upper right hand he holds the peacock's feathers and skeleton (kankala) and in the upper left the tanka. A serpent is coiled round his loins and he has a knife stuck into the girdle on the right side of his waist (figs. 63 and He is generally attended by demons. Birds and beasts 64). follow him in expectation of getting something to eat from his hands. The description given of Kankalamurti in the Kdsyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-Tantra is different. He has a jatamakuta 1 decorated with serpents, the crescent-moon and flowers he is holding the kettle-drum in his left fore-arm and is a almost similar in appearance. ; ; a stick (to beat it with) in the corresponding right the other right hand is in the pose simha-karna and touches the mouth of the antelope, while the left carries a bunch of peacock's feathers on a staff. He also wears a necklace of skeletons ; (kankala) which according to the Adity a- Purana are supposed to be those of Vishnu in his various incarnations. Sometimes may be represented also as carrying on his shoulder a kankala (skeleton) tied by a rope to the staff. he X The form of Siva, decorated as a bridegroom, KalyanasundaramQrti or Vaivahikamurti. Siva in is called KalyAnaSU NDARA _ this form • represented as a fair youth, with three eyes and four arms. He is clothed in the best of garments and wears a garland of blue lilies. On his right side stands Parvatl, his bride, whose right hand he holds with his own. In his back hands are seen the symbols, tanka (or sometimes the axe) and the black buck. The left lower hand shows the boon-giving posture. His matted locks are made up in the fashion of a jatamakuta on which is stuck the crescent of the moon. The general posture of the god is what is called samabhanga, or the medium bend, wherein the figure stands with the right leg slightly bent and the left leg placed firmly on the ground. The goddess on the right side is represented as a fully developed maiden. She has only two hands, one of which holds a is lily. 1 Brahma, having The braided in his four hands the rosary, water-pot, hair (jata) of Bhikshatana, on the other hand arranged in a circle. Jatamakuta The former of ihejatas in the form of a makuta or crown. known in the Silpa-works as jatamandala. found in illustrations, , is generally is the arrangement is, perhaps, what is - MURTI. 1 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGfeS 04 1*k:. 63. — Kankalamurti (mclal) ; Tenkasi. SJtVA b'lG, 64. — Kankalamurti toS ; Dharasuram. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 106 V ft (ft Fig. 65. — Kalyanasundara ; Madura. SIVA to7 the sacrificial ladle fsrik) and the spoon (sruva) (or, the book), is seated on a lotus flower in front of a square fire-pit facing northwards, and offering oblations to the sacrificial fire, which is burning in front with five flames. Menaka and Himavat, the parents of the goddess, are standing to her right, carrying a golden pot, from which they pour water into the hands of Siva and ParvatI in token of giving away their daughter in marriage to him. The sages Sanaka and Sanandana stand to the left of the god with folded hands. Vishnu is present with the whole congregation of gods and goddesses. This desof KalySnasundara is found in all its details in a from Elephanta. The Kasyapa-Silpa of the AmsumatTantni and the Silpasangralia say that Vishnu in the tribhanga attitude faces south and stands on the north side of the sacrificial fire-pit with conch and discus in his back arms. He pours with his two other hands water from a gold pot into the cription figure hands of Siva and ParvatI (fig. 65). The Mayamata describes ParvatI as standing by the side of LakshmT. It looks as if Menaka and Himavat are sometimes substituted by Lakshml and Vishnu. A fine image of Kalyanasundara comes from the Chidambaram temple (fig. 66). Svayamvara is the name given in the Silparatiia to the figure of ParvatI as a bride. She holds a garland of flowers and walks towards Sambhu (Siva) to choose him as her husband. XI is the most common of all the sportive forms Somaskanda. design is as old as the Pallava period and it may be found on the back wall of the sanctum immediately behind the liugd in almost every temple which pretends to belong to that age. The group, e.g., is found engraved on the back wall of a niche in the second storey of the Dharmaraja-raf/w at Mahabalipuram which, according to an inscription cut on the lintel, was apparently intended to be a shrine for the It is also seen S\wa-lingti called Atyantakama-Pallavgsvara. facing shrine the sea, in the of the Siva back wall the on " Shore Temple." The Saluvankuppam cave, called Atiranasimilar chanda-Pallavesvara, also has the same image. panel is also found in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchl. Later ChOla temples, however, do not show any such panel on the wall behind the linga. On one and the same pedestal are seen Siva and Uma with the child Skanda standing (or seated) between them. Both the god and the goddess are seated comfortably (sukhdsana), with one leg (right in the case of Siva and left in the case of ParvatI) hanging down Somaskanda of Siva. Its A SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 108 Kio. 66. — Kalvanasundara and Svayamvara ; Chidambaram. SIVA '-:""' •' ':-' '!',' 109 "-'*-';*' Fig. 67.— Somaskanda (melal) : Sivankudal. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES no and the other bent crosswise so as to lie flat on the pedestal. The god holds in his upper hands the tanka (or, the axe) and the deer and in the lower exhibits the varada and the abhaya postures. The goddess holds a lily in her right hand and 1 shows the varada or the kataka pose in her left (fig. 67). She may sometimes also be represented as resting the palm of her left hand on the pedestal by the side of her left thigh while the right hand, as before, holds the lily. Skanda has the crown karandamakuta and holds in one of his hands a flower, a wood-apple or a mango. According to the Karanagama the group must be flanked by two standing or seated figures called Bhoga-Sakti and Vira-Sakti on the left and right sides respectively.- It is also stated that the right side of the pedestal on which the god sits is to be slightly higher than the left. A photograph from Mahabalipuram (fig. 68) is worth noting in this connexion. It shows Siva in the comfortably seated posture. In his upper hands, however, the symbols, evidently of tanka and the deer, are missing. The right lower of abhaya and the left lower in that of is in the posture It is also possible that the latter is resting freely on kataka. the thigh. Parvati is seated on Siva's left side, turning her face towards him and holding the child Skanda on her knee. In the upper corners are seen flying dwarfs, apparently holding flywhisks in their hands. The whole group is flanked by two four-armed gods raising respectively the upper left and right arms and pointing them towards Siva. Among the Mahabalipuram sculptures we find still another scene of Saiva pictures apparently allied to Somaskanda just bOKHASAN'A or Uma- SAHITA. described, viz., Sukhasana or Umasahita mentioned in footnote Here, on a pedestal supported by two lion-pillars and the recumbant bull between them, is a seated figure of Siva with a robe of ornamental fringes, hanging loosely from above his right shoulder. In his right upper hand he holds a furious serpent. What the position of his left upper hand Of the two other hands, the left lower indicates, is not clear. rests freely on his right leg and the left thigh, while the right lower exhibits a position of the fingers which suggests that the god must have held some weapon. The high jatdmakuta, the divine halo (circle of light) round the face, the necklaces, pendants, ear-rings, waist-band, rings on hands and a thick 1 on p. 76. 1 The actual position of the hand as described in the Agamas, however, is 'Amka-karna or "lion's ear" with the fingers slightly closing on the palmside. 2 Siva is supposed to have three Saktis attached to him, viz., Yoga-Sakti, Bhoga-Sakti and Vira-Sakti; see below, p. 185, footnote 1. SIVA III H2 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Kit;. 69. --Umasahila ; Seven Pagodas. SIVA 113 chord across the breast representing the Brahmanical thread yajnopavita, are the other jewels seen on the figure of Siva. To the right of Siva's shoulder is Brahma with the water-pot in one hand and the erect rosary in the other. The sacred thread of Brahma has four strings. Between the heads of Brahma and Siva is a circular disc which perhaps represents the Sun. Near the left shoulder of Siva is Vishnu holding the discus and the conch in his two upper hands. Here again, the position of the two lower hands is not clear. The sacred thread His crown though high like that of Vishnu has three strings. of the two other gods is shaped somewhat differently. Parvati (Siva's consort) with the child Skanda on her right lap is seated on the left side of Siva. Her left foot is placed on the back of the couchant bull. She as well as her child have only two arms each. Close to her left foot, behind the bull, is a female attendant of Parvati, who raises her right hand resting Between the head of the goddess it on the back of the bull. and that of Vishnu is seen what is perhaps to be interpreted as the crescent of the Moon, corresponding to the Sun on the other side. But the short handle attached to it at the bottom seems to show that it may be an umbrella of honour held over the head of the goddess (fig. 69). A similar group, called Uma- Uma-MahesVARA Mahesvara according to Hemadri, consists of Siva and Parvati, the former having eight faces and two hands. The left hand of the god is stretched over the shoulder of the goddess and the The Kararight hand of the goddess over that of the god. nagama describing this group states that the goddess Parvati should be seated on the left side of Siva with the bull in front of them, Indra and other gods behind, Vishnu and Brahma on the sides and the devotees Bhringi, Narada, Bana, Bhairava, Ganapati, Skanda and Vlresvara in the eight cardinal points. - Rai Bahadur Venkayya. considered this description Rishabhavahana (Vrishavahana) mentioned 1 that of to be in the next paragraph. XII Vrisharudha is a figure of Siva seated on the bull with right leg hanging down and the left bent so as to rest on He has Ganapati on his right side and Gaurl on bull. 2 He holds in his two upper hands the tanka and left. antelope. 1 a When, however, Siva is made to S.U., Vol. II, Introduction, p. 33, footnote 1. The Silparatna and the Kasyapa-Silpa state that more on the right side of the god. the Vrishathe RUDHA - his the stand leaning often Gaurl is seen H4 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES against the bull and VrishavaHANA. is not mounted on it, the Kasyapa-Silpa him Vrishavahana. In this case the elbow (kurpara) of the right hand of Siva rests on the head of the bull as in the illus1 trations (figs. 70 and 71). The Mayamata also gives the same description, but adds that the bull stands behind the seat on which the god and goddess sit. The right lower hand of Siva holds the trident while the two upper hands hold the axe and calls the deer. XIII ChandraSEKHARAMURTI, Chandrasekharamurti ~ (the crescent-crested lord) may, according to the Kasyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-Tantra, be represented in two different forms, either alone or in company of the goddess Gauri. When alone, he stands on the pedestal with level feet (samapdda), holding the antelope and the kettle-drum (or, axe) in his back arms and presenting the abhaya and the varada postures in the fore-arms. The crescent decorates the jatdtnakata of the god, either on its right side or on the left. In other respects the image is a pleasing representation (fig. 72) of the general form of Rudra described above. When accompanied by the goddess he may also be seated (fig. 73). The right lower hand shows the abhaya posture and the left lower passes round the back of the yielding goddess and touches her breasts. Some Agamas do not permit the hand to be stretched so far, but only up to the left arm of the goddess. The illustration from Bagali (fig. 74) answers to this description but holds the trident and the kettle-drum in the upper hands instead of the axe and the deer. The goddess also with her right hand touches the right side of the waist-band of the god from the back and holds a flower in her left. She may also be seen passing her hand Such figures of Chandrasekhara are called Alinganamurti or the embracing form. They are also known as Pradoshamurti, since in all well-maintained Siva temples, oyer his shoulder. 1 The illustrations given show two and four hands respectively for Siva, who standing with his legs crossed and leaning against the back of the bull, has the of his right hand placed on the head of the bull. A fine image from Ceylon figured as No. 29 in Part II of Visvakarma is evidently one of Vrisharudha as described in the Maya?nata, The trident in the right lower hand, the bull and the goddess are missing. * The great Chola king Rajaraja I is represented in the Tanjore inscriptions to have been devoted particularly to this form of Siva. The figures of the king ItuTpara. and of Chandrasekhara receiving worship from him, were set up by the manager i.e., before A,D. of the temple before the close of the 29th year of that king, 1013-14. SIVA Fig. 70. — Vrishavahana H5 ; Chidambaram SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 116 0.9 Fig. 71. — Vrishavahana (metal) ; Vedaranyam. 3. sfvA 117 n8 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES • 1 ig. 7j. — Chaadrasekhara ; Tanjore, r r- SIVA 119 SfcflS D.23/. Fig. 74. — Chandrasekhara (Alinganamuiti) ; Bagali. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 120 the image is carried about in procession in the evenings (pradosha). XIV Ardhanari. or the Ardhanari form of Siva is perconception of the Sakta doctrine the haps to be traced to that only when combined with Sakti is Siva capable of discharging his divine functions. 1 The idea of representing a male ornament in the right lobe of Siva and a female ornament in his left lobe must, already, have been due to the belief in the inseparable union of the masculine and feminine elements in the Creator. The artistic conception of a purely philosophical idea has thus resulted in an image of which the left half represents the woman (Parvati) and the right half, the male (Siva). The jewellery on the image is similarly distinguished in every detail those on the left side being purely feminine ornaments and those on the right, ornaments appropriate to males. The drapery on the right side is the tiger's skin of Siva reaching only to the knee, while on the left side it is the finely embroidered muslin (dukula) suitable for the goddess Parvati, and stretching down to her ankle. Of the four hands, the two right show a hatchet and the posture of protection the two left are richly decorated with wristlets, the upper one holding a flower and the lower one being stretched down to the waist (fig. 75). The Kasyapa-Silpa, however, says that the right lower hand may be placed on the head of the bull. Some images show only three hands, two on the right and one on the left. In that case the right upper hand holds the axe while the lower right rests on the head of the bull. The figure stands leaning gracefully against the back of the bull, bending its body above the waist. Of the two other illustrations given, one is from the Nagesvara temple at Kumbakonam (fig. 76) and the other is from a niche on the north wall of the Tanjore temple (fig. 77). Sometimes images The hermaphrodite ; ; Ardhanari may have only two arms. Thus in the temple Tiruchchengodu (Salem district), dedicated to Ardhanari, the image (fig. 78) has only two hands, the right one holding a staff with the lower end resting on the waist, and the left placed on the left hip. It may be noted that the hair on the head of this image is done up in the fashion peculiar to images of Krishna. An illustration coming from Dharasuram shows eight arms, three visible faces (with perhaps two others of at 1 The popular (p. 165), story connected with the origin of under Bhringlsa. this form is given below SIVA Fig. 75. —Ardhanari; 121 Madura. 122 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES blG. 76. — Ardhanaii ; Kuirbakonam. SIVA KlU. 77. — Ardhanari 123 ; Tanjore. 124 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fie 78.— Ardhanari ; Tiruchchengodu. SIVA 125 behind) and a circle of light in the back ground. This is apparently an unusual form (fig. 79). Still another unusual form comes from Tiruvadi near Tanjore, in which the right half is woman and the left half male (fig. 80). XV A similar composite image of Siva is the one called Harihara Sa kara. Harihara or Sankaranarayana. In this image the left half is San narayana. Vishnu and the right half Siva. Accordingly we see on the the figures of Harihara, the conch, the pearl-neckear-ring characteristic of skull, the garland of bones, the river Ganga, the serpent coil of the ear-ring and the trident or axe, characteristic of Siva. So too the colour of the body is blue on the left and white on the right. Similarly, Garuda, the vehicle of Vishnu, may be seen standing on the left and the bull of Siva on the right. Sankaranayinarkoyil in the Tinnevelly district has a famous temple dedicated to this combined form of Sankara (Siva) and Narayaha (Vishnu). The illustration given (fig. 81) comes from Namakkal. similar but more finished figure of Sankaranarayana is found at Chidambaram in which attendant sages and demi-gods are also depicted. left side of mark Srivatsa and the brilliant Vishnu and on the right side the lace, the A XVI Fine images of Siva represented as the slayer of the Oajaha MURTIelephant-demon are not uncommon in South-Indian temples. In this form he receives the name Gajahamurti. The image has eight hands generally, but may have occasionally only four. The two uppermost hands are stretched out and hold the hide of the elephant with its tail bent upwards in the form of an aureola, while on the sides of this aureola are seen the legs of the elephant hanging. In the three right hands are held the trident, the kettle-drum (or the sword) and the noose (or the tusk of the elephant). Two of the three left hands hold the tusk (or shield) and the skull (kapala), while the third exhibits the posture indicating astonishment (vismaya) or sometimes holds a bell. The left leg is placed on the elephant-head of the giant and the right is raised up so as to reach the left thigh. A good figure answering to this description comes from Perur near Coimbatore. The Valuvur image (Madras Archzeological Survey Report for 1911-12, Plate IX, fig. 2) and the Tirutturaippundi and the Dharasuram images (here illustrated) show the contrary position of the legs. The god has a terrible face With protruding teeth; and by his side is seen standing the or 126 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 79. — Ardhanavi ; Dharasuram. SIVA YlG. So— Ardhanari ; Tiruvadi, 127 128 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fjg, Si. — Sankaranarayana ; Namakkal. SIVA frightened goddess Uma 129 with the young Skanda beside her The Karanagama mentions the weapons tanka and deer and the pointing-finger-pose (suchi). 1 This last posture of the hand is noticed both in the Tirutturaippundi and the Dharasuram stone images. The former has perhaps five heads (of which three alone are visible on the picture). It has ten hands and more attendant figures (fig. 83). (fig. 82). XVII Gangadhara, " the bearer of Ganga (the Ganges)," is a form GangaSiva which illustrates a well-known Puranic story. The DHAKA story of the descent of the heavenly Ganges into the earth of to purify the ashes of the sinful sons of Sagara, a king of the Solar race, is related in the Ramayana. At the prayer of Bhagiratha, a later member of the same family, " the river of the gods " consented to direct her course to the earth, but her force was such that the earth was unable to bear the shock. So Bhagiratha prayed to Siva and the latter consented to receive the Ganges on his matted locks. The river, proud of her might, came down with all her force as if to crush Siva, but found herself lost altogether in the tangled maze of Siva's locks. Ganga then became humble and Siva let her flow forth again from his locks in a tiny trickle. The river-goddess, the heavenly Ganges, is believed since then to abide in Siva's matted hair as one of his consorts. This latter subject of letting the Ganges flow out of his matted hair as a tiny rivulet is represented in figures generally known as Gangavisarjanamurti. made in the No distinction, Agamas between however, Gangadhara has and been GangAvisar- Ganga- He stands on a lotus pedestal with the right leg and the left slightly bent. The image is represented as embracing the goddess Gauri, consoling and assuring her that his affections would not be transferred to the rivergoddess. 3 One right arm holds up a lock of his hair, on which is seen the goddess Ganga. A left arm holds the visarjana. straight antelope. The goddess Gauri with a dejected face (virahitanana) is represented in the samabhanga posture with her left leg placed straight on the pedestal and the right leg slightly bent. Her right hand stretches down or is sometimes held defines this as a pose of hand in which the second finger kept straight while the others are bent inwards. It is also adopted when images are made to hold the goad or other similar weapons. 2 The Silpasangraha says that the right lower arm of Siva may be in the The illustrations, however, show it holding the face of posture of giving boons. 1 The Silparatna (larjani) is the goddess Gauri. 9 janamurti. 130 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig, 82.— Gajahamurti ; Dharasuram. SIVA FIG, 9-A 83.— Gajahamurti ; Tirutturaippuiidi. 131 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 132 akimbo while the left holds a The god and flower. the goddess are highly decorated (figs. 84 and 85). In the first illustration from Gangaikondasolapuram, Gauri appears as if she is desirous of being let alone but her anxious husband Figures of Gangadhara are sometimes is holding her fast. seen without Gauri on the side. In such cases he has four hands, of which the right upper supports Ganga on the lock and the left upper holds the deer. Of the two others the right fore-arm rests on the face of the bull against which the god leans and the left rests freely on the waist (fig. 86). The bull, not seen in the illustration, is distinct in a similar from the Siva temple at Kodumbalur. Bhaglratha, who was the cause of the descent of Ganga, may also be shown standing together with other rishis to the right of Siva. This is found only in an illustration from Burgess's Elura Cave figure Temples} One other figure (or rather group of figures) representing Gangadhara (fig. 87) comes from the rock-cut cave at Trichinopoly and deserves notice. The central image is Siva with four hands. The upper right hand holds a lock of hair in order to receive evidently the goddess Ganga descending from the clouds. The upper left seems to hold a rosary. The left lower hand rests on the waist and the corresponding right holds by the tail a serpent with the raised hood. The left leg of Siva is placed straight on the ground and the right which is bent at the knee is placed on the head of a demon (perhaps Musalagan) who also supports the leg with his left hand which is raised up. The god is fully decorated. Round him are four attendant sages, two of whom are kneeling at the feet, the other two worshipping from behind. Above the group are two devas flying in the air on either side of the god's head. Although the details given above donot agree with any particular description given in the Agamas, it appears to me that it represents Siva standing ready prepared to receive in his locks the rushing torrent of the river of the gods. One of the attendant sages may, in this case, be Bhagiratha at whose request Ganga descended from the heavens. XVIII KalahakaMURTI - Another Puranic story is illustrated in the form Kalaha, "the destroyer of the god of Death." Markandeya was a young boy, greatly devoted to the worship of Siva. The fates had decreed that he should not live or Kalaharamurti, 1 Plate XLIII, fig. 1, and Plate XXVI, fig. 1. . SIVA Fig. 84. — Gangadhara; Gangaikondasolapuram m 134 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 85.— Gangadhara (metal) ; Vaidlsvarankoyil. SIVA Fig. 86— Gangadhara 135 ; Tanjore. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 136 I'lG. 87.— Gangadhara ; Trichinopoly. SIVA I37 beyond his sixteenth year. His father was very disconsolate as the boy approached the end of his appointedtime on earth. But Markandeya was not afraid and spent all his time worshipping Siva. While thus engaged, the god of Death (Kala), whose duty it is to take the breath of life away from the mortal body at the appointed time, came up to the boy, with his weapons, the club and the noose, riding on his fierce buffalo. He was not daunted by the fact that the boy was engaged in holy duty but at once threw his relentless noose on the boy and began to pull his life out. The boy was frightened at the sight of the terrible god of Death and caught hold of the Siva-linga with both his hands. Siva then burst out from within the linga and, with one foot still placed on the linga, he kicked with the other the transgressing god of Death, pierced him with his trident and vanquished him. 1 This is the Purdnic story of Kalaharamurti. According to the Agamas he is represented as placing his right leg on the linga in the same attitude as that of the dancing Nataraja. His left leg, which is bent and raised, is placed on the breast of Kala. The god wears a jatdmakuta and has an angry look, protruding teeth, three eyes and four (or sometimes eight) hands. The fore-arm on the right side holds the trident pointed downwards and raised to the level of the ear. The other right hand holds the axe while the two left hands exhibit the varada (with skull in palm) and the vismaya 2 pos- The Kdrandgama adds that he must also be (fig. 88). accompanied by the goddess. The god of Death has two arms and protruding teeth. He holds the noose and is lying flat on the ground with legs stretched out wide apart. In the sketch tures from Chandragiri (fig. 89) is seen Markandeya with the noose round his neck and embracing the linga. Siva also is seen holding the trident in two hands while young sage with a trident. Yama is attacking the XIX Nllakantha, Srikantha and Vishakantha are three synony- Nilakantha r of Siva, given to him on account of his having £ A jJ*jjA swallowed the deadly poison (kdlakuta) produced at the churning of the ocean by the devas and danavas under instructions from the Creator, in order to obtain divine nectar. The mous names _ See Burgess's Ehtra Cave Temples, Plate XXIV. In place of the varada some figures show the suchi and in place of the vismaya, the hand holding the deer. According to the Silpasangraha the symbols may be the trident and the kettle-drum in the right hands and the boon-giving 1 2 posture and the axe in the left. 138 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 88. — Kalaharamurti; Pattlsvaram. SIVA 139 XI 'J i m SOUTH-INDIAN iMAGfiS 140 Vishapaharamurti. mountain Mandara was their churn-stick, the primeval Tortoise (who was Vishnu himself) the pivot on which the stick rested and turned, and the serpent Vasuki the churning rope. By a clever device of Vishnu, the danavas held the head and the divas the tail of the serpent. They churned and churned. Many great and splendid things came foaming up and every one was eager to seize what pleased him most. But all at once something black began to rise. It grew and grew and darkened the whole universe. All the gods and demons were mortally afraid. For it was the deadliest of poisons, death In this moment of to them and death to all the universe. horror they called on Siva to help them. The mighty god came and took the poison in the hollow of his hand and swallowed it. That which was enough to kill the universe served only to stain his neck with a bluish tint. Thus he came to be called "the poison-necked" or "the blue-necked" god. 1 The Kdranagama describing a form of Siva called Vishapaharamurti, " the destroyer of poison " says that he has one f ace> three eyes, braided hair and four arms holding in the two upper the antelope and the axe. He is in the posture of drinking the poison which is held in the right lower hand. The left lower shows the boon-giving posture. On the left She shows an side of the god is the goddess with two arms. anxious countenance and holds the neck of Siva as if to prevent the poison from going down. XX triporantakamurti. Two other forms of Siva connected with Puranic stories mentioned. These are Tripurantakamurti andKiratarjunamurti. The first was assumed by Siva when he killed the three demons called Tripura and reduced their three magic cities to ashes. During this campaign the Earth is said to have served Siva as a chariot, and the Sun and the Moon as its wheels. The four Vedas were the four horses and the Upanishads were the guiding reins the mythic golden mountain Meru was the bow, the ocean was the quiver and god Vishnu was the arrow. Images of Tripurantaka are made with the right leg firmly placed on the pedestal and the left leg bent. The right forehand in the simha-karna posture holds the arrow and the left fore-arm, the bow. The other hands hold the tanka (or the may be ; 1 The A asyapa-Siipa speaking of Srlkantha says that he holds the trident and the kettle-drum. 2 An image of Tripurantaka in the thousand-pillared hall of the Madura temple shows an actual figure of Vishnu engraved on the arrow held by Siva. SIVA 141 and the deer respectively. The locks are arranged in the form of a jatamdkuta and the goddess Gauri stands on the left side. The accompanying illustration from Chidambaram (fig. 90) answers to this description of Tripurantaka. The axe) alternating positions of the leg, the existence or non-existence demon Apasmara underneath one of them and the of the fashion of holding the bow and the arrow, yield five other forms of Tripurantaka, who may also be represented with eight or ten arms. Sometimes (when with ten arms), the god is seated in a chariot with his right knee touching the sudha, the left leg which is bent at the knee being placed firmly in front of the right. In the chariot, at its front, is seated the four-faced Brahma and below him is a white bull drawing the car. sandal-wood carving published in the Journal of Indian Art and Industry, Vol. XV, No. 119, fig. 12, shows the actual fight between Siva and the demon called Tripura. Kiratarjunamurti is that form of Siva in which he is kiratarsupposed to have appeared before Arjuna, one of the heroes junamurti. of the epic Mahabharata, when the latter was doing penance to obtain from Siva a powerful weapon with which he could destroy his enemies. God Siva wished to try personally if his devotee Arjuna really deserved to wield the matchless weapon To this end Pasupata, whose presiding deity was himself. Siva and Parvatl assumed the forms of a hunter and a huntress and with their retinue of demons and hobgoblins attired for the chase, drove before them a wild boar, which rushed to attack Arjuna who was then performing his penance. Arjuna, the practised warrior, seized his bow and instantly shot the animal. Simultaneously also came another arrow from the psuedo-hunter Siva. Pierced by both the arrows, the animal died. The hunter cried out that the quarry was his and asked Arjuna how he dared to shoot at it. The royal hero of the Lunar race could not brook the insult from this wild hunter of fierce fight between the two was the result. the woods. to see that the hunter was more than his amazed Arjuna was A A match. Axjuna's never failing arrows failed him now and he challenged the hunter to a hand-to-hand contest. Sore and beaten, Arjuna worshipped the clay linga of the god Siva that he had before him, when, lo the flowers he threw on the Arjuna struck the linga fell on the person of the hunter. called Gandiva and bow powerful his hunter at the head with snatched away mysteriously was bow the But drew blood. a gentle touch by overcome was Arjuna end the In from him. of the mighty god. Arjuna then knew him and begged pardon and the god gave him the desired weapon Pasupata. ! SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 142 Kig. 90. —Tripnrantakamurti ; Chidambaram, ; SIVA 143 is the subject matter of the exquisite poem Kirdtdrjunlya of the Sanskrit poet Bharavi. The Tanjore inscriptions This story an image Kiratarjunadeva and from the description appears as if there was a reference there, to a linga or to some object connected with it. Images of Kiratarjunamurti answering to the story described above are not very frequent. An illustration (fig. 91) which comes from Pushpagiri in the Cuddapah district represents evidently the last part of the drama, when Siva and Parvati appeared before Arjuna and gave him the weapon. Siva holds in his back hands the axe and the trident. In his right fore-arm is the arrow Pdsupata, the left fore-arm resting freely on the waist. To the left of Siva stands the goddess Parvati with two hands, holding a lotus flower in her right. In front of both, is Arjuna in the modest posture of receiving with both hands the divine gift offered him. A pigmy figure standing between Siva and Arjuna in the illustration may be one of refer to given of it in a mutilated passage, l it the attendants of Siva. The Kdranagama gives the same description but makes Siva wear both the arrow and the bow and hold the antelope instead of the trident. An illustration coming from Chidambaram (fig. 92) answers to this descripIn it may also be seen the figure of Arjuna in a tion. worshipping posture as described in the Kdranagama. It may be noted that the historic "Arjuna's Penance" at Mahabalipuram is -supposed to represent the Mahabharata story related above. 2 XXI Chandesanugrahamurti is a form of Siva which was ChandesANUGRA"assumed by him in order to confer blessings on his fervent MURTI. 3 His figures are devotee Chandesa described in the sequel. occasionally found depicted in some of the South-Indian temples. From Gangaikondasolapuram in the Trichinopoly district comes a beautiful illustration (fig. 93) of the story. 1 publishes an image of Siva from Tanjore Visvakarma (Part II, No. 28). In this the positions of the four hands indicate the nature of the weapons that must have been held by them. Although the image is called Gangadhara by Dr. Coomaraswami, the poses of the fingers suggest that the image must be one of Kiratarjuna, possibly the very idol mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions, since its two fore-arms are so adjusted The upper arms in this case as to receive into them the bow and the arrow. must have held the axe and the deer. Mr. R. D. Banerji describes in the Director-General's Archaeological Survey Report for 1911-12, pp. 161 ff., certain sculptures from Chandimau which relate to this story of Arjuna 's fight with Siva. These are attributed by Mr. Banerji to the Gupta period. 3 a Havell's Ideals of Indian Art, pp. 147 to 151. See p. 161, below. 1 Dr. Ananda K. Coomaraswami in his Art Journal 144 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 91. — Kiratarjunamurti ; Pushpagiri. SIVA fjwm Fig. 92 10 iri Om, i 0k 1 145 . iiiiii — Kiratarjunamurti ; l ir i .ft li a M iln 1 r1 Chidambaram, | SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 146 Fig. 93.— Chcmlesamigrahamurti ; Gangaikondasolapuram. SIVA 147 Here Siva is seated in the sukhasana or the comfortable posture on a raised pedestal, as in the case of Somaskanda figures, his left leg hanging down and resting on a footstool. The goddess Parvati too is seated to the left of Siva on the same pedestal, her right leg being bent at the knee and placed on the pedestal while the left is hanging down to rest on another foot-stool. Siva has four arms. In his two back hands he holds the axe and the deer and with the two front arms he is seen decorating with a flower garland the locks of his servant, the devoted Chandesa. The latter sits on the ground at the foot of Siva, with bending knees and folded arms, and receives the divine favour with gratitude. The images are well ornamented. Above the group are seen flying gods and demi-gods who have evidently gathered round to see the kindness of Siva shown towards his devotee. According to the Mayamata Chandesa has behind his folded arms the weapon parasu (axe). On the east gopura of the Chidambaram temple is a figure of Chandesanugrahamurti in which Chandesa is represented with the axe between his folded arms. The size of the image of Chandesa must, it is stated, be small so as to reach the arms of Siva and is to be bedecked with the ornaments of children. The Kasyapa-Silpa states that between the god and the goddess may be placed the " Next to Dakshinafigure of Skanda, at the sculptor's option. murti," it says, " the figure of Chandesanugraha is the most famous." A group of images under the name Chandesvaraprasadadeva was set up in the Tanjore temple by king Rajaraja I, and consisted of (1) the god Chandesvaraprasadadeva with four arms, (2) the demon Musalagan with two arms, (3) the goddess Umaparamesvari, (4) Mahadeva (the linga worshipped evidently by the boy Chandesa), (5) the devotee with two arms, (6) his father also with two arms represented as having fallen down and lying on the ground and (7) Chandesa receiving with his two arms the boon of a flowergarland from Siva. 1 This description agrees with the story related in the Periyapuranam, a compilation of the thirteenth century A.D. The Karanagama, whose date is not known, was also apparently familiar with the story. XXII Some described. 1 particularly fierce forms of Siva may now be sarabhaFirst in fierceness comes the form of the fabulous murti. South-Indian Inscriptions, Vol. JO-A II, Introduction, p. 39. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 148 PASUPATAMURTI. Sarabha which is supposed to have been assumed by Siva in order to suppress the pride of Narasimha, the Man-lion incarnation of Vishnu. The Karanagama describes Sarabha as having eight legs, three eyes, long nails, two hands and a body glowing like fire. The image has a lion's face and two wings one of which is said to represent the fierce goddess 1 Durga and the other, Death. The illustration here reproduced Man-lion. (fig. 94) shows Sarabha trampling on the Pasupatamurti is another fierce form of Siva. This is evidently the form in which he is worshipped by the sect of Pasupata Saivas, who, according to Dr. Bhandarkar, came into 2 The Silpasara prominence about the second century B.C. describes Pasupatamurti as having ten arms and five faces. According to other Agamas the figure may have only four arms. It has a fierce face, knitted brows over its three eyes, and hair red like flames of fire, bristling erect on the head. in his right hand a trident pointing downwards palm of the left he also holds a skull boon-giving and Sometimes the handle of the trident is lightly held (kapala). by both the lower arms, which do not then show the varada and the abhaya postures. In the back arms are seen the tanka and the sword. The protruding teeth and the sacred thread formed of a venomous serpent add to the fierceness of his appearance. For purposes of meditation, however, a milder form is adopted, in which, like Chandrasekhara, the god is represented standing or seated with a smiling countenance, showing the trident and the abhaya in his two right arms and the rosary and the varada in the two left arms (fig. 95). Two other terrible forms of Siva are Aghoramurti and RAKSHORakshoghnamurti. The latter has braided hair and a body GHNAMURTI. besmeared with ashes. In one hand he holds a trident with which he is piercing the god Yama, who calls away unto him the victims of all cruel diseases. In another hand is a skull from which issues a blazing fire. The axe and the kettle-drum are other weapons held by him. With his formidable projecting teeth, knitted eyebrows and frowning face he is represented as feasting on corpses in the company of bhutas, pretas and pisachas in the burning ground, which is his usual dwelling place. I have not, however, seen any actual reAGHORApresentation of this image in South-Indian temples. AghoraMURTI. murti has four faces and eight hands. In these he holds the kuthdra (axe), Vedas, noose, goad, kettle-drum, rosary, trident The god holds in the 1 Madras Archaeological Survey Report 2 Vaishanavism, Sivism, etc., p. 1 16 f. for 1911-12, Plate IX, Fig. 1. SIVA Fig. 94. — Sarabhamurti 149 ; Dharasuram. 150 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES FIG. 95. — Pasupatamurti ; Chidambaram. SIVA 151 skull. He has terrible protruding teeth and a dark shining body (fig. 96). The Sivatattvaratnakara mentions a form of Aghoramiirti with thirty-two arms and the Pancharatragama, another with twelve arms. The image wears a garland of skulls and treads on the head of Kalamunda, the vile god of Death. Bhairava, born of the blood of Siva, is another god of Bhairava. this class. The Tantrasara mentions eight forms of Bhairava which are fit for worship. His general form shows dishevelled matted hair, three eyes and a red-coloured body. His symbols are the trident, sword, noose and the kettle-drum. He is naked and is represented as being followed by all kinds of demons and spirits and riding on a dog (fig. 97). Hemadri describes Bhairava as a pot-bellied god with round red eyes, terrible face, protruding teeth and wide nostrils. He wears a garland of skulls and ornaments of snakes, l thus frightening even his consort who stands by his side. The upper half of his body which is dark in colour is covered with the elephant's hide. He has many arms and holds all destructive weapons. The Silpasara makes him seated on a jewelled throne under the celestial tree mandara, closely embraced by the goddess. The same work mentions three other forms of Bhairava, viz., Panchavaktra-Bhairava, Govinda-Bhairava and Samhara- GovindaBhairava. The second of these has four arms and holds Bhairava Samharathe conch, discus, drinking cup and the tiace. He has three Bhairava. eyes and is young, serene and naked. On his side is the goddess Vaishnavl-Sakti and his vehicle is the bird Garuda. The third has five faces and ten arms and among his weapons are also the Vaishnavite conch and discus. According to the Silpasara Kala-Bhairava wears a girdle kalaBhairava of tiny bells on his waist and holds the sword, trident, drum and the drinking cup in his hands. He has a fearsome face with protruding teeth, a garland of skulls and dishevelled hair. In the illustration from Durgi (fig. 98) the dog which is his vehicle is seen biting a human head held by the left lower hand of the image. The goddess with her companion is standing to the right, evidently frightened at the serpent ornaments and the terrible form of Bhairava. and the ' ' Mahakala, still another fierce form of Siva, is quite like Mahakai.a Bhairava, but holds a serpent in the place of the noose. In the work entitled Lalitopakhyana he is described as accompanied by Kali, embracing her and drinking with her " from 1 Figures of Bhairava with the dog vehicle and the five-hooded serpent overhead, are reported to exist in some of the ancient temples of the Bellary district, t$2 SOUTH-INDIAN iMAGES Fig. 96.- Agohramurti : Pattisvaram. SIVA Fig. 97. — Bhairava 153 ; Pattisvaram. 154 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 98, — Kala-Bhairava ; Durgi. SIVA 155 the cup which is the mundane egg, the wine which is the essence of creation." His faces (evidently five) are terrible to look at, like those of death, and threaten to swallow the universe. Kalagni-Rudra " the terrible or fiery Rudra " described in kalagnithe Kasyapa-Silpa, closely resembles Bhairava and is perhaps Rudra. only another form of him. 1 He holds the weapons sword and The shield, the illustration arrow and the bow and wears a red cloth. from Durgi (fig. 99) is very likely one of Kalagni-Rudra. XXIII Virabhadra is one of the many Saiva demi-gods (ganas). 2 is said to have sprung from a lock of Siva's hair when, as already stated, Siva heard of the suicide of his wife SatI in He her father's sacrificial fire and flew into a rage. From the fire of his anger came into existence this terrible form, as of Death manifest, who destroyed the sacrificial ceremonies of Daksha and slew Daksha himself. The Pancharatragama describes Virabhadra as black in colour, having three eyes and holding in his four arms a sword, arrow, bow and club. He wears a garland of skulls and has sandals on his feet. A yellow garment is tied round his loins. 3 The Silparatna describes him as having eight hands and riding on vetala (a demon) surrounded by his ganas (followers). From the Brihadlsvara temple at Tanjore comes a sculptured panel (fig. 100) in which a woman, perhaps the wife of Daksha, is seen flying in alarm with upraised hands at seeing her husband decapitated by Virabhadra before her very eyes and the severed head thrown into the sacrificial fire-pit. One of the attendant priests with a ladle in his hand is also represented in the act of running away from the scene. fine figure of Virabhadra with the bow and arrow, sword A comes from Mudigondam in the Coimbatore district The god is represented standing on a padmapltha in front of a prabhd-mandala, " an arch of light ". At the edge of the pedestal on the right side is shown Daksha who was, however, revived by Siva with the head of a sheep substituted for the one that was burnt in the sacrificial fire. and shield, (fig. 101). * The Rudrayamala-TaKtra includes the name Kalagni-Rudra among the 64 varieties of Bhairava. 2 Kasikhanda. In the lexicon Amarakosa Siva himself is called the destroyer of the sacrifice (Kratudhvamsin). 3 The Karanagama adds that he has Bhadrakali by his side and is Daksha with the sheep's head, two eyes and two arms, stands on the right Virabhadra. fierce, side of virabhadra. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 156 rv FlG, 99. — Kalagni-Rudra (?) ; Purgi. SIVA 157 o H 158 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. ,ioi. — Vlrabhadra ; Mudigondam. SIVA 159 The figure of Daksha is of comparatively small stature, meant evidently to indicate by contrast, the huge form of Vlrabhadra. The Silpasangraha mentions three varieties of Vlrabhadra (viz. sattvic, tdmasic and rajasic) with two, four or eight arms. 1 All are dark in colour and fierce looking. Seated figures of Vlrabhadra are called Yoga-Vlra, his standing figures, BhogaVira and those in a walking posture, Vira-Vira. In the first, Vlrabhadra holds a sword and shield and is seated with one leg folded on the pedestal and the other hanging down. In the second posture he exhibits the bow and arrow, sword and On the leg is worn the anklet of heroes. The head is kataka. adorned with a crown, in the middle of which is represented a garland of skulls decorates the neck. On the right linga. side is the image of Daksha with folded arms. In the VlraVlra figures, Vlrabhadra holds the trident, sword, arrow and the deer on the right side and the skull, shield, bow and the goad on the left. It may be noted that, while images of Vlrabhadra and independent temples erected for him are very common in the Telugu and Canarese districts, temples in the Tamil districts rarely contain his image, and shrines dedicated to him are still rarer. There is a Vlrabhadra temple at A Madura, XXIV Images of Kshetrapala often met with in the temples of Kshetea. PALA Southern India are divided into three classes, according to the predominating qualities sattva, rajas and tamas. Those belonging to the first class have two or four hands the second six and the third eight. 2 All the figures, irrespective of the class to which they belong, are made to stand with level feet ( samapdda). The general description of them is that they have three eyes which are round and protruding, red hair pointing upwards, serpent jewels, a girdle of bells round the waist and a necklace of skulls. They are naked and inspire awe with their fierce fangs (fig. 102). Kshetrapala occupies an important place among the subsidiary deities in Siva temples. He is the chief guardian of the temple just as Chandesa (described below) is its superintendent and ' ; 1 Dr. Burgess's Elura Cave Temples, Plate XXII, Fig. of Vlrabhadra with eight hands. The 2, is a representation plate wrongly calls the figure Bhairava. 2 One image of Kshetrapala with eight arms and another of Bhairava, were set up in the Tanjore temple at the beginning of the eleventh century A.I), in connexion with the group of figures illustrating the story of the Saiva saint Siruttonda-Nayanar see below, p. 259, footnote 2. In the Panchanadesvara temple at Tiruvadi near Tanjore is an image of Kshetrapala, called Alkor.dar, with eight hands, to which people attach much importance, ; 160 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES i— v. Fig. 102. — Kshetrapala ; Tiruvarangulam. SIVA manager. Kshetrapala is l6l worshipped first in every Siva temple, before commencing the regular service for the day. The Prayogasara says " Whoever performs any : — ceremony without first worshipping Kshetrapala, the fruit of that ceremony is without doubt destroyed by Kshetrapala." His naked form and the name Maha-Bhairava by which he is addressed during the Sribali ceremony suggests that Kshetrapala in his essence must be allied to Bhairava. 1 All these awe-inspiring forms of the Saiva cult, including which are mentioned in the Agamas, but not often met with in South-Indian temples, received special worship from the adherents of the early Saiva sub-sects known as Pasuothers Kalamukhas and Kapalikas, Lingayatas of later origin. 3 patas, as well as from the XXV Among the attendant ganas of Siva who, like the gods with one or another aspect of Siva himself, may be mentioned Chandesa, Bhringisa and Chandesa, just described, are identified Nandisa. The counted as the foremost of the servants hence called in Tamil inscriptions and the Periyapuranam, Adidasa-Chandesa. 3 The Kasyapa-Silpa tells us that he is made up of the sterner side of Siva's nature and appears in each millennium (yuga) with different names and symbols. In the Krita-yuga he receives the name Prachanda, is of angry appearance, rides on an elephant and has the jatdmakuta and sixteen arms. In Treta-yuga he is seen smiling, has eight arms and dishevelled braids of hair, and goes by the name Chanda. In the third or Dvapara-yuga he of Siva and first is is has four hands, the lion vehicle, jatdmandala, protruding teeth and a fearful face. His weapons then are the tanka, trident, noose and the hook. In the Kali-yuga he has a peaceful appearance and the bull vehicle, has his locks made up in the Mayuralhanja, (p. xxxiv, fig. 13), gives a description of Kshetrapala him Mahakaia and Bhairava. The Silpasara in describing VatukaBhairava, calls him also Kshetrapala. 2 In the famous temple on the Srisailam Hill (Kurnool district) where the influence of the Lingayata sect was once very great, is a pavilion adjoining the NaxLH-mandapa. An inscription of the fourteenth century A.D. describes it as the place where the votaries, evidently of the Vlrabhadra form of Siva, offered up their heads in order to propitiate the furious god Madras Epigraphical Report 1 calling ; for 1914-15, p. 92, paragraph 15. 3 In Epigraphic records the documentary transactions of a Siva temple are name of Chandesa, the supposed manager of the stated to be conducted in the Even now, visitors to a Siva shrine have to report themselves before Chandesa prior to leaving the temple premises and clap their hands as if to show that they are not carrying with them any portion of the temple property. temple. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 1 62 form of either a jatamakuta, jatamandala or kesabandha and stands with level feet in the dbhanga or the sama-bhanga posture. He may also be found seated with the right leg hanging down from the seat and the left leg bent crosswise so as to rest upon the seat. He holds the tanka (or, axe) in the right hand and shows the boon-giving posture in his left 1 (fig. 103). Sometimes both the hands are seen folded over the breast in a worshipping posture with the weapon tanka In this (or, sometimes, a flower garland) held between them. A story related in case he receives the name Adi-Chandesa. the Tamil Periyapuranam about Chandesa makes him a fervent devotee of Siva, who in his height of devotion, cut off the legs of his own fitther, because he wantonly spilt the milk-pots which Chandesa had secured as loving offerings to Nandisa. Siva. Sankaracharya, who lived perhaps in the early part of the eighth century A.D., refers to this Saiva devotee Chandesa as pitridrohin, " the sinner against (his) father," evidently with reference to the story related in the Periyapuranam. The form of Siva known as Chandesanugrahamurti, described above, is entirely based on this anecdote. Nandi, Nandisa or Nandikesvara, now represented by the recumbent bull placed in front of the chief shrine in a Siva temple, is described by Hemadri to be one of the attendant demi-gods of Siva. He is stated to have three eyes and four arms and to wear a tiger's skin. In two of his hands he holds the trident and the bhindivala " a short javelin." The third hand is raised up over the head and the last shows a stretched finger (tarjani), his eyes being watchful and fixed towards people coming from a distance into the Siva temple. The Varaha-Pwrawa says that, though originally an ascetic, Nandi by his austerities and devotion to Siva was blessed with a form similar to that of Siva himself and was placed at metallic image the head of the attendant ganas of Siva. (fig. 104) from Valuvur (Tanjore district) represents him in He has four arms of which the this metamorphosed form. two back ones hold the tanka and the deer and the two front are joined together palm to palm in a worshipping posture. By the side of Nandlsvara stands also his wife with two arms. 2 A 1 This last is the illustration, is form of Chandesa usually found in Siva temples. however, the left hand rests on the thigh and the position of In the the legs reversed. 2 A verse in praise of Nandi describes him as the husband of Suyasa. stands at the entrance into Siva temples with a knife or golden cane held in his hands so as to touch the kurpara of his right arm. In one of the mandafas of He the Ekamresvara temple at Conjeeveram, Nandi is represented in the same posture as Garuda, carrying in his out -stretched fore-arms the feet of Siva and Parvati. SIVA FIG. 103.— Chandesa 163 ; Tiruvottiyur. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 1 64 Fig. 104. — Nandfsa and his consort (metal); Valuvur. sivA 165 must be noted that Nandlsa is a favourite deity of the Saiva puritans, the so-called Lingayatas or Vlra-Saivas. It Bhringi, Bhringiriti or Bhringlsa is similarly a fervent Bhringisa. devotee of Siva. So exclusive was he in his devotion that he is said to have ignored the goddess who was part and His sole business in life, to which he had pledged himself, was ever to circumambulate the linga of Siva and no one else. To test his faith the god assumed the hermaphrodite form of Ardhanari in which the goddess, as already described, is not separated from the god. Bhringi was not baffled but assuming the form of a bee (bhringa) he bored into the united body and continued still to go round and round the Siva half of the hermaphrodite. The goddess Parvati was enraged and cursed him to become emaciated day after day. Bhringi, accordingly, grew very thin and was unable to support himself. With the grace of Siva he secured a third leg which supported him. Thus Bhringi is represented in pictures with three legs (fig. 105). 1 An image of Bhringlsa with three arms and three legs is stated to have been set up in the temple at Tanjore by a subordinate of Rajaraja I in the eleventh century A.D. Jvaradeva of Saiva mythology, who is supposed to have Jvaradeva. been_the destroyer of the demon Bhasmasura, is described in the Agamas as having three legs, three heads, six arms, nine eyes, and a dejected appearance. An image from Bhavani in the Coimbatore district (fig. 106) answers to this description of Jvaradeva. parcel of Siva. ; XXVI Ganapati, GanSsa or Vinayaka, the popular " belly god," Ganapati, as his name indicates, the chief of the Saiva ganas. He is v^ayaka* said to be the eldest son of Siva and Parvati, to have three eyes, an elephant's head 2 and ears and four arms. In the is, The V'amana-ftw/M states that Bhringi was the name conferred by Siva on demon Andhaka after the latter had proved himself to be a staunch devotee of Siva. Bhringi is represented with an emaciated body holding the staff in one hand and the rosary in the other. His eyes are ever directed towards Siva. 2 One of the popular stories explaining how Ganapati came to have the elephant's head is as follows Once upon a time when Parvati went to bathe, she made a figure of the turmeric which had been smeared over her body, gave it life and limbs and appointed it to keep watch at the door. Siva came to see Parvati 1 the : Siva in anger cut off the but was stopped at the door by the newly created guard. head of the figure. The goddess entreated him to revive her child. He agreed and said that the head of any living body sleeping with the head placed northward might be severed at once and placed on the trunk of the turmeric figure. An Its head was accordingly cut elephant was found sleeping in the way described. i66 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 105. — Bhringi ; Srisailam. SIVA Fig. ic6. —Jvaradeva; 167 Bhavani. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 168 two back hands he holds the hook and the noose and in the front arms an elephant's tusk and the wood-apple. Instead of the two last we may sometimes find the boon-conferring posture and the water-pot. According to the Kasyapa-Silpa the noose may alternate with the rosary or a serpent. The illustration from Lepakshi (fig. 107) shows the left lower hand of Ganesa resting on his thigh. His elephant trunk is curved out in the act of picking up the wood-apple or, sometimes, the pudding. His pot-belly is girded round by a serpent and the sacred thread, which is also a serpent, hangs across the body from over his left shoulder. In the seated posture Ganesa is represented with one leg hanging from the pedestal and placed on a foot-stool and the other resting on the pedestal. The right tusk of the god is broken and must in no case be shown complete. 1 He rides on a rat or bandicoot. His image may be made standing (fig. 108), seated (fig. 109) or dancing (fig. no). 3 In the first position the general bend of the body known as dbhanga or samabhanga may optionally be adopted. While seated, the body is to be slightly bent to the left. Over his head Ganesa wears the jewelled crown (kiritamakuta) and his hands and legs are fully ornamented. Ganapati is a very important deity in the Hindu Pantheon. 3 Supposed to be the lord of obstacles (Vighnesvara) he is worshipped by all classes of Hindus, other than Sri-Vaishna- commencement of every religious ceremony, whether auspicious or inauspicious. sect of Brahmanas called Ganapatyas, found mostly on the West Coast, worship him as the highest of the gods. As in the case of Vishnu and Siva he is vas, at the A off and placed on the trunk. as his first-born child, hosts (ganas). blessed People placed northward. still The figure came back to life and Siva accepting that him and made him the leader (pah) of the Saiva t.elieve that it is not right to sleep with one's head The Brahmavaivarta-/W-aK3 makes Vishnu responsible for the change gives a different account and in Ganapati's head. In the Sukranliisara it is stated that his left (vama) tusk is broken, that his may be any animal which he chooses and that his trunk holds a lotus. 2 The dancing figure of Ganesa from Gangaikondasolapuram has its upper left hand lifted up instead of showing the noose or the rosary. 3 Babu Nagendra Natha Vasu in his Mayurabhanja states that Vinayaka is worshipped even by the Buddhists, the Japanese calling him Binayakia. He refers to a temple of Ganesa in Nepal which is supposed to have been built by a daughter of the Maurya king Asoka in the third century B.C. Dr. Bhandarkar Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc. p. 147 f.) gives the sixth century to be the earliest date ( when Ganapati as the elephant-headed god, came to be generally worshipped by the Hindus. 1 vehicle , SIVA Fig. 107. — Ganapati standing 169 ; Lcpakshi. 170 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 108.— Ganapati standing (metal) ; Pattisvaram. SIVA 171 fwffl SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES i;2 Fig. i io. — Ganapati dancing; Gangaikondasolapuram, : SIVA also called by a thousand names. 173 Mr. Havell explains Gana- pati to be the manas, or worldly wisdom, personified. pati in Hindu mythology is recognized as an unmarried a brahmacharin. But from the sequel Gana- god— appear that some forms of Ganapati have their accompanying goddesses, sometimes, recognized as Ashta-Siddhis (the eight presiding deities it will of success or achievement). Thirty-two forms of Ganapati 1 are mentioned in the Mudgala-i^rawa. The Silpasara also refers to some of these Maha-Ganapati is stated in the Mudgala-ZWaraa to be Mahaan elephant-faced god, three-eyed, wearing the crescent of the Ganapati moon as his head-ornament, and red in colour. He is lovingly embraced by his wife who, seated on his lap, holds a lotus in her hand. The following weapons and symbols are mentioned the bijapura, club, sugarcane-bow, a brilliant discus, conch, noose, lotus, ear of paddy, the broken tusk and the ruby-pot.' This list indicates that the god must have ten hands. 2 The forms. illustration (fig. ill) from Madura - shows Maha-Ganapati riding on a rat and having on his lap the seated figure of a goddess. He has ten arms but the weapons held in them are not quite distinct. In the uppermost hand on the right side, however, is seen the discus. In the Visvanatha temple at Tenkasi (Tinnevelly district) we have a similar image seated on a pedestal without the usual rat vehicle, the elephant trunk being turned towards the left side. Here again only the discus and the lotus held in two of the ten arms are clear- MahaGanapati with different weapons and two goddesses receives the name Lakshml-Ganapati. A fine bronze image of lakshmiHeramba-Ganapati, also described in the Mudgala-Purana Ganapati. comes from Negapatam (fig. 112). This figure has five elephant ganapat^ faces, the fifth of which, in the illustration, is represented at Of his ten arms the two lowest show the protecting and the boon-giving postures. The others hold the noose, the tusk, the rosary, hook, axe, pestle, pudding and the fruit. He rides on a lion, but no goddess is found, as in the two varieties just mentioned. From Tiruvanaikkaval (i.e., Jambukesvaram) the top. 3 1 The Saradatilaka speaks of The Silparatna says that he 2 fifty-one forms of Ganapati. is seated on a lotus-pedestal under a ialpa-tree arms holding the weapons mentioned in the Mudgala-/ «r5«a and that he is surrounded by gods and ganas. No. 84 of the Tanjore inscriptions {S.I. I., Vol. II, p. 407) refers to a comfortably seated Ganapati and mentions a tree as one of his accompaniments. The reference may be to Maha-Ganapati that he has ten > ; but the inscription states that he had only four divine arms. 8 A Madras. stone image of this form of Ganapati It is of recent make and has is the five heads found at Tiruvottiyur near arranged in a circle. all 1 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 74 FlG, hi. — Maha-Ganapati ; Madura. SIVA 175 D.ioe. Fig. 112.— Heramba-Ganapati (metal); Negapatam. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 176 Trichinopoly district, comes a stone figure of Panchamukha-Vinayaka which answers to the description of Heramba-Ganapati _without the lion vehicle. There are other PanchaMUKHA- in the VlNAYAKA. BlJA- Ganapati or VlJAYA - Ganapati. forms known as Urdhva-Ganapati, Uchchhishta-Ganapati and Vara-Ganapati, 1 which are perhaps the inventions of the followers of that mysterious and often indecent cult of Saktas, in which the female energy of creation always plays a very prominent part. Sakti-Ganapati and Uddanda-Ganapati are represented as embracing a goddess. Bija-Ganapati mentioned in the Silparatna has four arms, is fond of the citron and is adorned with shining ornaments. Perhaps he is the same as Vijaya-Ganapati of the Mudgala-Pwrawa. It may be noted that in the Brihadisvara temple at Tanjore, established by the Chola king Rajaraja I about the beginning of the eleventh century A.D., different forms of dancing and seated Ganapatis were installed. These bore the names 2 Alayattu-Pillaiyar and Parivaralayattu-Pillaiyar. Ganapati, the Tamil Pillaiyar, is a very popular god. He is the god of wealth, the remover of all obstacles, the bestower He is gentle, calm and of success, the fulfiller of desire. friendly and withal possessed of a certain wise craftfamous story relates how Vyasa found no one capable of writing down his voluminous Mahdbharata to his dictation and was referred to Ganapati. Ganapati agreed, but on the understanding that Vyasa never stopped for a moment in the midst. Vyasa on his part stipulated that Ganapati should A down naught of which he did not understand the meanSo whenever Vyasa felt that he had to pause in the middle of his composition he gave out a more than ordinarily tough verse; and while the crafty god was worrying over its meaning managed to be ahead of the god's writing. Temples of Ganapati are quite common in Southern India, though there are none which may be considered particularly famous, except the one of Ucchi-Pillaiyar on the rock at Trichinopoly. In virtue of his being the lord of spirits (ganas) which cause obstacles to men, Ganapati is also considered to be the guardian deity of a village and is, as such, installed in one take ing. of the four quarters of almost every village. The Ganapatyas recognize six forms of Ganapati to tie the most important, Maha-Ganapati, Haridra- Ganapati, Uchchhishta-Ganapati, Navanita-Ganapati, Svarna-Ganapati and Santana-Ganapati. 2 I.e., Ganapati within the main temple and Ganapati in the surrounding shrines. Evidently the former was worshipped as a chief god and the latter as one 1 viz., of the subsidiary guardian deities of the temple. SIVA 177 XXVII Skanda or Kumara is another of Siva's sons known to Skanda Hindu mythology. He is represented with six faces (Sha- Kdmaea danana) and as riding on a peacock. Being supposed to have been brought up by the six mothers, the Krittikas (Pleiades), he is known as Shanmatura and Karttikeya. The Puranas state that he was born of the fiery energy of Siva in a forest of grass (sara-vana), became the commander of the army of the gods in their battle against the giant Taraka, and that he rent asunder by his arrows the mountain Krauncha. The birth of Skanda-Kumara is described at great length by the famous poet Kalidasa in bis well-known work Kumarasambhava. Skanda is also known by the name Subrahmanya in the Tantras. In some unexplained way there exists an intimate connexion between the worship of Subrahmanya and of the serpent. The common name Subba or Subbaraya found among the Telugu, Canarese and Tamil people is explained to be both a contraction of Subrahmanya and a synonym for serpent. The sixth day of a lunar month (shashthi) is held as peculiarly sacred to Subrahmanya, as to the serpent god. His riding on a peacock, his marriage with the forest maid Valliyamman, and the fact that his most famous temples are on hill tops, show that he is connected with the ancient treeand-serpent-worship and the sylvan deities. The Silpasara describes him under name Subbaraya as having six faces, three eyes, the peacock vehicle and the weapons sakti, thunderbolt, sword, etc. The Silpasangraha describes him as having two arms, the sacred thread, a tuft, girdle, kaupina and staff like the unmarried students of the Vedas (brahmacharin). It may be noted that the day shashthi, sacred to serpent worship in Southern India, is celebrated by feeding brahmacharins and presenting cloths to them. The Kasyapa-Silpa sets down that the image of Skanda may be made of two, four, six or twelve hands and may have either six faces or only one. The symbols generally are the sakti, arrow, sword, discus, noose, a bunch of peacock's feathers, shield, bow, plough, rosary and the postures abhaya and varada. When the image has two hands, the left hand holds a cock fkukkuta) and the right hand a sakti (the Tamil vel) l Hemadri speaks of him as wearing a red cloth and riding on a . 1 The famous image of Subrahmanya on the Palni Hills, called Palani- Andavar, has only two arms in one of which he holds the sakli, the other resting freely on the waist. 12 or - SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES I78 peacock. The illustration from Tiruvottiyur only four hands. shadanana. SubrahMANYA. (fig. 113) shows The most common variety however is the six-faced Shadanana-Subrahmanya, showing in his twelve hands the symbols and weapons, sakti, arrow, sword, discus, noose and abhaya on the right and a kukktuta (cock), bow, shield, conch, plough and varada on the left. He rides on the peacock vehicle and may have on either side of him the attendants Jaya and Vijaya (fig. 114), or perhaps the goddesses Valli and Devayana or Devasena, " the army of gods." A fine stone figure (fig. 115) of Kumara on the peacock vehicle, with a single face and four arms and attended by the goddesses Valli and Devayana, comes from Samayapuram in the Trichinopoly district. A sketch from Chidambaram (fig. 116) shows Skanda with three visible faces, ten arms and the peacock vehicle fighting with giants evidently laraka and his retinue. In four of his right hands he holds the weapons, sword, axe, arrow and club while the fifth is in the posture of pulling the bow string (missing in the illustration). The uppermost of his left arms shows the vismaya posture, and the four others hold the shield, bow, noose and bell. Subrahmanya may also be shown with one face and ten hands and riding on the peacock — vehicle. The worship Skanda in India has been very ancient. his work Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc., has put forth literary and inscriptional evidence to prove that Skanda was worshipped in the time of Patanjali and in the Dr. of Bhandarkar in early centuries of the Christian era. Sudraka, the author of the drama Mrichchhakatika, introducing a thief as one of the characters in his drama, makes him, before starting on his profession, invoke the blessings of Skanda. The artisans of the present day also resort to Skanda as one of the chief deities who preside over their craft. In the south the worship of Skanda-Kumara under the name Velayudha, Muruga, etc., is most popular. All classes are equally devoted to him, the non-Brahmans being particularly so. It may be noted that the shrines sacred to Skanda are always situated on hills, as at Tiruttani, Palnis, Tirupparangunram, Kunnakudi or on the seashore as at Tiruchchendur, etc. An ancient Tamil poem called Tirumurugarruppadai probably written in the early eighth century A.D. is devoted exclusively to describing the shrines of Subrahmanya in Southern India. The god has been included in Aryan theogony from very early ages. Like most Saiva gods he may be the outcome of the fusion of the ancient Aryan and Dravidian cults and this may SIVA Fig. 113. I3-A —Skanda i;9 ; Tiruvottiyur. 1 80 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES SIVA Fig. 115. — Skanda and his consorts 181 ; Saniayapuram, SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 1 82 , , ; ! i fr'IG. 116. i' JM,l- | - l!-!i<li!iijT:ii f7Hiii — Skaada fighting with giants ; Vi Chidanibarau SIVA 183 account for the large number of devotees he claims among non-Brahman classes of Southern India. Like the other Saiva attendants described above, who partake of the nature of Siva and are made of his substance, Skanda is also one of the leaders of the Saivite hosts (ganas). He is a guardian deity and is enshrined in almost every Siva temple of importance in Southern India. He is par excellence the god of youth, of energy and virility. the CHAPTER V. SAKTI-GODDESSES. I and minor gods described above intimately connected one or more goddesses who, so far as With each are of the chief the usual routine of worship in temples is concerned, play the subordinate part of consorts, but considered in the higher philosophical sense represent the peculiar energy or virtue of the god without which he could not be in active communion cursory analysis of the Hindu cosmogony with the world. A groups of gods and goddesses, the former being considered the agents or "the lords of karma" and the latter their inseparable power or source of energy. Thus Brahma, the lord of creation, has the goddess Sarasvati (the goddess of Learning or Speech) dwelling in his mouth. She presides over learning and is the vdch, logos, (word) which so is Sri or Lakshml, _essentially is the first cause of creation the consort of Vishnu, the presiding goddess of Wealth and Happiness and hence, also, the energy that sustains or keeps the world going. Siva's consort Parvatl or Uma likewise, especially in her manifestation as Kali, is the energy that destroys, that makes the world involve or draw itself into the quiescent state from which it started or evolved. In fact a sect of worshippers called Saktas, " the adherents of Sakti or Energy," affirm that this Sakti, the feminine element in god, is the sole, if not the preponderating, cause of all visible phenomena. It may be noted that the word sakti is of the feminine gender in the Sanskrit language. Almost every human or divine activity has been personified as a goddess even the letters ofjdie alphabet-beiBg-^apposeJ^tohave their presiding deities, ([/fjhis theory of goddesses hasperv:Me^"^ven-J-aTrrism and Buddhism, the latter especially in its Mahayana development. Strict Sakti-worshippers do not make any distinction resolves itself into ; ; and creed. Perhaps it was thus that Sakti-faith became one of the compromises providing a common meeting of caste ground for the different 1 forms of religion prevailing in India. 1 M/iyurabhanja, Introduction, p. lxii. SAtCTl-GODDESSES 185 Germs of the energy-creed may indeed be traced even in the Upanishads— the early sacred books of the Hindus— though extreme development took place at a its much later period. II Saktis may be found depicted in temples in any one of the three aspects, the calm, the terrible or the ugly, as distinguished by the particular positions in which they are placed or the circumstances under which they are worshipped. merely represented as the consorts of the gods they are mild and pleasing in appearance and have only two hands, in one of which is held the lotus bud. More often, however, the goddesses have independent existence. The majority of When these latter are Saivite in their nature, i.e., wild, fearful and destructive and are often propitiated only by bloody sacrifices. Before entering upon a description of these numerous 1 word may be said of each of the milder ones associated with Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. It must be noted that the characteristic feature in the worship of Saktis, Saivite Saktis, a whether Saivite, Vaishnavite or otherwise, is the association with them of mystic charms, or geometrical figures called chakras, yantras or pilhas, with conventional and often mystic incantations and solemn ceremonials which make no appeal to the gentler feelings of human nature. Ill Sarasvati or VagisvarT, the consort of Brahma, may be Saeasvah represented with two or more hands- In the former case she VAgisvar >holds the book and the rosary, and in the latter the noose and the hook in addition (fig. II7). 2 VagTsvarT, who is referred to in Mayurabhanja (Introduction, p. lxxvi) as a goddess worshipped both by the Buddhist and Hindu Tdntrikas, is described in the Pdnchardtragama as having three eyes and four hands holding in these latter the staff, book, rosary and the water-pot, which as we have seen above, are the symbols of the creator Brahma. Two other allied forms of VagisvarT are DhenuVaglsvarl and Saubhagya-Vagisvari, both of which are mild in appearance and beautiful, but as Saktis in essence, they display the Saivaite attributes of three eyes, the jatamakuta 1 A recognized classification of the Saktis under the heads Yoga, Bhoga and Vira has been already referred to (above, p. no, note 2). be the goddess who is identical with the pedestal of Siva The ; first is the second defined to is the god- and the third in the third outer prakara of Siva dess that stands to the left of Siva or the Siva.-liHga as his consort is the independent goddess generally installed temples. a v'ma. In certain cases where she and the water-pot. is represented with four hands, she holds the 186 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES D.228 Fig. 117.— Sarasvati ; Bagali. ; sAkti-goddesses i§ 7 The former, who is logos (Sabda-Brahma) identical with the illustration from Bagali given Sarasvati, when represented as the goddess Sarada and the crescent. incarnate, above. is form in which she is worshipped at Sringeri-matha, Mysore) presiding over the sixty-four sciences (chatushshashtikald), has five faces and ten arms. The worship of (the in Sarasvati generally held on the ninth day of the Dasara is conducted by invoking her presence in a library of books and offering fruits, flowers, sandal and incense. IV The two consorts of Vishnu are Lakshml (Wealth) and Lakshmi The former ami seated or standing on a red f£ lotus pedestal, has four hands, holds two lotus flowers in Mahi. her upper arms, the other two hands being either in the boon-giving and protecting postures or holding a vessel and a fruit. She is said to have sprung from the ocean at the time Prithvl (Earth). is i . . of its being churned for nectar. The latter, Prithvl, 1 has only two hands of which the right is raised in the abhaya posture and the left holds the fruit of the pomegranate. Her left leg is represented also as stepping upon a pot of treasures. When Lakshmi accompanies Vishnu she has only two hands. Eight forms of Lakshmi, known as Ashta-Mahalakshml, are recognized. Of these, Gaja-Lakshmi is the most popular. GajaShe is generally found figured on the lintels of door-frames, Lakshmi. has four arms and is seated in the same posture as Vinayaka, on a full-blown lotus of eight petals. In her right hand she holds a lotus flower with a long stem which reaches her shoulder ring and in her left a pot of nectar. The two other hands of the goddess hold the bilva-hnit and the conch. Behind her are represented two elephants pouring water from two pots held by their trunks over the head of the goddess. The Mdnasdra describes the same goddess with two hands as Samanya-Lakshmi and says that she is figured Samanyaon door-ways- In the Silpasdra this goddess is called the two- £^" MI handed Indra-Lakshmi. A fine representation of Samanya- Lakshmi. Lakshmi comes from Mahabalipuram (fig. Il8). 3 The central figure of the group is seated on a pedestal of lotus flower, whose open petals are seen hanging down and decorating with their edges the rim of another lotus pedestal at the Manasara describing her under the name Mahi says, that she is figured standing or seated to the left of Vishnu with a blue lotus in her right hand, the left hand hanging down or showing the varada posture. a Mayurabhaitja, Introduction, p. Ixvi. oi i88 SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGES I SAKTI-GODDESSES base. Below this again is 1 89 a floral design, also perhaps of bud in the middle and full blown flowers on either The goddess has two hands and holds in each of them side. Two female attendants on the immea closed lotus flower. diate right and left sides are seen lifting up pots of water which are received by two majestic elephants in their trunks (not fully represented) and poured over the head of the goddess alternately. The second female attendant to the left of the goddess carries a lotus bud in one of her hands, lotuses, a and the corresponding one to the right, a cup-like vessel, which in all probability is meant to hold the sandal paste, powder or some toilet requisite intended for the goddess. The head dress of the attendant women and the simple ornaments which they wear are worth noting and point to the modest taste of the Pallava times. The Sri-sukta praises Lakshmi as " the goddess of Prosperity standing on the turmeric bent on account of the weight of her having high hips, broad lotus-like eyes and deep navel pit, dressed in white cloth and bathed by heavenly elephants from golden pots which are bedecked with a variety of jewels, and holding lotuses in her hands." Havell calls the picture from Mahabalipuram " Lakshmi arising from the sea " and describes it in Chapter XXI of his Ideals of Indian Art. Another of the eight Lakshmis, is Maha-Lakshml who has mahafour hands in which she holds a vessel, the club Kaumodaki, Lakshmi. the shield and the bel-frmt (sriphala). A special feature of this Maha-Lakshml is that she wears a linga on her head. When standing or seated on a lotus, with lotus flowers in her viratwo upper hands and the varada and abhaya postures in the Lakshmi. lower, Lakshmi receives the name Vira-Lakshmi. In another lotus flower, slightly breasts, representation she holds the noose, rosary, lotus and the hook. Kollapura-Mahalakshmi is stated in the Silpasara to have six kollafukaarms, in three of which are held the club, shield and wine-cup. Maha. Another called Ashtabhuja-Vlralakshml has eight arms, in which are seen the noose, hook, rosary, the boon-conferring hand, the hand of protection, the club, lotus and the vessel. The Ydi&mdL-Purdna mentions eight Saktis (or Energies) of The the protecting god Vishnu, viz., Sri, Bhu, SarasvatI, Prlti, y" s Klrti, Santi, Tushti and Pushti. As the names clearly indicate, these goddesses of Wealth, Earth, Learning, Love, Fame, Peace, Pleasure and Strength are the eight channels through which the protective energies of Vishnu are brought into play. All these goddesses have four hands, hold lotuses in the two upper ones and exhibit the varada and abhaya postures in the two lower. eight ^ es ol SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 190 V Gauri or parvati. general form of the goddess Gaurl, Parvati or Uma, consort of Siva, as given in the Kasyapa-Silpa and the Manasara, is that she has two hands when accompanying the god Siva and four when represented independently. In the former case she is fully decorated, is standing or seated on a lotus pedestal, holds a blue lily in the right hand, while her left hangs down loose " like the tail of a cow." She wears a band on the forehead called phalapatta, has one of her legs slightly bent (kunchita) and the other placed straight (lambita or svastika) on the pedestal she stands to the left of the image of Siva or the SivA-linga and wears the head-dress karandamakuta, kiritamakuta or kesabandha In the latter case also she is fully decorated, has (fig. 119). a jatamakuta like a male deity, and presents with her lower handff^Ke varada and abhaya postures, while in the upper two she holds the red and the blue lotuses. Earlier authorities The t he ; state that she may also exhibit in these the rosary. The illustration (fig. 120) shows in the hands the lily and Paramesvaramangalam upper hands the noose and the hook. from Gaurl is usually represented with the ornaments of an unmarried girl (kanyakd), sometimes doing penance with the object of securing Siva for her husband (fig. 121), and in this form she is worshipped by the Mahesvaras. VI The SaptamAtrikas, " Seven Mothers." The Saivite goddesses, who are either the independent manifestations of ParvatI or the dependent groups of her following, are too many to mention. 1 Most of the village goddesses mentioned in Chapter VI, below, will be counted by the orthodox Brahmana among these classes. may begin the description of the Saivite Sakti deities with the group of goddesses known as Saptamatrikas, 2 or the " Seven Mothers." They are Brahml, Mahesvari, Kaumarl VaishnavT, Varahl, Mahendrl and Chamunda. 3 These with Maha-Lakshml, described below, are sometimes counted as " Eight Mothers." They have generally two hands, are red in We : 1 Hemadri, for instance, has — included names such as Vama, Jyeshtha, Raudrl, Kali, Kalavikarani, Balavikarani, Balapramathani, SarvabhutadamanI and Manonwhich are merely different synonyms of Siva, with the feminine terminations added on to them. 2 See Burgess's Elura Cave Temples, Plate XXXIV. 3 Narasimhi with the face of the man-lion god Narasimha is sometimes mentioned in place of Chamunda. It is also sometimes stated that the Seven Mothers are but different forms of Chandi (i.e. Chamunda). 1 fnani SAKTI-GODDESSES Fig. 119.— P&rvati ; BolumampaUi. 191 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 192 -SL, >^f '••'' ^»p»* Fig. J20. — Parvati ; Paramesvaramangalam. SAKTI-GODDESSES Fig. 121.— ParvatI in penance 13 ; Pattisvuram. 193 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 194 colour and hold a skull and a lotus. Some authorities like the Silpasangraha state that as representing the active energy of Brahma, Mahesvara, Kumara, Vishnu, etc., they have the same and hold the same weapons. Brahml Brahman!) consequently has four faces, six arms vehicles as their lords (also called 3 of yellow hue. Mahesvan (Bhairavl) rides on a bull, has five faces, three eyes and ten arms, and is decorated with the crescent. Kaumarl has six and the swan vehicle, and she is and twelve arms and rides on a peacock. Vaishnavl of blue colour and rides on Garuda, has six arms and the garland of flowers called vanamala (peculiar to Vishnu). Varahl has the face of a sow, 3 is black in colour, has a big protruding belly and rides on a buffalo. 3 Mahendn (Indrani) faces is has a thousand eyes, like her consort Indra, is of pleasing appearance and of golden hue, and rides on an elephant. She has apparently also six arms and displays the symbols varada, noose and thunderbolt in her right arms and the abhaya, vessel and lotus in her left. Chamunda 4 is black and fearful with protruding teeth, long tongue, erect hair, emaciated body, sunken red eyes and a withered belly. It is stated that she can change her appearance at will. She rides on a corpse, wears a garland of skulls and has jewels of serpents. In her ten arms she holds the shield, noose, bow, staff and spear on the left side, and the pestle, disc, fly-whisk, goad and sword on the right. The Mayamata adds that she wears a tiger's skin, has red hair glowing like fire, and the banner of a kite. She may have four, eight or ten hands. According to the same authority these Seven Mothers are to be flanked by Vlrabhadra and Vinayaka on either side (fig. 122). In front of the Saptamatrikas the god Siva may be seated on a lotus flower under the banyan tree Some of these goddesses are 1 The 2 In the panel of Saptamatrikas (ibid. Elura Cave Temples shows only four hands. Plate XXXIV, No. I) Varahl is represented with a fine human face and the usual ornaments but has the sow-vehicle. In No. 3 on the same plate, however, the goddess has the face of a sow. 3 The Silpasangraha says that Varahl was born of Yama, the God of Death. According to Hernadri the goddess Yamya, evidently identical with Varahl, rides on the buffalo, holds a staff and drinks blood from a skull. Three other goddesses with sow-face are mentioned in the Lalitopakhyana and the Varahikalpa. Dandanatha-Varahi is one, seated on the golden lotus. She has eight arms and Svapna-Varahi has the gleaming tusks of a sow and four arms. a staff by her side. She rides on a horse. Suddha-Varahi has also tusks and four arms. It may be illustration in the noted that Bartall (Batiali) times also referred to in the 4 is a Buddhist goddess of similar description, some- (Mayiirabhanja. Introduction, p. xcv). distinguished from Mahishasuramardini- Hindu Tantras This image has perhaps to Chamunda, described below. be SAKTI-GODDESSES 195 a ts 13-A SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 196 said to have each a tree specially sacred to them, e.g., Kaumari has the fig-tree (udumbara), Vaishnavl, the pipal, Varahl, the karanja, Indrani, the celestial tree kalpadruma, and Chamunda, the banyan. The Saptamatrikas thus described are generally found figured together in a group on the same panel and are quite a common sight in South-Indian villages and Siva temples. When installed within the enclosure of a temple, they are seen often without a shrine built over them, and may receive such attention as the other minor deities of that temple. In villages and in Pidari temples built exclusively for goddesses, they are worshipped regularly. The Selliyamma temple at Alambakkam in the Tanjore district possesses an important shrine for the Saptamatrikas. The order in which the Saptamatrika images are cut on the stone differs according to circumstances. For the destruction of enemies and safety to villages Brahmi or BrahmanI must be made to occupy the centre. If Chamunda be placed there instead, the village will grow in population. At the entrances to the shrines of Saptamatrikas are placed two guardian deities. Evil spirits, demons and demigods, holding tridents in their hands, may also be installed in the same place. It is enjoined that the daily worship and festivities in the Saptamatrika shrines are to be performed according to rules prescribed by the Ydmala-mantrasastra. VII The following Sakti- goddesses with Vaish. navite bols. sym- three goddesses, viz., Durga, Chamunda and Mahishasuramardim, though they partake mainly of the nature of Parvati, are however seen holding the Vaishnavite symbols of the discus and the conch. The Puranas say that Durga was born of Yasoda, in order to save the life of Krishna who was just then born to Devaki. The children were exchanged under divine intervention. Kamsa, the cruel brother of Devaki, who had vowed to kill all the children of his sister, thought this female child was Devakl's and dashed it against a stone but, then, the child flew into the air and assuming the form of Durga mocked him and went away. On account of this incident she is known as 1 ; the sister of Vasudeva-Krishna. The Silpasara mentions a Chandika (Chamunda) of eighteen arms to whom the god Siva presented the trident, Krishna (Vishnu), the conch and Agni, energy of Siva, which is Vishnu himself, receives assumes an angry mood, that in battles it is recognized as Durga and that in peace and pleasure it takes the form Bhavani (i.e. Parvati). It is stated that the active 1 the name Kali while it SAKTI-GODDESSES 1 07 weapon called sakti. According to the MarkandeyaPurana the goddess that killed the buffalo-demon (Mahishasuramardini) was made up of the fierce radiance of Siva, Vishnu and Brahma while all the other gods contributed the powers peculiarly characteristic of them for the formation of her limbs and ornaments. Chamunda may be represented with eight, ten (fig. 123), Chamunda. twelve or sixteen arms and made either of wood or of mortar. When in the dancing posture she must have eight, six or four hands. Chamunda is known by the name Karali or Bhadrakali when she has eight arms, Kalabhadra when she has six arms, and Kali, when she has four. Bhadrakali has a terri- Bhadrakali. ble face, fat "breasts, protruding teeth and a long tongue and wears a garland of skulls. She rides on a lion and stamps under her foot the head of the buffalo-demon. Hemadri quoting the Vishnudharmdttara says that Bhadrakali has eighteen arms and is seated in the alidha posture in a car drawn by four lions. When worshipped by Brahmanas she has ten arms, the jatamakut a and all ornaments. The second, Kalabhadra, has a beautiful white form but is fierce, being kalaworshipped in burial-grounds under the name of Karala- BHADKA bhadra, seated in the virdsana posture with the foot placed over the head of the buffalo-demon. The same goddess, when worshipped by the Kshatriyas, is called Kali or Mahakall. 3 In kali or Mahakau. this form she ordinarily holds a trident or sword in one hand and a skull or a cup of wine (fire ?) in the other, rides on a corpse and has a lean stomach. The owl is her vehicle. She wears the tiger's skin, a scarf of elephant's hide and a garland of heads has three eyes and ear-ornaments shaped like conches and is fond of flesh, blood and life. She is the 1 . ; ; who fill the four quarters with their roar and she roams about the earth riding on their shoulders. Hemadri, calling her also by the name Sivaratrl, describes her as having four hands, being black like collyrium, terrible with protruding teeth and tongue (but at the same time followed by evil spirits beautiful with broad eyes and slender waist), wearing a garland of trunks (of human bodies) and a wreath of serpents. 1 Chamunda called a is supposed to be the form of Parvati when she killed the gianf Chanda-Munda. Mahakall is described in the Chandikalpa as having ten faces, ten legs and weapons of war. In this form she is stated to have ten arms in which are held all been invoked by Brahma to kill the demons Madhu and Kaitabha who were attempting to smash Vishnu in his sleep (see above, p. 52). The Karanagama mentions an eight-armed Kali or Mahakall among the Durgas. K^lika is a goddess supposed tt> be the wife of Nairrita (below, p. 243). 198 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 123.— Chamunda (Mahakali) ; Tiruchchengodu. SAKTI-GODDESSES 199 Kali represented sometimes also with twelve or sixteen arms is worshipped by the Vaisyas and Sudras under the names Charchara and Bhairavl respectively. Durga is a very popular deity. The name is indifferently durga. applied to all goddesses with a terrible appearance and in a righting attitude. The general description of Durga given in the Kasyapa-Silpa represents her as having four arms, two and all ornaments. She holds and the discus in her upper hands, 1 while her right lower hand presents the abhaya posture and the left lower rests on the waist. She stands on a lotus-pedestal and has a breast-band of serpents and a red petticoat. According to the Silparatna, Mula-Durga holds in her lower hands the bow mclaand the arrow. From Mahabalipuram comes the figure of a durga. Durga (fig. 124) who stands on the buffalo's head. She has eyes, high hips, high breasts, the conch eight arms, in the uppermost of which are found the discus and the conch. The other weapons held are the sword and on the right side and the bow and shield on the of the right hands holds evidently a sriphala or the bel-im.it and the corresponding left has a parrot perching on it and rests freely on the waist of the goddess. The necklace, breast-band and the garment hanging in folds down to her feet deserve to be noticed. The absence of finger rings on the eight hands of the goddess is peculiar. The illustration shows also other figures surrounding the goddess, viz., two male devotees with peculiar head dress kneeling at her feet, two female attendants on either side holding the sword and the bow, two demi-gods one of whom is carrying a chaurl, and a lion and a deer. In another mandapa at Mahabalipuram is a sculpture evidently of the same goddess with the lion and the deer, pairs of demigods on the sides and devotees at the feet, one of whom the bell left. is The lowest in the act of either cutting off his hair or his neck. The has only four arms and stands on an ordinary pedestal but not on the buffalo's head (fig. 1 25). At Srimushnam in the South Arcot district is an image of Durga with eight arms showing almost the same symbols as those of the figure at Mahabalipuram described above, the only exception being that instead of the bell in one of the right goddess 1 Rai Bahadur \ enkayya says in South-Ind. /users., Vol. II. Introd., p. — " Durga is represented with a sheep's head standing on the giant Simhamukhasura whom she killed. Her head is fiery and adorned with different jewels. On her forehead she wears a crescent made with sacred ashes of burnt cow-dung. In five of her six hands she holds, respectively, a. ring, a sword, a 41, note I: trident, a goad, and a skull." SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 200 Fig. 124.- Durga ; Seven Tagodas. SAKTI-GODDESSES 201 •"J*K£% 3 £ '.' . ^ ! SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 202 holding, perhaps more correctly, the arrow. The on the head of a buffalo without any other accompanying attendants and has an umbrella overhead (fig. 126). Images of Durga with four or more arms standing on the head of a buffalo are generally found placed in a niche on the north wall of the central shrine of Siva temples in Southern India (fig. 127). Occasionally, however, they may stand on ordinary pedestals without the buffalo's head, as at Tiruvottiyur near Madras. In the Vishnu temple at Tirumalisai, Chingleput district, is a similar image (fig. 128) placed It is said in a niche on the north wall of the central shrine. to be Lakshml but perhaps represents Durga without the buffalo's head. The Mayamata, describing the figure of Katyayani with four arms, says that she holds the conch and the discus in the upper hands and exhibits the abhaya and the varada postures with the lower. With eight arms and a parrot, The this same figure is stated to receive the name of Durga. hands she is figure stands Katyayani. description of the sculptures from Mahabalipuram and Srlagrees with what has been said of Katyayani in mushnam the Mayamata. The Saivagama SailaputrI. specifically describes nine varieties of which have two arms but different weapons as Sailaputrl, rides on a bull, wears the crescent on her head and holds a trident in her hand the second Brahmacharini holds the rosary and the water-pot the third Chandakhanda rides on the kite and has an angry look the fourth Skandamata rides on a lion and holds lotus buds in her hands the fifth Kushmanda-Durga is distinguished by a pot full of wine (or blood) which she holds Durga, and all of vehicles. The first, known ; ; ; ; both of her hands the sixth Katyayani riding on a tiger, holds a drawn sword in her hands and is killing a giant the seventh Kalaratn is of fearful appearance and has a grim smile on her face the eighth Maha-Gaurl rides on a white elephant and the ninth Siddhidayinl is attended by demigods. The Karanagama quoting the Skanda-Yamala describes these nine Durgas under different names and says that one of them has eighteen arms while the rest have sixteen each. They are generally shown standing naked with one leg placed on the head of the buffalo-demon and hold in their fist One of the Durgas with sixteen a tuft of the giant's hair. arms called Sh5dasabhuja-Durga has three eyes and serpentjewellery and holds tridents in all her sixteen arms. MahishasuramardinI (also called Chamunda, Chandl) is represented in the Nrisimhaprasada as the youthful but angry form of Parvatl with three broad eyes, a slender waist, heaving breasts, one face and twenty hands. Below her is the in ; ; ; ; MahishasuramardinI. SAKTI-GODDESSES Fig. 126. — Durga • Srlmushnam. 203 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 204 FIG. 127. — Durga ; Dharasuram. SAKTI-GODDESSES Fig, t2S. — Durga-Lakshmi ; Tirumalisai. 205 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 206 buffalo-demon with his head cut A man and off on the ground. seen holding a Pierced by the trident rolling emerging from the buffalo's neck is in his hand, abject with fear. of the goddess, he is vomiting blood. The lion too on which Chandika is riding attacks the giant with its mouth while the noose held by the goddess is tightly fastened round his neck. The goddess's right leg is placed on the lion while the other 1 This form of Chandi is steps on the body of the demon. weapon propitiated by those who wish to destroy their enemies. The ruling family of Mysore has Chamunda-Chandl for its tutelary deity. MahaLakshmi. A goddess with sixteen arms killing the buffalo-demon and as such to be classed among the Saivite Saktis, is also called Maha-Lakshmi. The Maha-Lakshmi, described in the has twenty arms, holds all the destructive weapons and is seen in the act of killing the buffalo-demon. 2 It will be observed that this Maha-Lakshmi is only another form of Durga. Various postures of Mahishasuramardini in the act of killing the buffalo-demon are depicted in South-Indian Saiva temples, some of them being of excellent workmanship. It is not always easy to distinguish the images which are thus Chandikalpa, engaged in the act of killing the buffalo- demon, and to say whether they be representations of Chamunda, Durga, Mahishasuramardini or Maha-Lakshmi. It may, however, be suggested that figures with a breast-band standing upright on the severed head of the buffalo are generally those of Durga-Lakshml, while those in the actual fighting attitude are either Chamunda, Mahishasuramardini or Maha-Lakshmi. They generally have eight arms and hold weapons, the conch, discus, bow, shield, sword, bell, noose and trident. The demon may be shown with a human body, or a human body with a trunk buffalo's head, proceeds a human ' or a buffalo from figure. The whose severed illustrations given Mahishasuramardini In the Mahishasura-wawda/><2 at Mahabali(figs. 129, 130, 131). puram is seen a relief on the proper left wall, which represents the fight between Durga-MahishasuramardinI and the show some 1 of the fighting postures of Hemadri speaking of Katyayani with ten aims, gives almost the same description. 2 Maha-Sarasvati mentioned in the same work, Gauii. and She has eight arms and is engaged is said to be an emanation of in destroying the demon Sumbha his retinue. Burgess's Elura Cave Temples, Plate IV, with buffalo's horns. fig. 7, shows the giant as a man SAKTI-GODDESSES Fig. 129. — Mahishasuramardini ; Gangaikondasolapuram. 207 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 208 KlG. 130.— Mahishasuramarclini ; Dharasuram. SAKTI-GODDESSES Fig. 131. 14 — Mahishasuramardini 209 ; Durgi. 210 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES SAKTI-GODDESSES buffalo-demon 211 Vogel gives the following de—" Dr. The goddess astride on her vehicle, (fig. 132). scription of the relief : eight-armed. With two hands she shoots arrows king. The emblems held in her remaining six arms are a disc (chakra), a bell (ghanta) and a sword (khadga) to the right and a conch (sankha), a noose (pasaj and an indistinct object, to the left. A quiver is visible over her left shoulder. " She is surrounded by a host of dwarfs, evidently the ganas of Siva, her spouse. One, behind her, holds a parasol over her head, another at her side waves a fly-whisk (chamara). The remainder carry weapons, usually a round buckler and a curved sword, in shape like the kukri of the Gurkhas. One in the foreground is in the act of shooting an arrow from a bow. " Distinct from these ganas is a female figure fallen on her knees in front of the lion and raising a sword with her right hand. Possibly this figure represents Kali, an emanation of Durga, though she does not present the terrific appearance peculiar to the black goddess. " Right opposite Durga stands the colossal figure of the buffalo-headed demon-king. His royal rank also is indicated by a parasol held over his head- He carries a heavy mace in his two hands and has, moreover, a sword fastened to his left hip. His attitude is that of yielding to the onslaught of the warlike goddess. " His army is represented by seven demons. Two of these are prostrated in the foreground one slain and another the lion, at the is demon — wounded. The What latter raises his right hand with two fingers the meaning of this gesture ? Is it that of a vanquished warrior imploring his victorious enemy to spare his life ? Of the remaining asuras one is retreating, whereas the others seem to offer a feeble resistance. It is worthy of notice that with the exception of Mahishasura himself, the demons are shown in a purely human shape." raised. is VIII goddesses of fearful appearance, worshipped by people who wish to destroy their enemies or to Many other Saivite some desired object of life, are described in the Tantrik Some of these which are mentioned below may possibly be, as some suggest, the Aryanized forms of aboriginal deities still worshipped in the Pidari temples of the South. receive works. Kalaratri already referred to as one of the nine Durgas, Kalakatri. has a single braid of hair and ./'^a-flowers for her earprnaments ; she is naked, rides on an ass, has hanging lips I4*A SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 212 is bathed in oil. In her left hand she holds a human head severed from the body and on the left leg is worn an anklet and of metallic wireTVARITA. TripuraBhairavi. vajraprasTARINI. Sura. SURAPRIYA. Tvarita is stated to be a goddess of the Kiratas or a turners.' She has two hands, is decorated with peacock's feathers on the head, and wears a cloth of leaves (as some of the wild tribes of to-day), a garland of gunja-seeds and a (head) jewel of eight serpents. Nagendra Natha Vasu finds in this goddess a close resemblance to Nagamata " the mother of serpents," Skandashashthi or Manasa, and to the goddess ' Tavita of the Scythians. 1 Tripura-Bhairavi has four arms, wears a garland of heads and has her breasts bathed in blood. VajraprastarinI 2 is stated to be seated on a lotus, in a boat of blood floating in an ocean of blood. The limbs of her body as well as her head are also bathed in blood. represented as a terrible Sura, wine personified, is unmarried goddess of eighteen arms and of three eyes. She She is is tall of form and is as dangerous as destructive fire. a terror to the demons and a blessing to angels. In plain language Uma herself is described to be the goddess of wine and Siva (her consort) to be the power of intoxication thereof. Surapriya is a goddess seated in a meditative posture cross-legged and attended by a group of Saktis called Ash- SrividyaDKVf. Pranasakti. On Purnasva with hanging belly, two hands and a smiling face, stands on the left side of the goddess. A pot of wine and a staff are also placed near her. The goddess is installed in the houses of prostitutes and small villages or towns, under different names such as Devabhavi, Jnanabhavi and Gitabhavi. 3 Srividyadevi has fierce fangs protruding from her mouth, sits on a serpent couch and wears necklaces of human bones. Pranasakti, like VajraprastarinI, is seated on a lotus springing from a boat of blood, in an ocean of blood, and holds among other weapons a human skull filled with blood. tangayoginis. and Pushkala. either side of her are the deities Madhukara, a fat man Mayurathanja, Introduction, p. xxxix f. The Silfraratna adds that Tvarita on a crow and is considered to be a widow. 2 According to the Silparatna this goddess is a form of Parvati, has six hands, is seated on a red lotus, exhibits in her hands a sugarcane-bow, a flower-arrow, the varada and abhaya postures, a noose and a skull, and is engaged in vanquishing Mara the god of Love. 3 In the names Purnasva, Pushkala and Madhukara we may see an apparent analogy to Puranai, Pudgalai and Madural-Vlran mentioned under village deities : rides — (belows p. 230). 3" SAKfl-GODDESSfiS 21 is, as it should be, in the case of a goddess who presides over the centres of physical life (prana)} Svasthavesinl is of scarlet colour, inspires dread in those Svasthawho see her, dwells amidst corpses, has three faces and two vSsiNi arms holding the kettle-drum and the trident, dark eyes, lean body and three braids of thick black hair. She is of the nature of forest fire. Satruvidhvamsini, " the destroyer of enemies," has like- SatruvidhVAMSIN1, wise three faces, is as cruel as the flames of fire, has red eyes, fearful fangs, red hair, and a capacious belly. She is naked. This - Ugra-Tara, the goddess presiding over various diseases, Ugra-Tara stands in the dlidha posture, carries head and roars terribly. Short of black colour mixed with yellow and a corpse over her stature, she has braids of is surrounded by dreadful In a skull she holds the diseases of the three worlds together, with the object of killing them. Dhumravati or Dhumra-Kali has a red body and wears a red Dhumra- serpents. Her cloth. ear-rings are like the trunks of an elephant fangs, her terrible. surrounded by devils, and a and VATl- She wears a necklace of skulls, is and holds in her hands a drawn sword skull. Sulinl with her eight arms, is likewise a goddess who sulini. She holds a trident, rides on a lion and is accompanied by four unmarried girls with swords and shields inspires fear. hands. Pratyangira has four arms and a face as terrible as that of Pratyan. GIRA Her hair stands erect on her head. In her hands she a lion. holds a skull, trident, kettle-drum and the noose (nagapdsa). She is seated on a lion and by her power destroys all enemies in their - (figs. 133 and I34)- 2 Sltaladevi (or Mariyamma), the goddess of small-pox, is sitaladevi. represented as riding naked on an ass with a winnow on her 3 head and a broom and water-pot in her hands. TrikantakidevI has a body which is black below the navel, Trikantaki- between the navel and the neck and white above it. The terrible fangs protruding from her four faces are so long and crooked that they pierce out through her belly. In her four hands she holds two lamps, a conch and a discus. red 1 The goddess Pranasakti is invoked by Brahmanas, in ceremonies n here the pranapratishtha, " infusing (an image) with life," has to be observed. 2 The lion vehicle is missing in the Tiruppalatturai bronze. The Tiruchchengodu figure has the sword and shield in place of skull and noose and a breast-band Both are called Bhadrakali by the people. image given by Nageadra Nafta Va,sa{Mayara6kanJa, Buddhist and Plate, facing p. xcvi, fig. 51) and classed by him as one of the Neither does she carry a winnow on her head. Tantrih goddesses, is not naked. like Durga. 3 The illustration of this DEVI - SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 214 1*IG. 13J. — Pralyangira; Tiruchchengodu SAKTI-GODDESSES Fig. 134.— Pralyangira (?) (metal) ; Tiruppalatturai. 215 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 216 Bhutamata. " the mother of goblins " has her seat under a and is followed by numerous demons, goblins and demi-gods. She has two hands in which are held a linga (or, sometimes a sword) and the shield. She rides on the lion and Bhutamata, pipal-tree has dishevelled hair. Sivaduti has a dejected appearance, emaciated body and the face of a jackal. She wears a garland of skulls, is fearful and is surrounded by serpents. She may have four or more arms, 1 holding in the former case, a vessel of blood, the sword, the trident and a flesh-pot. SivADuii. IX yeshtha Lakshm^" or Jyeshtha or Jyeshtha-Lakshml, so called on account of her being supposed to be the elder sister of LakshmT, 2 is a black goddess with hanging lips, stunted nose, pendant breasts and a big belly. She revels in blood. In. one hand she holds a lotus made of iron while the other hand rests on her seat. But sometimes she is seen holding lotuses in both her hands. The legs of the goddess are stretched and hang down from the seat, in the so-called European fashion. Her parting curly hair is made up in the form vasikabandha. pair of crows represents her banner. On her right side is seated a bull-faced figure said to be her son, holding a staff in the right hand and exhibiting a pointing finger (suchi) in the left. On the corresponding left side of Jyeshtha, is seated her daughter, said to be a fair lady (fig. 135). Sometimes the goddess is represented as red in colour and then receives the name Rakta-Jyeshtha. The goddess Jyeshtha with the hanging belly, attended by women on either side and wearing a red cloth, is generally installed outside villages. Her following consists of goblins, demons and spirits. She is the goddess of ill-luck. 3 The worship of Jyeshtha appears to have been once quite familiar in the Tamil country. Like the shrines of Pidari, her shrines were also exempted from taxation, as stated in early ChOla records. From an inscription on a pillar in the rockcut temple of Subrahmanyasvamin at Tirupparangunram near Madura, we learn that about the eighth century A.D. a shrine A 1 A Sivaduti of eight arms Lalilbpakhyana Nirriti is the sister is mentioned among the Nityaklinnadevatas of the . of Lakshmi, in the pipal-liee. is name by which this goddess of ill-luck, Alakshmi, the elder mentioned in the Padmottarakhanda. She is said to reside Consequently also this tree is not to be touched except on Saturdays when, Lakshini coming to see her sister, makes the tree auspicious. 3 Sotith-Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, p. 60. SAKTI-GODDESSES 217 SOUTH-INDIAN images 2i8 were caused to At Kukkanur in the Nizam's be made in that temple. Brahmanical temple dedicelebrated a Dominions, there is cated to Jyeshtha. In Southern India her worship nowadays much neglected, if not altogether avoided, she being is supposed to be the goddess of misfortune and poverty. for the goddess Durga and one for Jyeshtha J X In contrast to the ugly and fearsome goddesses mentioned above, there exist in the Hindu Pantheon other Saivite goddesses who are described as mild and extremely beautiful. these may be mentioned Bala-Tripurasundan of Among EalaTripuradazzling brilliance, " like a thousand suns bursting forth at SUKDARi. SAUBHAGYA- the same time"; Saubhagyabhuvanesvarl, of red hue, a BHUVANESjewelled crown, a smiling face and heaving breasts, who VARI. holds a pot of gems in one hand and a red lotus in the other (fig. 136) and who places her right foot on a treasure of gems Annapurna, Annapurna 3 of two or four arms who, in the former case, holds gracefully in one hand a jewelled vessel containing food and in the other a spoon to distribute the same (among her devotees), or in the latter, holds the noose and the hook in two hands and shows the protecting and the boon-giving postures in the others ; the goddesses Gayatri, 3 SavitrI and GayatrI, ; SavitrI and Sarasvati 1 Ind. Axt., Vol. XXII, p. 68. It may be noted that Mr. T. A. Gopinatha Rao in his Elements of Hindu Iconography (p. 391 f) considers the figures of Subrahmanya and his consorts worshipped in one of the chief rock-cut shrines of the temple to be Jyeshtha with her bull-faced son on one side and her fair daughter on the other. The figures are, indeed, much worn out and their nor are the crow-banners characteristic of Jyeshtha, ; cocks, however, the banner of Subrahmanya, engraved on features are indistinct Two clearly visible. and contemporaneous with the images, one of Subrahmanya and his two consorts and the rocky side walls of the same shrine prove beyond doubt that the group not of Jyeshtha. The is shrine of the latter goddess, referred to in the inscription, compartment, in the lower storey of the same rock-cut temple. At Anamalai, not far from Madura, is a similar rock-cut shrine of Subrahmanya but with only one goddess. The cock-banner of the god is, again, very clearly shown on the side walls, as in the Tirupparangunram shrine. People call it Sramanankoyil " the temple of Sramana (i.e., a Buddhist or a Jaina) " though the actual name must have been Saravanan-koyil, "the temple of Saravanan" which latter name is connected with Saravanodbhava, a synonym of Skanda-Subrahmanya. 2 Literally, one who is full of food (to give to her devotees). This is the name of the famous goddess in Benares, who is also sometimes called Visalakshi. "the broad-eyed." is in a different 3 Gayatri of the nature of (or Brahma), has four or ten arms and four of the substance of Rudra, has four arms, four faces, twelve eyes and the bull vehicle ; Sarasvati partakes of the nature of Vishnu, rides on Garuda, has four arms and one face and holds in her hands the faces and is rides on a swati ; fire SavitrI is Vaishnavite symbols, the discus, conch and the club as also the palm of protection. SAKTI-GODDESSES Fig. 136. — Saubbagyabhuvanesvari j 219 Dharasuram. ; SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 220 SarasvatI who preside over the morning, mid-day and evening prayers of the twice-born classes and represent the Vedas, Rik, Yajus, and Saman or the three sacred fires, Gdrhapatya, TulajaDakshinagni and the Ahavaniya, respectively Tulaja-Bhavani, Bhavani, who like Annapurna holds in one hand a vessel of delicious food and in another a spoon for distributing the same RajaRajamatangi who is absorbed in listening to the talk of a matangi. p arro t and stands with one of her feet placed on a lotus, while her hands are fondly playing upon the vind LaghusyaLaghusyamala. mala, a damsel who has just attained her youth and who plays upon the vind, with a vessel of wine near her and with eyes Varuni. Varum, Sudhamalini or betraying signs of intoxication Amritesvari, "the goddess of boats," who is seated on a boat bedecked with gems and surrounded by an army of Saktis, bright as the growing sun, maddens the three worlds by her glance, decorates her tresses with the flowers of the pdrijdtatree and holds a vessel of wine, a lotus and a cooked piece Kurukclla. of flesh in her hands and Kurukulla, 1 also a goddess of boats, fully drunk with wine, riding on a boat of gems and Vindhyava- holding in her hands a paddle of gems. Vindhyavasini, sini or is called Mukambika in the classed as one of the Durgas, Mukambika „ _, She is said to be seated on a golden lotus, to have Silpasdra. four arms and to be dazzling as lightning. By her side stands ; ; ; ; . , , i i i i i , . the lion, her vehicle. The most famous Lalita, TripubaRajarajesvari. of these milder deities, Lalita, Tripura-Sundari and Rajarajesvari highly beautiful and of dazzling brilliance. hands each and hold the symbols : noose however, are (fig. 137). All are four They have (or, fruit), goad (or, conch), sugarcane-bow (or, mirror) and five arrows (or, a Their worship is directly lotus or a cup of collyrium). connected with the mystic geometrical drawings known as chakras and pithas. Images of these goddesses are not honoured so much as the chakras or pithas over which they supposed to preside. The worship offered consists in throwing over the chakras a profusion of red turmeric powder called kunkumam, which is generally worn on the forehead by The throwing all Hindu ladies whose husbands are alive. of kunkumam is accompanied by the repetition of long strings are — of the names of Lalita consisting of synonyms a thousand, three hundred, or one hundred and eight in number. Each name 1 is prefaced with the sacred syllable Om. This is a goddess Mayurabhanja, of p. common to The goddesses both the Hindu and the Buddhist Tantras ; lxxxix 2 In the Ankalamma temple at Karempudi (Guntur district) is an inscription A.D. 1 164, which refers to that village goddess, as Vindhyavasini. SAKTI -GODDESSES R Fig, 137. — Rajarajesvari ; Ramesvaram. 221 222 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES are always presumed to be standing on a chakra imbedded in the earth and hence the worship is offered at the feet of the goddesses. In exceptional cases, however, as in the Kamakshi-amman temple at Conjeeveram, the chakra is placed in front of the goddess. Bala-Sakti, holding a book, rosary, goad and noose, is the presiding goddess of the six chakras as stated in the Silpasara. The particular yantra sacred to her is known as Bdld-yantra which is described as a geometrical drawing having in its centre a dot (bindu) closed in by a triangle, a hexagon, a circle, a lotus of eight petals, a square and another square with openings at the cardinal points, consecutively. The Sri-chakra consisting of a larger number of intersecting triangles surrounded by circles and squares is another such mystic figure considered to be highly sacred to the goddess Lalita. The latter is stated to have under her control innumerable fairy goddesses, some of whom are so delicate that they can enter, by the order of their mistress, into every atom of creation. Some with braided hair and beautiful tilakas of kunkumam on their foreheads are as sharp as fire and hold bows, arrows, swords and shields of flames- They are the personifications of almost every beneficent activity in the universe and are engaged in putting down the Evil PrincipleLalita is said to have fought and killed, with the aid of these deities, several demons named Bhandasura, Sumbha, Nisumbha, ChandaMunda and Mahishasura. All these, apparently, represent the powerfully persistent evil desires of men. CHAPTER VI. VILLAGE DEITIES. I Most of the Saivite goddesses described above have been village found to be of fearsome appearance, fond of flesh, blood and deitie s wine and intimately connected with goblins, spirits, demons relation and diseases. One of them Tvarita, it was seen, was the Tantrik ° goddess of the Kiratas, and Vindhyavasini was evidently s another living on the Vindhya Mountain. Apya (Durga) is described in the Harivamsa as the goddess of the Sabaras, Pulindas, Barbaras and other wild tribes and as fond of wine and flesh. It will not now be difficult to trace a connexion between these and the village goddesses whose shrines are generally the haunts of malevolent demons and who are often appeased only by the slaughter of fowls, sheep, goats and buffaloes. Almost every village in South India, however insignificant it may be, has a shrine for one or more goddesses , ] Generally they are situated outside the village groves of trees much dreaded by the people and are considered to be the grama-devatas, the guardian deities of the village. Often there are no temples properly so called, and where there are structures, they are crude and simple enshrining within them rough unhewn stones representing the amma or "mother" sacred to that village. Sometimes there is only a spear or a trident fixed up straight in the ground in place of the goddess-stones. The goddesses bear different names. Some are called after the villages where their primary shrines exist, such as Kollapuri-amma, Huskur-amma, Pung- of this nature. in (i.e., Punganur-)amma, Hosur-amma, Uchchangi-amma, etc. Other popular names among village deities are the " Seven Kanniyamar," BhadrakalT, Kaliyamma, Mariyamma, Mutyal- amma, Ponnamma, Ellamma, 3 Ankalamma, Kolumamma, are described, some are on dead bodies, some to wa.ider at nights like devils and some to Eighteen wellbe quarrelsome demons with ugly eyes and erect hair on head. known shrines of these goddesses in India and Ceylon (Lanka) are enumerated. 1 In the Silpasara, where the Chaushashti-Yoginis stated to feed 2 Ella Nagendra Natha Vasu in his Mayurabhanja speaks of a Greek goddess called and connects her with Ajaikapad, one of the form? of Rudra, already mentioned. to SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 224 Selliyamma, Pattalamma, Vandi-Kaliyamma, Alagiyanach- chiyamma, Ulagattal, Pidari, Pechi, Poleramma. Katteri, Gangamma, Chaudamma, Durgamma, Nukalamma, Paidamma, Asiramma, Padalamma, Gontyalamma, Paradesamma, Neralamma, Mallamma, Peddintamma, Somalamma, MatanSome of these girala, Talupulamma, Sellandiyamma, etc. 1 Bhadrakall, Kollapuri-amma (Kollapura-Mahaor Kala-Pidari (Kali), Gangamma Chaudamma (Chandl ?), Durgamma (Durga) and Matangirala (Matangi, a recognized synonym of Parvati) names like lakshml), (Ganga), Kaliyamma and others the Tantrik works Mariyamma, be traced to the same source. for instance, under the name Marika occurs in the Puranas as the goddess presiding over small-pox and other infectious clearly mentioned in are can ; easily Kolumamma Kulumayamma, Selliyamma (Tsaland Sellandiyamma are evidently synonymous with Sitala. Poleramma, the village goddess commonly worshipped in the Telugu country, is also supposed 2 Peddintamma is perhaps Jyeshtha. to correspond to Sitala. diseases. lamma It or of the Telugus) is, however, difficult to explain similarly the origin of names like Ankalamma, Pattalamma, etc. Of these again, a few are of a flattering nature such as Mutyalamma, " the pearllike mother " (fig. 138), Ponnamma or Bangaramma, " the golden mother," Alagiyanachchiyamma, " the beautiful queen mother," etc. Ellamma probably means the goddess of boundaries (Telugu, ella). Kala-Pidari and Durga-Paramesvarlof four arms are names of village goddesses which occur in early ChOla inscriptions. The shrines of these are generally termed tirumurram.'6 But sometimes, when they are structures, well endowed and 1 In parts of the Guntur district Gangamma is seen with the crocodile vehicle, Pullagunta in the Palnad taluk. Evidently she represents the presiding In the epic poem Ramayana, where the heroine deity of the river Ganges. SIta is mM.de to worship the goddess Ganga (Ganges), she promises to offer, on her safe return from exile, fowls, buffaloes and wine to that goddess. 2 Sitala 01 Sitaladevi is recognized as the goddess presiding over small-pox both in the Canarese and the Telugu districts. e.g., at 3 Venkayya describes Pidari as a seated goddess with " 6re body to indicate her great wrath. On her head she wears a crown, various ornaments in her locks, on her forehead the mark of Siva, bulky jewels in the large holes of her ears and two flowers behind them. She has four Rai Bahadur issuing from her whole hands holding in them, respectively, a kettle-drum with a snake, a trident, the skull of Brahma and a goad. Her throneis an altar. Pidari temples contain also an image of Vighnesvara and the entrance is guarded by two horrible door-keepers called Mannadiyar. She has eigh teen generals. Pidari is said to be the chastizer of all evil spirits because those who hang or poison demons who would are turned into malignant kept in check by Pidari ; " S.I.I. , Vol. II. themselves, or die any violent death, destroy the whole Introduction, p. 41, human note 1. race if not VILLAGE DEITIES Fig. 13S. IS — Mutyalamma ; Avani. 225 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 226 Hindu temples, they are the goddess Pidari are known from the records of Rajaraja I of the first quarter of the eleventh century A.D., viz., Punnaitturainangai, "the goddess (living on a river bank), in a grove of punnai trees," Poduvagai-ur-udaiyal, "the village deity common to all (classes)," Kuduraivattam-udaiyal " the deity surrounded by (clay) horses," and Tiruval-udaiyal, "the deity of the sacred patronized like the other orthodox called srikoyil. banyan Four varieties of tree." II Worship of these deities, The worship in the shrines of village goddesses is generally performed by non-Brahmans. In the Chingleput and North Arcot districts are a class of priests known as Ochchans 1 who are exclusively devoted to service in Pidari temples. They say that they are Brahmanas of the Sakta creed and perform the worship according to the Tdntrik ritual. Sometimes, but very rarely, Brahmanas also worship these fearful goddesses installed even within the sacred precincts of orthodox temples. 2 For example, Vattapirai-amman, " the mother who wears the circular crescent (on her head) " at Tiruvottiyur near Madras, is a goddess of this kind to whom animal sacrifices are offered on fixed days in the year. On such occasions it is stated that the Sudra priest takes the place of the usual Brahmana and an entrance opening directly into the outer courtyard of the temple kept closed on other days of the year is now thrown open for the goddess to receive animal sacrifices and worship from her Sudra or other devotees. After the annual festival is over, the goddess is purified. The buffalo sacrifices, which these village deities are generally fond of, indicate their connexion with Mahishasuramardini, the slayer of the buffalo-demon and with other similar Tdntrik goddesses mentioned above. Some of the ceremonies peculiar to the temples of the village goddesses, besides animal sacrifices, are (i) firewalking, (2) swinging on the sidi with a hook passed through — — Peculiar ceremonies. the skin during what is otherwise known as the chakra-puja, (3) lashing oneself with a whip, (4) piercing a metallic wire right through the tongue or through the sides of the mouth, (5) slashing at the breast and forehead with swords until the blood Thurston's " Castes and Tribes," Vol. V, p. 41 gf. In many important Siva temples of the South, I have observed processional images of village goddesses kept in a separate room and worshipped. It is gathered from the priests of the temples that before commencing any important 1 2 images are carried in procession and the village appeased, the expense being met from the Siva temple. festivals in the Siva temple, these deities are first VILLAGE DEITIES 227 spurts out, (6) thrusting a spear through the abdomen J and (7) carrying on head the karagam, lamps of ghee, or earthen Annual festivals called jatras pots with blazing fire in them. are generally held in honour of the village deities. But when infectious diseases among men and cattle prevail, special worship is arranged for, to appease the deities by sacrificing animals, offering heaps of cooked rice mixed with blood, or by carrying the karagam. This last is celebrated by dressing the selected person who has taken a vow to perform the ceremony, in the yellow cloths of a woman, putting on him the ornaments of women and making him carry on his head a pot or pots profusely decorated with flowers and margosa leaves and supposed to contain in them the spirit of the particular goddess for whose propitiation the ceremony is class of Tamil-speaking gardeners, called gone through. Tigalas in Mysore and allied to the Pallis or Vanniyans of other districts, are particularly devoted to the five Pandavas A " of the The Mahabhdrata story, and to their common wife, Draupadl. draupadi P les and from the courtyard of the Draupadi temple tem karagam. illustration KumbakOnam 1 , - , , shows a group, in which the figure of Bhadrakali with eight arms and a flaming crown, crushing the head of a giant under her left foot, is disat (fig. 139) The original goddess of the temple is, however, Draupadi whose metallic figure with that of Arjuna, one of her five husbands, is preserved in the central shrine. The two huge heads seen in the illustration, next to Bhadrasaid to be a son of kali, are those of the hero, Aravan Arjuna by a Naga princess. He is believed to have been offered as a sacrifice on the great battle-field of Kurukshetra, especially with the object of securing success to the Pandava brothers. Substantial big temples are built for Draupadi and the Pandavas under the name Dharmaraja in the country round Kolar and Bangalore. The karagam-ca.rry'mg ceremony is performed every year and attracts immense crowds of The central figure of the ceremony is excited sightseers. the priest who, as he madly trips along with the sacred weight over his head, like a high tiara decorated with flowers, is closely followed by a select number of men— the supposed attendant deities with drawn swords in their hands. This scene very strongly reminds one of the goddess Sulini, who has been described above to be one of the Tdntrik goddesses, tinctly seen. — — 'Some of these inhuman practices seem to be but remnants of the older human sacrifices which were once quite a, common feature of Sakli worship. Epigraphical evidence has been adduced to show that voluntary human sacrifices were offered even to the male deity Virabhadra (above, I5-A p. 161, footnote 2). 228 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES qan Ht W* " ' - VILLAGE DEITIES 22Q followed by four unmarried girls with swords and shields in their hands or of a form of the goddess Durga surrounded by maids with drawn swords. The Saptamatrikas of the Tantras counted among village deities and are, perhaps, the same as " the Seven Kanniyamar (unmarried girls) " or the " Seven Sisters." They are frequently appeased by special worship when any unforeseen and sudden illness takes hold of a man. The local fortune-teller, often a woman of the Korava caste, being consulted, says that the patient is possessed by the " sisters " while walking alone in untimely hours of the day near tanks, gardens or groves. At once the goddesses are propitiated. A temporary shrine is constructed. Seven small stones are planted in a row, near a tank, almost touching the edge of the waters, and a small shed erected over them with leaves and flowers. Coconuts, plantains, fried rice and pulse are then offered to the stones and not unfrequently also a fowl. Even Brahmanas worship the " Seven Sisters" in this way, but when a fowl is to be sacrificed they get a Sudra to do it. The worship is enjoined to be performed in wet cloth are also after bathing. The practice of honouring and even worshipping women who committed sati appears to have been very old in Southern India. Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil poem Silappadi- Sati-worship d ^w ... ceremony. garam, died on hearing of the unjust death inflicted upon her husband by the Pandya king of Madura. She was thenceforth worshipped in shrines built for her throughout Southern India and Ceylon. In the latter island she is known as Pattini and is very popular. The mother of Rajaraja I is stated to have committed sati and in consequence of this act, evidently, an image of her was set up in the temple at Tanjore. Perantalamma, a woman who committed sati, is equally reputed in the Telugu districts. Kanyaka-Paramesvari who is the tutelar deity of the Vaisya (Komati) caste is also connected with the The fire-walking story of a woman entering the sacred fire. ceremony peculiar to the temples of village goddesses may have some connexion with sati. Ill gods are not so many in number as the goddesses. Aiyanar, Hariharaputra or Maha-Sasta is supposed to 1 When the be, as his name implies, a son of Siva and Vishnu. and asuras after celestial nectar was obtained by the devas churning the ocean (see p. l3Qf, above) they quarrelled about The 1 S.I.I. For a , village fuller description of Aiyanar and his position among Vol. II, Introduction, p. 40, note. village deities, see Aiyanar. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 230 the distribution of it. Vishnu assumed the form of a beautiful young woman, called Mohini, and by her attractions enticed the asuras and made them agree to depute her to distribute the precious liquid equally to all. She of course deceived them and gave the nectar to the gods alone. Siva saw Mohini at He wedded her, and the the time and was enamoured of her. This deity is largely result of their union was Hariharaputra. worshipped in Malabar and parts of Tinnevelly and Tanjore. In these districts he is not assigned the subordinate position of a village deity as in others. In the latter, however, he is one of the guardian deities of the village and, as such, is attended by bhutas and pisachas. He has long curly hair, a crown and ear-rings of gold-leaves. In his two arms he holds bow and the arrow. He is dark of colour and is seated on a throne below a banyan tree. In the illustration given (fig. 140) the position of the hands of what is believed to be a figure of Aiyanar does not appear to suit the weapons, bow and arrow, which he is stated to hold. 1 In the figure from Valuvur he is seen riding on an elephant in the very same posture, holding in his right hand what looks like a whip or an elephant goad (fig. 141). In front of his temple are placed figures of horses, elephants and other animals, made of wood or of painted brick and chunam, which are supposed to serve the him as vehicles in his nightly perambulations. A third figure from Ramesvaram(fig. 142) represents him as riding on a horse. Puranai and Pudgalai are stated to be his two wives, and Madurai-Vlran and Pavadairayan, his generals. MaduraiVlran is a historical person whose adventures are noticed in the Karui'ianNASAMI. South Arcot District Gazetteer? Kuttisattan, Sattan, Karuppan, Mundan and Gulikan are the names of some of the malignant demons that attend upon Aiyanar. Karuppannasami is a similar god worshipped by the Kallars of Madura. Chains, clubs, spears and bill-hooks are his symbols and these are presented by devotees at his shrines as votive offerings. They are generally found either hung on the trees or stuck into the ground. A similar god much dreaded by the people is Munlsvara whose name is quite popular. He is represented by a block of stone, a bush or sometimes a tree. Men and women called Muniyappa, Munisami, Muniyamma, etc., are so named because they were ; evidently born as the result of propitiating Munlsvara. We have a similar figure of stone within the Nataraja temple baram, which people call Ardhajama-Alagat. 1 3 Vol. I, p. 101. at It Chidam- VILLAGE DEITIES Fig. 140. —Aiyanar (metal) ; Tiruppalatturai. 231 232 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 141. — Aiyanar (metal) ; Valuvur VILLAGE DEITIES Fio. 142. — Aiyanar 'metal) ; Ramesvaram. 233 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 234 might be noted that Buddha is called Muni in the lexicon Amarakosa and that the forms of Siva known as Dakshinamurti, Bhikshatana, Virabhadra, etc., are often those of wandering mendicants. Deified Heroes (virulu) who have given up their lives under romantic circumstances> in the cause of their native village or province, are also honoured as village deities and festivals are celebrated to propitiate them. Madurai-Vlran mentioned above was one of this kind. In the Palnad taluk of the Guntur district, temples for heroes are quite a common feature. Devil- dances. Devil-dances in connexion with the annual festivals of are common in Malabar and South Canara. The figures of the devils as represented by the Tuluva devildancers are described in detail with illustrative plates by Dr. Burnell in his article entitled "Devil Worship of the Tuluvas," in Indian Antiquary, Volumes XXIII and XXIV. village deities CHAPTER VII. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES. Of the miscellaneous gods found in South-Indian temples, may be made of the Navagrahas or " the nine n.wagraPlanets " headed by the Sun. They are installed within the HAS enclosed verandah round the central shrine of a temple with mention ' or without a special structure erected over them. The Sun stands in the centre and the others are fixed round him, each in a specified direction. The Planets are highly respected and scrupulously worshipped by the people, as they are believed to influence the destinies of human beings. II The worship of the Sun in India has been as old as the SuN Vedas. Dr- Bhandarkar refers to a special class of sunworshippers in the North called Magas whom he identifies with the Magi of ancient Persia. 1 In the South, there does not appear to be any such class exclusively devoted to the Sun. The worship is common to all. Aditya-grihas (Sun-shrines) are mentioned in inscriptions of the eighth and ninth centuries of the Christian era, in the northern districts of the Presitimes temples of Traipurushadeva are found dedicated to Sun, Siva and Vishnu, with much prominence given to the first as indicated by the sculptures. Evidence of the building of separate Sun-temples in Southern India, earlier than the twelfth century A.D., has not yet been found. The only temple thus far known to be dedicated to the Sun and his attendant Planets exclusively, is the one at SuriyanarkOyil in the Tanjore district. 2 The image of the Sun-god, according to the Agamas, is always to be placed in the centre of the Planets, looking eastward. Round, red, and decorated with red flowers, he must be clothed in garments of variegated colours with flags on his car. The car must have one wheel, drawn by seven dency ; 1 2 in later Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc., pp. 151 to 155. Madras Epigraphical Report foi 1908, Part II, paragraph 60. - SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 236 horses and be driven by the charioteer Aruna who is represented without legs. The Sun is supposed to be a Kshatriya (sometimes, a Brahmana) born of the sage Kasyapa. He is the lord of the Kalinga country,' wears a mail armour (kavacha) and robes in the northern fashion. 2 According to the MatsyaPurana, he is represented seated (or standing) on a lotus seat, holding lotus flowers in his hands and is ever engaged in going round and round the mountain Meru (fig. 143). His banner is the lion. This is the description of the Sun as the chief of Planets. But within the flaming Orb is recognized the god Narayana (Vishnu) whose body is golden, who assumes the forms of Brahma in the morning, Mahesvara (Siva) 3 in the midday and Vishnu in the evening. In this composite form he is seated on a lotus pedestal with crocodile ear-rings ( makara-kimdala) and a crown and exhibits in his hands the conch and discus and all the characteristic weapons of the Trimurti. An illustration from Chidambaram (fig. 144) evi- dently represents Surya as composed of Brahma, Mahesvara and Vishnu, though the symbols held in the hands do not clearly indicate the same. On the pedestal are shown seven horses driven by Aruna, who, though believed to be without legs, is here represented with them. Surya is also supposed to be the manifest form of the three Vedas, 4 the sole supporter of universal space, resplendent in his car, surrounded by his consorts, Planets and the celestial damsels. Twelve different forms of the Sun (and sometimes thirty-two) are described, one having red light, another white light and so on- Hemadri says that on the right and left sides of the Sun respectively, are represented the attendant gods Danda-Pingala and Ati-Pingala worshipping him, with pen and paper in their hands. His sons Revanta, 5 Yama and the two Manus and his four wives Rajni, Svarna, Chhaya and Suvarchasa also stand on either side of him. It may be noted 1 It may be noted that a famous temple of the Sun is at Konar» in tht Kalinga country. 2 Varahamihira's description of the images of the Sun is given by Dr. Bhandarkar on page 54 of his treatise on Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc. It is inferred from this that the dress worn by him must be non-Indian in its origin. The Avyanga which is also stated to encircle the Sun round his waist is identified with the Aivyaonghen of the Avesta language and is taken to signify the kusti w orn bv the Parsees of the present day. 3 In the Frayogarali.a the Sun Rudra. latter is is invoked along with the gods Agni and described as the presiding deity of the Sun-<rod while the the chief source of his energy. The former is 1 The seven horses of the Sun are accordingly interpreted to be the seven metres (ckhandas) of the Vedas. 5 In inscriptions Revanta is quoted as the model of a superior horseman. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES Fig, 143. — Surya • Kumbakonam. 273 238 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES '^^^gaaass^f^^^^^^ Fig. 144.— SQr/a ; Chidimbara,m. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES 239 that a mystic diagram called the Siirya-yantra is intimately connected with his worship as in the case of the Sakti goddesses. It is stated to be a circle bounded one after another, by a triangle, a circle, a square and two circles of eight and sixteen radii respectively. Ill The Moon is regarded as one of the Planets surrounding Sun and going round and round the mountain Meru. He born of the Sea and of sage Atri and is supposed to be of the is He is said to have only face and hands turns towards the Sun, holds white lotuses in his two hands (or sometimes a club and the boon-conferring hand) and rides on a two-wheeled 1 chariot drawn by ten horses. Kuja (Mars) is a Kshatriya of AvantI, the son of the Earth and of sage Bharadvaja, wears red garments and a crown and has four arms in which are seen the weapons, club and sakti and the postures varada and abhaya. He faces the Sun and rides on a ram. Budha (Mercury), the son of the Moon, is a Vaisya of the Magadha country born in the lineage He has four arms, a yellow body, and the lion vehicle. of Atri. He shows in his hands the shield, club, varada and the sword and faces the Sun. Brihaspati (Jupiter) is a Brahmana, born of Angiras. He comes from the Sindhu country and has either four or two arms, holding, in the latter case, the book and the rosary. He also faces the Sun. Sukra (Venus), likewise, is a Brahmana born of Bhrigu and a native of Bhojakata. According to Hemadri he is seated in a golden chariot drawn by eight horses or in a silver chariot yoked to ten horses. He has two hands in one of which he holds a nidhi " treasure " and, According to other authorities he has in the other, a book. four arms in which are seen the staff, rosary, water-pot and Sani or Sanaischara (Saturn) is a Sudra of the the varada. Saurashtra country, and a descendant of Kasyapa, also facing the Sun. He is supposed to be born of the Sun, to have blue garments and to ride on a vulture or in an iron chariot drawn by eight horses. He is represented with two or four hands and stands on a lotus pedestal, but is more often found seated with four hands, his weapons being the arrow, trident and the bow. Rahu and Ketu, the ascending and the descending nodes, are also represented as images (fig. 145). The former is described as a Sudra of Paithan with a fearful face, black clothes and four arms, holding the sword, trident and the shield. He rides on a black lion and faces the Sun. Ketu is the Vaisya caste. but no body. 1 gome He authorities say that the chariot is to be three-wheeled. Other Planets - SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 240 Fig. 145.— Rahu and_Ketu ; Chidambaram. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES 241 also a Sudra, comes from Kusadvlpa and is born in the lineage of Jaimini. He has an ugly face, rides on a vulture and exhibits in his two arms the club and the varada posture. IV The next group of gods, frequently depicted though not as Dikpaiakas. frequently worshipped as the Planets, are the Dikpaiakas, "the eight lords of the quarters." These are mostly found represented on the central panel of the ceiling in the Mahamandapa of a temple. Indra, the lord of the east, is the chief of them. He is a Indra. Vedic god the lord of all the minor gods. But he has long ago lost the high position assigned to him in Vedic times. The story runs that he seduced Ahalya, the wife of sage Gautama, who cursed him for his lewdness to wear about ; 1 body marks of his lascivious conduct, but subsequently changed those marks into a thousand eyes dotted all over his body. Accordingly he is still known as " the thousand-eyed " (Sahasr-aksha). Indra is represented with four arms riding on the celestial elephant Airavata of four tusks (fig. 146). According to the Silpasdra the symbols which he presents are the bow, the protecting hand, the conch and the discus. 2 Hemadri adds that his wife Sachi with two arms must be seated on his left thigh. In three of his hands he holds a lotus, goad and a thunderbolt, while the fourth passes round the back of Sachi. One of the arms of Sachi, likewise, is passed round the back of Indra, the other holding a bunch of flowers of the wish-giving tree (kalpa-vriksha). Agni, the lord of the south-east quarter, is also one ot tne Aom. Vedic gods and perhaps the most prominent of them. As the carrier of offerings to the various other gods in heaven, he plays an important part in the Srauta sacrifices and in the Smarta ceremonials, where fire oblations are essential. Every Brahmana house-holder, strictly so called, is required to maintain the sacred fire in his house without quenching it and his along with his Agni, as an image, is represented to be an old man he is the oldest of the gods and a counterpart of the Sun on earth. He has a red body, two heads, six eyes, seven arms, seven tongues, four horns and three legs. to offer oblations regularly three times a day, usual prayers to Gayatri. ; 1 See also the Journal of Indian Art and Industry, No. 106, Plate 143, fig. 1020. 2 The Bhattabhaskariya mentions abhaya, varada, sword and goad. 16 the elephant 242 gQUTH-INDIAN IMAQE§ Fig. I46.~]ndra ; Chidamt&ram. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES He 243 surrounded by a circle of light, is seated on a lotus 1 and is supposed to reside in a quadrangle— evidently the quadrangular sacrificial fire-pit. In his seven arms he holds the vessels prokshani (sprinkler), srik (ladle), is pedestal sntva (spoon), purna-patra (vessel full of water), tomara (pestle), fan and the ghee-pot, required in performing a sacrifice. He has braided hair, red garments and a big belly and wears the sacred thread yajnopavita. His vehicle is the ram and his banner, the smoke issuing from the sacrificial fire-pit (fig. 146). He is attended on either side by his two wives Svaha and Svadha. Hemadri describes him as having a single face, three eyes, moustaches and four arms. He rides in a chariot drawn by four parrots and driven by the god of winds, Vayu. His wife Savitrl is seated on his left thigh, with a vessel of gems in her hand. In three of his arms Agni holds two flaming tridents and a rosary. Yama, the lord of the south and the god of Death, has been Yama. already referred to in the description of the Siva image called Kalaha or Kalaharamurti. He is dark of colour, exhibits the club, noose, abhaya and varada in his four arms and rides on a buffalo. The illustration from Chidambaram (fig. 148) shows only two hands in which are held the club and the noose. Hemadri mentions as his symbols the staff, sword, a flaming trident and the rosary. His wife called Dhumrorna is seated on his left thigh and holds a lime fruit in her left hand. To the right of Yama stand Chitragupta, Udlchya and others who keep a record of the actions of men. To his left stands the fierce Kala with the death-noose in his hand. Two women called Dharma " virtue " and Adharma " vice " are seen on either side of Yama with chauris in their hands. Nairrita, the lord of the south-west region, is supposed to Nairiuta. be the chief of the Rakshasas. He rides on a man, wields the mace and the javelin and has Kalika for his wife. In the KalikS.-Purdna he is described as having two hands, holding a sword and shield and riding on an ass. He causes terror to demons, devils and spirits (fig. 149). Varuna the regent of the west is also the lord of the ocean Varuna and of all aquatic animals. He has the crocodile vehicle and four arms. In the two upper hands he holds the serpent and the noose (fig. 150). According to Hemadri he is seated In his four hands he in a chariot drawn by seven swans. holds the lotus, noose, conch and a vessel of gems and has 1 Or the half-moon seat (ardhachandr-asana) according to the l6»A Mayamato, 244 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES tlG. 147. — Agni; Chidambaram. Miscellaneous deities Fig. 148.— Yama ; Chidambaram. 2^ 246 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig, 149. — Nairriia Aholialam. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES Fig. 150. — Varuna ; Lepakshi. 247 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 248 an umbrella held over his and Yamuna, holding chauris head. The goddesses Ganga side of him, the former riding on the crocodile Vayu. Kubkra. on and the in their hands, stand either latter on the tortoise. Vayu, the lord of the north-west, is blue in colour. In his hands are seen a fan, flag, varada and abhaya. He rides on a deer (fig. 151). An image of Vayu at Chidambaram shows him only with two hands of which the right holds the flag and the left rests on the waist. Kubera, the lord of the north and the god of treasures, is a ugly person as his name implies, but serene or self-satisfied rides on a horse (fig. 152). Hemadri describes him as riding on a man with his wife Riddhi 1 seated on his left thigh. He is the chief of the demi-gods called Yaksbas and Kinnaras. fat, and Two treasures viz., Sankhanidhi and Padmanidhi, upon him on either side. He is the personified, are supposed to attend friend of Siva the lord of the adjoining north-east quarter. V Nagas. The worship of the "serpents" (Nagas) 2 is prevalent all over India and particularly so in the west coast of the Madras Presidency, where a corner of a house or of a field is exclusively dedicated to the living cobra so that it may dwell there with its family group. In other parts of the Presidency on a particular day of the year sacred to the Nagas, milk, fruit and coconut are placed near a snake-hole with the object of Naga-images cut on stones as plain feeding the cobra. serpents with one, three, five, seven or nine hoods, are also worshipped. Sometimes these have a human body above the navel and a serpent's coils below. Female snakes are said to have one hood only. Snake-stones are installed in temples and other places, on specially prepared platforms under the shade of the pipal and the margosa trees. ceremony called "the marriage of the pipal-tree " is performed both by Brahmans and nonBrahmans, when Naga stones are also fixed under these trees amidst great rejoicing. The connexion of the Nagas with the A and the margosa trees is evidently a relic of the ancient and serpent worship. Serpents have been worshipped in India from very early times, earlier even, perhaps, than pipal tree the 1 The Bhaitabhaskariya. calls her Chitrinf. ^ It is mentioned belief and superstition that prevailed in in the Buddhist Bhandarkar's Vaishnavism, Saivism, Niddesa among the etc., p. 3). .the various systems fourth century B.C. (Dr K of (' Miscellaneous deities Pig. 151. — Vayu ; Lepaksbi. 249 250 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 152. — Kuliera ; Lepakshi, 1 MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES Vedic Sun, Moon and Brahma. 25 believed that a prothe production of children. This belief may be traced in other countries also, where there are signs of the once widely prevalent serpent worship. Eight lords of Nagas are mentioned in the Agamas. The chief of these is Ananta, Sesha or Adisesha, on whose Fig. 153 represents him in folds Vishnu is supposed to sleep. In an inscription of the twelfth century a semi-human form. A.D. the eight Nagas, Sesha, Vasuki, Takshaka, Karkotaka, Abj.i (Padma), Mahambuja (Maha-Padma), Sankhadhara and Kulika are invoked to decid; about the auspicious or inauspicious nature of the grant. Besides the Nagas mentioned in the previous paragraph, there are other groups of demi-gods and demons largely depicted in Hindu temples, such as the Yakshas, Vidyadharas, Gandharvas, Apsarasas, Kinnaras and Rakshasas. 3 These are ., 11 made to serve, generally, as chauri-bearers to the gods and are pitiation of the It is Nagas conduces towards 1 , - , , , Vakshas, x idyadharas Gamlhar\as, e c, represented with a light body flying in the air. They have generally two hands, two eyes and the karandamdkuta crown. The Mdnasara describes the Kinnaras as having the legs of a cock the middle part of their body being human and the face beaked like Garuda with spreading wings. They wear a crown on their heads and hold a vina in their arms. A sketch from Ramesvaram illustrates a female Kinnarl (fig. The origin and description of these groups of demi154). gods are given by W. J. Wilkins in Chapter XI of his Hindu Also, the figures of these in their various postures Mythology. are beautifully illustrated in the rock sculptures known ns "Arjuna's Penance" at Mahabalipuram. The Dvarapalas seen at the entrance into almost every Hindu shrine are also demi-gods and bear different names being sometimes called Chanda and Prachanda, sometimes Jaya and Vijaya, or Harabhadra and Subhadra according as they occupy the second, third or fifth door-way opening into In the standing figures of Dvarapalas the right placed straight on the pedestal (svastika) and the left The posture of their body may be is slightly bent (kunchita). turned to front (2) hands partly back (1) with legs and resting on the thigh which then is bent in the shape of a plough or (3) with both hands supporting the gopura. The Silpasangraha states that in form the Dvarapalas are like bhutas with two big hands in one of which they hold a club- They the shrine. leg is : ; ; 1 9 Madras Epigraphical Report for 1910, See Visvakarma, Part V plate 66. , p. 117, para. 60. Dvarapalas, 252 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES lafl3HflBMfe'>a''> Fig. 153, — Adisesha ; Chidambaram. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES Fig. 154. — Kinnarl J Ramesvararn. 253 254 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES teeth, when Saiva, and narrow waists; 1 are beautiful in form, but disfigured in the face (fig. I55). Figures of Dvarapalas are sometimes also found to have four arms and to hold the Saiva or the Vaishnava symbols according as they are placed in Siva or Vishnu temples. The fine image (fig. 156) of a Dvarapala from Dharasuram, Tanjore district, which has four arms and is probably Saiva, have protruding canine stated to have been brought as a trophy from Kalyanapura Kalyana in the Nizam's Dominions), by the Chola king Rajadhiraja I, in the middle of the eleventh century A.D. Entrances into the shrines of goddesses are attended by Dvarapalikas just as those of the gods are guarded by is (i.e., Dvarapalas. VI Saints and Sages. Saints and Sages are also not infrequently figured in temples. The latter include the Vedic rishis and the authors of the early sacred literature of the Hindus, represented as old men, serene and unmindful of mundane affairs. The sacred thread, braided hair, flowing beards and moustaches form the special features of rishi images. They are seated in a meditative posture with the rosary or book and the waterpot or staff in their hands. The seven famous sages Gautama, Bharadvaja, Visvamitra, Kasyapa, Jamadagni, Vasishtha and Narada. etc., are surrounded by Narada (fig. 157) is distinguished from other sages by the vina which he holds in his hands, being always engaged in singing the praises of Vishnu. In Puranas he is described as fond of setting up one against the other and Hence in common parlance Narada creating quarrels. represents a tale-bearer. Agastya (fig. 158) is dwarfish in stature and pot-bellied. 2 He is supposed to have migrated from north to south and to have dwelt there permanently and developed the Tamil language of which he is said to be the Kapila, the founder of the Sankhya system first grammarian. of Hindu philosophy, holds a water-pot on his lap and has in his two hands the conch and the discus. 3 Dhanvantari, Atri are occasionally also represented with their wives, while Agastva. Kapila. Dhanvan- Narada, Agastya, Bhrigu, Angiras, their disciples- TARI. 1 In the Silpasara the Dvarapalas of Siva temples are stated to be Nandi at the eastern entrance Bhringi and Vinayaka at the southern entrance ; the sacred Bull a.id Skanda at the western entrance and Chandi at the northern, and Mahakala ; 9 A bronze illustration from Nallflr is given in the Madras Archaeological Survey Report for 1911-12, Plate A, fig. z. 3 In Visvakarma, Part I, Plate 52, a. totally different form of Kapila, from Ceylon, is given. Perhaps he is not identical with the sage described here. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES FIG. 155. — Dvarapala ; Tiruvottiyur. 255 256 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig. 156. — Dvarapala ; Dharasuram. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES 257 258 SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Fig, 158, — Agastya ; Chidambaram, MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES 259 sage of the Indian Medical Science, is be a form of Vishnu and is found generally presiding the supposed to company of the Asvins, 1 who are the physicians holds a pot of nectar in his hands. Among the human beings who have attained sainthood may be included the great religious reformers such as Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhvacharya and others. Sankara. The first is represented as a sannydsin (mendicant) with a CHARVA bald head and a body besmeared with ashes. He holds a figured in of the gods. He - book in his left hand and shows the chinmudra, the teaching pose of fingers, in the other. The staff and the water-pot (kundika) which are the symbols of the sannyasins, are found placed by his side. Seated on the tiger's skin in the padmdsana posture he is surrounded by attendant pupils. Sankaracharya may also be found decorated with a necklace of rudrdksha-beads which are sacred to Siva. The illustration from TiruvottiyQr (fig. 159) shows Gaullsvara (Gaudapada ?), the teacher's teacher of Sankaracharya, with four arms, occupying the highest seat. Below him to the right is Sankaracharya and below him on the pedestal are depicted the latter's four pupils. Ramanujacharya has the sanjali- ramAnujamudrd, i.e., hands folded together over the breast in a charya and worshipping posture, the triple staff (tridanda) and a head- dIsika.*" dress. He wears the Vaishnava caste marks iirdhvapundra (or namam) made of white clay and red pigment (fig. 160 (d)). Vedanta-Desika (fig. 160 (b)) is also a Sri- Vaishnava teacher of great fame. Madhvacharya, like Sankara, is a bald-headed MadhvAsannyasin with the chinmudra, the book, the staff and the CHAEVA kundikd. He wears the caste mark iirdhvapundra and the Vaishnava symbols of conch, discus, etc., made on his body either of sandal-paste or of the yellow clay called gopichandana. Saiva and Vaishnava saints (called Nayanars and Alvars), saivaand the former of whom are sixty-three in number and the latter Vaishnava twelve are also occasionally installed in temples, their images Saints being made either of metal or of stone. The most famous of the former are Appar, Sundarar and Tirujnanasambandar, 2 - - These are the two gods Nasatya and Dasra mentioned in the Vedas. They faces and are found together, seated on the same lion-pedestal. In two of their arms they exhibit the abhaya and 1 are of the form of a horse except in their the book. On their right are represented the medical herbs Mritasamfivam and Visalyakarani and on their left, the sages Dhanvantari and Atreya (?). 2 In the Madras Archaeological Survey Report for 1911-12, Plate 11, figs. 1-4, are given illustrations of four bronze images which represent Appar, Manikkavasagar, Jnanasambandar and Sundarat (?). Visvakarma, Part IV, Plates 62 and 63, illustrate figures of Manikkavasagar and Sundaramurti (Sundarar) from Ceylon. Havell gives a picture of Appar {Ideals 0/ Indian Art, Plate XIV), In the 17-A SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 260 . u-tirixhUfc,— flG. 139- — Gaulisvara (Gaudapada ?) and Sankaracharya ; - » Tiruvottiv MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES 261 a SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 262 in praise of the many Saiva shrines of the South are collected together under the name Devdram and are regarded as scriptures by the devout section of the whose devotional hymns Saivas. Stories relating to the pious lives of the sixty-three Saiva devotees are recorded in the book called Periyapurdnam, which was written about the end of the thirteenth century of the Christian era. Manikkavasagar, the author of the Tiruvdsagam, is also a saint of great reputation. A beautiful image of his (fig. 161) Pudukkottai State. An comes from Tiruvarangulam from Madura (fig. illustration in the 162) of Karaikkal-Ammai, one of the female Saiva saints counted among the sixty-three, gives a true picture of how devotion to reduce the physical body to a skeleton. Like_the Saiva scriptures, the hymns of the Vaishnava saints (Alvars) (see Tirumangai-Alvar, fig. 160 (e) above), are also collected under the name Ndldyiraprabandham and form the accredited scriptures of the Tengalai section of Sn-Vaishnavas. The lives of the Alvars are given in the and severe penance are expected book entitled Guruparampardprabhdva. Numerous other images are mentioned in the Agamas, Purdnas and similar other works. These are rarely, if at all, depicted in temples. The nine Prajapatis, the eight Vasus, the seven (or sometimes forty-nine) Maruts, the ten Visvedevas, the fourteen Manus, the nine Chiranjivins, are all personified and described with their weapons and vehicles. Even the sixty-four sciences, the sixty years of the cycle, the months, fortnights, days, constellations, signs of the zodiac, seasons, solstices, oceans, quarters, mountains, rivers, etc., are similarly personified and described. It is not necessary to consider them in any detail. VII A The Digambara 19,1113. ini£lf?CSt brief description may now we have be given of the Digambara good number in the districts of Chingleput, South Arcot, South Canara and other parts of the Madras Presidency. It is not possible to enter here into a detailed enquiry of Jaina ritual, symbolism, idology, etc. j a j na images, of which a We Tanjore temple built by Rajaraja I at the beginning of the eleventh century A.D., were installed images of Nambi-Aruranar (i.e., Sundaramurti), Tirujnanasarcbandar, Nangai-Paravaiyar (wife of Sundaramurti), Tirunavukkaraiyar, Periya- Perumal and his queen Lokamahadeviyar, Meypporul-Nayanar and SiruttondaNayanar. The set of images illustrating the story of the last-mentioned, included Kshetrapala, Bhairava, Siruttonda-Nambi, Tiruvenkattu-Nangai (his wife) and Siraladevar (his son); see S.I./., Vol. Introduction, p. 39 f. II. In the temple at Dhirasuram near Kumbakonam are pictured scenes from the lives of most of these sixty-three Saiva devotees with labels cut on their pedestals. These belong to the thirteenth century A.D. MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES Fig. 161 .— Manikkavasagar (metal) ; Tiruvarangulam. 263 264 SOUTH-INDIAN iMAGfiS D Fig. 162. — Karaikkal-Ammai ; Madura. 8-»7 MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES may simply note what 265 Hindu Silpa-Sastras say about them. of Jaina images, as supplied by these works, is that they must have long arms so as to reach the knees, the mark of Srivatsa on the breast (which was found to be peculiar to Vishnu), a calm countenance, broad forehead, the The general description head covered with starry rings of hair, hanging earlobes, high nose, delicate limbs and a naked body which looks young and beautiful. Figures of Arhantadeva (i.e., a Jaina Saint) may be made movable or immovable, standing or seated. The material used must be the white, red, yellow, or black stone, or metal. Whether standing or seated the images must have a straight back and in the latter case, the padmdsana or the siddhasana posture with the hands crossed over the lap palm in palm, the right being below and the left above. The pedestal of Jaina Saints is always a simhasana, "lion-seat," surmounted by a "crocodile-aureola" (makaratorana) fixed at the back of the image. Over the aureola are depicted the kalpa-tree, the Indras and Devas, the demi-gods of Jaina mythology. Sometimes there may also be sages (like Narada) attending upon the Jina and Yakshas, Yakshis, Vidyadharas, Chakravartins, Nagendras and Dikpalakas holding chauris, on either side of him. Images used by the Jainas in daily worship at home or in Mathas include the Panchaparameshthins who wear neither clothes nor jewels. At the entrance into the shrines of Jina are placed the gatecrystal keepers Chanda and Maha-Chanda, Jainas are divided into two main as in Hindu temples. Svetambaras The former are not found in the south divisions, the and the Digambaras. while the latter have their important seats at Sravana-Belgola in the Mysore State, Mudbidri, Karkal and Yenur in South Canara, Tirumalai near Polar in North Arcot, Sittamur in South Arcot and various other places. A descriptive account of the images of Digambara Jainas with illustrative plates has been given by Dr. Burgess in his article entitled "Digambara Jaina Iconography " in Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXII, pp. 45 ff. It shows that the gods and goddesses of the Jainas are as numerous and as richly conceived as those of the Hindu Pantheon, and have their prescribed weapons, jewellery, vehicles and symbols. VIII In concluding this small treatise goddesses, it on South Indian gods and will not be out of place to dwell briefly upon the pedestals, postures, symbols, weapons and jewellery of images, although most of these have been noticed where they occur incidentally, in the above pages. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGfiS 266 Pedestals. The Mayamata, speaking of pedestals in general, says that 1 they are triangular, half-moon-shaped, square or circular (P). mentioned by name, viz., bhadrapadmapitha, mdhambuja (the big lotus), Of srikara, pithapadma, mahdvajra, saumyaka, and srikamya. these, the first and the third are pictured on the accompanying Plate I, as Nos. 13 and 12. No. 16 on the same Plate, perhaps, represents mahambuja. The postures, symbols and weapons of images differ according as the image is conceived to be either in a fighting Nine pedestals pitha, Postures. (pithas) are vajrapitha, bestowing bliss and knowledge on its worshipSometimes, even though the weapons of war are exhibited in the hands of an image, it may yet be considered peaceful if it only shows the positions of the hands known as attitude or as pers. abhaya and varada. The posture, sukhdsana, in a seated image (Plate I, No. 14) and the posture samapddasthdnaka in a standing image (Plate II, No. 4) are generally adopted in conferring bliss, just as the position of the hands abhaya (Plate IV, No. 7) and varada (Plate III, No. 23) indicate the same. The alidha 3 (Plate II, Nos. 5 and 6) and the utkatika 3 postures (Plate I, No. 15) denote respectively the heroic attitude in actual fighting and the angry mood that immediately follows it. The padmasana (Plate I, No. 16) and the yo%asana (Plate II, No. 1) postures show either the meditative or the teaching attitude. The position of the legs (Plate II, Nos. 2 and 3) adopted in the case of the standing images of Gopala and Nataraja show not only a graceful and artistic attitude but, evidently, also indicate the ecstasy of It may be noted that in all figures of gods and godjoy. desses standing in any position, the ideal beauty is recognized to consist in the three bhangas (bends) which according to the Silpasangraha are abhanga (slight bend), samabhanga (medium bend) and atibhanga (great bend). Each of these three bends may be found separately or together in one and the same image.* 1 According circular, to the Prayogaratna quadrilateral, triangular, the nine Planets are to be seated on arrow-shaped, rectangular, pentagonal, bow- shaped, winnow-shaped and flag-shaped pedestals. 2 The alidha posture is assumed generally in drawing the bow and charging the arrow. 3 There is reason to suppose that the posture known as dis- mrasani wherein one leg has to be placed on the other so as to rest on that thigh, is sometimes substi- Perhaps they are synonymous. J The Silpasangraha See South Indian Bronzes by O. C. Gangoly, p. 40if. describing a particular torm of Rama states that it consists of three bhangas or bends, the face slightly leaning to the right, the middle of the body to the' left and tuted for utkatika. the portion below the waist, again, to the right. Miscellaneous deities 267 The symbols of the gods and goddesses apart from the weapons which they wield, such as the goad (Plate IV, No. 8), noose (No. 9), disc (Nos. 10 and lOa), shield (No. 12), sword (No. 13), pestle (No. 14), axe (No. 15), trident (Nos. 16 and 16a), thunderbolt (Nos. 20 -and 20a), club (Plate III, No. 1), sakti or arrow (No. 4), bow (No. 5), fire (No. 6) and khatvanga (No. Il), are very few. Goddesses, perhaps as a sign of beauty, hold in their hands a lotus-bud (Plate IV, No. 18 and Plate I, No. 3), a mirror (Plate III, No. 8) or a parrot perching on the back of the palm (Plate IV, No. 19). The rosary (Plate IV, Nos. I and 2), the water-pot (Nos. 3 and 4), the book (No. 5), the position of the fingers known as chinmudra (Plate III, No. 16) and jnanamudra (No. 14) denote meditation, purity and knowledge. The conch of Vishnu (Plate IV, No. II and Plate I, No. \a), the kettle-drum dhakka of Siva (Plate III, No. 12 and Plate IV, No. 24) and the bell in the hands of some gods and goddesses (Plate III, No. 7) may be taken as equipments for fight, though not as actual weapons, offensive or defensive. The deer held by Siva as a trophy on the occasion when he destroyed the sacrifice of his father-in-law Daksha (Plate IV, No. 17), the serpent (Plate I, No. 46) and the kapala (Plate III, No. 21 and Plate IV, No. 23a) may be considered only as symbols specially distinguishing him from the other gods. The same has to be said of the kukkuta "cock" (Plate III, No. 3a) of Skanda, of the broken tusk 1 (Plate IV, No. 21) of Vinayaka and of the flag (No. 22) of Vayu, " the god of winds." Some of the purely artistic positions of the hand are the simhakarna (Plate I, No. 1), the kataka (Plate IV, No. \a), the katiga "hand resting on the waist" (Plate IV, No. 6), the position in which the hand hangs down freely " like the tail of a cow " (Plate I, No. 2), the placing of the kurpara by Siva on the head of the bull (Plate III, No. 9), the gajahasta of Nataraja (No. 19) and the position in which Siva as Bhikshatana touches the mouth of the antelope (Plate III, No. 17). 2 Some other significant positions of the hand are those known as suchi " the pointing finger " (Plate III, No. 13 and Plate IV, No. 23), tarjani "the threatening finger" (Plate III, Nos. 18 and 26) and the vismaya "wonder" (Plate III, Nos. 15 and 22 and Plate I, No. 4). The three latter are generally found in the figures of Siva and of guardian deities. Symbols and wea P ons - vel (No. 2), tanka (No. 3), : . 1 For the story of the broken tusk with which Vinayaka (Ganapati) is stated have written the Mahabharata, see above, p. 176. 2 In images of Tripurantakamurti, This last position is called simhakarna. the arrow is held by one of the right hands which is, again, stated to be in the simhakarna pose. to Positions of the hand ' SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 268 Jewellery, crowns, etc. The jewellery of images corresponds in most cases to the ewe s f t he present day worn by men as well as by women. Most of these have been mentioned in the above pages in the general descriptions of gods and goddesses. It has only to be noted that a very large number of them, such as necklaces, i j breast-plates, girdles, armlets, bracelets, wristlets, anklets, arm-rings, finger-rings, and toe-rings, made of gold and set with various gems, 1 are mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions as having been presented to the images in the Brihadlsvara temple, by the great Chola king Rajaraja I, in the first quarter The different fashions of of the eleventh century A.D. making up the hair seem to have also occupied the attention of Indian artists. The jatds (matted hair) of Siva, arranged generally in the form known as jatamakuta (Plate I, No. 8), show other varieties such as jatdmandala fPlate II, No. 6), jat&bhdra (No. 9) and jatdbandha (No. 7). The terrible form of Siva, known as Pasupatamurti, has the jatamakuta with flames of fire surrounding it (Plate I, No. 11). Natara ja's jatds, whether flying in the air or tied up in a knot have a bunch of peacock's feathers decorating them ^Plate I, No. 5). Vishnu has /generally a kiritamakuta, i.e., a crown (Plate I, No. 7). The / goddesses either wear the crown called karandamakuta (Plate 2 L II, No. 8) or have their hair parted in the middle like the \ Indian women of to-day. In figures of Jyeshtha, is seen a peculiar fashion of dressing the hair known as vdsikdbandha Other peculiar head-dresses, whose names (Plate I, No. 10). are not known, also occur occasionally (see, e.g., Plate I, No. 9). • See above p. 8, fig. 4. One of the peculiar jewels worn by images of Siva such as Nataraja, Dakshinamurti, Bhikshatana, Kankala, etc., is the bhritigipada It may be noted that the priestly class among Linga(Plate II, Nos. 3 and 4). Jangams, wear such a jewel when they go out for receiving doles. represented independently and in a fighting or otherwise terrible attitude, they may wear the jatamakuta like male deities. yatas, called 2 When Gandabherunda. PEDESTALS, POSTURES, ETC. _-^>^2^t; Pl-ATE 1— Pedestals, postures, 269 et<? SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES 270 IIIIIM' /^ ^-t^lUlUi t^i l^Wt^ fa, <U Plate II. — Pedestals, postures, etc, PEDESTALS, POSTURES, ETC. Plate III. — Pedestals, postures, etc. 271 272. SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES Plate IV. — Pedestals, postures, etc.. — — 273 INDEX, [Note: Figures after articles refer to pages ; the following abbreviations are used footnote; s.a. = same as ; do. =ditto ; q.v. {quod vide) 11, which see.] — = Alkondar, epithet of Kshetrapala :- at Tiru- vadi, I59«. Alvar, epithet of Vaishnava saints, 259, 262. Amarakosa, Sanskrit lexicon, 62, I55«, 234. Amaravati, village in the Guntur district, _ abhanga, slight bend of body in images, 162, 168, 266. abhaya, protecting pose of hand in images (q.v.), 10, 41, 43, 64H, 66, 76, 77, 79, 84, 88, 89//, 93, 97, no, 114, 148, 177, 178, 189, I9O, I94, I99, 202, 2I2K, 239, 243, 248, 259«, 266. Abja, serpent-chief, 251. Adavallan, Tamil 8S». Adharma (vice), name chauri-bearer of Varna, variety of Nataraja's literature, Ananta, s.a. Sesha, 50, 251. Anantasayin or Anantasayana, form of reclining .Vishnu, 50. Andhaka, demon, devotee of Aniruddha, form of standing Vishnu, 52K. 55- Ankalamma, 84, 88, 89, 148, 161, 165, I, Iio«, 114, 129, 132, 137, 235. 2 5I. 262. Agastya, sage, 90, 254. Aghora, one of the five images constituting Panchadeharnurti, 77. Aghoramurti, form of Siva, 148, 151. Agni, fire, regent of the south-east quarter, 196, 236/2, 241, 243. Ahalya, wife of Gautama, 241. Ahavaniya, one of the (three) sacrificial fires, represented by the goddess Saras220. village deity, 220/2, 223, 224. Annapurna, goddess, 218, 220. Apasmara, demon, 79, 84, 90, 141. Appar, Saiva saint, 259. Appaya-Dikshita, Saiva philosopher, 89. Apsarasas, class of celestial nymphs, 251. Apya, goddess, 223. Aravan, son of Arjuna, 227. Archaeological Survey Report of India, quoted, 43/2, 14322 ; of Madras, quoted, 22k, iook, 125, 148/*, 254«, 259«. ardhachandrasana, pedestal of Agni, 243?;. Ardhajama-Alagar, s.a. Aiyanar, 230/8, Ardha-mandapa, vestibule Ahobalam, village in the Ivurnool Siva, 165M. Angiras, sage, father of Brihaspati (Jupiter), 239, 254. Adisesha, s.a. Sesha, 251. Aditya-griha, a Sun-shrine, 235. Aditya-Purana, 103. Adivaraha, s.a. Varaba, 22. vati, 2l8«. Ananda-tandava, dance, 79, 84. Adi-Chandesa, or Adidasa-Chandesa, epithet of Chandesa, 161, 162. Adimurti, s.a. Vaikuntha-Narayana, 52//. class of Amsumat-Tantra, 79, 103, 107, 114. Anamalai, village in the Madura district, _ for Nataraja, 82/2, 2 43- Agamas, 211. Amritesvari, s.a. Varuni, 220. district, 26. Airavata, the elephant of Indra, 241. Aivyaonghen, identified with Avyanga, 236/;. front of the in central shrine of a temple, 2. Ardhanari, form of Siva, 74, . 76«, 120, 165. Ardra, asterism sacred to Nataraja, 82. Arhantadeva, a Jaina saint, 265. Aiyanar, village god, 229, 230. Ajaikapad, one of the Eleven Rudras, 97, 223?;. Ariyambakkam, village in the Chingleput district, 22, Arjuna, one of the Alagiyanachchiyamma, village deity, 224. Alakshml, s.a. Jyeshtha, 21611. Alambakkam, village in the Tanjore ctistrict, 196. __ Alayattu-Pillaiyar, Ganapati image mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions, 176. alidha, posture instanding, 26, 213, 266 in sitting, 197. Alinganamurti, form ; of Chandrasekhara, five Pandavas, 47, 141, 143, 227. Penance, bas-relief of rock-cu t sculptures at Mahabalipuram, 143, 251. arka-pushpa, jewel decorating the jatamaArjuna's kuta of Siva, 76. arrow, weapon, in the hand of Aiyanar, of Kalagni230; — of Durga, 199, 202 ; of Kiratarof Kama, 62; Rudra, 155 Lalila, Tripurasunof juna, 143 ;. of Rama darl and Rajarajesvari, 22 ; — — — — ; 114. 18 — INDEX 274 — of Sani, 239 — of — of Sudarsana, 66 — of Tripurantaka, 140, 267* — of Virabhadra, 155, 159; — of Vishnu, 55. and Lakshmana, 35 Skanda, 177, 178; ; Balavikarani, the Sakti (goddess) of Balavikarana (Siva), 19OK. Bala-yantra, mystic charm connected with the worship of Bala-Sakti, 222. ; ; ; 17//, Aruna, charioteer of Surya, 235, 236. Ashtabhuja-Viralakshmi, form of Lakshmi, 189. Bana, I Ashta-Mahalakshml, the eight (forms of) Lakshmi, 187. Ashtamurtis, class of Siva-images, 77. Ashtanga-Yoginis, group of goddesses attending on Surapriya, 212. Ashta-Siddhis, group of goddesses recognized a> consorts of Ganapati, 173. Asiramma, village deity, 224. Asoka, Maurya emperor, I 68k. asoUa-flower, one of the five arrows Kama, of 62. ass, vehicle of Kalaratrl, — 211 ; — of Nairrita, of Sitaladevi, 213. 243 ; asuras, s.a. danavas, 50, 211, 229, 230. demon, 30, 32. demon, devotee of Siva, 259. Bangaramma, s.a. Ponnamma, 224. banyan (vala), tree,- abode of Tiruvaludaiyal, 230 — connected with Aiyanar, 226 - with Dakshinamurti, 90 with : ; ; Nataraja's dance, 84K : — sacred Ati-Pingala, attendant of Surya, 236. Atiranachanda-Pallavesvara, rock-cut temple at Saluvankuppam, 107. Atreya, sage Atri, sage, (?), n™, 259/2. 239, 254. Atyantakama-Pallavesvara, Dharmaraja-ratha, 107. surname of avadaiyar, Tamil name for the pedestal of a Siva-linga, 73. Avanti, country, 70, 239. an incarnation (especially of avatar, Vishnu), 22, 26, 30, 32, 35, 37, 47, 50, 64. Avesla, scripture of the Parsees, 236/1. Avyanga, name of the thread seen round the waist of Snrya-images, 236K. Ayodhya (Oudh), city, 35. axe or hatchet (harasu), weapon, in the hand of Saiva images, 77, 93, 97B, 103, 114, 120, 125, 137, 147,148, 162, 173, 178; 140, 141, 143, — of Sudarsana, — to the goddess Chamunda, 196. Barbaras, an aboriginal tribe, 223. Bartali (Battall), Buddhist goddess, 194;/. bell (ghanta), symbol, in the hand of Durga, Mahishasuramardinl and Mahaof GajahaLakshml, 199, 206. 211 muni, 125 of Nataraja (in Kalikatandava), 84 of Skanda, 178. ; — ; — — Benares, 2i8«. Bhadrakall, consort of Virabhadra, 155" form of Chamunda, 197, 213K village : atibhanga, great bend of body in images, 266. — 113: variety of Siva-linga, 7372. Bangalore district, 217. ; Asvins, the twin physicians of the gods, no, Bali, | — : — deity, 223, 224, 227. bhadrapitha, form of pedestal, 266. bhadrd bhadraya, etc , Mantra of the RigVeda, 37«. Bhagavad-Gita, the Divine Song,' 37, 47. ' Bhagavata-Purana, 37, 47. Bhaglratha, mythical king of the Solar race, 123, 132. Bhairava, fierce emanation of Siva, 74,113, 151, 155, 159K, 161, 262K. Bhairavl, epithet of Mahesvari, 194 form of Kali, 199. : — Bhandasura, demon, 222. bhangas, the (three) artistic flexions of body in images, 266. Bharadvaja, sage, 90, 239, 254. Bharata, brother of Rama, 37, BhaiatI, s.a. Sarasvati, %-zn. Bharatiya-Natyasastra, name of a Sanskrit work, 88k. Bharavi, Sanskrit poet, 143. Bhargava, sage, 90. Bhasmasura, demon, 165. Bhatta-Bhaskariya, work quoted in the Tattvanidhi, 24IK, 2487;. Bhavani, village in the Coimbatore dis- 66. B trict, 165. Badami, Chalukyan rock-cut temple at, 24. Badarikasrama, the modern Badri-Narayan, 47- Bagali, village in the Bellary district, 114, 1*87. Bala-Krishna, form of Krishna, 38, 41. Balapramathani, the Sakti (goddess) of Balapramathana (Siva), 19OK. Balarama (Baladeva), brother of Krishna, considered as an incarnation of Vishnu, 37«. 4^k. Bhavani, s.a. Parvati, 196;;. Bheda-Sakti (jealousy), consort of Kama, 62. Bhikshandarkoyil, village in the Trichinopoly district, 76. Bhikshatana or Bhikshatanamurti, form of Siva, 74, 76K, 97, ioo, 103, 234, 267, 26S;?. bhindivala, weapon, in the hand of Nandi, 162. Bhoga-Sakti, goddess, no connected Somaskanda, chakras, 222 Bala-Tripurasundarl, goddess, 21S. the left side of Siva or the 185K. ; with — Parvati standing on Balei-Sakti, goddess presiding over the six Siva-linga, INDEX Bhoga-Vlia, the standing form of Vlrabharlra, 1 59. — : Maha-Ganapati, 173. bill-hook, symbol in the hand of Karuppannasami, 230. bilva, fruit, symbol in the hand of GajaLakshmi, 187. Binayakia, Japanese name for Vinayaka, l6S«. bindu Brahman, the all-pervading Eternal Spirit 30. 70, 74Brahmana, caste, 7, 38, 41, 55, 70, 71, 100, 168, 197, 21377, 226, 229, 236, 239, 241. I0 Bhojakata, country, 239. Bhrigu, sage, 90, 239, 254. Bhringi, Bhringiriti or Bhringlsa, devotee and attendant of Siva, 113, 12072, 161, name of the Dvarapala at the 165 southern entrance into Siva temples, 254". bhringipada, ornament seen on the right leg of Saiva images, 100, 26872. Bhu (Earth), consort of Vishnu, 22, 189. Bhujangalalita, variety of Nataraja's dance, 84K. Bhujangatrasita, do., 82K. bhuta, a demon, 148, 230, 251, Bhutamata, goddess, 2 1 6. Bhuvaraha, s.a. Varaha, 22. Blja-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 176. bijapura, fruit, symbol in the hand of 275 > Brahmavaivarta-Purana, io«, 16872. Brahmi or Brahmani, one of the Sapta- matrikas, 190, 194, 196. Brahmiya-Silpa, work on Arts, 227z, 3872, 47«, 52«. breast-band, found on images of Durga, I99, 206; of Pratyangira, 21372. Brihadisvara, temple, at Tanjore, 77, 8877, — 155, 176, 268. Brihaspati (Jupiter), planet, 239. Brindavana (Brindaban), village, 37, 38, 4r, 43. 47. broom, symbol of Buddha, saint, 73 : 22, 47 Sitala, 213. — incarnation of Vishnu, ;— called Muni, Buddhism, 234. 73, 184. Buddhist, 2k, 77/8, i68«, 185, 194K, 213;/, 2l8«, 220«, 24877. Budha (Mercury), planet, 239. buffalo, demon, sacrifice, 226 : — 197, 199, 202, 206, 21 1 : vehicle of Kala (Yama), — — of Varahi, 194. ' guardian deity at the western entrance of Siva temples, 254/; vehicle and banner of Siva, 76/2, 90, 97, no, 113, 137, 243 ; bull, (dot), connected with mystic charms called yantras and chakras, 222. boar, crest of the Western Chalukya, Kakatiya, Reddi and Vijayanagara kings, 24. : — 114, 120, 125, 132, 141, 162,267: vehicle of Chandesa in the Kali-yuga, 161 of Mahesvari, 194; of Saila; Boar or Man-Boar (Varaha), incarnation of — putrf, — 202 ; — of — Savitrl, 2i8w. Vishnu, 22, 24, 93. bones, garland of, found on Saiva images, 125, 212. book, symbol, in the hand of the Asvins, of Bala-Sakti, 239K 222; of ; — Brahma, 107 ; — — of Brihaspati, 239;— of — of Hayagriva, 55 — of Madhvacharya, 259 — of images, 254 — of Sankaracharya, 259 — of Sarasvati, 1S5 — of Sukra, 239. Dakshinamurti, 90, 93 ; ; rishi- ; ; ; ; boon-giving pose of hand in images, 77, 100, 129/j, 162, 168, 173, 5272, 187, 218, See varada. — — — of Kalagni; of Indra, 241 ; 199, 206 ; Rudra, 155 ; of Kama, — — — 62 of of Rama and Lakshmana, 35 ; of Sani, 239 of Skanda, 177, 178 ; of Sudarsana, 66 ; of Tripurantaka, 140 ; of Vlrabhadra, of Vishnu, 17/;, 30, 55. 155. 159; Brahma, god, the Creator, 10, II, 24, 32, Kiratarjuna, 143 ; — — — 22611. caverns and rock-cut beds, 2«. Ceylon, island, 64K, 114?/, 223?/, 229, 254«, 259/2. chain, symbol of Kartippannasami, 230. chaitya, a temple, 2. chakra (disc q.v ), symbol of Vishnu, 26, 38/2, 52, 55, 70. bow, weapon, in the hand of Aiyanar, 230 of Chamunda, 194, 206 ; of Durga, Mahishasuramardini and Maha- Lakshmi, — cane, symbol in the hand of Nandi, 16272. Castes and Tribes (Thurston), quoted, — ; ; — — Chakrapani, temple, at Kumbakonam, 70. Chakra-Perumal, s.a. Sudarsana, 66. chakra-puja, ceremony observed in temples of village deities, 226. chakras, mystic diagrams connected with Sakti worship, 185, 220, 222. Chakra-tlrtha, tank, source of GandakI, Chakravartins, group of demi-gods of Jaina mythology, 265. Chalukya, Western, dynasty, 24. 103, 5°. 52, 73". 74. 82«, 93, 97, 100, 113, 141, 184, 185, 194, 197, 218?;, 22472, Chalukyan 236, 251. Chamunda brahmacharin, an unmarried student of the Vedas, 30, 173, 177. Brahmacharini, form of Durga, 202. Brahma-kapalam, place of pilgrimage on the Himalayas, 100. the river 70. Architecture (Rea), quoted, 52/2. (Chandi), one of the Saptamatrikas, 190, 194, 196 epithet of Mahishasuramardini", 194K, 196, 197,202, 206. Chanda, name of Chandesa in the Tretayuga, 161 ; of a Dvarapala image, 251 ; : — — INDEX 2;6 — of the guardian deity in shrines of Chandakhanda, form of Durga, 202. Chanda-Munda, demon, I97«, 222. Chandesa, devotee and attendant of 151 Siva, 143. 147. 559. 161, 162. Chandesanugrahaor murti, form of Siva, 76m, 143, 147, 162. Chandesanugraha Chandesvara, s.a. Chandesanugraha, 76;;. Chandesvaraprasadadeva, do., 147. Chandi, s.a. Chandesa, 254;;. Chandi or Chandika, s.a. Mahishasuramardinl, 190/2, 196, 202, 206, 224. Chandikalpa, work quoted in the Tattvanidhi, 197K, 206. Chandimau, Chandragiri, district, village, 143//. in village the Chittoor 35«, 137. Chandrasekhara or Chandrasekharamurti, form of Siva, 76«, 93, 114, 148. Charchara, form of Kali, 199. Chaturmukha or Chaumukhi, form of Jaina images, 77/;. name Chaturvarga-Chintamani, Sanskrit work, 24. a of chatushshashtikala, the sixty -four sciences, 187. village deity, 224. chauri (chamara), a fly-whisk, 3, 11, 194, 139, 211, 24S, 251, 265. 52K, Chaushashti-Yoginis, group of goddesses, 223». Chera, country, 2«. Chetthakarl, title ofMahendravarman I., 2, Chhaya, consort of Surya, 236. Chidambaram, village in the South Arcot district, II, 55, 74, 82, 84a, 93/;, 107, 125, 141, I43> 147, 17S, 236, 243, 248 :— the Nataraja temple at, history, 88 : — its 23OK. — of Garuda, ; and of — of Indra, 241 — — of Govinda; Samhara-Bhairava, of Kama, 62 ; ; 64/* — — of Kapila, 254 ; of Lalita, Tripurasundari and Rajarajesvari, 220 ; of Maha-Ganapati, 173; of Sarasvati, of Skanda, 178 ; ofSudarsana, 218/; ; 66 ; of Surya, 35, 236 ; of Trikantakldevl, 213 ; — of Varuna, 243 ; of — — — — — — — Vishnu, 17, 22, 26, 30, 43, 107, 113, 125, mark 267 -- of Vishvaksena, 62 made of sandal or yopichandaiia, 259. See sankha. Conjeeveram, village in the Chingleput district, 2, 22«, 89K, 162K, 222. corpse, vehicle, of Chamunda, 194 of Mahakali, 197 carried by Ugra-Tara on her head, 213. crescent, ornament on the head of Siva, 76, of Ganapati, 173; 77, 82, 103, 114 ; of Sakti goddesses, 185, 194, 202. ; : — — : ; Chiranjivins, the nine, 262. Chitragupta, attendant of Yama, 243. ChitrinI, consort of Kubera, 248K. Chola, dynasty, 2, 77, 88, 89, 93, 107, 114*, 176, 216, 224, 254, 268. in the hand of Budha, club, symbol, 35 ; — — of Dvarapala images, — — vehicle of Gangamma ;,Ganga), of Varuna, 243. 224«, 248 ; crow, banner of Jyeshtha, 216, 2l8« vehicle of Tvarita, 212;;. cup, symbol, in the hand of GovindaBhairava and Kala-Bhairava, 151 of Kollapura-Mahalakshmi, of 189 ; Mahakala, 155 ; of Mahakali, 197 of Lalita, Tripurasundarl and Rajacrocodile, — : — — rajesvari, 220. See pot and — — — ; vessel. D dahim, attribute of Kama's arrow, 62. Daksha, sage, 89, 155, 159, 267. Dakshinagni, one of the (three) sacrificial fires, represented by the goddess Savitri, ; ; ; ; — ; — — — ; ; — — ; — — ; kuta. — — symbol, 3, 35 in the hand of Durga (Katyayani), Chamunda, Mahishasuramardinl and Maha-Lakshmi, 196, of Gaja-Lakshmi, 199, 202, 206, 211 ; ; — Candanatha-Varahi, form of Varahi, 194W. Danda-Pingala, attendant of Surya, 236. Darukavana, forest, scene of Siva's sport as Dasra, one of the Asvins, 259;;. Dattatreya, god, li«. Death, the god of, s.a. Kala, 132, 137, 148, ; — 9°. 93, 147, 234, 268«. danavas, demons, 30, 140. Bhikshatana, 79K, 100. Dasara, festival, 187. Dasaratha, king of Ayodhya and father of ; — Dakshinamurti, form of Siva, 74, 76;^ 89, — of 25 1 239 ; — of Kala (Yama), 137, Garuda, 64K Karuppannasami, of 230 — of 243 Ketu, 241 of Kollapura-Mahalakshmi and Ashtabhuja-Vlralakshml, 189 of Kuja (Mars), 239 — of Maha-Ganapati, °f Moon, of r 73 Sarasvati, 239 of Siva, 77 w °f Skanda, 2l8« ; ofSudarsana, 66 of Vira178: bhadra, 155 of Vishnu, 17, 26, 30 of Vishvaksena, 64. See gada. cock banner of Skanda, 2l8«. See kulc5 — 220. Chingleput district, Jaina temples in, 262. chinmudra, pose of fingers, 259, 267. conch, ; ; Chaudamma, ; 187 Bhairava Jina, 265. Rama, 35. ISI. deer (antelope, black-buck), symbol, in the hand of Saiva images, 77, 89?/, 90, 93, 97, 103, no, 114, 129, 132, I37«, 140, I47> 159. 162, 267 Hi. vehicle J43. of Vayu, 248 accompaniment of Bhikshatana, 100 of Kankala, 103 of Nataraja, 82. Devabhavi, epithet of Surapriya, 212. DevakI, mother of Krishna, 41, 196. Devaram, collection of Saiva Tamil hvirms : — 72, 89, 262. — — : — ; ; : NDEX I devas, demi-gods, 24, 79, 82«, 132, of Jaina mythology, 265. 229 ; — 140, Devayana (Devasena), consort of Skanda, 178. devil-dances, 234. dhakka, (kettle-drum q.v.), symbol in the hand of Siva, 76, 77, 267. Dhanvantari, sage, the presiding deity of Indian Medical Science, 254, 259M. Dharanivaraha, s. a. Varaha, 22. Dhaiasuram, village in the Tanjore district. Dharma, 11 monument monolithic Mahabalipuram, 107. Dharmaraja, one of the five Tandavas, 227. Dharmavyakhyanamurti, epithet of Dakat shinamurti, 89. Dhenu-Vagisvari, form of VagTsvari, 185. Dhumravatl or Dhumra-Kali, goddess, 213. Dhumrorna, consort of Yama, 243. dhvajastambha, the flag-staff ofa temple, Digambara, sect of Jainas, 262, 265. 3. Dikpalakas, the eight lords of the quarters, demi-gods of Jaina mythology, 241 : 265. Dipavali-Amavasya, festival, 32. in the hand disc or discus, symbol, 3,35; Chamunda, Durga (Katayyani), of — — Mahishasuramardini and Maha-Lakshmi, ; of Garuda, 194, 196, 199, 202, 206, 2t 1 of Govinda-Bhairava and of Sam6411; — ; — — — — — — — — , chaira. dog, vehicle of Bhairava, 151. Draupadi, queen of the Pandavas, 227 temple at Kumbakonam, : — 227. dukula, muslin, 120. Durgac?" Durga-Lakshmi, goddess, 74, 148, 196, 19772, 199, 202, 206, 211, 213/2, 218, 220, 223, 224, 229: -energy of Siva in her images his fighting mood, I96» represented naked, 202, 211. Durgamma, village deity, s.a. Durga, 224. Durga-Paramesvari, do., 224. Durgi, village in the Guntur district, 151, : — IS5- Dvapara-yuga, name — ; -. — 97> at Conjetveram, 8g«, 162//. form of Siva, 97. Elements of Hindu Iconography (Gopinatha Rao), quoted, 2l8«. elephant, demon, 125: vehicle of Aiyanar, of Maha-Gauri, 202 ; of 230 ; Mahendri, 194; of Prachanda, 161 ; of Visvakarma, lire its hide, worn — — — — — — : — by Saiva images, 151 197 its tusk, symbol in the hand of Gajahamurti, 125 of Ganesa 168 (Maha-Ganapati), 173. : , — ; Elephanta, caves at, 107. Ella, Greek goddess, 223K. Ellamma, village deity, 223, 224. Elura Cave Temples (Burgess), quoted, &2>i, 132, 137/;, 159K, I90re, I94«, 2o6«. Report (Madras), quoted, Epigraphical 2672, 3272, 52/;, 8877, l6l«, 235/7, 25177. Epigraphia Indica, quoted, 7372, 77«. epilepsy, personified as Apasmara, 7977. — — hara-Bhairava, 151 of Indra, 241 ; of Maha-Ganapati, of Kapila, 254 ; of Skanda, of Sarasvati, 2i8k ; 173 ; of Surya, of Sudarsana, 66; 177, 178 ; of of Trikantakldevi, 213 ; 236 ; Vishnu, 17, 22, 24, 26, 30,43,64,107, mark made of Vishvaksena, 64: 113; of sandal or gopichandand 259. See — : Ekapadamurti or Ekapada-Trimurti, Brahma, chauri-bearer of Yama, 243. — of paddy, symbol in the hand of Maha-Ganapati, 173. Earth, goddess, s.a. Bhu, 22, 24, 32, 55, 1&7 used by Tripurantaka as his mother of Mars, 239. _ chariot, 140 Ekadasa-Rudras, class of Siva images, 77, ear Ekamresvara, temple, 120, 125, 129, 254, 262;/. Dharma, form of Dharmaraja-^artfl, 277 of the third — symbol, in the hand of Agni, 243 ; of Vayu, 248. Fire (Agni q.v.), one of the three eyes of fan, Siva, 76. fire-walking, ceremony observed in temples of village deities, 226, 229. Fish, incarnation of Vishnu, 22. flag, symbol , in the hand of Vayu, 248, 267. flesh, symbol, in the hand of Varuni, 220. flower, garland, connected with the story Chandesanugrahamurti and with of Svayamvara, 107, 147: symbol, in the hand cf Chandesa, 162 arrow held by Vajraprastarini, 21277. (of pomegranate), symbol, in the fruit handof Sri and Prithvi, 187; of Lalita, Tripurasundarl and Rajarajesvari, 220 (of wood-apple), symbol, in the hand of Ganesa, 168. of Skanda, no; — : — — — — Hindu aeon, 161. Dvaraka (Dwarka), legendary capital of Krishna, 37, 47, 70. Dvarapala, the guardian deity of a temple, 251. 254- Dvarapalika, female guardian deity in temples of goddesses, 254. Dwarf (Vamana), incarnation of Vishnu, 30. 3 2 - 19 q.v.), symbol, in the hando Vishnu, 5277, 55. Gajahamurti, form of Siva, 125. gajahasta, pose of hand, 79, 84, 88, 267. Gaja-Lakshmi, form of Lakshmi, 187. gada (club INDEX 278 Gajendramoksha, (story of Vishnu) rescuing the elephant, 55. Ganapati or Ganesa, god, son of Siva, 62, 70, 74, 82k, 113, 165, 168, 173, 176, 267//. Ganapatya, sect of Brahmanas, 168, 176K. ganas, group of demi-gods attending on Siva, 155, 161, 176, 183, 211. 162, 165, 168/1, 173/e, gopnra, the entrance gate of a temple with a tower, 84^, 88, 93*2, 147, 251. _ Govardhana, hill (near Brindavana), 43. Govinda-Bhairava, form of tshairava, 151. grama-devata, a village deity, 223. Gulikan, demon, attendant of Aiyanar, 230 gunja-seeds, garland of, worn by Tvarita, 212. Gandabherunda, (fabulous) bird-vehicle used in processions of images, 7. Gandaki, river, 70. Gandharvas, class of demi-gods, 251. Gandiva, the bow of Arjuna, 141. Ganga or Ganga-Bhattaraki, goddess, s.a. Ganges, 76, 82, 125, 129, 132, 224 — the chaurl-bearer of Varuna, 248. Gangadhara, form of Siva, 74, 129, 132, Gupta, dynasty, I43M. Guruparamparaprabhava, name of a San skrit work, 262. H : Haladhara, epithet of Balarama, yjn. Hampi, village in the Bellary district, 35«, I43«. Gangnikondasolapuram, village in the Trichinopoly district, 132, 143, i68k. Gangamma, village deity, s. a. Ganga, 224. Gangavisarjana or Gangavisarjanamurti, form of Siva, 129 Ganges, river, 70, 76, 82, 129, 22472. the garbha-griha, temple, j.. shrine central of a Hari, s.a. Vishnu, 8272. Haridra-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, ij6k. Harihara, form of Siva, 76a, 125. Hariharaputra, epithet of Aiyanar, 229, Hari-parvata, hill, 70. Harivamsa, supplement to the Maha- bharata, 223. 220. Garuda, bird, vehicle of Vishnu, 55> . 64, 97, Govinda-Bhairava, 2, 3, 32, 125, 162K, 251 ;— of - of Vaishnavi, 151 ; — of Sarasvati, 2i8w. 194 Gartida-chayana, Veaic sacrifice, 641/. Garuda-Narayana, form of Vishnu, 55. Gaudapada, the teacher's teacher of Sankaracharya, 259. in the Tiruvottiyur Gaulisvara, shrine temple, 259. Gaurl, s.a. Parvati, 82//, 84, 88, 113, 114, 129, 132, 141, 190, 2o6n. Gauri-tandava, variety of Nataraja's dance, ; 84. Hayagriva, form of Vishnu, 55. Hazara-Ramasvamin, temple, at Hampi, 35«- — — — — — — — — — — 38,;, 41, 4-,, 47- Gopivastiapaharaka, form of Krishna, 47. M heads (human), garland of, worn by ahaTripura-Bhairavi, 212 ; symbol, in the hand of Kalaratri, 212 ; offered to propitiate Virabhadra, l6i«. Hemadri, author, II, 24, 26, 32, 43//, 52, 55. 7 6 ". 77". I[ 3. I5 1 I&2 , 177". 190W, 194, 197, 2o6«, 236, 239, 241, 243, 248. Heramba-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 173, Kali, 197;' — — by — . 176. heroes (vintlu), deities, 230 worshipped as village temples in the — their : Gautama, sage, 241, 254. presiding Gayatrl, goddess, 73/;, 97/;, 241: deity of morning prayers, 218. Gitabhavi, epithet of Surapriya, 212. goad or hook (ankusa), symbol, in the of Annahand of Aghoramurti, 148 ; of Bala-Sakti, 222 ; - of puma, 218; of Chandesa in' Chamunda, 194; Dvapara-yuga, 161; of Durga, 193"; of Ganapati, 168, 173 (Heramba-Ganaof Lakshmi, pati) ; —of Indra, 241 ; 1S9 ;— of Lalita, Tripurasundari and 220 ; of Pidari, 224;;, Rajarajesvari, of Sudarsana, of Sarasvati, 185; 66 ; of Virabhadra, 159. Gontyalamma, village deity, 224. Gopala, s.a. Krishna, 4j?/,256. gof ichandana, a kind of yellow earth used in mailing caste marks, 259. Gopls, the cowherd women of Brindavana, — 35. 37, 64, 66, Harabhadra, name of a Dvarapala, 251. 230. Garhapatya, one of the (three) sacrificial fires, represented by the goddess Gayatrl, 52 Ilanuman, devotee and servant of Rama, Palnad taluk, 234. Himalaya, mountain, 66, 90, 100. Himavat, s.a. Himalaya, 90, 107. Hindu Mythology (Wilkins), quoted, 251. Hiranyagarbha, variety of Saligrama, 70. Hiranyakasipu, demon, 24, 26, 30, Hiranyaksha, do., 24. Hiranyavarman, man, 88. horse, Kubera, 194/; surname vehicle, : — 24S of ; (seven), SSrya, 236 Moon, 239 — of Simhavar- Aiyanar, 230 ;— of of Svapna-Varahi, yoked to the chariot of — (ten), to the chariot of the : - : forming the body of the Asvins, 259;/. Hosur-amma, human village deity, 223. sacrifice, 22772. hundred-pillared hall, in the Varadarajasvamin temple at Conjeeveram, 43. Huskur-amma, village deity, 223. village in the Huvinahadagalli, district, 55. Bellary — INDEX 279 K Indian Art (Havell), quoted, 73". 79. 9°»> 143". l8 9, 59«Indian Antiquary, quoted, 24, 2i8k, 234, Ideals of 265. Indra, and regent of the 64«, 113, 194, 241. chief of gods east, 30, 43, Indra-Lakshmi, s.a. Samanya-Lakshmi, 187. lndrani, s.a. ilahendrl, 194, 196. demi-gods of lndras, group of mythology, 265. Jaina Kachchhapesvara, temple, at Conjeeveram, 227Z. Kadalmallai, s.a. Mahalialipuram, 72//. Kadru, mother of serpents, 64;;. Kailasa, mountain, 82«, 90. Kailasanatha, temple, at Conjeeveram, 2, 107. Kailabha, demon, 52, 197K. Kakatiya, dynasty, 24. servant of Varna, Kala, s.a. Varna, 137 : — 243- Kalabhadra, form of Chamunda, 197. Kala-Bhairava, form of Bhairava, 15!. Kalagni-Rudra, form of Siva, 155. Kalaha, s.a. Kalahara, 132, 243. Kalahara or Kalaharamurti, form of Siva, Jaimini, sage, 241. 77>i, 2i8k, 265 images Jaina, 2», (represented naked), 262. Jainism, 184. Jalasayana, form of reclining Vishnu, 52. Jamadagni, sage, 90, 254. Kalakuta, poison, produced at the churning of the ocean, 76, 137. Jambavat, demi-god, 32™. Jambukesvaram, suburb of Kalamukha, Kalamunda, — : Srirangam, Kalanasa, 173- Janardana, s.a. Vishnu, 73«. Jangams, priestly class of the Lingayata sect, 268«. japa-fiowers, used as ear-ornaments by the goddess Kalaratrl, 211. Japanese, i68«. jasmine -flower, one of the five arrows of Kama, 62. jatas, locks of matted hair, 79, S2«, I03«, 268. sect of Saivas, 161. Kala, 151. Kalahara, j6u. s.a. s.a. f.a. Kali, 224. Kalaratrl, form of Durga, 202, 211. Kalavikarani, the Sakti (goddess) of Kala- Kala-Pidari, vikarana (Siva), 19OK. Kali, goddess, consort of Mahakala, 151: energy of Siva in his angry mood, form of Chamunda, 197, 199; — of ig6«: Durga, I97«, 211 ;- of Parvati, 82, 184, 224 :— the Sakti (goddess) of Kala- — (Siva), 190//. jatabandha, arrangement of matted hair, 268. jata-bhara, do. 268. jata-makuta, matted hair arranged in the fashion of a crown, 11, 76, 77, 79, 90, ' 103, 132, 137, 243. no, 114, 137, 141, 161, 162, 185, 190, 197, 268. Kalidasa, Sanskrit poet, 177. Kalika, consort of Nairrita, I97«, 243. Kalika-Pnrana, Iiw, 243. Nataraja's of Kalika-tandava, variety dance, 84. Kalinga, country, 236. Kalingamardana, s.a. Kaliya-Krishna, 4t. jata-mandala, arrangement of matted hair, 103H, 161, 162, 268. jatras, annual festivals held in honour of Kaliya, serpent, 38, 41. Kaliya-Krishna, form of Krishna, 38, 41 local deities, 227. javelin, weapon, in the Kali-yuga, - hand of Nairrila, 243Jaya, attendant of Skanda, 178; of Vishnu, 50 name of a Dvarapala, 251. Jayadeva, Sanskrit poet, 50. : — — Jina, god, 47;/, 265. jaanabhavi, epithet of Surapriya, 212. jnanamudra, pose of fingers, 55, 90, 93, 267. Jnanamiirti, form of Dakshinamurti, 90. Journal of Indian Art and Industry, quoted, 141, 24IK. Jumna, river, 41, 47, Jvala-Nrisimha, form of Narasimha, 70. Jvaradeva, form of Siva, 165. Jyeshtha, the Sakti (goddess) of Jyeshtha (Siva), 190*!. Jyeshtha or Jyeshtha-Lakshml, goddess, 216, 218, 224, 268 :— her temple at Kukkanflr, 21S. I9-A Kaliyamma, s.a. Kali, 223, 224. name of the fourth Hindu seon, 161. Kalki, incarnation of Vishnu, 22, 47. Madura Kallar, class of people in the district, 230. kalpa-vriksha 'ur-druma), the wish-givmg tree, 37: - used as vehicle celestial pedestals in processions, 7: -found on :— of images as aureola, 76, I73"> 26 5 sacred to the goddess lndrani, 196 bunch of its flowers, symbol of Sachi, : 241. — . Kalyana or Kalyanapura, village in the Nizam's Dominions, 254. Kalyanasundara, form of Siva, 74, 103, Kama or Kamadeva, god of Love, 62, 89. Kamadhenu, the wish-giving celestial cow, used as vehicle in processions, temple, at Kamakshi-amnian, veram, 222, 7. Conjee- . INDEX 280 Kamadabanamurti, Kamari or form of Siva, 7622, Sgn. Kamsa, uncle of Krishna, 196. 177. Kauravas, one of Kanarese districts, lOf/, 159, 177, 224??. Kanchi, s.a. Conjeeveram, 30, 107. kankala, a skeleton, symbol of Kankalamurti, 103. Kinkala or Kankalamurti, form of Siva, 103, 268;/. heroine of the Silappadigaram, 229. Kanniyamar s.a. Saptamatrikas, 223, 229. kanyaka (unmarried girl) form, of Gauri, 190. Kanyaka-Paramesvarl, tutelary deity of the Vaisya caste, 229. kapala (skull q.v.), symbol, in the hand of Saiva images, 100, 267. Kapalamochanatirtha, tank, 10022. Kapalika, sect of Saivas, 161. Kapila, sage, 254. karagam -carrying, ceremony observed in temples of village deities, 227. Karaikkal-ammai, female Saiva 110, 113, 1 55« , 137, 140, 143, 197/2, 202. sacred to 220k. Karkal, village in the : — dhakka. Ketu (the descending node), planet, 239. khatvanga, weapon, 267. Kinnaras, class of demi-gods, 9022, 248, 251. Kinnari, a Kinnara female, 90/2, 251. Kiratarjuna or Kiratarjunamurti, form of Siva, 140, 141, 143. Kiratarjunadeva, s.a. Kiratarjunamurti, 143. Kiratarjunlya, Sanskrit poem, 143. Kiratas (hunters), an aboriginal tribe, 212, State, 132. Kolar, district, 227. 82//, no, 190, Varahi, 196. Karempudi, — district, 129, 76;/, karandamakuta, form of crown, 251, 268. karanja, tree, hand of Saiva images, 84, 88, 90, 100, 103, 114, 125, of Pratyangira I37«, 14022, 148, 151 (with snake), and SvasthavesinI, 213 of Pidari, 224/;. See in the hand Guntur the Tatlvanidhi, 147, 148, ketaki, flower, 93, 97. kettle-drum, symbol, in the goddess Karanagama or Saiva-Karanagama, work S922, 97, parties the 262. in the contending of the 223. kiritamakuta, crown on the head of images, 168, 190, 268. Klrtj (fame), one of the Sakti goddesses of Vishnu, 189. kite, banner of Chamunda, 194: vehicle of Chandakhanda, 202. knife, stuck in the girdle of Kankala, 103 : symbol, in the hand of Nandi, 162a. kodanda, a bow, 35. Kodanda-Rama, epithet of Rama, 35. Kodumbalur, village in the Pudukkottai saint, Karalabhadra, s.a. Kalabhadra, 197. Karall, s.a. Bhadrakall,iy7. quoted war Mahabharata, 47. kavacha, mail armour, 236. kesabandha, arrangement of hair, 162, 190. Kesavasvamin, temple, at Pushpagiri, 47. in the ; seven, the (virgins), poem Tamil Kannagi, kaupina, piece of cloth, worn by Skanda, — — Kollapura-Mahalakshmi, form of Lakshmi, village in South the Canara 82/2, 251. Karnapravritas, class of Saiva devotees, 9022.. 140/2, 147, 155, 161, 168, 177, a. Kollapura-Maha- village deity, 223, 224. Komati, caste, s. a. Vaisya, 229. Konark, village in the Kalinga country, 236/;. Kondavidu, village and Guntur district, 24. Kongu, country, hill fortress in the 2/2. Korava, caste, 229. Kratudhvamsin, epithet of Siva, 1552s. Krauncha, mountain, 177. Krishna, incarnation of Vishnu, 22, 37, 38, 41, 43, 47, 62, 120, 196:— epithet of Vishnu, 55. kataka, pose of fingers, no, 159, 267. katiga, position of hand, 267. Katteri, village deity, 224. Kattu-Edaya.ru, village in the jr. lakshmi, 223, 224. Kolumamma, (?) Karltikeya, epithet of Skanda, 177, 178. Karuppan, demon, attendant of Aiyanar, 230. Karuppannasami, village deity, 230. Kasikhanda, quoted, 155;;. Kasyapa, sage, 236, 239, 254. Kasyapa-Silpa, work on Arts (chapter of Amsumat-Tantra), 17, 79, 103, 107, 113", 114, 120, 190, 199. 189, 224. Kollapurl-amma, district, 265. Karkotaka, serpent-chief, karma, lords of, 184. South Arcot district, 41. — Katyayani, form of Durga, 202 of Mahishasuramardini, 20622. Kaumarl, one of the Saptamatrikas, 190, ; 194, 196. Kaumodakf, the club of Vishnu, symbol in the hand of Maha-Lakshml, 189. krishnajina, skin of a black-buck, symbol of Vamana, 32. Krishna-mandapa, rock-cut pavilion at Mahabalipuram, 43. Krishnaraya or Krishnadevaraya, Vijayanagara king, 26, 38/c, 88. Krlshnasvamin, temple near Hampi, 38/?,. name of the first Hindu a;on, 161. Krittikas (Pleiades), thesis, 177. Kshatriya, caste, 197, 235, 239. Krita-yuga, INDEX Kshetrapala, form of Siva, 159, 161, 262// epithet of Vatuka-Bhairava, 161/2. Kubera, god of wealth and regent of the north, 38, 248. Kuduraivattam-udaiyal, village deity, — : mentioned in Chola inscriptions, 226. Kuja (Mars), planet, 239. Kukkanur, village in the Nizam's Dominions, 218. Kulika, serpenl-chief, 251. Kulumayamma, s.a. s.a. Kolumamma, Skanda, 74, 82/2, 224. 177, 178, 194. Kumarasambhava, Sanskrit poem, Kumbakonam, district, Lilasuka, Sanskrit poet, 41. (blue), flower, one of the fivearrowsof Kama, 62 symbol, in the hand of ParvatI, no, 190. lime-fruit, symbol, in the hand of Dhumrorna, 243. linga, s.a. Siva-linga, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, lily II, 177. in the Tanjore 32, 35a, 55, 70, 120, 227, 77. 93. 97, 107, 137, 141. K43. 147. 159, position of the leg in standing images, 100, 150, 251. kundika or kamandalu (water-pot q.v.), symbol of a sannyasin, 259. Kundodara, demon, 100. kunkumam, red turmeric powder, 220, 222. Kunnakudi, village in the Madura district, kunchita, — worn on the head by Maha165 Lakshml, 189: held in the hand by Bhutamata, 216. Linga-Purana, 93. Lingapuranadeva, s.a. Lingodbhava, 93, . 93. 97vehicle of Budha, 239 of Bhutamata, 216; of Chamunda, 197, 206 ; of Chandesa in the Dvapara-yuga, 161; of Chandl, 206; of HerambaGanapati, 173, 176 ;— of Mahishasuramardinl, 206, of Pratyangira, 211; of Rahu, 239; of Skandamata, 213; 202 ; of Sulinl, 213 ; of Vindhyavasini, 220 banner of S5rya,236 lion, kurpara, elbow, 114, 162/2, 267. Kurukshetra, battle-field of the Mahabharata war, 227. Kurukulla, goddess, 220. Kusadvipa, island, 241. Kushmanda-Durga, form of Durga, 202. kusti, sacred thread worn round the waist by Parsees, 236/*. kuthara, weapon, in the hand of Aghoramurti, 148. Kuttisattan, demon, attendant of Aiyanar, 230. ; — — — — — — — — — : — — : (s Lokamahadevi or Lokamahadeviyar, queen of Rajaraja I., IOO, 262K. Lokapala, form of Brahma, n. lotus, the navel of Vishnu, 50/2, 52 one of the five arrows of Kama, 62 symbol, 35 in the hand of Brahma, - of Garuda, 6472; — of Indra, 241 11 of Jyeshtha, 216 --of Kama, 62 ; — : ; — : — of Maha-Ganapati, 173; — of Moon, 239; — of Sudarsana, 66 — of Sun, 236; — of Varuna, 243; — of Vishnu, 52 — — ; ; ; 17, es, Lakshmana, brother of Rama, 64, 35, 37, 50, 52, 107, 66. Lakshml, Sri, 17, 22«, s.a. 184, 187, 189, 202, 216. 1711, 143, 173, 26. Lakshml-Narayana, form of seated Vishnu, 52Lalita, goddess, 220, 222. quoted Tattvanidhi, 151, 194s, 21672. lamba-patra, ornament, on the in left the ear of Siva, 76. position of the leg in standing images, 190. lamp, symbol, in the hand of Trikanlakidevl, 213 Lanka, (Ceylon q.v.), island, 64K, 66, 223/2. Lepakshi, village in the Anantapur district, 168. lfla-murti, a sportive form (of Siva), 89,1 : : hand of goddess- 185, 187, Ib9, 194, seat or pedestal, — 79. &)«. 107, 129, 17311, 187, 189, 190, 194, 199, 212, 220, 236, 11. 3°. 55. 76, 239. 243- See; M Lakshmi-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 173. Lakshml-Narasimha, form of Narasimha, work in the 202, 218, 220, 267 Laghusyamala, goddess, 220. lambita, — — ; symbol of beauty Lalitopakhyana, — mhasanay.Z'.) 47K, no, 259/2. Little Conjeeveram, suburb of Conjeeveram, 43. pedestal 178. — linga-worship, 73. Lingayata, sect of Saivas, 161, 165, 26872. Lingodbhava, form of Siva, 24, 74, 76/2, village 262;/. — : : kukkuta (cock q.v.), symbol, in the hand of Skanda, 177, 178, 267. Kumara, 281 mace, weapon, in the hand of GovindaBhairava, 151 ; of Nairrita, 243. Madana-Gopala, form of Krishna, 43. — Madhava, s.a. Krishna, 41. Madhu, demon, 52, 19772. Madhukara, attendant of Surapriya, 212. Madhva, sect of Brahmanas, 71. Madhvacharya, teacher of the Dvaita school of philosophy, 259. Madras Museum, 38. Madura, country, 229, 230 — Sundaresvara town, 173 temple at, 14022, 262 Vlrabhadra temple at, 159. Madurai-Viran, attendant of Aiyanar, 21 2«, : 230, 234. Magadha, country, 239. : — : — INDEJi 282 Magas, class of mandapa, an open Sun-worshippers, 235. temple, Magha, lunar month. (January-February), no, 50, 107, 143, 1S7, 189, 202, 206, 251. saint, 89, Manmatha, deity 62. Pidari in 224/tf. of Manon- mana Ganapati, 173, lj6». Maha-Gauri, form of Durga, 202. Mahakailasa, form of Siva, 77. epithet of Mahakala, form of Siva, 151 Kshetrapala, 161//: — Dvarapala at the — : eastern entrance of Si\a temples, 254/;. MahakaH, s.a. Kali, 197. Maha-Lakshmi, form of Durga, (Siva\ kjok. Mantra, portion of the Rig-Veda 37"Manus, the two, sons of Surya, 236 : — the fourteen, 262. Mara, s.a. Kama, 212//. marani, attribute of Kama's arrow, 62. Margali, solar month (December-January), ; — margosa, tree, its leaves used rating the Aaragatu-pot, 227 stones set up under it, 248. : a temple, in text, 82. 190, 206 189. Maha-mandapa, pavilion temples, Kama, Dvarapala images Manonmani, the Sakti (goddess) in shrines of Jina, 265. — of Lakshmi, 259*, 262. s.a. Mannadiyar, I4S, 176, 227, 267". Mahadeva, s. a, Siva, 147. Maha-Ganapati, form of a — : 199. Maha-Bhairava, epithet of Kshetrapala, 161. Mahabharata, epic, 22, 37, 47, ioo«, 141, Maha-Chanda, name of the guardian or pavilion of Mandara, mountain, 140, mandara, one of the five celestial trees, 151. mango, — flower, one of the five arrows of fruit, symbol in the band of Kama, 62 Skanda, no. Manikkavasagar (Manikyavachaka), Saiva 97- Magi, Sun-worshippers of Persia, 235. Mahabalipuram (Mavalivaram), village in the Chingleput district, 2, 22, 24, 30, 32, hall 8g«, l62«, 199. 3, 22, 2, Marika, 241. deco- in — Naga- s.a. SitaladevI, 224. mahambuja, form of pedestal, 266. Mahambuja, serpent chief, 251. Maha-Padma, s.a. Mahambuja, 251. maha-puha, form uf pedestal, 76. Mariyamma, Markandeya, Mahakailasa, 77. Maha-SarasvatI, an emanation of Gauri, Maruts, the seven (or forty-nine), 262. Matangirala (Matangi), epithet of Parvati, Maha-Sadasiva, s.a. 206/;. do., 213, 223, 224. devotee of Siva, sage, Markandeya-Purana, 224. matha, the seat of a pontiff, 265. Matsya-Purana, 236. Maurya, dynasty, 168;/. Mahendravarman Mayamata, work on I, Pallava king, 2. Mihendri, one of the Saptamatrikas, 190, 194. Mahesvara, s.a. Siva, n«, 194, 236. Mahesvaras, sect of Saiva devotees, 190. Mahesvari, one of the Saptamatrikas, 190, 194. Mahl, s.a. Prithvi, 17, 187. Mahishasura, the buffalo-demon, 211, 222. Mahishasura-mandapa, rock-cut pavilion at Mahabalipuram, 50, 206. Mahishasuramardini, goddess, 194«, 196, 197, 202, 206, 226. Mahodara, sage, loon. makara (crocodile), banner of Kama, 62. makara-kundala, ornament, on the right ear of Sua, 76 -- on the ears of Surya, 236. : makara-torana, a crocodile-aureola, 265. Malabar, country, 2, 22«, 32, 230, 234. village deity, 224. man, vehicle ol Kubera, 248 mana-danda, ; — of Nairrita, measuring rod, symbol of Visvakarma, //. inanas (worldly wisdom), personified as Ganapati, 173. Manasa, goddess, 212. Manasara, work on Ails, 10, 17, 47«, 187, n 190, 251. 32, 197. Maha-Sasta, s.a. Aiyanar, 229. mahavajra, form of pedestal, 266. Mahayana, form of Buddhism, 184. Mallamma, 1 137- Arts, 26, 50//, 62, 73//, 103, 107, 114, 147, 194, 202, 243/;, 266. 76/;, 82h, 84«, loo«, Mayurabhanja, Survey of (Nagendra Natha Vasu), quoted, I'M, i68«, 1847/, 185, 2I3«, 220;/, 223«. 77«, 97H, l6i«, 187K, 194K, 2\2>i, 52/1, Menaka, mother of Parvati, 107. Meru, mountain, 236, 239: — used as bow by Tripurantaka, 140. Meypporul-Nayanar, Saiva saint, 262?;. mirror, symbol of beauty in the hand of goddesses, 220, 267. Mlechchhas, foreigners, 47. Mohini, female form of Vishnu, io«, 100, 230. Moon, — planet, 32, 73, 82k, 239, 251 represented by a crescent, 113: - used as wheel to his chariot by Tripurantaka, one of the three eyes of Siva, 76. 140 Mrichchhakatika, Sanskrit drama, 178. Mritasanjlvani, medical herb, 259;*. Mudbidri, village in the South Canara : : — district, 265. Mudgala-Purana, work quoted in the Tattvanidhi, 173, 176- Mudigondam, district, 1-55. village in the Coimbatore INCEX Muhammadan converts Ceded the (of devoted to llanuman, 66. districts), Mukambika, 76//. Mukha-mandapa, pavilion in Mula-Durga, form of Durga, mulam, linear measure, 8211. a temple, 2. Chidambaram, 76. Mundan, demon, attendant of Aiyanar, Munisvara, 230. Muralidhara, s. a. Venu-Gopala, 41. Muruga, Tamil name of Subrahmanya, 178. Musalagan, Tamil name uf Apasmara, 79, 90«, 132, 147. village deity, 223, 224. N of serpents), goddess, 212. class of demi-gods, 64M, 227, 248; 251. Nagendras, group of demi-gods of Jaina mythology, 265. Nagesvara, temple, at Kumbakonam, 120. Nairrita, god, regent of the south-west, 19711, 243. in, l68«. village deity, 224. Niddesa, Buddhist work, 248^ nidhi (treasure), symbol, in the hand of Sukra, 239. Niladevl, goddess, consort of Vishnu, 1711. Nllagunda, village inBellary district, 52;/. Nilakantha, form of Siva, 137. Nirritl, epithet of Jyestha, 2i6«. Nirukta, commentary on the Mantra portion of the Rig- Veda, 37/2. Nisumbha, demon, Mysore, country, 32, 187, 206, 227. Nagas (serpents), 173- Neralamma, at Nagemata (mother of Nayanar, epithet of Saiva saints, 259. Negapatam, village in the Tanjore district, Nepal, Ganesa temple 199. Mulasthana, shrine, in the Nataraja temple Mutyalamma, butter-dance the navanita-nritta, Krishna, 38™. epithet of Vindhyavasini, 220. Mukhalinga, form of Siva, 283 222. Nityaklinnadevatas, group of goddesses attending on Lalita, 216/). noose (pasa or nagapasa), weapon, in the of Annahand of Aghoranmrti, 148 ; of purna, 218 ; — of Bala-Sakti, 222 ; of Chamunda, Durga, Bhairava, 151 ; — — — Mahishasuramardini and Maha-Lakshnii— of Chandesa in the 194, 2 °6, 211 Uvapara-yuga, 161 — of Gajaham^rti, — of Ganapati, 168 --of Kala 125 (\ama), 137, 243 — of Kala (servant — of Lakshmi, 189 — of Yamal, 243 of Lalita, Tripurasundar! and Rajarajes220 — of Maha-Ganapati, 173 — — of Mahendri, 194: of Mahakala, 151 ; ; ; ; ; : ; naivedyam, food offered to a god, 7. Nalayiraprabandham, collection of Vaishnava Tamil hymns, 72, 262. Nallur, village in the Tanjore district, 254«, Namakkal, rock-cut temples at, 2671, 30K, vari, ; ; ; — urdhva- of Nataraja, (in Kalika-tandava), 84, Samhara-tandava), 88 ;— of Parvati, of Sarasof Pratyangira, 213 ; 190 ; of vatJ, 185 ; of Skanda, 177, 178 pundra (j.v.), 3, 259. Nambi-Aruranar, s.a. Sundaramurti, 26211. Nandanar, Pariah saint, 89. Nandi, Nandisa or Nandikesvara bull, 2, 3: Sulinl, 213 ; of Varuna, 243. Vajraprastarini, 21211 ; Nrisimha, s.a. Narasimha, 24, 66, 70. Nrisimhaprasada, work quoted in the Tatt- 3 2 ". 125- namam, term vernacular — devotee for and attendant of — Siva, 82/v, (in — Sudarsana, 66 Nukalamma, temple, i6l«. Nangai-Paravaiyar, wife of Sundaramurti, Ochchans, 262/e. Nara, epithet of Arjuna, 47. Narada,sage, 38, 8211, 90, 97, 113,254, 265. Narasa, contracted form of Narasimha, ; — of ; — —of — vanidhi, 10, 202. Dvarapalaat the 84, 88, 161, 162, 165 eastern entrance of Siva temples, 254M. Nandi-mandapa, pavilion, in the Srlsailam : — — village deity, 224 class of Sakta priests, 226. sacred mystic syllable of the Hindus, 220. Onam, harvest festival in Malabar, 35. owl, vehicle of Mahakali, 197. Om, the 24. Narasimha, the Man-Lion incarnation of Vishnu, epithetl 22, of 24, 26, Vishnu, 30, 148, 55: 190;; — variety : — Padalamma, of paddle of gems, symbol, in the hand of village deity, 224. Kurukulla, 220. Saligiama, 70. (lotus q.v.), symbol of Vishnu, 55. Padma, s.a. Abja, serpent-chief, 251. Padmanabha, form of reclining Vishnu, 50 Narasimh, one of the Saptamatrikas, iyo«. recogNarayana, s.a. Vishnu, 47,125; nized in the orb of Surya, 236. Nasatya, one of the Asvins, 259«. Nataraja, the dancing form of Siva, 74, padma 76K, 77, 79, 82, 84», 88, 89, 137, 230??, 266, 267, 268. Navagrahas, the nine Planets, 74, 235. of Ganapati, Navanita-Ganapati, form Kubera, 248. padma-pitha, the lotus pedastal, 155, 266. Padma-Purana, 51, 189. padmasana, posture in sitting, 259, 205, — 176/2. — epithet Padmanidhi 366. : of Vishnu, 55. (treasure), attendant of —— INDEX 284 Padmottarakhanda, quoted, Paidamma, 21611. village deity, 224, Paithan, country of, 239. Palani-Andavar, name of Skanda on the Palni Hill,-I77«. Pallava, dynasty, 1, 2, 43, 73, 88, 107. Pallis, class of Sudras, 227. Palligondan, Tamil name for the reclining form of Vishnu, 50. Palni (Palnis), hill and village in the Madura district, 177/;, 178. Panchadehamurti, five image of Siva with the Siva-linga with s.a. (?) Heramba- Ganapati, 176. Panchanadesvara,temple,at Tirevadi, 159". Panchaparameshthins, group of images worshipped by the Jainas, 265. Pancharatragama, work quoted in the Tattvanidhi, Ijn, 26, 32^, 43, 55, 151, Panchavaktra-Bhairava, form of Bhairava, 151. Pandavas, one of the contending parties in the war of the Mahabharata, 47, 227. PiLnduranga, form of standing Vishnu at Pandharpur, 55. Pandurangashtaka, Sanskrit poem by Sankaracharya, 55. Pandya, country, in, 229. panivattam, vernacular name for the pedestal of a Siva-linga, 73. Paradesamma, village deity, 224. village Paramesvaramangalam, in the Chingleput district, 190. Parantaka I, Chola king, 88. Parasurama, incarnation of Vishnu, 22. Parasuramesvara, temples of Siva called after Parasurama, 22«. parijata-flower, 220. Parivaralayattu-Pillaiyar, Ganapati image the Tanjore inscriptions, 176. parrot, vehicle of Kama, 62 beauty in the hand of Durga, : — (four), yoked 267 Agni, 243. : ment on the head of Krishna,i38, — 43/2 ; of Tvarita, 212: of Nataraja, 79, 268 ; — symbol, in the hand of Bhikshatanaand Kankala, 100, 103 ; of Nataraja, 84 ;— accompaniment of of Skanda, 177 : Dakshinamurti, — — 90/2. Pechi, village deity, 224. Peddintamma, do., 224. Perantalamma, do. 229. Rajaraja of epithet I, 262?/, Periyapuranam, Tamil work, 147, 161, 162, five faces, 77. Panchamukha-Vinayaka, in — — : Periya-Perumal, bodies, 77. Panchamukhalinga, mentioned Pavadairayan, general of Aiyanar, 236. of peacock, vehicle of Kaumarl, 194; its feathers, ornaSkanda, 177, 178 — symbol of 199, 202, to the chariot of Parsees, 2367Z. Partha, epithet of Arjuna, 47. Parthasarathi, epithet of Krishna, 47. Parvati, consort of Siva, 74, 76, 79, 82«, 84, 90, 103, 107, no, 113, 120, 141, 143, 147, 16272, 165, 184, 190, 196, 197//, 202, 212/;, 224. Pasupata, sect of Saivas, 148, 161. Pasupata, weapon, presented by Siva to Arjuna, 141, 143. Pasupatamurti, form of Siva, 148, 268. pataha, kind of drum, 82/2. Patanjali, sage (with serpent body), 82,84;/, author of the Mahabhashya, 178. 88 ; — Pattalamma, village deity, 224. PattinI, nam* of Kannagi<in Ceylon, 229. 262. Persia, 235. Perunjingadeva, Pallava king, 88. Perur, village in the Coimbatore district, 100, 125. pestle {inusald), weapon, in the hand of Chamunda, 194;— of Heramba-Ganapati, 66. 1 73 ; - - of SuHarsana, phalapatta, ornament on the forehead of Parvati, 190. phallic cult, 72. name Pichchandar, Tamil for Bhikshatana, 100. Tamil name Pidari, for a village goddess, 196, 211, 216, 224, 226. piercing (with metallic wire), ceremony observed in temples of village deities, 226. Pillaiyar, Tamil name for Ganapati, — 176. pipal, tree, 47» abode of Bhutamata, 216 ; of Jyeshtha, 2l6;z sacred to the : — : goddess Vaishnavi, 196: set up under it, 248 with margosa, 248. : — — — Naga its stones marriage l'isachas(devils), class of goblins, 148, 230. plthapadma, form of pedestal, 266. pithas, pedestals, 266 mystic geometrical figures connected withSakti worship, : 185, 220. Pitridrohin, epithet of Planets, the — Chandesa, 162. nine, 70, 235, 236, 239, 241, 266b. plough, symbol, in the hand of Balarama, 37« — of Skanda, 177, 178 ;— of Sudar; sana, 66. _ Poduvagai-Urudaiyal, village deity, tioned in Chola inscriptions, 226. Poieramma, village men- deity, s.a. Sitala, 224, Ponnamma, village deity, 223, 224. pot, -of fire, symbol, in the hand of Nataraja, 77, 84, 88;— of Dalsshinamfirti, 90: of flesh, in the hand of Sivaduti, 216 ;— of gems, in the hand of Saubhagyabhuvanes218 - of ghee, in the hand of Agni, 243;— of Brahma, iim: of nectar, in the hand of Dhanvantari, 259 ; of GajaLakshml, 187; of Garuda, 64n of rubies, in the hand of Maha-Ganapati, 173: of treasures, seen below vari, : — — — : — — . INbEji the feet of Prithvl, 187 : 285 — of wine, in the hand of Kushmanda-Durga, 202 —- of Surapriya, 212. See cup and vessel. prabha or prabha-mandala, arch of light, ; quadrangle (i.e., quadrangular the fire-pit), residence of Agni, 243. 79, 155- Prachanda, name of Chandesa in Kritayuga, 161 of a Dvarapala image, 251. Pradeshamurti, s.a. Chandrasekhara, 114. Pradyumna, epithet of Kamadeva, 62 form of standing Vishnu, $211, 55, 62 — variety of Saligrama, 70. Prahlada, demon, devotee of Vishnu, 26. Prajapati or Prajapati-Brahma, form of — ; : — : Brahma, 1 1 Prajapatis, the nine, 262. prakara, the wall surrounding 0. temple, 3, 35. i85«. prana, vital breath, 213. pranapratishtha, ceremony of infusing prana. into an image, 213/2. 1'ranasakti, goddess, 212, 213;;. Pratyangira, do. 213. Prayogaratna, work quoted in the Tattva- name of a work, 161. preta, a ghost, 148. Prithvl, s.a. Bhu, 17, 52, 187. — consort of Kama, 62 one of the Sakti goddesses of Vishnu, Prlti (pleasure), : prokshanl (sprinkler), symbol, in the hand of Agni, 243. protecting pose of hand in images, 17, 52/2, 120, 173, 187, 218, 241. See abhaya. Pudding, symbol, in the hand of Ganapati, 147, 165, 176, 226, 229, 26222, 268. Rajarajesvara, s.a. Brihadisvara, 77, 8822. Rajarajesvarl, goddess, 220. rajas or rajasic form, of Vtraphadra, 159; of Kshetrapala, 159. Rajni, consort of Surya, 236. rajSpachara, form of ritual, 3. Rakshasas, class of demi-gods, 243, 251 : — — ram, vehicle, of Mars, 239 of Agni, 243. Rama, incarnation of Vishnu, 22, 35, 37//, : 64, 26622 : — king of Ayodhya, 35, 37, - the axe-bearer (Parasurama), : Ramachandra or Ramabhadra, s.a. 22/2. Rama, 35. Ramanujacharya, teacher of the Visishtadvaita school of philosophy, 259. at Kumbakonam, 32, Ramasvamin, temple, 35». 55- 168, 173. Pudgalai, wife of Aiyanar, 212/2, 230, puja, worship, 226, 229. Pulindas, an aboriginal tribe, 223. Pullagunta, village in the Guntur district, 224/2. (i.e., a Raichur, Siva temple at, 77/2. Rajadhiraja I., Chola king, 254. Rajamatangi, goddess, 220. Rajaraja l.„ Chola king, 77, 88/2, 100, 11422, 66 189. Pung girl of Brindavana, favourite of Krishna, 41. Radha-Krishna, form of Krishna, 41. Rahu (the ascending node), planet, 239. subdued by Rama, 37. Rakshoghnamurti, form of Siva, 148. Rakta-Jyeshtha, form of Jyeshtha, 216. nidhi, 236/2, 266/2. Prayogasara, Radha, cowherd Punganur)-amma, punnai-tree, processional vehicle used in Vishnu temples, 47 : grove of, 226. — Punnaitturainangai, village deity, mentioned in Chola inscriptions, 226. Puranai, wife of Aiyanar, 212, 230/2. Puranas, the eighteen, 7, 79, 177, 196, 224, 254, 262. Puranic, n, 55, 129, 132, 137, 140. Purari, s.a. Tripurantaka, 76/e. Puri-Jagannath, temple at, 3722. full of water), symbol of Purnasva, femaie deity attending on Surapriya, 212. Pushkala, Pushpagiri, 212. do. village in the rat, vehicle of Ganapati, 168, 173. monolithic balipuram, 2. rathas, village deity, 223, purnapatra (vessel Agni, 243. Ramayana, epic, 22, 35, 37/2, 90/2, 129, 224/2. Ramesvaram, island, 35, 6422, 230, 251. ranga, an assembly-hall, 5022. Ranganatha, form of reclining Vishnu, 50. Cuddapah district, 47, 143. asrial car of Kubera, 37. one of the SafSti god- Pushti (strength), desses of Vishnu, 189. at Maha- Rati (love), consort of Kama, 62. Ratnasabhapati, the pebble Siva-linga worshipped in the temple of Nataraja at Chidambaram, 76. Raudri, the Sakti-(goddess) of Rudra (Siva), 190/2. ravi-mandala, aureola behind the images of Nataraja, 79/2. Reddi, dynasty, 24. Revanta, son of Surya, 236. Riddhi, consort of Kubera, 248. Rik or Rig-Veda, 3722, 97, 220. Rishabhavahana, s.a. Vrishavahana, 113. 10022, 132, rishi, a sage, 5222, 79/2, 9022, . 254. rock-cut temples, 2//, 302/. rosary (aks/iamala), symbol, in the hand, of Bala-Sakti, of Aghoramurti, 148 of Brahma, 10, II, 103, 113 ; 222 of Brihaspati, of Brahmacharini,202; 239 ; of Bhringi, 16522 ;— of Dakshinaof Ganapati, i$8, murti, 96, 93; ; Pushpaka, the monuments — — ; — — — — Index 286 — (Heramba-Ganapati) 173 ; of Gangadhara, 132 of Hayagriva, 55 ; — of ; — — — of Lakshrni, 189 ; of Parvati, 190 ; Pasupatamurli, 148 of rishi- images, of SarasvatI, 185; of Skanda, 254; of Sukra, 239 of Agni and 177 Varna, 243. Rudra or Rudramurti, general form of Siva images, 76, 77, 114, 155, 2i8«, 223K, ; — — ; — ; — — 236;;. rudraksha-beads, 259. RudrayamalaTantra, work quoted in the Tattvanidhi, 155/;. Rukmini, consort of Krishna, 43. Sanaischara, s.a. Sini, 239. Sanaka, sage, 107. Sanandana, do., 107. Sandhya-tandava, variety dance, 84. of Nataraja's Sandhyavandana, the daily prayer of the Brahmanas, 55. Sani (Saturn), planet, son of Surya, 239. sanjali-mudra, the worshipping posture of hands, 259. Sankara, s.a Siva, 125, Sankara or Sankaracharya, teacher of the Advaita school of philosophy, 155, 162, 259. Sankaram, village in the Vizagapatam district, 2«. Sabaras, an aboriginal tribe, 223. Sahcla-Brahma, the loges, 187. Sabha-mandapa, pavilion in Siva temples, 74, 82. Sabhapati, epithet of Nataraja, 74, 77, 79, 82«. Sachl, consort of Indra, 241. sacrifices of animals, connected with temples of village deities, 226, 227. Sadasiva, form of Siva, 7672. Sagara, mythical king of the Solar race, 129. Sahasraksha (the thousand-eyed), epithet of Indra, 241. Sahasra-linga, form of Siva-linga, 74. Sailapulrl, form of Durga, 202. Saiva, sect, 3, 62, 89, no, 155, 159//, 161, 162, 165, I7\ 183, 206, 254, 259, 262 Puranas 73 ; saints, 262 : 74, Dvarapalas, 254, Saivagama, work quoted in the Tattvanidhi, 202. Saivism, 73. Saivite, 1S3, 1S5, 190, 206, 211, 218, 223. Sakta, creed, 120, 176, 184, 226. Sakti (power), consort of Kama, 62. Sakti, primeval energy deified, 70, no«, 120, 1S4, 185, 189, 190, 206, 212, 220, — : — - 22772, 239. weapon, in the hand of Chandika, 197; Mars 239; -of Skanda, 177, 178. Sakti-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 176. sakti, — of Sakya, race, 73. Saligrama stones, 70, 71, 72. Saluvankuppam, village in the Chingleput dis:rict, 107. sama-bhanga, medium bend of body in images, 103, 129, 162, 168, 266. or Sama-Veda, 220. Samanya-Lakshmi, form of Lakshmi, 187. samapada or samapa.dastha.naka, standing posture in images, 114, 159, 266. Samayapiuam, village in the Trichinopoly Saman district, 178. Sambhu, i.a. Siva, 107. Samhara-Bhairava, form of Bhairava, 151. Samhara-tandava, variety of Nctaraja's dance, 84. Sankaranarayana, s.a. Ifarihara, 125. Sankaranayanarkoyil, village in the Tinnevelly district, 125. Sankarshana, form of standing Vishnu, 52//,, 55. sankha (conch i/.v.), symbol of Vishnu, 26, 3 8«, 55, 211. Sankhadhara, serpent-chief, 251. Sankhanidhi (treasure), attendant of Kubera 248. Sankhya, system of philosophy, 254. sannyasin, an ascetic, 259. Santana-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 176??. Santana-Gopala, form of Krishna, 37, 38/;. Santi (peace), one of the Sakti goddesses of Vishnu, 189. Saptamatrikas, group of goddesses, 190, 194, 196, 229. Sarabha or Sarabhamurti, form of Siva, 147, 148. form of SarasvatI, the presiding deity of the 64 sciences, 187. Saradatilaka, work quoted in the Tattvanidhi, I73«. Sarasvati, goddess of Learning or Speech, Sarada, consort of Brahma, n, S2/2, 184, 185, 1S7 - one of the Sakti goddesses of Vishnu, 1S9 : presiding deity of evening : — prayers, 220. sara-vana, forest of ja?-<7-grass, 177. Saravauan, Tamil name for Saravanodbhava, 2lS«. Saravanan-Uoyil, the correct form of Sranianan-ko\il at Auamalai, 2i8« Saravanodbhava, epithet of Skanda, 8i«. Sarayu, river, 35. Sarvabhutadamani, the Sakti (goddess) of Savvabhutadamana (Siva), 190M sarvamohini, attribute of Kama's arrow, 62. Sail, s.a. Uma, 155, worship of, 229, 230 Satrughna, brother of Rama, 37. Satruvidhvamsini, goddess (represented naked), 213. Sattan, demon, attendant of Aiyanar 230 sattva or sattvio form, of Virabhadra 1 eg ' of Kshetrapala, 159. Saturday, auspicious for touching the sati (suttee), ' — pipal-tree, 2l6?i. '• — Index Satya (Satyabhama), consort of Krishna, 43, Saubhagyabhuvanesvari, goddess, 218. Saubhagya-Vaglsvari, form of Vaglsvari, 74") 642*, 73'*- Saurashtra, country, 239. Savitrl, goddess, consort of Brahma, II presiding deity of mid-day prayers, wife of Agni, 243. 218: scar, symbol, on the neck of Siva, 76, 77. sciences, the sixty-four (chatushshashtikala, q.v.), 262. Scythian, 212. — : village temple simhakarna, - 196. : pose of (lion-seat), Nayanar, fingers, 103, 1 1022, 199/2. pedestal, of Jaina 26222. the sirovartana, — top part of a Siva-linga, 7422. Siruttonda-Nayanar or Siruttonda-Nambi, Saiva saint, 15922, 26222. Mta, consort of Rama, 35, 37, 64, 22422. Sltala or SitaladevI, village deity, god- of Varuna, 243. Sesha, serpent, 22, 24, 6222, 251. Seshasaila, s.a. Tirupati Hill, 6222. Seshasayin, s.a. Anantasayin, 50. q.v.), dess of small-pox, 213, 224. village in the South Arcot district, 265. Siva, god, the Destroyer, 2, 3, 10, 2222, 24, 82/;, Sittamur, 190, 194. Seven Pagodas, Mahabalipuram, s.a. 11. 43Seven Sisters, s.a. z, Saptamatrikas, 229. 32, 50, 52, 62, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79- 82, 84, 88, 89, 90, 93, 97, 100, 103, 107, no, 113, ii4, 120, 125, 26, Shadanana, epithet of Skanda, 177, 178. Shanmatura, do., 177. shashthi, the sixth day of a lunar month, sacred to Subrahmanya and the serpent, a hexagon, images of Sudarsana, connected — with 236, 66. shield (kh'sla), weapon, of Bhiitamata, 216; 129, I3 2 137, 140, I4I> 143. 147, 151. 155. IS9> 161, 162, 165, 168, 184, 185, 190, 183, 194, 196, 202,211, 212, 224, 226, 22722, 229, > 177- shatkona, in the hand Budha, 239 ; ol — of Chamunda, Durga, Mahishasuramardini and Maha-Lakshml, 194, 199, 206; — of the in Simhavarman, king, connected with the history of Chidambaram, 88. Saiva images, 79, 84, 90, 103, no, 125, 132, 148, 151, 168, 194, 192, 202, 212, in the hand of Pidari, 224/; 267 : Seven Mothers (Saptamatrikas village Sindhu, country, 239. Singa or Singa-Perumal, Tamil name for Narasimha, 24. Slraladevar, Saiva saint, son of Siruttonda- — identified with Subrahmanya (Skanda), 177 — symbol or ornament, of ; and hill saints, 265. serpent, — 52*, 13722, district, 26. Simhamukhasura, demon, deity, 224. Sltala. Alambakkam, 12922, 140, 267. simhasana deity, s.a. at 107, 9022, Simhachalam, Vizagapatam . Selliyamnia, 8422, 155, 4322, 159, 177, 194. 251, 266. Silpasara, dos, 1122, 41, 43, 66, 55, 76/2, 148, 151, 1612J, 173, [77, 187, 189, 196, 220, 222, 22322, 241, 25422. ^ Saunaka, sage-, 90. Saura-Samhita, name of a Sanskrit work, Sellandiyamma, village 12922, Silpasangraha, work on Arts, 35, 185. — 107, 11322, igj, 212*. 79«i 8422, 17322, 176, saurnyaka, form of pedestal, 266. 224 2S7 — of 24322, 25422, 259, 267, 235, — regent of the north-east quarter, Sivaduti, goddess, 216. Siva-linga, phallic symbol 148, 177, 197, 230, 268 ; 248. of Siva, 2222, 6422, 72, 93, 107, 137, 18522, 190. Kalagni-Rudra, 155; — of Maha-Lakshmi and Kollapura-Mahalakshml, 189 of Sivapadasekhara, title of Rajaraja, I., 8822. chapter of Siura-Samhita, Sivarahasya, 73"- Nairrita, 243 ; of Rahu, 239; Sivaratri, s.o. Gajahamurti, 125 ; — — of Pratyangira, 213// — of Skanda, 177,178 — of Sudarsana, 66 — of Vishnu, 30 — of Virabhadra, 159. ; ; ; 1722, ; ; Shodasabhuja-Durga, form of Durga, 202. Shore Temple, Pallava structure at Mahabalipuram, 2, 107, in siddhasana, sitting posture Jaina images, 265. Siddhi, female deity, connected with images of Lakshmi-Narayana, 52 Siddhidayinl, form of Durga, 202. sidi-swinging, ceremony observed in temples of village deities, 225. Silappadigaram, Tamil poem, 229. Silpa or Silpa-Sastra, science Professions, 1, 10322, 265. Silparatna, work on of Arts and Arts, 3772, 64;?, 7372 Sivaratri, festival, 97. Mahakah", 197. Sivatattvaratnakara, work quoted in the Tattvanidhi, 151. Skanda, god, son of Siva, 74, 82w, 84, 107, no, 113, — I2q, 147, 177, 21822 178, name of the Dvarapala at the 267 western entrance of Siva temples, 25422. : Skandamala, form of Durga, 202. Skanda-Purana, 72, 77. Manasa, 212. quoted in the Skanda-Vamala, work Karanagama, 202. skull, garland of, found on Saiva images, 155, 159. 21.3, 216: 7622, 77, 151, symbol, in the ha'id of Saiva images Skandashashthi, s.a. — 148. — 137, of Pranasakti, 212 — of 88, 125, 197, 19922 ; 84, 151. 159, ; 194, — INDEX 288 -- of Ugra-Tara, Dhumravati, and Pratyangira, 213 (of Brahma), symbol, in the hand VajraprastarinI, 2\2>i ; : — of Siva, 97«, 100 — ; of Pidari, 224/;. See kapala. smoke, banner of Agni, 243. village deity, 224. Somaskanda, form of Siva, 147. 74, 76, 1x7, no, — South Arcot, district, Gazetteer, quoted, 230 Jaina temples in, 262. South Canara, district, 234: Jaina tem- — : — ; slashing at the breast with swords, ceremony observed 'in temples of village deities, 226. Smarta, pertaining to the Smritis, 241. Somalamma, on the breast of Vishnu, 17, 125 ; of Jaina images, 265. Srividyadevi, goddess, 212. sruva, the sacrificial spoon, symbol of - of Brahma, 10, 107. Agni, 243 staff, symbol, in the hand of Ardhanari (at Tiruchchengodu), 120 ; — of Bhringi, of Chamunda, 194 ; of rishi165/2 ; images, 254 -- of Skanda, 177 ; of Sukra, 239 ; of the son of jyeshtha, 216 ; of Vagisvari, 185 ; of Vamana, of Varahi, 194/8 of Yama, 32 ; of Madhvacharya, of 243 ; 259 Sankaracharya, 259 of Surapriya, 212. stupa, a Buddhist. relic monument, 2,v, 73. Srivatsa, auspicious marlc — — — — — — — — — ; ; — ; — n«. stflpi, crest, Subba or Subbaraya, ples in, 262. — ; s.a. Subrahmanya, South-Indian Bronzes (Gangoly), quoted, 266/1. South-Indian Inscriptions (S.I. J,), quoted, iok, 90«, 113/ir, 147//, 173W, 2i6«, 2247/, 22972, 262s. sow, vehicle of Varahi, 19472. spear, fixed in ground to represent a village goddess, 223 weapon, in the hand of Chamunda, 194 of Sudarsana, 66 symbol of Karuppannasami, thrust into the body in observance 230 79/;, 82/2, 199/*, — : : : — — — -, — of a vow, 227. spoon, symbol, in the hand of Annapurna, 21S ; of Tulaja-Bhavanl, 220. Sramana, a Jaina or a Buddhist, 2i8ra. Sramanan-koyil, rock-cut shrine at Anamalai, 2i8«. — Srauta, pertaining to the Srutis, 241. Sravana-Belgola, village in the Mysore goddess of Wealth, consort of Vishnu, 17, 22, 22«, 184, 187, 189. Sribali, sacrificial food offered in temples to appease minor deities, 3, 100, 161. Sri-chakra, mystic diagram connected with the worship of the goddess Lalita, 222. srik, the sacrificial ladle, symbol of Agni, of Brahma, 10, 107. 243 ; srikamya, form of pedestal, 266. Srikanlha, s.a. Nilakantha, 76/2, 137, 14OH. srikara, form of pedestal, 266. — srikoyil, Tamil name (in inscriptions) for orthodox temples as distinguished from shrines of village deities, 226. Srimushnam, village in the South Arcot district, 24, 199, 202. Sri-Narayana, variety of Saligrama, 70. Sringeri-matha (in Mysore State), pontifical seat of Sankaracharya, 1S7. Srfnivasa, s.a, Venkatesa, 62. sriphala (del-hnit), symbol, in the hand of Maha-Lakshml, 189 ; of Durga, 199. Sri-Rajaraja, title of Rajaraja I., 8S/2. — Srirangam, island, 50. SrisailamHilJ, in the Kumool district, 161 n. Srisukta, Vedic prayer devoted^ to Sri, 189. Sfi-Vaishnava, sect of Brahma-B«.s, 62, 66, 71, 16S, 259, 262. 218/2. Subrahmanyasvamin, (rock-cut) temple, at Tirupparangunram, 216. suchl, pose of fingers, 129, 137*, 216, 267. Sudarsana, the disc of Vishnu, personified, 66, 70. Suddha-Varahi, form of Varahi, 194M. sudha, part of a chariot, 141. Sudhamalini, epithet of Varum, 220. Sudra, caste, 199, 226, 229, 239, 241. SSdraka, king, author of Mrichchhakatika, 178. — sugar-cane, bow of Kama, 62 ; of Lalita, Tripurasundari and Rajarajesvarl, 220 ; of Maha-Ganapati, 173 — of Vajra- — ; prastarini, 21272. State, 265. Sri, Subhadra, name of a Dvarapala image, 251. Subhadra, sister of Krishna, 37//. Subrahmanya, epithet of Skanda, 177, 178, Sukhasana, form of Siva, 76«, posture in sitting, 107, 147, 266. Sukra (Venus), planet, 239. Sukranltisara, Sanskrit work, no im- quoted. I, l68«. Sulini, goddess, 213, 227. Sumbha, demon, enemy of Maha-Sarasvati, 2o6« -- of Lalita, 222. Sun (S3rya, q.v.), chief of planets, io«, ; n«,3 2 73. 8 2«, 251: — represented by235,236,239,241, a circular disc, 113 — . : used as wheel to his chariot by Tripurantaka, 140 father of Saturn, 239 one of the three tyes of Siva, 76. Sundaramarti, Saiva saint, 259/2, 262//. Sundarar, s.a. SundaramBrti, 259. Sura (wine), goddess, 212 Surapriya, goddess, 212. : — : Suriyanarkoyil, village in the Tanjore district, 235. Surya, the Sun-god, lore, 70, 236. Surya-yantra, mystic diagram connected with the worship of SBrya, 236. Suvarchasa, consort of Surya, 236. Suyasa, wife of Nandi, 162/2. Svadha, consort of Agni, 243. Svaha, do., 243. Svapna-Varahi, form of Varahf, 194/2. Svarna, consort of Surya, 236. — INDEX Svarna-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 176//, Svasthavesini, goddess, 213. svastika, s.a. lambita, igo, 251. svayambhu, variety of Siva-linga, 73. Svayamvara, name of Parvati as bride, 107. Svetambara, sect of Jainas, 265. swan (hamsa), bird, form assumed by Brahma, 93 --vehicle of Brahmi, 194; of Gayatrl, 21872 (seven) yoked to the chariot of Brahma, 11, 97; of : — : — Varuna, 243. sword (khadga), weapon, in the hand of Bhairava, 151 ; of Bhutamata, 216 of Budha, 239 of Chamunda, Mahishasuramardini and Maha-Lakshml, — 194, 206, 211 ; - of Dhumravati, 213 — of of Durga (KatySyani), 199, 202 — — ; — ; ; — ; — Gajahamurti, 125 of Indra, 241?; of Kala-Bhairava, 151 of ICatagniRudra, 155 of Mahaka.ll, 197 ; of Narrita, of Pasupatamurti, 243 ; of Pratyangira, — of 148 21377 Rahu, 239 ; of Skanda, 177, 178 of Sivaduti, 2:6 ; of Sudarsana, 66 ; of Virabhadra, 155, 159;— of Vishnu, °f Varna, 243, l 7-> 3° 5 ; ; ; — — ; — ; — — ; — — ; — — — 289 — of Skanda, 177 ; of Siva who cut off the head of Brahma, 9772 ; of Sudarsana, 66. Tigalas, class of Tamil -speaking gardeners in Mysore, 227. tiger, vehicle of Katyayani, 202 its skin, worn by Saiva images, 77, 120, 162, used as seat by sannyasms] *94> 197 5 its claws, used as an ornament 259 38". tilaka of ktinkujiiam, mark of beauty on the forehead of women, 222. : : deity, 224. Tillai, — : 1072, 268 77, : 8272, 9072, — temple — — 03, at, 8877, Tamil name Tinnevelly, district, 178. trict, 76, 11472,143, 17372, too, 120, 147, — Saiva saint, 259, 26277. Tirukkoyilur, village in the Tantra literature, 211, 21377, 223, 224, 226, 227. Taraka, demon, 177, 178. tarjanl, pose of fingers, 64, 162, 267 the second finger of hand, 12977. Tattvanidhi, name of a Sanskrit work, 1077, TavitJ, Scythian goddess, 212. Telugu, districts, IC72, 159, 177, 224, 229 Tengalai, sect of SrI-Vaishnavas, 262. Tenkasi, village in the Tinnevelly district, ; — 173- Tennapuram, temple, at Chandragiri, 35/e thousand-pillared hall, of the Sundaresvara 14072. thunder-bolt (vajra), weapon, in the hand, of Mahendri, 194 pf Indra,, 241 ; — dis- the saint, 262. (in shrines Chola of village deities, 224. Tirumurugarruppadai, Tamil poem, 178. Tirunavukkaraiyar, Saiva saint, 262/7. Tirupati, hill and village in the Chittoor district, 62, 66. Tiruppalatturai, village poly district, 21377. the Trichino- in Tirupparangunram, village in the Madura district, 178, 216, 21877. and village in the Chittoor village in the Tanjore district, 178. district, 100, 125, 129. Tiruvadandai, village in the Chingleput district, 24. Tiruvadi, village .11, 125, I59«- Tiruvalangadu, in the village Tanjore in the district, Chittoor district, 82. Tantrikas, followers of Tantrik rituals, 185. lapani, attribute of Kama's arrow, 62. temple at Madura, the 202. Tirutturaippundi, nidhi, 151. South Arcot district, 30. Tirumala, s.a. Tirupati Hill, 7272. Tirumalai (near Polur), village in North Arcot district, 265. Tirumalisai, village in the Chingleput no, 113, 129, 140, 148, 161, 162, 267. Tantras, class of literature, 177, 19472, 22072, 229. Tantrasara, work quoted in the Tattvaimages, 77, 8972, 97, 103, dis- 120, 21377. Tirujnanasambandar or Jnanasambandar, Tiruttani, hill pertaining to Chidambaram, 89 Tiruchchengodu, village in the Salem town, 14377. 155, 15977, 165, 229,26277: tanka, weapon, in the hand of Saiva Tantrik, for district, 230. Tiruchchendur, village in the Tinnevelly inscriptions) for tamas or tamasic form, of Kshetrapala, of Virabhadra, 159. 159 ; Tamil,— districts, 159, 177, 216 literature, developed by Agastya, 254. Tanjai-Alagar, image in the Brihadisvara temple at Tanjore, 8272. Tanjore, district, 230 inscriptions of, : — — Tirumangai-Alvar, Vaishnava tirumurram, Tamil name Takshaka, serpent-chief, 251, — . trict, Talupulamma, village — ; Tiruval-udaiyal, village deity, mentioned in Chola inscriptions, 226. Tiruvanaikkaval, s.a. Jambukesvaram, 77, 97, 173- Tiruvarangulam, village in the Pudukkottai State, 262. TiruvarSr, village in the Tanjore district, 76. Tiruvasagam, collection of the hymns of Manikkavasagar, 262. Tiruvengavasal, village in the Pudukkottai State, 93. Tiruvenkattu-Nangai, Nayanar, 26277. Tiruvottiyur, village wife of Siruttondain the Chingleput district, 97, 17372, 178, 202, 226, 259. INDEX 290 tomara (pestle), symbol of Agni, 243. Tortoise, incarnation of Vishnu, 140 ; - vehicle of Yamuna, 22, 248. temples Traipurusha or Traipurushadeva, tree-and-serpent worship, 177, 24S. Treta-yuga, name of the second images of Sudarsana, Hindu connected with 66. — : 176. tridanda (triple staff), symbol, in the hand of Sri-Vaishnava sannyasins, 259. weapon, Saiva images, in the hand of 8$, 97//, 100, 114, 125, 137, I40«, 143, 14S, 151, 159, of 161, 162, 196, 197, 199", 202, 2c6 ; of Rahu, 239 ; Pidari, 22422 of of Sivaduti, 216; -of Sani, 239; of Pratyangira and Sudarsana, 66 fixed in the ground to Sulini, 213 (flamrepresent a village deity, 223 ing), symbol, in the hand of Agni and ; 77;/, — — — — — — : — Varna, 243. Trikantakidevi, goddess, 213. Trimurti, the three gods of the Triad, 236. Triplicane, suburb of Madras, 47. Tripura, demon of the three magic Hindu form of Ganapati, 3«- udukkai, Tamil form of dhakka, 77. udumbara fig-tree, sacred to the goddess, Kaumari, 196. Ugra-Narasimha, form of Narasimha, 26. Ugra-Tara, goddess, 213. Ulagalanda-Perumal, Tamil name for Trivikrama, 30 temple at Kanchi : — (Conjeeveram), 30. Ulagattal, village deity, 224, or Uma-paramesvari, s.a. Parvati',82//, 84, 89, 90, 107, 129, 147, 184, 190, 212. Urna-Mahesvara, form of Siva, 113. Uma Umasahita, do., 76/2, Umaskanda, s.a. no. Somaskanda, y6n. Unvi-tandava, variety of Nataraja's dance, 84. umbrella, symbol, in the hand of Vamana, 32 ; -• on the top of Jaina figures, 77K. Upanishads, the philosophic expositions of — used as reins to his the Ve:las, 184 horsei, by Tripurantaka, 140. Urdhva-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 176. UrJhva-tandava, variety of Nataraja's dance, 82, 88. urdhva-pundra, caste mark of the Vaish: cities, 140, 141. Tripura-Bhairavi, goddess, 212. Tripurantaka or Tripnrantakamurti, form of Siva, 76//, 140, 141, 267//. Tripura-Sundari, goddess, 220, variety of Nataraja's Tripura-landava, dance, 8^. Trivandrum, capital of Travancore, 50 Trivikrama, form of Vamana, 22, 30, 32 :— epithet of Vishnu, 55. trunks (human), garland of, worn by Siva- navas, 259. ushnisha, crown, 4722, 88. utkatika, posture in sitting, 266. vach (logos), word, 184. Vagisvari, s.a. Sarasvati, 185. Vaikuntha-Narayana, form of Vishnu, Vaikuntha-Perumal, temple, at veram, 2. Vainateya, form of Garuda, 6422. Conjee- ratrl, 197. Tsallamma, fortress in the Udichya, attendant of Yama, 243. Udipi, village in the South Canara district, 84, ; : Uddanda-Ganapati, hill 176. tribhanga, the three-fold bend of body in images, 107. the Trichinopoly, rock-cut cave at, 132 Uchchi-Pillaiyar temple on the rock at, trident (irisula), 50. Udayagiri, village and Nellore district, 3872. of, IC22, 235. Eeon, 161. equilateral, triangle, Uchchi-Pillaiyar, temple (of Ganapati) on the rock at Trichinopoly, 176. udarabandhana, girdle round the belly, 10, 52. s.a. Selliyamma, 224. Tulaja-Bhavani, goddess, 220. Tuluvas, class of people, 234. Tumburu, demi-god (with horse-face), 32, Vaishnava, 82/2. Turaiyur, village in the Trichinopoly district, 4322. t 3, 17, 26, 38m, 41, 62, 66, 71, 254, 259. 262. Vaishnavi, one of the Saptamatrikas, 190, 194, 196. Tushti (pleasure), one of theSakti goddesses of Vishnu, 189. considered Tvarita, goddess, 212, 223: to be a widow, 21222. Tyaganija, name of Somaskanda at Tiru- — varur, 76. Vaishnavi-Sakti, consort of Govinda-Bhai. rava, 151. Vaishnavism, 38. Vaishnavism, Saivism, quoted, 14822, etc. 16822, 178, (Bhandarkar), 23522, 23622, 24822. Vaishnavite, 35, 55, 62, U Uchchangi-amma, village deity, 223. Uchchhishta-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 27. 64, 72, 151, 185, 196, 21822. Vaisya, caste, 199, 229, 239. Vaivahika, s.a. Kalyanasundara, 7622, 103. vajrakita, insect, form assumed by Vishnu for boring holes in the Saligrama stones, 70. INDEX vajrapftha, form of pedestal, 266. Vajraprastarinr, goddess, 2:2. Valli or ^alliyarnman, consort of Skanda, : : Varna, the Sakti (goddess) of Varna, or Va. madeva (Siva), 190/2. Vamana, the Dwarf-incarnation of Vishnu, 22, 30, 32 — epithet of Vishnu, 55 variety of Saligrama, 70. Vamana-Purana, vanamala, Vishnu, : images 9°. 93.97, 1 10, 189, I9O, 194, 243, 248, 266. 62. deity, 224. pose of Venu-Gopala, form of Krishna, 43. vessel, symbol, in the hand of Lakshmi, of Mahendri, 187, 189 194 hand in 17, 64?;, ; : : — — — — : See cup rock-cut pavilion SuXiApot. Vibhlshana, Rakshasa chief, 37. Vidyadharas, class of demi-gods, 251 — of faina mythology, 265. Vighnesa or Vighnesvara, s.a. Ganapati, at 30. ; Varahamihira, astronomer, 236/2. Varaha-Perumal, rock-cut temple at Mahabaiipuram, 22. Varaha- Purana, 162. Varahi, one of the Saptamatrikas, 190, 82/2, 168, 224/2. Vijaya, 194, 196. Varuna, regent of the west and lord of the ocean, 243. Varum, goddess, 220. Vasanta ^ Spring), friend of Kama, 62. vasikabandha, fashion of making up the ; : Sanskrit at the 25477.. Krishna, 19ft, Vasuki, serpent-chitf, 140, 251. Vasus, the eight, 262. Vatapatrasayin, form of Krishna (Vishnu), 89, : 55, 159, 1 6 // 194, 22777, 234. Vlra-Chola, surname of Paranlaka L, 88. r , Vira-Lakshml, form of Lakshmi, 189. Vira-Narayana, surname of Parantaka 37- temple 1 , 88. at Tiruvottiyur, 226. Vatuka-Bha'ra\a, form of Bhairava, 161//. Vayu, wind, lord of the north-west quarter, 248, 267 charioteer of Agni, 243. Vedanta-Desika, SrI-Vaishnava teacher, — — Vedas, the four, 30, 32, 177, .235, 25972 symbol, in front of Brahma images, 1122 in the hand of Aghoramurti, 14b; following Dattatreya in the form of : — southern entrance of Siva temples, Vindhya, mountain, 223. Vindhyavasini, form of Durga, 220, 223, Virabhadra, fierce emanation of Siva, 74, : 259- — Vinadhara-Dakshinamurti, form of Dakshinamurti, 90. Vinayaka, s.a. Ganapati, 8272, 165, 16877, name of the Dvarapala 187, 194, 267 work, 37/;. Vasudeva, form of standing Vishnu, 52//, variety of Saligrama 70 - s.a. 55 in the — Sarasvati, 18572. ' Vattapirai-amman, goddess, — Vishnu, 50; of of a Dvarapala name : hair, 216, 268. — of — : Vijaya Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 176. Vijayanagara (Hampi), village in the Bellary district, 24, 26, 3877, bS. vina, the Indian lute, 90, 220, 251 symbol in the hand of Narada, 254 of nidhi, 194/2. Vasishtha, sage, 3772, 90, 254. Vasishtharamayana, name of a attendant Skanda, 178 image, 251. Varahikalpa, work quoted in the Tattva- — : the hand of SivadutI, (of food), 216 in the hand of Annapurna, 218 ; of Tulaja-Bhavani, (of gems), in the hand of Savitri, 220 (ofwine), in the 243 ;— of Varuna 243 hand of Laghusyamala and Varum, 220. in Vetala, demon, vehicle of Virabhadra, 155. Varaha-mandapa, Mahabalipuram, — — blood), (of 22, 26, 30. : or Venkataramana, form of on the Tirupati Hill, standing Vishnu Varadarajasvamin, temple, at Little Conjee. veram, 43. Vara-Ganapati, form of Ganapati, 176. Varaha, the Boar-incarnation of Vishnu, : — 178. Venkstesa 66, 76, 89/7, 114, 137, 148. 177, 178, 202, 2I2M, 239, 24IH, 10, — Tamil name for sakti, 177. Velayudha, Tamil name for Subrahmanya, s.a. Palli, 227. (</.».), : vel, 16572. boon-giving varada, — garland of flowers, worn by 17, 50 ; — by Vaishnavi, 194. Vandi-Kaliyamma, village Vanniyan, — — district, 100, 125, 162, 230. : — carried (as personified dogs, 1 1 22 forming the images) by Hayagrlva, 55 body of Garuda, 6422 used as horses, to his chariot, by Tripurantaka, 140:- represented, by the goddesses Gayatrl, Savitrl by the Sun, 236: and Sarasvati, 220; their seven metres (ehhaiidas), reprehorses of the Sun, sented as seven 23c 72. Vedic, 7, 6472, 241, 251, 254. 177, I7*S- Valmlki, sage and author, 37/;. Valuvur, village in the Tanjore 291 ; Vira-Saiva, s.a. Lingayata, 165. Vira-Sakti, goddess, connected with S-omaskanda, no: Parvati in her independent form, 18577. vtrasana, posture in sitting, 37, 197, 26611. Vira-Vira, walking form of Virabhadra, — 159. Viresvara, s.a. Virabhadra, 113. Visalakshi, name of the goddtss Parvati at Benares, 21872, — INDEX 292 VisalyakaranI, medical herb, 259/;. Vishakantha, epithet of Nllakantha, 137. Vishapaharamurti, form of Siva, 140. Vishnu, god, the Protector, 2, 3, iom, ii, 17, 22, 24, 26, 30, 35, 37, 47, 50, 52, 55, 62, 64, 70, 72, 73, 74, 82//, 841/, 93, 97, 100, 103, 107, 113, 125, 140, 148, 168, 1S4, 185, 187, 1S9, 194, 196, 197, 202, 2i8«, 229, 230, 235, 236, 251, 254, 259, variety of Saligrama, 265, 267, 268 used as arrow by Tripurantaka, 70 : — : — — — of — 168; of rishi image?, 254; Sankaracharya, 259; of Sitala, 213; of Sukra, 239 — of Vagisvarl, 185 ; held on the lap Vamana, 32 Kapila 254. See kyudika. weapons, personified, 52//, 62, 66. whip-lashing, ceremony observed temples of village deities, 226. winnow, symbol of Sitala, 213 pati, — ; : — of — by in 140. Vishnudharmottara, work quoted by Iiemadri, 197. Vishnu-Purana, 73. Vishvaksena, epithet of Vishnu, 62 Vaishnavite god, 62. vismaya, pose of fingers, 84, 88, 125, 137, : 178, 267. Visvakarma, Art Journal (Coomaraswamy) quoted, 1411, 2 54", 259«. 6411, 143", 114/1, 251//, . Visvakarma, form of Brahma, visvamardini, attribute of II. Kama's arrow, 62. Visvamitra, sage, 254. Visvanatha, temple, at Tenkasi, 173. Visvedevas, the ten, 262. Vithoha., s.a. Panduranga, 55. Vrisharudha, form of Siva, 74, 76,7, 113, 11411. Vrishavahana, do. Vrisha saila, surname 113, 114. of Tirupati Hill, 62/2. Vulture, vehicle of Ketu, 241. of Sani (Saturn) 239 Vyaghrapada, sage (with tiger's feet ), ; — 82//, 84, 88. vyala-mudra, pose of fingers, 79. Vyasa, sage, 1 76. W — ; : : — — — 265. yoga, philosophic contemplation, 89. Yogamurti or Yoga-Dakshinamurti, form of Dakshinamurti, 90. Yoga-Narasimha, form of Narasimha, yogapatta,-belt used in meditation, 90. 26. Yoga-Sakti, goddess, identified with the pedestal of Siva-linga, no«, 185;/. y5gasana, posture in sitting, 65, 266. Yoga-Vira, the seated form of VIrabhadra, 1.59- water-pot, symbol, in the hand of Brahma, of Brahmacharini, 10, 11, 103, 113; 202; of Dakshinamurti, 93; of Gana- — Yajna-purusha, epithet of Vishnu, 6472. yajnasutra or yajnopavita, the Brahmanical sacred thread, 10, 113, 243. Yajus or YajurVeda, 220. Yakshas, class of demi-gods, 24S, 25 1 of Jaina mythology, 265. Yakshi, a Yaksha female, 265. Yama, the god of Death and lord of the south, 137, 148, son of 194", 243 Surya, 236. Vamala-mantrasastra, 196. Yamuna s.a. Jumna, 38 the chauribearer of Varuna, 248. Yamya, s.a. Varahl, 194M. mystic charms connected with yantras, Sakti-worship, 185, 222. Yaska, author of the Nirukta, 37;/. Yasoda, mother of Durga and foster-mother of .Krishna, 37, 196. Yenur, village in the South Canara district, — Yogesvara-Vishnu, form of Vishnu, 55. yogin, an ascetic, 64^. yoni, the pedestal of a Siva-linga, 72, 73. yuga, a Hindu seon, 161. ^ S\