2 T TEMPLE TECH. Of Hindu Temples Dr Uday Dokras Ph D Sweden Editor Srishti Dokras, Architect 1 T2 Technicals of Temple Architecture and Construction Dr Uday Dokras Srishti Dokras -B Arch Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Tampere (Finland),Stockholm (Sweden) and Gurugram (India) 2 Copyright Dr Uday Dokras, ISBN applied for 3 2 T 4 CONTENTS CONTENTS 5 Introduction CHAPTER I …7 CHAPTER II-The South Indian Hindu temple building design system- On the architecture of the Silpa Sastra and the Dravida style 49 CHAPTER III- Temples Vastu Shastra 62 CHAPTER IV-Earth’s magnetic fields & Temple Construction 100 CHAPTER V-Hindu temples as a Mandala CHAPTER VI- VASTUPADDViNYASA—THE PLAN C H A P T E R V II - The Hindu order in Architecture Proportions in Architecture C HAP TE R V II I - H IND U TE MP LE AN D T HE S TR U C T UR E O F HU MA N B OD Y: C O MP A R IS ON …. .P A GE 9 2 O F S EC B CHAPTER IX- Temple Gopuram as Cosmos & spiritual light house..111 CHAPTER X-START OF THE CIVIL WORKS 142 CHAPTER Xi- Quintessential Architectural Characteristics of the Chaitralayas- Jain “Temples” and their Proximity to Architecture of Hindu temples 180 CHAPTER XII- The Plinth in Temple…231 CHAPTER XIII- IDOLS IN HINDUISM ….244 CHAPTER XIV ROCKS AND STONE AS TEMPLE MATERIAL 312 CHAPTER XV Construction Techniques of Gtemples…. CHAPTER XVI Light in Ancient Temples…587 ANNEXURE: Biggest Hindu Temple in the World Under Construction - Chandrodaya Mandir-Chandrodaya Temple - Largest temple in the world …610 About the author 627 5 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 6 _ To reject the necessity of temples is to reject the necessity of God. Mahatma Gandhi. ___________________________________________________ Why TEMPLES NOW and NOT EARLIER when the Gods lived on this EARTH? TIME is divided into four different periods by ancient Indian thought. These durations are referred to as the Krta, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali. The first of these divisions (Krta), is also known as satya-yuga, or the Age of Truth. This was a golden age without envy, malice or deceit, characterized by righteousness. All people belonged to one caste, and there was only one god who lived amongst the humans as one of them. In the next span (Treta-yuga), the righteousness of the previous age decreased by one fourth. The chief virtue of this age was knowledge. The presence of gods was scarce and they descended to earth only when men invoked them in rituals and sacrifices. These deities were recognizable by all. In the third great division of time (Dvapara), righteousness existed only in half measure of that in the first division. Disease, misery and the castes came into existence in this age. The gods multiplied. Men made their own images, worshipped them, and the divinities would come down in disguised forms. But these disguised deities were recognizable only by that specific worshipper. 7 The Age of Temples:Kali-yuga is the present age of mankind in which we live, the first three ages having already elapsed. It is believed that this age began at midnight between February 17 and 18, 3102 B.C. Righteousness is now one-tenth of that in the first age. True worship and sacrifice are now lost. It is a time of anger, lust, passion, pride, and discord. There is an excessive preoccupation with things material and sexual.Temples appeared on the horizon only in the Kali-yuga. During this existing last phase, temples (as public shrines), began to be built and icons installed. But the gods ceased to come down and appear in their own or disguised forms. However, their presence could be felt when the icons were properly enshrined, and the temples correctly built. In contrast to the previous periods when the gods were available to all equally, now it is only the priests, belonging to a traditional hierarchy of professional worshippers, who are the competent individuals to compel this presence. Background:A temple in India is a place where the devotee can meet a representation of the Lord, pray and ask for blessings. A devotee may also celebrate music and dance and festivals in the temple. It is also a place for meditation and spiritual connect. Temples are places where Puja is performed. Hindu temples depict Good, Evil and Man. Hindu temples were initially built in Kshetrasक्षे त्र or holy places and near Thirtasतीर्थ or holy water bodies.But now are found everywhere in India and also abroad.2 Unlike Christian churches which are places to worship, Hindu temples are "artificial mountains" built as objects of worship built to enshrine the image of a chosen deity. The Upanishads described them as a place “at the heart of this phenomenal world, within all its changing forms, dwells the unchanging Lord."Temples in India may be simple like a small house or grand like a palace. The simple and small temples are built around shrines and are places where the common man goes for regular prayer and spiritual connect. The large and grand temple complexes were monuments 8 built by kings honouring a deity displaying intricate architecture. These became centres of commerce and religion. A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma. According to Hindu beliefs, Vishnu is the supreme deity in front of whom all others sit; since other Hindu deities are believed to sit facing east, this leaves Vishnu facing west, hence that is also the direction in which structures dedicated to Vishnu are designed to face. Most places of worship follow long-established traditions that started off by blending the needs of a new religion with the possibilities offered by existing technologies. New ideas and methods were then added into the canon and, with time, they became the standard — even rigid — way of conceptualising sacred structures. Artists found ways to innovate and express within these constraints; sometimes they get into trouble, but often they evolve new traditions within a larger standard. The rise of the Gupta Empire (Fourth Century AD to Seventh Century AD) marks the beginning of the classical phase of Indian art, architecture and temple building. They have remained models of Indian art at all times to come even in Indian colonies in the Far East. The sculptures of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Vietnam, Cambodia and even Celebes bear the indelible stamp of Gupta art. With the growth of image worship, and because the image had to be appropriately housed and a cave was not adequate for this purpose; the free-standing temple became necessary. Gradually the image came to be surrounded by a host of attendant deities and figures, eventually leading to the rich sculptural ornamentation associated with later styles. Manuals on the construction of stone temples were written giving minute details of construction, and these were faithfully followed.3 The Gupta kings were prolific builders and great patrons of Hinduism. They built several stone and brick temples, whose remains can still be seen at Deogarh, Bhitargaon, Nachna-ke-Talai and other places. “These temples are well designed and consist of a square chamber, a cella (shrine), and a portico or verandah as essential elements. They are decorated with fine sculptured panels, but...properly subordinated to, and is in full harmony with, the architectural plan of the buildings.” The images of Shiva, Vishnu and other Vedic gods at the Deogarh temple are “the best products of Indian art. They present a beautiful figure, full of charm and dignity, a graceful pose and a radiant spiritual expression.” According to Joanna Williams in the Gupta Period, stone, brick and wide range of materials were used in the construction of fairly large temples. Their entrance ways, walls and pillars were finely carved, and parts of the temples were decorated with gold, silver and jewelry. The empire also witnessed the consolidation of ideas such as the sanctum (garbha-griha) for the deity, the hall (mandapa) for the 9 devotees and the artistic representation of the important motifs of Hinduism such as dharma, karma, kama, artha and moksha.Those early ideas were further refined and improved as time went by. The post Gupta period witnessed the rise of many local architectural styles such as the Vidharbha style, the BadamiChalukya Style, the Nagara Style and so on. Many temples, which were built during this period, especially those in the North, either perished or destroyed during wars and foreign invasions. The temples that survived bear testimony to the extent of temple building by the Hindu rulers in the India subcontinent. 1.HINDU TEMPLE PLAN Since there are no proper rules governing the temple construction and siting, a vast number of temples with different size, type and scale can be found. A shrine can be as simple as an idol under a tree or an idol in a small three-waIled cubicle with a zinc roof. Although some smaIl shrines do have the components of a temple but the scale or to be specific the measurements are not according to Vaastu. Temples that use Vaastu are medium scale temple and large temple complexes with substructures. The three temple chosen for this study are of medium scale. The components and substructures of a temple define the size. All temples have the pirakaaram (perimeter Wall), moolasthanam (sanctum), arthamandapa (ante sanctum), vaf"tana (vehicle), balipeedam (a sacrificial altar), dvajasthambam (a flag post), mahamandapa (a great hall), vimana (the dome) and sometimes the gopuram (the entrance tower).A common factor of Hindu temples is that the presiding deity is worshipped in the centre of the temple complex. Though other idols may be installed in others parts of the temple, the main idol is placed in the centre. The centre of a Hindu temple is called 'Garbhagriha' or 'Moolasthanam'. 2. VastuShastra These are temple building manuals. These ancient texts describe how temples and homes are to be built with proper positioning of doors, windows, hallways, kitchens and sanctum sanctorum. 3. The temple plan A typical Hindu temple is constructed as a perfect square, the square representing the divine. The circle that circumscribes this perfect square represents the earthly. Large temples are often built on an 8X8 square grid consisting of 64 squares. These sub-squares are called Padas. 4. Padas The central squares are dedicated to Brahman. The first concentric square surrounding the Brahma Pada is called DevikaPada, dedicated to good or Devas.The concentric square surrounding the DevikaPada is the ManushaPada dedicated to man. The last concentric square surrounding the ManushaPada is the PaisachikaPada representing evil or the Asuras. In large Indian temples the three Padas are decorated with murals, paintings and carvings. 5. Garbhagriha 10 At the centre of the Brahma Padas is the Garbhagriha, a small windowless enclosed space in a square shape which represents the universal spirit or Purusha. This is the sanctum sanctorum wherein an idol or Murthi may be placed. This is the main deity of the temple. The sanctum also contains an antechamber which is kept empty. 6. Shikara or Vimanam This is the spire or tower above the sanctum sanctorum, which may have subsidiary towers, with tapering rectangular layers or concentric circles, with an ornamental rim (amalaka) supporting a pot (kalasa) or series of pot like structures on the top, which are usually made of copper, gold, silver or alloys, or stone, covered with a sheath made of them. It is seen rising directly above and rising above the Garbhagriha or Brahma Padas. This is the defining structure in a Hindu temple and is normally the most visible part of the temple.It is called Shikara in the north of India andVimanam in the South. 7. Antarala Antarala is a vestibule or an antechamber between the Garbhagriha and the Mandap. It is more commonly found in northern Indian temples.The antaralayam is aroom adjoining the sanctum sanctorum where devotees wait while the priests perform ritual worship. 8. Mandapa Mandapa refers to the pillared outer hall or pavilion facing the sanctum sanctorum. And the vestibule where devotees wait in a line or sit for an audience (darshanam) with the deity. These could serve as waiting and assembly rooms for devotees(AsthanaMandapa ). Some Mandapas are called KalyanaMandapas which symbolize the marriage of God with Goddess. Some were used for music, dance and prayer meetings. In large temples, the hall may be further divided into a front porch (ardhamandapa) a front hall (mukhamandapa), a great hall (mahamandapa), marriage hall (kalyanamantapa) a decoration hall (alankaramantapa), a festival hall (utsavamantapa) and so on. There may also be an adjoined dining hall, with kitchen etc. 9. Amalaka An Amalaka is the stone disk that sits on top of the Shikara or Vimanam. It may represent a lotus or the sun. On top of this is normally the temple banner or flag. 10. Gopuram The Gopuram refers to elaborate gate-towers commonly seen in South Indian and Dravidian temples. These are often larger than the Shikara or Vimanam. 11. SthalaVruksham 11 The sacred tree of the temple. Many temples in India would have an associated sacred tree which is also worshipped. Sometimes idols of Nagas or serpent gods are placed near the tree. 12. Thirtham This refers to the temple tank or well which is also associated with the temple. Devotees can wash themselves as a symbolic cleansing. Temple Flag post – Many temples , especially in the South have a flag post at the entrance where the festival flags are unfurled at the time of temple festivals. 13. Vahana Temples also have a temple chariot or Vahana, on which the idols of the deity are taken out on procession. 14. Passage Way (antara-mandala): Some temples contain a small passage way around the sanctum to enable the devotees circumambulate it before entering it. 15. Flag post (dhwajastamba): A tall flag post infront of the temple, facing the front hall. It is an important feature of many Hindu temples, especially in the South, usually made of copper, silver or gold or alloys, with three horizontal perches or branches pointing towards the Sanctum. It signifies the majesty of God and the sanctity of the temple. Devotee pay respects to it, and on festive occasions, temple authorities may decorate it with flowers. 16. The sacrificial altar (The Balipitha): It is the pedestal near the flag pole, where priests place offerings of food mixed with vermilion to the temple deity and elemental forces. In the past it may have been used to perform animal sacrifices. Presently, the offering is a symbolic gesture. 17. Lamp post (Dipastamba): It is found outside the main gate of the temple or near the flag post, with a conical, empty chamber at the top. In the past it was used to place a lamp during the nights. 18. Surrounding wall (Prakara): The whole temple complex may be surrounded by one or more walls with passageways to facilitate circumambulations. 19. Additional structures: 12 In addition to the above, large temples may also have additional structures to house one or more temple chariots, keep the tamed temple elephant, or store the idols (utsavavigrahas) and palanquins, which are occasionally taken out in procession. In the temple complex one may also find additional temples and shrines for saints, associate gods and other divinities, a hall to perform sacrifices, underground vaults to keep valuablesand sacred objects, a court yard for the devotees to sit and relax, an administrative building to manage the temple affairs, images of serpents in open for worship, a place to break coconuts and so on. Large temples usually keep additional images or idols of the deities and associate deities for various purposes. They also maintain a large inventory of ritual materials and tools to conduct the worship, serve the deity or make the offerings. 20. The importance of the SQUARE: Looking at Hindu temples, it is not very easy to discern that they are composed of one repeating unit - the square. For God's own abode, the form had to be perfect and this limited the choice of shapes to the circle - a form without beginning and end, and the square perfect for its symmetry. The circle had already been extensively used by the Buddhists in their Stupas and moreover, was perceived to be too dynamic a form for the resting place of the gods. For the Hindus, their gods had to be installed in buildings symbolizing unity, inertia and permanence. The square, thus, was chosen for these qualities. 13 This was the origin of the square Mandala (the best translation of this in English is 'divine chart'). The mandala was further subdivided into smaller squares in a grid, those containing 64 or 81 being the most common. Each of these smaller squares was then invested with a resident deity, each with his own special attributes and powers. The distance of the deities from the center was according to their power and perceived importance. Thus Brahma, the creator, occupied pride of place in the center and lesser gods were relegated to the edges. A humanistic façade was given to the square by showing it to be able to accommodate a figure in a convoluted yogic posture.4 The basic plan of a Hindu temple is an expression of sacred geometry where the temple is visualized as a grand mandala. By sacred geometry we mean a science which has as its purpose the accurate laying out of the temple ground plan in relation to the cardinal directions and the heavens. Characteristically, a mandala is a sacred shape consisting of the intersection of a circle and a square. The square shape is symbolic of earth, signifying the four directions which bind and define it. Indeed, in Hindu thought whatever concerns terrestrial life is governed by the number four (four castes; the four Vedas etc.). Similarly, the circle is logically the perfect metaphor for heaven since it is a perfect shape, without beginning or end, signifying timelessness and eternity, a characteristically divine attribute. Thus a mandala (and by extension the temple) is the meeting ground of heaven and earth. Preparation of the site: These considerations make the actual preparation of the site and laying of the foundation doubly important. Understandably, the whole process is heavily immersed in rituals right from the selection of the site to the actual beginning of construction. Indeed, it continues to be a custom in India that whenever a building is sought to be constructed, the area on which it firstcomes up is ceremonially propitiated. The idea being that the extent of the earth necessary for such construction must be reclaimed from the gods and goblins that own and inhabit that area. This ritual is known as the 'pacification of the site.' The legend of VASTU: Once when Shiva was engaged in a fierce battle with the demon Andhaka, a drop of sweat fell from Shiva's forehead to the ground, accompanied by a loud thunder. This drop transformed into a ravenously hungry monster, who attempted to destroy the three worlds. The gods and divine spirits, however, rushed at once on to him and held him down. When the demon fell on the ground face downwards, the deities lodged themselves on to the different parts of his body and pressed him down. It is because of this reason that the recumbent individual came to be known as 'Vastu,' which means the lodgement of the gods. He is pictured as lying down inside the mandala with his arms and legs so folded as to cover the whole area, and his head pushed into the north-eastern corner of the square. As many as forty-five gods are lodged on his body directly on the limbs and joints. 14 This vastu-purusha is the spirit in mother-earth which needs to be pacified and is regarded as a demon whose permission is necessary before any construction can come up on the site. At the same time, care is taken to propitiate the deities that hold him down, for it is important that he should not get up. To facilitate the task of the temple-architect, the vastu-mandala is divided into square grids with the lodging of the respective deities clearly marked. It also has represented on it the thirty-two nakshatras, the constellations that the moon passes through on its monthly course. In an ideal temple, these deities should be situated exactly as delineated in the mandala.In the central grid of the vastumandala sits Brahma, the archetypal creator, endowed with four faces looking simultaneously in all directions. He is thus conceived as the ever-present superintending genius of the site. At this exact central point is established the most important structure of the sacred complex, where the patron deity of the temple is installed. Paradoxically this area is the most unadorned and least decorated part of the temple, almost as if it is created in an inverse proportion to its spiritual importance. Referred to as the sanctum sanctorum, it is the most auspicious region in the whole complex. It has no pillars, windows or ventilators. In addition to a metaphysical aspect, this shutting off of air and light has a practical side to it too. It was meant to preserve the icon, which, in olden days, was often made of wood. Also, besides preventing the ill effects of weathering, the dark interior adds to the mystery of the divine presence. Throughout all subsequent developments in temple architecture, however spectacular and grandiose, this main shrine room remains the small, dark cave that it has been from the beginning. Indeed it has been postulated (both by archaeology and legend), that the temple developed from the cave-shrine of the extremely remote past. This is another instance in Hinduism where the primitive and the modern, along with all the developments in-between, can be seen to co-exist remarkably and peacefully. Initiated by a patron (yajamana) According to Silparatna, as quoted in Wikipedia, a Hindu temple project would be initiated by a patron (yajamana) under the guidance of a spiritual teacher or mentor (sthapaka). He would engage an architect (sthapathi) who would design the building with the help of a surveyor (sutragrahin) and begin the construction by hiring a number of workers, masons, painters, plasterers, overseers (vardhakins) and sculptors (takshakas). During the construction, all the work in the temple was considered a sacred work by the patrons and others who witnessed it. All the tools and implements used in the construction were also treated with respect as part of a sacrifice. Therefore, if a tree had to be cut or a rock had to be carved for the temple work, the sculptors would have to pray to the deity and seek forgiveness. The ax which was used to cut a tree would be anointed with butter so that it would not cause hurt. In many parts of India even today artisans and craftsmen celebrate the Vishwakarma puja in honor of the universal architect and pay respects to their tools and profession. 15 Water :The gods always play where groves are nearby, rivers, mountains and springs, in towns with pleasure gardens. BrihatSamhita, 55.8.A temple is normally built near a body of water such as streams and rivers, lakes and the sea. If water was not naturally present, then normally a well or a temple tank was built. Temples are also built on mountain slopes and hilltops. Temples are found deliberately at a place where the positive energy - magnetic and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push. The “Garbhagriha” or “Moolasthanam”- place where earth’s magnetic waves are discovered to be most extreme.No matter where it is situated, one essential factor for the existence of a temple is water. Water is considered a purifying element in all major traditions of the world, and if not available in reality, it must be present in at least a symbolic representation in the Hindu temple. Water, the purifying, fertilizing element being present, its current, which is the river of life, can be molded into inner realization and the pilgrim can cross over to the other shore . The temple is a holy site (tirtha), where they practitioners can perform circumambulation (pradaksina). They also perform the pious act of gazing at the deity (darsan) and offering prayers, flowers and food (puja). The temple is never a meeting place for a congregation, but it came to be a focal point of the community. The heart of the temple is the dark hall called garbhagrha (womb hall), where the most important icon is placed. It is the most important area. Pillared halls (mandapa) and porticos were added to the garbhagraha, which was surmounted with a tower (sikhara)--center of the universe (axis mundi). Many varieties: wood, brick, terracotta, and variety of stone (e.g., schist, chlorite, marble) .Temples required to be heavily ornamented (things lacking in ornament were considered imperfect or incomplete. Motifs: narrative reliefs, animal motifs, floral and vegetation motifs. Brahma-God of Creator Vishnu-God of Preserver (has many incarnations such as Rama and Krishna) Shiva-God of Destroyer (also the protector of animals) Devi-goddess (e.g., Laksmi (“Good Fortune”) and Parvati); symbolizing beauty, benevolent, and wealth as well as power and wrath. Temple Craftsmen:Supremacy of the Brahmins priestly class filled the political vacuum after the decline of the Gupta dynasty up to the age of the Mughals in the absence of a central political authority through most of India. This Class gradually assumed power as the sole arbiters of almost every aspect of life - birth, death, puberty, marriage, business and personal of the populous.All these 'favors', of course, had a price and those on whose behalf they 'generously' interceded with the gods would pay the priests by cash or in kind. Obviously the serious business of construction was too important to be overlooked either. While the basic concepts of construction and decoration had already been evolved, it was the Brahmins who began erecting a complex edifice of rules and layouts for different classes of building. These were purposely couched in hideously complicated mumbo-jumbo.These rules sometimes assumed ridiculous dimensions. The most basic acts of building were no longer to be based on technical considerations but rather on mythological ones. Thus the Vastushastra was sometimes more of a 16 hindrance than a help to the craftsmen. A large part of this was due to the institution of Senis or guilds, about which a brief mention has been made in a previous article. Senis were the Protectors of Heritage or c raftsmen. In the senis, heredity was the route by which traditional knowledge was passed on through the generations. As soon as a boy was old enough to hold tools, he was set to work on a rough block of stone and so commenced his long apprenticeship. This was the father's sole gift and heirloom to his sons who in turn ensured that his name and style would live on. As early as the 7th century B.C., Indian craftsmen had organized themselves into guilds, the better to protect their special knowledge, and to gain for themselves better working conditions, and finally to ensure a minimum standard of quality of workmanship. A temple project would often be of such magnitude that more than one generation of master cutters and masons would be required to finish it. So a clan of stonecutters would settle around the building site for years. The temple site attracted young men hoping to learn as well as find work. Thus it became the focus of activity for miles around. Over the years, regional variations introduced for the building of a particular temple led to the evolution of a new style or 'school' of temple building, much like the gharanas that exist in Indian classical music even today. Hence we find distinct schools of art and architecture even within North Indian temple construction - the Orissan, Chalukyan, Gujarati, Kashmiri, and of course, the same situation in the temples of the south, which were further divided into many regional variations and schools of construction. In all these the Vastushastra was the giver of cohesiveness, which ensured overall similarity of form and function, but also, as we have seen, was responsible for fettering the imagination of the craftsmen. The Jataka, (Pali and Sanskrit: “Birth”) many of the stories of former lives of the Buddha, which are preserved in all branches of Buddhism. Some Jataka tales are scattered in various sections of the Pali canon of Buddhist writings, including a group of 35 that were collected for didactic purposes. These 35 constitute the last book, the CariyaPitaka (“Basket of Conduct”), of the KhuddakaNikaya (“Short Collection”). Beyond this, a Sinhalese commentary of the 5th century that is questionably attributed to a Buddhist scholar named Buddhagosa and called the Jatakatthavannana, or Jatakatthakatha, gathers together about 550 Jataka stories, some of which are quite brief while others are as long as novelettes.TheseJatakas describe 18 Senis.TheSenis were governed by their own laws and customs and were led by a Chief of Settis- a Satthahava who headed all the 18 guilds.These were like today’s unions with a way or access to approach the King himself for a redressal of any of their problems.BothJaina and Buddhists refer to 18 guilds: 1. Architects 2. Mechanics 3. Carpenters 4. Smiths 5. Masons 6. Stone-workers or carvers 17 7. Ivory workers 8. Conch Workers 9. Tailors, weavers, spinners 10. Dyers 11. Leather 12. Potters 13. Jewellwes 14. Flower-workers or garland makers 15. Barbers 16. Painters 17. Sailors 18. Basket weavers3 The Land: The first step towards the construction of a temple is the selection of land. Even though any land may be considered suitable provided the necessary rituals are performed for its sanctification, the ancient texts nevertheless have the following to say in this matter: "The gods always play where groves, rivers, mountains and springs are near, and in towns with pleasure gardens." Not surprisingly thus, many of India's ancient surviving temples can be seen to have been built in lush valleys or groves, where the environment is thought to be particularly suitable for building a residence for the gods. The practical preparations for building a temple are invested with great ritual significance and magical fertility symbolism. The prospective site is first inspected for the 'type,' of the soil it contains. This includes determining its color and smell. Each of these defining characteristics is divided into four categories, which are then further associated with one of the four castes:  White Soil: Brahmin  Red Soil: Kshatriya (warrior caste)  Yellow Soil: Vaishya  Black Soil: Shudra Similarly for the smell and taste:  Sweet: Brahmin  Sour: Kshatriya  Bitter: Vaishya  Astringent: Shudra (a reminder perhaps of the raw-deal which they have often been given in life) 18 The color and taste of the soil determines the "caste" of the temple, i.e., the social group to which it will be particularly favourable. Thus the patron of the temple can choose an auspicious site specifically favourable to himself and his social environment.After these preliminary investigations, the selected ground needs to be tilled and levelled: Tilling : When the ground is tilled and ploughed, the past ceases to count; new life is entrusted to the soil and another cycle of production begins, an assurance that the rhythm of nature has not been interfered with. Before laying of the actual foundation, the Earth Goddess herself is impregnated in a symbolic process known as ankura-arpana, ankura meaning seed and arpana signifying offering. In this process, a seed is planted at the selected site on an auspicious day and its germination is observed after a few days. If the growth is satisfactory, the land is deemed suitable for the temple. The germination of the seed is a metaphor for the fulfilment of the inherent potentialities which lie hidden in Mother Earth, and which by extension are now transferred to the sacred structure destined to come over it. Levelling : It is extremely important that the ground from which the temple is to rise is regarded as being throughout an equal intellectual plane, which is the significance behind the levelling of the land. It is also an indication that order has been established in a wild, unruly, and errant world. Now that the earth has been ploughed, tilled and levelled, it is ready for the drawing of the vastupurusha mandala, the metaphysical plan of the temple. Stone Art: Ancient Indian temples were built by quarrying and sculpting huge stones often granites with huge manpower and animal power for logistics and building-quarrying Granites. In ancient times, quarrying granites without steel was the toughest task. For example the Mundeshwari Devi Temple (also spelled as Mundesvari) is located at Kaura in Kaimur district in the state of Bihar, India on the Mundeshwari Hills. It is an ancient temple dedicated to the worship 19 of Lord Shiva and Shakti and is considered one of the oldest Hindu temples in India. A substantial part of this stone structure has been damaged, and many stone fragments are seen strewn around the temple. However, under the jurisdiction of ASI, it has been the subject of archaeological study for quite some time. It is also considered as the oldest functional Hindu temple of India.The information plaque erected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at the site indicates the dating of the temple to 625 CE. Hindu inscriptions dated 635 CE were found in the temple. The temple is a protected monument under ASI since 1915. The temple, built of stone, is on an octagonal plan which is rare. It is the earliest specimen of the Nagara style of temple architecture in Bihar. There are doors or windows on four sides and small niches for the reception of statues in the remaining four walls. The temple shikhara or tower has been destroyed. However, a roof has been built, as part of renovation work. The interior walls have niches and bold mouldings which are carved with vase and foliage designs. At the entrance to the temple, the door jambs are seen with carved images of Dvarapalas, Ganga, Yamuna and many other murtis. The main deities in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple are of the Devi Mundeshwari and Chaturmukh (four faced) Shiva linga. There are also two stone vessels of unusual design. Even though the Shiva linga is installed in the centre of the sanctum, the main presiding deity is Devi Mundeshwari deified inside a niche, which is seen with ten hands holding symbols riding a buffalo, attributed to Mahishasuramardini. The temple also has murtis of other popular gods such as Ganesha, Surya and Vishnu. Use of stones and other construction materials in India: India's history, dating back to 3200 BC has been influenced considerably by the disposition, development and use of stones and other construction materials. Dimension stones have also left deep imprints on the architectural heritage of the country. Innumerable temples, forts and palaces of Ancient Indian Civilisation have been carved out of locally available stones. The TajMahal at Agra was constructed from Indian marble. Some of the rock-cut structures include Khajuraho Temple, ElephantaCaves,and Konark excavations have revealed Temple. exquisitely Besides, all major archeological carved statuettes and carvings in stone. Ancient Buddhist monuments like the Sanchi Stupa of 3rd century BC have also been carved out of stone.This tradition of Stone Architecture has continued to the present era, with most of the important modern buildings in India like the Presidential House, Parliament House, and Supreme Court made from high quality sandstone of Rajasthan. The Bahá'í House of Worship of New Delhi stands testimony to the relevance of marble in modern Indian 20 architecture.Stones are still the mainstays of civil construction in India, with stones being used extensively in public buildings, hotels, and temples. It is increasingly being used in homes, with the use of stones now penetrating amongst the growing middle class of India. The success of commercial stone industry solely depends upon defects in rock/stone. Natural defects in ornamental/commercial rock deposits adversely affect the quality of rock deposit. Detection of natural defects in decorative and dimensional stone industry play vital role in the quality assessment. India is pioneer in the exploration, mining of commercial rock deposits and in establishing a firm base for stone industry. India, with an estimated resource of about 1,690 million cu m, comprising over 160 shades of Dimension Stone Granites (DSG), accounts for about 205 of the world resources. Of the 300 varieties being traded in the world market, nearly half of them are from India. Commercially viable granite and other rock deposits are reported from Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, and others. Ownership and Management of Temples.5 Since the sixth century, after the decline of Buddhism as the main focus of religious patronage, temples have been accumulating generous donations from kings, nobles, and the wealthy. The result is a huge number of shrines throughout the country, many of which, especially in South India, date back hundreds of years. The statuary and embellishment in some of the ancient shrines constitute one of the world's greatest artistic heritages. The layout of major temples has expanded into gigantic architectural complexes. Along with architectural elaboration has come a complex administrative system to manage the many gifts bestowed by wealthy donors in the past and continually replenished by the piety of devotees in the present. The gods are legal landholders and command substantial investment portfolios throughout the country. The management of these fortunes in many states lies in the hands of private religious endowments, although in some states, such as Tamil Nadu, the state government manages most of the temples directly. Struggles over the control of temple administration have clogged the courts for several hundred years, and the news media readily report on the drama of these battles. Several cases have had an impact on religious, or communal, affairs. The most spectacular case involved ownership of a site in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, claimed by Hindus as the site of Ram's birth but taken over by Muslims as the site for a mosque, the Babri Masjid, built in 1528. 21 The ownership of the Hindu temples in India is partly guided by the state laws and partly by tradition and local customs. Most ancient temples, such as the ones located at Tirupathi, Madurai or Tanjavur are controlled by Government managed trusts in accordance with the state laws. Their maintenance may also be looked after by the Archaeological Survey of India, a government body, which has been entrusted with the responsibility of preserving and protecting the monuments and heritage of India. A few temples such as the ones at Hampi, Khajuraho and Pattadakal are declared UNESCO Heritage Sites. Many states have passed the Hindu Religious Institutions and Charitable Endowment acts to govern the ownership, maintenance and finances of the temples in their states, which have been listed under the acts or which have been taken over by the government due to mismanagement and irregularities. The temples which do not fall under the preview of the act are managed by the private trusts or descendants of the royal families or the people appointed by them. In addition to the trustees, temples also employ a variety of permanent and temporary employees, whose service terms may be regulated by state laws or according to the norms established by the temple executive bodies. The most important category of workers found in a traditional Hindu temple are one or more temple priests (archakas) whose duty is to perform daily worship at the appointed hours, cooks and kitchen workers (pachakas) who have to prepare the sacrificial food (naivedyam) for the gods and remains of the offering (prasadam) for the devotees, acharyas or scholars who have to organize discourses or teach the nuances of dharma to the devotees, and other staff (paricharikas) such as singers, musicians, carriers of water or palanquins, office administrative staff, temple guards, cleaners, sweepers and so on. Large temples may employ hundreds or thousands of employees, which makes temple administration and staff discipline a very complex process.State interference in the ownership of Hindu temples has been a contentious issue in recent times. On the positive side, government involvement prevents the misuse of temple properties or misappropriation of revenues by private individuals, but on the negative side it gives them unlimited powers to spend the temple funds according to their agenda. One of the common complaints is that much of the revenue earned by the temples is diverted by the government for purposes other than their maintenance or welfare or the promotion of Hindu Dharma. Many Hindu temples are in dilapidated conditions and on the verge of closure. The revenue from large and wealthy temples can be used to improve their condition, which does not usually happen unless it becomes a public issue. Incidents of misuse of funds and irregularities in managing temples and trusts, favouritism in appointing priests or misuse of temple trust funds are also not uncommon. 22 REFERENCES 1. Source: ManmathaNathDutt, A Prose English Translation of Agni Puranam, vol. I,"Calcutta, 1903), PP. 142-6; adapted by M. Eliade,Eliade Page website 2. Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an UrbanMiddle-Class World,JoannePunzoWaghorne,Oxford University Press, 2020 3. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, Romila Thapar,2002,University of California Press 4. History Of Ancient India (portraits Of A Nation), Kapur, Kamlesh,Sterling publishers, 5. The Square and the Circle of the Indian Arts,KapilaVatsyayan,,Abhinav Publications. 6. See my article onThe Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment Act, academia.edu SECTION B The temples in India have always taken an important place in their cultural and spiritual life of its people, from the early times and till nowadays. In fact the whole cultural and spiritual life of Indian people is built around the temple. The overall purpose of the Hindu temple can be presented in such a way: like the Himalayas, the temple points to the heavens, the abode of the gods. The Hindu temple, “step by step, shape-by-shape” reverses this primeval descent and places man back on the path toward heaven. Temples were usually built in places marked by special holiness. The legends associated them with the acts of Vishnu, Shiva, Durga and other gods. In the 4-5 centuries, when Hinduism during the reign of Gupta dynasty, became the state religion, the main structural elements of the temples were plinth, sanctuary and superstructure. The stone base of a Hindu temple symbolized the altar, on which the temple itself was sacrificed to a deity. With the modular characteristics of the proportions of the temple measure cap not taken into account. The temple was conceived as a structural unit, resting on the altar. In some early temples the wall of the sanctuary served as main walls of the building, in others – the sanctuary was surrounded by a second ring of walls, which created a special gallery to circumvent. In any case, the churches were dark inside. Module for Hindu temples and their center was a sculpture of a deity – his idol. Temple priests were called “guardians of the idol and the servants of God, whose dwelling was in the temple. Modern scientific analysis of a temple shows that temple-space is surcharged with great positive energy and the visitors can feel physical welfare and mental well-being. This fact rises a lot of questions: how could a structure built of stone or of brick have that kind of energy? What makes the temple so powerful? 23 There is a scientific view that a temple is “not a home of God but it is the form of God” that means that the temple structure itself is worthy of worship . The temple architecture is a scientific phenomenon. The basic concept that determines worthiness of the structure and form of temple is “The layout adopted for temple form is synonymous with the layout of the Cosmos”. The plan of the layout of a temple is technically called Mandala or Vaastu Pada with a grid of 8x 8 =64 spaces or 9x 9 = 81 spaces of equal dimensions. In modern architectural terminology this can be addressed as energy-grid. Those two layouts are the geometrical formulae to replicate the subtle substance of the universe into visual material form. The important aspect of Hindu temple is that it serves as a cosmic intersection of man, God, and the Universe. But it also is the Universe, reflected in its repeating architectural forms. The careful mathematical measurements that lie in the basic construction of a Hindu temple express the structure of the Universe. For example, in order for the temple to face east, its width must be a perfect multiple of the fraction three-eighths. The outer dimensions of the temple must also satisfy five other equations relating to stars, planets and the passage of time. Another important analogy is between the temple and the mountain that can help to understand the divine purpose of the temple-to serve as a meeting place between man and the gods. It means that the gods could descend to be in the presence of man, like human souls rising up to meet the gods. The piece of land upon which the temple stands is itself a sacred location – a tirtha, a Sanskrit word literally meaning “crossing place” is a site favored by the gods where water, shade and seclusion are plentiful. Temples must be built on tirthas in order to serve their true purpose as crossing places, and this site selection is only the first step in building a temple. Another important aspect is the vastu-purusa-mandala , that is a rough architectural blueprint for the foundation of the temple, that serves both a practical and a highly symbolic purpose, becoming the architectural and spiritual foundation of the Hindu temple. (Rao, p. 135.) As suggested earlier, the temple is also a microcosm of the Universe, the mandala reflects this aspect of the temple as well: the center square of the mandala stands for the mythical mountain of Meru, the geographic center of the cosmos. Around Mount Meru is arranged a symbolic pantheon of gods, and each god occupies its own square and is ranked in importance by its proximity to the center. The next part of this essay analyzes separate elements of the temple, both interior and exterior, and places these elements within the context of the temple’s divine purpose: to serve as a cosmic meeting place for devotee and deity. 24 The garbhagrha, the sanctum sanctorum of the Hindu temple, presents itself as a point of departure: if the temple is a mountain, the garbhagrha is the cave inside the mountain. The garbhagrha is dark, and its walls are largely undecorated, that contrasts the exterior of the temple, which is often highly ornate and replete with thousands of sculpted images. The simple darkness of the sanctum reflects its function as a “womb house,” one of the meanings of garbhagrha. Analysis of Hindu temples in Nagara and Dravida styles The two temples described here, one at Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh), the other at Angkor Wat, give the best possible idea of how the contrasting Nagara and Dravida styles had developed by the 11 century and present aesthetic achievements of the Hindu architectural tradition. Style Nagara, which developed during the 5h century, is characterized by a tower-type hive (called “shikhara”) made up of several words of architectural elements, such as kapotas and gavaksas, culminating in a large round cushion like element, named “amalaka”, and parlance “Drum”. The plan of the temple is based on the square, but the walls are often broken down decorative elements in creating the impression that the tower is round. In more recent temples the central mandapa was surrounded by several small temple buildings, creating a visual effect of a fountain. From the 7th century Dravida , or southern style, has formed a pyramidal tower consisting of progressively diminishing tiers, bottleneck, and the dome on top, also called shikhara (in the southern terminology). Repeated horizontal tiers visually impart the southern temples squat. Less obvious differences between the two main temple types Nagara and Dravida include the plan area, the selection and arrangement of stone, from which the cut shapes on the external walls and the interior, the range of decorative elements. In spite of their obvious stylistic differences, the temples at Khajuraho and Angkor Wat have basic principles connected with Hindu beliefs and practices. Kandariya Mahadeva temple, Khajuraho This temple was built in the middle of the 11th century by one of the kings of the Chandella dynasty, this great Shiva temple represents the Nagara style ad is one of the best achievements. 25 Kandariya Mahadeva temple is the tallest monument at Khajuraho, its spire rising more than 30.5 metres above the plinth on which the temple is elevated. The temple has 30.5 metres in length and 20 metres in width. Like other fully developed Chandella temples at Khajuraho, it consists of a linear east-west sequence of access steps, entrance porch, columned hall with side balconies, and linga shrine with encircling passageway, off which open three additional balconies, that bring porches. The porches serve as balconies with high seating, bringing ventilation and light to the interior. What distinguishes the Kandariya Mahadeva temple from the other monuments a Khajuraho is its grand scale and elaboration of design and ornamentation. Undoubtedly, the glory of the temple is its lofty curving tower, crowned by an amalaka ( ribbed circular motif). Very significant in the temple is the sculptural treatment of its outer walls, which are covered with images of the god Shiva, to whom the monument is dedicated, with consorts, attendants and lesser divinities. Important among the images here are the aspect of the god, including those who subdues the blind demon, the cosmic dancer, and the destroyer of the triple demon cities. The sculptures are arranged in three tiers on the outside, amounting to no less than 646 figures in all, not counting the 226 figures of the interior. The temple is well known for its erotic groups which are placed on the juncture of the walls of the mandapa and the passageway surrounding the sanctuary, marking one of the most ritually vulnerable parts of the monument. Among the other images are those of female deities, such as the seven mothers, let alone the countless apsaras, or heavenly maidens that attend on the gods, and who are shown in alluring postures that reveal the mastery of the Khajuraho artists in rendering female contours with conscious sophistication and exuberant grace. Angkor Wat in Cambodia, is the second Hindu temple described in the paper, that refers to the Dravida style. This temple was dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, the preserver of the world. Angkor Wat is a gigantic three―step pyramid adorned by nine slender towers of enormous height, the steps of the pyramid are capped by galleries. Framed by an enclosure wall and a majestic moat, the temple covers 2.5 square kilometres. The pyramid is raised on a vast terrace of 2 m high, and surrounded by naga balustrades. It opens to the cardinal points by entrance pavilions and stairways. The steps are crowned by surrounding galleries: the first step, containing the gallery of the basreliefs, is 203 m large and 3 m high. Pavilions mark the corners, at the corners of the second tier are four towers, their superstructure is partly missing. The outer gallery of the pyramid, including the 26 western corner pavilions, shelters the most precious treasures of Angkor Wat, reliefs in a total length of more than 600 m. They depict narrative scenes from mythology and history. Reliefs do not simply embellish a temple; they make it a sacred space. In the images which depict the gods and their deeds, the gods themselves are present, and figures and parts of the body are either shown frontally or in profile. Reliefs were always carved in situ, after the walls had been finished; they were cut into the stone. It is important to mention twelve stairways rise to the third level of the pyramid. All five towers open to the cardinal directions, giving open views along the galleries, and the overall picture was a wide and airy hall, full of light. The third level, where are the finest reliefs of Devata, was the throne room of God Vishnu. As for the symbolism of the temple, Angkor Wat is an unsurpassed image of the Mount Meru, the abode of the Gods in the centre of the world. Corresponding to the five peaks of this mountain, at Angkor Wat five towers were visible from every cardinal direction. The enclosure wall symbolizes the mountains surrounding and hiding the Mount Meru; the moat symbolizes the cosmic ocean. The temple complex is a microcosm, an image of a perfect world, stable and in geometrical harmony. We can see that Angkor Wat, as well as Kandariya Mahadeva temple, as all Hindu temples serves as a cosmic intersection of man, God, and the Universe, and also the Universe is reflected in its repeating architectural forms. Digital Reconstruction of Angkor Wat, Cambodia (Photo: Virtual Angkor) 27 The five central towers of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru; Angkor, Cambodia. Temple Construction goes through many phases, here are 3 initial ones: 1. KARSHANATHI PRATHISTANTHAM: Starting The Work From Ploughing The Field Till The Construction Of The Temple Up To Consecration 2. SILANYASAM: Prathista Of The Adhara Sila (1) , Nidhikumbha (2) Padma (3) , Kurma(4) . Once Construction Starts - Devotees Will Not Have Access To The Temple Site Till Construction Completion. Prathista Of Yoganaala(5), Napumsakasila(6) , Pitha(7) And Vigraha(8) Will Be During Construction 3. RATNA NYASAM: Kids will perform Pooja guided by Acharyas and place navaratnas in the NidhiKumbha. 28 Indan temples represent one of the great architectural traditions of the world. Built for Hindu, Buddhist and Jain worship, they are without parallel in the way that they combine direct sensuous appeal with a highly complex formal structure. Many studies unravel with effective use of computer technology the uniformity, great proportions and geometry that the The ancient Hindu texts on architecture such as Brihatsamhita and others, classify temples into five orders based on their typological features: Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, ellipse and rectangle. Yantra, Mantra, and Mandala A Yantra is the yogic equivalent of the Buddhist Mandala. It literally means a 'machine' or a visual instrument that serves in meditation. It’s a microcosm of the universe. Yantra is different from Mantra in that, Yantra is the body or form of the deity, whereas Mantra is the mind. How Are They Created? Yantras are created through the amalgamation of various geometric forms and patterns that teach the mind the power of concentration and focus. The drawing of a Yantra needs accuracy, discipline, concentration, neatness, and precision. The visual design of a Yantra activates the right hemisphere, which is visual and non-verbal. What Do the Various Shapes Indicate? Every shape of a Yantra emits a very specific, beneficial and harmonious energy pattern that is used in meditation. It is a geometrical pattern made of several concentric figures like squares, circles, lotuses, triangles, and points. It is believed that the concentric figures gradually grow away from the center, which signifies the process of macrocosmic evolution. When they gradually grow towards the center, it’s a symbol of microcosmic involution. It’s a gradual movement from unity to multiplicity and again back to unity. A human body is considered to be the most perfect and powerful of all Yantras and is seen as a tool for inner awareness. Various Concentric Shapes  A Black point, or a Dot, or Bindu, in a Yantra, symbolizes intense concentration. This point is the center of the Yantra and signifies unity  The point expands into a Circle or Chakra, which represents perfection and a blissful creative void.  The Triangle or Trikona in a Yantra is the symbol of Shakti, the feminine energy or the aspect of Creation. If the triangle points downwards known as Shakti Kona, it 29 represents the feminine sexual organ. If the triangle points upwards known as Shiva Kona, it signifies intense spiritual aspiration.  The Six Points Star or Satkona is the superimposition of the two triangles, one pointing upwards and the other downwards. This is also known as David’s Star. This star symbolizes the union of Purusha and Prakriti or Shiva-Shakti, to form Creation.  The Square or Bhupura is the exterior limit of the Yantra. It’s a symbolical representation of the element earth. The starting from the Bindu to the outer Square represents the sense of universal evolution.  The Lotus or Padma in a Yantra symbolizes both purity and variety. This also represents freedom from multiple interferences with the exterior purity. Common Yantras and Their Benefits  Sri Yantra, also known as Sri Chakra is the mother of all Yantras. It is the most celebrated Yantra in India. It represents Mount Meru, the cosmic mountain at the center of the universe.  The Linga Bhairavi, according to Sadhguru, offers two Yantras, the Bhairavi Yantra and the Avighna Yantra. The Bhairavi Yantra is meant to enhance the wellbeing of an individual. Avighna Yantra takes obstacles away from the life of an individual.  Shakta Yantras represent any form of the divine mother. These are the sources of supreme knowledge.  The Astrological Yantras are used to harness the energies of the nine major planets.  The Numerical Yantras are not composed of geometrical forms but of numbers which serve as talismans.  The Architectural Yantras are used for the ground planning of lands. Other Benefits  Yantras are aimed to help to get rid of insufficiency, unhealthy competitors, resentment, and bad effects of planets.  True meditation through Yantras may attract prosperity, abundance, wellbeing and good luck in all spheres of life.  It is believed that these can support the increasing flow of wealth.  These Yantras have been proven to effectively repel negative energies and maintain internal harmony among the seekers. For the Seeker  A Yantra works when you gaze at a Yantra daily and chant prayers to it. 30  With true devotion, Yantras transform the patterns of your mind into habits of thought that could fetch the desired outcomes.  You focus your intentions, desires, and aspirations in a harmonious way with the relevant Mantras.  You offer incense sticks and fresh flowers to it at least once a week on the day of the deity of the Yantra. The plan described for each include square, octagonal and apsidal. By giving a coherent explanation of how to look at this architecture, as a whole and in detail, we are able to convey a lucid and comprehensive understanding of the design concepts followed by the temple architects, and of the development of temple forms. The starting point of the analysis is the realisation that the principal elements of temple designs are themselves images of temples. Once this is recognised, the complex architectural compositions become clear. It can then be seen that a perennial concern of this architecture is the expression of movement. Recurrent perceptions of the cosmos and the divine in Indian religion and philosophy are shown to have close parallels in patterns of emanation and centrifugal growth embodied in architectural form.2 They also challenges and readdresses the predominant theories of temple architecture like the Vastu Purush Mandala and the Sri YantraSome set forth the theory that there is an evident micro level integration of dimensions and proportions which all originate from the idol, set in the womb of the structure: the Garbhagriha, unfolding the relationship between the square and the circle in a sequence which, with the help of the stellate square form with its intersecting points, the marmas, resonates throughout the temple s space and form in conjunction with its subsidiary shrines. It also establishes with the help of SCS, a strong relationship between the prasada and the mandapa. The potent intersection of the two SCS sets the canvass for erotic iconography as evident in temples of Khajuraho. The interdependency of the temple s elevation and its roof form to the plan and its dimensions, setting forth the need for the scholarship to address the temple structure as a whole. With the use of examples from different time and space, it can be established that the temples underlining design principles remain the same, smallest denominator being the unit dimension of the idol, Shiva lingam or the idol pedestal. Therefore, the later date typologies were of no relevance to the sthapatis of these manifestations. 31 The origins and formation of the two classical architectural ′languages′ of India – the northern Nagara and southern Dravida – and their extraordinarily varied development during the great age of temple construction between the 6th and 13th centuries show the continuing vitality of these systems up to the present, and explores the lessons that can be learned from them by architects and artists today.The principles and processes underlying the designs of these monuments, providing essential historical background and placing the architecture in its cultural and religious context. While travelling in India, one invariably comes across a number of temples of varied antiquity, size and religious importance. No matter which city you visit, a prominent temple will always be part of your visit. In some places it is the temples that have brought the cities to prominence. The Indian subcontinent is dotted with pilgrim destinations associated with all the major religions of the world. No wonder, the country has always been known as 'harmashetra', or the sacred land. The construction of places of worship has been an eternal quest of the humanity. India is perhaps the only place in the world, where the evolution of the temple is documented in a span as wide as two thousand years. A number of innovative books, look at Indian temple sculpture in context, as an instrument of worship which embodies powerful religious experience. Here in this book we consider the temple’s technology- hence the title; their cosmological meaning, origins, the temple setting and the civil engineering and architecture within and around it to reveal the many temple construction traditions still in practice today. 3 THE IMPORTANCE OF VASTU Vâstu is of paramount significance in Indian culture and it has a rich heritage. There are many works on vâstu. Right from the selection of a site, every single detail of architecture and living is analysed with reference to both the body and mind, matter and energy. Land is the most important criterion in Vâstu. The classification of vâstu in accordance with varna mainly has a professional view and cultural needs. The foremost step to be taken while erecting a vastu is the test of a site. This has a Vedic significance also. We have different ways of bhifipariksâ as expounded in Purânas like Catus,sastipadâ Vâstu. Ekâsitipadâ Vâstu, 3atapadâ Vâstu, Padavinyâs Paddhati, etc. Among these the last is very useful as it considers all the aspects of vâstu implications. 32 It is also lamented that modern civil and architectural engineering methods are unaware of these subtleties. Depending upon the status of people residing in the structures, we have a set of different classification, like the common man's residence, residence of kings, abode of gods and structure of public utility. We will discuss it in later chapters. Vâstu is a holistic approach towards happy living. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUND: Before selecting a plot for building a house on if the quality of the earth (soil) on that ground should be tested and its merits or demerits should be considered. The earth has been graded on the basis of its characteristics as follows: According to the Purâ nas earth is of four types viz., BrahmanT, ksatriya, Vaisya and Rudra On the basis of colour: (i) Ground having white coloured (ii) Ground having red coloured (iii) Ground having yellow coloured (iv) — Ground having black coloured BrâhmanT — Ksatriya — Vaisya — Rudra On the basis of smell: (i) Ground having pleasant smell like ghee (butter) (ii) Ground having smell like blood (iii) Ground having smell like grain (iv) Ground having smell like wine On the basis of taste. (i) Ground having sweet taste (ii) Ground having a astringent taste (iii) Ground having sour taste 33 — — Ground having bitter taste BrâhmanT — Ksatriya — Vaisya — — Rudra BrâhmanT — Ksatriya — Vaisya — Rudra According to the Purânas Brâhmani ground is grade one, it brings happiness and prosperity. Ksatriya is a grade two, it fetches ruling power. Vaisya ground is also of grade two (medium). It provides wealth and prosperity. Rudra ground is third grade ground. It is not considered to be good for building a house on it. Vasistha, Nârada and other saints have expressed that white, red, yellow and black coloured soil is auspicious and beneficial respectively for the Bhâhmana Ksatriya, Vaisya and the remaining other classes of the society. SHAPES OF THE PLOT: The shape of the plot also has its good or bad effect on the house constructed on it, and on the life of the inmates also. According to the Purânas there are five shapes of plots and their effects are described below: 1. Square Shaped A plot‘ having all the four sides equal and also each of the four angles a right angle, is known as square plot. Residence on such plot also brings prosperity 2. Circular A round shaped plot is known as circular plot. Residence on such plot is beneficial; there is growth of wealth and knowledge provided that the house is also constructed in round shape. Rectangular or square shaped building should not be constructed on a circular plot (Fig. 6(b)). 3. Rectangular 34 A plot whose opposite sides are equal and also the four angles are equal (900 each) is known as a rectangular plot. House on such a plot is auspicious and brings all prosperity (Fig. 6(c)). 4. Elliptical (Egg-Shaped) Oval A plot in the shape of an egg or an ellipse is called elliptical plot. Residence on such plot is harmful and brings losses 1. Octagonal a b d e 35 Fig. 6(a-e) Shapes of plots (redrawn after hojraj Dwivedi, 1998) An eight cornered plot having all the eight sides equal in length is called octagonal plot Residence on such plot is good. It brings happiness (Fig. 6(e)). SILANYASA According to the Mayamatam, certain definite ceremonies and function are performed at some auspicious moment before the work is started. It is called silânyâsa or 'foundation laying ceremony' which is the muhifirat. The first of them begin with sifitra-pâda or measuring of the site plan; the second relates to the raising and of the main pillar. The third special ceremony is to be performed on the day when the door of the main entrance to the house is fixed in position. The fourth ceremony takes place after the house is completed and at a time of grhapravesa. The fifth may be performed whenever there is an occasion for vâstu-sânti. It is stated that the main foundation pillar should be raised on a sllâ or stone block under which some ratna or precious jewels have been deposited. Sñlra- pâda or stfitra-mâpana is meant the division of the site into equal squares either 64 or 81 or 100 as the case may be by making deep marks on the site. It is advised that the foundation should be made with well-burnt bricks, but timber and mud may also be used for that purpose. Expansion Updates of The Shiva Murugan Temple of Concord, Virginia,USA EXAMPLE OF A TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION MENU Construction Update 36 The Shiva Murugan Temple of Concord is excited to share that after careful negotiations and due consideration, we are ready to sign the contract with our GC in preparation to start the construction immediately. We have wonderful news to share with you! With the Divine Blessings of Lord SivaMurugan, we are about to sign the contract with the GC! We have negotiated the contract carefully and with due diligence. Introduction of GC Annual Gala Fundraiser Dinner, December 1st, 2018: We introduced the GC in person at our 3rd Annual Gala Fundraiser Dinner to the 450 guests assembled. The Gala Dinner guests are devotees of our temple, donors, dignitaries and steering committee members. MOU Signed: We signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Calwest Constructions in December 2018. We also announced via email Newsletter to our devotees in December 2018. Vaasthu Puja: We invited all CSMT devotees to attend the Vaasthu Puja performed by the General Contractor, the Architect and the Structural Engineer on January 26th, 2019. Invitations to the Vaasthu Puja were sent to all CSMT devotees using email Newsletter, Posters and Social Media such as WhatsApp and Facebook. We had a very happy and successful Vaasthu Puja attended by approximately 2000 devotees, many steering committee members and dignitaries like the Mayor of Concord, the Vice Mayor and City Council Members and Planning Commission Members. The Silanyasa Puja was performed in the North East corner or Easanya Moola of the proposed New Temple Building. Everyone present got to place their offering in the Silanyasa Puja and participate personally and were transported with joy at the unique and rare opportunity. The devotees were disciplined and courteous to each other and waited patiently in line for their turn to enter the Silanyasa and offer their prayers. There are only 8 Vaasthu days in a calendar year. We captured the very first since the weekend date was convenient to many of our devotees to participate. We started, as always, with the auspicious Ganesha Homa the previous day. We introduced the GC, the Architect 37 and the Structural Engineer to all devotees present and to the City Council on January 26th. There has been heavy rain in the past two months which, while wonderful for the Bay Area drought conditions, is not conducive to starting construction. However, you may now expect to see work commence on the site imminently. Brief History of Selection of GC Referrals & Recommendations: While the Architect & Stapathi are chosen by referrals and recommendations, the General Contractor is selected using aBidding Process. However, we wanted recommendations on GCs to invite for the Bidding process. For many years now, we have requested devotees to recommend GCs to the temple, if they are familiar with any. Such requests were made at gatherings of devotees in the temple, in several Steering Committee Meetings, in the Annual Gala Dinners and other occasions. We received one initial recommendation from a devotee, who is a Steering Committee Member, at the 2nd Annual Gala. Meeting, July 16th, 2018: We invited the recommended GC along with 15 other GCs to meet the Construction Advisory Committee (CAC) members at the Architect's office on July 16th, 2018. The Architect, the Structural Engineer and the members of the CAC recommended General Contractor companies that would be suitable to the temple project. 38 Selection Criteria for the GC: The following were a few of the criteria we looked for in the General Contractor: Capacity to bond for 10-15 million dollars Prior experience with projects in this range Experience building temples or similar ornate structures Experience with Construction for Non-Profit Organizations Demonstrable experience and comfort with Steel & Concrete structures, not limited to Woodframe Construction Willingness to work in cooperation with the Stapathi & Indian Craftsmen Good Financial Standing & Track Record in the Industry Of the 16 GC firms invited to meet us in person, many turned us down due to the complexity of the project and their own busy schedules. Seven met with us on July 16th, 2018, and were invited to bid after we vetted their portfolios and asked them for their experience (as above), referrals, etc. After interviewing them, we presented the specifications of the project and invited them to bid on our project. Four of the seven, (including the GC firm recommended by our devotee,) expressed their gratitude at being given the opportunity to participate but expressed their regrets due to many reasons, such as inability to focus on this complex project due to other commitments, too much complexity of the project, or other such reasons. Bids Received: Three GC firms expressed their interest to continue with the proceess. One expressed that there was too much work involved in submitting a bid and offered an estimate for $22 million. The other two bids were approximately $15 and $9. Since this was completely out of the budget for the temple, the Architect then cast the net wider, outside the Bay Area. We approached GC firms in Sacramento and Tracy, Modesto, etc. However, today, GCs are so busy that we had no promising response. Fortunately, at this time, the Architect met Mr. Rajen Patel of Calwest Constructions. The company had the special expertise we were looking for above. They also had experience in building Hindu Temple in the Bay Area. While no members of the CAC or the 2018 Board had met Mr. Rajen Patel previously, we were heartened to learn that both the Architect and the Structural Engineer as well as several of our CSMT Soma Vaara devotees, and Steering Committee Members were able to recommend him.Calwest Constructions had built many hotels and buildings for some of our CSMT devotees in the $$ range we were looking at. Our devotees recommended him strongly and also inundated Mr. Rajen Patel with their requests to take up our temple project. Negotiations: We have been carefully and conscientiously negotiating with Calwest Constructions for an amount that is very significantly less than the bids we were able to receive from other firms. We also looked at whether the bidding firms were able to offer Value Engineering suggestions which were acceptable to the temple.Calwest has offered Value Engineering suggestions of significance to the temple. Quantity Surveyor: Our independent quantity surveyor estimator also compared all the bids received by the temple and recommended Calwest's bid as the best fit and closest to his estimate. Our Quantity Surveyor comes to us with strong referrals from several presitigous projects, such as Terminal 3 of the SFO Airport. 39 The GC and the SE took a trip to India to meet with the Stapathi, visit his worksite in Lenavilakku and understand the intricacies of combining the Granite structures being fabricated in India with the local construction. We shared pictures of their viisit with you in the earlier emails. Based on that visit, we are further negotiating the details involved, especially regarding the phase of the cooperation between the Stapathi & the GC. We are confident that, with the contract we are about to sign with Calwest, we will be able to build the temple within a reasonable budget given the current times and today's costs. The construction industry, especially in this area, is booming currently, as many of you may know. The CAC and the Architect are examining each and every cost carefully. The design and plans of the temple and annex building with dining hall and auditorium, are not only carefully tailored to the temple's needs, but also have to dovetail with the approval of the City of Concord's Design Review Board and the Planning Commission. We are in a limited space on Second Street and we are building to the best possible design in that limited space. The intention is to construct the two buildings, for the most part, as a turnkey project. Qualifications of the CAC: The CAC is composed of five extremely qualified people in the Construction industry and two Board Members. We are extremely fortunate to have them volunteer for the temple and have introduced them on stage with pride and joy at several gatherings, during Steering Committee Meetings of the temple and Annual Galas. They are experts with many years of experience and a wide and varied expertise of the Construction Industry with special reference to the Bay Area. The CAC also has experience in building temples, among other non-profit experience. Construction Attorney: Our AIA contract with the GC is being reviewed by the temple's Construction Attorney to ensure that the contract is in the best interests of the temple. The Construction Attorney is an expert in this field. Interior of the Temple The temple's interior continues to progress in Lenavilakku, India. We will keep giving you pictures as the progress continues. Currently, the craftsmen are almost at the finishing stage of carving the "flowers" on the pieces of the SivaMurugan Sanctum. The work has commenced on the four auxilliary sanctums and has proceeded to about 30% complete. For those of you who did not see it earlier, we repeat a short video explanation by Stapathi Dakshinamoorthy on how the carving is done, please see the video below. Our Architect Sharad Lal was so appreciative of the artistry demonstrated by the Stapathi & his men in the video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jggm-MfvRGY We have attached some pictures here, sent to us by the Stapathi. The quarry stones have been procured for the auxilliary sanctumsand are filling up the yard in the Lenavilakku worksite. The big boulders weigh as much as 18 - 20 tons before they are cut down to the required size for our sanctums. There is a careful marking of each stone as it cut 40 down into slabs. The marking system identifies the sanctum, the layer number and the position of each stone in the layer even on the rough cut slabs! We shared the above pictures of the visit of the GC and SE to the Lenavilakku Worksite in the Construction Newsletter dated January 2019. Our Stapathi is pictured explaining the process to them. Trial Jointing is a trial fitting of the pieces of each layer to make sure that everything fits exactly as it should. In order to perform the requisite trial jointing for Sri SivaMurugan Sanctum, a platform with the correct dimensions (slightly bigger than the proposed Sanctum) has been laid in a corner of the worksite, with a foundation of approximately 5 feet. This foundation is required in order to be able to bear the weight of the stone slabs. The pieces that belong to each layer are brought to the platform and assembled according to the marking system. The craftsmen actually sand down each slab to the correct millimeter to make sure it fits correctly! This will make the task of assembly in Concord that much easier. You can see how complete and polished the layer looks when it is fully (trial) assembled with all the slabs sanded correctly to the millimeter and assembled with no gaps. EVOLUTION OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE Hindu temples : The temple is a holy site (tirtha), where they practitioners can perform circumambulation (pradaksina). They also perform the pious act of gazing at the deity (darsan) and offering prayers, flowers and food (puja). The temple is never a meeting place for a congregation, but it came to be a focal point of the community. • The heart of the temple is the dark hall called garbha grha (womb hall), where the most important icon is placed. It is the most important area. Pillared halls (mandapa) and porticos were added to the garbha graha, which was surmounted with a tower (sikhara)--center of the universe (axis mundi). Many varieties: wood, brick, terracotta, and variety of stone (e.g., schist, chlorite, marble) Temples required to be heavily ornamented (things lacking in ornament were considered imperfect or incomplete. Motifs: narrative reliefs, animal motifs, floral and vegetation motifs. Brahma-God of Creator Vishnu-God of Preserver (has many incarnations such as Rama and Krishna) Shiva-God of Destroyer (also the protector of animals) Devi-goddess (e.g., Laksmi (“Good Fortune”) and Parvati); symbolizing beauty, benevolent, and wealth as well as power and wrath. scientific reasons behind the rituals in Hinduism according to the ancient texts The Location and Structure of the Temple. Temples are found deliberately at a place where the positive energy - magnetic and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push. The 41 idol of God is set in the core center of the temple, known as “Garbhagriha” or “Moolasthanam”- place where earth’s magnetic waves are discovered to be most extreme. Temples, contains pure vibrations of magnetic and electric fields with positive energy.The floor at the centre of the temple were good conductors of these positive vibrations allowing them to pass through our feet to the body. Removing Your Footwear before Entering Temple Sharp and enduring sound which lasts for minimum of 7 seconds in echo mode. The duration of echo is good enough to activate all the seven healing centres in our body. Ringing the Temple Bell When You Enter the Temple – Hearing Sense Activated. This results in emptying our brain from all negative thoughts. This bell sound is also absorbed by the idol and vibrated within the Garbhagudi for a certain period of time. ACTIVATION OF Five Senses Sight, Hearing, Touch, Taste, And Smell •The inner sanctity is usually dark and the immediate seeing of light after praying activates the sight sense, lighting camphor is for the idol to absorb the heat and vibrate within the Garbhagudi for certain period. Lighting Camphor In Front Of Idol – Sight Sense Activated hands over the camphor to make your hands warm and then you touch your eyes with your warm hands- touch sense is active. Put Your Hands over the Camphor Flames and Then Touch Eyes – Touch Sense Activated rose petals, jasmine, marigold based on different factors, amongst them fragrance is most important. The fragrance of the flower, camphor and instance sticks all together have the strong essence to keep your smell sense active and pleasant giving calmness to the mind. 6. Offering Flowers to God At The Temple – Smell Sense Activated The water used for theertham usually would contain Thulasi leaves dipped in water and must be stored at least for eight hours in the copper vessel. This water is used to balance all the three doshas in your body, (vata, kapha and pitta) By drinking this Thulasi water you activate the taste sense. The other benefits of drinking Thulasi water from a copper or silver vessel also includes cure for sore throats, Fever etc. Doing Pradakshina around the garbhagriha/Moolasthanam is a walk around the idol inside the Garbhagirha, the inner most chamber of temple in clockwise direction for nine times. The idol inside the Garbhagriha absorbs all the energy from the bell sound, camphor heat and vibrates the positive energy within the Garbhagriha absorb all these positive vibrations once 42 your five senses are activated. This vibration inside the Garbhagriha is considerably less and hence it is advised to visit the temple very often and follow the same rituals again. Applying Tilak/Kumkum Given By the Temple Priest on the forehead, between the two eyebrows, is a spot that is considered as a major nerve point in human body since ancient times. The Tilak is believed to prevent the loss of “energy”, the red ‘kumkum’ between the eyebrows - retain energy in the human body and control the various levels of concentration. Agnya-chakra are automatically pressed. This also facilitates the blood supply to the face muscles. Offering Coconut And Banana To God When You Visit Indian Temples - Coconut and Banana are the only two fruits in this world which are considered to be “Sacred fruits”. All other fruits are tainted fruits (partially eaten fruits In the case of coconut and banana, the shell or the sleeves is not used for anything. This is the reason why Coconut and Banana has an important place in all religious activities. One who is able to withdraw his senses from sense objects, as the tortoise draws its limbs within the shell, is firmly fixed in perfect consciousness. it is the vahana of Shiva - the god of skies and destruction. Shiva with Nandi is one of the oldest forms of Hindu representation dating before 3000 BC. Animal that connects the rural also symbolise strength, firmness and guardian for the god who is fierce yet a savior. Vastu-purusa mandala: A myth explains the symbolic diagram (mandala): the gods in seeking to impose order on chaos, forced the primeval man, Purusa, into a square grid, the vastu-purusa mandala, whose basic unit is the square pada Hindu temple is the dwelling of the gods. It is based on the grid systems of 64 (8x8) and 81 (9x9) squares.Square is the prefect shape for the ground plan. Priests perform ritual of consecrations which connect between sexual rites and fertility in Hindu architecture. SANCTUM MAHAMANDAPAM DWAJASTHAMBA RAJAGOPURAM 1.Garbhagriha 2. Mandapa. 3. Antarala. 4. Mahamandapa. 5. Enclosing wall 6. Pradhikshana path. Artha Mandapa. 43 Shikara has the repetition of architectural motifs, converted into an element of decoration. These architectural motifs have much deeper meaning.Symbolically it means to reach or get closer to the GOD . There are two style of temple architecture were followed. 1. Dravidian style in south 2. Indo Aryan in north. North Indian Nagara Style South Indian Dravida Style Combined Style 1. In one concept it was the derivation from the peaked or domed huts. 2. Temple developed form stupa-elongated form of the dome. 3. Temple is referred as ratha or car.so the sikhara Elements of Hindu temple: The sanctuary as whole is known as the Vimana that consists of two parts. The upper part of the Vimana is called as the Sikhara the lower portion inside the Vimana is called as the Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber). ‘Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the spire. It is the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple which represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. The shape and the size of the tower vary from region to region. ‘Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber. It is nucleus and the innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the deity is placed. • The chamber is mostly square in plan and is entered by a doorway on its eastern side. • The visitors are not allowed inside the Pradakshina patha’ meaning the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation. It consists of enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess. ‘Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees. It is used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the priests performing the rituals. It is also known as ‘Natamandira’ meaning temple hall of dancing, where in olden days ritual of music and dance was performed. In some of the earlier temples the mandapa was an isolated and separate structure from the sanctuary like in Mahabalipuram • . ‘Antarala’ meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber. • It unites the main sanctuary and the 44 pillared hall of the temple. • ‘Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to the mandapa. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE: No structural innovativeness Based on centre of gravity •Mass supporting massRepetition. No mortar- dry order . Method of quarrying-groove drawn hole driven wooden peg inserted •on pouring water wood expands stone breaks free •facing was hammer dressed offsite fabrication was always carried out assembling at site after preparation of each block at quarry. To enable this accurate measurements are needed. Sometimes models are prepared initially. Main aim was mass rather than line for a temple. GUPTA PERIOD ARCHITECTURE - 320 – 650 AD 4th BC- 6th BC The Gupta Empire was one of the first people to use stone to build instead of wood. Their architecture was dedicated to building stone temples for the various gods. Their architecture marked the beginning in the creation of stone structures. They built the first free standing structural temples. They made structures called Stupas, this form of architecture made its way to china, where it was altered slightly and renamed the Pagoda. They invented manuals which described how to build the temples. •Sophisticated urban culture, people of prime. Lot of literature, scultpure, texts, art etc •Best knows old poets from this period Kalidas,Kama Sutra came from this period . Establishment of Sanskrit culture, high culture of city elites AND Bhramanical Architecture. Rituals were imbibed in the Temple Architecture. Scientific reasoning was given for all. And were reserved for upper class. Revival of Arya concepts as a new civic culture. •Revival of kingship legitimized but Brahmins as the custodians of order •Projection of Arya/Vedic age as a lost golden age; modernization of old Vedic gods and rituals •Incorporation of Buddha and Buddhist ideas, into the new Hinduism. •The birth of the Hindu temple. •Rise of Shiva and Vishnu, puja introduced. The Gupta style was influenced by Kusana, Mathura, and Gandhara and borrowed the common features of T-shaped doorways, decorated door jambs, sculpted panels with highrelief figures, and laurel-wreath and acanthus motifs. Constructed using sandstone, granite, and brick, Gupta-era temples added to this architectural heritage with horseshoe gavakshas arches and distinctive curved shikhara towers which are frequently topped with a ribbed disk ornamentation known as an amalaka,t he crown. These elaborate buildings are further decorated with a mass of ornate mouldings and sculptures set in niches. In Gupta architecture, the square was considered the most perfect form and temples were designed to be appreciated 45 from all sides so that each carries decorative architectural features. Most temples also adopt a square plan with the single cubicle garbhagriha in the centre. This is normally entered by a short columned porch set over a single, highly decorated doorway with a projecting lintel. Columns can support a pot-and-foliage capital, and roofs were generally flat, as in surviving examples at Tigawa and Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh. Other typical Gupta decorative features include triangle motifs inside doorways and lion's heads at the ends of stone beams. Evolution of Temple Architecture in India during Gupta Period: During the Gupta period, a firm foundation of temple architecture was laid when the basic elements of the Indian temple consisting of a square sanctum and pillared porch emerged. The evolved Gupta temple also had a covered processional path for circumambulation (Pradakshana Path) that formed a part of the worship-ritual. Earlier temples of the period had a monolithic flat slab roof. Later temples in brick and stone developed a Shikhara The gradual evolution of the Gupta style is traceable through development of the plan and the ornamentation on the pillars and doorframe. the later introducing new decorative motifs like goblins, couples, flying angels, door-keepers and a figure relief in the centre of the lintel emblematic of the deity consecrated in the temple Sculptures of deities, their consorts, celestial beings, couples, directional deities, composite animals and decorative motifs formed the mass of images that adorned the walls of the temples and their interiors. The deities consecrated in the sanctum were carved strictly according to religious canons and installed by performing a special consecration ceremony. Temple sculptures were not necessarily religious. Many drew on secular subject matters and decorative motifs. The scenes of everyday life consist of military processions, royal court scenes, musicians, dancers, acrobats and amorous couples. EVOLUTION OF INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE Indian temples have been a source of attraction, not only as a place of worship for the devout, but also as an architectural marvel for the curious tourist. Indian temples with its imposing towers, intricate carvings and awe inspiring size were in fact the result of a gradual evolution over time. In the Vedic period (1500 to 500 BC) there were actually no temples as such. They 46 propitiated the Gods by performing yagas using sacrificial altars. Details of how such altars may be constructed where meticulously mentioned in The SULVASUTRA (literally meaning ‘the rules of the cord’). These YAGASALAS later got transformed to temples. Earliest temples were made of timber and clay, and though they were later replaced by the more enduring granite, there are still temples in Kerala and Dakshina Karnataka made with timber and which has withstood the ravages of time. Cave temples which are found in profusion particularly in Central India, were a later innovation. Though the basic temple patterns are the same, temple styles fall into two categories. North Indian style called NAGARA and southern style called DRAVIDIAN. There is a derivative of the above two styles which is called VESARA. NAGARA STYLE NAGARA style temples have curvilinear towers as against DRAVIDIAN temples which have truncated pyramids. The derivative style VESARA is a combination of both NAGARA and DRAVIDIAN type of architecture. NAGARA style temple architecture originated during the Gupta period (320 -650 AD) and is found mostly in North and Central India. The temple complexes at TIGAWA (In modern MADHYA PRADESH), NACHNA in RAJASTHAN and DEOGARH in UTTAR PRADESH are examples of this. The major developments in temple architecture were during the following periods. 750 – 1250 AD in Orissa 950 – 1050 AD in Central India 10th to 11th Century in Rajasthan and 11th to 13th Century in Gujarat. Some of temples worth seeing are LINGARAJA temple at Bhubaneshwar, JAGANNATHA temple in Puri, SURYA temple at Konarak. DRAVIDIAN STYLE The southern style DRAVIDIAN temples had its genesis during the age of the PALLAVAS of Kanchipuram (600 -850 AD) and later developed by the CHALUKYAS of Badami and PANDYAS of Madurai. The temple complexes at MAMMALAPURAM (earlier known as MAHABALIPURAM) IN Tamil nadu, LAKDHAN temple in Aihole and Kasinatha temple in Pattadakkal are examples of this style of architecture. The evolution of Southern temples were as follow: 600 -850 AD in Tamil nadu during the period of the Pallavas ( rock cut and RATHA style temples of Mahabalipuram, Kailasanatha and Vaikunta Perumal temples of Kanchipuram) 47 900 – 850 in Tamil Nadu during the Chola dynasty ( Brihadeeshwara and Srirangam temples) 1336 – 1565 during the period of the Vijayagara empire in Karnataka (Pampavati and Sri Vithala temples at Hampi) 1600 to 1700 during the Nayaks of Madurai. (Enlarged the existing Meenakshi temple complex by making it ornate and adding pillared corridors) The VESARA style temples were influenced by the Buddhist apsidal chapels and evolved during the period the Later CHALUKYAS. If the ancient YAGASALAS or RIG VEDIC times were based on the SULVASUTRAS the later temple complexes were based on VASTU SASTRA which had it sources from such diverse scriptures as the SUTRAS, PURANAS, AGAMAS and TANTRIC literature. REFERENCE 1. Temple Design in Six Early Saiva Scriptures (Critical edition and Translation of the Prasadalaksana-Portions of the Brhatkalottara, Devyamata, Kirana, Mohacurottara, Mayasamgraha & Pingalamata,Libbie Mills 2. Indian Temple Architecture: Analysis of Plans, Elevations and Roof Forms Hardcover – Import, 1 December 2008, Ananya Gandotra. See also . The Temple Architecture of India Hardcover – 9 November 2007, Adam Hardy 3. Temples of India: Abode of the Divine Hardcover – 1 April 2016,See also Tarun Chopra Indian Temple Sculpture Hardcover – Import, 1 June 2007,John Guy. All above books with Amazon.com 48 CHAPTER II The South Indian Hindu temple building design system On the architecture of the Silpa Sastra and the Dravida style K. J. Oijevaar,2007.Delft University of Technology, Netherlands,kenzooijevaar@gmail.com Introduction The Hindus were in the position of numerous treatises on architecture and sculpture. These are collectively called the Silpa Sastra. Only few traces of them remain. How much there have been is not known. Some say, thirty-two, and others sixty-four2. However there are many works of acknowledged antiquity that talk about thirty-two principal ones3. The origins of the Silpa Sastra remain unknown. Some writers of these texts claim that the origins were to be found in the Vedic literature4. What is now generally accepted is that “In ancient India, all compositions, whether religious, literary, or legal, were originally memorized and handed down orally from one generation to another. A particular composition would thus be the intellectual property of one group of followers of the composer and they preserved and guarded it to prevent its appropriation by others. This monopoly over a composition gave them a special status in society, in addition to brining them rich clients. By composing in Sanskrit, the language of the Gods, the group gained an even higher, almost semi-divine status and were recognized as ‘Brahmans’.” … “This spurred all other groups of composers and craftsmen who had hitherto been using popular dialects, to also convert to Sanskrit.”5 The intention of these texts was to show that they now had the status of learned Brahmans and they not only wrote technical, but also gave esoteric, magical, mystical, and astrological prescriptions to buildings. This included a whole set or rules of dimensions and proportions that were considered to make a structure theologically and ritually sound6. There is something curious about the Silpa Sastra. None of the temples researched so far are built according to these Silpa inscriptions7. The reason given why the temples didn’t fit with the text is because the texts themselves were not meant for other people then their own family. The number of Silpa texts has thus always been limited. The owner of a text would certainly follow the inscriptions when he constructed a building for clients, but those without these texts would copy these buildings but without the esoteric aspects whose very presence was often unknown and invisible to others. It is thus not surprising that texts 49 generally do not match reality. In the real world of architectural construction, temples were built by imitation: one generation copying the predecessor or one rival architect, but always with some minor modifications to keep client interest alive. That is why temples in each region show so much a similarity to each other and yet do not match texts8. There are only a few old works treating the Silpa Sastra. Of which the work Mánasára is the most perfect one9, but also Mayamatam has a great value. These texts were probably written around 450 till 550 AD10. Not a lot of study has been done on these manuscripts or Indian architecture in general. Till the 1990s only 17 works have been written on the subject (See table 1). The task of this essay will be to combine the knowledge about Indian architecture and make it more accessible. Table 1 - A Chronological List of Research in Indian Architecture and Allied areas11 Vastupurusa For the basis of Hindú architecture often reference is made to Vastupurusa or “the spirit of the site”. One legend explains this as follows. There was an evil demigod (bhuta) who was born during Siva’s fight with the Asur Andhaka. This bhuta possessed a terrifying countenance and an insatiable hunger. The legend goes that having done great penance, the bhuta won a boon from Siva that allowed him to swallow the three worlds that constitute the Hindu cosmos. As this being stretched himself and began to occupy the heavens, he fell flat on the earth. The various gods and demigods seized this opportunity and pinned various parts of his body to the ground, rendering him helpless. This being came to be called Vast (or Vastupurusa) because the gods and demigods managed to lodge themselves on his body. Legends hold that the deities, in pinning him down, occupied different parts 50 of his body and continued to reside there (Figure1). In order to satisfy his hunger, Brahma ordained that he receive offerings from people on building sites before construction. Figure 1 - The Vastupurusa pinned down on the ground by the gods12 The body of the Vastupurusa is supposed to be sensitive at a number of points called marmas. The well-being of the Vastupurusa assures the well-being of the building and, by implication, its owner. An important criterion for any building, therefore, is to avoid injury to the marmas located on the body of the Vastupurusa. To ensure that this is achieved, texts prohibit any direct construction upon the marmas themselves. The marmas are specifically said to lie at the intersection of major diagonals, seen as the veins (siras or nadis) of the purusa13. The system of measurement In Indian architecture a different measurement system than in the west was used. The scheme is as follows 51 Name Description of size Paramánu The particle perceptible only to the eyes of the sages, or something like atoms. 8 paramánus = 1 ratharénu Like the grain or dust raised up by the wheels of carriages. 8 ratharénus = 1 valágra Like the point of a hair 8 valágras = 1 louse 8 lice = grain of yava 3 or 3,5 or 4 yavas = 1 angula Like the finger of the inferior, middle and superior sorts respectively 12 angulas = 1 vitasti or span 2 vitastis = 1 hasta or cubit = 24 angulas 26 angulas = 1 dhanurgraha Like the handle of a bow 4 hastas = 1 dhanus or danda Like a bow or rod 8 dandas = 1 rajju Like a rope There are also some very broad descriptions for the dimensions of buildings. All the buildings may be 24 angulas, but it is better to make them more specified. Conveyances (yána) and couches (sayana) have to be 24 angulas Temples (vimána) have to be 25 angulas Building’s (vástu) in general have to be 26 angulas Villages have to be 27 angulas Table 2 Orientation - The gnomon To define where these veins are, and where an architect should locate the outside walls of a Hindu temple, an architect got a tool called a gnomon16. A gnomon is something of 16 angulas in height erected from a smooth level piece of ground and of the same diameter at the bottom. There are six steps which are needed to construct a gnomon.17. 52 Step 1: A gnomon is made by putting a specified object in the ground and by drawing a circle around it18. Steps 2 and 3: The place where the shadow cuts the circle, in the morning and in the evening, is marked and a line is drawn between those two points. From these points two circles are made. Step 4: On the place where these two new circles cut each other a new line is drawn. This line represents the North - South axes. 53 Step 5: From the places where the North - South axes cuts the first circle two new circles are drawn. Step 6: A line, connecting the cutting points of the two new circles, is drawn. This line represents the West – East axes. Because of the irregularity of the sun’s motion in the ecliptic, various rules have been laid down for the purpose of rectifying its variations. Time plays an important role here. In one explanation for instance: “The place where the shadow of the gnomon projects, on two successive days at the same hour, being marked, the difference between those two days, is taken as the variation of the shadow for sixty ghaticas or twenty-four hours. The interval between the times at which the western and eastern points were marked on the preceding day is multiplied by the difference of the shadow measured for one day, and the product being divided by sixty ghaticas, the result will give the difference of the shadow for the given time; it will then be only necessary to remove the eastern or western point so far towards the south or north, according as the difference of the shadow on the second day may be in either of those directions, or as the sun is in the southern or northern solstice.”19 The figure now found forms the basis of the Hindu architecture. What can be clearly seen 54 is that the body of the Vastupurusa fits on the figure (Figure2). Figure 2 – The gnomon and the Vastupurusa combined Zoning in the temple – Using the grid The visual representation of the Vastupurusa as a governing device for making a building is called a vastupurusamandala. It is drawn as a grid, but read as a concentric series of square shapes20. These representations had two purposes. First of all the grid provided a rigid “structure” which could be used for meditation and obligatory rituals. And secondly it “hid” the true basis of the building21. In other words, the grid provided a basis for the initiated for locating the correct deities, while on the other hand the body of the vastupurusa wasn’t shown to non-initiated. That is also the reason why the grid isn’t applied in the same way in the different temples in South India22. The grid only functioned as a means of zoning23 the different deities in the temple. Because all the deities had a different quality or speciality the vastupurusamandala could also be used as a method for locating the different parts and functions of the building. For instance in the west the Lord of water, Varuna, ruled. For that reason it has been recommended to make the dining room, study room, or toilets in that part of the building24. 55 Brahma Figure 3 - The Vastupurusamandala25 Now the basics for the temple design have been explained. So it was possible for an architect to start designing. In South Indian temple design the architect most probably used several tools to design a building. Those will now be explained. Defining the groundplan There are different ways how the gnomon has been applied to design a temple. Michael W. Meister analysed how this scheme was used in the Gargaj Mahadeva temple at Indor in the north of India26 and that one will be used here to explain how that system could be applied to define the exterior walls of a temple. 56 Figure 4 - Indor, Dist. Guna, Madhya Pradesh. Gargaj Mahadeva temple from the southeast, ca. mid-eighth century A.D.27 After the gnomon was drawn the architect knew how to orientate the building. He then started using circles to do three kinds of things. 57 Step 1: The architect would use circles to construct the inner turned-squares. Step 2: The architect would use circles to construct the outer turned-squares. The combination of the two resulted in the basic plan of the building. 58 Step 3: Then the architect would use circles to define the width of the walls. All these steps resulted in the ground plan for the temple in Indor. 59 Going vertical - The temple as a house for the Gods The Vastupurusa forms the basis to locate the places of the Gods. Brahman is central in this picture and around him the other Gods are located. The temple itself was designed to house all these Gods and it was in another sense a manifestation of the universe28. The temple itself was made up of a collection of little houses, of various kinds and at various levels of order, from primary components to sculpture-sheltering niches29. Figure 5 - The main axes and Movement of a temple30 In a graphical sense this meant that a temple had its origin somewhere at the finial, or at an infinitesimal point above its tip, continuing downwards, and outwards from the vertical axis of the shrine, radiating all around, but especially in the four cardinal directions31. In this way the building is broad at the bottom and small at the top (Figure5)32. Movement is explicitly and illustrative portrayed through a number of mutually reinforcing architectural means33: Projection: Projection (throwing forward) of an embedded form suggests emergence, particularly if there is a sense of direction – forwards, sideways or diagonal. Staggering: Multiple projections create staggering, with offsets or step-like serrations. The stepped bulging of a surface, growing out in stages, suggests expansion (as in the staggered or expanding square plan). Multiple projection in conjunction with multiple embeddedness or interpenetration can convey a multiple emanation, either unidirectional, like the unfolding of a telescope, or in four or more directions. Closely serrated edges may create the impression that a form is vibrating, as if with inner energy. Splitting: Where an element is represented as having split down the middle, the two halves having moved apart, there is a sense that the space contained by the element expands on both sides. Another form revealed between a split pair will appear to emerge from the void. 60 Bursting of boundaries: A sense of the emergence and expansion of an enshrined form will be all the stronger if projection is accompanied by a penetration or overlap of the surrounding frame. Progressive multiplication: A transformation from unity to multiplicity is expressed by an expanding, proliferating pattern. A single element begins a sequence of rows in which the number of elements progressively increases. Expanding repetition: In a rhythmic series, the elements are all similar, but get progressively bigger. Pictorial representation: While all these means of conveying movement are to some extend representational, some kinds of depiction in a direct, pictorial way, are unquestionably so. Figure 6 - Some of the architectural means of portraying movement (See Hardy p112 and p113) This main form was then divided into a lot of small “houses” for the Gods (Figure7)34. These “houses” could give place to sculptures and these sculptures were no “decorative veneer”, but were an important part of the building. The enshrinement was the first purpose of the temple itself 35 and it was therefore essential to regard the sculptures as an embedded part of the building. 61 CHAPTER III Temples Vastu Shastra APTER I Origin of Vastu Shastra The origin of vaastushastra may have taken place well over thousands of years ago. The learned men of those days may not have lived in houses themselves but they most definately dedicated their lives to the developement of the science "vaastushastra" or "vaastu", as it is opularly known today. 62 The principles of the science laid down during those days were based purely on the effect of sunrays during different times of the day. The observations and corrections made were noted and concluded only after indepth screening of the situation. Vastu is a part of Vedas, which are believed to be four to five thousand years old. Through penance and meditation yogis of that period acquired answers believed to have come from the cosmic mind itself to their questions. Hence Vedas are heeded with divine knowledge. The art of Vastu originates in the Stapatya Veda, a part of the Atharva Veda. It used to be a purely technical subject and it was only confined to architects (Sthapatis) and handed over to their heirs. The principles of construction, architecture, sculpture etc., as enunciated in the epics and treatise on temple architecture, have been incorporated in the science of vastu. Its description is there in epics like Mataysya Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana, Garuda Purana, and Vishnu Purana. There are some other ancient shastras that pass over the knowledge of vastu shastra to next generation, like Vishvakarma Prakash, Samraangan Sutradhar, Kashyap Shilpshastra, Vrihad Sanhita, and Praman Manjaree. Proofs of vaastushastra can be found during the time of Ramayan and Mahabharat. Even in the cities of Mohanjodaro and Harappa the application of vaastushastra can be seen. Since the science goes far back to the times of Lord Rama and Lord Krishna there are many interesting mythological stories concering the origin of Vaastupurush (the deity). In the Mahabharata it is said a number of houses were built for the kings who were invited to the city Indraprastha for the Rajasuya Yagna of King Yuddhistira. Sage Vyasa says that these houses were as high as the peaks of Kailasa mountains, perhaps meaning that they stood tall and majestic. The houses were free from obstructions, had compounds with high walls and their doors were of uniform height and inlaid with numerous metal ornaments. It is said that the site plan of Ayodhya, the city of Lord Rama was similar to the plan found in the great architectural text Manasara. References are also to be found in Buddhist literature, of buildings constructed on the basis of Vastu. They contain references to individual buildings. Lord Buddha is said to have delivered discourses on architecture and even told his disciples that supervising the construction of a building was one of the duties of the order. Mention is made of monasteries (Viharas) or temples, buildings which are partly residential and partly religious (Ardhayogas), residential storeyed buildings (Prasadas), multi-storeyed buildings (harmyas) and Guhas or residential buildings for middle class people. The Vastu, with word meaning 'dwelling', is believed to be the residing places of god and man. According to its modern meaning it covers all buildings irrespective of their use like residences, industries, business establishments, lodges, hotels etc. It is based on the five basic 63 and essential elements, such as Vayu (air), Agni (fire), Jal (water), Bhumi (earth) and Aakasha (space), which are known as Panchabhutas. Everything on earth is built from these elements. One such story : Lord Shiva had killed a devil named Andhak after a long war which had continued for years. A spirit originated out of the perspiration of Lord Shiva and consumed all the blood from the body of the devil. His hunger was still not satisfied. He then undertook penance. Lord Shiva was impressed and highly satisfied by his penance and offered him a boon. The spirit then went wild and started eating men and animals. This terrified even the Gods in heaven. 81 Gods including Lord Bramha laid the spirit face down and they then sat on different parts of its body. When the spirit asked for forgiveness Lord Brahma offered him a boon: "After building any structure, the people who offer you prayers and worship you as vaastudevta will be blessed with pleasures and prosperity. However only those people, who do not offer you prayers shall be at your mercy and you may trouble them in any way". There is a possibility that these stories were added in the olden scripts only to scare people and make them conscious about the subject. The science of vaastushastra is however no mythological story and has stood the test of time for thousands of years. History of Vaastu The science of Vastu is considered an integral part of the Indian architecture. According to modern historians Ferguson, Havell and Cunningham, this science developed during the period of 6000 BC and 3000 BC. Being a technical subject, it was confined only to the architects (Sthapathis) and handed over verbally or in the form of hand-written monographs. The principles of construction, architecture and sculpture, as enunciated in the treatises on temple architecture, have been incorporated in the science of Vaastu. From ancient literature, we gather that Vaastu was treated as the science of construction of temples and royal palaces. Theories tracing links of the principles of composition in Vastu Shastra and the Indus Valley Civilization have been made, but scholar Kapila Vatsyayan is reluctant to speculate on such links given the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered.[16] According to Chakrabarti, Vastu Vidya is as old the Vedic period and linked to the ritual architecture.[17] According 64 to Michael W. Meister, the Atharvaveda contains verses with mystic cosmogony which provide a paradigm for cosmic planning, but they did not represent architecture nor a developed practice. Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita dated to the sixth century CE, states Meister, is the first known Indian text that describes "something like a vastupurusamandala to plan cities and buildings".[18] The emergence of Vastu vidya as a specialised field of science is speculated to have occurred significantly before the 1st-century CE. In the Matsya Purana, seventeen preceptors of Vaastu have been mentioned. They are Bhrugu, Atri, Vasista, Viswakarma, Maya, Narada, Nagnajit, Visalaksha, Purandara, Brahma, Kumaraswamy, Nandisa, Sounaka, Bhargava, Vasudeva, Anirudha, Sukra and Bruhaspathi. The first official treatise on Vaastu, the Kasyapa Silpa, has been attributed to Sage Kasyapa. In the treatise Agama Shastra, which explains the science of temples, Vaastu is considered as the basis for any type of construction. Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro also indicate the influence of Vaastu on the Indus Valley Civilization. Role of India India is the mother of vastu as our saints formulate principles of vastu here. Vastu was written down thousands of years ago where our sages kept in mind the effect of energies and sunlight and balance all the five elements in a manner to have the maximum benefit out of it. Vastu Shilpa Shastra, the ancient mystic science and the art of designing and constructing buildings finds its origin in Stapatya Veda, which in turns is a part of Atharvana Veda, one of 65 the four Vedas. According to modern historians Ferguson, Havell and Cunningham, this science developed during the period of 6000 BC and 3000 BC. Proofs of vaastu shastra can be found during the time of Ramayan and Mahabharat. In the cities of Mohanjodaro and Harappa the application of vaastu shastra can be seen. In the Matsya Purana, seventeen preceptors of Vaastu have been mentioned. These principles, called Vastu Shastra, were evolved over thousands of years out of experience and foresight of ancient Sages of India and are very valuable for the well being of mankind. According to Shastras, if we worship, revere and respect the lords of these eight directions, they will shower on us their blessings and benefits. Our saints have searched vastu shastra; we are only Researching it. Ayadi Calculations : Ayadi calculation is one of the most important part in Sthapatya Veda, Ayadi Calculation is also called as Ayadi Shadvarga or the Building formulae. The Scriptures as well as the ancient architects (Sthapatis) considered the dwellings as a living organism, irrespective of temple, residential homes, palaces etc. The knowledge of Ayadi is used by the designer to determine the effects of the physical structure on the individual. The homeowner is born under the influence of a particular birth star. The building is considered to be a living being and also has a birth star. Ayadi calculations attempt to harmonize the energies created by the influence of the birth star of the person and that of the building. When these energies are harmonized the dweller experiences material prosperity and spiritual well being. Ayadi is also said to be able to affect the fate of the individual. Like human beings, Vastu also has a horoscope. The Ayadi Shadvargas denote the horoscope of a Vaastu. It is the guiding formulae for the prosperity and well being of the inhabitants of the house. Here a master designer can change the horoscope of the artifact he designs, by giving due attention to the Ayadi Shadvarga formulae. Vastu Shastra is the traditional way of enhancing your luck by integrating architecture with Nature. Vastu is an important part as it attracts and allows positive energy to freely flow through the place. Aaya Prakaran is one of the most important parts of Vastu Shastra. The word Aaya means income. When you take up any land for construction “Aaya Prakaran” must be followed to get benefits and to achieve good results. 66 Vastu shastra (vāstu śāstra - literally "science of architecture is a traditional Indian system of architecture originating in India. Texts from the Indian subcontinent describe principles of design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial geometry Vastu Shastras incorporate traditional Hindu and (in some cases) Buddhist beliefs. The designs aim to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilising geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry, and directional alignments. Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya - the broader knowledge about architecture and design theories from ancient India. Vastu Vidya knowledge is a collection of ideas and concepts, with or without the support of layout diagrams, that are not rigid. Rather, these ideas and concepts are models for the organisation of space and form within a building or collection of buildings, based on their functions in relation to each other, their usage and the overall fabric of the Vastu. Ancient Vastu Shastra principles include those for the design of Mandir (Hindu temples), and the principles for the design and layout of houses, towns, cities, gardens, roads, water works, shops and other public areas. vāstu, takes the meaning of "the site or foundation of a house, site, ground, building or dwelling-place, habitation, homestead, house". The underlying root is vas "to dwell, live, stay, reside". The term shastra may loosely be translated as "doctrine, teaching". Vāstu-Śastras (literally, science of dwelling) are ancient Sanskrit manuals of architecture. These contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling. Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals of architecture, called Vastu Sastra. Many of these are about Hindu temple layout (above), design and construction, along with chapters on design principles for houses, villages, towns. The architect and artists (Silpins) were given wide latitude to experiment and express their creativity.[19] There exist many Vāstu-Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and cities. One such Vāstu Śastra is by Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples should be built. By 6th century AD, Sanskrit manuals for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in India. Vāstu-Śastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning,[ and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were 67 properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.[ The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramachandra Bhattaraka Kaulachara sometime in ninth or tenth century CE, is another Vāstu Śastra.[23] Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Natakastri compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa. Silpa Prakasa provides brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith[24] and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara[25] provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types. Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (literally, manual for planning and building a temple) with chapters on town building. Manasara shilpa and Mayamata, texts of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century AD, is a guidebook on South Indian Vastu design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India.[7][28] In north India, Brihatsamhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples.[19][29][30] These ancient Vāstu Śastras, often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple design, but do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple.[31] They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature. 68 The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Vastu Purusha Mandala layout for Hindu Temples. It is one of 32 Vastu Purusha Mandala grid patterns described in Vastu sastras. In this grid structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has significance.[7] The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana. Mandala "circle-circumference" or "completion", is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both Hinduism and Buddhism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala – in Pitha (9) and Upapitha (25) it occupies one square module, in Mahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36) and Manduka (64), four square modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine square modules.[33] The Pitha is an amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts, the central space is occupied by earth. The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric manner.[33] The most important mandala is the Manduka/Chandita Mandala of 64 squares and the Paramasaayika Mandala of 81 squares. The normal position of the Vastu Purusha (head in the northeast, legs in the southwest) is as depicted in the Paramasaayika Mandala. However, in 69 the Manduka Mandala the Vastu Purusha is depicted with the head facing east and the feet facing west. vastu directional chakara It is believed that every piece of a land or a building has a soul of its own and that soul is known as Vastu Purusha. A site of any shape can be divided using the Pada Vinyasa. Sites are known by the number of squares. They range from 1x1 to 32x32 (1024) square sites. Examples of mandalas with the corresponding names of sites include:  Sakala (1 square) corresponds to Eka-pada (single divided site)  Pechaka (4 squares) corresponds to Dwi-pada (two divided site)  Pitha (9 squares) corresponds to Tri-pada (three divided site)  Mahaapitha (16 squares) corresponds to Chatush-pada (four divided site)  Upapitha (25 squares) corresponds to Pancha-pada (five divided site)  Ugrapitha (36 squares) corresponds to Shashtha-pada (six divided site)  Sthandila (49 squares) corresponds to Sapta-pada (seven divided site)  Manduka/ Chandita (64 square) corresponds to Ashta-pada (eight divided site) 70  Paramasaayika (81 squares) corresponds to Nava-pada (nine divided site)  Aasana (100 squares) corresponds to Dasa-pada (ten divided site)  Bhadrmahasan (196 squares) corresponds to Chodah-pada (14 divided sites) Vāstu Śastra represents a body of ancient concepts and knowledge to many modern architects, a guideline but not a rigid code. The square-grid mandala is viewed as a model of organisation, not as a ground plan. The ancient Vāstu Śastra texts describe functional relations and adaptable alternate layouts for various rooms or buildings and utilities, but do not mandate a set compulsory architecture. Sachdev and Tillotson state that the mandala is a guideline, and employing the mandala concept of Vāstu Śastra does not mean every room or building has to be square. The basic theme is around core elements of central space, peripheral zones, direction with respect to sunlight, and relative functions of the spaces. The pink city Jaipur in Rajasthan was master planned by Rajput king Jai Singh and built by 1727 CE, in part around Vastu Shilpa Sastra principles. Similarly, modern era projects such as the architect Charles Correa's designed Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya in Ahmedabad, Vidhan Bhavan in Bhopal and Jawahar Kala Kendra in Jaipur, adapt and apply concepts from the Vastu Shastra Vidya. In the design of Chandigarh city, Le Corbusier incorporated modern architecture theories with those of Vastu Shastra. During the colonial rule period of India, town planning officials of the British Raj did not consider Vastu Vidya, but largely grafted Islamic Mughal era motifs and designs such as domes and arches onto Victorian-era style buildings without overall relationship layout. This movement, known as Indo-Saracenic architecture, is found in chaotically laid out, but externally grand structures in the form of currently used major railway stations, harbours, tax collection buildings, and other colonial offices in South Asia. Vāstu Śastra Vidya was ignored, during colonial era construction, for several reasons. These texts were viewed by 19th and early 20th century architects as archaic, the literature was inaccessible being in an ancient language not spoken or read by the architects, and the ancient texts assumed space to be readily available. In contrast, public projects in the colonial era were forced into crowded spaces and local layout constraints, and the ancient Vastu sastra were viewed with prejudice as superstitious and rigid about a square grid or traditional materials of construction. Sachdev and Tillotson state that these prejudices were flawed, as a scholarly and complete reading of the Vāstu Śastra literature amply suggests the architect is 71 free to adapt the ideas to new materials of construction, local layout constraints and into a non-square space. The design and completion of a new city of Jaipur in early 1700s based on Vāstu Śastra texts, well before any colonial era public projects, was one of many proofs. Other examples include modern public projects designed by Charles Correa such as Jawahar Kala Kendra in Jaipur, and Gandhi Ashram in Ahmedabad. Vastu Shastra remedies have also been applied by Khushdeep Bansal in 1997 to the Parliament complex of India, when he contented that the library being built next to the building is responsible for political instability in the country. German architect Klaus-Peter Gast states that the principles of Vāstu Śastras is witnessing a major revival and wide usage in the planning and design of individual homes, residential complexes, commercial and industrial campuses, and major public projects in India, along with the use of ancient iconography and mythological art work incorporated into the Vastu vidya architectures. Vastu and superstition The use of Vastu shastra and Vastu consultants in modern home and public projects is controversial. Some architects, particularly during India's colonial era, considered it arcane and superstitious. Other architects state that critics have not read the texts and that most of the text is about flexible design guidelines for space, sunlight, flow and function. Vastu Shastra is considered as pseudoscience by rationalists like Narendra Nayak of Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations. Scientist and astronomer Jayant Narlikar considers Vastu Shastra as pseudoscience and writes that Vastu does not have any "logical connection" to the environment.[2] One of the examples cited by Narlikar arguing the absence of logical connection is the Vastu rule, "sites shaped like a triangle ... will lead to government harassment, ... parallelogram can lead to quarrels in the family." Narlikar notes that sometimes the building plans are changed and what has already been built is demolished to accommodate for Vastu rules.[2] Regarding superstitious beliefs in Vastu, Science writer Meera Nanda cites the case of N. T. Rama Rao, the ex-chief minister of Andhra Pradesh, who sought the help of Vastu consultants for his political problems. Rama Rao was advised that his problems would be solved if he entered his office from an east facing gate. Accordingly, a slum on the east facing side of his office was ordered to be demolished, to make way for his car's entrance. The knowledge of Vastu consultants is questioned by Pramod Kumar (citation required), "Ask the Vaastu folks if they know civil engineering or 72 architecture or the local government rules on construction or minimum standards of construction to advise people on buildings. They will get into a barrage of "ancient" texts and "science" that smack of the pseudo-science of astrology. Ask them where they were before the construction boom and if they will go to slum tenements to advise people or advise on low-cost community-housing—you draw a blank." Architectural Tretises: Of the numerous Sanskrit treatises mentioned in ancient Indian literature, some have been translated in English. Many Agamas, Puranas and Hindu scriptures include chapters on architecture of temples, homes, villages, towns, fortifications, streets, shop layout, public wells, public bathing, public halls, gardens, river fronts among other things.[5] In some cases, the manuscripts are partially lost, some are available only in Tibetan, Nepalese or South Indian languages, while in others original Sanskrit manuscripts are available in different parts of India. Some treatises, or books with chapters on Vaastu Shastra include:  Manasara  Brhat samhita  Mayamata  Anka sastra  Aparajita Vāstu Śastra  Maha-agamas (28 books, each with 12 to 75 chapters)  Ayadi Lakshana  Aramadi Pratishtha Paddhati (includes garden design)  Kasyapiya  Kupadi Jala Sthana Lakshana  Kshetra Nirmana Vidhi (preparation of land and foundation of buildings including temples)  Gargya samhita (pillars, doors, windows, wall design and architecture)  Griha Pithika (types of houses and their construction)  Ghattotsarga Suchanika (riverfront and steps architecture)  Chakra sastra  Jnana ratna kosha  Vastu sarani (measurement, ratio and design layouts of objects, particularly buildings)  Devalaya Lakshana (treatise on construction of temples) 73  Dhruvadi shodasa gehani (guidelines for arrangement of buildings with respect to each other for harmony)  Nava sastra (36 books, most lost)  Agni Purana (Chapters 42 through 55, and 106 - Nagaradi Vastu)  Matsya Purana (Chapters 252 through 270)  Maya samgraha  Prasada kirtana  Prasada Lakshana  Tachchu sastra (primarily home design for families)  Manushyalaya Lakshana (primarily human dwelings)  Manushyalaya Chandrika  Mantra dipika  Mana kathana (measurement principles)  Manava vastu lakshana  Manasollasa (chapters on house layout, mostly ancient cooking recipes)  Raja griha nirmana (architecture and construction principles for royal palaces)  Rupa mandana  Vastu chakra  Vastu tattva  Vastu nirnaya  Vastu purusha lakshana  Vastu prakasa  Vastu pradipa  Vastu manjari  Vastu mandana  Vastu lakshana  Vastu vichara  Vastu Vidya  Vastu vidhi  Vastu samgraha  Vastu sarvasva  Vimana lakshana (tower design) 74  Visvakarma prakasa (home, roads, water tanks and public works architecture)  Vaikhanasa  Sastra jaladhi ratna  Silpa prakasa  Silpakala Dipika  Silpartha Śastra  Sanatkumara Vāstu Śastra  Samarangana Sutrad In Vastu Shastra, the formula of Aaya and Vargas need to be followed for scientific and accurate construction. There are Nine Vargas also known as Navavargas and the importance of each Varga is stated in the classical references such as Samarangana, Suthradhara, Mayamata, Aparajita Prucha, Kalarnrutha, Viswakarma Prakasika, Vasthusara, etc. The Vishwakarma Prakasika elaborates the Nine Vargas in detail. The name of Nine Vargas being Ayam, Varam, Amsa, Dhana, Runa, Nakshatra, Tidhi, Yuti, Ayuvu. There are also a variety of opinions and thus some classical texts state only about 6 Vargas being Aaya, Dhana, Vyaya, Tidhi, Vara, Nakshatra. There are eight types of Aaya’s representing each direction, namely:  Dhwaja - East  Dhumra - South East  Simha - South  Svana - South West  Gaja - North  Kaka - North East  Vrusha - West  Khara - North West The Aayas are best suited for the position or direction of which they are native off. The Aaya which is opposite to the native direction is always of the enemy character for the Native. The construction of the house/office/temple can be done in any of the four directions i.e. North, East, South, West but not in any corner. Effects of Aayas There are different effects of Aayas on different areas of life. Some of these effects are: 75  Dhwaja Aaya : Benefits related to money  Dhumra Aaya : Sorrows  Simha Aaya : Luxuries  Svana Aaya : Great Sins  Vrushbha Aaaya : Increase and accumulation of Wealth and gains  Gaja Aaya : Success in career prospects  Kaka Aaya : Death The main doors should be made facing the native side of the Aaya for the best and favourable results. For example, to attain favorable results from the Dhwaja Aaya the doors should not be constructed in the Western sides as the Native side of Dhwaja Aaya is east and thus it will be facing east. The Aayas have their own Swarups and lordships cast too. Simha Aaya is of the lion, Vrushabha Aaya is of bull, Gaja Aaya is of an elephant, Dhumra Aaya is a cat, Svana Aaya is a dog, Khara Aaya is of a donkey and whereas the kaka is of crow. Most of these Aayas have Masculine features, Bullock like features, elevated neck, hands which match human hands, features like bird feet and lion neck are also present, which are favourably considered. The Fifth Varga of the Native Varga should be avoided as it is considered as of enmity nature and does no good to Native Varga. The best Varga is always the Swa Varga (which means the Varga of its own) as it is favourable and always preferred. The effects of different Vargas from the Native Vargas are:  Swavarga : Dhana Labha, Monetary benefits.  Second Varga : Fewer Profits  Third Varga : Auspicious  Fourth Varga : Diseases  Fifth Varga : Enemical  Sixth Varga : Quarrelsome  Seventh Varga : All kinds of benefits  Eighth Varga : Death Amsa There are only three “Amsas” in the Aaya Prakarana: 76  Indramsa - It will present the status and happiness of a person.  Yamamsa - It will lead to death, sorrow and many diseases.  Rajasamsa - It will improve wealth and gains. The Mars and Sun of a house will result in threat from fire and the other houses will be favourable. Tithis : Among the Tithis, Rikta Tithi will cause poverty and Amavasya tithi will cause diseases of worms. Yogas : The bad Yogas of the 27 Yogas present will affect the owner with loss of wealth and gains. Ayuvu (Life Span) : When the lifespan of the house is based on arithematical calculations and the result is more than 60, then it is considered to be lucky and auspicious and if the result is less than 60, then it is considered to be inauspicious. Dikpati (Lord of Directions) : The remainder gives the following results as per the calculations :  Indra - Good for women  Agni - Threat from fire  Yama - Inauspicious  Nirti - Fear from enemies  Varuna - Increase cattle field  Vayu - Unsteadiness  Kubera - Increase of gains  Siva - Auspicious Method for Calculating Nava Vargas The first step for calculation of Nava Vargas is to know about the “Kshetripada”. This means the area for construction and is calculated by multiplying the length and breadth of the same. By multiplying and then dividing the Kshetripada, we get the Nava Vargas. The texts of Viswakarma Prakasika state the method in the following way: The Viswakarma Prakasika Method  Padam (length x width) x 9 (nava) /8 (naga) = Aaya 77  Padam (length x width) x 9 (amka) /7 (adri) = Vara  Padam (length x width) x 6 (amga) / 9 (nava) = amsa  Padam (length x width) x 8 (gaja) /12 (surya) = Dravyam  Padam (length x width) x 3 (vahni) /8(asta) = Runa (Debts)  Padam (length x width) x 8 (naga) / 27 (bha) = Nakshatra  Padam (length x width) x 8(asta) / 30 (Tidhi) = Tithi  Padam (length x width) x 7 (sagara) / 27 (Ruksha) = Yuti / Yoga  Padam (length x width) x 8 (naga) / 120 (Khabham) = Ayu (Life Span) The Kalamruta Method: The Kalamruta Method is as follows:  Padam x 8 / 12 = Dhanam (Income)  Padam x 3 / 8 = Runam (Debts)  Padam x 9 / 7 = Vara (The Week)  Padam x 6 / 30 = Tithi  Padam x 8 / 27 = Nakshatra  Padam x 9 / 8 = Ayam  Padam x 9 / 120 = Ayu (Life Span)  Padam x 6 / 8 = Amsa  Padam x 9 / 8 = Dikruti The Aaya (Income) should always be more than Vyaya (Expenditure). If Vyaya is more than Aaya, then the residents will always have financial problems. The Yoni Should always have a reminder in odd numbers i.e 1, 3, 5, 7. Refer the below Yoni table for benefits. Yoni Number Cardinal Direction Yoni Result 1 East Dhwaja (Flagstaff) 2 South-East 3 South Simha (Lion) 4 South-West Svanam (Dog) 5 West Vrshaba (Bull) Auspicious 6 North-West Kharam (ass) Inauspicious 7 North Gaja (Elephant) Auspicious 8 North-East Kakam (Crow) Inauspicious Dhooma (Smoke) 78 Auspicious Inauspicious Auspicious Inauspicious Yoni calculation is an important aspect in Ayadi calculation, based on the Yoni the direction of the plot & Building is decided. Dhwaja Yoni is considered the best Yoni in Sthapatya Veda. Another important point to be observed is that all the auspicious Yonis are in line with Cardinal direction of North, South, East & West. The Plot or the building with diagonal directions & entrance from North-East, South-East, South-West, North-West is inauspicious & hence rejected. Varam with 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 is auspicious There are 27 Nakshatras in Vedic astrology, the nakshatras with 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 as remainders are auspicious. Amsam or Quality with the remainder 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 is considered auspicious. The above calculations are performed by an expert Vaastu Sthapathis, before one starts construction of any form of the building, it is recommended that You consult an expert to attain both spiritual & material benefits. The construction of the house should be done with the help of Vastu Shastra and Aaya Prakaran being the most important part of Vastu Shastra must be considered. Aaya Prakaran will not only eliminate the negative energies but will also fill your house with positive vibrations and energy. Indian temples should be adhered to Vastu because it is the place of peace and harmony where people generally seek God’s grace to fulfill their wishes. There are many temples which are constructed with Vastu non-adherence and even it has been observed that such temples never prosper in terms of peace and other manner. Any improper orientation and construction of temple or shrine could bring mishaps with adverse effects. Vastu provides some prominent features that must be considered while constructing a temple.  Every shrine must be constructed facing East direction with entrance in the same. East direction is sacred in Vastu because sun rises from here which the sole energy giver and symbol of light. Therefore according to Vastu shrine should always be constructed East facing and entrance while the idols of God facing the appropriate direction as well.  Ensure that the plot of temple is regular shaped and avoid irregular shapes while constructing a shrine because shapes like triangular, circle or oval are prohibited & considered inauspicious.  Shoes keeping point in the temple should be best located in Southern side while drinking or water resource can be arranged in Eastern side. 79  A temple can have four main gates out of which two are ideal towards East and two in North. However if there is only one gate to the temple then best to have in East direction.  Avoid entrance gate in the South direction and main door must be huge and stronger than other gates of temple.  Provision for window should be made on Eastern side only.  Place for God’s idol must be higher than the ground and all the idols must placed in such way facing East while only Lord Hanuman, Lord Dakhinamurti and Goddess Kali can Face South.  Avoid building other residential o commercial places near or front of temple. The shadow of temple should not fall on the places around the temple.  Water storage must be located in North-east corner if under ground and over-head tank must be situated in South-west.  Kitchen in temple must be situated in South-east corner as this is the place for element Fire.  Charity box must be kept in East or North direction.  Temple best on the site where there is hill, sea, mountain lies in East or North direction. We have to take care of the following points while studying about the vastu of the temples. Vastu consultation of temple involves a thorough analysis.  The ideal place for the consecration of the temple.  The direction and placement of main entrance  The direction and placement of god's idol which is very important  The direction and placement of the windows  The direction and placement of the worshiping place  The direction and placement of place where the religious activities will take place. Vastu Introduction " VASTU SHASTRA " is a voluminous and scattered ancient indian literature dealing with knowledge of architecture, iconography and art relating to structures and buildings. It 80 comprise of independent works which are classified under the general heading of vaastu shastra. 81 The Historical Background: In the Vedic period, people built homes, temples and hermitages with a view to have a peaceful and harmonious living. But, in the modern world people build concrete clusters, mainly for the high rate of return. This race to make buildings not in line with the ancient bye laws of nature has led the world into pollution, environment and ecological problems with no peace of mind under any kind of shelter. Vastu Shilpa Shastra, the ancient mystic science and the art of designing and constructing buildings finds its origin in Stapatya Veda, which in turns is a part of Atharvana Veda, one of the four Vedas. Vedas are not new to the other parts of the world and there have been people of all levels who have appreciated the depth, inspirations and insight of Vedic thoughts for many years. Our saints knew various mysterious and mystics of this vast universe even before western scientist could start finding them out. One of the systems discovered by them was VASTU SHASTRA. SHASTRENANEN SARVASYA LOKASYA PARAM SUKHAM CHATURVERG PHALA PRAPTI SHLOKSHCH BHAVEDYUVAM SHLIP SHASTRA PARIGYAN MRITYOAPI SUJETAAM VRAJET PARMANAND JANAK DEVANAMI DIMIRITAM SHILP VINA NAHI JAGTISHU LOKESHU VIDYATE JAGAD VINA NA SHILPANCH VARTATE VASAU PRABHO Meaning – Because of VASTU SHASTRA, the whole universe gets good health, happiness and all round prosperity. Human beings attain divinity with this knowledge. Followers of VASTU SHASTRA get not only worldly pleasure but also experience heavenly bliss. With the above shloka, it is very much clear that VASTU SHASTRA is universal. It is not confined to any particular group of people in the development of all human being irrespective of any caste, creed or religion. Every creature in this world tries to arrange for a place in which to live comfortably, enjoying all the luxuries and happiness of this world getting maximum benefits of heavenly boons. Every one is aspirant of having sound health, beautiful wife, healthy children, wealth, means of earning through business, profession or state service, high reputation in society and over all mental and spiritual peace. The sea animals and amphibians prepare a dwelling place on 82 the sea shore, the birds build nests in the trees, the insects make a hive, and human beings are ambitious of making a house on the earth where all the liabilities towards this world and towards heaven can be fulfilled without any disturbance and trouble. Therefore, aware of the need of a house and in order to avoid troubles, man wants to construct a house on such a ground where he can feel all sorts or happiness and can lead a peaceful life free of troubles and enemies, thereby deriving spiritual peace. With this aim in his mind he sets out in search of the learned wise persons who can guide him in selection of a site (plot) of his choice, and also in construction of the house. He wants to know the proper auspicious time, and principles (laws) of construction of the house. Also he has in mind the colony or city, neighborhood, sources of water, natural environment, means of transport, etc. while selecting a plot for building a house, at the same time he thinks of his own interests and profits. The external features of the plot can be known with the help of persons living around or nearby the flat. But the quality and nature of the land can be judged only by Shastra. Therefore the selection of a site and the plan of the building is materialised only after consultation and seeking advice of expert astrologer and Vastu Specialist. There are saying like Nadi Shotriyo Raja Devagyo Na Chikitasak Tatra Vaso Na Kartavaya A place where there is no river (Source of water - pond or well etc.), scholar, astrologer, ruler and medical expert, should not be selected for living thereon, it should be rejected. Dushta Bharya Shath Mitra Bhratiyaschottar Dayak; Sasarpe Ch Grahey Vaso Mirturev Na Sanshaya. If there is house in which lives an unfaithful wife, a foolish friend , an outspoken servant and a snake, the owner of such a house may die any moment. If such things are associated with the house constructed by some one, the life of the inmates becomes troublesome and unhappy, and there is always a fear of death. Therefore everyone is curious to know as to what is Vaastu Shastra, and what principles and methods regarding construction of buildings have been given by the ancient saints and seers on the basis of their experience and commands in the divine scriptures. With the help of Vaastu Shastra and Shilpshastra, knowledge about the better and auspicious way of construction of a house, the positions and direction of gates, doors and rooms etc. in it, is gained so that a house may be built which will provide all round prosperity and happiness to the inmates. Thus Vastu Shastra provides some principles and rules on the guidelines of 83 which suitable and comfortable buildings for residence, temples etc. are built and towns, colonies are planned. Originators The Ancient Science of Indian Architecture had become an unknown subject for the present day generation. Although, it had been described in great details by past masters; the present generation does not have even the basic knowledge about its fundamentals. Few thumb rules have been in propogation casually here and there in their distorted versions and are treated by common man as superstitions and are practised by the so-called faithhealers in the name of vibrations out of the sixth sense and what more injustice can be there to such a great science? Roots of Indian Architecture : Every living being in the Universe desires to get rid of the adversities and troubles and wants to avail the various comforts and happiness of life. During that course every creature, right from the smallest insect upto the human being wants to have a comfortable dwelling place where it can live happily. Man, being the most advanced living being in nature, his dwelling place too should be the best among all. This need of a comfortable dwelling place, known as "house", alongwith other requirments of life was very well identified by our forefathers long back and India has the honour of being the first country in the world to boast of the origin of this "Science of House Building", known as Vaastu Shastra. Shri Maithilisharan Gupta, a noted Hindi poet has written in Bharat - Bharati: When the entire world was in its infancy! We, the Indians, were old enough in the knowledge of almost 84 all the subjects of life. When others were wandering in the forest without even clothes, we were living in palatial houses seemingly touching the moon in the sky. Whatever knowledge is spread in the world, we are major contributors to it. If our ancestors had not laid down the tracks of growth with their knowledge, science would not have grown in the world. The mysteries about which the rest of the world was ignorant, we had unfolded them all in our country Hindustan. Originators, Teachers And Preachers : According to the ancient literature, there had been the following eighteen (18) originators, teachers and preachers of Vaastu Shastra : 1. Brahma 2. Narada 3. Brihaspati 4. Bhrigu 5. Vashishtha 6. Vishwakarma 7. Maya 8. Atri 9. Garg 10. Kumar 11. Nandish 12. Nagnajita 13. Vishalaksha 14. Purandara 15. Shaunakh 16. Vasudev 17. Anirudh 18. Sukra Not only houses, but temples, palaces, forts, market places, army buildings, horse stables and buildings for keeping different domestic animals were all used to be constructed on the principles of Vaastu Shastra. 85 Everything in this world is made of five fundamental elements - Earth, Water, Fire, Wind and Sky. Principles of Vaastu Shastra are mainly dependent on the arrangement of; five essential elements of the world i.e. Earth, Water, Fire, Air; sky in their proper order and proportions to have better living conditions in a building. There is a correlation and a complex pattern relating to human behaviour and built environment around him. Various unseen forces affect human body vertically, horizontally, diagonally and perpendicularly. For example :  Sun Energy  Lunar Energy from the moon  Magnetic Energy  Gravitational Energy  Molecular Energy  Fire Energy  Wind Energy  Microwave Energy  Electrical Energy  Light Energy  Sound Energy Vastu Purush Mandal : The word " VAASTU " has been derived from ' VASTOSHPATI ' used in ' Rig Veda ' and is meant to provide protection, hapiness and prosperity in this life as well as after death. Rig Veda says : VASTSHPART PRATI JATI HACHASMAN TVAVESHO ATBHIVO BHAVATAH | YAT TVAMEH PRATI NATRO JUSHSVSHAN NO BHAV DVIPAD SHA CHATUSHPADE || It is prayer to Vaastu purusha and means : Oh God of structures and building, we are your devotees. Listen our prayer, make us free of disease, give wealth and prosperity, help the well being of all persons and animals living in the house. Vastu Purusha is present in each and every plot whether it is big or small. He has a fixed and peculiar body. His head remains hanging down and his body is spread all over the length and 86 breadth of the ground. There is an interesting story in the MATSYA PURANA in which the birth of the Vastu Purusha is narrated. By reading that story one knows why the worship of the Vastu Purusha is necessary before beginning constructing any house. While fighting with the demon, Shiva was very much tired and began to sweat profusely. A man was born of the drops of Shiva’s sweat. He looked very cruel. He was very hungry. So he began to make penance to appease Lord Shiva and get a boon from Him. Shiva was pleased with his penance and appeared before him. The devotee prayed to Shiva, “Oh Lord! Please permit me to eat away all the three worlds.” Shiva said, “Let it be so.” The devotee’s joy knew no bounds. He got possession on all the three worlds and first he was ready to eat the terrestrial world. Then the celestial beings, Brahma, Shiva and the demons (Rakshasas) also were terrified and caught hold of the devotee encircling him. 87 Forty-five celestial beings, out of whom 32 from without and 13 from within caught hold of the devotee. The Thirty-two celestial beings are : (1) ISH/SIKHI (2) PARJANYA (3) JAYA/JAYANTA (4) INDRA (5) SURYA (6) SATYA (7) BHRISHAM (8) AKASH (9) AGNI (10) PUSHA (11) VITATHA (12) GRIHAKSHAT (13) YAMA (14) GANDHARVA (15) BRINGARAJA (16) MRIGA (17) PITRA (18) NANDI (19) SUGRIVA (20) PUSHPADANTA (21) VARUNA (22) ASURA/DAITYA (23) SESHA (24) YAKSHMA (25) ROGA (26) NAGA (27) MUKHYA (28) BHALLATA (29) SOMA/KUBER (30) SAILA/BHUJANG/SARPA (31) ADITI and (32) DITI. All these 32 celestial beings are out of the limits of the devotee whereas the following 13 Beings are within his limits: (1) BRAHMA (2) RUDRA (3) INDRAJAYA (4) APAVATSA (5) MARICHI (6) SAVITRI (7) VIVASWAN (8) VISHNU (9) MITRA (10) SAVITA (11) PRITHVIDHARA (12) RUDRA and (13) APA. These celestial Beings laid force on the different limbs of the devotee and sat on them as shown below: ISH (AGNI) – head; APA - face; PRITHWI DHARA; ARYAM - Chest; AVANTSA - heart; DITI; INDRA - Shoulders; SURYA; SOMA - Hands; RUDRA; RAJAYAKSHMA - left arm; SAVITRA; SAVITA - right arm; VIVASWAN; MITRA - Stomach; PUSHA; ARYAMA Wrist; ASUR; SESHA - left side; VITATHA; GRAHAKSHAT - right side; YAMA; VARUNA - Thighs; GANDHARVA; PURAMADAN - on the knees; SUGRIV; BHRISH shanks; DWARIKA; MRIGA - ankles; JAYA; SHAKRA - on the hairs grown on the feet; BRAHMA - on the heart. Being bound like that, the devotee lay down there only. Since then, he has been lying there surrounded by the celestial Beings and thus he was called “the God of Vastu or VASTU PURUSHA”. You will be known as ‘VASTUPURUSHA’. You will tease the people, to your heart’s content, who construct buildings and temples, dig wells and tanks on the side towards which you see and in the direction towards which you hold your feet. You may trouble and even devour those people who construct the aforesaid buildings and temples etc. In the direction where you lay your head and back and those who lay foundation stone without worshipping you or without satisfying you with ‘Homa’ and the like. Then the Vastu Purusha was quite satisfied. Since then the worship of Vastu-Purusha has been in vogue and it has become compulsory for those who want to construct any kind of building. 88 Vastu Purusha, being arrested like this, said to the Gods, “Oh, Celestial Beings! you have all caught hold of me and tied me on all the sides. How long shall I be like this, in this position hanging my head down like a prisoner? What shall I eat?” Listening to those words, the celestial Beings said, “Today is Bhadrapada Shukla Triteeya Saturday and ‘Visakha Star’; So you lie down here on the ground changing your position once in three months, i.e. from ‘Bhadrapada’ to ‘Kartik’ you lie down putting your head in the Eastern direction and your feet towards the West. During the months of ‘Margashira’, ‘Pushyam’ and ‘Magha’, you lie down towards the South looking towards the West and put your feet towards the North; during the months of ‘Phalgun’, ‘Chaitra’ and ‘Vaisakh’ put your head towards the West and feet towards the East, looking towards the North; in the months of ‘Jyeshtha’, ‘Ashadha’ and ‘Sravana’, put your head towards the North and the feet towards the South and look towards the East. Whatever side you may turn, you will have to lie down on the left side only. Results of Doors in 32 Padas 1. Ish / Shikhi (NE2) - Fear of fire 2. Parjanya (NE3) - More of a girl child. 3. Jayant (E1) - Good profit of money or wealth 4. Indra (E2) - Get royal pleasure or happiness 89 5. Surya (E3) - More increase anger 6. Satya (E4) - More telling lies 7. Bhrusha (E5) - More cruelty 8. Akash (SE1) - Fear of theft. 9. Anil (SE2) - Less children 10. Pusha (SE3) - Lead to servitude. 11. Vitatha (S1) - Lead to meanness 12. Gruhakshata (S2) - Money and prosperity 13. Yama (S3) - Increase in fear of death 14. Ghandharva (S4) - Causes poverty 15. Bhringraj (S5) - Government lead problems 16. Mrig (SW1) - Problems to children 17. Pitra (SW2) - Short life and poverty 18. Dauwarik (SW3) - More expenditures. 19. Sugreeva (W1) - Loss of money. 20. Pushpadant (W2) - Increase in money. 21. Varun (W3) - Increase in luck or happiness. 22. Asura (W4) - Fear of royalty. 23. Shosha (W5) - Increase in money and illness. 24. Paapyakshma (NW1) - Illness and accumulation of sin. 25. Rog (NW2) - Fear of fights and conflicts. 26. Naag (NW3) - More enemies in relatives. 27. Mukhaya (N1) - Gain in male child and money. 28. Bhallat (N2) - Gain of wealth or prosperity. 29. Som (N3) - Male child and wealth. 30. Bhunjang(N4) - Enmity with the son. 31. Aditi (N5) - Wickedness in ladies. 32. Diti (NE1) - Becomes poor. AHMEDABAD: The Gujarat high court had ruled in 2011 that religious structures cannot be built on land which has permission for a residential building only. The court made it clear that without prior permission from the civic and police authorities, a religious building cannot be constructed in a residential colony. The court was dealing with a case, where the construction of a Jain temple on a plot 90 of Vasantkunj Society in Paldi was objected to by a couple of residents of the colony. Upon the court order, AMC asked one Ratnayatri Aradhana Bhavan Trust to first stop and then remove construction of Aradhana Bhavan, as the building was being constructed without due permission under the municipal corporation's laws. The trust also approached the court against AMC's action, but the court was of the opinion that General Development Control Regulations (GDCR) make a clear distinction between residential buildings and religious buildings. "Residential buildingswill not attract crowds, but at the same time, community buildings, may be for any purposes, like a community or marriage hall, recreational club or religious building, attract crowds. Parking space is provided to be 15% of maximum permissible FSI in residential buildings, whereas in the matter of community buildings it is 50% of a building unit. It is at this juncture that two uses of a building make a difference," the court opined. The court further made it clear that till the time the structure is used as residential building for sadhus and sadhvis, there cannot be any breach of regulations. But if it is used as a religious building and attracts crowds on a regular basis, it is a breach of regulation. After Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation assured the court that it would take all necessary action in this regard, the court disposed of the plea objecting to construction of the temple. However, the court also directed AMC to grant an opportunity to the trust to present its case and take a decision only after hearing the religious body. Temple Vastu: vastu originated as architectural science in India, but nowadays the vastu SOPs are being sold as troubleshooter remedies.Indian predictive sciences /remedies are offshoots of astrology. Theory of Indian Temple Architecture & Hindu Vastushastra A house is designed considering the requirements of the person staying in it. Similarly a temple needs to be designed according to comfort of its resident, the main God, other Deities along with him and devotees. Being the residence of almighty, a temple has deep-rooted religious feelings attached to it; hence every corner has to be designed with extra care. The Hindu scripter, ancient saints have deep study of the five main aspects (Abhutas) of the universe. They are 1) Sky (Brahmand) 2) Fire (Agni, the Sun) 3) Air 4) The Earth (Prithvi) and 5) Water. 91 They had no binoculars, but they had detailed knowledge of the constellation of stars (Nakshatras), Directions (Disha) and their effects on whole world and even on each human being. These Saints have detailed guide lines for designing every corner of the temple along with religious as well as scientific explanation for the same. It starts with main deity for whom temple is made. The direction of where the main entrance varies from deity to deity. East side direction entrance is best for most of the deities. Second choice is west or north, but not south. Gods like Shree Kali Mata prefers south side entrance only. Shree Hanuman, (a son of Air) has no problem with any direction. He will be more powerful at facing south direction. Not even the entrance but the size of temple depends on constellation of stars (Nakshatra) at particular direction. And depending on that, there is list of permissible sizes of the temple specified by the Vastu Shastra. Every Nakshatra has different list of sizes. The sizes are given in ancient units, which can be converted in to feet (British System) easily. It can be converted again in meters (metric system). It also decides sizes of rooms of all deities (Garbha Griha), heights / sizes of plinth, columns, slabs, Parikrama and even square area of the temple. We still have our associate gurus (guides) who give us all the supporting information and guidance. It is always protected by all main four deities of the four directions as follows1) Shree Indra (king of Gods) at East, 2) Shree Varuna (God of rain, water) at west, 3) Shree Kubera (God of wealth) at north 4) Shree Yama (God of death) at south. Besides giving the temple a typical look, the style of providing offsets to walls and domes (Shikhara) have structural advantage. It gives support to tall dome which can stand for long period even during earth quake. The angles, sizes and proportions of these offsets are also specified. There are many aspects like these in Temple Vastu Shastra which are written in various ancient Granthas (Ancient holy books of Hindu religion) separately. We better follow these aspects while designing a temple for every deity. Vastu For Temples The aim of human life is to wish for the welfare of all while carrying on the responsibilities of worldly deeds. For all sorts of good deeds, towards the family and other people, for inspiration and performances, all deeds are closely related to building a house. For 92 benevolence point of view every one should contribute and co-operate with the government bodies in the plans of constructing and managing Dharam-shalas, well, pond temple, grains depot etc., and also such deeds should be performed individually by everyone. In olden times, rich and wealthy persons had been materialising such plans under the culture and religious activities in our country. In modern period also educational institutions Dharamashala, Rain Basera (overnight camp), water hut, temple, etc. are constructed and are managed for the benefit of common people by donors and wealthy persons in the society. Welfare of all is possible only when every one in this world bears the responsibility of carrying on the business of the world by his good deeds thinking the supremacy of the creator of this world in himself. Objective of the man in this life is not only the welfare of himself and the family, but also everyone has to earn reward for good deeds (Punya) such as construction of temple etc. for which he receives in return fame and growth of family; other people also get inspiration from such noble deeds for benevolence. There are so many ways of benevolent deeds. Construction of temple, well or ponds for drinking water for the public, Dharamshala etc. are some important deeds. Vastu Shastra has described the importance and types of such works. Those who get a temple constructed at a beautiful site, where there are lush gardens and sufficient water in wells, ponds etc. for the sake of enhancement of religion and fame, will definitely gain heavenly pleasure. The land of construction of a temple should be tested; only such land is good and auspicious for construction of a house; selection should therefore be made as per directives given for selection of site elsewhere in this book. For construction of temple, Vaastu-pad of sixty four squares should be made. Main gates should be constructed in the centre of all the four sides, which is auspicious. Half of the breadth should be kept for the Garbhgriha (Central room where idol is to be placed). All round the Grabhagrih, on hath (cubit) wide path should be provided for circumambulation (Parikrama) and then the wall be constructed around it. One fourth of the breadth of Garbhgrih should be the width of the door. Height of the door should be twice the width of door. The temple or place of worship should be in the north-east portion of the building. This is the best direction for worship and prayers according to Vastu Shastra. Though all the directions are good and auspicious by the grace and kindness of the supreme God, but self- 93 satisfaction and spiritual peace is obtained only from prayers offered in the north-east direction. In south India even today we find the live proofs of temples constructed as per principles of Vaastu Shastra. These are strictly in conformity with the principles laid down in Indian culture and Vaastu Shastra. Buildings which have been constructed after proper auspiciousness of the land etc. are famous and popular throughout the world. Takshshila University, Mohenjodaro, Taj Mahal, Several palaces and temples in India have a prominent place in the art of Vaastu not only in India, but in the whole world. In South the Tirupati Balaji temple, Rameshwaram temple, Meenakshi temple in Madurai, Vivekanand memorial in Kanyakumari, Jagannath temple in Puri, Badrikasram in the north, Kamakshyadevi temple in Assam, Vishwanath temple in Varanasi, are some such places where people feel mental and spiritual peace as desired. Whether it be a temple of a well, pond etc. or a house, it is the proper selection of land and direction etc. and construction at proper and auspicious time (muhurt) according to the principles of Vaastu Shastra, that it's fame spreads far and wide even after thousands of years have passed. Those buildings which have become by Vaastu-Shanti and Vaastu Pooja. It is good and auspicious to do so, as it will remove default regarding Vaastu if any from that building. North-East direction is very important in the construction of a building. This direction should be very well considered. No large and heavy rooms or materials should be kept in this portion. The owners cannot progress if they do so, nor can the inmates develop and flourish. If this portion is extended outwards and open, it provides all happiness, mental and spiritual peace prosperity and progress. North-East direction is best for offering prayers to God, so temple or Pooja room should be made in this direction and it is auspicious to offer prayers and worships sitting face towards east or north. Dakshinayan and Uttarayan must be considered for consecration of idols. It is auspicious to establish and consecrating the idols of Shiva ling in the month of Shravan, of goddess Durga (Bhagwati Jagadamba) in Ashwin, and lord Vishnu in Margshirsh. Gods having hot temper, such as Bhairav, Narsingh, and Mahishasur Mardini Durga should be established and consecrated in the period of Dakshinayan and those of calm noble temper in the period of Uttarayan. The day, date (tithi), Paksh (fortnight), constellation, Lagna etc. should also be considered for the purpose. 94 Actor Will Smith is a Hindu Religious Vaastu - Temples  We find that in many ancient temples these rules are observed. That is why people have faith in those places. They are considered potent by devotees and they make sacred vows at these places and find that there vows are fulfilled. These effects are observed to a lesser degree in some other temples.  The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the east and the north direction should be in the north-east corner.  The priest should not live in any of the rooms in the temple complex. He should live outside the temple premises otherwise, he will have to face a lot of difficulties.  The sanctuary, the height of the idol, kind of stone of which the idol is made and its colour, the height of the lap from the ground on which the idol is placed, the height of the pinnacle and the metal used for the pinnacle, the height of the discourse hall, number of pillars used for this hall, their colours etc. should be carefully studied from the viewpoint of Vastushastra.  The height of the discourse hall in from of the temples should be less than the height of the main temple. The stage should be to the west of the hall.  Fountains or lotus ponds in front of the temple should be in the north-east direction.  Before entering the temple premises, on the south side, there should be an arrangement for keeping shoes and to the east arrangements should be made for water to drink and to wash the feet and hands etc. The bathrooms should be in the east. Toilets should be outside the temple premises. 95  In front of the idol, outside the temple, on the left side the victory tower should be situated. It should not be in the north-east direction. Deepstambha (pillar for light), Agnikund (earthern pot in which the fire is built) and Homkund (Pit for sacred fire) etc. should be in the south-east corner.  After the construction of the temple is completed with due regards to the favorable constellations, time and day, the idol should be installed. The installation of the idol and the raising of the pinnacle should be done simultaneously. The world famous, wealthy and a place of faith for infinite no of devotees, Tirupati Balaji temple is one of the finest examples of Vastushastra. Different logical arguments and spiritual analysis are made about the Balaji mandir. Tirupati Balaji is an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. There was a clash between Lord Vishnu and Laxmi. As a result Lord Vishnu appeared in his new incarnation as Tirupati Balaji at Tirumala Hills in Andhra Pradesh. Laxmi appeared at Mahalaxmi in Kolhapur in Maharashtra. Balaji married with Goddess Padmavati. At this time Varahswami was the Guru of Tirupati Balaji. The marriage of Tirupati Balaji was a very expensive affair. At that time Balaji took a big loan from Kuber. For paying off this debt, infinite number of devotees of Balaji are making their contribution in the pot placed at Kubersthan in the northern direction of the temple in the form of cash, gold and other valuables. Bajaj on his part for paying of the debt of these devotees helps them in the prosperity of their business.  If the temple premises there are smaller temples of other Gods, only the temple of Lord Hanuman & the Goddess Kali can have face towards the south.  No parking arrangement should be made in the temple premises. It should be out side the temple in the east or the north side.  There should be no fan in the sanctuary of the idol. This spoils the magnetic environment.  For building religious Vastu temple, first of all, it is necessary to choose the proper site.  The plot of the temple should be square of rectangular in shape. The magnetic northsouth poles of the plot should be parallel. This means that the four major directions, the east, the west, the north and the south should meet the plot parallely and not in the corner.  Compound wall around the temple in all the four directions is very essential. Entrance gate on the east side of the compound wall is the best. Entrance gate on the north side is tolerable. It is very auspicious to have four entrance gates to the main temple 96 building. At least one in the east and one in the north if there are two gates and if there is only one it should be in the east. Only it should not be in the south direction. The main entrance gate should be taller than other doors and should be decorated.  The sight of the principal idols stare in the temple should be trained on the seventh part of the door if the door is divided into nine parts. No building, office, electric pole, tree, shed etc. should come from the idol’s stare. There can be entrance gate or road in this direction.  The orchestra should be in the north-west direction of the hall. The colour of the pillars and the flooring of the hall should be white, yellow or light saffron.  There should be a window to the east of the sanctuary such that sunrays fall unobtrusively on the idol from 6 a.m. to 9 a.m. There should be no room behind the sanctuary. There should be arrangement for circumambulation around the temple and the sanctuary.  There should be no place for breaking coconuts in the sanctuary. Water from the coconut should not be sprinkled on the idol. The place for breaking the coconut should be outside the temple in the east or the north leaving the north-east corner.  The sanctuary of the main God should be at a higher level from the ground. The devotees should not touch the idol. No one except the Pujari (Worshipper of idol) should enter the main octagonal part of the sanctuary.  If such places are situated on a tall hill or mountain, the population is thin. This helps in maintaining the austerity of the God. The shadow of the temple should not fall on other buildings. In front of the temple there should be no building of any type. These objectives are fulfilled on a hill or mountain.  Marriage ceremony and any other ceremony should not be performed in the temple premises. If at all they are performed, it should be in the open space around the temple in the west or in the south side.  By dividing this place into four equal parts the main structure of the temple with Subhamandap (lecture-hall) should be in the south-west part. Godowns and shops should be in the north-west part, Water storage tanks, wells etc. should be in the north-east part, Kitchen, rest houses etc. should be in the south-east portion.  In the open space surrounding the temple Basil plant with raised bed should be in the east, Jasmine, White Champak, Star Coral plants etc. should be in the north-west corner or the east. Four approach roads are very useful. Charity boxes or pots in the 97 temple should be in the east or the north. The divine gift place should be in the east or the north-east.  The bell should not be in the sanctuary. It should be outside the sanctuary. There should be no microphones, speakers or any other electrical equipment in the sanctuary. They can be outside the sanctuary. Around the chief idol in the sanctuary there should be square, rectangular octagonal or circular construction or pillars. The pillars or the construction should not be hexagonal.  If there is a sea, river, tank, take etc. in the east or the north direction, such a plot is, the best place. Because of this, there is natural slope in the east or the north directions. 98 CHAPTER IV Earth’s magnetic fields and Temple Construction and Location Temples are found deliberately at a place where the positive energy is available bundantly from the the magnetic and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push. The idol of God is set in the core center of the temple, known as “Garbhagriha” or Moolasthanam”. Ideally, the structure of the temple is built after the idol has been placed in a high positive wave centric place. This *moolasthanam* is the place where earth’s magnetic waves are discovered to be most extreme. There are Millions of temples all over India (and also across the world considering Hindu Temples in Bangladesh and other parts too) in Various Locations, Shapes, Sizes and of Different Gods with different customs and worships. But All those Temples are Not constructed in Vedic Way Following Our Ancient Indian Hindu Temple Principles ( Following scientific reasons).In a modern world like ours in these days, we can’t find a Most Suitable free location(without any constructions) in cities and In some cases it takes too much time for people in some locations to travel to Temples Constructed in Vedic ways(Like in Metro Cities). But out of the respect ,love and belief we started constructing temples in our neighbourhood (smaller & Bigger) depending on the Area available So that We can visit Temples Frequently and Worship God. Where a Temple Should Be Constructed/Located? A Temple should be Constructed/Located in a Place Where the Earth’s Magnetic Wave Path Passes Through Densely. These Places can be anywhere. Like in the Outskirts of a 99 City/Town/Village Or in The middle of most populated/Residential locations or on a hill top/in a cave or on a small island in the middle of a river. There is Science involved in Every Part of Our Life even in selecting the location for the construction of temple which now a days we’re neglecting for various reasons though. The Temples are(Should be) constructed in a Place Where The Positive Energy Is abundantly available from The Magnetic and Electric Wave Distributions of North/South Pole Thrust. The Main Idol Of God is Placed In the center of this location (obviously where we construct the) Core Center of Temple Known as “Garbha Gudi”/”Garbhagriha” / “Moolasthanam”. The Thing Most of Us Don’t Know is the Temple Structure is Build After the Idol Location is Confirmed and Placed. The Core Center of Temple is the Place where the Magnetic waves are found to be maxium. We all Know that Copper Plates inscribed with Vedic Scripts(Shlokas) will be buried Beneath The main IDOL. They absorbs the Earth’s Magnetic Waves and Radiates It to the surroundings. Thus a Person Who Regularly Visits Temples and Walking clockwise around the Main Idol (around Garbhagruha) receives the Beamed Magnetic Waves and Her/His Body absorbs it. This is a very Slow Process. Visit the Temple Frequently will let us absorb more of this positive energy. Scientifically It is the Postive Energy we all Need to Have a Health Life. 100 This shows how much science is involved in our everyday life in Hindu Culture. There’s a lot of science and technology involved in ancient temples construction which not only effects on our life style but also proves how superior our ancestors are in terms of knowledge.As no dates are available as to when the 1st temple and where it was built be it any idol worship temple. whether it being the coptic pharoahs of egypt , assiyre temples of middle east the destruction of idols and temples at Palymra in Syria by isis a month back or the hindoo temples including buried temples post destruction or natural decay. Norwegian and German archeologist using satellite mapping radars to probe beneath the earth at ramjanambhoomi/babri ram temple in Ayodhya of India not to be mistaken as the ancient capital of Siam present day Thailand, Laos, Cambodia also called ayudhya. found beneath a jain temple a surya temple in addition 2 ram temple. these are part of ram temple high court judgement of thousands of pageshaving said / stated this info, the scientific reason was that temple was to be the highest structure including gates the gopurams in south india where the top had metal kalsh/symbol which served as lightning conductor that protected the temple and the people in temple from lightning , bells were sounded to gather the village inhabitants to rush to temple in storms thunderin order to protect man and animal cows horses etc from nature. Copper weakns magnetic field. If we consider earth magnetic field as time varient there is no production of flux at all. lithography plate from James Fergusson's "Ancient Architecture in Hindoostan" (1847) showing part of the main tower still standing 101 A temple is a miniature cosmos comprised of the five elements and a presiding deity. A temple is an outgrowth of the deity which has its own independent intelligence and from which energy is constantly radiating. Essentially, temples were designed to be spaces where the mind spontaneously moves within and meditation happens effortlessly. Every aspect of the temple, from the architecture to the rituals to the kinds of worship offered, has been consciously created to make this experience happen Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field that extends from the Earth's interior out into space, where it interacts with the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. The magnetic field is generated by electric currents due to the motion of convection currents of a mixture of molten iron and nickel in the Earth's outer core: these convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core, a natural process called a geodynamo. The magnitude of the Earth's magnetic field at its surface ranges from 25 to 65 microteslas (0.25 to 0.65 gauss). As an approximation, it is represented by a field of a magnetic dipole currently tilted at an angle of about 11 degrees with respect to Earth's rotational axis, as if there were an enormous bar magnet placed at that angle through the center of the Earth. The North geomagnetic pole, which was in 2015 located on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada, in the northern hemisphere, is actually the south pole of the Earth's magnetic field, and conversely. While the North and South magnetic poles are usually located near the geographic poles, they slowly and continuously move over geological time scales, but sufficiently slowly for ordinary compasses to remain useful for navigation. However, at irregular intervals averaging several hundred thousand years, the Earth's field reverses and the North and South Magnetic Poles respectively, abruptly switch places. These reversals of the geomagnetic poles leave a record in rocks that are of value to paleomagnetists in calculating geomagnetic fields in the past. Such information in turn is helpful in studying the motions of continents and ocean floors in the process of plate tectonics. The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earth's magnetic field in space. It extends several tens of thousands of kilometers into space, protecting the Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Scientists have long known that turtles, birds, honeybees 102 and even bacteria can sense the earth’s magnetic field and use them for navigation. But this is a scientific reason behind the geography and architecture of temples. Their choice of explanation makes you feel that it is very scientific — they cleverly use appealing scientific words like energy, vibration, magnetic field and electric field, amongst others. The most persistent rumour is that temples were purposely constructed at a place where the Earth’s magnetic wave densely pass through. Apparently, these temples are located strategically at a place where there is abundant positive energy from the magnetic and electric wave distribution of the north/south pole thrust. Before jumping into the discussion about myths on Hindu temples, first, we should try to understand how these magnetic fields and electric fields originated on Earth and how they interact with the human body. As we know, iron is a magnetic material and the Earth’s core is filled with iron in a molten state, which generates a magnetic field on Earth. This is why we call our blue planet a giant magnet. Earth is surrounded by an infinite number of charged particles, or ions, and these particles, present in the core of Earth, are the source of electric field lines. This is the famous Lorentz Equation that describes the effect of the magnetic and electric field on charged particles. The first term is contributed by the electric field, while the second is contributed by the magnetic field. Our body contains charged particles, and nerve cells communicate through electric signals, which can get affected by the magnetic and electric field. F= qE + q(v x B), where F is the force exerted by the electric field E and magnetic field B on the charged particle q moving with the velocity v. The first term is contributed by the electric field. The second term is the magnetic force and has a direction perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic field. The magnetic force is proportional to q and to the magnitude of the vector cross product v × B. In terms of the angle ϕ between v and B, the magnitude of the force equals qvB sin ϕ. An interesting result of the Lorentz force is the motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. If v is perpendicular to B (i.e., with the angle ϕ between v and B of 90°), the particle will follow a circular trajectory with a radius of r = mv/qB. If the angle ϕ is less than 90°, the particle orbit will be a helix with an axis parallel to the field lines. If ϕ is zero, there will be no magnetic force on the particle, which will continue to move undeflected along the field lines. Charged particle accelerators like cyclotrons make use of the fact that particles move in a circular orbit when v and B are at right angles. For each revolution, a carefully timed electric field gives the particles additional kinetic energy, which makes them travel in increasingly larger orbits. When the particles have acquired the desired energy, they are 103 extracted and used in a number of different ways, from studies of subatomic particles to the medical treatment of cancer. The magnetic force on a moving charge reveals the sign of the charge carriers in a conductor. A current flowing from right to left in a conductor can be the result of positive charge carriers moving from right to left or negative charges moving from left to right, or some combination of each. When a conductor is placed in a B field perpendicular to the current, the magnetic force on both types of charge carriers is in the same direction. This force gives rise to a small potential difference between the sides of the conductor. Known as the Hall effect, this phenomenon (discovered by the American physicist Edwin H. Hall) results when an electric field is aligned with the direction of the magnetic force. The Hall effect shows that electrons dominate the conduction of electricity in copper. In zinc, however, conduction is dominated by the motion of positive charge carriers. Electrons in zinc that are excited from the valence band leave holes, which are vacancies (i.e., unfilled levels) that behave like positive charge carriers. The motion of these holes accounts for most of the conduction of electricity in zinc. 104 If a wire with a current i is placed in an external magnetic field B, how will the force on the wire depend on the orientation of the wire? Since a current represents a movement of charges in the wire, the Lorentz force acts on the moving charges. Because these charges are bound to the conductor, the magnetic forces on the moving charges are transferred to the wire. The force on a small length dl of the wire depends on the orientation of the wire with respect to the field. The magnitude of the force is given by idlB sin ϕ, where ϕ is the angle between B and dl. There is no force when ϕ = 0 or 180°, both of which correspond to a current along a direction parallel to the field. The force is at a maximum when the current and field are perpendicular to each other. The force is given bydF= idl × B. Again, the vector cross product denotes a direction perpendicular to both dl and B. 1) Magnetic field density depends on the distance from a magnetic pole. If you consider the Earth to be a large magnet, then the density of a magnetic field will be the largest near the poles. As you move further down towards the equator, the density simply decreases. There is NO such magical pocket on the Earth's surface where the density of the magnetic field suddenly becomes high and then becomes low again. 2) There is no such thing as magnetic rays/magnetic energy. The rays thus post is talking about are the usual electromagnetic rays and the energy is the usual electromagnetic energy. When you use a phone, people preach about how the harmful electromagnetic rays can cause cancer, but somehow, it's all good in a temple? 3) Additionally, the word ‘Magnetotherapy’ has been used here, which is misleading and factually wrong. Magnet Therapy is an alternative branch of medicine, but its efficacy is unproven and the methodology cannot be researched reliably. In order to use magnet therapy though, you have to subject yourself to weak static magnetic fields, by wearing rings, and such. It definitely doesn’t involve ‘charging water magnetically by washing a weak, possibly magnetic substance’, or exposing yourself to ‘especially dense pockets of the Earth’s magnetic field’. 4) What the hell does charging water magnetically mean? Have you ever tried throwing water at a bar magnet? NOTHING happens. Even if you rub very hard (in 105 which case you might increase the active surface area and cause it to evaporate faster, however :) ) 5) The post has confused preventing ailments with curing them. A guy with Tuberculosis cannot be cured by positive magnetic energy, puny blood purifiers and mouth fresheners, even if he spends the rest of his (rather short) life in the temple. Actually, even the prevention part is extremely limited. You can go to the temple everyday and consume as much of the beneficial prasadam as you want, but if you later go out and eat a cholera-ridden sweet or drink typhoid contaminated water, you are in for a very unpleasant shock. Gateway at Srirangam - 1847 This is plate 23 from James Fergusson's 'Ancient Architecture in Hindoostan'. Srirangam near Tiruchirapally is the site of one of the largest temple complexes in India. The gateway sketched by Fergusson is incomplete: the tower had not yet been added. It belongs to the Ranganatha Temple, a pilgrimage site famed for its annual Vaikuntha Ekadasi festival, dedicated to Vishnu. The scale of the gateway impressed Fergusson as nearly unrivalled in India. The present temple has seven concentric walls and 21 towers or gopurams. Although 106 worship at the site goes back earlier, the temple itself was founded in the 11th century. It was continually augmented between the 13th and the 17th centuries. The mostly 16th and 17th century gateways are brick and plaster pyramidal towers increasing in size from the innermost enclosure. The gateway of the seventh enclosure is one of the tallest in India (72 metres, or 236 feet). 2) If one is a devotee and believes in god, they should go to the temple because they stand by their faith and want to thank god for all that he has bestowed upon them. It is annoying and wrong to spread or believe completely unscientific and nonsensical material like this and propagandizing your practices by giving them a so called ‘scientific basis’. Temple and statue are necessary for low level people as said in Sastra (Pratima Swalpa Buddhinaam). It is a teaching model for a school student. But for a college or university student it is not necessary. It is called as Pratika (Model). Veda says to meditate upon the Sun assuming Sun as the Lord. The Sun is not the Lord. The Lord is not in the Sun. Sun is only a servant of the Lord. All these points are told in Veda (Adityam Brahmeti, Nedam tat, Bheeshodeti Suryah). Veda says that the Lord is not in the statues (Natasya Pratima). Veda also says that no inert object and no human being is the Lord because the object or human being is an item in the creation is only cooking the food and feeding the guest. In this true sense Yajna is essential and must Gita says that the Lord comes only in human form (Manusheem Tanumaasritam). The statue, which is in the human form is a model teaching you the concept that the Lord comes only in human form for preaching the divine knowledge in every human generation, to avoid the partiality to a particular human generation as said in Gita (Yada Yadaahi). Once you understood this concept the temple and statue is not necessary for you but they should be protected and respected as the models of divine knowledge for the future ignorant devotees. Some people are telling that ‘Kulluka Bhatt’ says about worship of statues. Kulluka Bhatt is a ‘Purva Mimaamsaka’ who is an atheist (Devo Na Kaschit). How can he contradict Veda, which says that the Lord does not exist in statues? Gita condemns severely that a person-worshipping statue will be born as a stone. Here the meditation upon the statue is not condemned. Only worship like offering the food is 107 condemned because the statue does not eat the food. Some fellow behind the statue is eating the food. In Gita the word ‘Bhutejyah’ means worshipping the inert object by offering food. Ijya means offering the food. Bhuta means inert substance, which is one of the five inert elements (Pancha Bhutas). Some people say that the word Bhuta means ghost and those who worship ghosts become ghosts. We do not object such meaning. But the word Bhuta also means the five inert elements. Our meaning is in the same line of your meaning. A person worshipping ghosts becomes ghost. Similarly a person worshipping inert objects will become inert object. We are not contradicting your meaning. Our meaning is in the same line of your meaning and therefore you cannot contradict. Moreover the verse says that those who worship deities become deities etc., Therefore our meaning is in the line of the meaning of the verse. Yajna means feeding the guest after cooking the food and not burning the food in the fire. The guest is treated like fire. The hunger in his stomach is treated as ‘Vysvanara fire’. Krishna stopped burning the food in fire and ate the food stating that He was hungry. Kapila condemned such burning of food in Bhagavatam. The Yajna be performed. Study finds evidence for a human magnetic sense that lets your brain detect the Earth’s magnetic field Do human beings have a magnetic sense? Biologists know other animals do. They think it helps creatures including bees, turtles and birds navigate through the world. Scientists have tried to investigate whether humans belong on the list of magnetically sensitive organisms. For decades, there’s been a back-and-forth between positive reports and failures to demonstrate the trait in people, with seemingly endless controversy. The mixed results in people may be due to the fact that virtually all past studies relied on behavioral decisions from the participants. If human beings do possess a magnetic sense, daily experience suggests that it would be very weak or deeply subconscious. Such faint impressions could easily be misinterpreted – or just plain missed – when trying to make decisions. So our research group – including a geophysical biologist, a cognitive neuroscientist and a neuroengineer – took another approach. What we found arguably provides the first concrete neuroscientific evidence that humans do have a geomagnetic sense. How does a biological geomagnetic sense work? The Earth is surrounded by a magnetic field, generated by the movement of the planet’s liquid core. It’s why a magnetic compass points north. At Earth’s surface, this magnetic field is fairly weak, about 100 times weaker than that of a refrigerator magnet. Over the past 50 years or so, scientists have shown that hundreds of organisms in nearly all branches of the bacterial, protist and animal kingdoms have the ability to detect and respond to this geomagnetic field. In some animals – such as honey bees – the geomagnetic behavioral responses are as strong as the responses to light, odor or touch. Biologists have identified strong responses in vertebrates ranging from fish, amphibians, reptiles, numerous 108 birds and a diverse variety of mammals including whales, rodents, bats, cows and dogs – the last of which can be trained to find a hidden bar magnet. In all of these cases, the animals are using the geomagnetic field as components of their homing and navigation abilities, along with other cues like sight, smell and hearing. Skeptics dismissed early reports of these responses, largely because there didn’t seem to be a biophysical mechanism that could translate the Earth’s weak geomagnetic field into strong neural signals. This view was dramatically changed by the discovery that living cells have the ability to build nanocrystals of the ferromagnetic mineral magnetite – basically, tiny iron magnets. Biogenic crystals of magnetite were first seen in the teeth of one group of mollusks, later in bacteria, and then in a variety of other organisms ranging from protists and animals such as insects, fish and mammals, including within tissues of the human brain. Nevertheless, scientists haven’t considered humans to be magnetically sensitive organisms. Manipulating the magnetic field In our new study, we asked 34 participants simply to sit in our testing chamber while we directly recorded electrical activity in their brains with electroencephalography (EEG). Our modified Faraday cage included a set of 3-axis coils that let us create controlled magnetic fields of high uniformity via electric current we ran through its wires. Since we live in midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the environmental magnetic field in our lab dips downwards to the north at about 60 degrees from horizontal. Schematic drawing of the human magnetoreception test chamber at Caltech. In normal life, when someone rotates their head – say, nodding up and down or turning the head from left to right – the direction of the geomagnetic field (which remains constant in space) will shift relative to their skull. This is no surprise to the subject’s brain, as it directed the muscles to move the head in the appropriate fashion in the first place. In our experimental chamber, we can move the magnetic field silently relative to the brain, but without the brain having initiated any signal to move the head. This is comparable to situations when your head or trunk is passively rotated by somebody else, or when you’re a passenger in a vehicle which rotates. In those cases, though, your body will still register vestibular signals about its position in space, along with the magnetic field changes – in 109 contrast, our experimental stimulation was only a magnetic field shift. When we shifted the magnetic field in the chamber, our participants did not experience any obvious feelings. The EEG data, on the other hand, revealed that certain magnetic field rotations could trigger strong and reproducible brain responses. One EEG pattern known from existing research, called alpha-ERD (event-related desynchronization), typically shows up when a person suddenly detects and processes a sensory stimulus. The brains were “concerned” with the unexpected change in the magnetic field direction, and this triggered the alpha-wave reduction. That we saw such alpha-ERD patterns in response to simple magnetic rotations is powerful evidence for human magnetoreception. Our participants’ brains only responded when the vertical component of the field was pointing downwards at about 60 degrees (while horizontally rotating), as it does naturally here in Pasadena, California. They did not respond to unnatural directions of the magnetic field – such as when it pointed upwards. We suggest the response is tuned to natural stimuli, reflecting a biological mechanism that has been shaped by natural selection. Other researchers have shown that animals’ brains filter magnetic signals, only responding to those that are environmentally relevant. It makes sense to reject any magnetic signal that is too far away from the natural values because it most likely is from a magnetic anomaly – a lighting strike, or lodestone deposit in the ground, for example. One early report on birds showed that robins stop using the geomagnetic field if the strength is more than about 25 percent different from what they were used to. It’s possible this tendency might be why previous researchers had trouble identifying this magnetic sense – if they cranked up the strength of the magnetic field to “help” subjects detect it, they might have instead ensured that subjects’ brains ignored it. Moreover, our series of experiments show that the receptor mechanism – the biological magnetometer in human beings – is not electrical induction, and can tell north from south. This latter feature rules out completely the so-called “quantum compass” or “cryptochrome” mechanism which is popular these days in the animal literature on magnetoreception. Our results are consistent only with functional magnetoreceptor cells based on the biological magnetite hypothesis. Note that a magnetite-based system can also explain all of the behavioral effects in birds that promoted the rise of the quantum compass hypothesis. Brains register magnetic shifts, subconsciously Our participants were all unaware of the magnetic field shifts and their brain responses. They felt that nothing had happened during the whole experiment – they’d just sat alone in dark silence for an hour. Underneath, though, their brains revealed a wide range of differences. Some brains showed almost no reaction, while other brains had alpha waves that shrank to half their normal size after a magnetic field shift. It remains to be seen what these hidden reactions might mean for human behavioral capabilities. Do the weak and strong brain responses reflect some kind of individual differences in navigational ability? Can those with weaker brain responses benefit from some kind of training? Can those with strong brain responses be trained to actually feel the magnetic field? 110 A human response to Earth-strength magnetic fields might seem surprising. But given the evidence for magnetic sensation in our animal ancestors, it might be more surprising if humans had completely lost every last piece of the system. Thus far, we’ve found evidence that people have working magnetic sensors sending signals to the brain – a previously unknown sensory ability in the subconscious human mind. The full extent of our magnetic inheritance remains to be discovered. By Shinsuke Shimojo, Gertrude Baltimore Professor of Experimental Psychology, California Institute of Technology; Daw-An Wu, , California Institute of Technology, and Joseph Kirschvink, Nico and Marilyn Van Wingen Professor of Geobiology, California Institute of Technology B Y T H E CO NVE RS AT IO N MARCH 18, 2019 Idol Worship The statue or photo is the inert object. The form carved in a stone or painted on a paper is also an imaginary form and not even a direct photo. The statues and photos are only models representing the concept, which is knowledge. The form of statues and photos is mainly human form, which represents the concept that the Lord always comes to this world in human form as said in Gita (Manusheem Tanu Masritam). Please remember that Gita did not tell that the Lord would come in any other form. The forms of fish, tortoise etc., were only temporarily to kill the demons and nobody worshipped such forms during their time. But Rama, Krishna etc were the human forms worshipped by several devotees like Hanuman and Gopikas. The Lord will come in every human generation; otherwise, He becomes partial to a particular generation. If necessary the Lord can come whenever there is necessity as said in Gita (Yedaa yedaahi). Once this concept is realized, there is no need of temple and statue for you. You should go from school to college and then to university. This does not mean that when you leave the school, the school should be destroyed. The school must exist for the future batches. Therefore for you, the statue and the photo are not necessary and this does not mean that the statues, photos and temples should be broken. They should be protected and must be respected as the models of divine knowledge for the future ignorant devotees. Some devotees cannot accept the human form, which is before their eyes as said in Veda (Pratyaksha dvishah). For such devotees the statues and photos are necessary for meditation since they are at the school level. The statues and photos are useful for the meditation of such limited minds as said in Sastra (Pratima svalpa buddhinam). Veda says that the Lord does not exist in the inert 111 objects (Natasya pratima, Nedamtat), but says that the inert objects can stand as models representing the Lord (Adityam brahmeti). Therefore seeing and meditation upon the statues and photos are correct in the case of the ignorant devotees. But the other rituals like offering food, burning camphor, fume sticks, oil lamps and breaking coconuts, offering flowers etc. are not mentioned in Vedas and there are unnecessary and are causing the air pollution harming the humanity. All these unnecessary rituals should be avoided. Offering food should also be done to the human form of the Lord only but not to the inert statues. Ijya or Yajna is cooking and offering of the food. Gita says that such Ijya should not be done to the inert objects. In the name of the statues, people are stealing the food and money. The statue and photo is not taking the food or Gurudakshina. The people behind the statue are taking those things and most of them are either cheating or wasting the money with ignorance. Whatever the Gurudakshina is given should go only to the priest and not the managing devotees. The business of the merchants by selling such materials in the temples should be stopped, because such materials are not even heard in Veda. Of course, the priest should be a Satguru and preach the divine knowledge to the devotees and the devotees should give Gurudakshina to such Satguru only. Thus, the temple should become a center of learning selfless devotion and divine knowledge and the priest must do only ‘Janna Eagan’ in the temple and not the ‘dravya Eagan’ as said in the Gita (Sreyaan dravyamayat). Gita condemned such Ijya before inert objects because such Ijya is only cheating and business. Such a devotee will be born as inert object (Bhutejya yanti). This business is connected to removal of the fruits of sins and getting the fruits of good deeds, which are not done. All this is false, because the theory of ‘karma’ says that one has to suffer for all his bad deeds and can never get the result of any good deed without doing it (Avasyamanubhoktavyam…kalpakotisatairapi). The spiritual path should be preached in the temple, which must be ‘nishkama karma yoga’ i.e., sacrifice of work and sacrifice of fruit (money) of the work to the Lord without aspiring any fruit in return. Remember, that only the Ijya is condemned and not the temples or statues, which are the models of the divine knowledge. dd Comment You can’t really radiate magnetic waves (see Do pure magnetic waves exist? ). Changing magnetic fields will induce electric fields and you will end up with electromagnetic radiation. 112 And everyone and everything radiates electromagnetic radiation. If your temperature is greater than absolute zero (which it is, it is about 300K) you are radiating about 100 W worth of electromagnetic radiation in the infra-red region (9500 nm, see Black-body radiation ). So sure, temples emit electromagnetic radiation. But so do the mansions of the corrupt politicians that rob from the poor. Location: Temples are found deliberately at places where abundant positive energy is available from the magnetic and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push. The main idol is placed at the core centre of the temple, known as ‘Garbhagriha’, ‘Garbhagriya’ or ‘Moolasthanam’. In fact, the temple structure is built after the idol has been placed. This moolasthanam is where Earth’s magnetic waves are found to be maximum. Positive energy? What does that really mean? It sounds very scientific and attractive, surely. Energy is the measurement of the ability to do work. If this magnetic field is concentrated in temples and gives out so-called positive energy, then people who live at the magnetic poles must have this energy, too. Earth is a giant magnet. It has magnetic North and South poles, where the magnetic field of lines are in a dense state. People who claim dense magnetic field in temples fraudulent because they don’t have any measurement to prove their claims. It is impossible to find a magnetic field in dense state at a small place such as the moolasthanam. Magnetic poles are spread over kilometres. “Copper plates are buried at the moolasthanam that absorb the Earth’s magnetic field and radiate it out to the surroundings.” Copper is a non-magnetic material, whereas iron, cobalt and nickel are attracted to magnets, as their magnetic permeability is very high. Copper doesn’t radiate magnetic field lines. “Remove footwear before entering the temple because temples are places that contain pure vibrations of magnetic and electric fields with positive energy. It will be easy to pass positive energy through the feet.” There is nothing like positive or negative vibrations. Vibrations are simply vibrations — the to and fro motion of particles. Superconductors are the only materials that show obstacles to a magnetic field. Magnetic field lines can penetrate any material except superconductors. If these waves are present, then removing footwear before entering a temple is unscientific. 113 Our body contains charged particles that can be affected by the magnetic field. If this magnetic field gives out so-called positive energy, then it will be better to go to the magnetic North or South poles. And surely, people who live there must be full of this positive energy. Generally, a temple should be located a place where earth’s magnetic wave path passes through densely. Temples are located strategically at a place where the positive energy is abundantly available from the magnetic and electric wave distributions of north/south pole thrust.Positive Energy? Let’s try to understand what is meant by this weasel word “Energy”. “Especially when the subject of New Age alternative medicine comes up, you’ll often hear people refer to energy fields. Life energy, spiritual energy, the body’s energy fields. That sure sounds pretty cool; is it actually a real thing that we can detect and use somehow? To answer that we have to start by understanding what energy really is. In short, energy is a measurement of something’s ability to do work. It’s measured in joules, after the 19th century physicist James Joule. Think of Einstein’s equation E = mc2. Energy is a function of mass. How much mass you can move a certain distance, is exactly how much energy you have. “The electrical energy in this battery contains enough joules of work to move an electric train a certain distance. If I raise this weight, I input enough joules of potential kinetic energy to break six bones in my foot. That’s basically what ‘energy’ is. But that doesn’t seem to match very well with how we hear the word ‘energy’ being used. We’re told there are energy fields, that enlightened people can tap into and draw strength from. Like a glowing, hovering cloud of power, how you might envision a highly evolved creature from the original Star Trek series. That’s kind of what it sounds like an energy field is. New Age concepts like reiki or feng shui are entirely built upon the presumed existence of such fields. “But the scientific definition of energy seems inadequate to explain these. Why is that? It’s because the word ‘energy’ has been hijacked for its scientific-sounding value. Real energy fields, like the electromagnetic field surrounding a magnet, the heat radiating from a warm body, or the gravitational field around a planet, have definite properties — and their strength, and thus their energy, can be precisely measured. On the other hand, New Age energy fields, like your bodies supposed ‘life energy’, have no describable properties, cannot be detected, and do no measurable work. We can’t say they don’t exist, but since they are undetectable, we can say that their existence is yet to be demonstrated. 114 “When you hear the word ‘energy’ being used in a sales pitch or an advertisement, pay very close attention to how it’s being used. If it’s anything other than a quantifiable measurement of work, the word is being misused and you are being misled. And now you have the tools to respond.” In fact, the temple structure is built after the idol has been placed. Does the idol draw all the “Energy” from that place or is it just placed in a place with full of “Energy”? If it is the place that is important, then you accept that the idol is not important; and if you feel that the idol makes the “Energy” then you agree that the place was insignificant to begin with. This *Moolasthanam* is where earth’s magnetic waves are found to be maximum. We know that there are some copper plates, inscribed with Vedic scripts, buried beneath the Main Idol. What are they really? The copper plate absorbs earth’s magnetic waves and radiates it to the surroundings. Perhaps, worth only the value of copper (excluding any worth it may have gained as a result of it being an ‘antique piece.’ Copper is not attracted to magnets. Iron and perhaps Steel, Cobalt and Nickel are attracted to a magnet. Surely NOT copper plates. Perhaps Copper wire can be turned into a magnet, by passing electrical current; but surely NOT copper plates. Thus a person regularly visiting a temple and walking clockwise around the Main Idol receives the beamed magnetic waves and his body absorbs it. Once again, human body cannot receive magnetic waves (whatever they are) and surely the body cannot absorb it. If that was the case, then imagine what would happen during every Magnetic resonance scan. This is a very slow process and a regular visit will let him absorb more of this positive energy. As clearly explained earlier, this is a flagrant, malevolent or (perhaps) ignorant but definitely a despicable act of hijacking the word “Energy” to make some woo-woo SOUND scientific; all a cheap attempt to beguile a credulous audience. Scientifically, it is the positive energy that we all require to have a healthy life. . The lamp that is lit radiates heat energy and also provides light inside the sanctum to the priests or *poojaris* performing the pooja.| 1. The fragrance from the flowers, the burning of camphor give out the chemical energy further aiding in a different good aura. 115 2. There is that weasel word “Energy.” For fragrance, going to a garden or a park is a far better experience. And camphor fumes are best avoided. It can only harm, and can never help. It can cause seizures, hallucinations, confusion, etc! 3. *Theertham*, the “holy” water used during the pooja to wash the idol is not plain water cleaning the dust off an idol. It is a concoction of Cardamom,*Karpura* (Benzoin), zaffron / saffron, *Tulsi* (Holy Basil), Clove, etc. 4. Actually it is not plain water but contaminated water. If you want such a concoction, then it will be far better and safer to cook it hygienically in the kitchen. 5. Washing the idol is to charge the water with the magnetic radiations thus increasing its medicinal values. 6. “Charge the water with magnetic radiations?” As already explained, the idol or even the copper plates are NOT magnetic. And one cannot just “charge” the water with magnetic radiations. That hypothesis can be presented for a thorough peer review and scientific analysis. Also, such a water can only cause illness, it can never be medicinal.Three spoons of this holy water is distributed to devotees. 116 Besides, the clove essence protects one from tooth decay, the saffron & *Tulsi* leaves protects one from common cold and cough, cardamom and *Pachha Karpuram* (benzoin), act as mouth fresheners. It is said that *Theertham* is a very good blood purifier, as it is highly energized. “Blood purification” is mainly the job of the kidneys and the liver. Unless they explain what they mean by such vague terminologies, these claims must be dismissed off contemptuously. And ruthlessly too, for it is dangerous to fool people when it comes to medical and health issues. This is why our elders used to suggest us to offer prayers at the temple so that you will be cured of many ailments. This is secondary rationalization. The “elders” have never ever mentioned in any of the holy scriptures that THIS was the reason. You are just trying to beguile the innocent people. For your kind information, the so called elders had no valid ideas about what caused the ailments. When people go to a temple for the - *Deepaaraadhana*, and when the doors open up, the positive energy gushes out onto the persons who are there. What is the positive energy that gushes out? Again that weasel word “Energy” is used. The water that is sprinkled onto the assemblages passes on the energy to all.This also explains why men are not allowed to wear shirts at a few temples and women are requested to wear more ornaments during temple visits. Also, it is a practice to leave newly purchased jewels at an idol’s feet and then wear them with the idol’s blessings. Energy lost in a day’s work is regained through a temple visit and one is refreshed slightly. The positive energy that is spread out in the entire temple and especially around where the main idol is placed, are simply absorbed by one’s body and mind.How does one’s ‘body and mind’ absorb the ‘energy spread out?’ Vaishnava(Vishnu devotees), “must” visit a Vishnu temple twice every day in their location. Hindu practices are NOT some hard and fast rules framed by 1 man and his followers or God’s words in somebody’s dreams. All the rituals, all the practices are, in reality, well researched, studied and scientifically backed thesis which form the ways of nature to lead a good healthy life. The scientific and research part of the practices are well camouflaged as “elder’s instructions” or “granny’s teaching’s” which should be obeyed as a mark of respect so as to once again, avoid stress to the mediocre brains. Whenever you hear the word “energy” being mentioned anywhere please substitute the word with “measurable work capability” and check if it still makes sense. If it does, then it is 117 proper science (because that’s what it means in science); and if it sounds like nonsense then it indeed is nonsense and the person is trying to use the word “energy” just to sound scientific. E.g. “Positive energy”, “Negative energy”, “Spiritual energy” and “Divine energy”. Similarly, whenever someone uses the word “vibration”, replace it with “uniform oscillation around a mean” or “a regular periodic variation about a mean”. If it still makes sense, then it is proper science (because that’s what it means in science); and if it sounds like nonsense then it indeed is nonsense and the person is trying to use the word “vibration” just to sound scientific. E.g., “Positive vibrations”, “Negative vibrations”, “Spiritual vibrations” and “Divine vibrations”. http://nirmukta.com/2012/05/19/temple-pseudoscience/ Vimana is the top of structure of temple looking like upward going rocket design, and whole temple is based on that Vimana. Vimana is Shikhar of temples.Any Hindu temple you see is based on the Vimana architectures, this is like you are boarding the heaven ship , Garbhagriha is some what below the ground level, is like before starting your journey in this ship you want to visit the base structure, which is your balance of the space ship, you have a Darshan of your lord the captain of the ship, who take control of soul journey to various Lokas dimensions of the universe, than you see all other in charge gods of various departments of your Wishes and supporting gods, than you orbit your main lord , this time your soul sees and connect your main lord with highest faith energy and confidence. This is a Tantra mechanism ( see forth coming Chapters on Tantra and mandala) our soul gets directly connected to the main lord , now prayer in the form of Mantra , your wish, your devotion, starts which travels to various Lokas dimensions, but you need energy here so every design of the Temple architecture helps your soul to receive energy , and some Mantra becomes effective as soon as you get energies from various other gods, Yaksha, kinner, gruhapati, griharakshak etc. Once your soul reaches to various Lokas according to your wish, your soul gets spiritual energy for your entire consciousness which helps or show correct path to go ahead in your material or spiritual efforts. Vimana has some kind of direct scalar vibrations which tuned to various Lokas. And as you mentioned think beyond the magnetic and electromagnetic radiation, bcz here your soul and your consciousness wants to travel not your body or material travel , material travel is restricted to material realm, but spiritual travel does not have any restrictions, 118 And once your spiritual travels get true consciousness you can solve all your material problem easily with your efforts. Temple energy can heal body ailments. This temple Science or spiritual Science is much beyond the existing science.. Hindu temple design is somewhat some extraterrestrial gods taught to Hindus in Ancient times, but they were not bodily extraterrestrial aliens they were of spiritual body aliens. Temples are the place that contains pure vibrations of magnetic and electric fields with positive energy. In olden days, temples were built in such a way that the floor at the center of the temple were good conductors of these positive vibrations allowing them to pass through our feet to the body. Hence it is necessary to walk bare footed while you enter the core center of the temple.Another known reason is shoes and chappals are used everywhere hence they tend to get all the impurities like dirt, germs etc which spoil the pure environment of the temple and is the source of negative energy. Vedic rituals, like the Yagna and Puja, as described by Shri Aurobindo, are "attempts to fulfill the purpose of creation and elevate the status of man to that of a godhead or a cosmic man." A Puja is essentially a ritual that symbolizes an offering of our lives and activities to God. Symbolic Significance of Puja Items Every object associated with the ritual of a Puja or worship is symbolically significant. The statue or image of the deity, which is called Vigraha (combination of the Sanskrit words: vi and graha). Vigraha means something that is devoid of the ill effects of the planets (or grahas). The flower that is offered to the deity stands for the good that has blossomed in 119 the worshipper. The offered fruits symbolize detachment, self-sacrifice, and surrender. The incense burned stands for the desire for various things in life. The lamp that is lit represents the light in each person, which is the soul that is offered to the Absolute. The vermilion or red powder stands for our emotions. The Lotus The holiest of flowers for Hindus, the beautiful lotus is symbolic of the true soul of an individual. It represents the being, which lives in turbid waters yet rises up and blossoms to the point of enlightenment. Mythologically speaking, the lotus is also a symbol of creation, since Brahma, the creator came forth from the lotus that blooms from the navel of Vishnu. It is also famous as the symbol of the Hindu Right-wing political party of India the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), as the namesake for the lotus position in meditation and yoga, and as the national flower of India and Bangladesh. The Purnakumbha An earthen pot or pitcher (Purnakumbha) full of water, and with fresh mango leaves and a whole coconut atop it, is generally placed as the chief deity or by the side of the deity before starting a Puja. Purnakumbha literally means a "full pitcher" (derived from Sanskrit the word purna meaning full and kumbha meaning pot). The pot symbolizes Mother Earth, the water life-giver, the leaves life, and the coconut divine consciousness. Commonly used during almost all religious rites, and also called kalasha, the pitcher also stands for goddess Lakshmi. Fruits and Leaves The water in the Purnakumbha and the coconut have been objects of worship since the Vedic age. The coconut (Sriphala in Sanskrit, meaning God's fruit) alone is also used to symbolize a god. While worshipping any deity, a coconut is almost always offered along with flowers and incense sticks. Other natural objects that symbolize divinity are the betel leaf, the areca-nut or betel-nut, banyan leaf, and the leaf of bael or bilva tree. Naivedya or Prasad Prasad is the food that is offered to God in a Puja. It is an individual's ignorance (avidya) which is offered to the deity in a Puja. The food symbolically stands for ignorant consciousness, which is placed before God for spiritual enlightenment. He suffuses the prasad with knowledge and light, and He breathes a new life into the worshippers' bodies. This makes the worshippers divine. When the prasad is shared with others, the knowledge gained from God is shared with fellow beings. 120 Ringing Bells: People who are visiting the temple Ring the bell before entering the inner temple (Garbhagudi, Garbhagriha, Moolasthanam or womb-chamber) where the main idol is placed. These bells are made in such a way that when they produce a sound it creates a unity in the Left and Right parts of our brains. The moment we ring the bell, it produces a sharp and enduring sound which lasts for minimum of 7 seconds in echo mode. The duration of echo is good enough to activate all the seven healing centres in our body. This results in emptying our brain from all negative thoughts. Bells had other reasons also, as most of the old temples never had doors and were located near hills and forest there would have been distinct possibilities for animals, Insects, birds to take shelter. But bell sound doesn’t allow any of the living creatures to sustain inside for a long time. So don’t be surprised if you find Old temples still brimming with energy inside with less dust, no sign of insects or animals. Aroma Theropy: Sound healinhg- Lighting Camphour and offering flowers: The inner core of the temple is usually dark where the idol is placed. You usually close your eyes to pray and when you open your eyes you should see the camphor which was lit to do the Aarthi in front of the idol. This light seen inside the dark activates your sight senses. Flower, is good to see, spreads good fragrance, very soft to touch, the nectar given by flower pleases the tongue, and this combination is perfect for using at the temple. Only specific flowers are used for offering to God like rose petals, jasmine, marigold based on different factors, amongst them fragrance is most important. The fragrance of the flower, camphor and instance sticks all together have the strong essence to keep your smell sense active and pleasant giving calmness to the mind. The idol inside the chamber absorbs all the energy from the bell sound, camphor heat and vibrates the positive energy within the chamber for certain duration of time. When you do the circumambulation at this point of time, you tend to absorb all these 121 positive vibrations once your five senses are activated.Similarly, blowing the conch is also a The sound from the conch is associated with the sacred syllable ‘Om’ which is believed to be the first sound of creation. The Shankha or conch marks the beginning of any good work. The sound of the conch is believed to the purest form of sound which ushers in freshness and new hope. This gets more powerful with the positive energy radiated in the temples and hence has amazing impacts on the Gods. Ancient Hindus knew the benefits of positive energy – mentally and physically – which elevate devotees to the next level of consciousness, thereby made them slowly renounce (mayic) illusionary bonds of material world, also kept them very healthy. A particular place is researched, where earth’s magnetic wave path passes through densely. Other times, the emergence of Shiv Lingams on some places formed the basis of ancient Bhagwan Shiv temples. Wherever, Shiv Lingams naturally emerged, huge amount of magnetic field was experienced. Similarly, other ancient statues of Hindu gods held the key 122 of huge energy source. Any displacement of these statues from the original place of worship during reign of invaders of India lead to catastrophes – flood, quakes, famine and epidemics. There exist many Vāstu-Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and cities. One such Vāstu Śastra is by Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples should be built. By 6th century AD, Sanskrit manuals for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in India. Vāstu-Śastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life. The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramachandra Bhattaraka Kaulachara sometime in ninth or tenth century CE, is another Vāstu Śastra.. Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Natakastri compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa.[23] Silpa Prakasa provides brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith[24] and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara[25] provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types. Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (literally, manual for planning and building a temple) with chapters on town building. Manasara shilpa and Mayamata, texts of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century AD, is a guidebook on South Indian Vastu design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India. In north India, Brihat- samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples. 123 These ancient Vāstu Śastras, often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple design, but do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature. The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Vastu Purusha Mandala layout for Hindu Temples. It is one of 32 Vastu Purusha Mandala grid patterns described in Vastu sastras. In this grid structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has significance. The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana. Mandala "circle-circumference" or "completion", is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both Hinduism and Buddhism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala – in Pitha (9) and Upapitha (25) it occupies one square module, in Mahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36) and Manduka (64), four square modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine square modules. The Pitha is an amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts, the central space is occupied by earth. The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric manner. 2. The most important mandala is the Manduka/Chandita Mandala of 64 squares and the Paramasaayika Mandala of 81 squares. The normal position of the Vastu Purusha (head in the northeast, legs in the southwest) is as depicted in the Paramasaayika Mandala. However, in the Manduka Mandala the Vastu Purusha is depicted with the head facing east and the feet facing west. vastu directional chakara It is believed that every piece of a land or a building has a soul of its own and that soul is known as Vastu Purusha. 1. A site of any shape can be divided using the Pada Vinyasa. Sites are known by the number of squares. They range from 1x1 to 32x32 (1024) square sites. Examples of mandalas with the corresponding names of sites include:[7]  Sakala (1 square) corresponds to Eka-pada (single divided site)  Pechaka (4 squares) corresponds to Dwi-pada (two divided site)  Pitha (9 squares) corresponds to Tri-pada (three divided site)  Mahaapitha (16 squares) corresponds to Chatush-pada (four divided site)  Upapitha (25 squares) corresponds to Pancha-pada (five divided site)  Ugrapitha (36 squares) corresponds to Shashtha-pada (six divided site)  Sthandila (49 squares) corresponds to Sapta-pada (seven divided site) 124  Manduka/ Chandita (64 square) corresponds to Ashta-pada (eight divided site)  Paramasaayika (81 squares) corresponds to Nava-pada (nine divided site)  Aasana (100 squares) corresponds to Dasa-pada (ten divided site)  Bhadrmahasan (196 squares) corresponds to Chodah-pada (14 divided sites) Of the numerous Sanskrit treatises mentioned in ancient Indian literature, some have been translated in English. Many Agamas, Puranas and Hindu scriptures include chapters on architecture of temples, homes, villages, towns, fortifications, streets, shop layout, public wells, public bathing, public halls, gardens, river fronts among other things.[5] In some cases, the manuscripts are partially lost, some are available only in Tibetan, Nepalese or South Indian languages, while in others original Sanskrit manuscripts are available in different parts of India. Some treatises, or books with chapters on Vaastu Shastra include.  Manasara  Brhat samhita  Mayamata  Anka sastra  Aparajita Vāstu Śastra  Maha-agamas (28 books, each with 12 to 75 chapters)  Ayadi Lakshana  Aramadi Pratishtha Paddhati (includes garden design)  Kasyapiya  Kupadi Jala Sthana Lakshana  Kshetra Nirmana Vidhi (preparation of land and foundation of buildings including temples)  Gargya samhita (pillars, doors, windows, wall design and architecture)  Griha Pithika (types of houses and their construction)  Ghattotsarga Suchanika (riverfront and steps architecture)  Chakra sastra  Jnana ratna kosha  Vastu sarani (measurement, ratio and design layouts of objects, particularly buildings)  Devalaya Lakshana (treatise on construction of temples)  Dhruvadi shodasa gehani (guidelines for arrangement of buildings with respect to each other for harmony)  Nava sastra (36 books, most lost)  Agni Purana (Chapters 42 through 55, and 106 - Nagaradi Vastu) 125  Matsya Purana (Chapters 252 through 270)  Maya samgraha  Prasada kirtana  Prasada Lakshana  Tachchu sastra (primarily home design for families)  Manushyalaya Lakshana (primarily human dwelings)  Manushyalaya Chandrika  Mantra dipika  Mana kathana (measurement principles)  Manava vastu lakshana  Manasollasa (chapters on house layout, mostly ancient cooking recipes)  Raja griha nirmana (architecture and construction principles for royal palaces)  Rupa mandana  Vastu chakra  Vastu tattva  Vastu nirnaya  Vastu purusha lakshana  Vastu prakasa  Vastu pradipa  Vastu manjari  Vastu mandana  Vastu lakshana  Vastu vichara  Vastu Vidya  Vastu vidhi  Vastu samgraha  Vastu sarvasva  Vimana lakshana (tower design)  Visvakarma prakasa (home, roads, water tanks and public works architecture)  Vaikhanasa  Sastra jaladhi ratna  Silpa prakasa  Silpakala Dipika  Silpartha Śastra 126  Sanatkumara Vāstu Śastra  Samarangana Sutrad Shilpa Shastras (Sanskrit: शिल्प िास्त्र śilpa śāstra) literally means the Science of Shilpa (arts and crafts). It is an ancient umbrella term for numerous Hindu texts that describe arts, crafts, and their design rules, principles and standards. In the context of temple design, Shilpa Shastras were manuals for sculpture and Hindu iconography, prescribing among other things, the proportions of a sculptured figure, composition, principles, meaning, as well as rules of architecture.[3] Sixty-four techniques for such arts or crafts, sometimes called bāhya-kalā "external or practical arts", are traditionally enumerated, including carpentry, architecture, jewellery, farriery, acting, dancing, music, medicine, poetry etc., besides sixty-four abhyantara-kalā or "secret arts", which include mostly "erotic arts" such as kissing, embracing, etc. (MonierWilliams s.v. śilpa). While Shilpa and Vastu Shastras are related, Shilpa Shastras deal with arts and crafts such as forming statues, icons, stone murals, painting, carpentry, pottery, jewellery, dying, textiles and others. Vastu Shastras deal with building architecture – building houses, forts, temples, apartments, village and town layout, etc. Shilpa (शिल्प) refers to any art or craft in ancient Indian texts, while Shastra means science. Together, Shilpa Shastra means the science of art and crafts. The ancient Sanskrit texts use the term Shilpin (शिल्पल्पन् , male artist) and Shilpini (शिल्पल्पनी, female artist)[7] for artists and crafts person, while Shilpani refers to works of arts of man. Shilpani, works of art of man, imitate the divine forms, by employing their rhythms, they metrically reconstitute, and interpret the limitless knowledge, of the sacred hymns, from the limits of being human. — Aitareya Brahmana, Rig Veda, 6.5.27 The meaning of Shilpa, according to Stella Kramrisch, is complex. She writes that it consists of "art, skill, craft, labor, ingenuity, rite and ritual, form and creation. The range of crafts encompassed by the term Shilpa extends to every aspect of culture, includes sculptor, the potter, the perfumer, the wheelwright, the painter, the weaver, the architect, the dancer, the musician, the arts of love, and others. Ancient Indian texts assert that the number of the 127 arts is unlimited, they deploy sixty four kala (कला, techniques) and thirty two vidyas (शिद्या, fields of knowledge). Shilpa is discussed in Agamas, Puranas and Vastu Shastra where it is linked to the mythology of Vishvakarma. Paintings: Shilpa Shastras include chapters on paintings, both miniature and large. For example, Narada Shilpa Shastra dedicates chapters 66 and 71 to painting, while Saraswati Shilpa Shastra describes various types of chitra (full painting), ardhachitra (sketch work), chitrabhasa (communication through painting), varna samskara (preparation of colors). Other ancient Shilpa Shastra on painting include Vishnudharmottara Purana and Chitralakshana, former is available in Sanskrit while the only surviving copies of latter are in Tibetan (both were originally written on birch bark, and have been translated into English and German). These Sanskrit treatises discuss the following aspects of a painting: measurement, proportions, perspective of the viewer, mudra, emotions, and rasa (meaning). Such an approach of Indian paintings, states Isabella Nardi, make Shilpa Shastra not only canonical textual sources but also a means to transmit knowledge and spiritual themes. The first chapter of Shilpa Shastra Manasara discusses the measurement principles for carpentry. The 9th-century version of Mayamata text of Tamil Nadu and 16th Century version of Shilparatna of Odisha describe takshaka and vardhaki as wood Shilpins; takshaka possesses the knowledge of wood types and practices the art of cutting wood, while vardhaki possesses the knowledge of wood forms and practices the art of carpentry. One of the earliest mentions of carpentry arts is in Book 9, Chapter 112 of Rig Veda. Carpentry was also an essential Shilpa Shastra during the construction of a Hindu temple. The 4th-century CE 99.7% pure Iron pillar in Delhi reflecting the metal-related shilpa in ancient India. The pillar was moved and reinstalled near Qutb complex about 1000 years later. The upper part of the pillar remains without any rust damage; the lower, reinstalled inground part shows signs of rust.See my paper on The Iron Pillar- Celestial Mystery on academia.edu 128 The Vedas, in particular Atharva veda and Sthapatya veda, describe many kinds of arts and crafts in their discussion of Shilpa Shastra and Yantra Sarvasva. The Rig veda, states Ravi mentions equipment used in casting, such as dhamatri (cupola), gharma aranmaya (crucible) and bhastri (blower). These discussions are in the context of making idols, and describe rules to achieve best talmana (proportions), mudra (stance) and bhava (expression). Sanskrit texts such as Shilparatna and Manasara describe in detail the process and principles for art work with metals, particularly for alloys such as panchadhatu (five metals – zinc, tin, copper, silver and gold) and ashtadhatu (eight metal alloys – which adds iron, lead and mercury to panchadhatu). Madhuchista Vidhana (cire perdue or lost wax) casting process is the most discussed process in these ancient shilpa shastras with metals. Kirk suggests that these Shastras diffused from India to other ancient cultures in Asia. 129 While there is empirical evidence of high purity metallurgy and art works with other metals, some ancient Shilpa Shastras have been lost. For example, the 5th century Iron Pillar of Delhi, which stands 23 feet, weighs 6 tonnes and contains 99.72% iron without showing any signs of rust, is empirical evidence of the state of metallurgical arts in 5th century India. Birth was no barrier All arts were the domain of all classes, castes and both genders in ancient India.[27] The ancient texts of Parashara states that all crafts were practised by anyone irrespective of family's occupation.[1] The Buddhist Jatakas mention Brahmin carpenters, the 4th century text Baudhayana describes[28] chariot builders, carpenters, brick-workers, potters and metal workers from people of people classified as Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Suttavibhanga describes builders and wheelwrights born to Shudra father and Brahmin mother, who by later texts would be described as untouchables. The goldsmiths of Maharashtra included children born in cattle herding families. Apprenticeship Apprentices joined and trained under masters. The best were adopted and recognised as members of various art guilds. The training began from childhood, and included studies about dharma, culture, reading, writing, mathematics, geometry, colors, tools, as well as trade secrets – these were called Tradition. Guilds Shilpins had formed Śreni (guilds) in ancient India. Each guild formed its own laws and code of conduct, one the ancient Hindu and Buddhist kings of India respected by tradition. In some cases, the king established the laws of the guilds in some cases, the king's treasurer had the final word and served as judge of various guilds in a kingdom.[31] These guilds, in the 1st millennium BC, included all those who practised the art irrespective of the artist's caste or creed. The income of each guild came from fees paid by new members joining the guild, from fines on those violating the code of conduct established by the guild, and levies on tools used for that art. The guilds also performed charity and gifted collective works of art by their members to temples and other social works. During festivals and social celebrations, each guild would contribute their own performance and pavilions with flags and emblems. 130 Art is spiritual Creative work and artists were granted the sanctions of a sacrament in ancient Indian culture, states Stella Kramrisch.[29] An artist expresses the spiritual and holiness in his or her art. This belief continues to manifest itself in modern India in the form of rituals, where in an autumn festival (Dashahra), craftsmen in parts of India worship their tools with incense, flowers and unhusked rice. Brhat Samhita at verses 57.10-11 describes the practice of carpenters offering prayers and seeking forgiveness of a tree before cutting it for wood. The axe used to cut the tree would be rubbed with honey and butter to minimise the hurt to the tree which was considered to be a living being. Craft was seen as application of essence of Purusha (Universal Principles) to parts of nature so as to transform it into a work of art. Some known Shilpa Shastras-related manuscripts include:  Mayashastra (image printing, wall decoration)  Bimbamana (painting)  Sukratniti (pratima – murti or vigraha making, icon design)  Suprabhedagama  Vishnu dharmottara purana (literature, music, theatre, dance, painting, sculpture, iconography, architecture)  Agamas (have chapters on other shilpa shastras)  Agni purana (iconography)  Brahmanda purana (mostly architecture, some sections on arts)  Vastu vidya  Pratima lakshana vidhanam  Gargeyam  Manasara (many chapters on casting, moulding carving, polishing and making of arts and crafts)  Atriyam  Pratima mana lakshanam (includes chapters on repair of broken idols and art works)  Dasa tala nyagrodha pari mandala  Sambudhabhasita pratima lakshana vivarana nama  Mayamatam (construction – architecture, vehicles, etc.)  Brhat Samhita  Shilpa ratnam (Purvabhaga book has 46 chapters on arts and construction of house/towns, Uttarabhaga has 35 chapters on sculpture, icons and related topics of smaller scale) 131  Yukti kalpataru (various arts, including jewelry)  Shilpa kala darsanam  Samarangana Sutradhara  Vishva karma prakasam  Matsya purana  Garuda purana  Kashyapa shilpashastra  Bhavishya purana (mostly architecture, some sections on arts)  Alankara shastra  Artha shastra (general crafts such as windows and doors, as well as public utilities)  Chitra kalpa (ornaments)  Chitra karmashastra  Maya shilpashastra (in Tamil)  Vishvakarma shilpa (arts on columns, wood working)  Agastya (wood based arts and crafts)  Mandana Shilpa Shastra (diya, lamps related crafts)  Ratna shastra (pearls, string, jewelry crafts)  Ratna pariksha (jewelry)  Ratna samgraha (jewelry)  Laghu ratna pariksha (jewelry, lapidary)  Manimahatmya (lapidary)  Agastimata (lapidary crafts)  Anangaranga (erotic arts)  Kamasutra (artistic activities)  Rati rahasya (erotic arts)  Kandarpa chudamani (erotic arts)  Natya shastra (theatre, dance, music, fragments on painting and sculpture)  Nrttaratnavali (crafts for fashion and public performance)  Sangita ratna kara (crafts for fashion, dance and public performance)  Nalapaka (food, utensils, and culinary crafts)  Paka darpana (food, utensils, and culinary crafts)  Paka vijnana (food, utensils, and culinary crafts)  Pakarnava (food, utensils, and culinary crafts)  Kuttanimatam (textile arts) 132  Kadambari by Banabhatta (chapters on textile art and crafts)  Samaymatrka (textile arts)  Yantra Kosha (musical instruments, Overview in Bengali Language)  Sangita ratna kara (music crafts)  Śilpa-ratna-kośa (architecture, sculpture)  Cilappatikaaram (a 2nd-century Tamil classic on music and dance, sections on musical instruments)  Manasollasa (arts and crafts relating to musical instruments, cooking, textiles, decoration)  Vastuvidya (sculpture, icons, painting, and minor arts and crafts)  Upavana vinoda (Sanskrit treatise on arbori-horticulture arts, garden house design, aspects of house plants related crafts)  Vastusutra Upanishad (oldest known Sanskrit Shilpa Shastra text, 6 chapters, deals with image making, describes how image arts are means of communicating emotions and spiritual freedom). Hindu temple is a pancharatha when there are five ratha (on plan) or paga (on elevation) on the tower of the temple (generally a shikhara. The rathas are vertical offset projection or facets. The name comes from the sanskrit Pancha (=five) and Ratha (=chariot), but the link with the concept of chariot is not clear. There are also temples with three rathas (triratha), seven rathas (saptaratha) and nine rathas (navaratha). Triratha, Pancharatha and Saptaratha EXAMPLES: Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar  Lakshmana Temple in Khajuraho 133  Rajarani Temple in Khajuraho  Jagannath Temple in Puri, Odisha  Jagannath Temple in Baripada, Odisha  Jagannath Temple in Nayagarh, Odisha  Isanesvara Siva Temple in Bhubaneswar  Mukteswar Temple in Bhubaneswar  Brahmani temple in Baleswar, Odisha  Pancharatha Temple in Subarnapur, Odisha EXAMPLE I The Temple as a Rathor Chariot Konark Sun Temple (Konark Surya Mandir) is a 13th-century CE Sun temple at Konark about 35 kilometres (22 mi) northeast from Puri on the coastline of Odisha, India. The temple is attributed to king Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty about 1250 CE. Dedicated to the Hindu Sun God Surya, what remains of the temple complex has the appearance of a 100-foot (30 m) high chariot with immense wheels and horses, all carved from stone. Once over 200 feet (61 m) high, much of the temple is now in ruins, in particular the large shikara tower over the sanctuary; at one time this rose much higher than the mandapa that remains. The structures and elements that have survived are famed for their intricate artwork, iconography, and themes, including erotic kama and mithuna scenes. Also called the Surya Devalaya, it is a classic illustration of the Odisha style of Architecture or Kalinga Architecture . The cause of the destruction of the Konark temple is unclear and remains a source of controversy. Theories range from natural damage to deliberate destruction of the temple in the course of being sacked several times by Muslim armies between the 15th and 17th centuries. This temple was called the "Black Pagoda" in European sailor accounts as early as 1676 because its great tower appeared black. Similarly, the Jagannath Temple in Puri was called the "White Pagoda". Both temples served as important landmarks for sailors in the Bay of Bengal. The temple that exists today was partially restored by the conservation efforts of British India-era archaeological teams. Declared a UNESCO world heritage site in 1984. 134 Pancharatha temples  Isanesvara Siva Temple in Bhubaneswar//Jagannath Temple in Baripada//Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar EXAMPLE II Pancha Rathas (also known as Five Rathas or Pandava Rathas) is a monument complex at Mahabalipuram, on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, in the Kancheepuram district of the state of Tamil Nadu, India. Pancha Rathas is an example of monolithic Indian rock-cut architecture. The complex was carved during the reign of King Narasimhavarman I (630–668 AD): the idea of realising monolithic buildings, an innovation in Indian architecture, is attributed to this ruler. The complex is under the auspices of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and is part of the UNESCO World Heritage site inscribed by UNESCO as Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram. 135 Each of the five monuments in the Pancha Rathas complex resembles a chariot (ratha), and each is carved over a single, long stone or monolith, of granite which slopes in north-south direction with a slight incline. Though sometimes mistakenly referred to as temples, the structures were never consecrated because they were never completed following the death of Narasimhavarman IThe structures are named after the Pancha Pandavas and their common wife Draupadi, of epic Mahabharata fame In order of their size, they include the Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha. The monoliths are named after the Pandavas – Arjuna, Bhima, Yudhishthira ("Dharmaraja"), Nakula and Sahadeva – and Draupadi. These names are considered to be a misrepresentation as the structures have no link to the iconic characters of the Mahabharata epic. They have no religious significance either, as they remained unfinished and unconsecrated; the uncut rock parts at the base and top of the rathas are still visible. The ASI confirmed the unfinished nature of the structures and suggested that they instead be referred to as vimanas. However, the Pandava names have become permanent. History: According to a plaque displayed at the site by the ASI, the Pallava dynasty had planned the structures as models of chariots in rock based on prototypes of ancient rathas built in wood. The Pancha Rathas were carved during the reign of King Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I. Work on these five rathas was discontinued following the death of Narasimha Varman in 668 AD. The purpose of their construction is not known as the 136 structures were not completed. Part of the collection within the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, they were classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. Location: The site is located at Mahabalipuram (previously known as Mammallapuram), on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, in Kancheepuram district. It is approximately 35 miles (56 km) south of Chennai (previously known as Madras), the capital city, while Chengalpattu is about 20 miles (32 km) distant. The structures are part of the nine monolithic rock cut structures seen here.  Layout plan of the rathas/Plaque at the site, Archaeological Survey of India, Chennai Circle Layout Each of the five rathas is a monolith, carved whole from a rock outcropping of pink granite. They are carved over a common mounted plinth which is north-south oriented with a slight 137 slope. Each has a different layout, such as square, rectangular, or apsidal plans. The largest measures 42 by 35 feet (13 m × 11 m), and the tallest is 40 feet (12 m) high. Representations The Pancha rathas represent the diversity of Dravidian architecture of the time and it is likely that their original design traces back to wood constructions of temple chariots and were scale models or templates for much bigger temples built subsequently in Tamil Nadu. Most of the rathas are stated to be modelled on the Buddhist Viharas and Chaityas. Design The structural design and elevation are with towers or domes with single (ekathala) to triple (trithala) towers, which present a unique exhibition of South Indian Dravidian architecture. The chiseling done by the stone sculptors are occasional along joints between the stones. The walls are arranged and sequentially partitioned. The projections and recesses in these walls give the appearance of a set of shallow pilasters. The niches created in the walls are of rectangular shape and have carved sculptures of gods, demi-gods and the kings. The skirting around the images are of wild aquatic animals with "foliated tails and open jaws." The wall pilasters have curved brackets, and columns on the porch provide support to an overhanging eave; arch windows occasionally carved with images are located above them. The mouldings culminate in parapets. The carvings above the eave overhangs are decorated roof forms in miniature size, which are seen in rows all round each of the structure. EXAMPLE II The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th-century CE religious monuments in the coastal resort town of Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, about 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of Chennai. The site has 40 ancient monuments and Hindu temples, including one of the largest openair rock reliefs in the world: the Descent of the Ganges or Arjuna's Penance. The group contains several categories of monuments: ratha temples with monolithic processional chariots, built between 630 and 668; mandapa viharas (cave temples) with narratives from the Mahabharata and Shaivic, Shakti and Vaishna inscriptions in a number of Indian languages and scripts; rock reliefs (particularly bas-reliefs); stone-cut temples built between 695 and 722, and archaeological excavations dated to the 6th century and earlier. The monuments were built during the Pallava dynasty. Known as the Seven Pagodas in many colonial-era publications, they are 138 also called the Mamallapuram temples or Mahabalipuram temples in contemporary literature. The site, restored after 1960, has been managed by the Archaeological Survey of India. Mahabalipuram is known by several names, including Mamallapuram; Mamalla means "Great Wrestler", and refers to the 7th-century king Narasimha Varman I. Other names found in historic texts include Mamallapattana, Mavalipuram, Mavalivaram, Mavellipore, Mauvellipooram and Mahabalipur, all of which refer to a "great wrestler city" or "city of Mahabali". The latter is related to the mythical Mahabali, the demon king defeated by the 139 dwarf Vamana (a Vishnu avatar). According to Nagaswamy, the name is derived from the Tamil word mallal (prosperity) and reflects its being an ancient economic center for South India and Southeast Asia. This theory is partially supported by an 8th-century Tamil text by the early Bhakti movement poet Thirumangai Alvar, where Mamallapuram is called "Kadal Mallai". The town was known as "Seven Pagodas" by European sailors who landed on the coast after they saw the towers of seven Hindu temples. Seventh-century inscriptions refer to it as "Mamallapuram" or close variants; "Mahabalipuram" appears only after the 16th century, and (with Seven Pagodas) was used in colonial-era literature. The Tamil Nadu government adopted Mamallapuram as the official name of the site and township in 1957, and declared the monuments and coastal region a special tourism area and health resort in 1964. Although the ancient history of Mahabalipuram is unclear, numismatic and epigraphical evidence and its temples suggest that it was a significant location before the monuments were built. It is speculated that it is the seaport of Sopatma mentioned in the 1st-century Periplus of the Erythraean Sea or Ptolemy's port of Melange in his 2nd-century Geographia. Another theory posits that the port of Nirppeyarvu mentioned in the Perumpanarrupadai from the late 19th century to early 20th century may be Mahabalipuram or Kanchipuram.. In his Avantisundari Katha, the 7th–8th century Sanskrit scholar Daṇḍin (who lived in Tamil Nadu and was associated with the Pallava court) praised artists for their repair of a Vishnu sculpture at Mamallapuram. However, Daṇḍin's authorship of this text is disputed.[20] The medieval Sanskrit text mentions the Mamallapuram monuments, an early tradition of repairs, and the significance of Vaishnavism. 140 When Marco Polo (1271-1295 CE) arrived in India on his way back to Venice from Southeast Asia, he mentioned (but did not visit) "Seven Pagodas" and the name became associated with the shore temples of Mahabalipuram in publications by European merchants centuries later. It appeared in Abraham Cresques' 1375 Catalan Atlas as "Setemelti" and "Santhome", a crude map of Asia but accurate in the relative positions of the two ports; the former is Mamallapuram and the latter Mylapore. Venetian traveler Gasparo Balbi mentioned the "Seven Pagodas" and "Eight Pleasant Hillocks" in 1582, which Nagaswamy suggests refers to the monuments. According to Schalk, Balbi called it the "Seven Pagodas of China" (a re-interpretation of Henry Yule's reading of Balbi which considered Balbi unreliable, followed by a selective correction that it probably meant Mamallapuram). Since there are now fewer than seven towers, the name has inspired speculation and argument. The December 2004 tsunami briefly exposed the beachfront near Saluvankuppam (now north of Mahabalipuram), revealing inscriptions and structures. Badrinarayanan said in a BBC report that they dated to the 9th century and may have been destroyed by a 13thcentury tsunami. The tsunami also revealed large structures on the seabed about a kilometer offshore, which archaeologists speculate may be the ancient Mahabalipuram. According to a Science article, the tsunami exposed rocks with an "elaborately sculpted head of an elephant and a horse in flight", "a small niche with a statue of a deity; another rock with a reclining lion", and other Hindu religious iconography. Marine archaeologists and underwater diving teams have explored a site east of the Shore Temple, one of the monuments, after the 2004 tsunami. This has revealed ruins of fallen walls, a large number of rectangular blocks and other structures parallel to the shore, and the forty surviving monuments. Pallava Constructon: Mamallapuram became prominent during the Pallava-era reign of Simhavishnu during the late 6th century, a period of political competition with the Pandyas, the Cheras and the Cholas and spiritual ferment with the rise of 6th- to 8th-century Bhakti movement poet-scholars: the Vaishnava Alvars and the Shaiva Nayanars. Mamallapuram's architecture is linked to Simhavishnu's son, Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE), who was a patron of the arts. Mahendravarman's son, Narsimha Varman I, built on his father's efforts and most scholars attribute many of the monuments to him. After a brief hiatus, temple and monument construction continued during the reign of Rajasimha (or Narasimhavarman II; 690-728). 141 Mid-20th-century archaeologist A. H. Longhurst described Pallava architecture, including those found at Mahabalipuram, into four chronological styles: Mahendra (610-640), Mamalla (640-670, under Narsimha Varman I), Rajasimha (674-800) and Nandivarman (800-900). K. R. Srinivasan described it as reflecting three styles and stages of construction, calling the third period the Paramesvara style. This chronology has been the subject of scholarly disagreement. Some scholars, such as Marilyn Hirsh in 1987, have said that the earliest temples are traceable to about 600 (under the poet-king Mahendravarman I). Other, such as Nagaswamy in 1962, have said that King Rajasimha (690-728) was the probable patron of many monuments; many temple inscriptions contain one of his names and his distinctive Grantha and ornate Nāgarī scripts. The monuments at Mamallapuram are generally dated by scholars to the 7th and 8th centuries. 1913 photo of the five-ratha group 142 Arjuna’s penance from 1885 The monuments are a fusion of religion, culture and legend relating to the Hindu religious pantheon. They are expressions through rock or inside boulders, on a grand scale, integrating nature and sculpture. The site has about forty monuments, in varying degrees of completion, categorized into five groups:  Rathas: chariot-shaped temples  Mandapas: Cave temples  Rock reliefs  Structural temples  Excavations There are ten major rathas, ten mandapas, two rock bas-reliefs and three structural temples. The monumental plan is based on a square and circle, or stacked squares (producing a rectangle). The reliefs, sculptures and architecture incorporate Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism, with each monument dedicated to a deity or a character in Hindu mythology. The 143 monuments are a source of many 7th- and 8th-century Sanskrit inscriptions, providing insight into medieval South Indian history, culture, government and religion. Ratha temples The ratha temples, in southern Mahabalipuram, are carved in the shape of chariots. Their artists used naturally-occurring blocks of diorite and granite in sand, carving legends in stone.[3] The best-known are the five monolithic structures projecting above the beach, known as the Five Rathas or the Pandava Rathas; in the Mahabharata, the Pandavas are five brothers and their common wife, Draupadi. Although the symbolism and grouping of the temples have led to these popular names, they are neither true rathas nor dedicated to the Pandavas; they are temples dedicated to deities and concepts of the Shaivi, (Shiva), Vaishnavi (Vishnu) and Shakti (Durga) traditions of Hinduism. These rathas are dated to the 7th century. The five-ratha group is on a north-south axis with the Dharmaraja Ratha on the south, followed by the Bhima, Arjuna and Draupadi Rathas; the latter two share a common platform.[45] There is a lion west of the Arjuna-Draupadi platform, a seated bull on its east and a standing elephant on its southwest. The Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha is northwest of Bhima Ratha and southwest of Arjuna Ratha, behind the elephant. The cross-sectional axis of the Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha is in the centre of the group. All the temples have a west entrance except the Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha, which has a south entrance. The pancha rathas, viewed from the northwest The rathas have common elements. Each is on a moulded plinth, with or without ganas; according to George Michell, above this plinth the "walls divide rhythmically into a number of projections and recesses between pilasters" (producing niches).[46] Sculptures are within the niches, and the more-important sculptures have makaras on their brackets. Above them are eaves, sometimes decorated with human faces. Mouldings were added up to the parapet. The upper level repeated (at a reduced level) the lower-level design or was capped with curved roofs. WE will take only 1 as an example: 144 Dharmaraja Ratha is a monument in the Pancha Rathas complex at Mahabalipuram, on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, in the Kancheepuram district of the state of Tamil Nadu, India. It is an example of monolith Indian rock-cut architecture. Dating from the late 7th century, it is attributed to the reign of King Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I (630–680 AD; also called Mamalla, or "great warrior") of the Pallava Kingdom. The entire complex is under the auspices of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). It is one of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram that were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1984. Resembling a chariot (ratha), it is carved out of a single, long stone of pink granite. Though sometimes mistakenly referred to as a temple, the structure was not consecrated because it was not completed[6] following the death of Narasimhavarman I.The structure is named after the eldest of the Pancha Pandavas, of epic Mahabharata fame, though this nomenclature is not supported by its iconography. It is dedicated to Shiva. Quasimonolithic temple The structure is located at Mahabalipuram (previously known as Mammallapuram) on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal in Kancheepuram district. It is approximately 35 miles (56 km) south of Chennai (previously known as Madras), the capital city,[ while Chengalpattu is about 20 miles (32 km) away. Like the other four Pancha Rathas, Dharmaraja ratha was built from stone, a replica of a wooden version which preceded it. The temple is incomplete. All the Pancha Rathas are aligned in a north-south direction and share a common plinth. They have no precedent in Indian architecture and have proved to be "templates" for building larger temples in the South Indian tradition of Dravidian temple architecture. Though cut out of monolithic rocks, they are carved in the form of structural temples in regular building form and hence termed as "quasimonolithic temple form. There are more than 1,500 known rockcut structures in India. Many of these structures contain artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient and medieval structures represent significant achievements of structural engineering and craftsmanship.[4] The effort expended often astonishes visitors, but seen from one aspect, a rock-cut structure is a decorated rock quarry; most of the stone removed was typically put to economic use elsewhere. In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred places. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were believed to be as sacred as natural caves. The sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free-standing ones, was designed to have the same cave-like feeling, as it is generally small and dark, without natural light 145 Dharmaraja Ratha is the most prominent architecturally of the five rathas and also the tallest and largest. The ratha faces west and is sculpturally very rich. It has three floors including the ground floor. The plan of the ground floor measure a square of 28 feet (8.5 m) and has a height of 35 feet (11 m) from ground level to the top of the roof. It is open on all four sides and the facade on all sides are supported by two pillars and two pilasters with the corners forming an integral part of the support system for the upper floors. Carved out from a single rock of pink granite, along with other three rathas on a single block of stone oriented in a north-south direction, it is a trithala or three-story vimanasquare in plan, with open porches and a terraced pyramidal tower and an octagonal shikhara (pinnacle) at the top. Small-sized model shrines called kudus make up the ornament of the upper part of the tower. There are many sculptures on the corners of the sanctum, which depict Shiva; Harihara, BrahmaSasta, Skanda, Brahma, Ardhanarisvara (half Shiva half Parvati) and Krishna[ are depicted alongside an inscribed portrait of a king, indicated to be Narasimhavarman I, who commissioned the temple. The shafts of the pillars are supported by seated lions. The second floor contains rich imagery, with further depictions of Shiva as Gangadara and Natesa, and Vishnu resting on Garuda and Kaliya Mardhana. The upper-mid level has carvings of aspects of Shiva and Vishnu, suggesting that the artists revered both Hindu traditions. Included on this level are Nataraja (dancing Shiva), Vinadhara (Shiva with Veena), Gangadhara (Shiva bringing the Ganges from heaven to earth), Vrishbhantika (Shiva with Nandi), Kankalamurti, Chandesa and Vishnu. The uppermost level has carvings of Dakshinamurti (Shiva as guru or teacher), Surya and Chandra. 146 Drawings of the temple interior made in 1880 Section of Dharmaraja Ratha, Panikkar, K. M. (1880) The Cave Temples of India James Burgess and James Fergusson. Section by R. Chisholm 147 At 148 The Somaskanda panel is significant because it dates the temple to the early 7th century. It differs from those created in the Rajasimha period, and resembles those created during the early Pallava era and mirrors the Dharmaraja Ratha; the decoration and structure of the cornice, kudus and haras are similar. However, its shikhara is hexagonal. The walls of the ratha are carved into panels with fourteen sculptures. Four are dvarapalas (Vishnu, a rishi with a student, Kartikeya—or Indra—and Shiva with Nandi), and the rest are humans at various stages of life. Arjuna Ratha has a lion and Nandi on each side between it and the adjacent Draupadi Ratha, but their orientation suggests that the ratha was not dedicated to Shiva. According to Susan Huntington, the temple may have been dedicated to Ayyappan. Its shikara is round. The monument looks odd from the side, partly because its original pillars were replaced with modern ones which do not fit the texture (or style) of the originals. An elephant stands northwest of Arjuna Ratha. Mandapa is a Sanskrit term for a typically-square vestibule, pillared hall or pavilion.It was a space for people to gather socially, usually for ceremonies and rite-of-passage rituals. Cells or sanctums would often be included, creating a vihara. Mandapas also refer to rock-cut cave temples or shrines, built according to the same concept, and Mamallapuram has many 149 mandapas dated to the 7th and 8th centuries. The Mamallapuram cave temples are incomplete, which has made them a significant source of information about how cave monuments were excavated and built in 7th-century India. Segments of the caves indicate that artisans worked with architects to mark off the colonnade, cutting deep grooves into the rock to create rough-hewn protuberances with margins. The hanging rocks were then cut off, and they repeated the process. After the excavation, other artisans moved in to polish the rocks and begin the creation of designs, motifs, friezes and Hindu iconography. The process of producing rock-cut cave temples influenced later structural Hindu temples. 150 CHAPTER V Hindu temples as a Mandala It is generally held that the mandala-in particular the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala, the mandala associated with vāstu (inhabited or built site)-has played a determining role in the genesis of architectural form in India. Within more popular, and less circumspect, writings, this influence is held to be directly formal; the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala is traditionally drawn within a square grid, and any sign of an orthogonal planning or a grid-like layout is taken to be a sign that the form in question was based upon the mandala. In investigating the foundations of such a belief, this paper reviews two bodies of literature. The first is modern art-historical scholarship, an examination of which shows that the idea of a morphogenetic mandala emerged only recently, and that it was not so much culled from the traditional writing as constructed afresh by art historians such as Kramrisch. The other body of literature examined is that of the traditional writings on architecture, many of which are cited as key sources of evidence for this idea. Here it is argued that there is almost no direct evidence for the use of mandalas in laying out complexes or designing buildings, and that such ideas of the use of mandalas rest on several assumptions that must themselves be questioned.1 151 The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara ( Śikhara ), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak" The role accorded to Mandala in Temple architecture of hIndus whether in Inia or Cambodia or Indonesia( but not Bali) is peculiar.It is generally held that the mandala-in particular the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala, the mandala associated with vāstu (inhabited or built site)-has played a determining role in the genesis of architectural form in India. Within more popular, and less circumspect, writings, this influence is held to be directly formal; the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala is traditionally drawn within a square grid, and any sign of an orthogonal planning or a grid-like layout is taken to be a sign that the form in question was based upon the mandala. In investigating the foundations of such a belief, this paper reviews two bodies of literature. The first is modern art-historical scholarship, an examination of which shows that the idea of a morphogenetic mandala emerged only recently, and that it was not so much culled from the traditional writing as constructed afresh by art historians such as Kramrisch. The other body of literature examined is that of the traditional writings on architecture, many of which are cited as key sources of evidence for this idea. Here it is argued that there is almost no direct evidence for the use of mandalas in laying out complexes or designing buildings, and that such ideas of the use of mandalas rest on several assumptions that must themselves be questioned. 2 1. INTRODUCTION Almost all religious theories of the oriental civilization believe in the existence of a center from which everything instigates. This center is a point called the bindu. In Sanskrit, it is also referred to as ‘dapsa’ and ‘avayava’ meaning the physical body. Originally, the Supreme Reality represented by the symbol of the universe is the bindu as a central point of a circle or a triangle. It is the manifestation of creative dynamism. It also means the vibratory sound – the cosmic sound that relates to unconditional consciousness. In Hindu philosophy, the “bindu” forms the central part of mandala which is the cosmic model that organizes the spiritual world. For centuries, this formed the basis of creating architectural spaces through the construction of temples and other religious cultural structures. The model interweaves natural elements essential for human survival and healthy spatial organization. The present research is the continuity of work since 1980 when the first temple of Vellore was documented as part of a student project. Further literary interest in bindu and mandala 152 led to the investigation of these principles through practice and the maiden venture was the IGNCA Cultural Center in New Delhi in the year 1986. Though partially successful through practice, the concept of “bindu and mandala” has a great potential in the realm of sacred architecture and can reinvigorate architectural spaces to bring sacredness and well-being. 2. MANDALA AND THE BINDU In Tantric philosophy, the moon or the indu is also associated with the basic concept of the bindu. Drops of dew located in the pinnacle of the body i.e. head is believed to be a manifestation of the bindu. The goal of the person practicing yoga is to attain liberation or moksha as a result of which the dew drops which are as cool as the moon melts and flows through the entire body. Voidness or sunnya is also represented by the bindu as it occupies a minute unit of space in a unique place. The second most important component of the mandala diagram is the nabhi. Nabhi or navel is the straight line that is generated when the bindu moves in a particular direction. Bindu or the center of the universe or of the body is considered to be the nabhi. This is also defined as the hub of a wheel i.e. Nabhi Chakra which comprises of three parts. Firstly, the center point around which everything revolves called the bindu. Secondly, the thick circular part to which the spokes of the wheel are fixed. And thirdly, the spokes itself or aras. According to the Vaishnavaite mythology, Lord Vishnu or the protector of life is also referred to as Padmanabha (Padma – lotus), which means “one with lotus flower sized navel”. It is believed to be the center of creative energy. The phenomenal universe is symbolized by Lord Brahma also known as God of creation emerging from the navel of Lord Vishnu. Some cultures in the oriental region believe that the mandala is represented as a lotus. The lotus, when represented as a central portion of the chakra, exposes three divisions –the karnika or the pericarps, the kesara or the filament and the petals. Hindu mythology regards the lotus as a symbol of the pedestal or the throne of Gods. In the practice of yoga, the ultimate aim is to focus the concentration on the central point of the nabhi to attain a greater level of realization. The third major component that forms the mandala is the chakra, which is nothing but a circling wheel with a center and circumference. It is the symbolical representation of the universe. The center of the wheel, which represents 153 complete emptiness, is imagined to possess the characters of dukha (pain) and sukha (pleasure) symbolized by black and white respectively. 3. THE SRI YANTRA AND THE BINDU What are yantras? How is it useful? Generally, Yantras are machines, they are used to worship the Navagrahas, elements, gods and goddesses in homes or at a temple. In Hinduism, each deity has a specific yantra. Usually, yantras are used for embellishing of house entrances and temple floors. Each deity yantra has its own significance. These yantras are used for gaining success, wealth, power, and to get protection from evil forces and negative energies. These sacred yantras are instruments to increase human life in various dimensions. Each yantra is made for specific purposes. There are various kinds of yantras like a simple triangle, upward facing triangle, downward-facing triangle, mixed triangle yantra, etc. According to ancient scriptures, these yantras represent the divinities and cosmic powers. The word meaning of Yantra is ‘Yam’ means to sustain, element or concept. And ‘Tra’ means Expansion. It is one of the aspects of Tantra and works for the picture of a deity. Types of Yantras Generally, we have 56 Yantras and they have miracle benefits. Usually, Yantras are defined as visual mantras. From ancient days onwards, these yantras are used to 154 remove the malefic effects of the evil and strengthen to positive powers. List of yantras are described below. 1. Sri Yantra for learning, wisdom, creativity, finance, beauty, spiritual enrichment . The Sri Yantra representing the “Evolution of Life and Involution of Life” Nine interlocking triangles around a bindu represent the Sri Yantra. It is also called a Navayoni Chakra because of the presence of nine (nava) triangles (yoni). Out of these nine triangles, five of them point downwards symbolize Sakti (feminine energy) and the remaining four points upwards symbolize Siva (masculine energy). The Sri Yantra shows the various stages of Sakti’s descent in expression. The para bindu is the first stage of manifestation represented by a point being the nucleus of condensed energy. It represents the static and dynamic aspects of Siva and Sakti in one. 155 Creation begins when this transforms into apara bindu when the center swells and becomes a form of a triangle. The interaction between the static and dynamic energy results in the formation of a triad – the Mula – trikona or the triangle. [3] Figure 2. (From Left to Right) Trailokya- Mohana Chakra; Sarvasaparipuraka Chakra; SarvaSankshobhana Chakra; and Sarva- Saubhagyadayaka Chakra Figure 3. (From Left to Right): Sarvartha- Sadhaka Chakra And Sarvarakshakara Chakra; Sarva- Rogahara Chakra; Sarva- Siddhiprada Chakra; and Bindu: Sarva- Anandamaya Chakra 156 There are nine circuits that constitute the Sri Yantra from the outer plane to the bindu. The outermost periphery of the yantra consists of four gates located in the centers of the sides of a square and these are coloured white, red and yellow. Also called bhupara this is the ground plan of the Sri Yantra. There are three concentric circles inside the square called mekhala. The space between the square and the circles is the Trilokya-mohana or the Enchantress of the Triple World and this represents the stage when one is infatuated by objectives and 157 wishes. Sarvartha-saddhaka meaning Accomplisher of All Purpose and Sarvarakshakara meaning Giver of Protection represent a period of self-realization and these two chakras are constituted of ten triangles each. Sarva – rogahara or the Remover of all Desires and Ills is the next chakra constituting eight triangles and represents the period of the inner circle of realization after freeing oneself from worldly ties. The Giver of All Accomplishments or the Sarva-siddhiprada is the stage just before realization and is represented by an inverted triangle. Colouring all the triangles red as they represent radiant energy reflects the dynamism. The culmination results in the last chakra, which is the bindu itself known as Sarvaanandamaya, which means Full of Bliss. This is the state when one participates in the union. This is represented as colourless as the point is light itself. The Science of Yantras Sadhguru: A yantra literally means a machine. A machine is a combination of very purposeful forms. If you make some forms very purposefully and assemble them together – ten gear wheels for instance – it becomes a machine. A yantra is a form, simple or complex, towards a certain purpose. A combination of yantras becomes a larger yantra – a larger machine. If you look at the human form, it is a phenomenal machine - the most sophisticated machine on the planet. Yet, as children, we have all wanted a bicycle, which is a much simpler machine than a human being. Why? A human being’s two legs are great mobility-wise, but to go faster than that, we need an additional yantra. So as kids, a bicycle was the thing, and we thought that with a bicycle, life was made. That yantra, the bicycle, created such a phenomenal impact. Later on, we saw somebody driving around on a Yamaha motorbike and suddenly that was the yantra to have. And still later, somebody rode past you in a Mercedes car. Suddenly, you wanted that yantra. Similarly, we have yantras which enhance our "mental-scape" too. A computer is a product of our minds, but still, if we are asked to multiply 1736 with 13,343, we reach for a calculator – a yantra. Everything that the calculator has, the mind has. It is not that the calculation is not possible in the mind. It is, but this purposeful form or yantra allows us to use our body in a much better way; a yantra allows us to enhance the physical body we have. A machine is useless without the human being. It only enhances the human being. Even though you already have the body – a phenomenal yantra – with you, as your aspirations and activities increase and go beyond a certain scope, you will go on adding more and more yantras. This is because it is possible to perform different types of activities better with specific machines for those activities. That is how it is with the Linga Bhairavi yantra. This is another kind of yantra or machine. Yantras can be of a physical form or energy form; both may function a little differently, but they do function towards the same goal. 158 The Linga Bhairavi yantra is designed and structured in such a way that it enhances certain dimensions of your life. It has a certain kind of impact on your system, on the space in which you live, and upon the direction and destiny of your life. In earlier times, the process of building temples was fundamentally to create such powerful yantras for everyone. Temples were powerful yantras that the whole town could benefit from. In South India, the Pancha Bhuta temples, the five major temples that were built in South India, were not for any god but for the five elements of nature: earth, fire, air, water, and space. These temples were positioned in such a way that the most significant temple, the base temple was on the magnetic equator – not the geographic equator, but the magnetic equator that passed through Tamil Nadu. The other four temples were built in proper alignment to the base temple so that the whole region benefited from this magnificent yantra. Creating such yantras was the basic aspect of this culture. In every town, first a temple – a phenomenal yantra – was built. Those who built these temples might have lived in huts themselves, but it did not matter to them because they knew that as long as they made this yantra work, their life would be good. Maintaining public yantras for everyone has become more and more difficult in today’s world, so more private things were created. The Linga Bhairavi yantra is one such thing. It is a very powerful, personalized tool in the sense that it creates a certain space and an atmosphere in your home so that your wellbeing is naturally taken care ohttps://isha.sadhguru.org/in/en/sadhguru/mystic/science-of-yantra ARCHITECTURE OF VASTU PURUSHA MANDALA AND THE BINDU Vastu Purusha Mandala can be explained as the diagram of the universe in miniature. The word mandala in Sanskrit means a circle. It can be explained as a cosmic diagram that possesses radial symmetry. Purusha can be explained as a cosmic man, an embodiment of pure consciousness. Also represented as a masculine divine he is contained in a square grid showing his union with the feminine divine or the Earth Mother. Thus, Vastu Purusha Mandala can be explained as a harmonious unification of the masculine divine and the feminine divine or the cosmic energy and the earth energy respectively. The Vastu Purusha Mandala contains a minimum of nine sections signifying the directions north, south, east, west, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest and the center represented as square grids. In the Vastu Purusha Mandala, the Purusha’s head is located in the northeast direction and this is considered utmost sacred. In the southwest are his feet and his knees and elbows in the northwest and southeast. Kept open and clear in the center part of the diagram are his main organs and his torso. Starting from a single undivided square of 1 x 1 there are grid patterns ranging up to 32 x 32 thus making it 1024 sections. 159 Architecturally, the adaptation of the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been seen in the design of houses, palaces, temples and even cities. Integrating it into the design brings a certain amount of order in the design. Here, the squares are assumed as cubes of architectural spaces. The five elements of earth, water, fire, air and space correspond with specific sections of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. The south-west direction is associated with the element of earth(Bhumi); south-east with the elements of fire (Agni); north-east with the element of water (Jala); north-west with the element of air (Vayu) and the center space with the element of space (Akasha) . . Manduka Purusha Mandala Showing the Concentric Zones of Energy The commonly used ones are the 8 x 8 and the 9 x 9 grids. The 8 x 8 grid also called the Manduka Vastu Mandala is used mainly in temple architecture. The 9 x 9 grid also called the Parasayika Vastu Mandala is used for the design of residential spaces and spaces other than temples. The center of the mandala is both sunnya (the absolute Void) and bindu (the source of all energy). Located here is Lord Brahma (The Supreme creator.) The term Pada in Sanskrit means the section of the energy grid pattern in the Vastu Purusha Mandala. There are concentric padas of energy in the mandala. The primary source of energy 160 that is highly changed is in the center called the Brahma Pada. The Deivika pada around this is the luminous space. These two padas should be kept free of no walls. The conscious space or the Manusha Pada surrounds the Deivika Pada. Finally, the material space encompasses all of it and is the Paisachika Pada. These two padas are for the built structure and human occupancy. MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the 8 x 8 grid or the Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the workability of the mandala design throughout India. Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of universal theories which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be thought of as diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the primary aim of the tradition. The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the mandala were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion between God and man. MANDALA AND BUDDHIST TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE The mandala in Buddhism is a cosmic model depicting Buddha’s dwelling place as the center of the universe. Like in the Hindu temples, the structuring of the Buddhist temples has also been predominantly based on the spiritual model of the mandala. Illustrations can be seen both in the form of two-dimensional mandalas as well as three-dimensional mandalas. The two-dimensional mandalas which are drawings composed of squares and concentric circles could be temporarily painted on various material or drawn on the ground or sand or other natural substances using coloured powder. Customs involving ceremonious gatherings along with prayers and chantings while drawing the mandalas are believed to alleviate difficulties and be of greater good to an individual or a community. These ceremonies could even last up to a number of days. Three-dimensionally, the mandala diagram becomes a visual model of the built environment. In the Buddhist worship place, the central space is significant having a statue of the Buddha 161 fronted by a worshipping space surrounded by walls. This is encircled by a circumambulating space. The circumambulation pathway is a space of psychological awakening before reaching the spiritual pinnacle. INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL CENTER FOR THE ARTS, 1986, NEW DELHI – COMPETITION DESIGN (1985 – 86) The IGNCA was a pioneering work by author1 which involved intensive experimentation on the phenomenology of the Sri Yantra. The idea of “Evolution of life and Involution of Life” with interconnecting courtyards to bring life to architecture has been attempted in this competition project. Bindu here is the propelling force generating space and life. Here the mandala and the bindu is in three-dimension with the mandala rising above the sea level to be a visual spectacle defining the solid cube and its framework. The ritual pathway from the entry point contains the narrative and progresses to the main mandala. The plan of the museum is the Sri Yantra which is the representation of life from bindu and the unfolding universe. The memorial is primarily a cultural model represented through the mandala. The position of the bindu in the Vastu Purusha Mandala as the seat of Lord Brahma symbolizes creative life. The process of bindu as a point and reaching the ultimate form of a mandala signifies the bindu’s transformation to mandala and back. This proves the theory of ‘Evolution and Involution.’ Bindu and mandala have inspired artists and architects in isolation. But the author experiments with the process itself by manifesting the philosophy through architectural form finding which is significant to spirituality and the context of the practice. The study of bindu and mandala and its interpretation into architecture can be a convenient way theoretically to root the design in tradition. It is important to balance this transformation to architecture with contemporary design. Without careful consideration, the outcome could be superficial. In architecture, sacral space can exist everywhere whether it is religious or non-religious. It becomes a difficult task for architects to create this space which takes on different meanings in different situations. It is culturally fluid and socially adaptable. Such a space is a meaningful fourth dimension of architecture which is both visible and invisible. And the most potent definition to support this idea can be found in Vedas, which defines this space as, “Space is that, which accommodates space”. 162 The word mandala is a Sanskrit term that means “circle” or “discoid object”. A mandala can be defined in two ways: externally as a schematic visual representation of the universe and internally as a guide for several psychophysical practices that take place in many Asian traditions, including meditation. Proposed site plan of IGNCA, New Delhi 163 Mandalas are objects of devotion in Tantric Hindu and in Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana Buddhism) and they are also used in Jainism. They can be painted on paper, wood, stone, cloth or even on a wall. In some traditions, they can be reproduced in ephemeral material such as butter or coloured sand. In some traditons like Tibetan Buddhism, the role of mandalas is so strong that it could become an architectural structure and even whole temples may be built as giant mandalas. The methods used in creating mandalas are very precise and merged with different rituals including the chantings of sacred formulas. Mandalas may be based on or include a variety of geometric shapes using patterns that have evolved from different symbols. Symbology of Mandalas Sometimes mandalas are associated with a symbolic palace. In the centre of the mandala lies the palace, which has four gates oriented to the four quarters of the world and is located within several layers of circles that form a protective barrier around it. Each layer symbolizes a quality (e.g. purity, devotion) that one must obtain before accessing the palace. Depending on the tradition it belongs to, inside the palace the mandala has symbols associated with different deities or cultural symbols such as a thunderbolt (symbol of the male), a bell (symbol of the female), a wheel (symbol of the Buddhist Eightfold Path) or a diamond (symbol of a clear mind) among others. On other occasions, mandalas can represent a particular deity or even a group of deities (which could number a few or even thousands). In these cases the deity or main deity is placed at the centre of the mandala, while other deities are placed around the central image. The main deity is considered the generative force of the mandala and the secondary deities are seen as manifestations of the power of the core image. Uses of Mandalas In the many traditions where mandalas are used, there are different rites where the practitioner, at least metaphorically, establishes a dialogue with the symbol or deity at the core of the mandala by moving progressively from the outside towards the centre. Once within the centre, the practitioner connects with the central symbol or deity and he or she is able to perceive all manifestations as part of a single underlying whole and gets closer to the goal of enlightenment or perfect understanding. 164 Tibetan Star Mandala The Vajrayana Buddhist school (Tantric Buddhism), has a very complex set of rituals. In order to help the disciples to gain enlightenment, they use a wide range of physical disciplines and tools including mandalas. This school believes that achieving enlightenment by traditional methods requires a very long time, even many lifetimes, while the methods used in Vajrayana can deliver the same result in just a single lifetime. History, Symbolism, and Uses Mandalas are believed to represent different aspects of the universe and are used as instruments of meditation and symbols of prayer most notably in China, Japan, and Tibet. 165 In their most basic form, mandalas are circles contained within a square and arranged into sections that are all organized around a single, central point. They’re typically produced on paper or cloth, drawn on a surface with threads, fashioned in bronze, or built in stone. While extraordinary as a standalone work of art, mandalas hold symbolic and meditative meaning beyond their vibrant appearance.A mandala is a spiritual and ritual symbol in Asian cultures. It can be understood in two different ways: externally as a visual representation of the universe or internally as a guide for several practices that take place in many Asian traditions, including meditation. In Hinduism and Buddhism, the belief is that by entering the mandala and proceeding towards its center, you are guided through the cosmic process of transforming the universe from one of suffering into one of joy and happiness. A Brief History of Mandalas Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born in the region now known as Nepal. Though there is no confirmed date of his birth, historians believe it to be around 560 B.C. It is understood that Gautama left his kingdom after becoming aware of human suffering, where he sought to attain enlightenment through meditation and thoughtful action. He began to preach his philosophy across parts of India, where he gained devout followers and eventually established the first sangha, Buddhist community of monks. As these Buddhist monks travelled the Silk Road, an ancient network of trade routes that connected the East and West, they brought Buddhism to other lands. They carried mandalas with them and brought the practice of painting these spiritual compositions to other parts of Asia, appearing in regions such as Tibet, China, and Japan by the 4th century. Though rooted in Buddhism, mandalas soon became present in Hinduism and other religious practices. Painters of the spiritual craft were often pious laymen, who were commissioned by a patron. They worked seated on the floor with a painting propped in their laps or in front of their crossed legs. Types of Mandalas There are various types of mandalas found in different cultures and used for a multitude of purposes, both artistically and spiritually. Below are three main types of mandalas and how they are used. 1. Teaching Mandala Teaching mandalas are symbolic, and each shape, line, and color represents a different aspect of a philosophical or religious system. The student creates his or her own mandala based on 166 principles of design and construction, projecting a visual symbolization of everything they have learned. Teaching mandalas serve as colorful, mental maps for their creators. 2. Healing Mandala Healing mandalas are more intuitive than teaching mandalas, and they are made for the purpose of meditation. Healing mandalas are intended to deliver wisdom, evoke feelings of calm, and channel focus and concentration. 3. Sand Mandala Buddhist monks and Navajo cultures have long used sand mandalas as a traditional, religious element. These intricate designs use a variety of symbols made from colored sand that represent the impermanence of human life. Symbolism in Mandalas Chakrasamvara mandala. Sold for $4,750 via Bonhams (June 2016). Within their intricate circular patterns, you can find common symbols throughout mandalas. Traditionally, they include the presence of Buddha’s mind in an abstract form, most commonly represented as a wheel, tree, flower, or jewel. The center is a dot, which is a symbol considered free of dimensions. It is interpreted as the starting point, the beginning of contemplation, and devotion to the divine. From there, the dot is surrounded by lines and geometrical patterns that symbolize the universe, encompassed by the outer circle which represents the cyclical nature of life. Some common symbols within the mandala include:  Wheel with eight spokes: The circular nature of a wheel works as an artistic representation of a perfect universe. The eight spokes represent the Eightfold Path of Buddhism, a summary of practices that lead to liberation and rebirth. 167  Bell: Bells represent an openness and emptying of the mind to allow the entrance of wisdom and clarity.  Triangle: When facing upward, triangles represent action and energy, and when facing downward, they represent creativity and the pursuit of knowledge.  Lotus flower: A sacred symbol in Buddhism, the symmetry of a lotus depicts balance. As a lotus reaches up from underwater into the light, so too does a human reaching for spiritual awakening and enlightenment.  Sun: A popular basis for modern mandala patterns, suns tend to represent the universe, often carrying meanings related to life and energy. How Mandalas Are Used Mandalas are used for a variety of religious traditions, meditation, and modern contexts. The traditional Tibetan mandala, found in Buddhism, depicts the enlightened state of Buddha through sand art. Patterns are formed on the ground using metal and a small tube to create the exact texture and organization of the grains. Creating this can take weeks, and shortly after it’s complete, it is destroyed to align with the Buddhist belief that nothing is permanent. As it relates to modern context, mandalas are used in a variety of ways. In yoga, mandalas represent the same ancient ideals; signifying a sacred space to shut away external influences. Often, mandalas are positioned around the studio and sometimes even drawn during meditation periods. Similarly, mandala art is used in healing circles, a practice that derives from Native Americans. The circles are often associated with the restoration of the body, mind, and heart. Mandalas have also been found in dream catchers as a means to protect the individual sleeping. A popular item in Western cultures, you can easily identify the shape and patterns of a mandala within most dream catchers. A spiritual symbol in Asian art, mandalas have since become a popular, meditative element for a variety of different cultures. In Hindu and Buddhist cultures in particular, mandalas and thangkas serve as a representation of the universe and a guide on the path to enlightenment. We’ve since seen the geometric design appear in yoga studios, dream catchers, healing circles, and other meditative practices. The habit of creating and collecting mandalas is a transformative practice that is intended to restore inner peace and wisdom within. The literal meaning word Mandala means circle, and circle mandalas are also one of the most commonly available form of mandalas. Circles have very powerful significance in countless 168 religions and traditions, primarily Hinduism and Buddhism. We first saw their emergence in regions across the Himalaya and India, where people used the artistic expression of mandalas to form symbolic relationships between the universe and the spirit. Ancient Hindu scriptures depict mandalas as a period of creativity, of powerful existence, and a symbol of deeper connection with the self and the universe at large. In modern day, mandalas have become a popular symbol of meditation, which aids in enhancing focus, silencing thoughts while meditating, combatting stress and anxiety, appreciating the beauty of nature, and forming a greater connection with oneself. T R A D I T I O N A L M E A N I N G S A C R O S S C U L T U R E S Most of the mandala patterns and designs that have risen to popularity in the modern world trace their roots back to Tibetan Buddhist cultures, where spiritual significance represents the purity and sacredness of existence, as highlighted by the Buddha. These mandalas can be described as highly complex paintings with captivating detail vibrantly rich colours that depict the cosmological traditions of Hindus and Buddhists. In Hinduism, mandalas are a tool to view the spiritual universe, and represent the cycle of occurrence, reoccurrence and existence. Many of these designs are symbolic of Hindu deities, such as Ganesha, Saraswati and others. Carl Jung, a popular Swiss psychoanalyst, was the first to introduce mandala to western thinkers and scholars after becoming fascinated by the therapeutic powers. He believed that mandalas where symbolic of the psychological and spiritual self, and they lead to greater awareness of life and spirit. This ancient Eastern art is an extremely popular expression that helps countless individuals regain their focus, their confidence, and their concentration by forming a deeper connection with their real self. Modern consumerism has associated mandalas with the bohemian lifestyle, thus marking its emergence in home décor, fashion, accessories, beauty and other aspects of our life. These beautiful designs can be used to brighten up our home and help us achieve our goals of greater personal growth. We are going to walk you through the most common mandala designs and their spiritual significance. The beautiful lotus flower has deep-rooted significance and symbolism in Asian cultures, particularly the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. In Buddhism, the lotus is regarded as a symbol of leaving behind the material world and forming a spiritual union with the universe at large. 169 It can also be seen as a symbol of enlightenment, as the Gautama Buddha was said to have used the lotus to demonstrate how the soul can never become burdened by the dirt of the body like the lotus can never be touched by the dirt of the soil. In Hinduism, the Lotus is a symbol of the virtues of the human soul, and how it can break down all physical barriers that limit its ascension. It is also a symbol of creativity and wealth, often associated with deities like Lakshmi, the goddess of money, and Sarasvati. Lotus Mandalas are extremely popular in meditation designs for they promote greater spiritual growth and aid in actualizing enlightenment. Experts believe that the most spiritually beneficial form of the lotus mandala contains 1,000 petals, however, artists often find it hard to incorporate so many petals into the complex designs of mandalas. Therefore, the number of petals is reduced to symbolise the sacredness of the design. 1. Sri Yantra – Featuring sixteen lotus petals that are circled by a very complex design of intermingling triangles, the Yantra is a symbol of awareness without dichotomy. 2. Garbhadhatu Mandala – This design is symbolic of the Buddhist Womb Realm, the dwelling place of several Buddhist deities from the Japanese and Chinese sects. 170 3. Nava Padma Mandala – This exquisite lotus design features a huge flower in the centre, and it is very popular in Parameshwara ceremonies. 4. Ganesha Yantra – Symbolic of the Hindu deity Ganesha, it features him sitting on a lotus revealing his true spiritual state. 5. The Trident Yantra – This design features a peace-symbolising lotus with a pointed trident to demonstrate the relationship between the phenomena of war and peace. E L E P H A N T M A N D A L A S The elephant symbolises great power and strength, and the resolute nature that refuses to yield its conscience. In Buddhism, the gray elephant is regarded as a sign of a mind that is yet to be trained and one that is likely to be distracted from the road to enlightenment. While the white elephant represents the state of true enlightenment, which can only be achieved by 171 controlling one’s thoughts and practicing mindful meditation. Experts agree that the elephant mandalas represent both physical and mental capabilities to highlight the true strength of the soul. It is also regarded as a symbol of fortune, material growth, luck and rain. It can be seen as a form of the Buddha and the Hindu deity Ganesha. The Elephant has strong significance in Buddhism for the Buddha Shakyamuni was said to have born in the form of an elephant, and when he acquired enlightenment, he turned into a white elephant. The elephant also happens to be one of the Seven Royal Symbols. Elephant mandalas have become extremely popular in Western cultures and they are increasingly being associated with bohemian lifestyles, clothing staples, home décor, posters, and lots more. The Elephant mandala design was first introduced in Western society by the prominent psychoanalyst, Carl Jung, as he realised the potential of personal growth and spiritual development that this design offers to individuals with complex personalities. Mostly, people find themselves attracted to the plethora of bright colours and the complexity of elephant mandala designs, but experts believe that exploring the deeply embedded meanings behind this design can make a person much more aware of their own spirituality, thus actualizing greater inner peace. F L O W E R M A N D A L A S The Flower of Life features a complex geometric design where countless overlapping circles are arranged in the appearance of flower petals. These designs are said to have originated in Northern Africa and Mesopotamia, while some can even viewed on Egyptian temples of Osiris. Experts are unclear about the exact symbolism of the flower, but modern users believe that it is a scared geometric shape that promotes focus and concentration during meditation by eliminating distractions. Often, the Flower is compared to the mandalas commonly used in Hinduism and Buddhism because of its overlapping circles and flower-like design. Modern artists and spiritual healers agree that it is a powerful tool for spiritual growth. Basically, the Flower represents the existence of all creation in the universe, thus making it a powerful symbol of enlightenment and greater spiritual growth. It represents the Tree of Life, which symbolises both, our material reality and non-physical growth. It is often regarded as a route to travel through various dimensions to form a connection with your soul and attain completion. Flower Mandalas are also associated with unlocking good health and a mindful lifestyle, which makes them perfect for all artistic uses, be it tapestries, curtains or other home décor 172 inspirations. It doesn’t have any specific religious ties, so you can even wear it as clothing staples or accessories. C I R C L E M A N D A L A S Circle mandalas are undoubtedly the most attractive and common designs and they are famous for their power of drawing in the onlooker to an extent that we imagine ourselves dwelling within the design of the mandala. Basically, this is a reaction that we all experience while viewing circles, which is why circle mandalas are extremely effective at encouraging and inspiring. The circle itself is symbolic of the wholeness of the man, and it represents the entirely of our psyche, to exhibit the divinity of the Self. Carl Jung, a prominent psychoanalyst, was responsible for introducing the therapeutic benefits of mandalas, especially mandala colouring, and he was a huge proponent of using circle mandalas for their spiritual healing powers. In most cultures, the circle is a symbol of unity, wholeness and oneness, and it also symbolises the womb, motherhood and the act of nurturing. Experts believe that in mandalas, the circle symbolises both, new beginnings and a state of completion. If you are seeking a circle mandala to boost concentration and enhance focus, invest in a Bull’s eye mandala design, as it features circles within circles, which will draw your attention instantly. It can help you focus your attention during meditation, along with generally aiding in enhancing your focus and concentration abilities. Experts believe that various circle mandalas have various different symbolisms. For instance, 173 the five-fold Celtic, which features four circles that form a fifth circle in the centre, can be a symbolism of the compass that points out all the directions: east, west, south, north and the centre. Similarly, it can even be a symbolism of the four seasons, while the fifth circle symbolises transit, or it could even be a symbol of the elements: air, water, earth, fire and aether. You can pick out circle mandalas in countless colour combinations, shapes, patterns and mediums, for it has emerged as an extremely expressive and popular form of artistic inspiration. It can painted, drawn, printed, and even used in collages, fiber art, fabric art, and sculpturing. You can add it to clothing, home décor, curtains, tapestries, table runners, banners, and a lot more. For its beauty and intricacy will amplify the attraction of anything and everything it is added to. Circle mandala designs have grown extremely popular in jewellery, and if you’re a true bohemian at heart, you must invest in some pendants and earrings featuring colourful circle mandalas. You can pick out these designs made with intricate beads, rare gemstones, metals, Silver filigree, strings and even tassels. Colouring circle mandalas has been associated with countless therapeutic benefits, be it for fighting off anger, regaining focus, calming away stress or eliminating anxiety. You can also reap these benefits by hanging colourful circle mandalas in your study area, balcony, and other areas where you work, meditate or practice yoga. 174 G E O M E T R I C M A N D A L A S It is believed that geometric mandala designs are giving a deeper spiritual symbolism for observing the mechanisms of nature, along with the inner and external structures of the human body. Thereby, these complex designs allow thinkers to form a deep connection with man, nature and spirit. Geometry can take the shape of anything and everything in nature, be it tiny shrub, a coastline or an attractive landscape. The foundation of sacred geometry is taken from the magic circle, which is a representation of spiritual energy in countless religions and cultures across the world. All mandalas are based on a circle, and then infused with other designs to form a deeper meaning. Geometric mandalas are said to vary according to various cultural and religious significance, but there are several designs that have become increasing popular for their countless meditative benefits. When creating a geometric mandala, one has to start from the centre, allowing the geometric shapes to radiate from the centre. Often we see a torus, which is basically an amalgamation of two circles that rotate from the same centre. The Egyptian pyramids are also a common design, featured as right-angled triangles infused with other shapes. We also see platonic solids, polygons and other shapes used to build up and fill up the geometric patterns. In other designs, the flower is created to surround the design with overlapping circles, which is extremely famous in accessories and jewellery items. If you prefer a more simple design, you can pick out geometric mandalas featuring simple lines. If you are seeking a geometric mandala design to achieve meditative benefits and become more grounded as a person, it is highly advisable to first understand the purpose behind the design. We suggest you to start your journey with simple design, rather than complex designs that might complicate things unnecessarily. Geometric patterns are extremely popular for their modern minimalist vibe, and you can even use them as tapestries, curtains and other home décor uses. According to David Tee - AncientPages.com - According to Hindu writings the Christians believe that the earth is the center of the universe. In contrast to this belief the Hindus believe that Mount Meru is the center of the universe and the home of their gods. In Hindu eyes, Mount Meru is quite large, extending about 84,000 Yojana high or about 672,000 miles. Because the Hindu and other eastern religions adore Mount Meru, they feel that the sun and all the planets in the solar system orbit it. 175 Left: A mountain. Credit: Public Domain. Right: Bhutanese thangka of Mount Meru and the Buddhist universe, 19th century, Trongsa Dzong, Trongsa, Bhutan. Credit: Public Domain According to Jain mythology, there are two sets of suns, moons and stars that circle Mount Meru. While one set is working, the other place rests in the shadow of the mountain which to them measures about 100,000 Yojans wide. The Importance Of Sacred Mount Meru For the Hindus, Mount Meru is the Earth’s axis. Without it the earth cannot rotate. Also, they view the mountain as the home of the gods with the important ones having their own separate kingdoms somewhere along its great height. The followers of each of these important gods go to those celestial kingdoms to rest and wait for their next reincarnation. This transfer takes place after the worshipper has died. The Mythological Characteristics Of Mount Meru Because it is thought of as the center of the universe and a sacred place, Mount Meru has a lot of mythological characteristics attached to it. First, it is so high that the mountain touches heaven. Then the polar star shines directly above the mountain, giving it a more sacred appearance. 176 Second, it is said that the River Ganges comes to the mountain as one river. Once it hits Mount Meru, it divides itself into 4 separate rivers. Third, there are 4 cities filled with inhabitants on each side of the mountain; one for each side. It is said in ancient myths that these inhabitants see the sun all the time in the center and always working. The sun only appears to rise and set to those who do not live on the mountain. Also, there is one lord of the heavens, God Indra, and he lives at the peak. Four celestial kings live on Mount Meru, with one for each side. The Mountain extends down to Jambudvipa which itself is divided into 4 continents. What makes this important is that the southern continent of Jambudvipa was where Buddha was born. It is also where his teachings are followed. There Is Some Controversy Surrounding Mount Meru As with many myths, modern science gets in the way. Although ancient Buddhists believed the mountain was real, European visitors started to tell a different story about the earth. This story contradicted Buddha’s teaching about Mont Meru. In the Mahabharata, Meru is a mountainous land with sky-high peaks, where the main peak is Mount Mandara. The Mahabharata describes lands beyond the Himalayas: Tibet and Pamir 177 ranges, Central Asian deserts, impenetrable forests, polar regions and such arctic phenomena as the stationary Pole Star, stars that neither rise nor set, but revolve in a horizontal plane, completing a circle every 24 hours, the high-standing constellation of Ursa Major (the Big Dipper, or the Great Bear), the sun that rises only once a year, nights and days lasting for six months, the polar aurora, the long darkness region, and so on. It is mentioned that on the edge of this region Mount Meru towers with its northern slope being the Milky Ocean coast. According to the Mahabharata: On the northern side, the mighty Meru stands, shining in its great glory; Brahma’s abode is on it, where the soul of all beings resides, Prajapati that created everything movable and immovable… The great Meru, the chaste, good abode… Here (over the mountain) seven divine Rishis with Vasishtha (constellation of the Bid Dipper) at their head set and rise again. All heavenly bodies revolve around Meru. The polar star hangs on it motionlessly, while Cassiopeia and Bootes circle around it together with the Bid Dipper. Here, the day lasts for six months and the night lasts for six months, one night and one day being equal to a year. To the north of the Milky Ocean there is a big island known as Shveta Dvila (“the Radiant White Island”). This land is described as “the land of everlasting happiness”, “the tribe knows neither diseases nor age weakness”, “flocks of antelopes and birds are everywhere”, “having gone 178 there, one does not return to his world again”. It’s “the Land of the Select”, “the Land of Saints”, “the Land of Blissful”. Devas used the Meru peak as a beater for the ocean churning, which resulted in emergence of Amrita: … and started beating the water to obtain Amrita. When devas and suras churned the ocean with Mandara, the great noise began, similar to rumble of monstrous clouds. Various water inhabitants, crushed by the great mountain, found their death in the salt water. Diverse creatures of the world of Varuna, as well as inhabitants of lower regions of the world, were destroyed by the mountain, the pillar of the earth. While it was rotating, mighty trees populated by birds collided and fell from the mountain top. The fire that emerged from their friction, blazing with lightning every minute as if a blue cloud, wrapped Mount Mandara round. It burned elephants and lions that turned out to be there. All other diverse beings lost their life, too. Then Indra, the best of the immortal, extinguished that burning fire with water begotten from the clouds. Thereafter variegated secretions of mighty trees and numerous herb juices flew into the ocean waters. Devas achieved immortality exactly from drinking of those juices endowed with an immortal power, as well as from the flow of gold. A way to Amaravati – the royal city of Indgra – runs through its top. Serpent Vasuki encircles Meru. Churning of the Milky Ocean (bas-relief): Mount Mandara, Vishnu, Kurma, Lakshmi Mount Mandara, used by devas and suras for churning of the Milky Ocean, is an obvious “synonym” of the World Mountain – Mount Meru. The resemblance between the mountains is clearly seen in description given in the Mahabharata. “There is a mountain called Mandara adorned with cloud-like peaks. It is the best of mountains, and is covered all over with intertwining herbs. 179 There countless birds pour forth their melodies, and beasts of prey roam about. The gods, the Apsaras and the Kinnaras visit the place. Upwards it rises eleven thousand yojanas, and descends downwards as much. The gods wanted to tear it up and use it as a churning rod, but failing to do so same to Vishnu and Brahman who were sitting together… There is a mountain named Meru, of blazing appearance, and looking like a heap of effulgence. The rays of the Sun falling on its peaks of golden lustre are dispersed by them. Decked with gold and exceedingly beautiful, that mountain is the haunt of the gods and the Gandharvas. It is immeasurable and unapproachable by men of manifold sins. Dreadful beasts of prey wander over its breasts, and it is illuminated by many divine life-giving herbs. It stands kissing the heavens by its height and is the first of mountains. Ordinary people cannot even think of ascending it. It is graced with trees and streams, and resounds with the charming melody of winged choirs.” Description of Mount Meru in the Puranas According to one of myths, Shiva used Mandara as an axle for his chariot and an arc for his bow. As for Mount Meru, it is considered to be the centre of the earth and the universe; its top rises 84,000 leagues above the ground. The sun, the moon, planets and stars revolve round Meru. The heavenly river Ganga flows from the heaven first to this mountain, and only thereafter it flows to the world of people. On top of Mount Meru the city of Brahma is located, stretching for 14,000 leagues. Cities of Indra and other gods are situated nearby. The Bhagavata Purana describes one of the versions of emergence of river Ganga and explains how Ganga gets to various planets from the highest point of the universe. Once, when Maharaja Bali performed yajna, Vishnu came to him as Vamana and asked three steps 180 of the earth from him. His request was satisfied: in two steps Vamana crossed all three planetary systems (lokas) and pierced a hole in the universe shell with the big toe of his left foot. Several drops of water from the Primordial Ocean leaked through the hole in the shell, fell on Shiva’s head and remained there for thousand yugas. These drops of water were the sacred river Ganga. It is described that it first runs to Dhruvaloka (the Pole Star) and purifies it, then it washes planets of the seven great Rishis (Marichi, Vasishtha, Atri and others) who reside on the planets located under Dhruvaloka, and then billions of heavenly spaceships carry its waters along the ways of devas – first to the Moon (Chandraloka) and finally to the abode of Brahma, which is situated on top of Mount Meru. Here is divides into four branches – Sita, Alakananda, Chakshu and Bhadra – which flow down from Meru slopes and reach middle-level planets, one of which is the Earth. From the Himalayan peaks the river branches run down, flow through Haridvar across India plains, cleaning everything on their way. The foundation of Mount Meru rests upon the klobuk of the world serpent Shesha lying on the back of a giant turtle that swims in primordial waters. Under another version of the myth, Meru (and the earth as a whole) is supported by four elephants. In the same way gods in a Kalmyk myth used Sumer as a stick to “beat up” the Ocean and thus create the Sun, the Moon, and the stars. Another Central Asian myth reflects penetration of Hindu elements into the myth: having assumed the appearance of eagle Garida (Garuda), god Ochirvani (Indra) attacked serpent Losun in the primordial Ocean; he wound the serpent round Mount Sumer three times and broke his head. An idea was spread across Eastern and Central Asia that the main and most important pillar of the world is the mythical Mount Meru located in an inaccessible place (it was usually placed in the Himalayas). The source of such ideas was myths of Ancient India, later on adopted by Buddhism that made them very popular. Mount Meru was not only considered the centre of cosmos, but was regarded as the sacred abode of gods. In numerous legends and tales Meru was described via the brightest epithets and definitions: it was called golden, shining, brilliant, and was associated with 181 happiness, abundance and immortality. Myths draw this mountain in different ways. Buddhists often depicted it as a colossal cylinder directed to the superior height. Sometimes it was described as the pistil of lotus – the sacred flower. Likening of the cosmic mountain to a plant, i.e. basically to the World Tree, is quite interesting. An unusual feature is that the foundation and the top as if swap places, thus an impression arises that the mountain grows from the heaven. According to the Puranas, all celestial bodies rotate around Mount Meru, and almighty devas reside on its top, including Indra and Brahma. Indraloka – the abode of the main Vedic deva Indra – is situated on the very top of Meru, where there is a magnificent palace of Indra with the Soma plant growing in the garden. The sacred drink of immortality is produced of the Soma plant. Matsya Purana says: It is of gold and shines like fire with no tinge of darkening smoke. Its four sides are of four different colours. The colour of the eastern side is white like the colour of brahmans; the colour of the northern side is red like the colour of kshatriyas, the colour of the southern side is yellow like the colour of vaishyas; the colour of the western side is black like the colour of shudras. Its height is 86,000 yojanas, of which 16,000 are inside the earth. Every edge of the four sides makes up 34,000 yojanas. On the mountain, there are rivers with fresh water and marvellous golden dwellings where diverse spiritual beings reside: devas together with gandharva singers and their mistresses apsaras, as well as asurs, daytias and rakshasas. Manasa reservoir is around the mountain, and on four sides of the reservoir lokapalas live – the keepers of the world and its inhabitants. Mount Meru has seven nodes, i.e. big mountains called Mahendra, Malaya, Sahya, Shuktibam, Pikshabam, Vindhya, Pariyatra, and there are so many small mountains that it’s almost impossible to count them; these are the mountains on which people live. As for the big mountains around Meru, they include: Himavat covered with eternal snows and populated by rakshasas, pishachis and yakshi; Hemakuta made of gold, on which gandharvas reside. In Vishnu Purana, one of the most authoritative Puranas in Hinduism, containing extensive information on philosophy, cosmology and theology, there is the following information about Mount Meru: The internal shell of the world egg endowed with great Atman was Mount Meru, while mountains were its external shell; the amniotic fluid is formed of the oceans. In this egg, oh brahman, there were mountains, continents, oceans, planets, worlds, devas, asurs, and people. On its outer side the egg is covered with water, fire, air, space, and the source of 182 primary elements, the primary elements endowed with ten qualities and the great principle of creation. Such scheme of the world egg structure is common for Purana texts, epos and the Upanishads. However, the quantity and names of different worlds vary. Example of the Borubudur Temple in Central Java: Borobudur in Central Java is the world’s largest Buddhist temple. And the structure is here to stay. Borobudur has survived volcanic eruptions of Gunung Merapi, terrorist bombings and the earthquake of 2006. Rising high above the breathtakingly green rice fields and their accompanying kampung, or rice 2 villages, this monumental structure can make Indonesia’s other temples look pedestrian. It looks like an ornately carved pyramid with fortified walls surrounding the bottom and five stories worth of statues ascending to the top. In fact, the central dome is crowned by an impressive 72 Buddha statues. Perhaps the most impressive thing about the monument is that it was built by hand in the 9th century. And visitors agree — it looks like it will stand forever. I have written 3 papers devoted to this temple all as Chapters of the Book Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple published by the Inod Nordic Aythor’s Collective and available on researchgate.net and academia.edu Here we will consider a synopsis of all 3 to present the case that the Buddhist Sti=upas of Cambodia builyt around the same time as the Gigantic Hindu temples and probably designed and executed by the same or corresponding gteams present the example of the temple complex as a Mandala. The other example is the Rameshwaran]m Temple aslso written by me and available of the 2 sites mentioned above A. Borobudur Buddhist Temple Designed As Sri Chakra Meru If seen from the air and from the small reproduction of it in the museum and it was made in the form of a Hindu Meru which is a vertical representation of the Sri Yantra. Apparently this was the shape of a Buddhist mandala. The height of the whole edifice before renovation was 42 meters. Now it is only 34.5 meters since the lowest level has been used as a supporting base. 183 Two ancient Ganesha statues are at the entrance but there was a pool in front of the hotel in which you found a statue of Lakshmi which had a striking resemblance to the Chinese goddess of prosperity called Kuan. Borobudur Buddha Shrine, aerial View.Resembles The Sri Chakra 1. General Introduction: Which is a scopic review of general descriptions abpot the Temple complex with the intent of introducing it to the reader. 2. Reliefs in Borobodur Temples 3. Stupa designs 4. Design elements 5. Archaeoastronomy and the Borobodur Temples Introduction: Borobudur was probably built between the 8th and 9th centuries, and after awhile disappeared from the existence, deep beneath the layers of ash because of volcanic eruption and then abandoned by the people around a middle age. There is a study that suggests Borobudur was abandoned following the fourteenth century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java. The Borobudur should wait until the 19th centuries when Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, which during that period of time appointed as the British ruler in Java, and on 1814 informed by the native about an abandoned temple somewhere in the 184 jungle, so for the first time, the world acknowledge about its existence. And since that time, there were numerous restoration project to preserve the Borobudur, up until this time. Mysteries of the Temple Complex: There is still mystery surrounding the Borobudur, what is the exact purpose of Borobudur? If that is for religious purpose, yes, it is, indeed. One theory is the Borobudur is related to Buddhism cosmology, a Mandala, and the building represents the “three worlds’ of Buddhism cosmology, started as the ‘world of desire’ (Kāmadhātu) on the base level, then the ‘world of form’ (Rupadhatu), the the ‘world without form’ (Arupadhatu) on top. But, is there something else? As with other ancient civilizations, the forms often have metaphorical symbols, like the square shape and all the attributes in the Rupadhatu, changed into the plain circular platforms in Arupadhatu, speak about the phylosophycal of changing the world in Buddhism, as a pilgrim journeys from below, through a system of stairways and corridors with about 1500s narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades, finally reach the top level, in the world without, and we found no figurative panels at all, instead we will find Stupas there. But, do the forms & alignment of the Stupas tell something that related to the sky? That is the very question that we want to answer from our expeditions. Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, 185 how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultures". It considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of 3 phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It is often coupled with ethnoastronomy, the anthropological study of skywatching in contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice. Since the 19th century, numerous scholars have sought to use archaeoastronomical calculations to demonstrate the antiquity of Ancient Indian Vedic culture, computing the dates of astronomical observations ambiguously described in ancient poetry to as early as 4000 BC. Archaeoastronomy is sometimes related to the fringe discipline of Archaeocryptography, when its followers attempt to find underlying mathematical orders beneath the proportions, size, and placement of archaeoastronomical sites such as Stonehenge and the Pyramid of Kukulcán at Chichen Itza. Archaeoastronomy uses a variety of methods to uncover evidence of past practices including archaeology, anthropology, astronomy, statistics and probability, and history. Because these methods are diverse and use data from such different sources, integrating them into a coherent argument has been a long-term difficulty for archaeoastronomers. Archaeoastronomy fills complementary niches in landscape archaeology and cognitive archaeology. Material evidence and its connection to the sky can reveal how a wider landscape can be integrated into beliefs about the cycles of nature, such as Mayan astronomy and its relationship with agriculture Other examples which have brought together ideas of cognition and landscape include studies of the cosmic order embedded in the roads of settlements. It can be applied to all cultures and all time periods. The meanings of the sky vary from culture to culture; nevertheless there are scientific methods which can be applied across cultures when examining ancient beliefs. Alignments A common source of data for archaeoastronomy is the study of alignments. This is based on the assumption that the axis of alignment of an archaeological site is meaningfully oriented towards an astronomical target. Brown archaeoastronomers may justify this assumption through reading historical or ethnographic sources, while green archaeoastronomers tend to prove that alignments are unlikely to be selected by chance, usually by demonstrating common patterns of alignment at multiple sites. An alignment is calculated by measuring the azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and the altitude of the horizon it faces. The azimuth is usually measured using a theodolite or a compass. A compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth's magnetic field from true north, known as its magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also unreliable in areas prone to 186 magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding. Additionally a compass can only measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree. 4 A theodolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more difficult to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the scale has to be calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun. Because the position of celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth's rotation, the time of these calibration observations must be accurately known, or else there will be a systematic error in the measurements. Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or a clinometer. Solar positioning While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies throughout the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a pendulum, slowing as it reaches the extremes, but passing rapidly through the midpoint. If an archaeoastronomer can calculate from the azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to view a declination of +23.5° then he or she need not wait until 21 June to confirm the site does indeed face the summer solstice. Central Java in particular it is well endowed with Hindu and Buddhist candi, and we can assume that most (if not all) of these had astronomical associations. have already written about the orientation of the eastern gateway at Borobudur Temple alignments using Astronomy: The ancestors of the Indonesian people since ancient times used the constellation in the sky as a time marker for example, the people of Central Java observed the constellation of Orion until it rose to a certain height to determine the beginning of the farming period. Astronomy is not an invisible knowledge for our ancestors, they observe the motion of the stars, the sun and the moon as markers of time.Borobudur could have been an astronomical monument that recorded all the movements of the sky in that era. To prove it, the hypothesis starts from the shape of the temple which is quite unique. When observed from the sky, the shape is symmetrical. Floors 1 to 7 are equilateral while floors 8 to 10 are circular with the center of a main stupa with a total height of 20 meters and a diameter of 17 meters. This main stupa has a unique position, at the center of the circle of small stupas. From this symmetrical shape of the temple (like a clock) finally it is hypothesized that the main stupa of the temple has a function as a time marker. The first time marker used by humans is gomon or the sundial. The system is very simple, only a stick that is placed vertically on the ground. 187 By observing the length of the wand's shadow each time it can be drawn a wand shadow pattern. Well, this stick shadow pattern is used by ancient humans to mark the time. 5 Main Stupa of BOrobudur Temple. Credit: Irma Hariawang To test the truth of the hypothesis, the research team made observations at Borobudur Temple. Observed the main stupa shadow pattern when the sun is at the Vernal Equinox point (the point of intersection of the celestial equatorial plane and the ecliptic plane) which is 19 to 20 March. This time is considered special because on that day the sun will rise and set in the east and west true (east true & west true). Armed with these observational data, a shadow model of the main stupa is made every day of the year and corrected for measurement and observation errors. The result is the shadow of the main stupa making a distinctive pattern that falls on certain small stupa around it. Examples of practical applications such as this, if we see the shadow of the main stupa falling on Stupa 1 on level 8 then it is time to plant (for example). 6 The shadow of the main stupa in one year. giant clock mechanism. This discovery certainly must be adjusted to many factors, for example the tectonic shock factor which makes the position of the temple stupa shifted so that the fall of the shadow is no longer accurate. In addition, the mechanism of time marker that is used by the community in the Borobudur development era is not yet known, so we do not yet know for certain the stupas which are considered important and which are used as signs. 1 Relief of the Moon, 7 small circles as stars and sun on the walls of the temple. Like the picture of a constellation. Credit: irma Hariawang 7 Temple Alignments and Calendrical Links to Sun path: Amelia Carolina Sparavigna also considered the nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. Reliefs: The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa” One can see the 72 stupas on the top platform of the temple. The number 72 is equal to the even number of the days passing from the zenithal passage in October to the December solstice, and from the December solstice to the zenithal passage on the end of February or first of March. In fact, she stressed the possibility that the number of the ancillary temples or stupas in the temples of Sewu, Prambana and Borobudur, had a calendrical link to the path of the sun. There is another link concerning the mudras of the statues of Buddha. At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which 188 the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism". During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line pointing to another link to the zenith passage of the sun - an alignment of three temples, Borobodur and the satellites Mendut and Pawon temples, along the sunset azimuth on the days of zenithal sun.The three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. 2The details of the cults practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the proclaimed divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection, a possible, symbolic relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by Moens (1951). In this controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were connected by a “magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as the Buddha and as King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in the sky in one day, and thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To these steps corresponded for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur; for the east, Mendut; and for the zenith, Pawon. Although this interpretation is well known, it has never been referred explicitly to the specific days of the zenith passages, a connection which instead looks natural: if the “solar path” ritual had to be referenced 8 into in the architecture of the temples, and if the zenith culmination of the sun was, as it seems, a fundamental ingredient of the ritual, then we would expect the procession to go in the direction from sunrise to sunset, and the processional path to be oriented in such a way as to indicate the zenith sunset, as it actually occurs. Finding comparison belonging to the same cultural context would also be of help, but one the problems is that Borobodur architectural conception is almost unique. Besides the already mentioned Bayon, as far as the present author is aware the unique, vaguely reasonable comparison is the so-called 108 stupas monument, located on a hillside directly on the western bank of the Yellow River at Qingtongxia, Ningxia, China. 189 The monument of Bayon is slightly later than Borobodur, as it was constructed during the Western Xia dynasty (1038–1227 AD), as part of a greater Buddhist temple complex. It is composed by 108 stupas of sun-dried mud bricks, arranged in rows disposed in a triangular formation which narrows with height, from 19 stupas on the first row to the uppermost single one. A front view of this monument is actually quite reminiscent of one side of Borobodur. As far as the present author is aware, the orientation of the 108 stupas monument has never been studied. The azimuth is 120° which, with an horizon height close to zero, gives a impressive declination -24° that is, very close to the winter solstice sunrise. The monument is therefore, with hardly any doubt, astronomically oriented although not to the same solar phenomenon of the Borobodur axis; of course however, at the latitude of Ningxia about 37° north, zenith passages do not occur. Archaeoastronomy of the “Sun path” at Borobudur G. Magli has proposed that the line indicated the azimuth of the sunset on the days of zenithal sun (let us note that, for the line of the three temples, an alignment along sunrise was proposed too in [15]). It is easy to test the alignment proposed by Magli using software such 190 as SunCalc.org for instance. Using date 12 October, we can see the alignment. Actually, SunCalc.org and the Photographer's Ephemeris give this day for the zenith passage. Figure 2: The alignment of the three temples along the sunset on a day of zenith passage of the sun, obtained by means of SunCalc.org. For what concerns the architecture of Borobudur, let me add to the references also the very interesting article [1 on the algorithm used for building the temple.3 Borobudur has geographics coordinate 110 12 10.34 E 7 36 30.49 S. The main structure of Borobudur can be devided into three components: foot, body, and head. Borobudurs head part consist of a main stupa at the center and three terraces which is (more or less) circular in shape. Top terrace contain 16 little stupas, with radius = 24 m. Middle terrace contain 24 little stupas, with radius = 37 m. This terrace is 1.5 m lower than top terrace. Bottom terrace contain 32 little stupas, with radius = 53 m. This terrace is (also) 1.5 m9 lower than middle terrace. The stupas of each terrace distributed evenly at the edge of each terrace. The main stupa with three terraces called Arupadhatu. We suspect this Arupadhatu configuration is serve a purpose as a chronometer, with the main stupa as the gnomon. In this work we reconstruct Borobudur as if how it was suppose to looks like at the time it as built. We include cakra, part of main stupa that is now detached from main stupa for some technical reasons. Cakra adds 7.5 m to the height of main stupa, making it 20.44 m in total, relative to top terrace. Javanese culture recognize a system to track time for everyday use, known as pranotomongso. Pranotomongso use bencet (a kind of sundial) to measure time. With this in mind, we try to incorporate pranotomongso as a time tracking system to Borobudur as a chronometer. The Main Stupa of Borobudur and Pranotomongso Calendar System 505 2. the Shalivahana Shaka calendar. used in Java and Bali among Indonesian Hindus. Nyepi, the "Day of Silence", is a celebration of the Saka new year in Bali. Nepal's Nepal Sambat evolved from the Saka calendar. Prior to colonization, the Philippines used to apply the Saka calendar as well as suggested by the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. The term may also ambiguously refer to the Hindu calendar; the Shalivahana era is also commonly used by other calendars. The historic Shalivahana era calendar is still widely used. It has years that are solar. Structure: The calendar months follow the signs of the tropical zodiac rather than the sidereal zodiac normally used with the Hindu calendar. # Name (Sanskrit) Length Start date (Gregorian) Tropical zodiac Tropical zodiac (Sanskrit) 1 Chaitra 30/31 March 22/21 Aries 191 Meṣa 2 Vaishākha 31 April 21 Taurus Vṛṣabha 3 Jyēshtha 31 May 22 Gemini Mithuna 4 Āshādha 31 June 22 Cancer Karkata 5 Shrāvana 31 July 23 Leo simha 6 Bhaadra 31 August 23 Virgo Kanyā 7 Āshwin 30 September 23 Libra Tulā 8 Kārtika 30 October 23 Scorpio Vṛścika 9 Agrahayana 30 November 22 Sagitarius Dhanur 10 Pausha 30 December 22 Capricorn Makara 10 11 Māgha 30 January 21 Aquarius Kumbha 12 Phalguna 30 February 20 Pisces Mīna Chaitra has 30 days and starts on March 22, except in leap years, when it has 31 days and starts on March 21. The months in the first half of the year all have 31 days, to take into account the slower movement of the sun across the ecliptic at this time.The names of the months are derived from older, Hindu lunisolar calendars, so variations in spelling exist, and there is a possible source of confusion as to what calendar a date belongs to. Years are counted in the Saka era, which starts its year 0 in the year 78 of the Common Era. To determine leap years, add 78 to the Saka year – if the result is a leap year in the Gregorian calendar, then the Saka year is a leap year as well. Its structure is just like the Persian calendar. A model was made of the ideal Borobudur, based on the position, size and orientation of actual Borobudur. In the model, correction for precession was incorporated. This puts Borobudur at circa 800 CE, around the time it was built. A pattern of shadow of main stupa (+cakra) relative to little stupas position in each terrace (series of pictures to the right) was studied in the search for interesting pattern of the falling shadow, that could be used as a marker of time for them who use Borobudur as a chronometer . Series of shadow of main stupa for 12 mongsos. Edge of the shadows with dark color is signified the shadow of beginning of that mongso. 3. Discussion In Figure 1, we present regular pattern of the shadow cast by main stupa during each mongso. During the beginning of each mongso, the shadow falls (more or less) exactly on specific stupa(s), marked by filled red circle. From the repeating pattern we suspect that those stupas may play important role as time marker for the ancient people. To verify this, we have to figure out a mathematical pattern behind it. For this work, we just identified a specific stupas suspected as marker on specific time (mongso). Ancient Mathematics: There is an indication that ancient mathematical of sanskrit might hold the clue on astronomical calculation by ancient people. We will elaborate the mathematical sanskrit as the means to define the pattern and the specific astronomical purpose (if any) of Borobudur. Algorithmic way that was incorporated in constructing Borobudur’s architecture is a strong possibility for some issues related to the lack of standard 192 metric system attached to ancient Javanese society and the closeness of Javanese culture with the fractal geometry that also found in traditional fabric, batik. Thus, we can say that while the inspiration of the building of Borobudur temple is religious issue, i.e.: Buddhism, the architecture is more likely strongly connected to the ancient Javanese culture. Borobudur temple was built as building a single and small stupa, but the way to making it was incorporated the technique of self-similarity. However, the emerged construction is eventually a kind of algorithmic fractal 11 mega-architecture. The complexity of Borobudur is emerged from simple rules of building stupa as the fractal geometry applies. The calculated fractal dimension of Borobudur is 2.325, a number that shows the realm of the structure that is in between the two dimensional form and the three dimensional conic (or bell) shaped construction. This shows how self-similarity does exist and it is a theoretical challenge for interdisciplinary works among geometry, statistical analysis, computer sciences, anthropology, archaeology as well as mechanics to reveal deeper insights related to the dimension calculated. Fractal Geometry: While in the previous works (Situngkir, 2008) the discussions have brought us to the interesting facts related to tradition fabric that also emanated applied fractal geometry, more observation and analysis related to the fractal aspects in cultural heritage might be appealing. The self-similarity of Indonesian Borobudur Temple is observed through the dimensionality of stupa that is hypothetically closely related to whole architectural body. Fractal dimension is calculated by using the cube counting method and found that the dimension is 2.325, which is laid between the two-dimensional plane and three dimensional space. The applied fractal geometry and self-similarity of the building is emerged as the building process implement the metric rules, since there is no universal metric standard known in ancient traditional Javanese culture thus the architecture is not based on final master plan. The paper also proposes how the hypothetical algorithmic architecture might be applied computationally in order to see some experimental generations of similar building. The paper ends with some conjectures for further challenge and insights related to fractal geometry in Javanese traditional cultural heritages. Fractal structure of Borobudur was built by Modern Mathematical Sciences New mathematical calculations were used to built Borobudur Temples as far back as in the years 750 and 842. Fractals are geometric shapes that have elements similar to the overall shape. Often a fractal has a certain pattern that repeats with a recursive and iterative.Confirming the 193 hypothesis is the work of Hokky Situngkir, researcher and president of Bandung Fe Institute. According to him, Borobudur was built space that has a similarity with the elements themselves. In the Borobudur, for example, there are many forms of geometry stupa. “Candi Borobudur stupa itself is a giant in which consists of stupas of other smaller ones. Keep up to infinity,” he explains. In addition, Hokky explains, it is also verified by measurements Parmono Atmadi from UGM, which sees order Borobudur buildings that meet the elements of 9:6:4 ratio. Ratios, for example, is present at high proportions of three parts of the temple, which is part Arupadhatu (formless world) – the main stupa and stupas that form a circle, the Rupadhatu (the form) – the part that 12 covers stupas are located on the runway square shaped, and the Kamadhatu (lust of the world) – the legs. The actual stupa itself is a form of three-dimensional ellipsoid that satisfy the ratio 9:6:4. “This order we meet in all parts of Borobudur, either horizontally or vertically,” Borobudur meet the dimensional fractal dimensionality between 2 and 3.4 REFERENCES 1, Hariawang, I.I., Simatupang, F.M., Radiman, I., and Mumpuni, E.S.,2011. Orientation of Borobudur’s east gate measuredagainst the sunrise positon during the vernal equinox. In Nakamuraet al., 37–42. Hidayat, B., 2000. 2. Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. The Zenith Passage of the Sun at Candi Borobudur. Philica, Philica, 2017. ffhal-01677101f. See also The Main Stupa of Borobudur as Gnomon and Its Relation With Pranotomongso Calendar System Ferry M. Simatupang , Irma I. Hariawang , Emanuel Sungging Mumpuni1, 1Department of Astronomy, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung 40135, Indonesia and National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), Center of Space Science, Jl. Dr. Djundjunan 133, Bandung 40173, Indonesia. Proceedings of The 11th Asian-Pacific Regional IAU Meeting 2011 NARIT Conference Series, Vol. 1, c 2013 S. Komonjinda, Y. Y. Kovalev, and D. Ruffolo, eds. 3. Giulio Magli School of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy,Giulio Magli, Researchgate December 2017. 4. Borobudur was Built Algorithmically ,Hokky Situngkir Dept. Computational Sociology, Bandung Fe Institute ,Center for Complexity, Surya University 5.Borobudur Was Built Algorithmically,Article in SSRN Electronic Journal · September 2010 194 B. ANGKOR WAT HINDU TEMPLE IN CAMBODIA AS A MANDALA Temple mountain The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple. The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might served as the prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method. Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker, the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor. 195 According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls. According to the ancient texts, Mount Meru (or Sumeru, or Shumisen) is a huge, sacred golden mountain in the centre of our universe which supports the heavens and passes through the centre of the Earth. Furthermore, the supreme gods Brahma, Siva, Vishnu and the Devas (Hindu demi-gods) reside on the top of this mountain.the mountain is supposed to tower at a height of more than 1,000,000 km and is gold in colour—which of course is considered to be allegorical Many temples and ancient places were model after their abode on Mount Meru, including Angkor Wat. 196 Different levels of ‘heavens’ correspond to different heights, and different deities are said to live on the different levels. Similarly, the levels of mountain inside the Earth correspond to multiple levels of Hell. Mount Meru is guarded at the four cardinal points by four celestial Guardians who defend the world by keeping away the fallen gods (the Asuras)—similar to the fighting we see in Greek mythology with the Titans and the Olympians—and in order for humans to approach the mountain they would need to have permission from the mountain itself. During the reign of King Suryavarman II, a legend combining ocean and mountain was believed to be the foundational myth that inspired the building of Angkor Wat, as a temple to worship Lord Vishnu. Angkor Wat was a “temple mountain”, symbolic of the cosmic Mount Meru. This five-tiered temple at the centre of the universe was said to be surrounded by a moat representing cosmic oceans including the “ocean of milk”. Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, is the axis of the world. It is the abode of gods, and its foothills are the Himalayas, to the south of which extends Bhāratavarṣa (“Land of the Sons of Bharata”), the ancient name for India. The roof tower crowning the shrine in a Hindu temple represents Meru. As the world axis, Mount Meru reaches down below the ground, into the nether regions, as far as it extends into the heavens. All of the principal deities have their own celestial kingdoms on or near it, where their devotees reside with them after death, while awaiting their next reincarnation. 197 Mount Meru, in the Hindu scriptures, is depicted as a colossal, sacred mountain glittering golden in color around which the entire universe extrapolates. Or, if simply put it is construed as the center of the universe with its axis passing through the center of the earth, and as the scriptures have it, the mountain already exuberant in its description has elevated significance as it is said to support (in literal terms) the highest of the Hindu heavens. It is also the adobe to the supreme gods of the dharma, the Brahma, the Shiva, the Vishnu, the Trimūrti or the trinity of supreme divinity in Hindu dharma, and also the devas, or the demi-gods. Well, at least this is what the scriptures state in their meticulous narratives. Source The mountain is said to tower at the staggering height of 84,000 Yojana or about 1,082,000 Kilometers (single unit of the erstwhile corresponding to about 11.5 in the Kilometer scale). The figures when analyzed corresponds to 85 times the diameter of the earth, but it should not come much of as a surprise, as in these very scriptures it has been explicitly (and not to mention, in meticulous narrative) that the Sun along with all the planets in the Solar System revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit. The Lokas of Mount Meru In accordance with the very belief of the existence of a number of Lokas, or the planes; seven to be exact the different heights of the sacred mountain corresponds to different Lokas and different deities are said to reside these different levels of the mountain. To quote an Anglophile historian, who is accredited for his extensive research about the Hindu dharma, “The top of Meru is Swarga, the heavenly city of Indra, Vedic god of rain and storm, a paradise furnished with heavenly flowers and fruit and covered everywhere with bright gold dwellings.” is found in his book, ‘A Mountain in Tibet.’ Similarly, it is also stated that “The levels of mountain inside the Earth correspond to multiple levels of Hell”, which is a clear reference that “the foothills of the mountain initiate from the earth itself, but the whole of the summit (not to mention the exhilarating mountaintop) is not limited to the surface of the earth, and extends beyond” The Guardians of The Four Directions of Mount Meru Mount Meru is guarded at the four cardinal points, or in the four natural directions by four celestial Guardians who defend the world by keeping away the fallen gods or the demon gods-the Asuras. o Dhritarashtra, the King of the Gandharvas, or the Celestial musicians, in his regal appearance and majestic visage, guards the east. 198 o The Guardian of the southern side is Virudhaka, the king of Kumbhanda, one of the kinds of dwarfish and a ‘lesser diety’. His right-hand hold at the waist a long sword with the left cradling the blade across the chest, a confirmation of his regal stature. o The King of the Nagas and the guardian of the Western Direction was Virupaksha, who stands with his right hand at his waist holding a writhing snake entwined around his upper arm- no evil shall surpass- the deity stands duty-bound to the erstwhile phrase. o The Guardian King of the North is Vaishravana, a god of the lower heavenly realms and leader of the Yaksha beings. The Mysterious Mount Meru A heavily guarded mountain with multidimensional existence, one metaphor being ‘reaching the celestial stars’ with the entire universe extrapolating around it, and not to mention the adobe of the Trimurti, the Brahma, the Vishnu and the Shiva; such a mountain can be perceived and as many scholars have deemed, to be allegorical; of metaphysical and spiritual existence rather than of physical existence (and in literal terms), right? But few scholars have gone beyond the allegorical epithet of the mountain, and have tried to locate the mountain as a physical mountain. One speculation points to Mount Pamirs, in the northeast of Kashmir. Other scholars base the location on the reference to the mountain being located at the center of the earth and have speculated that Mt. Meru may exist at the North Pole. Japanese Buddhist traditions also mention Mount Meru and provide a map from the 16th century CE which locates the mountain somewhere in the Himalaya range of mountains. In the Buddhist mythology, Mount Meru exists at the same time in both the physical and the spiritual plane, and the golden palace of the gods is located on top. It is surrounded by 7 rings of golden mountains, each separated from each other by sea, and the mountain itself separates 4 main continents, one of which is inhabited by the mythical kingdom of Shambhala. It is interesting to mention here that on the Mercator’s Map of the North Pole appear 4 continents separated with water and with a mountain between them—which of course doesn’t rule out the possibility that the region was mapped according to legends. A few scholars have tried to locate the mountain as a physical mountain—probably a high one judging from the fact that the ancient Greeks believed that the highest mountain of Greece (Olympus) was where the Greek gods abide. One speculation points to Mount Pamirs 199 in north east of Kashmir. Other scholars base the location on the reference to the mountain being located at the center of the earth and have speculated that Mt. Meru may exist at the North Pole. Japanese Buddhist traditions also mention Mount Meru and provide a map from the 16th century CE which locates the mountain somewhere in the Himalaya range of mountains. A heavily guarded mountain with multidimensional existence, connections to the stars and to the center of the earth, and the residence of the supreme gods—obviously such a mountain could not exist in reality. Could it possibly be a real mountain just high enough to trigger people’s imagination by exaggerating its height, or it can be a form of energy emanating from a place that could extend throughout the heavens in a golden colour? The hypothesis of it being located at the North Pole is certainly plausible, especially if we take into account the old maps. We also should not forget the resemblance of Mount Meru with Mount Olympus. Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne style base is a common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multitiered roof, represents Mount Meru. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru,” Meru is also the name of the central bead in a mālā. ArchitectureThe five central towers of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru; Angkor,Cambodia. 200 Hindus believe that Mount Meru, a golden mountain, is the center of the universe. Mount Meru is the most sacred object in the universe because it supports the heavens and the gods. Geographically, it is said to exist at the center the universe in the waters of life, surrounded by seven concentric seas, each diminishing in size from the center. Jambudvipa, meaning the island of Jambu (role-apple) trees, rests in one of those oceans. Technically, it is the entire landmass of the earth, surrounded by mountains. The island, Jambudvipa, is divided into four parts. That part of Jambudvipa, south of the Mount Meru, is called the land of the Bharatas (Bharatavarsha), which roughly corresponds to the Indian subcontinent, where people worship gods such as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Indra, Agni and Soma. The gods reside in the heaven, on the top of the mountain, surrounded by sages, gods, celestial beings, heavenly damsels (apsaras) and the like. Mount Meru should not be mistaken as an ordinary mountain because it is so high that it reaches heaven and the pole star (dhruva) shine directly above it. The celestial river Ganges ( representing both life-energy and supreme consciousness) descents upon Mount Meru and flows in four different directions. Many stories are associated with the mountain. In the Hindu Puranas, Meru is described as a deity himself. He is a friend of Vayu, the wind god, since both are located in the mid-region (antariksha). There is a story which suggests due to a conflict between Vayu and Meru, a portion of the mountain was blown off by Vayu and fell into the ocean forming the small island south of Bharatavarsha, now known as Sri Lanka. According to the Devi-bhagavatam, on the east of Meru is located the city of Indra, named Devadhanicka, where the gods reside; on the south is the ciy of Yama, the lord of Death, named Samyamani; on the west is the great city of Varuna, named Nimnochani, where the sun sets; and on the north is the city of the Moon, named Vibhavari. The sun goes around Meru and causes the worlds and beings to remain active. Each day he travels several thousands of yojanas at the speed of 14,200,000 yojanas per second (muhurt). Those who live upon the mountain always see the sun at the center. Earthly inhabitant see the sun rising in the east and setting in the west, but those who live on the mountain see the sun always and know that it never rests.By going around Meru and travelling through the four cities that exist on the four sides of Meru, the sun creates the illusion of time and becomes the manifester of time. 201 The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath Temple of the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers. In Buddhist temples the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is an earliest example of the 5th6th century. Many other Buddhist temples took on its form such as in Thailand the Wat Arun and in Myanmar the Hsinbyume Pagoda. Geographical The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru, all references to it being as a part of the Cosmic Ocean, with several statements that say, "The Sun along with all the planets circle the mountain", make determining its location most difficult, according to most scholars. The Suryasiddhanta- Sanskrit treatise in Indian astronomy, mentions that Mt. Meru lies in 'the middle of the Earth' ("bhuva-madhya") in the land of the Jambunad (Jambudvip). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya, a ninth-century text, based on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions "Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na tu" ('Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of the Earth, but is not seen there'.) 202 There exist several versions of cosmology in existing Hindu texts. In one of them, cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south. In Hinduism Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about 1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun along with all the planets in the Solar System revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit. One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles) though its magnitude seems to differ over time periods, e.g. the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Varahamihira and slightly less so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya Purana and the Bhagvata Purana along with some other Hindu texts consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers. Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity. According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru. One description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus. Javanese legends This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned in Tantu Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript written in the Kawi language from the 15th century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes the mythical origin of Java island, and the legend of the movement of portions of Mount Meru to Java. The manuscript explained that Batara Guru (Shiva) ordered the god Brahma and Vishnu to fill the Java island with human beings. However at that time Java island was floating freely on the ocean, always tumbling and shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to nail it to the Earth by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa (India) and attaching it to Java.[31] The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain on Java. 203 Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the mount. Along with the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, Central India, and the Taj Mahal in northern India, the Cambodian Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the greatest examples of religious architecture in the whole of Asia, comparable to the finest specimens of Gothic architecture or Baroque architecture in Europe. A temple with a lost name Angkor Wat, translated from Khmer (the official language of Cambodia), literally means “City Temple.” As far as names go this is as generic as it gets. Angkor Wat was not the original name given to the temple when it was built in the twelfth century. We have little knowledge of how this temple was referred to during the time of its use, as there are no extant texts or inscriptions that mention the temple by name. The temples of Angkor, built by the Khmer civilization between 802 and 1220 AD, represent one of humankind’s most astonishing and enduring architectural achievements. From Angkor the Khmer kings ruled over a vast domain that reached from Vietnam to China to the Bay of Bengal. The structures one sees at Angkor today, more than 100 stone temples in all, are the surviving remains of a grand religious, social and administrative metropolis whose other buildings – palaces, public buildings, and houses – were built of wood and have long since decayed and disappeared.Built between roughly A.D. 1113 and 1150, and encompassing an area of about 500 acres (200 hectares), Angkor Wat is one of the largest religious monuments ever constructed. A possible reason why the temple’s original name may have never been documented is that it was such an important and famous monument that there was no need to refer to it by its name. We have several references to the king who built the temple, King Suryavarman II (1113-1145/50 C.E.), and events that took place at the temple, but no mention of its name. History of Angkor Wat The construction of Angkor Wat likely began in the year 1116 C.E.—three years after King Suryavarman II came to the throne—with construction ending in 1150, shortly after the king’s death. Evidence for these dates comes in part from inscriptions, which are vague, but also from the architectural design and artistic style of the temple and its associated sculptures. 204 Angkor wat was Originally built as a Hindu temple, as that was the religion of the region’s ruler at the time, Suryavarman II. It was dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu who is one of the three principal gods in the Hindu pantheon (Shiva and Brahma are the others). Among them he is known as the “Protector.” In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon respectively) a few kilometres to the north. Towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat gradually transformed from a Hindu centre of worship to Buddhism and statues of Buddha were added to its already rich artwork. Sacked by the Thais in 1431 and abandoned in 1432, Angkor was forgotten for a few centuries. Wandering Buddhist monks, passing through the dense jungles, occasionally came upon the awesome ruins. Recognizing the sacred nature of the temples but ignorant of their origins, they invented fables about the mysterious sanctuaries, saying they had been built by the gods in a far ancient time. Centuries passed, these fables became legends, and pilgrims from the distant reaches of Asia sought out the mystic city of the gods. Within the largest city in the world The city where the temple was built, Angkor, is located in modern-day Cambodia and was once the capital of the Khmer Empire. This city contains hundreds of temples. The population may have been over 1 million people. It was easily the largest city in the world until the Industrial Revolution. Angkor had an urban core that could easily have held 500,000 people and a vast hinterland that had many more inhabitants airborne laser scanning (lidar) research has shown. Researchers have also identified a “lost” city called Mahendraparvata, which is located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of Angkor Wat. How was Angkor Wat built? The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each of which has an average weight of 1.5 tons. The city of Angkor required more stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined. The sandstone blocks from which Angkor Wat was built were quarried from the holy mountain of Phnom Kulen, more than 50km away, and floated down the Siem Reap River on 205 rafts. Given the additional complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor was designed and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia. According to inscriptions, the construction of Angkor Wat involved 300,000 workers and 6000 elephants. Construction of the site took over 30 years and was never completely finished. To create the moat around the temple, 1.5 million cubic meters (53 million cubic feet) of sand and silt were moved, a task that would have required thousands of people working at one time. A 15-foot high wall, surrounded by a wide moat, protected the city, the temple and residents from invasion, and much of that fortification is still standing. A sandstone causeway served as the main access point for the temple. Inside these walls, Angkor Wat stretches across more than 200 acres. It’s believed that this area included the city, the temple structure and the emperor’s palace, which was just north of the temple. However, in keeping with tradition at the time, only the city’s outer walls and the temple were made of sandstone, with the rest of the structures built from wood and other, less durable materials. Hence, only portions of the temple and city wall remain. Even so, the temple is still a majestic structure: At its highest point—the tower above the main shrine—it reaches nearly 70 feet into the air. Purpose of Angkor Wat Temple Although Angkor Wat is dedicated to Vishnu, the full purpose of the temple is still debated. The building of temples by Khmer kings was a means of legitimizing their claim to political office and also to lay claim to the protection and powers of the gods. Hindu temples are not a place for religious congregation; instead; they are homes of the god. In order for a king to lay claim to his political office he had to prove that the gods did not support his predecessors or his enemies. To this end, the king had to build the grandest temple/palace for the gods, one that proved to be more lavish than any previous temples. In doing so, the king could make visible his ability to harness the energy and resources to construct the temple, and assert that his temple was the only place that a god would consider residing in on earth. 206 Mausoleum: Many scholars believe that Angkor Wat was not only a temple dedicated to Vishnu but that it was also intended to serve as the king’s mausoleum in death. If that were the case it would give the temple a funerary meaning. Symbolically, west is the direction of death, which once led a large number of scholars to conclude that Angkor Wat must have existed primarily as a tomb. This idea was supported by the fact that the magnificent bas-reliefs of the temple were designed to be viewed in an anticlockwise direction, a practice that has precedents in ancient Hindu funerary rites. Vishnu, however, is also frequently associated with the west, and it is now commonly accepted that Angkor Wat most likely served both as a temple and as a mausoleum for Suryavarman II. Eleanor Mannikka explains in her book “Angkor: Celestial Temples of the Khmer Empire” (Abbeville Press, 2002) that Angkor Wat is located at 13.41 degrees north in latitude and that the north-south axis of the central tower’s chamber is 13.43 cubits long. This, Mannikka believes, is not an accident. “In the central sanctuary, Vishnu is not only placed at the latitude of Angkor Wat, he is also placed along the axis of the earth,” she writes, pointing out that the Khmer knew the Earth was round. In addition, in her writing, Eleanor Mannikka also explains that the spatial dimensions of Angkor Wat parallel the lengths of the four ages (Yuga) of classical Hindu thought. Thus the visitor to Angkor Wat who walks the causeway to the main entrance and through the courtyards to the final main tower, which once contained a statue of Vishnu, is metaphorically travelling back to the first age of the creation of the universe. Its 213-foot-tall (65 meters) central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers and a series of enclosure walls, a layout that recreates the image of Mount Meru, a legendary place in Hindu mythology that is said to lie beyond the Himalayas and be the home of the gods. Angkor Wat itself is surrounded by a 650-foot-wide (200 m) moat that encompasses a perimeter of more than 3 miles (5 km). This moat is 13 feet deep (4 m) and would have helped stabilize the temple’s foundation, preventing groundwater from rising too high or falling too low. The galleries and the empty spaces that they created between one another and the moat are envisioned as the mountain ranges and oceans that surround Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is not only home to the gods, it is also considered an axis-mundi. An axis-mundi is a cosmic or world axis that connects heaven and earth. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King Suryavarman II and his architects intended for the temple to serve as the supreme abode 207 for Vishnu. Similarly, the symbolism of Angkor Wat serving as an axis mundi was intended to demonstrate the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s central place in the universe. In addition to envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the temple’s architects, of whom we know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that embedded in the temple’s construction is a map of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical record of the temple’s patron. Angkor Wat as a Mandala According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should also be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples become spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in other words, intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—diagrams of the universe. Carved Bas Reliefs of Hindu Narratives Visitors to Angkor Wat are struck by its imposing grandeur and, at close quarters, its fascinating decorative flourishes. There are 1,200 square meters of carved bas reliefs at Angkor Wat, representing eight different Hindu stories. Perhaps the most important narrative represented at Angkor Wat is the Churning of the Ocean of Milk, which depicts a story about the beginning of time and the creation of the universe. It is also a story about the victory of good over evil. In the story, Devas (gods) are fighting the Asuras (demons) in order reclaim order and power for the gods who have lost it. In order to reclaim peace and order, the elixir of life (amrita) needs to be released from the earth; however, the only way for the elixir to be released is for the gods and demons to first work together. To this end, both sides are aware that once the amrita is released there will be a battle to attain it. The relief depicts the moment when the two sides are churning the ocean of milk. In the detail above you can see that the gods and demons are playing a sort of tug-of-war with the Naga or serpent king as their divine rope. The Naga is being spun on Mt. Mandara represented by Vishnu (in the center). Several things happen while the churning of milk takes place. One event is that the foam from the churning produces apsarasor celestial maidens who 208 are carved in relief throughout Angkor Wat (we see them here on either side of Vishnu, above the gods and demons). Once the elixir is released, Indra (the Vedic god who is considered the king of all the gods) is seen descending from heaven to catch it and save the world from the destruction of the demons. Angkor Wat Today The Angkor Wat is the heart and soul of Cambodia and a source of fierce national pride. It continues to play an important role in Cambodia even though most of the population is now Buddhist. Since the fifteenth century, Buddhists have used the temple and visitors today will see, among the thousands of visitors, Buddhist monks and nuns who worship at the site. Angkor Wat has also become an important symbol for the Cambodian nation. The Cambodian flag has emblazoned on it the silhouette of Angkor Wat. In 1992, it was named a UNESCO World Heritage site. Although visitors to Angkor Wat numbered in just the few thousands at the time, the landmark now welcomes some 500,000 visitors each year—many of whom arrive early in the morning to capture images of the sunrise over what still is a very magical, spiritual place. Kingdom od Shiva: Mt. Kailash considered as one of the ten most beautiful mountains in Nepal and a divine mountain universally by people from all over the world. Its shape is like the pyramids in Egypt with four nearly symmetrical sides. Its glistening snow-covered top 209 makes it the most eye-catching one. Around this sacred mountain, there are five temples in total. All the temples shrouded by mystery and legends. Mount Kailash surrounded by five monasteries. These are Nyari Monastery, Drirapuk Monastery, Songchu Monastery, Gyangzha Monastery and Thailong Monastery. Nyari is the first site on the Kailash Kora and the last two are located on the inner kora. Each monastery endowed with different legendary stories and decorated by distinctive sculptures, statues, murals, thangkas and other Tibetan cultural objects. This is supremely sacred site of Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Ayyavazhi religions and billions of people. Hindus believe Mt. Kailash to be the abode of Lord Shiva, the destroyer of ignorance and illusion, resides at the summit of this legendary mountain, where he sits in a state of perpetual meditation along with his wife Parvati. They do regard that the peak Mt. Kailash as Shiva's symbolic 'Lingam' and worship Mt Kailash, which is the Sanskrit name for the mountain. Jains believe it to be the place where Rishaba, the first of the twenty-four Tirthankaras attained liberation. They call this mountain as Meru Parvat or Sumeru or Astapada Tantric Buddhists believe that Mount Kailash is the home of the Buddha Demchok, who represents supreme bliss. 210 Bonpos believe the sacred mountain to be the place where the founder of the Bon religion landed when he descended from the sky. The Bon a religion that predates Buddhism in Tibet, maintain that the entire mystical region and the nine-story Swastika Mountain are the seat of all spiritual power. Followers of Bon, Tibet's pre-Buddhist, shamanistic religion call the mountain Tise and believe it to be the seat of the Sky Goddess Sipaimen. Additionally, Bon myths regard Tise as the sight of a legendary 12th century battle of sorcery between the Buddhist sage Milarepa and the Bon shaman Naro Bon-chung. Milarepa's defeat of the shaman displaced Bon as the primary religion of Tibet, firmly establishing Buddhism in its place. While the Buddha believed to have magically visited Kailash in the 5th century BC, the religion of Buddhism only entered Tibet, via Nepal and India, in the 7th century AD. Tibetan Buddhists believe Kang Rinpoche, which means Precious Snow Mountain, is a natural mandala representing the Buddhist cosmology on the earth and regard it as the dwelling place of Demchog (also known as Chakrasamvara) and his consort, Dorje Phagmo. Three hills rising near Kang Rimpoche believed to be the homes of the Bodhisatvas, Manjushri, Vajrapani, and Avalokiteshvara. Most pilgrims to Kailash will also take a short plunge in the nearby, highly sacred (and very cold) Lake Manosaravar. The word 'manas' means mind or consciousness; the name Manosaravar means Lake of Consciousness and Enlightenment. Adjacent to Manosaravar is Rakas Tal or Rakshas, the Lake of Demons. Pilgrimage to this great sacred mountain and these two magical lakes is a life changing experience and an opportunity to view some of the most magical scenery on the entire planet. Pilgrims do focus to get in touch with nature and with the silence in the mountain Kailash. After the difficult journey getting there, then confronted with the equally arduous task of circumambulating the sacred peak. This walking around the mountain clockwise for the Buddhists, counter-clockwise for Bon adherents is Kora, or Parikrama, and normally takes three days. A few practicing secret breathing technique is Lung-gom. This will power them around the mountain in only one day. Others will take two to three weeks for the Kora by making full body prostrations the entire way. It believed that a pilgrim who completes 108 journeys around the mountain assured enlightenment. For Tibetans, pilgrimage refers to the journey from ignorance to enlightenment, from selfcenteredness and materialistic preoccupations to a deep sense of the relativity and 211 interconnectedness of all life. The Tibetan word for pilgrimage is neykhor. This means "to circle around a sacred place," for the goal of pilgrimage is less to reach a particular destination than to transcend through inspired travel the attachments and habits of inattention that restrict awareness of a larger reality........By travelling to sacred sites, Tibetans are brought into living contact with the icons and energies of Tantric Buddhism. The neys or sacred sites themselves, through their geological features and the narratives of transformation attached to them, continually remind pilgrims of the liberating power of the Tantric Buddhist tradition.......Over time pilgrimage guidebooks were written, giving instructions to pilgrims visiting the holy sites and accounts of their history and significance. These guidebooks neyigs, empowered Tibet and its people with a sacred geography, a narrated vision of the world ordered and transformed through Buddhist magic and metaphysics. From the 7th century, when Tibet began to emerge as a unified nation, the country enjoyed relative autonomy. However, in 1950, Communist China invaded Tibet. The Tibetan government, headed by the recently enthroned 14th Dalai Lama, forced to sign an agreement for the “peaceful liberation” of Tibet or face further military action. In 1959, following a failed Tibetan uprising, the Dalai Lama fled to India and established a government in exile. At that time, the Hindu pilgrimage route to Kailash closed. China abolished the Tibetan government and imposed societal changes based on Marxist principles. The situation worsened during China’s Cultural Revolution of 1966-1976, when religious practice was forbidden and Chinese forces set about destroying Buddhist and Bon monasteries, including six at Mount Kailash. In the mid-1970s, China began to soften its stance and by the '80s, Tibetans had regained some religious freedom. Monasteries that destroyed began to reopen and confiscated religious artefacts returned. Indian pilgrimages to Kailash resumed, and in 1984, the area around Kailash officially opened to Western visitors. Is Mount Kailash is the center of the world? It has been universal interest on discovering the world hidden, mysterious and unknown wisdom of Mount Kailash. Recent studies of Russians reveal that the Mt. Kailash could be a vast; it is like a human-built pyramid, the centre of an entire complex of smaller pyramids, a hundred in total. This complex, moreover, is the centre of a worldwide system connecting other monuments or sites where paranormal phenomena observed. Goole Maps and NASA pictures reveal that the Mount Kailash is the axis mundi, world axis, center of the world, and the navel of the world. A glimpse at Mount Kailash reveals that it is the centre of the Earth. 212 Both geography and mythology play roles in the sacred significance of Mount Kailash. This holy mountain rises to an altitude of 6714 meters. It cannot compete with peaks in the nearby Himalayan range, which includes Mount Everest, and its grandeur lies not in height but in its distinct shape – four sheer faces marking the cardinal points of the compass – and its solitary location, free of neighbouring mountains that might dwarf or obscure it. Vedas mentioned Mount Kailash as cosmic axis and world pillar, center of the world, and world tree. It has other names...Meru, Sumeru, Sushumna, Hemadri, Deva Parvata, Gana Parvata, Rajatadri, and Ratnasanu. Kang Tisé or Kang Rinpoche (the ‘Precious Jewel of Snow’ in Tibetan), Meru (or Sumeru), Swastika Mountain, Mt. Astapada, Mt. Kangrinboge (the Chinese name) - all these names, real or legendary, belong to one of the holiest and most mysterious mountains in the world – Mount Kailash. In religion or mythology, the world center or the connection is between Heaven and Earth. As the celestial pole and geographic pole, it expresses a point of connection between sky and earth where the four compass directions meet. The idea of the pyramid in this region is not new. It goes back to the timeless Sanskrit epic of the Ramayana. Since then, numerous travellers, especially in the beginning of the 20th century, have expressed the view that Mt. Kailash is too perfect to be a totally natural phenomenon, or at any rate give the appearance of human intervention. The interest has been universal. Is it the beauty of the mountains or the mysticism? The desire to find the remains of lost civilizations or the desire to learn how to acquire extreme power so as to govern the world? Legends of a mythic land spread throughout the centuries and became of interest to philosophers, adventurers, theologists and even… political leaders! It received many names: Shambhala, Shangri-La, etc., and many locations suggested the Tibet plateau, the Gobi desert, the Altai, but the Mount Kailash range is most frequently named. This adventure is one that tops many people’s bucket list. Those who want to climb to the top of it, all of a sudden get set to go in the opposite direction. Those who walked up the mountain, never returned. In fact, there have been no recorded attempts to climb Mount Kailash due to its near perpendicular wall faces and death-defying weather. Its distinct shape of four sheer faces marking the cardinal points of the compass. The peak is very pointed and looks like a pyramid piercing the sky. It was found that it is an extremely difficult task since the mountain is difficult of access and dangerous. This geographic site is like energy vortices that can either uplift physical and mental states or degenerate the clamber. 213 Tsar Nikolai Romanov had some connection with Tibet through the monk Badmaev, who was himself closely associated with a highly placed Tibetan, the lama Agvan Dordzhiyev, tutor and confidant of the 13th Dalai Lama. Dordzhiyev equated Russia with the coming Kingdom of Shambhala anticipated in the Kalachakra texts of Tibetan Buddhism. The lama opened the first Buddhist temple in Europe, in St. Petersburg, significantly dedicated to Kalachakra teaching. One of the Russian artists who worked on the St.Petersburg temple was Nicholas Roerich, who introduced by Dordzhiyev to the legend of Shambhala and to eastern thought. George Gurdjieff, another mystic who had some impact on Western thought, knew Prince Ukhtomsky, Badmaev, and Dordzhiyev. Gurdjieff accused by the British of being a Russian spy in Central Asia, a pupil of the mysterious Tibetans. Even Marx had contacts with Tibetan lamas, as did Lenin who met some of them in Switzerland. What were these people interested in and what attracted them to Tibet? Not only contacts with lamas, but even expeditions were organised in this area. What, for example, brought about the odd juxtaposition of Tibetan lamas and German SS officers on the eve of World War II? The search for lost remnants of an imagined Aryan race hidden somewhere on the Tibetan plateau? Or some other reason? It is known that Nazi leaders such as Heinrich Himmler believed that Tibet might harbour the last of the original Aryan tribes, the legendary forefathers of what was considered the German race whose Aryan leaders were supposed to possess supernatural powers that the Nazis thought they could use to conquer the world. Ideas about an Aryan or master race began to appear in the popular media in the late nineteenth century. In the 1890s, E. B. Lytton, a Rosicrucian, wrote a best-selling novel around the idea of a cosmic energy (particularly strong in the female sex), which he called «Vril.» Later he wrote of a Vril society, consisting of a race of super-beings that would emerge from their underground hiding places to rule the world. The Vril Society claimed to have links to Tibetan masters, apparently drawing on the ideas of Madame Blavatsky, the theosophist, who supported the existence of super-beings in a mystic land which she described in such well-known works as the Secret Doctrine. She claimed to be in telepathic contact with spiritual masters in Tibet and confirmed that she was receiving this information from them. Nikolai Roerich went to the region of Tibet where he spent several years. He may have been inspired by Kalachakra teaching and legends of Shambhala while working at the painting of St.Petersburg temple, described above. His painting “The Path to Kailash” can be seen in the New York museum dedicated to his work. He devoted many years to the search for this mystic land. 214 Several intellectuals tried to discover the world hidden, mysterious and unknown wisdom of Mount Kailash. Many researchers believe that the foot and at the middle level of the mountain has voids. The researchers found the presence of cavities inside the sarcophagus, means "flesh-eating" that serves as a refuge in which a state of deep meditation. Many of these people were ready to believe in the existence of the super-natural in whatever form – higher intelligence, power, or energy. This interest remains strong to this day in many countries, to find this axis mundi, the most powerful place, the highest power, or the hidden intelligence in whatever form it exists, if indeed it does. In 2001, the Chinese gave permission for a Spanish team to climb the peak, but in the face of international disapproval, the Chinese decided to ban all attempts to climb the mountain. What is the hidden mystery of Mount Kailash? To get authentic inform calls for a deep research. Several intellectuals tried to discover the world hidden, mysterious and unknown wisdom of Kingdom of Shiva. Many researchers believe that the foot and at the middle level of the mountain has voids. The researchers found the presence of cavities inside the sarcophagus, means "flesh-eating" that serves as a refuge in which a state of deep meditation. This adventure is one that tops many people’s bucket list. Those who want to climb to the top of it, all of a sudden get set to go in the opposite direction. Those who walked up the mountain never returned. In fact, there have been no recorded attempts to climb Mount Kailash due to its near perpendicular wall faces and death-defying weather. Its distinct shape of four sheer faces marking the cardinal points of the compass. The peak is very pointed and looks like a pyramid piercing the sky. It is an extremely difficult task since the mountain is difficult of access and dangerous. This geographic site is like energy vortices that can either uplift physical and mental states or degenerate the clamber. What does the literature say? The literature gives specific and at times startling evidence of intimate knowledge of the regions. In the Ramayana and Mahabharata, we find the older four-fold division of the earth according to their orientation to Mt. Meru or to Bharata. In these epics, Mt. Meru is a geographic reality located east of Jambudvipa (the Indian subcontinent). The Mahabharata states that Sakadvipa, Svetadvipa and the Milky Ocean are located to the east of Meru. In the eastern quarter found the location of Sakadvipa in the astrological text Brhat Parasara Horasastra. Mt. Meru equated with the North Pole. All the Puranas that mention Sakadvipa agree that the Milky Ocean surrounds the island/continent. The ethno- geographic and biogeographic material, largely agrees with the epics. 215 Rig Veda 3.23.4 states Mount Meru is the central region. The entire Cosmos divided into seven concentric island continents surrounded by oceans. It comprise of Jambudvipa, Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa, and Pushkaradvipa. They separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the preceding one. These seven intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice, wine, ghee, curd, milk, and water respectively. Jambudvipa divided into four vast regions shaped like four petals of a lotus with Mount Meru being located at the center like a pericarp. On the summit of Mount Meru or Sumeru, is the vast city of Lord Brahma, known as Brahmapuri. Surrounding Brahmapuri are eight cities - the one of Lord Indra and of seven other Devas. On the four sides of the great Mount Meru are four mountains--Mandara, Merumandara, Suparsva, and Kumuda--which are like its belts. The length and height of these mountains calculated to be 80,000 miles. Rig Veda 3.23.4 also states that east of Sumeru (Mt. Meru) is the ocean of milk, in which there is a white city on a white island where the Lord Shiva can be seen sitting with his consort Parvati. Rig Veda 9.63.5 mentioned Lord Shiva as Yogic Indra and father of Maruts is the supreme deity, son of Aditi. His home situated on Mount Meru in the heaven. The area around this great mountain is the source of four life-giving rivers; the Indus, Brahmaputra, Sutlej and Karnali, which is a major tributary of India’s sacred Ganges, begin here. Four great rivers go around the world. These are divisions of Ganges River. These are Alakananda its Sothern branch, Sita to east, which identified with Yellow River of China, the Chakshu to the west, identified with the Oxus River of Central Asia, and the Bhadra to north, identified with Ob River of Siberia. These are main rivers of Tibetan plateau in four directions. The Meru region or Ilavrita marked by four great lakes. To enhance the symbolic mysticism of the mountain as a sacred place, two lakes situated at the base of the mountain. The higher lake Manasarovar (one of the highest freshwater lakes in the world), is the sacred lake, and is round like the sun. It related to the lake Manas in the Kashmir. The lower lake Rakhast Tal (one of the highest salt-water lakes) is the devil’s lake and has the shape of the crescent moon. These two lakes represent solar and lunar forces, good and negative energies respectively. Most importantly, the lake below Mount Kailash is the origin of the Sutlej, which flow to the south and west and eventually into the Indus. It was the largest tributary of the Vedic River Sarswati and its smaller branches rising from Ambala hills in north India. 216 If we examine the region of Mount Kailash, we find that all the main rivers of north India originated nearby. Indus is the main river of western India; the Brahmaputra is the main river of east that starts to the west and east of Kailash less than hundred and fifty miles from each other. They flow in the opposite directions and then south and enter at the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal over fifteen hundred miles apart. The Ganges and Yamuna also arise from the mountains south of Kailash. Ghaghara, which identified with Vedic Sarayu. These Vedic Rivers are the primary rivers of Himalayas and cantered in the KailashManasarovar region. There is so much to learn from the Kingdom of Shiva. Kailash is a rather small member of the Himalayas. The name of this stupendous range stems from Himavat, the father of Lord Shiva's bride, Parvati. Mt. Kailash is most bewitching! Its beauty is over powering and from a spiritual point of view, it possesses a subtle magnetic vibration of a supremely high order. Mt. Kailash is the abode of Shiva and Parvati, along with Devas, Ganas, Yakshas, Yogis, Siddha Purushas and Gandharvas. Mention of the Mt. Kailash Yatra made in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Skanda Purana etc…. Kalidasa has mentioned about this holy Yatra in his Meghaduta. In the book ‘Yoga, Enlightenment and Perfection’ describing the thrilling spiritual experiences of Jagadguru Sri Abhinava Vidyatheertha Maha Swami - 35th Shankaracharya of Sri Sringeri Sharada Peetham, the Swamiji himself has stated that the night he took Sanyasam at his thirteenth year, he had a dream. “I found myself on the amazingly scenic summit of a tall, Ice clad Mountain... Though the mountain was icy I felt no cold. In front of me, I saw a huge crystal Shiva Linga... suddenly there was a great flash of light and from the Linga Lord Shiva manifested. The lord had one face and two arms”. The hill referred in this dream is of course Kailash and the crystal Linga refers to the crystal mount, which is again Mt. Kailash. He liberated while alive. Very few get to even hear of such a state and after hearing about it a much smaller fraction can comprehend it. To understand such a mindset requires a dimensional change in the manner of attitudes. The kingdom of Shiva possesses a subtle magnetic vibration of a supremely high order. It is a mountain of solid gold shining as brilliantly as fire. It is of 21,778 feet high. It is square with four sides larger at the top than at the bottom. It surrounded by these eight mountains. On the southern side of Mount Meru are two mountains named Kailash and Karavira, which extend east and west for 144,000 miles, and on the northern side, extending for the same distance east and west, are two mountains named Trisrnga and Makara. The width and height of all these mountains is 16,000 miles. On the eastern side of Mount Meru are Jathara and Devacuta, which extend to the north and south for 144,000 miles. Similarly, 217 on the western side two mountains are Pavana and Pariyatra, which also extend north and south for the same distance. Kila+ Asa is Kailash. Kila is really and Asa is seat, hope, desire, space, and region. Kailash is a particular form of temple, mountain peak in Himalaya. It also means “crystal,” the 'Treasure or Saint of Snow Mountain' and is a “precious jewel of snows.” The kingdom of Shiva is an entire complex of smaller pyramids, a hundred in total. This world pillar is mysterious mountains in the world, all earthly forces of power and greed forever sealed, and knowledge kept hidden. The universe is made of many such worlds. Its four sides are made of four different precious substances: the south of lapis-lazuli, the west of ruby, the north of gold and the east of crystal and the southern side of Mount Meru is blue, this explains why the seas around and the sky above us are blue. The shine of the blue lapis-lazuli reflects on the marine waters in front. Each of Mount Kailash's faces reflects different moods. The southern face fully covered with snow It reflects majesty or splendour. The shadow cast by the rocky outcrops on it draws a huge swastika, the seat of all power. An aura of compassion and benevolence is enveloping on the western face. The northern face is stark, forbidding, and daunting, whiles the eastern, only visible from a long way off, and is mysterious and distant. Upon hitting the surface, it reflects and appears in the space above. So rather than there being something blue above us, the space appears blue because of the reflection of the lapis-lazuli. Similarly, the oceans and the sky are respectively red, yellow, and white in the West, North, and East directions of Mount Meru.At the foot of the mountain at about 15, 000 feet is Lake Manasarovar, a fifteen-mile-wide circle of deep blue, which is the feminine complement to the male symbol that is the mountain. Kailash and Mansarovar Yatra by Helicopter designed to all the pious pilgrims who cross-oceans and continents in order to have a glimpse of the abode of Lord Shiva in a short time and a bit easy way. Yet, Kailash visited by no more than a few thousand pilgrims each year. This curious fact explained by the mountain's remote location in far western Tibet. No planes, trains or buses journey anywhere near the region and even with rugged over-land vehicles the journey still requires weeks of difficult, often dangerous travel. The weather, always cold, can be unexpectedly treacherous and pilgrims must carry all the supplies they will need for the entire journey. Only the enlightened mind, free from the passions can claim the Kailash as it is not possible with physical body. The person who destroyed the ignorance and illusion can reach Kailash within the mind, the Manas as the source of soul and takes a dip in the Manasarovar as the 218 consciousness. Just as the physical mountain, Kailash considered as the center of the known world, so Shiva is the center of the Self. Reaching calls for complete surrender of all the mental passions. To understand such a mindset requires a dimensional change in the manner of attitudes. The kingdom of Shiva is the abode of Shiva and Parvati and their children and constant companion of Nandiswara and Sevita Sivani along with Devas, Ganas, Yaksha, Yogis, Siddha Purusha and Gandharvas. An aerial view of Angkor Wat demonstrates that the temple is made up of an expansive enclosure wall, which separates the sacred temple grounds from the protective moat that surrounds the entire complex (the moat is visible in the photograph at the top of the page). The temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a passageway running along the length of the temple) with a central sanctuary, marked by five stone towers. The five stone towers are intended to mimic the five mountain ranges of Mt. Meru—the mythical home of the gods, for both Hindus and Buddhists. The temple mountain as an architectural design was invented in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian architects quite literally envisioned temples dedicated to Hindu gods on earth as a representation of Mt. Meru. The galleries and the empty spaces that they created between one another and the moat are envisioned as the mountain ranges and oceans that surround Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is not only home to the gods, it is also considered an axis-mundi. An axis-mundi is a cosmic or world 219 axis that connects heaven and earth. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King Suryavarman II and his architects intended for the temple to serve as the supreme abode for Vishnu. Similarly, the symbolism of Angkor Wat serving as an axis mundi was intended to demonstrate the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s central place in the universe. In addition to envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the temple’s architects, of whom we know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that embedded in the temple’s construction is a map of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical record of the temple’s patron. Angkor Wat as a Mandala According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should also be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples become spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in other words, intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—diagrams of the universe. Angkor Wat Today Angkor Wat continues to play an important role in Cambodia even though most of the population is now Buddhist. Since the 15th century, Buddhists have used the temple and visitors today will see, among the thousands of visitors, Buddhist monks and nuns who worship at the site. Angkor Wat has also become an important symbol for the Cambodian nation. Today, the Cambodian flag has emblazoned on it the silhouette of Angkor Wat. At the magnificent temple of Angkor Wat, World Monuments Fund is restoring the Churning of the Sea of Milk Gallery. Rainwater and harmful salts have leaked through the roof of the gallery, which forms the south half of Angkor Wat’s prominent east façade, damaging the fragile surface of the frieze. Without treatment, the deterioration will increase at an alarming rate, risking the eventual loss of what most historians regard as the most ambitious and finely produced stone sculptures in Khmer art. 220 According to the Brahman idea, the world consisted of a central continent, with Meru, the cosmic mountain, rising at its center. This continent was encircled by six concentric rings of land, separated by seven oceans, the outer one of which was enclosed by a rock wall. It is fascinating that the structure of Angkor Wat represented that cosmology. The central temple of Angkor Wat represented Mount Meru (where Hindu Gods reside), the pivot of the world. Its five towers symbolized Meru’s five peaks; the enclosing walls presented the mountains at the edge of the world and the surrounding moat represented the cosmic green ocean beyond. The Hindu concept of mandala was depicted in Angkor Wat. With the 4 gates of the mandala resembling the gates at the Angkor Wat and the concentric squares ultimately leading one to the centre (the central tower), this temple is a perfect physical depiction of the mandala and the universe.In fact, it can even be interpreted that Angkor Wat was built to show a physical evidence of a mandala, thus helping to ‘educate’ and confirm the Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and ideologies to the people back then. According to the Hindu myths, Brahma (God of Creator) placed a lion at the doorway of his palace as its guardian. Therefore, when the people of Angkor built temples which symbolized Mount Meru, the lion statues were placed so that they could guard the home of the Gods. Angkor Wat also had a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of temples. It is a characteristic of South Indian architecture and the fact that this structure was present at Angkor Wat shows that Angkor Empire’s architecture was influenced by the Indian architecture. However, in India, there are no temples that are pyramid shaped and topped with five towers. This is a unique aspect of the Khmer architecture and is extraordinary as its symbolism of the temple mountain portrays the Indian ideas better than other symbols used in India itself. While Angkor Wat depicts the Hindu cosmology and influence from India, there are indeed traits of distinctive Khmer architecture. 221 Gopura at Angkor Wat The Significance of 108 The story also contains significant numerological symbolism. The two teams consisted of 54 devas and 54 asuras. The number 108 is highly important in Hinduism. All Hindu eras, or yugas, are comprised of large numbers divisible by 108, while mantras are often repeated 108 times. The number is considered as a ‘building block’ of the universe.Thanks to modern-day science, we know that the sun is 108 times the diameter of the Earth, while the moon’s diameter times 108 is the distance between the moon and the Earth. At Angkor, the early mountain temple of Phnom Bakheng had its central sanctuary surrounded by 108 smaller ones. 222 223 224 In Buddhism Mount Meru is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts. It forms part of the Buddhist universe and is depicted in the Buddhist Mandalas as the center of the universe. It is also 225 referred to as Mount Sumeru. The Buddhist texts also mention its dimensions. It is said to be about 84,000 yojanas ( about 8500) miles in distance. Indra, the lord of the heavens lives on the top of the mountains while four heavenly kings reside on four sides of the mountain. Sumeru, as such is surrounded by seven concentric rings of mountains, each in turn separated from the next by seven perfume laden oceans.According to Buddhist cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the world and Jambūdvīpa is south of it. It is 80,000 yojanas wide and 80,000 yojanas high according to the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam and 84,000 yojanas high according to the Long Āgama Sutra. Trāyastriṃśa is on its peak, where Śakra resides. The Sun and the Moon revolve around Mount Meru and as the Sun passes behind it, it becomes nighttime. The mountain has four faces, each one made of a different material— the Northern face is made of gold, the Eastern one is made of crystal, the Southern one is made of lapis lazuli, and the Western one is made of ruby. In Vajrayāna, maṇḍala offerings often include Mount Meru, as they in part represent the entire universe. It is also believed that Mount Meru is the home of the buddha Cakrasaṃvara Tibetan Cakrasaṃvara Maṇḍala with Mount Meru in the centre. A mural depicting Mt. Meru, in Wat Sakhet, Bangkok, Thailand. Tibetan Buddhist embroidery representing Mount Sumeru. Phnom Kulen also called Kulen Mountain – meaning Mountain of Lychees – is a sandstone plateau located 40 km northeast of Angkor Site. The plateau extends over an area of 25 by 10 km, with an altitude ranging from 300 to 487 m. It is considered as a holy mountain in Cambodia. It has a religious significance for Hindu and Buddhist people who make pilgrimages there. Its symbolic importance comes from the fact that the mountain was the birthplace of the ancient Khmer Empire. Indeed, it is the place where King Jayavarman II was crowned Devaraja (god-king) and where he proclaimed the independence from Java in 802 AD. On the top of the eastern plateau is a little pagoda that houses a Reclining Buddha, directly carved in the sandstone. This Buddha lies on his left side, which is unusual in the traditional iconography. 226 On the central part of the mountain are located the sites of the “river of a thousand lingas” and Kbal Spean. The site also contains waterfalls in which swimming is allowed. In many ancient civilizations, people worshipped many animals as a reincarnation of divinities. Among them, the turtle is a common one, which is considered as a sacred reptile that represents the universe in ancient Chinese and Indian cultures. They symbolise longevity, power and fertility. The other Sanskrit term for turtle is Kashyapa, which is the ancestor of all living creatures including plants. The recent unearthed turtle stone statue at Srah Srang reservoir at Angkor, calls for a visit into the mythology of this sacred reptile, in the context of Angkorian culture. Indeed the choice of the turtle as an animal-icon by the ancients seems logical, because of the robustness of their thick carapace and longevity – as their lifespans can go beyond 100 years. Like the Chinese say: “The white crane lives 1,000 years and the turtle 10,000 years”. They are worshiped also because some believe that they symbolise wisdom and knowledge. They embody the ocean, the moon, the earth, time, and immortality. The ancients believe that the magical power of turtles was most likely associated with the creation of the world,because of their power to bear the burden of the world, similar to Atlas in Western mythology. Indeed the choice of the turtle as an animal-icon by the ancients seems logical, because of the robustness of their thick carapace and longevity – as their lifespans can go beyond 100 years. Like the Chinese say: “The white crane lives 1,000 years and the turtle 10,000 years”. They are worshiped also because some believe that they symbolise wisdom and knowledge. They embody the ocean, the moon, the earth, time, and immortality. The ancients believe that the magical power of turtles was most likely associated with the creation of the world,because of their power to bear the burden of the world, similar to Atlas in Western mythology. As such, sacred turtle representation is common at Angkor. They appear either as large carved stone statues, like the one that was unearthed recently at Srah Srang, or small votive sculptures when they are used as offering at the foundation of many temples. But the best 227 representation containing a sacred turtle is in the form of narrative bas-reliefs – carvings on the walls of Angkor Wat that tell mythical stories. As such, sacred turtle representation is common at Angkor. They appear either as large carved stone statues, like the one that was unearthed recently at Srah Srang, or small votive sculptures when they are used as offering at the foundation of many temples. But the best representation containing a sacred turtle is in the form of narrative bas-reliefs – carvings on the walls of Angkor Wat that tell mythical stories. “Churning of the ocean of milk” known in Sanskrit as the Samudra Manthana, is narrated in various ancient Sanskrit sacred texts about Hindu mythology. They explain the origin of the Amrita, the famous nectar of immortality. Texts such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Vishnu Puranas were read by scholars of the royal court of ancient Angkor. They are represented as bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat with the largest one (48.5 by 2.4 metres) shown on the wall of the third enclosure of the temple. Smaller scenes are represented at the Southwest corner pavilion and at the southern gateway of the cruciform pavilion. The protagonists and elements of this legend include the Mount Mandara as the churning post, four-armed Vishnu holding the Naga Vasuki playing the role as the rope around the post for the churning, which is operated by the Devas and Asuras at opposite sides of the post. The Mount Maranda is supported by Kurma Raja or Turtle King serving as a stabiliser, during the millennial churning process to release the Amrita under the divine control of Lord Vishnu. In this sacred endeavour, Turtle King as a powerful avatar of Vishnu, symbolises the sacred and creative power ultimately needed to generate the Amrita. Beyond its roles on the sacred legends of Angkor, turtles serve many other purposes in the belief system of modern Cambodia. Turtle release in religious rituals to gain merits is still common and were conducted at the royal court and various Buddhist temples of the Kingdom. Oddly paradoxical, in modern Cambodia and many other Asian countries, turtles have lost their sacred status and have sadly turned into a mere meat ingredient for soup, to boost longevity. The appetite for these shelled reptiles has fuelled an intense illegal wildlife trade that threatens their survival. The recent unearthing of the sacred turtle at the Srah Srang excavation site is a powerful reminder that Kurma Raja, our Turtle King, was worshipped as a guarantor of the grandeur and immortality of our great Angkor civilization. This symbol of our glorious past may inspire a revival of spiritual respect towards Kurma Raja by modern Cambodians and contribute to the protection of this endangered species. 228 REFERENCES 1. The myth of the Angkor sacred turtle,Chhem Rethy / https://www.khmertimeskh.com/722450/the-myth-of-the-angkor-sacred-turtle/ Satellite image of Angkor Wat – The temple (Mount Meru) is in the center 229 B. The Borobodur Temple (Stupa) as a MANDALA Empires such as Bagan, Ayutthaya, Champa, Khmer, Srivijaya and Majapahit are known as "mandala" in this sense. Our temple is the second largest Buddhist temple in the world after Angkor Wat. Constructors erected this monument in the shape of a mandala and an opening Lotus flower on a square base (118 x 118 m) that smoothly turns into a circle.1 230 Borobudur has eight tiers: the five lower ones are square, whereas the three upper ones are round. The shape of the building itself resembles a mandala and represents a scheme of the universe according to Buddhist beliefs, where heaven and earth are united. On the upper tier there are 72 small stupas around a big central stupa. Every stupa is bell-shaped. Inside the stupas, there are Buddha statues. 231 The temple complex contains 1,460 bas-reliefs with religious motifs. Relief panels describe the world of passions and the world of human perceptional development. Gradually ascending the helical serpentine road, a traveller perceives the world of matter and reaches the spiritual world. The temple structure may be divided into three components:  the temple base,  the temple summit.  the temple body, The temple base is 118 x 118 m in width and 4 m in height. It is made of smooth plates with three tiers and 20 corners. The temple body consists of five square platforms-tiers: the higher one ascends the smaller every next tier is. The very first platform of the “monument body” is located 7 metres away from the edge of the base. Every subsequent platform is shifted 2 metres relative to the previous platform. The temple summit consists of three rounded platforms, on which 72 small stupas and the main stupa in the centre are installed. The central stupa is the highest point of the monument, towering 35 metres above the temple foot. It represents a bell-shaped stupa, 7 metres in height, topping the huge pyramid. 1.The lowest level of the temple complex, called Kamadhatu, represents the world of passions. 160 images of sensory manifestations have not been preserved to nowadays – we know about the existence of those from ancient manuscripts only. 2.The second level – the five tiers called Rupadhatu – symbolizes the real world and contains religious themes. The entire history of Buddhism is reflected in sculptures and bas-reliefs. Here, there are 432 Buddha statues: 104 on the first and second terraces (each), 88 on the third terrace, 72 on the fourth, and 64 on the fifth. 3.The remarkable beauty is completed by the three upper rounded terraces. This is the Arupadhatu level. There are 32 stupas on the lowest terrace, 24 on the middle, and 16 on the upper. A naturalsized statue of Buddha is inside each of the stupas. The largest stupa – the symbol of eternity – finishes the building. 32+24+16 = 72: an interesting interpretation of the structure of the world. 232 10 th: The most interesting is the secret of the “tenth terrace”. It was discovered totally accidentally that bas-reliefs are carved under the ground on Borobudur base walls, just like on the six lower terraces of the stupa. About 1,500 square metres of valuable bas-reliefs have turned to be hidden under the ground. The lower tier of the bas-relief describes the afterlife, and we can assume this was the reason why human eyes were not supposed to see it. An enormous piece of work was deliberately concealed from people, since only all-seeing deities could admire the bas-reliefs. 233 There is an assumption that Borobudur was constructed in a shape of Buddha sitting on a Lotus flower. In 1949 geologists discovered deposits that were interpreted as the bottom of a lake. There is a probability that the temple complex was located on a lake. By the constructors’ plan, the entire magnificence of the temple was above the lake surface, and Buddha statue crowned the entire structure. 234 Buddhist monks who were building Borobudur implemented the idea of “a bible in stone”, having left the knowledge to descendants for many centuries. Images on the walls told about Buddha’s life. Following the way along the galleries, a person approached enlightenment. In order to read this textbook in stone, one needed to cover almost 5 km. Visitors covered the way to the very top of the temple, moving clockwise through all the eight tiers. Every platform represents a stage of education on the way of transition from the earthly plane to the heavenly plane.2 Biggest Mandala in the world Borobudur is biggest Mandala in the world, when You see from sky You can see the Mandala, if You see further, You can see 3 Temple in one straight line ( Mendut Temple, Pawon Temple and Borobudur Temple ) betwen that, there is Elo river and Progo river and it was built at 8th century Thus, most likely the architecture of the Borobudur is based on a Javanese variant of Buddhism, for if we look at the decoration in greater detail we obviously can confirm that its origin is based on Indian mythology and Buddhist iconography, however, we can also clearly see how these fundamental elements have been strongly combined with local (that is, Javanese) influences. The style in which the characters are depicted on the Borobudur differ greatly from the traditional Indian (Buddhist) iconography. The statues are depicted in other bodily postures, and with less refined details as they have in India; the Javanese obviously had a different idea of physical beauty and how this ought to be depicted, and that’s why on the Borobudur the voluptuous curves of the body as familiar in Indian iconography are altered according to local Javanese perception of beauty (by which the female body is dressed in more clothes, and often can only be distinguished from the male body by the curves of their breasts). 235 If we consider the assumption of the Borobudur representing a maṇḍala, then the main stūpa signifies the final destination of the spiritual path, which is situated in the center of the cosmos. At this point one becomes united with the five transcendental Buddhas of the Formless Realm: Vairocana in the center, Akṣobhya in the East, Ratnasambhāva in the South, Amitābha in the West, and Amoghasiddhi in the North. This particular line-up corresponds with the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and the Garbhadhātu Maṇḍala in Tibet and Nepal. One could gain access to the center of the cosmos by entering the maṇḍala from the outside, and gradually moving further inwards. In this context, a maṇḍala can be interpreted as a palace with four entrance gates at the four cardinal points of the Universe, stretching the entire cosmos. The palace is a metaphor for human manifestation in this world, which, by means of using the maṇḍala as a meditation object, guides the practitioner to the ultimate (spiritual) goal in life. Visualization techniques such as these are still being practised in Vajrayāna Buddhism today. Though the assumption of the Borobudur as a maṇḍala seems possible, this view remains yet impossible to prove. In spite of the previously mentioned similarities with the maṇḍalas, there are, however, also many differences. Beside the five transcendental Buddhas many other deities – both male and female – are often seen depicted in maṇḍalas. However, neither of these deities can be found on the Borobudur. Instead we do find many other depicted Buddhas on the Borobudur, but these do not display any of the features similar to other male or female deities. Thus, the other Buddhas do not function as a mere substitution for the various other deities (like guards, gatekeepers, goddesses of worship or Taras) commonly seen in maṇḍalas. Therefore, we may assume, that, as already had been suggested, the Borobudur displays a variant of Buddhism in the way it manifested in Java at the time of the reign of the Sailendra dynasty. This particular local variant of Buddhism was based on Indian influences and Mahāyāna Buddhism, which came to Java from China during the 236 heydays of the Tang dynasty (618-906). The unique combination of these aspects would eventually become the Buddhism of Java. Then there also was the Hindu dynasty of Sanjaya that ruled on Java during the same period of the Sailendra dynasty. The fact that the Sanjaya shared their power with the Sailendra dynasty – for example, through donations for the construction of the Kalasan temple – illustrates, that, apart from its religious function, the Borobudur also formed an important expression of power.3 The role of royal patronage and religious institution4 The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and the circle as heaven). The style of Borobudur was influenced by Indian Gupta and postGupta art.In all the regions of Southeast Asia, the arts flourished under the patronage of the kings. About the time of the birth of Christ, tribal groups gradually organized themselves, after some years of settled life as rice cultivators, into city-kingdoms, or conglomerations of villages. A king was thus little more than a paramount tribal chieftain. Since the tribes had been accustomed to worshiping local spirits, the kings sought a new spirit that would be worshiped by the whole community. One reason that the gods of Hinduism and Buddhism were so readily acceptable to Southeast Asia was this need for new national gods. The propagation of the new religions was the task of the kings, and consequently the period from the 1st to the 13th century was a great age of temple building all over Southeast Asia. Architecture, sculpture, and painting on the temple walls were the arts that flourished. In the ancient empires of eastern Indochina and the islands, scholars of Sanskrit, the language of the sacred works of Hinduism, became part of the king’s court, producing a local Sanskrit literature of their own. This literary activity was confined to the hereditary nobility and never reached the people, except in stories from the great Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. Because the Hindu religious writings in Sanskrit were beyond the reach of the common people, Hinduism had to be explained to them by Hindu stories of gods and demons and mighty men. On the other side of the peninsula, in the PyuBurmese empire of Prome, which flourished before the 8th century, there was no such development— first, because Hinduism was never widely accepted in Burma and, second, because the more open Burmese society developed neither the institution of a god-king nor that of a hereditary nobility. Although Pali scholars surrounded the king in later Pagan, Pali studies were pursued not at the court but at monasteries throughout the kingdom so that even the humblest villager had some faint contact with Pali teachings. While the courts of the kings in Cambodia and Java remained merely local centres of Sanskrit scholarship, Pagan became a centre of Pali learning for Buddhist monks and 237 scholars even from other lands. As in the case of stories from the Indian epics, stories of the Jatakas (birth stories of the Buddha) were used to explain Buddhism to the common people, who could not read the scriptures written in Pali. Just as scenes from the great epics in carving or in fresco adorned the temples in Cambodia and Java, scenes from the Jatakas adorned the Pagan temples. . The patronage of the king and the religious enthusiasm of the common people could not have produced the great temples without the enormous wealth that suddenly became available in the region following the commercial expansion. With the Khmer and Javanese empires, the wealth was produced by a feudalistic society, and so the temples were built by the riches of the king and his nobles, combined with the compulsory labour of their peasants and slaves, who probably derived some aesthetic pleasure from their work because of their religious fervour. Nonetheless, their monuments, such as Borobudur, in Java, and Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, had an atmosphere of massive, allconquering power. At Pagan, where wealth was shared by the king, the royal officials, and the common people, the temples and the monasteries were built by all who had enough not only to pay the artisans their wages but also to guarantee their good health, comfort, and safety during the actual construction. The temples were dedicated for use by all monks and lay people as places of worship, meditation, and study, and the kings of Pagan did not build a single tomb for themselves. The Khmer temple of Angkor Wat and the Indonesian temple of Borobudur were tombs in that the ashes of the builders would be enshrined therein; the kings left stone statues representing them as gods for posterity to worship, whereas at Pagan there was only one statue of a king, and it depicted him on his knees with his hands raised in supplication to the Buddha. Consequently, the atmosphere that pervaded the temples of Pagan was one of joy and tranquillity. The mandala is likened by some to a "floor plan of the universe." The type most familiar in the West is an intricately patterned painting on cloth or paper that often takes the general form of a circle within a square. The word "mandala" comes from the Sanskrit verbal root "mand" (meaning to mark off, decorate, set off) and the Sanskrit suffix "la" (meaning circle, essence, sacred center). The mandala's symbolic power can be traced back to millennia-old roots in Indian temple architecture, which created sacred spaces linking the worshiper to the larger cosmos. In these temples, time and space were represented in a vocabulary of circles and squares. Similarly, a mandala helps believers visualize the universe and their place in it, often in relation to a specific deity found in the center of the image. the evolution of the symbol has happened throughout Asia under the influence of various religious and artistic traditions over a period of several thousand years-some complex; others quite simple offerering proof of the continuing vitality of the mandala and its role in Buddhist devotions. The 238 mandala is of significant importance in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Both religions adopt the mandala as a peaceful and creative symbol. Hence, the speculative project finds a balance to build a memorial, which will signify peace and harmony of the Tamil community. The scale of the mandala here is monumental imposing the idea of spirituality and peace. Contemplating the mandala does not only provide insight into reality, the Cosmos but also communion with it. Mandala is the mystery that pervades all existence. Mandala alleviates suffering individually as well as in society. Contemplation can help overcome antagonism, conflict, stress and even war. Bindu as a symbolism is the beginning of the process that culminates into a mandala. In Buddhism, the mandala is a ritual instrument, much like a mantra, used to assist meditation and concentration. Throughout history, these pictorial temples--intricate, two-dimensional, multi-colored patterns of concentric circles, squares, and other shapes--have signified the human need for wholeness, order, and balance. But while many people of the West accept mandalas as representative of a cosmic force, few understand they are meant to be blueprints as well. Indeed, a Tantric Buddhist meditator studies a two-dimensional mandala like an architect, building up in his mind the image of a palace encompassing the sacred principles of Buddhist philosophy. MANDALA AND BUDDHIST TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE The mandala in Buddhism is a cosmic model depicting Buddha’s dwelling place as the center of the universe. Like in the Hindu temples, the structuring of the Buddhist temples has also been predominantly based on the spiritual model of the mandala. Illustrations can be seen both in the form of two-dimensional mandalas as well as three-dimensional mandalas. The two-dimensional mandalas which are drawings composed of squares and concentric circles could be temporarily painted on various material or drawn on the ground or sand or other natural substances using coloured powder. Customs involving ceremonious gatherings along with prayers and chantings while drawing the mandalas are believed to alleviate difficulties and be of greater good to an individual or a community. These ceremonies could even last up to a number of days. Three-dimensionally, the mandala diagram becomes a visual model of the built environment. In the Buddhist worship place, the central space is significant having a statue of the Buddha fronted by a worshipping space surrounded by walls. This is encircled by a circumambulating space. The circumambulation pathway is a space of psychological awakening before reaching the spiritual pinnacle MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 239 Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the 8 x 8 grid or the Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the workability of the mandala design throughout India. Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of universal theories which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be thought of as diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the primary aim of the tradition. The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the mandala were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion between God and man. A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डल, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a geometric configuration of symbols with a very different application. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid to meditation and trance induction. It is used as a map (in Shintoism) in the Indian religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or Japanese religion of Shintoism representing deities, or in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines. In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within minds and bodies. he basic form of hinduism mandalas is a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point and it is called also a yantra. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often have radial balance. A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar, "Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the spiritual aspect of human experience" Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes: Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists in the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the microcosm), every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and is associated with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness. 240 Political meaning The Rajamandala (or Raja-mandala; circle of states) was formulated by the Indian author Kautilya in his work on politics, the Arthashastra (written between 4th century BCE and 2nd century BCE). It describes circles of friendly and enemy states surrounding the king's state. In historical, social and political sense, the term "mandala" is also employed to denote traditional Southeast Asian political formations (such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized states). It was adopted by 20th century Western historians from ancient Indian political discourse as a means of avoiding the term 'state' in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast Asian polities not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but they diverged considerably in the opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration. Mount Meru A mandala can also represent the entire universe, which is traditionally depicted with Mount Meru as the axis mundi in the center, surrounded by the continents. Wisdom and impermanence 241 In the mandala, the outer circle of fire usually symbolises wisdom. The ring of eight charnel grounds represents the Buddhist exhortation to be always mindful of death, and the impermanence with which samsara is suffused: "such locations were utilized in order to confront and to realize the transient nature of life". Described elsewhere: "within a flaming rainbow nimbus and encircled by a black ring of dorjes, the major outer ring depicts the eight great charnel grounds, to emphasize the dangerous nature of human life". Inside these rings lie the walls of the mandala palace itself, specifically a place populated by deities and Buddhas. Five Buddhas One well-known type of mandala is the mandala of the "Five Buddhas", archetypal Buddha forms embodying various aspects of enlightenment. Such Buddhas are depicted depending on the school of Buddhism, and even the specific purpose of the mandala. A common mandala of this type is that of the Five Wisdom Buddhas (a.k.a. Five Jinas), the 1. Buddhas Vairocana, 2. Aksobhya, 3. Ratnasambhava, 4. Amitabha and 5. Amoghasiddhi. When paired with another mandala depicting the Five Wisdom Kings, this forms the Mandala of the Two Realms. Practice Mandalas are commonly used by tantric Buddhists as an aid to meditation. The mandala is "a support for the meditating person", something to be repeatedly contemplated to the point of saturation, such that the image of the mandala becomes fully internalised in even the minutest detail and can then be summoned and contemplated at will as a clear and vivid visualized image. With every mandala comes what Tucci calls "its associated liturgy ... contained in texts known as tantras" instructing practitioners on how the mandala should be drawn, built and visualised, and indicating the mantras to be recited during its ritual use. By visualizing "pure lands", one learns to understand experience itself as pure, and as the abode of enlightenment. The protection that we need, in this view, is from our own minds, as much as from external sources of confusion. In many tantric mandalas, this aspect of separation and protection from the outer samsaric world is depicted by "the four outer circles: the purifying fire of wisdom, the vajra circle, the circle with the eight tombs, the lotus circle". The ring of vajras forms a connected fence-like arrangement running around the perimeter of the outer mandala circle. 242 As a meditation on impermanence (a central teaching of Buddhism), after days or weeks of creating the intricate pattern of a sand mandala, the sand is brushed together into a pile and spilled into a body of running water to spread the blessings of the mandala. External ritual and internal sadhana form an indistinguishable whole, and this unity finds its most pregnant expression in the form of the mandala, the sacred enclosure consisting of concentric squares and circles drawn on the ground and representing that adamant plane of being on which the aspirant to Buddha hood wishes to establish himself. The unfolding of the tantric ritual depends on the mandala; and where a material mandala is not employed, the adept proceeds to construct one mentally in the course of his meditation." Conclusions: Borobudur in its base is a regular square with 118-m sides. 1. Such layout is used in meditative practices of Hinduism and Buddhism to intensify processes of inner concentration during meditation. 2. The numbers 7, 72. were applied in the temple design and construction, which evidences the availability of relevant knowledge at that time. 3. No wonder, the temple complex is under UNESCO protection, i.e. it is not available for further studies. 4. If we look at Borobudur from above, we can see it represents a complete mandala. 243 5. The temple has 8 tiers: 5 square and 3 round ones. On the upper tier, there is the large stupa – a bell-shaped monument with a statue of Buddha inside. 6. Borobudur is situated approximately 2,439.85 km (1,516.05 miles) away from Angkor Wat. 7. If we look at mutual disposition of some ancient religious sites from the North Pole, interesting correlations may be observed. 8. At the upper tier there are 72 small bell-shaped, stupa-like towers located around the big central tower. 9. Between Chandi Mendut and Borobudur there is the small Chandi Pavon – at a distance of approximately 1,150 metres away from Mendut and 1,750 metres away from Borobudur. Disposition of the structures complies with the golden ratio. A mandala and a yantra Mandala in the form of a circle with an indication of a square and a point in the centre, and a foursided pyramid with six steps and fourfold division; 12. Kali Yantra (translated from Sanskrit, “kala” means “time”; this word originates from the IndoEuropean root that means spinning; a word that is close in its meaning in Russian is “kolo”); in Hindu mythology it means cyclical creations and destructions of the Universe, rotation of time in the concept of rebirth of the Soul and of a subject of fate. REFERENCE 1.https://rgdn.info/en/borobodur._buddiyskaya_stupa 2. See Chapter 3https://www.indomagic.com/articles/art-material-culture/architecture/architecture-of-borobudurtemple/ 4. shttps://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast-Asian-arts/Indigenous-traditions 244 C. HINDU CAMBODIAN Temple designs- and Hindu Cosmology Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. Its architecture is majestic and its representation of form and movement from Indian mythology has astonishing grace and power. Time, Space, and Astronomy in Angkor Wat-SubhashKakDepartment of Electrical & Computer Engineering Louisiana State University Introduction: The Khmer, officially the Angkor Empire,the predecessor state to modern Cambodia ("Kampuchea"), was a Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia. The empire, which grew out of the former kingdoms of Funan and Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalised most of mainland Southeast Asiaand parts of Southern China, stretching from the tip of the Indochinese Peninsula northward to modern Yunnan province, China, and from Vietnam westward to Myanmar. The beginning of the era of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802 CE when King Jayavarman II declared himself chakravartin ("king of the world", or "king of kings") on Phnom Kulen. The empire ended with the fall of Angkor in the 15th century. Its greatest legacy is Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, which was the site of the capital city during the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and Bayon, bear testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture, architectural technique, aesthetics achievements, and the variety of 245 belief systems that it patronised over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to 13th centuries, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world. After the construction of many Hindu temples over several centuries and now perfecting the art of temple building-art, design, architecture and construction methods, the flight of fancy of the Angkor kings took off in successive generations. Khmer art and architecture can be said to have reached their aesthetic and technical peak with the construction of the majestic temple Angkor Wat. Other temples are also constructed in the Angkor region, such as Ta Phrom and Bayon. The construction of the temple demonstrates the artistic and technical achievements of the Khmer Empire through its architectural mastery of stone masonry.The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, 1a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors. Hindu Religious Architecture: In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source Temple complexes 246 Although early temples in south India may have been made of disposable materials as early as the first few centuries of the Common Era, permanent temple structures appear about the 3rd and 4th centuries, as attested in early Tamil literature. From the Gupta period onward, Hindu temples became larger and more prominent, and their architecture developed in distinctive regional styles. The 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat is based on Dravidian architecture, it was designed as a pyramid representing the structure of the universe: the highest level at the center of the temple represented Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods, with the five towers on the highest level representing the five peaks of the mountain. The broad moat around the complex represented the oceans that surround the world. It is also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes.Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" xūmízuò style base is a common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multitiered roof, represents Mount Meru. The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture of Cambodian, Annamese (Khmer) and Javanese temples (of the Greater India. of evidence for dating the remains. Khmer architecture known also as Angkorian architecture is the architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of the Khmer Empire from approximately the latter half of the 8th century CE to the first half of the 15th century CE. But is basically the same architecture as visualized by the designers of temples in the Chola and Gupta dynasties. The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II as a temple complex dedicated to Vishnu in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Its architecture takes a break from the earlier Shaiva tradition of previous kings. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its foundation. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple 247 stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls.Angkor Wat is said to be a ‘miniature replica of the universe in stone’ and represents an earthly model of the cosmic world. Astronomical designs: Astronomical significance: Astronomy and Hindu cosmology are inseparably entwined at Angkor Wat. Nowhere is this more evident than in the interior colonnade, which is dedicated to a vast and glorious carved mural, a basrelief illustrating the gods as well as scenes from the Hindu epic the Mahabharata. Along the east wall is a 45-meter (150-foot) scene illustrating the "churning of the sea of milk," a creation myth in which the gods attempt to churn the elixir of immortality out of the milk of time. The north wall depicts the "day of the gods," along the west wall is a great battle scene from the Mahabharata, and the south wall portrays the kingdom of Yama, the god of death. It has been suggested that the choice and arrangement of these scenes was intended to tie in with the seasons—the creation scene of the east wall is symbolic of the renewal of spring, the "day of the gods" is summer, the great battle on the west wall may represent the decline of autumn, and the portrayal of Yama might signify the dormancy, the lifeless time of winter. The architecture of Angkor Wat also has numerous astronomical aspects beyond the basic mandala plan that is common to other Hindu temples. As many as eighteen astronomical alignments have been identified within its walls. To mention but three of them: when standing just inside the western entrance, the Sun rises over the central tower on the spring (vernal) equinox; it rises over a distant temple at PrasatKukBangro, 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles) away, on the winter solstice; and on the summer solstice it rises over a prominent hill 17.5 kilometers (10.9 miles) away. According to Graham Hancock, Angkor Wat and all the temples were conceived by its builders as a symbolic diagram of the universe. The notion of a land that is the image of heaven on which are built cosmic temples with halls that resemble the sky was an idea that took root in Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat consists of a series of five inter nested rectangular enclosures. The short dimensions are aligned with high precision to true north-south, showing no deviation whatever according to modern surveys. The long dimensions are oriented, equally precisely, to an axis that has been deliberately diverted 0.75 degrees south of east and north of west. The first and outermost of the five rectangles that we find ourselves looking down on from the air is the moat. Measured along its outer edge it runs 1300 meters north to south and 1500 meters from east 248 to west.Its ditch, (moat) 190 meters wide, has walls made from closely fitted blocks of red sandstone set out with such precision that the accumulated surveying error around the entire 5.6 kilometers of the perimeter amounts to barely a centimeter. Angkor Wats principal entrance is on the west side where a megalithic causeway 347 meters long and 9.4 meters wide bears due east across the moat and then passes under a massive gate let into the walls of the second of the five rectangles. This second enclosure measures 1025 x 800 meters. The causeway continues eastward through it, past lawns and subsidiary structure and a large reflecting pool, until it rises on to a cruciform terrace leading into the lowest gallery of the temple itself. This is the third of the five inter nested rectangles visible from the air and precision engineering and surveying are again in evidence with the northern and southern walls, for example, being of identical lengths, exactly 202.14 meters. Ascending to the fourth rectangle, the fourth level of Angkor Wats gigantic central pyramid, the same precision can be observed. The northern and southern walls measure respectively 114.24 and 114.22 meters. At the fifth and last enclosure, the top level of the pyramid which reaches a height of 65 mts above the entrance causeway the northern wall is 47.75 mts in length and the southern wall 47.79 mts. According to a study published in the journal Science, these minute differences, less than 0.01 percent, demonstrates an astounding degree of accuracy on the part of the ancient builders. Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the basreliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka2argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above. Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco.3Draco is a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name is Latin for dragon. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. The north pole of the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco is circumpolar (that is, never setting), and can be seen all year from northern latitudes.The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of the Spring Equinox. Angkor Wat as a Mandala. Mandala: According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the 249 recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should also be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples become spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in other words, intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—diagrams of the universe.7 Concentric galleries: Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E, is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric galleries. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east-west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the sunrise on a solstice. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west. Mount Meru: Mount Meru (Sanskrit: मे रु), also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain Hindu cosmology and is considered to be the center of all physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" style base is a common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof, represents Mount Meru. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru to which is added the approbatory prefix su, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". Meru is also the name of the central bead in a mālā. The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru, all references to it being as a part of the Cosmic Ocean, with several statements that say, "The Sun along with all the planets circle the mountain," make determining its location most difficult, according to most scholars. Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs, northwest of Kashmir. There exist several versions of cosmology in existing Hindu texts. In one of them, cosmologically, the Merumountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara , a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath 250 Temple of the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers of Hindu temples.4 Indigenous to the Cambodian architecture and not at all the Gupta or Chola forms the Angkor, and other temples in Cambodia were built as a symbolic representation of Mount Meru. Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high (about 1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun along with all the planets in the Solar System revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit. One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles) though its magnitude seems to differ over time periods, e.g. the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Vārāhamihira and slightly less so in the Āryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The MatsyaPurana and the BhāgvataPurāna along with some other Hindu texts consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers. Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity. 5 According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru. One description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Merutowers.In Buddhist temples the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is an earliest example of the 5th-6th century. Many other Buddhist temples took on its form such as in Thailand the WatArun and in Myanmar the Hsinbyume Pagoda.4 The temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a passageway running along the length of the temple) with a central sanctuary, marked by five stone towers.The five central towers of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru, which according to Hindu mythology is the dwelling place of the gods. The mountain is said to be surrounded by an ocean, and the complex's enormous moat suggests the oceans at the edge of the world. 6. The Khmer temples were a microcosmic expression of the Hindu cosmological universe. The daily worship of Hindus and Buddhists requires pilgrimage to a temple culminating with praying and/or meditating at the centre of the temple where the human soul experienced transcendence from the endless suffering and repetition of birth and rebirth. 251 For example, if we study Angkor Wat’s foundational geometry- expresses Vedic ideas relating to not only the microcosm and macrocosm but also to calendric time and cosmological concepts. Adhering to ancient principles of sacred architecture temple designers took numbers from natural cycles and cosmological ideas and converted them into lengths and building units, which were regarded as sacred measurements and divine building modules, respectively. Angkor Wat’s sacred measurements were based on multiplications and divisions of the Cambodian cubit or hat (0.43545 m). Angkor Wat was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu.Originally built as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu, it was converted into a Buddhist temple in the 14th century, and statues of Buddha were added to its already rich artwork. Sometime later it was turned into a military fortification. Today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that scientists are struggling to preserve. Its 213-foot-tall (65 meters) central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers and a series of enclosure walls, a layout that recreates the image ofMount Meru, a legendary place in Hindu mythology that issaid to lie beyond the Himalayas and be the home of the gods. The city where the temple was built, Angkor, is located in modern-day Cambodia and was once the capital of the Khmer Empire. This city contains hundreds of temples. The population may have been over 1 million people. It was easily the largest city in the world until the Industrial Revolution. Angkor had an urban core that could easily have held 500,000 people and a vast hinterland that had many more inhabitants airborne laser scanning (lidar) research has shown. Researchers have also identified a “lost” city called Mahendraparvata, which is located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of Angkor Wat. 252 Cosmological Architecture Angkor Wat itself is surrounded by a 650-foot-wide (200 m) moat that encompasses a perimeter of more than 3 miles (5 km). This moat is 13 feet deep (4 m) and would have helped stabilize the temple’s foundation, preventing groundwater from rising too high or falling too low.Angkor Wat’s main entrance was to the west (a direction associated with Vishnu) across a stone causeway, with guardian lions marking the way. Recently, archaeologists found the remains of eight towers made of sandstone and laterite by the western gateway. These towers may be the remains of shrines that were in use before Angkor Wat was fully constructed. To the east of the temple was a second, more modest, entrance. The heart of the temple was the central tower, entered by way of a steep staircase, a statue of Vishnu at top. This tower “was at once the symbolic center of the nation and the actual center where secular and sacred power joined forces,” writes researcher Eleanor Mannikka in the book “Angkor: Celestial Temples of the Khmer Empire”.2 Hidden paintings have been discovered in the central tower. One chamber in the tower has a scene showing a traditional Khmer ensemble of musical instruments known as the pinpeat, which is made up of different gongs, xylophones, wind instruments and other percussion instruments. In the same chamber, there’s also an intricate scene featuring people riding horses between two structures, which might be temples. These two paintings are among 200 that have been discovered in Angkor Wat since 2010. A mile long sand structure containing a variety of spiral designs was recently discovered beside Angkor Wat by archaeologists using lidar. It would have existed for a brief period during the mid-tolate 12th century. Archaeologists are not certain what it was used for, and it’s possible that the structure was never completed. The remains of homes and ponds used by workers who lived near Angkor Wat, and serviced the temple, were also found recently during lidar research. Legend Behind the Temple The builder of Angkor Wat was a king named Suryavarman II. A usurper, he came to power in his teenage years by killing his great uncle, Dharanindravarman I, while he was riding an elephant. An inscription says that Suryavarman killed the man “as Garuda [a mythical bird] on a mountain ledge would kill a serpent.”Suryavarman’s bloodlust would continue into his rule; he launched attacks into Vietnam in an effort to gain control over the territory. He also made peaceful diplomatic advances, reopening relations with China.He venerated the god Vishnu, a deity often depicted as a protector, and 253 installed a statue of the god in Angkor Wat’s central tower. This devotion can also be seen in one of the most remarkable reliefs at Angkor Wat, located in the southeast of the temple. The relief shows a chapter in the Hindu story of creation known as the “churning of the sea of milk.” As archaeologist Michael Coe writes, the relief “describes how the devas (gods) and the asuras (demons) churned the ocean under the aegis of Vishnu, to produce the divine elixir of immortality.” Scholars consider this relief to be one of the finest art pieces at Angkor Wat. Suryavarman’s devotion to Vishnu is also shown in the posthumous name he was given, “Paramavishnuloka” which, according to researcher Hélène Legendre-De Koninck, means “he who is in the supreme abode of Vishnu.” Hinduism & Angkor Wat Although Angkor Wat is dedicated to Vishnu, the full purpose of the temple is still debated. One question is whether the ashes of Suryavarman II were interred in the monument, perhaps in the same chamber where the deposits were found. If that were the case it would give the temple a funerary meaning. Mannikka has noted that Angkor Wat is located at 13.41 degrees north in latitude and that the north-south axis of the central tower’s chamber is 13.43 cubits long. This, Mannikka believes, is not an accident. “In the central sanctuary, Vishnu is not only placed at the latitude of Angkor Wat, he is also placed along the axis of the earth,” she writes, pointing out that the Khmer knew the Earth was round.In addition, in her writing, Mannikka notes a dozen lunar alignments with Angkor Wat’s towers, suggesting that it served an important astronomical role. “During the long and clear Cambodian nights, when the stars filled every inch of the black sky, the astronomer-priests stood on the long western causeway … and recorded the movements of the moon against the towers in the top two galleries of the temple.”– based on the movement of the moon but synchronising with the solar year to avoid seasonal drift – which was accomplished by adding an additional month or day to a particular year. The days in a solar year were represented by lengths of 360, 365, or 366 units. Days in lunar months (naksatras) were lengths of 27, 28, 29 units and a lunar year was 354 days.2 Two good examples of lunar and solar day counts being converted into lengths and integrated into the architecture of Angkor Wat are: LUNAR GEOMETRY The number of days in a lunar year was 354 and the distance between the Naga balustrade and the first step at the end of the walkway, to the upper elevation, is 354 meters. SOLAR GEOMETRY 254 Solar numbers are present in the external axial dimensions of the topmost elevation of the central tower, which is 189.00 cubits east to west and 176.37 cubits north to south. Together they have a the sum of 365.37 almost exactly the length of the solar year. Between 879 – 1191 AD the Khmer empire extended from what is now southern Vietnam to Yunan, China and westward to the Bay of Bengal. The great Hindu temple complex of Angkor Wat in Cambodia was built by Emperor Suryavarman II who reigned between AD 1113-50 on a scale repeated nowhere else on the planet, making Angkor Wat the largest religious monument in the world, with the site measuring 162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m2; 402 acres).At that time London, England, housed around 18’000 people while Angkor Wat was a grand social and administrative metropolis, the largest city in the world, with over a million inhabitants. Angkor Wat can be conceptualised as a heavenly portal on earth. At the very centre of the temple is the most sacred place in the complex, where humans and universal polar opposites united as a perceived column of creation energy flowing from the heavens and emanating from the temple outwards across the kingdom, thus effecting the fate of fields and humans. For a lengthy and comprehensive treatment to the Mount Meru concept in Hinduism please visit http://www.iskcon-truth.com/bhu-mandala/jambudvipa-varshas.html Origins: The origins of the temple lie in what may be the world's oldest religious text, the Rigveda, one of the four Veda Samhitas of Hindu literature. This text describes the gods of heaven and earth, including the earthly god Vishnu, The Preserver. It is to Vishnu that Angkor Wat is consecrated, and with more than mere symbolic intent. Hindu temples were built to be earthly abodes for the gods. The central 255 sanctuary was the most sacred place, directly in line with the vertical axis of the central spire that provided the connection between the realms of heaven and Earth. The surrounding architecture of the temple would then mirror Hindu cosmology, being essentially a mandala in stone a diagram of the cosmos itself. Furthermore, the Khmer civilization had by the time of Angkor Wat's construction incorporated the idea that a king would, after his death, be transmuted into one of the gods. Hence, it was at Angkor Wat that Suryavarman II, after his death, was believed to reside as Vishnu. The Draco-Angkor Correlation The principal monuments of Angkor model the sinuous coils of the northern constellation of Draco. There seems to be no doubt that a correlation exists: the correspondence between the principal stars of Draco and at least fifteen of the main pyramid-temples of Angkor are too close to be called anything else.Draco is a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name is Latin for dragon. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. The north pole of the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco is circumpolar (that is, never setting), and can be seen all year from northern latitudes.It is inferred that the existence of the constellation was known by the Khmer people and that their study of astronomy was immaculate. Cycles of the Ages A detailed survey of Angkor Wat published in Science magazine in July 1976 revealed that even the causeway incorporates cosmic symbolism and numbers encoding the cycles of time. After establishing the basic unit of measure used in Angkor as the Khme hat (equivalent to 0.43434 meters) the authors of the survey go on to demonstrate that axial lengths along the causeway appear to have been adjusted to symbolize or represent the great world ages of Hindu cosmology.These periods begin with the 1. 2. 3. 4. Krita Yuga or golden age of man- 1,728,000 years Treta Yuga, 1,296,000 years Dvarpara Yuga 864,000 years and Kali Yuga, the last being the most decadent age of man- 432,000 years. It therefore cannot be an accident that key sections of the causeway have axial lengths that approximate extremely closely to 1,728 hat, 1,296 hat, 864 hat, and 432 hat the yuga lengths scaled down by 1000. We propose, conclude the authors, that the passage of time is numerically expressed by the lengths corresponding to yugas along the west-east axis. Angkor wats dominant feature is its long and massive east-west axis which locks it uncompromisingly to sunrise and sunset on the equinoxes. In addition, the temple is cleverly anchored to ground and sky by markers for other key astronomical moments of the year. For example, reports Science: It is interesting to note that there are two solstitial alignments from the western entrance gate of Angkor Wat. These two alignments (added to the equinoctial alignment already established) mean that 256 the entire solar year was divided into four major sections by alignments from just inside the entrance of Angkor Wat. From this western vantage point the sun rises over Phnom Bok (17.4 kilometers to the north-east) on the day of the summer solstice. The western entrance gate of the temple also has a winter solstice alignment with the temple of PrastKuk Bangro,5.5 kilometres of the south-east. Finally, some researchers have claimed that the very dimensions of many of the structures at Angkor Wat have astronomical associations. These associations emerge from consideration of the unit of length that was in use at that time, a unit known as the hat or "Cambodian cubit." There is some question as to how long a hat was, and indeed its definition may not have been uniformly applied; but a value of 43.45 centimeters (17.1 inches) for the length of a hat is suggested by the structures themselves.Using this value, archaeologists discovered numerous dimensions of the temple that seem to have astronomical and cosmological significance for example, the following: 1. The dimensions of the highest rectangular level of the temple are 189 hat in the east-west direction and 176 hat in the north-south direction. Added together these give 365, the number of days in one year. 2. In the central sanctuary, the distances between sets of steps is approximately 12 hat. There are roughly 12 lunar cycles, or synodic months (from full Moon to full Moon, say the basis for our modern month) in one year.The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91 hat. On average, there are 91 days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any equinox and the next solstice. 3. Because of its orbit around the Earth, the Moon's apparent position in the sky relative to the background stars will appear to shift from night to night. Since it takes the Moon just over 27 days to complete one orbit (known as its sidereal period), it will, during this time appear to move through 27 successive regions of the sky. In Hindu cosmology, these regions were known as the naksatras, or lunar mansions. In some contexts there were 27 lunar mansions, while in other contexts an additional naksatra containing the star Vega was included, giving 28 lunar mansions. Quincunx: of the Vrindavan Chandrodayan Mandir 257 Quincunx: A quincunx is a geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of five units in the pattern corresponding to the five-spot on six-sided dice, playing cards, and dominoes. It is represented in Unicode as U+2059 ⁙ FIVE DOT PUNCTUATION or (for the die pattern) U+2684 ⚄ DIE FACE-5. In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-insquare", is the plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the four angular ones are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the pattern of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are surmounted by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple, such as Angkor Wat, are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to represent the five peaks of Mount Meru.This arrangement conveys a symbolic identification with the sacred mountain. Mount Meru. A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and the five brick towers of the 10th-century temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean.Kbal Spean.8 REFERENCE 1. Angkor by Maurice Glaize – Goodreads, 1944 2. Angkor Wat: Time, Space, and Kingship, Eleanor Mannikka, Allen & Unwin, 1997 3."Angkor Vat, Description Graphique du Temple" by Guy Nafilyan, 1969, EcoleFrancaised'Extreme Orient. 4. The HsinbyumePagoda,Burma, also known as Myatheindan is a large painted white and is modelled on the physical description of the Buddhist sacred mountain, Mount Meru. The pagoda's design is a great departure from Burmese pagoda design norms. It is based on descriptions of the mythical Sulamani pagoda on Mount Meru, and the lower parts of the pagoda represent the mountain. Seven concentric terraces represent the seven mountain ranges going up to the Mount Meru according to Buddhist mythology. 5.A Mountain in Tibet: The Search for Mount Kailas and the Sources of the Great Rivers of India, Charles Allen,kobo books,1982 6. Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd.11. 7. Angkor And The Khmer Civilization" 8. Angkor Wat, the Kundalini, and the Quinx: The Human Architecture of Divine Renewal in the Quincunx." In Twentieth-century Epic Novels, Theodore Louis Steinberg 1.On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition Sonit Bafna Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp. 26-49 Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians DOI: 10.2307/991561 2. On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition,Sonit Bafna,Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp. 2649,https://www.jstor.org/stable/991561 Research – Application of Bindu and Mandala as a model for Cultural and Sacred Architecture Jaffer Adam Ayub Khan, Deepika Varadarajan 258 CHAPTER VI VASTUPADDViNYASA—THE PLAN A Hindu temple is a symmetry-driven structure, with many variations, on a square grid of padas, depicting perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares. Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things are one, everything is connected. A temple, states Lewandowski, "replicates again and again the Hindu beliefs in the parts mirroring, and at the same time being, the universal whole" like an "organism of repeating cells".The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), 259 the pursuit of kama (desire), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge). At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum. The Site A site plan is an architectural plan, landscape architecture document, and a detailed engineering drawing of proposed improvements to a given lot. A site plan usually shows a building footprint, travel ways, parking, drainage facilities, sanitary sewer lines, water lines, trails, lighting, and landscaping and garden elements. Such a plan of a site is a "graphic representation of the arrangement of buildings, parking, drives, landscaping and any other structure that is part of a development project". A site plan is a "set of construction drawings that a builder or contractor uses to make improvements to a property. Counties can use the site plan to verify that development codes are being met and as a historical resource. Site plans are often prepared by a design consultant who must be either a licensed engineer, architect, landscape architect or land surveyor". Site plans includes site analysis, building elements, and planning of various types including transportation and urban. Analysis of the site Site analysis is an inventory completed as a preparatory step to site planning, a form of urban planning which involves research, analysis, and synthesis. It primarily deals with basic data as it relates to a specific site. The topic itself branches into the boundaries of architecture, landscape architecture, engineering, economics, and urban planning. Site analysis is an element in site planning and design. Kevin A. Lynch, an urban planner developed an eight cycle step process of site design, in which the second step is site analysis, the focus of this section. 260 Scottish Parliament Building site plan A site plan is a top view, bird’s eye view of a property that is drawn to scale. A site plan can show:  property lines  outline of existing and proposed buildings and structures  distance between buildings  distance between buildings and property lines (setbacks)  parking lots, indicating parking spaces  driveways  surrounding streets  landscaped areas  easements  ground sign location  utilities Site planning Site planning in landscape architecture and architecture refers to the organizational stage of the landscape design process. It involves the organization of land use zoning, access, circulation, privacy, security, shelter, land drainage, and other factors. Site planning includes the arrangement of buildings, roadways, utilities, landscape elements, topography, water features, and vegetation to achieve the desired site.[5] Site planning generally begins by assessing a potential site for development through site analysis. Information about slope, soils, hydrology, vegetation, parcel ownership, orientation, etc. are assessed and mapped. By determining areas that are poor for development (such as floodplain or steep slopes) and better for development, the planner or architect can assess optimal location and design a structure that works within this space. Transportation planning Transportation planning is the field involved with the siting of transportation facilities (generally streets, highways, sidewalks, bike lanes and public transport lines). Transportation planning historically has followed the rational planning model of defining goals and objectives, identifying problems, generating alternatives, evaluating alternatives, and developing the plan. Other models for planning include rational actor, satisficing, incremental planning, organizational process, and political bargaining. However, planners are 261 increasingly expected to adopt a multi-disciplinary approach, especially due to the rising importance of environmentalism. For example, the use of behavioral psychology to persuade drivers to abandon their automobiles and use public transport instead. The role of the transport planner is shifting from technical analysis to promoting sustainability through integrated transport policies. Southern, A. (2006), Modern-day transport planners need to be both technically proficient and politically astute, Local Transport Today, no. 448, 27 July 2005. In practice most temples are built as part of a village or town. Some sites such as the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly favourable in terms of sacred geography had numerous temples. Many ancient capitals vanished and the surviving temples are now found in a rural landscape; often these are the best-preserved examples of older styles. Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Gangaikonda Cholapuram are examples.The Hindu texts on temple architecture have an extensive terminology. Most terms have several different names in the various Indian languages used in different regions of India, as well as the Sanscrit names used in ancient texts. A few of the more common terms are tabulated below, mostly in their Sanscrit/Hindi forms: Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar stylobate, plinth, base Athavaks Adhistha typically with mouldings on ham, na the side, on which a temple Pista, building or pillar stands Pitha Illustrative Hindu mention Amalaka Indian amalok fruit Manasara XIV, Ka mikagama 35, Supr abhedagama 31 Mayamata that silpasastra looks like a cogged wheel. The amalaka supports 262 / design rules a crowning ornament on the top of shikara, shape of an text Image Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules the kalasha. lit. interior space of any building; in temples, it is the Antarala intermediate space Sukhanas (vestibule, antechamber) i Manasara XV, XXIII; Kamikagam a XXXV between the sanctum and space where pilgrims gather half hall at each entrance, Ardhama usually the reception area ndapa that connects to Manasara XIV, Ka mikagama 35, Supr the abhedagama 31 mandapa Agni assembly Ayatana hall, Purana XLIII, Mats grounds ya inside a temple or monastery Purana CCLXX, C compound handogya Upanishad 6.8.2 a projection often aligned to one of the directions; Bhadra central part cardinal typically of of Manasara XXX- walls; XXXIV decoration or a projected porch for pilgrims; also may be a tower storey projection 263 Image Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar Illustrative Hindu mention text / design rules a mythical dwarf or goblin Gana usually with a protruded belly and with humorous expression The womb-house, adytum, sanctum sanctorum; it is the loci of the temple and the darshana, the spiritual space that Hindus circumambulate Garbhagri ha clockwise about. This is where the main murti image is placed. Usually the space is very plain, with no distractions from the murti, which is rich in symbolism. temple shrines, A large may have many each with Garbhagriya, Garbhageha, Sibika, Garbha, Mulasthana a garbhagriya. one of the arch motifs; it is horseshoe-shaped, Gavaksha with windows found or for decorating spires, pillars and Gavaksa, kudu other elements 264 Brihat Samhita LXI Image Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules a gateway at entrance or one that connects two sacred spaces of the temple; becomes very large in South Gopura, Gopuram Indian temples, which may Dvara have several; it has roots in attalaka ancient Indian monasteries and the Agni Purana XLII, Mana sara XI, XXXIII verses 1-601, LVIII Vedic word gomatipur;[88] Hara neck ornament such as necklace a trellis, stone grille, net, Jala first seen in 6th-century temples any moulded base Jali, Indra koshtha or pedestal for the temple or a Jagata, statue that extends out, part Pithika, Jagati of platform that forms a Jagatiterrace to stand on or pitha, circumambulate around on, Kati, while reading the reliefs and Vasudha friezes 265 Samaranganasutradhara LXVIII, Agni Purana XLII, Supra bhedagama 31.19 Image Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar Kalasha Hindu text mention / design rules the pinnacle element of a Kalasam, Agni temple, a vase finial, cupola Stupi, Purana CIV, Kamik or pitcher agama 55 Kumuda temple tank, stepwell, pool, usually with steps, public Kunda Illustrative utility for taking a dip; often connected to a nearby river or mountain stream Pushkara ni, Sara, Garuda Sagar, Purana XLVI, Mah Tadaga, anirvana Udapana, tantra XIII Var, Vapi liana, creeper-style plant, Lata vine, one type of scroll work; also found on sikhara a mythical fusion sea creature with fish-crocodile Makara like face, trunk or snout, Suprabhedagama 3 legs sometimes with lion 1.68-72 claws and a tail; vahana of Varuna pillared hall or pavilion, with pillars usually carved; a mandapa is typically square, Mandapa rectangle, octagonal or circular; it may have walls with perforated stone windows, it may just be Mandapa Manasara XXXII- m, XXXIV, Kamikaga Mantapa, ma 50, Brihat Jagamoha samhita, Vishnu n Purana 6.124-136 open on some or all sides. 266 Image Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar Illustrative Hindu text mention design rules Large temples may have many interconnected mandapas. It is a gathering place, a place for pilgrims to rest (choultry), a part of the circumambulation space, or to wait or Sanskara during (rite prayers of passage) rituals. A mandapa may have a tower (shikhara) of its own, but it is lower than that above the sanctum. Mulapras main shrine in a temple ada complex Nisha niche on temple walls or in pillars for sculptures or stele the art of arranging images and friezes to create a narrative or composition, in Nyasa some texts it refers to Vastusutra relative placement of images Upanishad VI within a panel to summarize a Hindu legend or fable; also a form a ritual. Prakara wall that separates an inner zone of temple ground from 267 / Image Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar Illustrative Hindu text mention / design rules an outer zone; typically concentric, defensive and fortified, a feature added after the wars and plunders starting in the 14th-century entablature, horizontal superstructure of bands and Chaiva, Prastara moldings above capitals, column gopanam, Manasara XVI; Ka sometimes kapotam, functions as a parapet of a mancham storey a facet or vertical offset projection on the plan of the sanctum and shikhara above, or other structure. It is generally carried up from the bottom of the temple to the superstructure. A ratha, Ratha meaning cart, is also the temple chariot processing festivals, the and used for murti at a "ratha temple" is one designed to resemble a cart, with wheels on the sides, and often horses. The most famous example is the Sun Temple, 268 mikagama LIV Image Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar Illustrative Hindu mention text / design rules Konarak. Round barrel-roofed, wagon-roofed pavilion; rooted in the thatched roofed stall for people or cattle tradition, then other materials of construction; any mansion or griha; a pilgrim Sala services building with mandapas or pillared Chala veranda or both inside the Manasara XXXV verses 1-404 temple complex, Hindu texts describe multi-storey Sala; in south, sala are structures used as a decorative motif, or an actual roof, as at the top of gopurams; rooted in ancient thatched roof styles. Shikhara, In North India, the tower above the sanctum (entire Sikhara/V spire above mulaprasada); in imana South India, that top part of tower that is above the vimana Sikha, Sikhanta, Sikhaman i, Deul in East India, Garbhaka , 269 Brihat Samhita LVI Image Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar Illustrative Hindu mention text / design rules Garbham andira A pillar; it can be a load bearing element independent element or an standing with diya (lamps) and Hindu icons below, Kambha, around and / or on top; the Dwajasth Stambha designs vary significantly by ampam, region, in Kerala Hindu Kodimara Manasara XV, Kas yapa silpa sastra IX temples they are at the m entrance; on festive occasions the wick lamps are loaded with oil and lit up. an external ornamented feature over the entrance to the garbhagriha or Sukanasa inner shrine. It sits on the face of sukanasathe sikhara tower (in South sika India, the vimana) as a sort of antefix. Can refer to the antarala below as well. Tala tier or storey of a shikhara, vimana or gopuram 270 Agni Purana XLII Image Syno nyms Term Explanation or Simil ar Illustrative Hindu mention text / design rules Numerou any arch or canopy motif, s terms, ornament or architectural e.g. Torana member in temples and Gavaksha buildings; it also refers to an (from arched gateway 'cow eye'- Garuda Purana XLVII, Ma nasara XLVI verses 1-77 shaped) subsidiary turret-like Brihat Urushring shikharas on the side of the a Samhita LVI, Agni main shikhara; the primary Purana CIV turret is called shringa The plan 271 Image The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron centre, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.[6][2] The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra.[32] The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.[2] The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas. 272 In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory.[2] The devotees, as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically represented. The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone. The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s). A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky. Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbhagriya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision. Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such 273 as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to its ancient mythology. Mandapa of a temple in South India. Much temple sculpture was originally painted. In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.[31] Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure,[36] each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells” Exceptions to the square grid principle Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle.[38] However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of nonsquare harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata 274 temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence. The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of which the following are found in other derivative literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular) , Ayata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); in Tamil literature, the Prana Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om sign, ) is also found. Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these plans are described in the Hindu texts. Nashik Maharashtra temple, cross section and plan (1910 sketch) Vrindavan Uttar Pradesh temple plan///Khajuraho Madhya Pradesh temple plan  plan- Bhubneshwar Odisha, a smaller temple plan-Halebidu Karnataka temple plan 275 he temples were built by guilds of architects, artisans and workmen. Their knowledge and craft traditions, states Michell, were originally preserved by the oral tradition, later with palm-leaf manuscripts. The building tradition was typically transmitted within families from one generation to the next, and this knowledge was jealously guarded. The guilds were like a corporate body that set rules of work and standard wages. These guilds over time became wealthy, and themselves made charitable donations as evidenced by inscriptions.[40] The guilds covered almost every aspect of life in the camps around the site where the workmen lived during the period of construction, which in the case of large projects might be several years. The work was led by a chief architect (sutradhara). The construction superintendent was equal in his authority. Other important members were stonemason chief and the chief imagemaker who collaborated to complete a temple. The sculptors were called shilpins. Women participated in temple building, but in lighter work such as polishing stones and clearing.[40] Hindu texts are inconsistent about which caste did the construction work, with some texts accepting all castes to work as a shilpin.[42] The Brahmins were the experts in art theory and guided the workmen when needed. They also performed consecration rituals of the superstructure and in the sanctum. In the earliest periods of Hindu art, from about the 4th century to about the 10th century, the artists had considerable freedom and this is evidenced in the considerable variations and innovations in images crafted and temple designs. Later, much of this freedom was lost as iconography became more standardized and the demand for iconometry consistency increased.[43] This "presumably reflected the influence of brahman theologians" states Michell, and the "increasing dependence of the artist upon the brahmins" on suitable forms of sacred images. The "individual pursuit of self-expression" in a temple project was not allowed and instead, the artist expressed the sacred values in the visual form through a temple, for the most part anonymously. 276 Dashavatara temple sculpture at Deogarh, completed about 500 CE. The sponsors used contracts for the building tasks. Though great masters probably had assistants to help complete principal images in a temple, the reliefs panels in a Hindu temple were "almost certainly the inspiration of a single artist" Schools of temple building tradition Along with guilds, surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple architecture had developed in ancient India. Each school developed its own gurukuls (study centres) and texts. Of these, state Bharne and Krusche, two became most prominent: the Vishwakarma school and the Maya school. The Vishwakarma school is credited with treatises, terminology and innovations related to the Nagara style of architecture, while the Maya school with those related to the Dravida style. The style now called Vesara bridges and combines elements of the Nagara and the Dravida styles, it probably reflects one of the other extinct schools. Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, whether the artists relied on silpa sastras theory and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by Brahmins, and did these treatises precede or follow the big temples and ancient sculptures therein. Other scholars question whether big temples and complex symmetric architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and common iconography across distant sites, over many centuries, could have been built by artists and architects without adequate theory, shared terminology and tools. This interesting topic corresponds to the modern conception of a graph dividing the ground plan into squares and giving a name to each square. According to the Purânas 277 there are two types of diagrams one consisting of 64 equal squares and the other of 81 squares. The diagram of 64 squares is called Mandyuka Man,dala and of 81 ParamaSâylka. Diagram of the padas agrees better with the body of Vâstupurusa which is shown on the plan. The MP makes it clear that a vâstu of 64 squares is for worship by Brâhmanas and one of 81 squares for worship by kings.51 The BS enjoined that the area of the temple should always he divided into 64 squares.5* Similarly, the Hayas’irsapañcarâtra lays down that the diagram of 64 squares is for the construction of shrines, and a diagram of 81. squares for the construction of houses. 53 The diagram of 64 Vâstupadas Vâstupurusa after Stella Kramrisch (see figs. 3 and 4). From the figs. 3 and 4 we see that there are 45 gods, 13 on the inside and 32 on the outside. Their exact names and positions will be clear on the diagram. The subject is treated in several texts as AP, GP, BS, Hayasirsapañcarâtra, I/GP, SS and other texts there is a general agreement in the names and their positions. 278 PAftJAN YA IA YAZ I A M AI-II NIJItA ADI I YA SATYA hAVI1 A Alt C›ALA VI VA1 WAN MAI llllllAlt A Ml k I IYA lhDlf A (iA NUI IAlt Ve N A(i A I \ I IIt lNt i /\ NIIt INIt I I I I Fig. 3 Vâstupurusamapdala of 64 squares (redrawn after Bhojraj Dwivedi, 1998) 279 D ITI OR VAY U NAG ADI TI OR ALA LAVA HYA A RO6A PAPA <r . APA MR BHAL RUDRA OR I SANA PARJAN RUDRARAX S 0S HA OR BH UDHA RA APAVATSA MAYA NTA RA/A¥AKS- AS U RA MAH E NDRA B R AH M A A DI T YA AR VA R UNA SAT YA SAVITA BHR S A PUS HPA DAN TA S UG RIVA INDRARA/ V A I VA S V AN INDRA THA VITA RAKS Fig. 4 Vâstupurusamandala of 81 squares (redrawn after B. Niranjan Babu, 1997) 280 ANTARISHA CRAHAK NA BHRNG PITRAGA- MRSHA SAVITRA NASA SHATA JAVA ARAS A OR GANDH ARVA DAWARIN- PUSHA AGNI In the ground-plan (pada-vlnyâsa), when a site is selected for construction of a village, town or building, there the ground is divided into different numbers of squares. Thirty-two types of Vâstupadas are prescribed by Mayama /a.54 The AP prescribes the vâstu of a country (desavâstu) as of 3,400 squares (pada), there the Brahmasthâna has 64 squares. The highest number of squares in a vifistu is given as 20,000.” Those of even numbers should be treated according to the Mahdifika plan of 64 squares and those of a uneven number of squares should be laid out in accordance with the Paramasâyika plan of 81 squares. These two plans once more are called sakala and n/ska/a56 which would mean that in either of them, the Supreme Principle should be worshipped beyond manifestation as well as in manifestation in a temple, symbol or image. In Sanskrit, a house, a palace, a city and a town are called vâstu. A mandala which is drawn for the purpose of a ritual before the beginning of the construction of the structure, is called Vâstumandala. The ritual is known as vâstupratisthâ, and historically dates back to the sixth to seventh century BC.57 The Purânic mandala consist of 64 and 81 houses but during medieval period the types and the numbers of mandalas increased to a large figures of 32 x 32. The elaborations are available in many of the treatises on silpasâstra. In Purânas we will discuss only two main types of diagrams.” 64 SQUARES DIAGRAM 281 For the planning of the towns and their other categories like kheta and grâma as well as for the planning of royal camps (narendra-sibira), the site plan of sixty-four squares is recommended.’ According to MP in sixty-four feet Brahmâ is located in the four feet or smaller squares in the centre; the Devas with half feet are in the corners, the Devas with 1’/2, feet are in the outer corners, 20 Devas are with 2 feet.‘0 According to the Purânas, Agni is on the head of vâstu, Apa on the mouth, Prithvidhara and Aryama on its breast, Apavatsa on the chest, Diti and Parajanya on the eyes, Aditi and Jayambhaka on the ears, Sarpa and lndra on the shoulders, the Sun and the Moon on the two arms, Rudra and Râjayaksmâ on the left hand, Sâvitra and Savitâ on the right hand, Vivasvâna and Mitra on the stomach, Pusâ and Aryamâ on the wrist, Asura and Rosa on the left side, Vitatha and Grahaksata on’ the right side, Yama and Varuna on the thighs, Gandharva and Puspadanta on the knees, SugrTvas and Bhrisa on the shanks, Dauvârika and Mriga on the ankles, Jai and Sakra on the organ, manes on the feet, Brahmâ in the heart. 81 SQUARES DIAGRAM Internal Deities: According to the Purânas out of 81 pada-vastu, the central 1. LordBrahmâ is seated in the nine spots. Those adjoining the centres are 2. Aryamâ (East), 3. Vivasvân (South), 4. Mitra (West) and 5. PrthivTdhara (North); each of these occupy 6 padas-Sadbhuja and thus they occupy 24.Pada-Kanastha (of the central corners) 6. Savitr 7. Sâvitra 8. Jay 9. lndra 10. Yaksman Rudra 11. Ap 12. 13. Apavatsa The External Deities 282 Each of these are alloted to only one pada According to SS. The other texts however, make them the lords of two padas - 8 283 According to the MP there are three types of mandalas: that with 81 houses; the one with 64 houses; and that with a hundred houses. At the centre of the whole plan is Brahmâ, who occupies four houses in the house plan (but varying according to other plans). Around him are placed Rudra and Râjayaksmâ (north-west), P¿hvidhara (north), Apah and Apavatsa (north-east), Aryamâ (east), Savitr and Sâvita (south-east), Vivasvân (south); Budhâdhipa (Indra) and Jaya (south-west) and Mitra (west). Other deities are placed in the houses beyond, clockwise, they are Diti, Agni, Aditi, Parjanya: Jayanta: Kuls’âyudha (Indra), Surya; Satya; Bhrs“a, Nabha; Pusa, Anila; Vitatha, Grhaksata, Yama; Gandharva; Mrga, Bhrngarâja; Dauvârika, Pitrs, SugrTva, Puspadanta, Varuna and Asura. This is upto the west, coming from the east, through the south. In the north there are Papa, Rosa; Roga, Nâga (Ahi); Mukhya; Bhallâta; Soma; Sarpa; Diti, Aditi; Parjanya, Agni.62 The SS follows the patterns given by MP with very slight variations. It should be noted that the MP starts the positions and placements from ikhin (Agni) in the top eastern side of the plan, goes along to the southern side, thence along the western and finally the northern. This is the pattern of the Vedic ritual and is seen in the actions round the altar including the placing of the bricks in the Agn/cayanaand also in the carrying of Soma-shoots to the pandal after they are purhcased. It is the pradaksina way. The SS starts from the centre with Brahmâ, goes east to Aryamâ and takes the same pradakslna course to Apah and Apavatsa. Then it goes to the outer sphere starting with Agni, coming to Parjanya and so on like the MP. But SS prescribes four female evil powers, however, no houses are provided for them. These female evil powers are to be posited at the four corners of the whole planBeyond Agni Beyond Vâyu Beyond Pitrs : 284 Northeast -----------------CarakT Southeast Vidârf Southwest ---------------Putanâ Northwest---------------- PâparâksasT The point is how far back can we go tracing the concept of the vâstu and vâstupurusa (Vâstunara)? It goes right to the period of the Rgveda, where Visnu is said to have his Vâstuni.67 A regular deity, Vâstospati, had already been conceived and it was believed to assume various forms,68 which correspond to the Vâstifini of Visnu. The Paurânic VâstuNâstupurusa was of a terrible and demoniac form. In the Vedic belief, he was identified with Ruda6’ whose terrible nature is quite prominent in the Veda. He not only wore black garments70 but dwelt out of the locality and was not offered to stay in the precincts of the Vedic sacrifice. There is no doubt that the Vedic Rudra was the prototype of the vâstupurus,a mentioned in later texts which followed the MP. THE NAMES OF VASTU The Purânas deal with the characteristics of houses with four sâlâs, three Sâlâs. two sa/as and one Ja/a.75 1. The Chatuljsâlâ Vâstu (i) The Feature of Sarvatobhadra Vâstu The building has four doorways, one in each direction and it is encircled by an enclosure wall. If the palace or temple be made into a chaghsâlâ, it is known as sarvatobhadra. Such a mansion built for a king or a god is very auspicious (Fig. 7(a)). (ii) The Feature of Nandyâvarta Vâstu The house having three entrances, i.e. if the western doorway does not exist, it is known as nandyâvarta (Fig. 7(b)) (iii) The Feature of Vardhamâna Vâstu 285 The mansion that has three entrances, i.e. if there be no southern gateway, it is known as vardhamâna (Fig. 7(c)). Svâstika Vâstu Below pic 286 63 Nandyâvarta Vâstu 287 7(c) Vardhamâna Vâstu ig. 7(e) Ruchaka Vâstu below (iv) The Feature of Svâstika Vâstu The one without any gate towards the east is known as svâstika (Fig. 7(d)). (v) The Feature of Ruchaka Vâstu The one without any gate towards the north is known as ruchaka Fig. 7(e)). 2. Tris“âla Vâstu-if the houses be slightly unsymmetrical, the building is known as trisâla or as known as dhanyaka. It is auspicious and brings prosperity to the owner and gives him a good many sons.’ (i) Suksetra Vâstu-It is called suks,etra which bestows wealth and sons. This is also a suitable place for 3 internal parts (Fig. 8(a)). (ii) Chulli Trisâla Vâstu-Chulli Trisâla construction of three internal parts causes financial losses (Fig. 8(b)). 288 (iii) Paksaghna Tris’âla Vâstu Such a construction of 3 internal parts destroys male issues and also precipitates enmity (Fig. 8(c)). a b 289 Fig. 8 Examples of Trisâla Vâstu (Fig. 8(a-c) redrawn after Bhojraj Dwivedi, 1998) 3. Dvis“âla Vâstu (i) Sidhartha Dvisâla Vâstu 77 If construction of two internal parts is undertaken, it will augur well for wealth gain (Fig. 9(a)). (ii) Yamasñrya Dvis“âla Vâstu Such a construction of two internal parts is liable to cause house owner's death (Fig. 9(b)). (iii) Daqd,a Dvisâla Vâstu Which mean, that punishment or assassination will ensure if two internal parts are constructed (Fig. 9(c)). SLOPE OF THE LAND According to the MP a general principal of vâstusâstra is that land having slope towards east causes growth and prosperity; slope towards north brings prosperity; slope towards west causes loss of wealth and knowledge; and slope towards south brings death in the family. According to the ancient scriptures, a land with slope towards north is auspicious for 8râhmans, slope towards east is auspicious for Ksatriya, towards south it is auspicious for Vaisya and towards west for all the other classes of people. However, Brahmana can build his house on land having slope in any direction, but the other classes should select a land with slope as given above, then only it will be beneficial to them. 290 a b S Fig. 9 Examples of Dvis“âla Vâstu (Fig. 9(a-c) redrawn after Bhojraj Dwivedi, 1998) EXTENSION OF PLOTS Mostly the plots available for construction of houses are in the shape of a square or rectangle. Such plots are auspicious for building. According to MPy a plot is extended at the corners in some direction, i.e. the angles are increased (more than 900). This has a good or bad effect of its own as described below: According to the Purânas the north-east corner is extended towards the north direction, it is good (Fig. 10(a)). If there is extension towards east at the north-east corner, it is also good (Fig. 10(b)). If there is extension in north and east both the directions at the north-east corner, the plot is auspicious for constructing a house on it. 291 (Fig. 10(c)). An extension of the plot towards east at the southeast corner is harmful. It creates trouble and fear of the rulers (Fig. 10(d)). If a plot has extension towards the south at the southeast corner, it is also harmful and there is fear of the rulers or government administration (Fig. 10(e)). If there is extension of a plot towards south at 'the southwest corner, it is not good and creates many troubles (Fig. 10(f)).Similarly extension towards west at the southwest corner is also not good. It creates trouble and brings losses (Fig. 10(g)). NO F t b East Eost NOFt OUt 0 South North North Sout h Sout h b 292 Eo st West West North Sout h Fig.10 (a - c) Extention of plots (redrawn after Jagdish Sharma, 1997). North W est West West North SOU t/ 0 Ut e d 293 West NOf tb SO U t East North South 294 Ectst West Nort h t fl O m V Nor th Fig.10 (d—f) Extention of Jagdish plots (redrawn after Sharmo, 1997). 77 North Nort h Sout h 295 h 296 East East En st Eo st SO Ut Nort h North South _Eo st West North Sout h Fig. 10 (g - i ) Extent ion of plots (redrawn after Jagdish Sharma, 1997). Extension at the northwest corner towards west is not good. It is troublesome for the family; it causes financial losses and loss of mental peace (Fig. 10(h)) Extension towards north at the northwest corner is also not good. It causes loss of mental peace and financial loss, it increases enmity and creates troubles for the family (Fig. (i)). LOCATION OF THE PLOT According to the M 0 plots which have roads (path) on all the four sides are considered to be the best. Such plots bring all round prosperity to the owner (Fig. 11 (a)) Plots with Roads on Three Sides: The plots with roads on three sides are definitely better than those with roads on two sides: 1 Plot that has paths on east, north and west sides is of medium category, better among the plots with paths on three sides (Fig. 11 (b)). 2. Plots having paths on north, east and south are of medium category (Fig. 11 (c)). 3. Plot having paths on the north, west and south sides is also of ordinary category (Fig. 11 (d)). 297 4. A plot having paths on the east, south and west sides is of ordinary category (Fig. 11 (e)). Plots having Path on Two Sides: 1. North and east are considered to be very good. It ensures good health, wealth and peaceful life to the owner (Fig. 11 (f)). 2. East and south are of medium category. They are beneficial for ladies and organisations related to them (Fig. 11 (g)). 3. Plots having paths on west and south sides are good for business people (Fig. 11 (h)). 4. Plots which have paths on two sides, north and west, are of medium category (Fig. 11 (i)) Plots with Road on One Side: 1. A plot having path only on the east is considered to be auspicious (Fig. 11 (i)). 2. Plots having path only on the west side are good for business concerns (Fig. 11 (k)). 3. Plots having path on north side only are very good and auspicious (Fig. 11 (I)) 4. Plots having path on south side only are of ordinary category (Fig. 11 (m)). 298 North North Path Path Poth South South 0 b North North Path Path Path path c d ath "*) South 299 Fig.I1 (o- e) Location of plots (redrawn after 3'oqdish Sharma, 1997). North Poth South North Path Path South 300 Fig. 11 ( f - i ) Location of plots (redrawn afterb aqdish Sharma, 1997). West SD Q West } Path Poth North North South Fig.11 ( j- m) lagdish Location of Sharma, 1997). 301 plot s (redrawn after VASTUPARIKSA After the earth is examined according to the Purânas 1 a hole is .to be dug one foot and a half square and it is to be leeped with cowdung; melted butter is then to be placed on a kaccâ earthen pot and four wicks should be placed in it, one in each direction If the eastern wick burns more bright than the rest, it means the plot of land is good for the Brâhmanas, if the southern wick is more bright the land is good for the Ksatriyas, if the western wick is more bright the land is good for the Vaisyas, the brightness of the northern wicks shows that the land is good for the/Sudras, and if all the wicks are equally bright the land is good for all the four class of people Such is the test of the land dugged in one and a quarter cubit of land.The second test is to get the land ploughed and sown with some seeds, if the seeds sprout and become big in three, five or seven days the land should be known to be best; if the sproutings are small, than land is to be avoided, if the sproutings are tolerably high, that land is middling. THE OFFERINGS According to the Purânas different kinds of offerings are prescribed for the various deities at the time of repairing a temple, laying out a garden, or a door entering a new building and erecting a new house. These offerings consist of milk in its various forms, butter, rice and sesame, parched grain, honey and sweetmeat, incense and lamps, flowers and fruit. All deities placed in 64 and 81 squares should be offered and after satisfying them the master builder takes a leading part. 302 CHAPTER VII The Hindu order in Architecture Figure 9 – The basic structure of the Hindu order The Hindu order consists of four principles: - The upapítha or pedestal The athisthána or base The sthamba or pillar The prastára /entablature These four will now be described. Upapítha or pedestal Upapítha is derived from upa (under) and pítha (seat or bench). It is placed not only 303 under the base of a column or pilaster, but it is frequently employed, both singly and together with the base, as a pavement for temples and porticoes, over cornices of edifices consisting of several stories in height, as a platform for thrones, and as seats for statues. The pedestal is the lowest division in a column consisting of three principal parts, namely, the die, the cornice, and the base. It is employed for support, heightening the column, and increasing the beauty. Pedestals can be divided into three sorts, according to the magnitude of the buildings in which they are to be employed. The first sort is called védibhadra, the second pratibhadra, and the third manchabhadra. Each of these are then again divided into four sorts. The védibhadra is suited for all kinds of buildings. The pratibhadra is suited for the edifices of gods, Brahmins, and Kings. The location of the last sort isn’t clear. Mánasára writes that the manchabhadra is described separately49, but it doesn’t state where this is. The height of the pedestal is determined by the base of the pillar. The height of this base is divided into four parts. Of these four parts the first part from the plinth to the fillet is divided in 8 parts. The height of the pedestal is then defined by a certain number of these parts. This number is defined by what kind of building it is used for. In Figure10 the different kinds of pedestals can be seen. 304 Figure 10 - The three kinds of pedestals of the Hindu order 305 Athisthána or base The Mayamatam describes that the base is that upon which the buildings rest52. In this way it makes clear that the pillar has a constructive character. It must be able to withstand the forces in the building. There are two ways to determine the height of a base. It can be done according to the number of storeys of a building, or according to the cast. The Mayamatam and the Mánasára differ in how high the base may be, but since the Mánasára “forgets” to describe the height of the buildings for the Gods, the description from the Mayamatam will be taken. For buildings for the Gods it is 4 cubits high, for Brahmins (intellectual and priests) 3½ cubits, for kings (the government) 3 cubits, for crown princes (the military and administrative classes) 2½ cubits, for the Vaisyas (the farmers and businessmen) 2 cubits and lastly for the Sudras (the workers) 1 cubits About the forms of bases the literature is not clear. The Mánasára says there are 12 varieties of bases, but later on it describes 18 varieties. Rám Ráz writes in his “Essay on the architecture of the Hindús” that there are six sorts and the Mayamatam describes 14 different ones. In Figure11 and Figure12 the forms described by Rám Ráz can be seen. His description seems to be the most reasonable one, because the Hindu entablature and the Greek and Roman orders also consist of six different ones. The base may be reinforced to make it more solid. The architect can add or subtract 1, ¾, ½, ¼ parts. He can also add or subtract 2, 1½, ½ or ¼ digit. The most important thing here is that the proportions of the base must be related to those of the building. In response to that the rest of the pillar relates to the base of the pillar.1 306 Figure 11 – The first three kinds of bases of the Hindu order 307 Figure 12 – Kinds four till six of the bases of the Hindu 308 Sthamba or pillar and the thickness of walls In Indian architecture there are seven sorts of pillars and these are related to the base or to the amount of floors in the building. When the base is taken as a reference point for the length of a pillar, than it may be 1¼, 1½, 1¾ or 2 times the height of the base. In total there are 12 varieties of the height of a pillar. For the pilaster (in other words a wall-pillar) it is either 3, 4, 5 or 6 angulas. The diameter of a pillar is 2, 3 or 4 times the width of the pilaster. When the amount of floors in a building is taken as a reference points for determining the height of the pillars, then the ground floor pillars of a twelve storey building are 8½ cubits in height. By subtracting one span for each storey a height of 3 cubits is obtained for the pillars of the top storey. The diameter of the ground floor pillars of a twelve storey building is 28 digits. By subtracting two digits for each storey 6 digits are obtained for the diameter of the pillars of the top-storey. There are 6 forms of pillar. Namely: square, pentagonal (5 sides), hexagonal (6 sides), octagonal (8 sides), 16 sided and circular. These shapes are uniform from bottom to top, but the base and top may be square. The top of a pillar consists of 7 elements 62: The bracket capital, the dye (featuring a human figure), the abacus, the bell capital, the support, the lotus and the band ornamented with garlands. Pillars are used for all kinds of buildings. Like palaces, pavilions, auxiliary temples, gate- houses and the dwellings of the lower castes. For erecting the pillars worship ceremonies are carried out. For the design of the seven different pillars a lot of rules are given. These can for instance be found in the Mánasára. In Figure 13, Figure 14 and Figure 15 examples of the different sorts of pillars can be found. About the walls of a building not a lot of information can be found in the documents, but in the Mayamatam a description for the width of the walls are given. A wall is 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 times the diameter of a pilaster. A pilaster is ½, two-thirds or ¾ of the pillar. 309 Figure 13 – First three pillars of the Hindu Order 310 Figure 14 - Pillars four till six of the Hindu Order 311 Fig 15 – Pillar 7 of the Hindu order 312 Prastára or entablature The last part of the Hindu order is defined by the entablature. It is the element between the pillar and the roof of a building. There are six varieties of entablature in the Hindu order67 (Figure16 and Figure17)68. Each of them serves another class. These are the Gods, the Brahmans (intellectual and priests), the Kings or the government, the crown princes or the military and administrative classes, the vaisyas (the farmers and businessmen) and finally the sudras (the workers)69. Here a similarity can be found with the Greek and Roman orders. Also in those orders there are also six entablatures: Doric-, Ionic-, Corintic-, Tuscan-, Doricroman and Composite order70. There are three ways to define the height of the entablature. In the first one the height of the entablature are ¾, 1, 1¼, 1½, 1¾ or 2 times the base. In the second method the six varieties of height of the entablature are ½, ¾, 1, 1½, 1¾ or 2 times the pillar. In the third method, which only the expert architect may use, the height of the pillar is divided into 8 equal parts. Of these 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2 parts are the six kinds of height of the entablature. This last method has been derived from the Vedic literature. For the design of the entablature a lot of rules are given. These can for instance be found in the Mánasára. Figure 16 - Entablature 313 Fig 17- Entablatures 314 Intercolumniation For the intercolumniation two different approaches can be used. The first one is relative to the rest of the building74: “The intercolumniation may be either two, three, four, or five diameters; it is measured in three ways, first from the inner extremity of the base of the pillar to that of another; secondly from the centre of the two pillars, and, thirdly from the outer extremities of the pillars including the two bases.” The second approach to intercolumniation is not relative to the building. In this approach the intercolumniation consists of 9 different possibilities. These are defined by 2 or 4 cubits, where each time 6 digits can be added. The architect can chose all of the 9 possibilities. Here it doesn’t matter what its type is, but the disposition of the pillars has to be regular, because otherwise it is believed to bring destruction upon the building and upon its site75. The building order When the architect had made a design the building could start. For instance the building order of a one level South Indian temple consisted of 9 steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. A base would be made Placing of the pillars Putting the walls up Placing the handrail Adding the entablature Adding the roof Adding of the attic Adding of the summit Adding the final elements 315 The role of the architect In the Mánasára it is explained where the architect comes from and what his tasks are. First you have the architect of the universe. That is Visva-karman and he comes from Siva, Brahma and Indra78. Visva-karman has four faces. The eastern face is called Visva-bhu and he is the progenitor of the universe. The southern face is called Visva-vit and he is the knower of the universe. The northern face is called Visvastha and he is the resident of the universe. Finally, the western face is called Visva-srastar and he is the creator of the universe. From these four faces four children were born. From the eastern face Visva-karma was born. From the southern face Maya was born, from the northern face Tvashtar was born. And from the western face Manu was born. All these children then married. Visva-karma to the daughter of Indra, Maya to the daughter of Surendra, Tvashtar married the daughter of Vaisravana and Manu married the daughter of Nala. Each of these couples got one son who is important for the role of the architect. The son of Visva-karman is called sthapati or master-builder. The son of Maya is known as sutra- grahin or draftsman. The son of Tvashtar is known as vardhaci or designer. The son of Manu is called takshaka or carpenter. Of these four architects the master builder (sthapati) is the most important one. He is the guide or guru of the other three, but he also needs to have the best knowledge. He needs to know all the branches of knowledge, knows the Vedas, is deeply learned in the science of architecture and knows how to direct. The draftsman (sutra-grahin) also knows the different branches of knowledge, knows the Vedas and he is an expert in drawing. The designer (vardhaki) knows the Vedas, has a capability of judging correctly in architectural matters, and is an expert in the work of painting. The carpenter (takshaka) knows carpentry well, is sociable, helpful to colleagues, faithful to his friends and kind in nature. He should study the Vedas. The Mánasára describes that building-work can nowhere in the world be done without the help of these four people REFERENCES 1. Essay On The Architecture Of The Hindús. By Rám Ráz, Ramaraja. LJ Cox & Sons,London 1907 316 PROPORTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE Minakshi Rajput Singh Associate Professor Amity School of Architecture and Planning, Amity University Chhattisgarh, Raipur, India Ar. Minakshi Rajput Singh. (2018). “PROPORTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.” International Journal of Research - Granthaalayah, 6(3), 126-133. https://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.1211050. Abstract The uniqueness of His creation is reflected in different fields of life by the great masters throughout the ages that have born with the formation of the universe, from the big bang, till times still to come. Special ratio that can be used to describe the proportions of everything from nature’s smallest building blocks, such as atoms, to the most advanced patterns in the universe, such as unimaginably large celestial bodies. One of the key evidences presented for creation is the recurring appearance of the Divine proportion, or golden section, throughout the design of the human body and other life forms. An attempt has been made to relate Sri yantra and golden ratio and the various forms that seem to exemplify in the plan and elevation of the Indian temple. The yantra which is a complex geometry has been perfected to be used for the development of temple forms of different eras. The following paper will be a tool for the researchers to use the yantra in deriving the spaces of Indian temples. Keywords: Proportions; Golden Section; Sri Yantra; Indian Temple Architecture. Cite This Article: Ar. Minakshi Rajput Singh. (2018). “PROPORTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.” International Journal of Research - Granthaalayah, 6(3), 126-133. https://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.1211050. 1. Introduction What makes us fill with awe in our historic architecture. The architecture of our glorious past since centuries and millennia has been rendered with spatial qualities which are to be studied and incorporated in the contemporary designs. Roman architect vitruvius (1624) explained 3 conditions of a good building- commodity (usefulness), firmness (strength), and delight (beauty). Proportions, play a vital role in framing the guidelines for creating useful spaces, designing structural systems and creation of aesthetically pleasing environs. Proportions of a space dramatically changes the perceptions of a person on that space and eventually the proportions of the external skin of the building can render it welcoming or threatening. Proportions are the relation that exists between the elements of an entire work and of the entire work to a certain part or element selected as a module. It is an accepted pattern of composition 317 which pleases everyone. It is the rational integration of all the parts of a building in such a way that every part has its absolutely fixed size and shape, and it is bound to loose its harmony if anything is added to or subtracted from it. Mathematically, it can be expressed to be an equation proved to be true. For eg, proportions in all the creations of the god, or in other words, exemplifying golden ratio or divine proportions. Identification of divine proportions has been studied several times in all the fields of life throughout the times defined. There have been examples, in the field of architecture, of buildings which seem to exhibit golden section in their designs. One of the most proportionate building is the parthenon at acropolis, athens- exhibiting golden section. The derivation of the proportioning systems from the golden ratio is the objective of this paper. Sri yantra and its relation with golden section and probability to be used as a tool for designing indian temple will be studied taking example of an ancient temple. The result of the study shall be recorded in the form of drawings. 2. Study of Golden Ratio in Architecture The Parthenon, in Greek Architecture, exemplifies a certain symmetry, a certain harmony of part to part, and of part to the whole,'' explains Jeffrey M. Hurwit, an art historian at the University of Oregon. ''There's no question that the harmony of the building, which is clearly one of its most visible characteristics, is dependent upon a certain mathematical system of proportions.'' ''Although the building looks straight, there's barely a straight line on it,''. The convexity in every straight line is rendered perfectly. The Greek architects 2,500 years ago, knew about visual rays and optical illusion. The aim of the study is to explain translation of this knowledge of Greeks into building a magnificent edifice. The Parthenon being an important building of classical Greece exhibit the proportions approximating the golden ratio in every element of the facade, eg. the doric colonnade. 3. Sriyantra Related to Divine Ratio The Sri yantra or Shri Chakra is a YANTRA formed by nine interlocking triangles that surround and radiate out from the central point, the junction point between the physical universe and its unmanifest source. 318 These 9 interlocking triangles are the isosceles triangles formed through the golden rectangle and constitute the family of golden triangles, 4 of them point upwards and represent the female energy Shakti, the other 5 point downwards, representing the male energy Shiva. Triangles have 3 lengths, the base length, the slant length and the height. The angle at the intersection of these lengths plays a major role. The angle subtended at the base of the triangle in the yantra is around 51 degrees, the same value that is seen to be exhibited at the base of the Great Pyramid of Giza. There seem to present different versions of Sri yantra, in the form of 9 interwoven triangles and constituting a total of 43 triangles, while some have circles and squares surrounding the triangles giving another square –circle sequence. The centre of the Yantra has a Bindu (dot), The Sri yantra seem to exhibit a simple geometry but its construction has complexities. There are innumerous intersections that take place between the lines of the 9 triangles, and these cuts are supposed to be concurrent. Thus, a change in the position of any one shape will deliver adjustments in all the corresponding figures. If the intersection of the lines does not happen at a particular point, the concurrency is lost. A rectangle has two degrees of freedom: width and height. But with a triangle there is width, height, and length of the slanted side that give three degrees of freedom. We will study seven variations of Golden Ratio triangles when a right angle triangle is used versus an isosceles one. 4. The King And Queen of the Golden Triangles The King and Queen of the golden ratio triangles can be created from the golden rectangle by removing one of the sides and collapsing the two open sides until they meet in the middle. Interestingly the angles of these two triangles are all multiples of 36. This triangle has two angles of 72 degrees and one angle of 36 degrees. The angles are all multiples of 36. If the base is of length 1 then the slanted sides will be of length 1.6180, which is symbolized by the Greek letter phi . If the 72 degrees angle is bisected we see that another smaller golden ratio triangle appears. This shows the self similar property of the golden ratio at work. The same self replication effect is noticed with the golden rectangle. 319 The golden triangles inside a golden rectangle 5. The Family of the Golden Triangles This figure shows all the golden ratio triangles fitted inside a golden rectangle. We could divide the golden ratio in three families. First we have the triangles with even angles that are a multiple of 18. This can be further divided in two groups. The King and Queen of the golden ratio triangles are the first two that we generated by collapsing the sides of the golden rectangle. The sides of these two triangles have length 1 or φ. A third group would include the triangles that have irrational angles: 51.82..., 58.28..., 72.82... 6. Study of Ancient Indian Temple Architecture Indian temple architecture has been a subject that is widely studied and documented whereas analysis of the geometry of temples is still in its initial stages. Application of the Sri yantra to the temple plan and elevation for understanding the relationship between the philosophy underlying Hindu temple architecture and its practical applications is the aim of this paper. The existing theories and concepts, like the mandala, Sri yantra and diagonal grid need to be reevaluated for their effective use in temple design. The published Sri yantra drawings need to be modified to be made fit for direct application on temple plans and elevations. The study establishes relationship between Sri yantra and temple plan and elevation. The ancient diagram yantra usually because of its complex nature has been limited to its role as a device for meditation. The orthogonal nature of the Vastu purushmandala, would render it difficult to construct on site, besides its inability to conceptually detail intricate temple designs and locate them on site. Besides problems relating to plan, it would be practically impossible to apply it for elevation design and construction. 320 This part of the study focuses on finding the correct way to locate the Sri yantra besides attempting to find out how extensively the Sri yantra can be applied to the north Indian temples. In order to conduct this analysis firstly the Sri yantra has to be drafted correctly and then it should be tested on various temples irrespsctive of their type. There is a need to further explore a much larger possibility of Sri yantra’s role as a design parameter for the Hindu temple architecture, which is primarily based on the traditional system. 7. Sriyantra and Its Two Types Although the basic governing principle of both the types is the same, the final result is quite different. The first one is used for meditation purposes. The latter one if drafted correctly, is applicable for temple design and planning. The possibility that the first type of Sri yantra has been used for temples is low because, a temple plan is based on symmetry. The plan’s orthogonal characteristic is maintained at all times and therefore the diagonal grids can also be applied successfully. Hence, under these considerations the second type of the Sri yantra which maintains its parallel lines at all time was adopted for this study. Its method of construction has been shown step by step and its application has been studied for the temple plans. The complete yantra is not placed on the garbhagriha until and unless we equate the 16 petals of the Sri yantra to the 16 pointed star. On placing the Sri yantra on the plans and elevations correctly, some astonishing results can be recorded and it can be said for definite that the Sri yantra plays a crucial role in the placement and location of the various important points on the plan as well as the elevation. The complete Sri yantra is formed and summarized in the figure below. 321 Sri Yantra as Drafted in Autocad 8. Study of Lakshamana Temple at Khajuraho and the Possible Derivation from Sriyantra The Lakshamana temple, dedicated to the Vaikuntha form of Vishnu, having four subsidiary shrines located at the four corners. Lakshamana has the essential elements of a Khajuraho temple’s plan- front hall (mukhamandapa), closed hall (gudhamandapa), vestibule in front of the sanctum door (antrala) and sanctum (garbhagriha). These elements are all aligned on a single axis. The east facing temple has the overall dimensions of 85’ x 44’. The height of the temple is 80’. Building material is sandstone that was brought from the neighbouring quarries, of varying shades of pink, buff or pale yellow. It was built by Chandela Ruler Yashovarman (930-950 A.D). Unlike other temples in Khajuraho, its sanctum is Pancha-ratha on plan. Its shikhara is clustered with minor shikharas. The wall portion is studded with balconied windows with ornate balustrades. Objective of the Study is to trace the evolution of the major parts of the temple with respect to the Sri yantra as stated. 322 The images of the plan and elevation of the temple with superimposed images of Sri yantra have been worked out using the software’s: AutoCAD, MS Office Picture Manager. It can be seen that the lines of the Sri Yantra governs or coincides with the key points, the position of the deity governing the entrance and vice- versa, in plan and ,the varying heights of all the features, in elevation of the temple. However, the study is been restricted to the detailed study thereby giving a platform for any further research. There can also be some ambiguity which may be rectified with the measured drawings of the temple. THE FOLLOWING FIGURE SHOW THE PLAN OF LAKSHMANA TEMPLE WITH SUPERIMPOSED SRI YANTRA (NOT TO SCALE) THE FOLLOWING FIGURE SHOW THE ELEVATION OF LAKSHMANA TEMPLE WITH SUPERIMPOSED SRI YANTRA (NOT TO SCALE) 9. Conclusion An attempt to prove the relation between Golden Ratio and Sri yantra and using Sri yantra as a device to evolve the plan and elevation has been studied and found to be true in the temple taken for study purpose. The construction of Hindu temples has always been a subject of study through various ancient yantras, mandalas, that needs to be rediscovered and documented. A new perspective into the 323 relation between the Sri yantra, its significance and role in design of Indian temple would create a wide scope of research by taking examples of temples of different era. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Dr. Gandotra Ananya. Indian Temple Architecture Analysis of Plans, Elevations and Sections VOL 1-2-3. Shubhi Publications, 2011 Vitruvius.The Ten Books on Architecture. Bibliolife DBA of Bibilio Bazaar II LLC, 2015 Dr. Pandya Yatin, Concepts of Space in Traditional Indian Architecture, Mapin, 2005 Stierlin Henri, Hindu India: From Khajuraho to the Temple City of Madurai, Taschen, 1998 Tadgell Christopher, The History of Architecture in India, Phaidon Press 1994. LOTUS TEMPLE AT NEW DELHI Introduction In the architecture of India, perhaps more than in other places, it is possible to the see the religious roots in a clear and different manner. The representative symbols which can be seen on the buildings and in their decorations, and which include the surroundings in which they have been placed, are inspired by the religious convictions of the people; convictions which are integrated and form part of the way of life of the country. The bushes which grow in the corner of a temple courtyard or the colour of its walls can indicate to us to which religion the temple is dedicated. In this way we can also discover the allegorical significances which the forms, colours or statues wish to convey to us, in such a way that we can consider Indian architecture as an architecture of story-telling and symbols, in which hidden meanings dwell in every form. These hidden meanings have an intimate and inspired connection with the lives of the people of this place. Project In 1976, the international governing body of the Bahá’í community, the youngest independent religion in the world, chose the architect, Fariborz Sahba, to design the Bahá’í House of Worship in New Delhi, a project on which he worked for 10 years as the architect and director of the works. The Canadian architect, Arthur Erickson, described it as “one of the most noteworthy achievements of our time, which demonstrates that the unity and vision of the spirit can make 324 miracles”. It is the principal temple of the Bahá’í faith, known as the “Lotus Temple”, “Lotus of Bahapur” or “Temple of Bahá’í”, though its official name is the “Bahá’í House of Worship”. Location The temple was built in the village of Bahapur, Kalkaji, in the South of New Delhi and to the West of Connaught Place in Mandir Marg; a secluded area of the bustling centre of India‘s capital. Concept Observing Hindu architecture, you can see that despite the external difference between the various temples, they all show meaningful and sacred symbols common to all of India’s religions. These are symbols which have emerged in other countries and religions. One of these symbols is the sacred flower of the Indians: the lotus flower. Fariborz Sahba developed the project for the temple inspired conceptually by this flower which symbolises purity and cleanliness in Hindu tradition. This concept had to be converted into defined geometric forms, such as spheres, cylinders, toroids and cones, which were translated into equations and later used as a base for the structural analysis and engineering plans. The resulting geometry was so complex that the plans for the temple took two and a half years to complete. Influence 325 The temples of the Bahá’í faith are well known for the architectural splendour, and the temple constructed in Delhi in a continuation of this rich tradition. Before beginning the design, the architect travelled around India to study the country’s architecture and was impressed with the design of the temples, as well as the art and religious symbols, in which the lotus flower always played an important role. Inspired by this experience, and with the objective of representing the concept of purity, simplicity and freshness of the Bahá’í faith, he conceived the design of the Delhi temple in the form of a lotus flower. The temple gives the impression of a semi-open lotus, floating, surrounded by its leaves. Each component of the temple is repeated nine times. In the Hindu opinion, the lotus has always been the most beautiful flower, enjoying an unprecedented popularity throughout India since the beginning of time through to modern day, as demonstrated in both literature and art, and appearing in the oldest monuments of Hindu architecture. Description Its external structure is formed of 27 giant marble petals which envelope the interior space, respecting the circular alignment of Bahá’í architecture. The interior has capacity for 2500 people. It is accessed via nine bridges which cross nine ponds surrounding the temple and provide access to nine doors. The doorways lead to a central area which reaches 40 metres in height, though shows no visible supports. The temple is surrounded by gardens and its location in the centre of the ponds creates the impression of a giant lotus flower floating on the water. Along with the nine ponds around the temple and the gardens, the area occupied by the Lotus Temple is 105,000m². The external covering of white marble ensures the building is visible from a distance and shines with the rays of the sun, turning violet at sunset. Structure The complexity of the structure and the high level of labour necessary required a dynamic management with a high grade of innovation. One of the essential means of achieving the fixed objective was to anticipate problems in advance and to resolve them using tests and models. 326 The building’s twenty seven structures of reinforced concrete in the shape of petals, clad in marble, were arranged in groups of three, to create the nine faces. All Bahá’í Houses of Worship share certain architectural elements, such as the circular shape with nine sides specified in Bahá’í’s scriptures. Although nowadays all Houses have a cupola, it is not considered an essential element of the architecture. The scriptures also dictate that no painting, statue, image, pulpit or altar can be added as an architectural element. Petals of the entrance and outer leaves The surfaces created by the shell on each side of the entrance-ways and the outer leaves are formed by spheres of different radii, with their centres located at different points of the interior of the building. There is a group of spheres for the leaves of the entrance, some of which define the interior surfaces and others which define the exterior surfaces of the shells. The diameters of the spheres have been fixed to satisfy the structural consideration of the varying thicknesses of the petals. For the outer leaves, another group of spheres define the interior and exterior surfaces of the shells, but in this case the thickness of the shell is uniform: 1.33m thick toward the lower part and 2.55m toward the upper extreme. The outer leaf in the entrance zone to the temple is 15.4m wide and rises 22.5m above the podium. The interior is 18.2m wide in the entrance area and rises 7.8m above the level of the podium. Inner leaves Each inner leaf is composed of a cusp (edge) and a new re-entering (valley), made of two toroidal surfaces. A toroid is generated when a circle of a given radius, ‘r’, revolves around the centre of a circle with a much larger radius, ‘R’. A bike tyre is a typical toroid (doughnut). The shaded part of the toroid is part of the covered interior of the leaf. 327 The inner leaves, with a uniform thickness of two metres, rise to a height of 34.3 metres over the interior platform. At the lower level of each leaf, the maximum width is 14 metres. 328 Th Arches SECTION 329 Almost the entire structural load of the temple’s interior space is supported by nine arches which spread out around the central hall, located at angular intervals of 40°. The forms of these arches are created by flat, conical and cylindrical surfaces. The intersection of these surfaces presents interesting contours and considerably improves the beauty of the arches. Interior cupola Three ribs rise from the crown of each arch. While the central one, that of the dome, rises radially from the central axis, the other two (those of the base) depart from the central rib and cross over the similar ones belonging to the adjacent arcs, forming an intricate pattern. Other radial ribs rise from each of these intersections and all meet in the centre of the dome. Until a certain height, the space between the ribs is covered with a 60mm thick cladding. Geometric adjustments Unlike traditional structures, in which the elements are defined by the dimensions and levels, here the forms, the thicknesses, the measurements and other details are indicated in the plan only by levels, radii and equations. These parameters had to be converted into a group of dimensions in terms of length, width, height and thickness, as easy to understand for the head engineer as by the carpentry foreman. To achieve this through a system of coordinates, they used a computerised conversion system and built eighteen reference stations outside of the building to establish the parameters of the arcs of the leaves, inside as well as out, using 18 radial lines which began in the centre of the building and travelled to each of the stations. These stations were utilised to determine the lines of the apex, the entrances and the inner and outer leaves. For example, to arrive at curve AB, the point A with coordinates XA, YA, ZA is defined in relation to 0. AB was established by means of a theodolite and the curve AB was determined by a stepped model. Curved templates were precisely made according to the requirements of the radii and were used to develop the surface between the resulting boundaries. Construction 330 Sequence The basement and the interior podium were first built. From there, to raise the arches and shells, the structure was divided in parts, bearing in mind that when the formwork was removed, the constructed part would support itself until the next part was complete. The structure was divided in the following way: Arches The nine arcs were built one after the other until the circle was complete. The dismantling of the soffit of each arch was done once the adjacent arches could provide the necessary resistance. 331 Inner leaves, radial beams and central axis Once all the arches were completed, the interior steel structure of panels was raised. Three frames were mounted simultaneously and raised with two elevators to the level of the radial beam. The process was repeated until all nine segments were in place. The insertion of the central axis was an independent operation, after which all panels were placed to connect to the central axis through the radial beams. Interior dome After fixing the interior panels, the steel cladding was modified and the folds of the shells of the interior dome were made one after the other. For each shell, three folds, the contour ribs first and then the rest of the assembly. The process was repeated until all shells were completed. Access and outer leaves The construction of the outer leaves in the entrance and the exterior ones were completed in tandem, along with the inner leaves and the dome. Firstly, the two leaves of the entrance and an intermediate external one were mounted. From there, they alternated the rest of the leaves of the adjacent entrances and the exterior ones. As the concrete set, the formworks were removed and moved to the next set of leaves. Staging and formworks Deviation was an important consideration in the design of the formworks. The maximum permitted deviation was three millimetres per metre, including any manufacture or assembly errors. For the assembly of the formwork of the leaves and interior dome, they had to keep in mind the following factors:The cementing of the storerooms had to be done three at a time, in a way in which the lateral loads of the individual supports of the formworks would be reduced as much as possible. Once completed, the concrete external surfaces were covered with burlap and cured for 28 days, keeping them continuously wet by means of a fixed sprinkler system in the upper part of the shells. Construction joints were to be avoided as much as possible, in order that the exposed concrete surface would show no other lines apart from the architectural pattern. In the inner interior panels, the construction joints were located above 24.8 metres. In the interior dome, the formworks were designed in such a way that the wooden beams would support the panels, rather than the usual way, in which it would be supported by the steel structure. The interior formwork of each petal was fixed from the base up, taking into account that they must stay perfectly aligned. Materials 332 The temple is constructed from marble, cement and sand. The 27 petals were clad with marble from Rajasthani Macrana, the dolomite clay is from the mines of Alwar, near Delhi, and the white silica sand is from Jaipur. The structure is cement and is combined with the pre-fabricated pieces, also cement, of the fluted petals. Various alternatives were considered for the steel staging of the structure, considering that the structural steel frames with bolted joints would be best, and taking into account the high level of precision required for the manufacture and assembly. The interior surfaces of all the shells have a uniform bush-hammered surface of exposed concrete in which the architectural pattern can be seen. In the interior panels, this pattern is formed by intersecting vertical and radial planes. On the outer leaves and entrances, as in the interior dome, the patterns are formed by the latitudes and longtitudes of the spheres. All the beams of the shells up to the level of the radial beam are white concrete. To avoid cracks and fissures caused by retraction, a mixture of M 30° and white concrete was applied, keeping in mind that the content of cement must be less than 500kg/m³ and the water content be reduced to a minimum. The reinforcement used in the structural framework of the white concrete shells, as well as the connection cables, is galvanised to prevent long-term oxidation. To avoid the appearance of “covering blocks” for pieces which would cover the exposed surface of the shells, the internal layer of reinforcement is kept in position using special steel spacers supported by the exterior formwork. 333 C H A P T E R VIII HINDU TEMPLE AND THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BODY: COMPARISON “The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building.” (Stella Kramrisch,; The Hindu Temple,Vol. I) A Temple’s Garba-griham (main sanctum) is equated with human head; antarala (vestibule) is equated with human neck; ardha – mandapam (half-hall) is compared with human chest; maha – 334 mandapam (main hall) is equated with the stomach; flag-post is viewed along with human male organ;and gopuram or temple gateway tower is viewed along with human feet. “Everything is governed by one law. A human being is a microcosmos, i.e. the laws prevailing in the cosmos also operate in the minutest space of the human being.” The Agama shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two ways. It can be viewed as nishkala, formless – absolute; or as sakala having specific aspects. Nishkala is all-pervasive and is neither explicit nor is it visible. It is analogues, as the Agama texts explain, to the oil in the sesame-seed, fire in the fuel, butter in milk, and scent in flower. It is in human as antaryamin, the inner guide. It has no form and is not apprehended by sense organs, which includes mind. Sakala, on the other hand, is explicit energy like the fire that has emerged out of the fuel, oil extracted out of the seed, butter that floated to the surface after churning milk or like the fragrance that spreads and delights all. That energy can manifest itself in different forms and humans can approach those forms through appropriate means. The Agamas recognize that means as the archa, the worship methods unique to each form of energy-manifestation or divinity. The idea of multiple forms of divinity was in the Vedas. Rig Veda at many places talks in terms of saguna, the supreme divinity with attributes. The aspects of the thirty-three divinities were later condensed to three viz. Agni, the aspect of fire, energy and life on earth; Vayu, the aspect of space, movement and air in the mid-region; and Surya the universal energy and life that sustains and governs all existence, in the heavenly region, the space. This provided the basis for the evolution of the classic Indian trinity, the Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu. The concept of polytheism gave tremendous impetus to all branches of Indian arts, literature and iconography. The polytheism is, in fact, the lifeblood of iconography; for it is only through a divinity with aspects one can represent and worship ones ideal with love, adoration and earnestness. Making an image involves an understanding of its attributes, virtues, powers, characteristics, symbols and its disposition. An image is the visual and concrete form of 335 idealism; the idioms of beauty grace and power nurtured and honed by generations after generations. It is a representation of a community’s collective aspirations. Since the very purpose of the temple structure is the image residing in it; and the temple is regarded the virtual expansion of the image, let us talk for a while about temple iconography. The word icon is derived from Greek eikon; and it stands for a sign or that which resembles the god it represents. In the Indian tradition what is worshipped is Bimba, the reflection or Prathima, the image of god, but not the god itself. Bimba means reflection, like the reflection of moon in a tranquil pool. That reflection is not the moon but an image (prathima) of the moon. In other words, what is worshipped in a temple is an idea, a conception or the mental image of god, translated to a form in stone or metal or wood; but, it is not the god itself. The structural harmony, the rhythm and a fine sense of proportion is the hall mark of Indian temple architecture. It not merely resolves the contradictions but also expresses harmony by encompassing all contradictions, transforming into pure and uncompromised details of structure. The aim of a proportional system, meaning not merely symmetry, is to manifest a sense of coherence and harmony among the elements of the temple and it’s whole. The proportional harmonization of design, therefore, is of utmost importance in the construction of a temple. It is believed that the power and purity of the structure radiates from its exact proportions and measures as specified in the texts. It is also believed that a meticulously well constructed temple radiates peace and joy; and ensures the welfare of the world and its people. Without harmony, symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in the design of any temple. This is analogues to the precise relation between the features and organs of a well proportioned, good-looking person.The ancient texts, therefore, insist on a high degree of precision in their measurements. The standard text mentions “Only if the temple is constructed correctly according to a mathematical system can it be expected to function in harmony with the universe. Only if the measurement of the temple is in every way perfect, there will be perfection in the universe as well.” 336 The Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of visual aspects, and wherever one engages one of them, entering a doorway, circumambulating or approaching the inner sanctuary or worshipping there– one is accessing an aspect of the whole. The rules of Vastu-shastra render beauty, structural stability and quality of spaces by virtue of light, sound and volume management. They also evoke in the devotee an attuning of his person to its structure and ambience. Hindu Temples take their cue from the structure of Human body. The vast Hindu canonical literature on Agamic texts, Devalaya Vastu (Temple Vastu astrology) and sacred geography describe the temple as a cosmic man, the ‘Purusha’ (cosmic man). Before we proceed further, let us briefly discuss the concept of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. The faith that Earth is a living organism, throbbing with life and energy; is fundamental to the Vastu Shastra. That living energy is symbolized as a person; he is the Vastu Purusha. The site for the proposed construction is his field; Vastu Purusha Mandala. In fact the Vastu Purusha Mandala, the site plan, is his body; and it is treated as such. His height extends from the South West corner (pitrah) to the North East corner (Agni).The Vastu Purusha Mandala also depicts the origin of the effects on the human body. All symbolisms flow from these visualizations. 337 Purusha means ‘person’ literally and refers to Universal Man. Purusha is the body of god incarnated in the ground of existence, divided within the myriad forms. He is also that fragmented body simultaneously sacrificed for the restoration of unity. Vastu Purusha is associated with the Earth and its movable and immovable basic elements of nature, such as the earth, water, fire, air and space; just as a human being does. The Vastu purusha mandala is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala having astronomical reference points Further, the Vastu Purusha Mandala is also the cosmos in miniature; and the texts believe “what obtains in a microcosm, obtains in macrocosm too (yatha pinde thatha brahmande).” 338 The science of Vastu is believed as part of the Indian architecture. Vastu Shastra developed during the period of 6000 BC and 3000 BC and the ancient Indian text Mayamatam represents Vastu Purusha as the presiding deity for all land structure meant for temples or houses. Vastu Purusha Mandala is the metaphysical plan of a temple incorporating course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural forces. This Mandala square is divided into (8×8 =64) 64 metaphysical grids / modules or pada for temples. (For dwelling places 9×9=81 metaphysical grids / modules or pada). The Vastu Purusha is visualized as lying with his face and stomach touching the ground; to suggest as if he is carrying the weight of the structure. His head is at North East (ishanya) and his legs are at the South West corner (nairutya). The South West corner (nairutya) where the Vastu Purusha has his legs corresponds to the Muladhara chakra and denotes the earth principle. Just as the legs support the weight of the body, the base (adhistana) for the muladhara should be stable and strong. Accordingly, the South West portion of the building is the load bearing area; and should be strong enough to support heavy weights. Just as the feet are warm, the South West cell represents warmth and heat; even according to the atmospheric cycles the South West region receives comparatively more heat. 339 Svadhistana chakra is in the lower stomach region near the kidneys. It is related to water principle (apa).On the Vastu Purusha Mandala; it is to the South and to the West .Therefore the wet areas like bathroom etc are recommended in the south or in the west portions of the building. It is for sewerage (utsarjana). Manipura Chakra is at the navel; and relates to energy or fire or tejas. While in the womb of the mother, the fetus is fed with the essence of food and energy through the umbilical chord connected with its navel. The Vastu Purusha Mandala shows Brahma at the navel of the Vastu Purusha. Further, the lotus is the base (Adhistana) of Brahma.Thus navel connects Brahman with Jiva or panda or life. It is left open and unoccupied. The central portion of the building is to be kept open. It is believed that Vastu Purusha breaths through this open area. 340 Anahata chakra is near the heart. It is related to vayu air regulated by lungs. The lung region of the Vastu Purusha should be airy. Vishuddaha chakra is near the throat from where the sounds come out and reverberate in space. This region represents Space (Akasha).The word OM is uttered through throat. The echo of that sound vibrates in the hallow of the bone-box of the head and in the space in brain. The head of Vastu Purusha is in the North East corner (Ishanya). The ajna chakra is between the eyebrows. .This direction is related to open spaces (akasha). Atmospherically, North East is cooler; and so should be ones head. The puja room Devagraha is recommended in the North east portion of the house. The limbs of Vastu Purusha, other than the above are also related to the construction of the building. Liver (yakrt) is towards South East. The cooking area is recommended in South East, because it is related to Agni. The rays of sun reach here first and cleanse the atmosphere. The North West, vayuvya, is presided over by air vayu. The Organs like spleen, rectum of the Vastu Purusha fall in this portion. The store room is recommended here; perhaps because the spleen in the body does the work of storing and restoring blood. Directions in Hindu tradition are called as Disa, or Dik. There are four primary directions and a total of 10 directions: East, South-East (Agneya), West, North-West (Vayavya), North, NorthEast (Isanya), South, South-West (Nauritya), Zenith (Urdhva), Nadir (Adho). There are ‘Guardians of the Directions’ (Dikpala or Dasa-dikpala) who rule the specific directions of space. 1. North east Direction ruled by Ishanya Shiva (Load of Water) influences balanced thinking 2. East Direction ruled by Indra (Load of Solar) – influences long life 3. South east Direction ruled by Agneya or Agni (Load of Fire) (Energy Generating) influences comfort, peace, prosperity and progeny. 4. South Direction ruled by Yama (Lord of Death or Lord of Death / Damage) yields nothing but mourning, depression and pain. If this direction used properly safeguards from envy of others and cast of all evils. 341 5.West Direction ruled by Varuna (Load of Water / Lord of Rain) (Neptune) influences reputation, fame, prosperity and success. 6. South west Direction ruled by Nairitya – Deity Lord (Demon) Nairitya influences Protection, strength and stability 7. North west Direction ruled by Vayu or Vayavya (Load of Wind) influences peace 8. North (Kuber) – Deity Lord Kuber or Lord of Wealth (Finance) and keeper of riches influences good strength, better business sufficient in flow of money, education, industrial growth etc. 9. Center ruled by Lord Brahma (Creator of Universe) The ‘Aham Brahmasmi’ (“I am Brahman. I am part of the Universe.”) is the great sayings (Mahavakya) mentioned in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10. of Yajur Veda. The meaning is that ‘Whatever is in the Universe, is present in me’ (and ‘whatever is in me, is part of the Universe’). Indian temples represents the macrocosm of the universe and the structure of the human body represents the microcosm. Veda also says “Yatha Pinde tatha Brahmande”. It means what is going on within human being is the same as what is going on in universe. According to the Tamil Saint Tirumular “our body is a temple”. Here I would like to quote Stella Kramrisch: “The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building.” (Stella Kramrisch,; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I) The concept of chakra features in tantric and yogic traditions of Hinduism. In Yoga, Kundalini Shakti means the ‘coiled power.’ It is compared to a serpent that lies coiled while resting or sleeping. Chakras are vital energy points (Kundalini energy) in the human anatomy, i.e. breath channels, or nadis, and the winds (vayus), that are centres of life force (prana), or vital energy. They include: 1. Muladhara, 2. Swadhisthana, 3. Manipura or manipuraka, 4. Anahata, Anahatapuri, or padma-sundara, 5. Vishuddha or Vishuddhi, 6. Ajna and 7. Sahasrara. 342 1. Muladhara or root chakra located at the base of the spine in the coccygeal region (governs senses). According to Vastu Mandala South-West (Nauritya) – Deity Lord (Demon) Nauritya influences protection, strength and stability. 2. Swadhisthana or Adhishthana at the lower stomach region or the sacrum of the human. Vastu direction West (Varuna) – Lord Varuna (Neptune) Lord of Water or Rain. Formation of temple tank or water bodies in South or West will influence reputation, fame, prosperity and success. 3. Manipura or Manipuraka at the digestive glands (governs digestion through pancreas and adrenal glands) of the human. Digestion involves energy of fire. Female bears navel, womb and 343 umbilical chord. According to Vastu Mandala Lord Brahma or Lord of Creation seated on lotus flower base (Adishtana) rules this point. Cosmic Brahma bridges the cosmic human navel or life. If this point in temple should be left open, the vital energy flows and the wholeness resides with blessings and protection. 4. Anahata, Anahata-puri, or Padma-sundara located at chest (governs lungs, immune system – thymus of human being). As per Vastu Mandala Lord Vayu or Lord of Wind rules this point. This grid relates to air and regulation of air. If this grid is allowed to flow air and the peace and comfort resides. 5. Vishuddha or Vishuddhi located at the throat i.e., thyroid glands (governs sound, speech communication and sence of security of human being). Mantras chanted by cosmic humanbeing bridges with cosmic Ishanya. Comic Ishanya is represented in OM, a Pranava Mantra form. According to Vastu Mandala Lord Shiva in Ishanya form rules this grid and represents the space or Akasha. Mantras chanted here will reverberate in space. If left free from obstacles and less occupation or weight, there will be balanced power. 6. Ajna or third eye located at pineal glands or between the eye brows; the two side nadis ‘Ida’ (yoga) and ‘Pingala’ are terminating and merge with the central channel ‘Sushumna’ (governs higher and lower selves and trusting inner guidance of human being). As per Vastu Mandala this direction is also related to open spaces (‘Akasha’) and to the North East corner (Ishanya). The sanctum (Garbagriha or womb chamber) is recommended at this grid, the seat of the divinity. 7. Sahasrara or pure consciousness chakra located at the crown of the head – symbolized by a lotus with one thousand multi-coloured petals. According to Vastu Mandala Anja is the sanctum. The vimanam and shikara forms the space element and the currents of life ascends through the ‘Brahma-randra shila’ or stone slab placed at ‘griva’ (neck)of the vimana. The finial of the shikara of the vimanam is the grid at which unseen sahasrara located. 344 345 346 The picture shown here is reproduced from Hindu Temple vol 1. by Stella Kramrisch demonstate that how the temple structure can be compared with the human body. It is apt to quote the Sanskrit sloga from “Viswakarmyam Vastu Shastra”: “Garba Gruha Sirahapoktam antaraalam Galamthatha Ardha Mandapam Hridayasthanam Kuchisthanam Mandapomahan Medhrasthaneshu Dwajasthambam Praakaram Janjuangeecha Gopuram Paadayosketha Paadasya Angula Pokthaha Gopuram Sthupasthatha Yevam Devaalayam angamuchyathe” Meaning: Garba-griham (main sanctum) is equated with human head; antarala (vestibule) is equated with human neck; ardha – mandapam (half-hall) is compared with human chest; maha – mandapam (main hall) is equated with the stomach; flag-post is viewed along with human male organ;and gopuram or temple gateway tower is viewed along with human feet. Symbolism of the temple A Temple is a huge symbolism; it involves a multiple sets of ideas and imagery.See opp. Page: The temple is seen as a link between man and god; and between the actual and the ideal. As such it has got to be symbolic. A temple usually called Devalaya, the abode of God, is also referred to as Prasada meaning a palace with very pleasing aspects. Vimana is another term that denotes temple in general and the Sanctum and its dome, in particular. Thirtha, a place of pilgrimage is it’s another name. 347 348 349 The symbolisms of the temple are conceived in several layers. One; the temple complex, at large, is compared to the human body in which the god resides. And, the other is the symbolisms associated with Vimana the temple per se, which also is looked upon as the body of the deity. And the other is its comparison to Sri Chakra. Let’s start with the temple complex being looked upon as a representation of Sri Chakra. At the centre of the temple is the image of divinity and its purity that generations after generations have revered and venerated. That image residing at the heart of the temple is its life; and is its reason. One can think of an icon without a temple; but it is impossible to think of a 350 temple without an icon of the divinity. The very purpose of a temple is its icon. And, therefore is the most important structure of the temple is the Garbagriha where the icon resides. In fact, the entire temple is conceived as the manifestation or the outgrowth of the icon. And, very often, the ground-plan of a temple is a mandala. Just as the Sri Chakra is the unfolding of the Bindu at its centre, the temple is the outpouring or the expansion of the deity residing in Brahmasthana at the centre. The temple as also the Sri Chakra employs the imagery of an all – enveloping space and time continuum issuing out of the womb. In the case of Sri Chakra the Bindu is the dimension-less and therefore imperceptible source of energy. The idol, the Vigraha, in the Garbagriha represents the manifestation of that imperceptible energy or principle; and it radiates that energy. 351 The devotee- both at the temple and in Sri Chakra- moves from the gross to the subtle. In the temple, the devotee proceeds from the outer structures towards the deity in the inner sanctum, which compares to the Bindu in the Chakra. The Sri Chakra upasaka too proceeds from the outer Avarana (enclosure) pass through circuitous routes and successive stages to reach the Bindu at the centre of the Chakr, representing the sole creative principle. Similarly the devotee who enters the temple through the gateway below the Gopura (feet of the Lord) passes through several gates, courtyards and prakaras, and submits himself to the Lord residing in the serenity of garbhagrha, the very hearts of the temple, the very representation of One cosmic Principle. 352 CHAPTER IX Temple Gopuram as Cosmos & spiritual light house Lighthouse Temple at Mahabalipuram built by Pallava Dynasty 800 AD In early days, Temples served as the major landmarks of the land. A place was recognized either using the palaces or temples. As the palaces were prone for being ruined due to assault, temples served as the chief landmark for the passengers travelling on foot orcarriages from afar. It was a beacon- a light house to guide the visitors. 353 ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLE TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE It was the later half of the 7th century that the Hindu temple structures of India began to acquire a definite form with consolidation of design structures all over India. Elements of Hindu temple: 1. Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to the mandapa. It unites the main sanctuaryand the pillared hall of the temple. ‘Antarala’ meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber. 2. ‘Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber. The shape and the size of the tower vary from region to region. It is the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple which represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. 1. ‘Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the spire. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess. There is an enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha called the Pradakshina patha’ meaning the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber). the lower portion inside the Vimana is called Shikhara and upper as the Vimana is called as the Sikhara . The visitors are not allowed inside the The chamber is mostly square in plan and is entered by a doorway on its eastern side. It is nucleus and the innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the deity is placed. 3. ‘Gopurams’ meaning the monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the temple complex, specially found in south India 4. ‘Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees. In some of the earlier temples the mandapa was an isolated and separate structure from the sanctuary known as ‘Natamandira’ meaning temple hall of dancing, where in olden days ritual of music and dance was performed. It is used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the priests performing the rituals. 5. The Amalaka the fluted disc like stone placed at the apex of the sikhara. 6. ‘Toranas’, the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in north Indian temple 7. ‘Pitha’ , the plinth or the platform of the temple 354 In order to make easy the roaming folk to recognize the locations easily, the Gopuram’s of the temples had to be built elevated. That tiled way for the elevated Gopuram’s. By way of seeing the Gopuram’s form expanse, passengers planned the approximate distance of their target from their location. Gopuram’s were built extremely high to serve as landmarks as well as for traveler distance’s. Additionally, temples served as the main protection for travelers. When people travel between places, they stay at the temple building to take rest. Before they commence the new part of their journey, they would respect God and begin. Representatively, the Temple Gopuram or the access to the temple represents the feet of the divinity. A devotee bows at the feet of the Lord at the entry as he steps into the temple and proceed towards the chamber, leaving behind the world of contradiction. A Gopura is usually constructed with an enormous stone base and a superstructure of brick and support. It is rectangular in sketch and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of finials. When viewed from apex, the Gopura too resembles a mandala; with sculptures and carvings of Yalis and mythological animals to be found in the outer enclosed space. Humans and divine beings are in the central enclosures. The crest of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is at the centre of the Mandala.T hese sculptures follow a selection of themes resulting from the Hindu mythology, mainly those associated with the presiding idol of the temple where the gopuram is positioned. Gopuras come into view to have inclined revision in the temple plan and outline. The spaces just about the shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the central shrine, the lesser was its distinction. The farthest ring had buildings of a more practical or a secular nature – shops, dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a merely place of worship to the center of a vibrant alive city A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डल, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid to meditation and trance induction. 355 In the Eastern religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shintoism it is used as a map representing deities, or specially in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines. In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within minds and bodies. . 356 MANDALA: Religious meaning In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often have radial balance. A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar, "Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the spiritual aspect of human experience" Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes: Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists in the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the microcosm), every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and is associated with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.[6] The term 'mandala' appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, and Vedic rituals use mandalas such as the Navagraha mandala to this day. 357 358 The science behind these constructions is that, the temple architecture gives cosmic force to the main idol in the Garbha Griha. Firstly, the Juathaskambam acts like an antenna and receives the cosmic force from the space and through a subversive channel it is linked to the main idol in the Garbha-graha. The cosmic force continuously flows through the Jathuskambam to the statue and energies it. Secondly, the celestial power fetched through the field gives the idol effulgence and metaphysical powers. The cosmic-force is additionally maintained by noise waves (Vedic chants – Read about the Significance of Chanting) and the pyramid like tomb. The pyramid like construction helps to intensify and protect the cosmic force. These are the reasons for anybody to feel a positive energy, goodness, serenity or divinity when we approach the interior sanctum. The copper plate has the propensity to suck part the Ether when that penetrates from the copper and the Herbal resulting in powerful atomic force that penetrates through the skin to heal the human, and that’s why the copper plate is put on the temple tower. he idol is washed with various materials (milk, sandal paste, oil) to preserve the idols. The idol is adorned with flowers and ornaments for mental and visual boost. But the diverse postures of the idol (sitting/standing, number of hands, weapons they hold) do have meaning in emitting the cosmic force. Thus the temples serve up as the scientific room to receive the shower of cosmic force or God’s blessing. From my understanding Temple Gopurams are an important part of any Hindu temples and there are specific reasons for their existence. They are: 1) Temple Gopurams are built to receive the positive energy from the universe. Cosmic rays will be received by the Gopuram and it will be passed to the statue in the temple. 2) Gopuram will also receive the energy from thunder/lightning and pass it to the ground. So it acted as a layer of protection for the temple and the nearby areas. 3) Temple Gopuram were built largely to depict the culture and art of ancient people 359 4) It also used to act as a landmark in olden days to find out the cities, way to different places. 5) In olden days , kings built temples in order to give job to the people of the country and along with that future generations will come to know the architectural talents that ancient people had. 6) The small carvings and statues in temple gopuram depict the story of the god and also will show life lessons. MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the 8 x 8 grid or the Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the workability of the mandala design throughout India. Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of universal theories which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be thought of as diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the primary aim of the tradition. The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the mandala were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion between God and man. 1 The Vastu Purusha Mandala contains a minimum of nine sections signifying the directions north, south, east, west, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest and the centre represented as square grids. In the Vastu Purusha Mandala, the Purusha’s head is located in the northeast direction and this is considered utmost sacred. In the southwest are his feet and his knees and elbows in the northwest and southeast. Kept open and clear in the centre part of the diagram are his main organs and his torso. Starting from a single undivided square of 1 x 1 there are grid patterns ranging up to 32 x 32 thus making it 1024 sections. Architecturally, the adaptation of the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been seen in the design of houses, palaces, temples and even cities. 360 Integrating it into the design brings a certain amount of order in the design. Here, the squares are assumed as cubes of architectural spaces. The five elements of earth, water, fire, air and space correspond with specific sections of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. The south-west direction is associated with the element of earth(Bhumi); south-east with the elements of fire (Agni); north-east with the element of water (Jala); north-west with the element of air (Vayu) and the centre space with the element of space (Akasha). 2 Indian temples are microcosm of Cosmos, acting as a connecting bridge between physical world and divine world through their proportional arrangement. Mandapa, which were entrance porches in the beginning became an integral part of the temple plan in providing additional functions and in form providing an ex- pression of cosmos especially in elevation. Ashapuri temples analyzed here, corresponds to Nagara temple proportions varying in proportionas they belong to two different styles of nagara Architec- ture. From the study of Adam Hardy it is said that they possessed temples of different styles in Nagara other than these two. The site of Ashapuri seems to be a place for the development of the Ngara school of archigtecture. 361 ANGKOR WAT Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire. The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted through its great temple. Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire. 362 In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer Empire. Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region. Mandala in Meenakshi temple Madurai with biggest GOPURAMs in the world Temple Structure The entire structure, when viewed from above, represents a mandala. A mandala is a structure built according to the laws of symmetry and loci. There are various shrines built within the temple complex. The temple occupies a huge area in the heart of Madurai as it spreads over 14 acres. The temple is enclosed with huge walls, which were built in response to the invasions. Apart from the two main shrines, which are dedicated to Sundareswarar and Meenakshi, the temple has shrines dedicated to various other deities like Ganesha and Murugan. The temple also houses goddesses Lakshmi, Rukmini, and Saraswati. The temple also has a consecrated pond named ‘Porthamarai Kulam.’ The term ‘Potramarai Kulam’ is a literal translation of ‘pond with a golden lotus.’ The structure of a golden lotus is placed at the center of the pond. It is said that Lord Shiva blessed this pond and declared that no marine life would grow in it. In the Tamil folklore, the pond is believed to be an evaluator for reviewing the worth of any new literature. 363 Image Credit: The temple has four main towering gateways (gopurams) that look identical to each other. Apart from the four ‘gopurams,’ the temple also houses many other ‘gopurams’ that serve as gateways to a number of shrines. The temple has a total of 14 towering gateways. Each one of them is a multi-storey structure and displays thousands of mythological stories and several other sculptures. The major ‘gopurams’ of the temple are listed below:  Kadaka Gopuram – This towering gateway leads to the main shrine that houses Goddess Meenakshi. The gateway was rebuilt by Tumpichi Nayakkar during the mid-16th century. The ‘gopuram’ has five storeys.  Sundareswarar Shrine Gopuram – This is the oldest ‘gopuram’ of the temple and was built by Kulasekara Pandya. The ‘gopuram’ serves as a gateway to the Sundareswarar (Lord Shiva) shrine.  Chitra Gopuram – Built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II, the gopuram depicts the religious and secular essence of Hinduism.  Nadukkattu Gopuram – Also called as the ‘Idaikattu Gopuram,’ this gateway leads to the Ganesha shrine. The gateway is placed right in between the two main shrines. 364  Mottai Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ has fewer stucco images when compared to the other gateways. Interestingly, ‘Mottai gopuram’ had no roof for nearly three centuries.  Nayaka Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ was built by Visvappa Nayakkar around 1530. The ‘gopuram’ is astonishingly similar to another gateway called ‘Palahai Gopuram.’ The temple also has numerous pillared halls called ‘Mandapams.’ These halls were built by various kings and emperors and they serve as resting places for pilgrims and devotees. Some of the most important ‘mandapams’ are given below:  Ayirakkal Mandapam – It literally translates to ‘hall with thousand pillars.’ The hall, which was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar, is a true spectacle as it is supported by 985 pillars. Each and every pillar is sculpted magnificently and has images of Yali, a mythological creature.  Kilikoondu Mandapam – This ‘mandapam’ was originally built to house hundreds of parrots. The parrots that were kept there in cages were trained to say ‘Meenakshi’. The hall, which is next to the Meenakshi shrine, has sculptures of characters from Mahabharata.  Ashta Shakthi Mandapam – This hall houses the sculptures of eight goddesses. Built by two queens, the hall is placed in between the main ‘gopuram’ and the gateway that leads to the Meenakshi shrine.  Nayaka Mandapam – ‘Nayaka Mandapam’ was built by Chinnappa Nayakkar. The hall is supported by 100 pillars and houses a Nataraja statue. 365 366 367 ANGKOR WAT Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire. The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted through its great temple. Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire. In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early 368 Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer Empire. Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region. Note how the architectural layout of the temple greatly resembles the symbol of Mandala.For example, you can spot the building's centre point, as well as the four gates on the outermost wall. Rough Layout of Angkor Wat 369 370 The Third Tier GOPURAM 371 372 373 374 375 “The Vastu Purusha Mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The Vastu Purusha Mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building.” – Stella Kramrisch ; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I Vastu Purush Mandala has been in existence for thousands of years, will continue till eternity. It is the fundamental principle which continues to create and run the whole universe - both at the macro and the micro level If we can decode it's secret and follow its eternal principles for construction, we can ensure a life full of health, wealth, peace and prosperity. The Vastu Purush Mandala is a cosmic geometrical wonder used to design temples amongst other structures. When we observe the energy fields that develop at different stages of a building – starting from the stage of a vacant plot - to the digging of land - to the laying of the foundation - to the completion of the building - and finally to the point when it is inhabited by the people – we unravel the secrets of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. Image of the Universe: The Vastu Mandala is the omnipresent, omnipotent soul of every building. It is based on the principle that Man and Universe are analogous in their structure and spirit. Vastu Purush Mandala is thus a Yantra or an image of the Universe .Hindus believe that the body is the image of the entire Universe( See figure below). Vastu Purusha Mandala is a combination of 45 Devtas and Asuras present in a geometrical figure. The Devtas represent our consciousness and the Asuras our ignorance and fear. The war between consciousness and ignorance goes on each moment within all of us. It is not just a Puranic story, it’s the reality we live in each moment. DECODING THE DEVTAS & ASURAS The 45 Energy Fields PADAVINAYASA ModularGrid After Shilanyas and construction of foundation walls, this is the first energy field to develop in the plot. BRAHMA DEVTASvsASURAS THE ETERNAL WAR- Energy Fields Next to Brahma ARYAMA The Power of Connections VIVASWAN The Power of Revolution or Change 376 MITRA The Power of Inspiration & Action BHUDHAR The Power of Manifestation DEVA VITHI The 8 Energy Fields in the Diagonal Directions NORTH EAST Apaha Apahavatsa SOUTH WEST Indra Indrajaya SOUTH EAST Savita Savitur NORTH WEST Rudra Rajyakshma MANUSHYA VITHI 1. NORTH EAST APAHA Igenerates the energies responsible for healing APAHAVATSA Carries the healing powers to the occupants ww.anantvastu.com 2. SOUTH EAST SAVITA Energies that help to initiate any process or action SAVITUR Energies that give capibilities to continue those actions and overcome all challenges 3. . SOUTH WEST INDRA Energies that establish stability and enhance growth INDRAJAYA The tools and the channels through which one can achieve growth 4. .NORTH WEST RUDRA Energies responsible for support and ensure flow of activities and life RAJYAKSHMA Energies which uphold the support and stabilise the mind . The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery PAISHACHA VITHI . These are also the 32 Possible Entrance Locations . The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery ADITI Mother of the Devtas, this energy field provides security and helps one connect with himself/herself) DITI Mother of the Asuras, this energy field gives the powers of a wider vision and to see the actual truth of life.SHIKHI Symbolic of a pointed flame, this field gives the power of ideas and the ability to project one’s thoughts to the world PARJANYA The giver of rains, this field has the powers to bless the occupants with fertility and fulfilment of all their wishes NORTH EAST 5. SOUTH EAST BHRISHA The power of friction needed to initiate any action , thinking or activity AAKASH The energy that provides the space for manifestation ANILA The 377 energy of air or vayu, it helps to uplift the fire or push further the actions initiated PUSHAN The energy of nourishment, it blocks the path of enemies The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery. 6. SOUTH WEST BHRINGRAJ The energy which extracts nutrients from the food and removes the waste MRIGHA The energy that drives curiosity and imparts skills PITRA The energy of the ancestors which provides all means of safety and happiness required for existence DAUWARIK The safe keeper, represents lord Nandi-the trusted vehicle of lord Shiva. The energy of being genius and highly knowledgeable The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Peripher 7. NORTH WEST SHOSHA The power of detoxification from negative emotions PAPYAKSHMA The energy which gives addiction, diseases and the feeling of guilt ROGA The energy which provides support in the hour of need NAGA The energy which gives emotional enjoyments and cravings The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery 8. NORTH MUKHYA The chief architect or lord Vishwakarma, this energy field defines the main purpose of the building & also helps in their manifestation BHALLAT The energy field which grants colossal abundance, it magnifies the efforts and their results SOMA The energy field of Kubera - the lord of all wealth and money. It ensures a smooth flow of money and opportunities BHUJAG The the lord of hidden treasures, this energy field is the preserver of medicines. It safeguards the health of the occupants The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery 9. EAST JAYANT The energy which gives the sense of being victorious, it refreshes the mind and body MAHENDRA The energy which grants the power of administration and connectivity SURYA The core controller, this energy fields imparts health , fame and farsightedness SATYA The energy which establishes goodwill, status, authenticity and credibility The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery 378 10. SOUTH VITATHA The energy field of falsehood, pretension and the unreal GRUHAKSHAT The power which binds the mind and defines its limits YAMA The power of expansion, this energy field binds the world in laws GANDHARVA The energy of preservation of health & vitality. This energy also governs all kinds of arts and music The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery 11. WEST SUGREEV The power which grants the ability to receive all knowledge PUSHPADANT The power which grants blessings and fulfills all desires VARUN The lord of the seas, this energy field observes and runs the whole world. It is the granter of immortality ASURA The the energy field that releases the mind from temptations and gives depth in spirituality The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery. REFERENCES 1. Bindu and Mandala: Manifestations of Sacred Architecture,Conference: ICABE-2016 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia. Paper presented by Jaffer Adam,Deepika Varadarajan. 2. THE MANDALA AS A COSMIC MODEL USED TO SYSTEMATICALLY STRUCTURE THE TIBETAN BUDDHIST LANDSCAPE,Ping Xu,Journal of Architectural and Planning Research,Vol. 27, No. 3 (Autumn, 2010), pp. 181-203,Published by: Locke Science Publishing Co. 3. On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition,Sonit Bafna,Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp. 26-49,Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians,https://www.jstor.org/stable/991561 379 380 CHAPTER X START OF THE CIVIL WORKS Gridlines belong to the labeling marks of a floor plan. For drafting the plan of a large area, these labeling marks will allow the plans to be placed in separate sheets and the grid lines will demonstrate the connection of the two framing plans. With grid lines, it becomes easier to recognize specific locations on the floor plan for any structural member in the floor plan. As for instance, for a Column at grid A, this should be the first column location at Grid line A and Grid line B.These generally stands for the letters from A to Z, etc, around the vertical direction; and letters 1 to 2, etc around the horizontal direction; that species the identity of one certain position 381 of a structural member on the floor plan.Grid lines are mostly provided in construction drawings alias working drawings. They play an important role throughout the setting out process on site. Each grid line gets across a wall or a column for that matter.Spacing among one grid line to the other. points out the distance to exclude while arranging the walls and columns on site. Each grid contains a marking. It is generally recommended to mark them both numerically and alphabetically omitting the number '0' and alphabets 'O and I' as these may become problematic for the reader to distinguish sometimes. When the contractor requires any modification on some column on site in case the engineer is not present, the contractor can give a call and easily identify the disputable column.The use of grid lines is standard on any construction drawings. Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala is the conceptual diagram to establish the temple. Once the site of a temple is selected and ritually purified through an abhiṣheka ceremony, the next stage in its erection is the layout of the ground plan, which is controlled by means of the conceptual diagram of the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala. Thus it is a square grid work which is a fundamental planning guideline to control the construction of a Hindu temple and a mathematical doctrine to lead ritual programs. However, the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala grid includes both practical and spiritual meanings to construct a 382 Hindu temple. Grid lines in the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala are a design tool for ritual processions to deploy gods in three dimensions, and get a good place and a hierarchical arrangement like a zoning planning. At one time, temple architects mediate wall- lines of the building with a number of points (marmas, intersection) on the body of the Vāstupuruṣa, according to the Bṛihat Saṃhitâ and Mayamatam, for the well-being of the building. At the centre of the temple is the image of divinity and its purity that generations after generations have revered and venerated. That image residing at the heart of the temple is its life; and is its reason. One can think of an icon without a temple; but it is impossible to think of a temple without an icon of the divinity. The very purpose of a temple is its icon. 383 And, therefore is the most important structure of the temple is the Garbagriha where the icon resides 384 The layout and architecture of the temple is replete with philosophical meanings. The 9 gateways signify the 9 orifices in the human body. The Chitsabai or Ponnambalam, the sanctum sanctorum represents the heart which is reached by a flight of 5 stairs called the Panchaatchara padi pancha meaning 5, achhara – indestructible syllables – "SI VA YA NA MA", from a raised anterior dias - the Kanakasabai. The access to the Sabhai is through the sides of the stage (and not from the front as in most temples). The Ponnambalam or the Sanctum sanctorum is held by 28 pillars – representing the 28 agamas or set methodologies for the worship of Lord Shiva. The roof is held by a set of 64 beams representing the 64 forms of art and is held by several cross-beams representing the innumerable blood vessels. 385 The roof has been laid by 21600 golden tiles with the word SIVAYANAMA inscribed on them representing 21600 breaths. The golden tiles are fixed using 72000 golden nails which represents the no. of nadis exists in human body. The roof is topped by a set of 9 sacred pots or kalasas, representing the 9 forms of energy. (refer Umapathy Sivam’s Kunchitaangristhavam) It marks the location of the shrine room and rises directly above it.฀ On top of it resides the shikhara (peak). The pyramid-like structure shooting up the landscape dominates the skyline. It represents the feet of a human. The DWAJASTHAMBAM is inscripted with the deity of the temple and is a symbol of the structure's holiness. On the human body, the DWAJASTHAMBAM represents the loins (MOOLADHARA CHKARA). The prakaram represents the hands. This process mirrors the four-phased spiritual evolution described in yoga: the waking state (jagrat); dream state (swapna); the state of deep sleep (sushupti); and finally the highest state of awareness, turiya. According to the scheme of transition, architectural and sculptural details vary from phase to phase in the devotee's onward movement, gradually preparing him for the ultimate experience, which awaits him in the shrine. They represent the phases of progress in a man's journey towards divinity. The field enclosures and pavilions through which he must pass to reach the sanctum are symbolic. The third is the walkway. Most temples have a walkway around the walls of the inner chamber for circumbulation by devotees around the deity as a mark of respect to the God in the temple. The hall is decorated with paintings of deities. On the human body, the Mandapam is the abdomen. Devotees use the hall to sit, meditate, pray, chant or watch the priests perform rituals. This is also called the natya-mandira (hall for temple-dancing) where, in days of yore, women dancers used to perform dance rituals. Most large temples have a hall meant for the devotees to sitMandapam or the Temple Hall. 386 The sculptures carved in sandstone tell stories and educate members of society on the stories of creation.Entering the gateway, he is greeted by a host of figures on the outer walls. He is ready to pass into the abode. On reaching the main gateway, the worshipper bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. Devotees entering and leaving the porch ring this bell to declare their arrival and departure. The Front Porch: This area of the temple usually has a big metallic bell that hangs from the ceiling. There are no pillars, windows or ventilators. It is the interior and most sacred area of worship in the temple. Finally the shrine, devoid of any ornamentation, and with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to the highest achievable state of consciousness of tranquility (turiya), where all boundaries vanish and the universe stands forth in its primordial glory. It signifies the coming to rest of all differentiated, relative existence. Always in the North-east is the garbha griha (sanctum sanctorum) where in the murthi or deity resides (representing the head in the human body). He or she is now in the inner square of Brahma in the vastu- mandala, and in direct communion with the chief source of power in the temple. This utterly quiet, peaceful and blissful state is the ultimate aim of all spiritual activity. The devotee is now fully-absorbed in the beauty and serenity of the icon. Nakshatra: is the term for lunar mansion in Hindu astrology and Indian Astronomy. A nakshatra is one of 28 (sometimes also 27) sectors along the ecliptic. Their names are related to a prominent star or asterisms in or near the respective sectors. The starting point for the nakshatras according to Vedas is "Kritika" (it has been argued because the Pleiades may have started the year at the time the Vedas were compiled, presumably at the vernal equinox), but, in more recent compilations, the start of the nakshatras list is the point on the ecliptic directly opposite to the star Spica called Chitrā in Sanskrit, which would be Ashvinī, an asterism that is part of the modern constellation Aries, and these compilations therefore may have been compiled during the centuries when the sun was passing through the area of the constellation Aries at the time of the vernal equinox. This version may have been called Meshādi or the "start of Aries". The first astronomical text that lists them is the Vedanga Jyotisha. 387 In classical Hindu scriptures (Mahabharata, Harivamsa), the creation of the nakshatras is attributed to Daksha. They are personified as daughters of Daksha and as wives of Chandra known as the Moon God (who reluctantly married the 26 other nakshatra's on Daksha's request even though he was only interested to marry Rohini), or alternatively the daughters of Kashyapa, the brother of Daksha. In the Atharvaveda (Shaunakiya recension, hymn 19.7) a list of 28 stars or asterisms is given, many of them corresponding to the later nakshatras: 1. Kṛttikā (the Pleiades) 2. Rohinī (Aldebaran) 3. Mrigashīrsha 4. Ārdrā (Betelgeuse) 5. Punarvasu 6. Pushya 7. Asleshā 8. Maghā (Regulus) 9. Purva phalguni 10. Uttara phalguni (Denebola) 11. Hasta 12. Chitrā (Spica) 13. Svāti (Arcturus) 14. Vishākhā 15. Anurādhā 16. Jyeshthā 17. Mūla 18. Purva ashadha 19. Uttara ashadha 20. Shravana 21. Dhanishta 22. Satabhishak (Sadachbia) 388 23. Purva bhadrapada 24. Uttara bhadrapada 25. Revati 26. Ashvini 27. Bharani This 27-day time cycle has been taken to mean a particular group of stars. The relationship to the stars really has to do with the periodicity with which the Moon travels over time and through space past the field of the specific stars called nakshatras. Hence, the stars are more like numbers on a clock through which the hands of time pass (the moon). In Hindu astronomy, there was an older tradition of 28 Nakshatras which were used as celestial markers in the heavens. When these were mapped into equal divisions of the ecliptic, a division of 27 portions was adopted since that resulted in a cleaner definition of each portion (i.e. segment) subtending 13° 20′ (as opposed to 12° 51 in the case of 28 segments). In the process, the Nakshatra Abhijit was left out without a portionThe Surya Siddhantha concisely specifies the coordinates of the twenty seven Nakshatras. It is noted above that with the older tradition of 28 Nakshatras each equal segment would subtend 12.85 degrees or 12° 51′. But the 28 Nakshatra were chosen at a time when the Vedic month was recognised as having exactly 30 days. In India and China the original 28 lunar mansions were not equal. Weixing Nui provides a list of the extent of the original 28 Nakshatras expressed in Muhurtas (with one Muhurta = 48 minutes of arc). Hindu texts note there were 16 Nakshatras of 30 Muhurtas, 6 of 45 Muhurtas, 5 of 15 Muhurtas and one of 6 Muhurtas. The 28 mansions of the 360° lunar zodiac total 831 Muhurtas or 27.7 days. This is sometimes described as an inaccurate estimate of our modern sidereal period of 27.3 days, but using the ancient Indian calendar with Vedic months of 30 days and a daily movement of the Moon of 13 degrees, this early designation of a sidereal month of 831 Muhurtas or 27.7 days is very precise. Later some Indian savants dropped the Nakshatra named Abhijit to reduce the number of divisions to 27, but the Chinese retained all of their original 28 lunar mansions. These were 389 grouped into four equal quarters which would have been fundamentally disrupted if it had been decided to reduce the number of divisions to 27. Irrespective of the reason why ancient early Indian astronomers followed a Vedic calendar of exactly 12 months of 30 days it was this calendar and not a modern calendar of 365 days that they used for the astronomical calculations for the number of days taken for the Moon to complete one sidereal cycle of 360°. This is why initially they named 28 Nakshatras on their lunar zodiac. The following list of nakshatras gives the corresponding regions of sky, per Basham (1954) No . Name Associated stars Description  Image Astrological Mate: Ketu (South lunar node)  Symbol: Horse’s head  1 Ashwini Rigvedic name: Ashwins, the β and γ Arietis horse-headed twins who are physicians to the gods  Indian zodiac: 0° – 13°20′ Mesha  Western zodiac: 26° Aries – 9°20′ Taurus 390  Astrological Mate: Shukra (Venus )  Symbol: Yoni, female 2 the organ of reproduction Bharani 35, 39, and 41 Arietis "the bearer"  Rigvedic name: Yama, god of death or Dharma  Indian zodiac: 13° 20′ – 26°40′ Mesha  Western zodiac: 9° 20′ – 22° 40′ Taurus  Astrological Mate: Surya (Sun)  ar Krittika  an old name of the 3 Pleiades; as the Symbol: Knife or spe personified nurses Rigvedic name: Agni, god of Pleiades fire  of Kārttikeya, a son of Indian zodiac: 26°40′ Mesha – 10° Shiva. Vrishabha  Western zodiac: 22° 40′ Taurus Gemini 391 – 6°  Astrological Mate: Chandra (Moo n)  "the red one", a name of Aldebaran. Cart or chariot, temple, ba Rohini 4 Symbol: Also nyan tree  Aldebaran Rigvedic name: Prajapati, the known as brāhmī Creator  Indian zodiac: 10° – 23°20′ Vrishabha  Western zodiac: 6° – 19°20′ Gemini  Astrological Mate: Mangala (Mar s) 5  Symbol: Deer’s head  Rigvedic Mrigashīra name: Soma, Chandr "the deer's head". Also λ, φ Orionis a, the Moon god known as āgrahāyaṇī  Indian zodiac: 23° 20′ Vrishabha – 6° 40′ Mithuna  Western zodiac: 19° 20′ Gemini – 2° 40′ Cancer 392  Astrological Mate: Rahu (North lunar node)  Symbol: Teardrop, diamond, a human 6 head Ardra  Betelgeuse "the moist one" Rigvedic name: Rudra, the storm god  Indian zodiac: 6° 40′ – 20° Mithuna  Western zodiac: 2° 40′ – 16° Cancer  Astrological Mate: Guru (Jupiter)  quiver Punarvasu (dual)  "the two restorers of 7 two of the gods  chariots" Rigvedic name: Aditi, mother goods", also known Castor and Pollux as yamakau "the Symbol : Bow and Indian zodiac: 20° Mithuna – 3°20′ Karka  Western zodiac: 16° – 29°20′ Cancer  Pushya/Tishya 8 "the nourisher", also known γ, δ and θ Cancri as sidhya or tiṣya 393 Astrological Mate: Shani (Saturn)  Symbol: Cow's udder, lotus, arrow and circle  Rigvedic name: Bṛhaspati, priest of the gods  Indian zodiac: 3° 20′ – 16° 40′ Karka  Western zodiac: 29° 20′ Cancer – 12° 40′ Leo  Astrological Mate: Budha (Mercu ry) 9 Ashleshā "the embrace"  Symbol: Serpent  Rigvedic δ, ε, η, ρ, and σ Hydrae Sarpas name: or Nagas, deified snakes  Indian zodiac: 16° 40′ – 30° Karka  Western zodiac: 12° 40′ – 26° Leo  Astrological Mate: Ketu (South lunar node) 10 Maghā "the bountiful"  Regulus Symbol: Royal Throne  Rigvedic name: Pitrs, 'The Fathers', family ancestors  394 Indian zodiac: 0° – 13° 20′ Simha  Western zodiac: 26° Leo – 9° 20′ Virgo  Astrological Mate: Shukra (Venus )  Symbol: Front legs of bed, hammock, fig tree 11 Pūrva Phalgunī "first reddish one"  δ and θ Leonis Rigvedic name: Aryaman, god of patronage and favours  Indian zodiac: 13° 20′ – 26°40′ Simha  Western zodiac: 9° 20′ – 22°40′ Virgo  Astrological Mate: Surya (Sun)  Symbol: Four legs of bed, hammock  12 Uttara Phalgunī "second reddish one" Rigvedic name: Bhaga, god of Denebola marital bliss and prosperity  Indian zodiac: 26° 40′ Simha- 10° Kanya  395 Western zodiac: 22° 40′ Virgo – 6° Libra  Astrological Mate: Chandra (Moo n) 13 Hasta "the hand"  Symbol: Hand or fist  Rigvedic α, β, γ, δ and ε Corvi name: Savitr, the Sun god  Indian zodiac: 10° – 23° 20′ Kanya  Western zodiac: 6° – 19° 20′ Libra  Astrological Mate: Mangala (Mar s)  Symbol: Bright jewel or pearl  Chitra 14 Rigvedic name: Tvastar, Vish "the bright one", a Spica wakarma name of Spica  Indian zodiac: 23° 20′ Kanya – 6° 40′ Tula  Western zodiac: 19° 20′ Libra – 2° 40′ Scorpio 396  Astrological Mate: Rahu (North lunar node)  Swāti 15 "Su-Ati Symbol: Shoot of plant, coral (sanskrit) Very good" name of  Arcturus Rigvedic name: Vayu, Arcturus the Wind god  Indian zodiac: 6° 40′ – 20° Tula  Western zodiac: 2° 40′ – 16° Scorpio  Astrological Mate: Guru (Jupiter)  Symbol: Triumphal arch, potter's wheel  Visakha 16 "forked, having branches"; also known Rigvedic name: Indra, chief of α, β, γ and ι Librae the gods; Agni, god of Fire as rādhā "the gift"  Indian zodiac: 20° Tula – 3° 20′ Vrishchika  Western zodiac: 16° – 29° 20′ Scorpio  17 Anuradha "following rādhā" β, δ and π Scorpionis Astrological Mate: Shani (Saturn)  Symbol: Triumphal archway, lotus 397  Rigvedic name: Mitra, one of Adityas of friendship and partnership  Indian zodiac: 3° 20′ – 16° 40′ Vrishchika  Western zodiac: 29° 20′ Scorpio – 12° 40′ Sagittarius  Astrological Mate: Budha (Mercu ry)  "the eldest, circular amulet, umbrella, earring Jyeshtha 18 Symbol: most α, σ, and τ Scorpionis  excellent" Rigvedic name: Indra, chief of the gods  Indian zodiac: 16° 40′ – 30° Vrishchika  Western zodiac: 12° 40′ – 26° Sagittarius  Astrological Mate: Ketu (South 19 Mula "the root" ε, ζ, η, θ, lunar node) ι, κ, λ, μ and ν Scorpion  Symbol: Bunch of is roots tied together, elephant goad  398 Rigvedic name: Nirrti, peak of material achievement and the beginning of the spiritual impulse  Indian zodiac: 0° – 13° 20′ Dhanus  Western zodiac: 26° Sagittarius – 9° 20′ Capricorn  Astrological Mate: Shukra (Venus )  Purva 20 of the aṣāḍhā", aṣāḍhā "t he tusk, fan, winnowing Ashadha "first invincible one" Elephant Symbol: basket δ and ε Sagittarii  Rigvedic name: Apah, god of being the name of a Water  constellation Indian zodiac: 13° 20′ – 26° 40′ Dhanus  Western zodiac: 9° 20′ – 22° 40′ Capricorn  Uttara 21 "second Astrological Mate: Surya (Sun) Ashadha of ζ and σ Sagittarii  the aṣāḍhā" Symbol: Elephant tusk, small bed  399 Rigvedic name: Visvedevas, universal gods  Indian zodiac: 26° 40′ Dhanus – 10° Makara  Western zodiac: 22° 40′ Capricorn – 6° Aquarius  Astrological Mate: Brahma 22 ζ and σ Lyra Abhijit  Indian zodiac: 6° 40′ Makara – 10° 53′ Makara  Astrological Mate: Chandra (Moo n)  Symbol: Ear or Three Footprints 23 α, β and γ Aquilae Shravana  Rigvedic name: Vishnu, preserver of universe  Indian zodiac: 10° – 23° 20′ Makara  Western zodiac: 6° – 19° 20′ Aquarius  Dhanishta 24 "most famous", also Shravishthā "swif Astrological Mate: Mangala (Mar α to δ Delphini s)  test" 400 Symbol: Drum or flute  Rigvedic name: Eight vasus, deities of earthly abundance  Indian zodiac: 23° 20′ Makara – 6° 40′ Kumbha  Western zodiac 19° 20′ Aquarius – 2° 40′ Pisces  Astrological Mate: Rahu (North lunar node)  Symbol: Empty circle, 1,000 flowers or stars Shatabhisha 25 "Comprising  a Sadachbia hundred physicians" Rigvedic name: Varuna, god of celestial waters  Indian zodiac: 6° 40′ – 20° Kumbha  Western zodiac: 2° 40′ – 16° Pisces  Purva 26 Astrological Mate: Guru (Jupiter) Bhadrapada  "the first of the blessed α and β Pegasi Symbol: Swords or two front legs of feet" funeral cot, man with two faces 401  Rigvedic name: Ajaikapada, an ancient fire dragon  Indian zodiac: 20° Kumbha – 3° 20′ Meena  Western zodiac: 16° – 29° 20′ Pisces  Astrological Mate: Shani (Saturn)  Symbol: Twins, back legs of funeral cot, snake in the water Uttara 27 Bhadrapada "the second of the blessed feet" γ Pegasi and α Androm  Rigvedic name: Ahir Budhyana, serpent or edae dragon of the deep  Indian zodiac: 3° 20′ – 16° 40′ Meena  Western zodiac: 29° 20′ Pisces – 12° 40′ Aries  Astrological Mate: Budha (Mercu 28 Revati "prosperous" ry) ζ Piscium  Symbol: Fish or a pair of fish, drum  Rigvedic name: Pushan, 402 nourisher, the protective deity  Indian zodiac: 16° 40′ – 30° Meena  Western zodiac: 12° 40′ – 26° Aries Padas: Each of the 27 Nakshatras cover 13° 20’ of the ecliptic each. Each Nakshatra is also divided into quarters or padas of 3° 20’, and the below table lists the appropriate starting sound to name the child. The 27 nakshatras, each with 4 padas, give 108, which is the number of beads in a japa mala, representing all the elements (ansh) of Vishnu: # Name 1 Aśvini (अशिशन) 2 Bharaṇī (भरणी) 3 4 Pada Pada 1 2 चु Pada 3 Pada 4 Vimsottar i Lord Ruling Deity Aswini चे Che चो Cho ला La Ketu ली Li लू Lu ले Le लो Lo Venus Yama Kṛttikā (कृशिका) अA ईI उU एE Sun Agni Rohiṇī (रोशिणी) ओO िा िी Chu िे Va/Ba Vi/Bi िो िु Vu/Bu Moon Brahma की Ke Mars Moon छ Chha Rahu Shiva 5 Mṛgaśīrṣā(म्रृगिीर्ाथ ) 6 Ārdrā (आर्द्ाथ ) कु Ku घ Gha 7 Punarvasu (पुनिथसु) के Ke को Ko िा Ha िी Hi Jupiter Aditi 8 Puṣya (पुष्य) हु Hu िे He ड Da Saturn Jupiter Ve/Be Vo/Bo का Ka Kumara ङ Ng/Na िो Ho 403 9 1 0 Āśleṣā (आश्लेर्ा) डी Di डू Du डे De डो Do Mercury Rahu Maghā (मघा) मा Ma मी Mi मू Mu मे Me Ketu Pitr नो Mo टा Ta टी Ti टू Tu Venus Bhaga टे Te टो To पा Pa पी Pi Sun Sun Hasta (िस्त) पू Pu र् Sha ण Na ठ Tha Moon Savitr Chitrā (शचत्रा) पे Pe पो Po रा Ra री Ri Mars Svāti (स्वाशत) रू Ru रे Re रो Ro ता Ta Rahu Vaayu Viśākhā (शििाखा) ती Ti तू Tu ते Te तो To Jupiter Indra Agni Anurādhā (अनुराधा) ना Na नी Ni नू Nu ने Ne Saturn Mitra Jyeṣṭhā (ज्येष्ठा) नो No या Ya यी Yi यू Yu Mercury Indra Mūla (मूल) ये Ye यो Yo भा Bha भी Bhi Ketu भू धा Apah Dha ढा Dha Venus Bhu भे भो जी Ji Sun Brahma 1 Pūrva 1 Phālgunī (पूिथ फाल्गुनी) 1 Uttara 2 Phālgunī (उिर फाल्गुनी) 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 or Pūrva or Uttara Pūrva Aṣāḍhā (पूिाथ र्ाढा) Uttara Vishwakarm a Varuna, Nirriti फा Bha/Ph a जा Ja 404 1 2 2 Aṣāḍhā (उिरार्ाढा) Śrāvaṇa (श्रािण) Bhe Bho खी खू खे Ju/Kh Je/Kh 2 Śrāviṣṭhā (श्रशिष्ठा) 3 or Dhaniṣṭhā (धशनष्ठा) 2 Śatabhiṣā (ितशभर्ा)or 4 Śatataraka 2 Pūrva 5 Bhādrapadā (पूिथभार्द्पदा) Jo/Khe 6 2 7 Bhādrapadā (उिरभार्द्प Moon Vishnu u गा Ga गी Gi गु Gu गे Ge Mars Vasu गो Go सा Sa सी Si सू Su Rahu Varuna से Se सो So दा Da दी Di Jupiter Aja Ek Pada दू Du र् Tha झ Jha दे De दो Do च Cha दा) Revati (रे िती) Gha/Kh i Uttara 2 खो o ञ Saturn Da/Tra ची Chi Mercury Ahirbudhany a Pooshan At the centre of the temple is the image of divinity and its purity that generations after generations have revered and venerated. That image residing at the heart of the temple is its life; and is its reason. One can think of an icon without a temple; but it is impossible to think of a temple without an icon of the divinity. The very purpose of a temple is its icon. And, therefore is the most important structure of the temple is the Garbagriha where the icon resides. Temple complex being looked upon as a representation of Sri Chakra. SUN: Bones, Right Eye, Sight, Heart, Stomach MOON Mind, Emotions, Body Fluids, Left Eye, Sense of Taste, Breast, Chest, Loins 405 MARS Muscles, Head, Testicles, Bone Marrow, Blood Pressure, Bile, Vigour MERCURY Skin, Sense of Smell, Memory, Intelligence, Speech, Consciousness, Respiratory Canal, Intestines, Throat JUPITERFat, Liver, Gall Bladder, Spleen, Sense of Sound, Ears VENUS Semen, Sense of Taste, Sexual Organs, Reproductive System, Face, Beauty of Eyes SATURN Sense of Touch, Nerves, Joints (including spine), Legs, Knees, Ankles ARIES Head TAURUS Neck GEMINI Upper Chest, Shoulders, Arms, Hands CANCER Breasts LEO Solar Plexus VIRGO Naval Region LIBRA Lower Abdomen, Kidneys, Reproductive System, Lower Back SCORPIO Pubic Region, Private Parts, Anus, Rectum SAGGITARIUS Thighs, Hips CAPRICORN Knees AQUARIUS Calves, Ankles PISCES Feet MESHAM 1ST HOUSE Head, Brain, Hair, Appearance RISHABAM 2ND HOUSE Face, Right Eye, Neck, Throat, Teeth, Tongue, Nose, Mouth, Speech, Nails MITHUNAM 3RD HOUSE Ears, Right Ear, Lungs, Shoulders, Arms, Hands, Upper part of Eusophagus, Clavicles, Mobility KADAGAM 4TH HOUSE Breasts, Chest, Lungs, Heart, Diaphragm SIMHAM 5TH HOUSE Upper Abdomen, Stomach, Liver, Gall Bladder, Spleen, Pancreas, Duodenum, Mind KANNI 6TH HOUSE Intestines, Digestion, Absorption, Appendix, Lowerback, Injuries, Wounds, Medical THULAM 7TH HOUSE Urinary Tract, Kidneys, Sexual Organs, Uterus, Ovaries, Testicles, Semen, Lower Back VIRUCHIGAM 8TH HOUSE External Genital Organs, Anus, Perineum DHANUR 9TH HOUSE Hips, Thighs MAGARAM 10TH HOUSE Knees, Joints, Legs KHUMBAM 11TH HOUSE Left Ear, Calves, Ankles, Lower Legs MEENAM 12TH HOUSE Feet 406 ASWINI Knee, Top of Feet BHARANI Head, Bottom of Feet KRITTIKA Waist, Hips, Loins, Crown of Head ROHINI Legs, Forehead, Ankles, Shins, Calves or Legs MRIGASHIRA Eyes, Eyebrows ARDRA Hair, Eyes, Back & Front of Head where brain's controlling mechanisms are located PURNAVASU Fingers, Nose PUSHYA Mouth, Face (connects to facial expression), Bone joints, Elbows ASLESHA Nails, Knuckles, Kneecaps, Ears MAGHA Nose, Lips, Chin PURVAPHALGUNI Sexual Organs, Lips, Righthand UTTARA PHALGUNI Sexual Organs, Lips, Lefthand HASTA Hands CHITRA Forehead & Neck SWATI Teeth, Chest, Breathing Process VISHAKHA Upper Limbs, Arms & Breasts ANURADHA Astral Fires in the Body, Heart, Breasts, Stomach, Bowels, Womb JYESTHA Tongue, Neck, Rightside of Torso MULA Both Feet, Left side of Torso and back PURVA ASHADHA Both Thighs UTTARA ASHADHA Both Thighs & Waist SHRAVANA Ears, Sex Organs, Gait DHANISHTA Back & Anus SHATABISHAK Both Sides of Chin, Jaw, Right Thigh PURVA BHADRAPADA two sides of body, Ribs, Abdomen, Sides of Legs, Left Thigh, soles of feet UTTARA BHADRAPADA two sides of body, sides of legs, shins, soles of feet Consciousness express itself through Seven Chakras Muladhar Chakra Body – Karma (action) Swadhishthan Chakra Senses– Bhoga (sensual enjoyment) Manipur Chakra Prana – Breath Anahata Chakra Heart - Love Vishuddhi Chakra Mind - Thoughts Angya Chakra Am-ness Meditation Sahstrar Chakra Soul - Samadhi 407 Pipilika Yoga:It is of Six types & are related to Six Chakras Muladhar Chakra Karma Yoga Swadhishthan Chakra Tantra Yoga Manipur Chakra Hatha Yoga Anahata Chakra Bhakti Yoga Vishuddhi Chakra Gyana Yoga Angya Chakra Dhyan Yoga Sahstrar Chakra Sankhya Yoga Swara Sanskrit Expansion Meaning Animal Chakra God SA Shadja -MEANS SHAPTHAMBRAHMN- Anything being understood in the form Six born- Peacock Muladhara (base of spine) Ganapathi RE Rishabha - MeansRISHIMU NIS-who are the people found the ways and means to lead a peaceful life bull Skylark Swadhishtana (Genitals) Agni GA Gandhara – Means Attraction sky Goat Manipura (Solar Plexus & Navel) Rudra (Shiva) MA Madhyama – Means MAHIPAL-RAJA middle Dove/Heron Anahata ( Heart) Vishnu PA Panchama - MEANS PRAJA fifth Cukkoo/Nightingal e Visudhdha (Throat) Naaradaa DHA Dhaivata –Means DHARMA earth Horse Ajna (Third Eye) Sadasiva (Shiva as the Unmanifest precursor to creation) NI Nishadam – Means NIRKAR BRAHMAN-DUTY hunter Elephant Sahasra (crown of the head) Surya(Sun) The divine dance of Lord Nataraja, Lord of Dance, signifies the yogic process of self realization. The 24 frets of the instrument are analogous to the 24 cartilages in the spinal cord. The number 24 also relates to the 24 syllables in the VedicGayatriMantra. (Ref:Sriranga Sadguru, Amaravani In the Vedic tradition, the human spinal cord is represented as the musical instrument (Veena). The production of various seed- sounds in relation to various chakras starting from Muladhara at the base are shown. Chakras represent the energy centers. The importance of various chakras in spiritual path is well known. The other symbolism is that the human body is a temple in which the antaryamin resides. The analogy is extended to explain the various parts of the body as being representations of the aspects of a temple. In this process, the forehead is said to represent the sanctum; and the top of the head, the tower. The space between the eyebrows, the ajna chakra, is the seat of the divinity. The finial of the tower is the unseen the sahasrara located above the head. 408 Rituals - a guide to inner worship฀ Crown of the head - sanctum sanctorum - Garbha Griha ฀ Heart as Antaraala (entrance to Garbha Griha) ฀ Abdomen - Mandapa ฀ Hands - Prakaara ฀ Feet - Rajagopura ฀ God indwelling in human being - (Deity) Murti ฀ Human body with chakras (Abode of God) Devaalaya ฀ As far as the human body goes this is the co-relation between it and the Nakshatras: 1. DHANISHTA Back & Anus SHATABISHAK Both Sides of Chin, Jaw, Right Thigh PURVA BHADRAPADA two sides of body, Ribs, Abdomen, Sides of Legs, Left Thigh, soles of feet UTTARA BHADRAPADA two sides of body, sides of legs, shins, soles of feet 2. Consciousness express itself through Seven Chakras Muladhar Chakra Body – Karma (action) Swadhishthan Chakra Senses– Bhoga (sensual enjoyment) Manipur Chakra Prana – Breath Anahata Chakra Heart - Love Vishuddhi Chakra Mind - Thoughts Angya Chakra Am-ness - Meditation Sahstrar Chakra Soul – Samadhi. 3. Pipilika Yoga:It is of Six types & are related to Six Chakras Muladhar Chakra Karma Yoga Swadhishthan Chakra Tantra Yoga Manipur Chakra Hatha Yoga Anahata Chakra Bhakti Yoga Vishuddhi Chakra Gyana Yoga Angya Chakra Dhyan Yoga Sahstrar Chakra Sankhya Yoga 409 The divine dance of Lord Nataraja, Lord of Dance, signifies the yogic process of self realization. The 24 frets of the instrument are analogous to the 24 cartilages in the spinal cord. The number 24 also relates to the 24 syllables in the VedicGayatriMantra. (Ref:Sriranga Sadguru, Amaravani In the Vedic tradition, the human spinal cord is represented as the musical instrument (Veena). The production of various seed- sounds in 410 relation to various chakras starting from Muladhara at the base are shown. Chakras represent the energy centers. The importance of various chakras in spiritual path is well known. The other symbolism is that the human body is a temple in which the antaryamin resides. The analogy is extended to explain the various parts of the body as being representations of the aspects of a temple. In this process, the forehead is said to represent the sanctum; and the top of the head, the tower. The space between the eyebrows, the ajna chakra, is the seat of the divinity. The finial of the tower is the unseen the sahasrara located above the head.The layout and architecture of the temple is replete with philosophical meanings. The 9 gateways signify the 9 orifices in the human body. The Chitsabai or Ponnambalam, the sanctum sanctorum represents the heart which is reached by a flight of 5 stairs called the Panchaatchara padi - pancha meaning 5, achhara – indestructible syllables – "SI VA YA NA MA", from a raised anterior dias - the Kanakasabai. The access to the Sabhai is through the sides of the stage (and not from the front as in most temples). The Ponnambalam or the Sanctum sanctorum is held by 28 pillars – representing the 28 agamas or set methodologies for the worship of Lord Shiva. The roof is held by a set of 64 beams representing the 64 forms of art and is held by several cross-beams 411 representing the innumerable blood vessels. The roof has been laid by 21600 golden tiles with the word SIVAYANAMA inscribed on them representing 21600 breaths. The golden tiles are fixed using 72000 golden nails which represents the no. of nadis exists in human body. The roof is topped by a set of 9 sacred pots or kalasas, representing the 9 forms of energy. (refer Umapathy Sivam’s Kunchitaangristhavam) It marks the location of the shrine room and rises directly above it. On top of it resides the shikhara (peak). ฀ The pyramid-like structure shooting up the landscape dominates the skyline. It represents the feet of a human. The DWAJASTHAMBAM or Flag Pole is inscripted with the deity of the temple and is a symbol of the structure's holiness. On the human body, the DWAJASTHAMBAM represents the loins (MOOLADHARA CHKARA). Prakaram or circumambulation passage represents the hands. This process mirrors the fourphased spiritual evolution described in yoga: 1. the waking state (jagrat); 2. dream state (swapna); 3. the state of deep sleep (sushupti); 4. highest state of awareness, turiya. According to the scheme of transition, architectural and sculptural details vary from phase to phase in the devotee's onward movement, gradually preparing him for the ultimate experience, which awaits him in the shrine. They represent the phases of progress in a man's journey towards divinity. The field enclosures and pavilions through which he must pass to reach the sanctum are symbolic. The third is the walkway. Most temples have a walkway around the walls of the inner chamber for circumbulation by devotees around the deity as a mark of respect to the God in the temple. 412 The hall is decorated with paintings of deities. On the human body, the Mandapam is the abdomen. Devotees use the hall to sit, meditate, pray, chant or watch the priests perform rituals. This is also called the natya-mandira (hall for temple-dancing) where, in days of yore, women dancers used to perform dance rituals. Most large temples have a hall meant for the devotees to sit. Mandapam or the Temple Hall- The sculptures carved in sandstone tell stories and educate members of society on the stories of creation.Entering the gateway, he is greeted by a host of figures on the outer walls. He is ready to pass into the abode. On reaching the main gateway, the worshipper bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. Devotees entering and leaving the porch ring this bell to declare their arrival and departure. The Front Porch: This area of the temple usually has a big metallic bell that hangs from the ceiling. He or she is now in the inner square of Brahma in the vastu- mandala, and in direct communion with the chief source of power in the temple. This utterly quiet, peaceful and blissful state is the ultimate aim of all spiritual activity. The devotee is now fully-absorbed in the beauty and serenity of the icon. There are no pillars, windows or ventilators. It is the interior and most sacred area of worship in the temple. Always in the North-east is the garbha griha (sanctum sanctorum) where in the murthi or deity resides (representing the head in the human body). Finally the shrine, devoid of any ornamentation, and with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to the highest achievable state of consciousness of tranquility (turiya), where all boundaries vanish and the universe stands forth in its primordial glory. It signifies the coming to rest of all differentiated, relative existence. Wall Lines and Grid: In deciding the wall-lines of buildings, a remarkable point is that a chief norm is to avoid the marmas located on the body of the Vāstupuruṣa for its efficacy (Mayamata, 1985, 21 or See Mayamatam (7.55-56)).23 In the temple’s plan, thus, the location of these marmas affects the 413 positions of the building’s wall-lines. As shown in the north Indian mandūka-maṇḍala with the 8×8 pāda, the points of intersection (marmas) must not be interrupted by the line of the ground plan. No constructions should be disallowed upon crossing points, other lines of the padavinyās diagrams, or else the worshipers and the territory of the surrounding circumstances could be harmed. It thus cannot be denied that the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala grid is looked upon as an idea and a tool that have been consistently redefined and exploited through history. Conversely, as aforementioned, the application of such regular modulated squares reflects that sthāpakas encompass a range of practical building tasks intimately connected to measurements and cuts of stone and wood, and further they decide the related matters considering load bearing structures. The application of the grids, in this sense, would be a significant means for unconscious symbol between the God and laymen, in addition to an essential support of dynamic superstructure. However, when structural troubles would happen in the early Hindu temple, the temple would be more serious if it would have a superstructure with the śikhara made of crudely-made brick because it needs to solve structural loads. But, these structural conflicts would disappear naturally when the temples are set out according to the correct criteria, and when architects take measurements and numbers of stone or brick into consideration, both coming along with the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala grids and situating ornaments with embedded sculptures along the walls extended outward because their enshrinement is the first purpose of the temple itself. Also, when the height and width of temples become bigger together with the great śikhara by aesthetic and political demands, the strong materials and efficient solutions of structural problem would be naturally demanded. So, architects use strong materials like stone or brick, which becomes steadily developed for the construction works on modulated grids, the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala. As an ultimate solution, the offsets (bhadra) of the walls get more supported by pilasters, reflecting 414 emblematic and aesthetic points. After all, the multiple projections of all walls along with the main buttresses (bhadra or ratha) are extended outward and become more complex by embedded sculptures on them. What is more obvious is that the form of the buttress takes the architectural proportions and modules into account according to preferred styles in each region: e.g. Nāgara, Drāviḍa, Vesara, Latina, Bhūmija, Valabhī, Phāṁsanā, and Śekhari. Also, for temples built of stone, the first bricks are of stone; for shrines built of wood, they are of wood, or else earthen bricks are employed for all kinds of temples (vimāna). By its symbolic significance brick has precedence over stone and wood. Stone is used as its substitute. Their altars are also brick piles and embodied metaphysical knowledge (Kramrisch 1946, 108). Temples built on bricks is suitable in modulating their number and size for constructing them before the introduction for projecting vertical buttresses, and arranging the bricks in accord with the crossing points of the grid, even satisfying measurements and structural loads. Accordingly, the brick construction is useful corresponding to the crossing points of the grid, and so had superiority over stone and wood. But, when the whole scale of temples is on the increase in the ritual authority and, for that reason, when the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala is introduced for the constructions, it could be not rational and economical to use the brick too much in order to keep the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in proportion, and even it is unstable for structural load bearing capacity. Thus, by employing stone as a main material, the matters of the allowable load and adjustable proportion get solved. In deciding the size and measurement of compartments sub-divided within the square plan, architects would consider structural loads drawing on the width and height of a temple plan. In other words, the higher the temple would be, the larger its squares would be and the thicker the buttress and even the inner walls would be. Further, in its construction there must be regular rules like a modular system which are decided by allowable load designs founded upon the height and thickness 415 of walls though it is not clear from the textual prescriptions, while it might be impossible to find a standardized rule because this could lead to the plans of quite different dimensions. Likewise, this article positively adds Meister’s observation as the ritual grid of the Vedic altar, the Uttar Vedi. As Meister exclusively points out, there would be a kind of benchmark to be considered before the demarcations of square and the construction of walls. The ancient architects measure off lines, points, and a basic cell for an altar, based upon the height of socles (vedībandha) in accordance with the floor level of an inner sanctum (Meister, 2003, 258259), regarded as a reference point to lay out the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala. A notable view to support his works is that from the seventh century onward Hindu temples have persistently kept the original dimension of a sanctum with a ‘square-based plan’ to determine the rhythm of the architectural members or the proportion between the thickness of the walls and the size of the inner shrine. It is strongly in conjunction with the early creation of temples through the logical harmony between the circle and square. It is shown that a fixed square form means a symbolic space in coincidence with a purpose for the ritual program. However, Meister, on the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala’s application to the construction of temples, just contends that it flexibly controls design’s proportions in their ground plans and sectional elevations, and has continuous relations with the ritual grid of the Vedic altar as a ways to consecrate temples and protect them (Meister, 1985, 248-258; 1981, 248-249). Rather, to my knowledge, as mentioned earlier through the field works of archive materials, the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala reflects the two concerns; the one is practically for a constructional aid as a design process; and the other is spiritually for an emblematic metaphor. Last but not least, in Indian culture, architecture is viewed as a representation of an institution (Thapar, 2002, xxix), and both institutional and symbolic needs would determine its form. In many ways, also, narrative sources connected more specifically with architecture provide a bridge to present ultimate meanings for the constructions, whether they are stories concerning the Buddha’s life or the Hindu deities’ 416 mythology (Kim, 2011a, 183-192). The Vedas primarily referred to as a kind of manuals for rituals and commentaries provide a model of square-planned altars made of timber and reed, for which Vedic shelters offer a vocabulary (Renou, 1998, 130-141). The square-based plan with two dimensions is an archetype and a pattern of order, while the square-based form with three dimensions encased by Hindu icons to the four cardinal directions is a chief element in accommodating ritual intentions and load bearing systems overlaid upon the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala. Further, its geometric plan leads to constructing a temple with regular proportions, tallying with symbolic meanings and practical ends. For such reasons, these dominant ideas can be considered as a driving force that the size of shrines for rituals have been persistently maintained without any spatial changes, although there have been even greater extensions of the support material and the symbolic surface. In these overall perspectives, this thesis attempts to re- define the meaning of the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala by combining practical construction methods with symbolical places to make a sanctified temple. In the construction of Hindu temples, the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala’s rule contains emblematic theory and functional practices supervised by ancient Indian architects (sthāpaka), and its architectural representation consequently makes it possible for them to have persistently kept the original dimension of a sanctum with a square base plan from the seventh century onward. REFERENCE Temple and Human Bodies: Representing Hinduism,George Pati,International Journal of Hindu Studies,Vol. 15, No. 2 (AUGUST 2011), pp. 191-207,Published by: Springer,https://www.jstor.org/stable/41476640 417 CHAPTER XI Quintessential Architectural Characteristics of the Chaitralayas- Jain “Temples” and their Proximity to Architecture of Hindu temples Rankapur The similarities between Jainism1 and Hinduism are, on the surface, numerous and likely come from thousands of years of close contact. Both religions believe in reincarnation, the cycle of rebirth into a new life after death in a previous one, and karma. Both practice vegetarianism and meditation. We know from many studies that both Buddhist and Hindu influences colour the temple architecture of the Jain edifices. Murtipujaka or 'image-worshipping,' is found in both Shvetambaras and Digambaras, so we have Shvetambara Murtipujakas and Digambara Murtipujakas. Murtipujakas are also known as Deravasis. They are centred on temples with puja, worship, of Jina-images, other deities, yakshas and yakshis, and other celestial figures in the Jain 418 pantheon. There are large numbers of Jain temples throughout India and more recently overseas. The holy mountain of Satrunjaya Bhavnagar district, Gujarat, India has nearly one thousand temples and shrines. Some Jain temples are extraordinarily elaborate and beautiful and through their symbolism express the doctrines of Jainism..2 Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls. Māru-Gurjara architecture or the "Solanki style" is, a particular temple style from Gujarat and Rajasthan (both regions with a strong Jain presence) that originated in both Hindu and Jain temples around 1000, but became enduringly popular with Jain patrons. It has remained in use, in somewhat modified form, to the present day, indeed also becoming popular again for some Hindu temples in the last century. The style is seen in the groups of pilgrimage temples at Dilwara on Mount Abu, Taranga, Girnar and Palitana. Derasar is a word used for a Jain temple in Gujarat and southern Rajasthan. Basadi is a Jain shrine or temple in Karnataka. The word is generally used in South India. Its historical use in North India is preserved in the names of the Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples of Mount Abu. The Sanskrit word is vasati, it implies an institution including residences of scholars attached to the shrine. Temples may be divided into Shikar-bandhi Jain temples, public dedicated temple buildings, normally with a high superstructure, typically a north Indian shikhara tower above the shrine) and the Ghar Jain temple, a private Jain house shrine. A Jain temple which is known as a pilgrimage centre is often termed a Tirtha. The main image of a Jain temple is known as a mula nayak.[5] A Manastambha (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. It has four 'Moortis' i.e. stone figures of the main god of that temple. One facing each direction: North, East, South and West.[6] Jain Tirtha, Shravanabelagola, with the colossal Gommateshwara statue. 419 Jain temples are built with various architectural designs.[7] The earliest survivals of Jain architecture are part of the Indian rock-cut architecture tradition, initially shared with Buddhism, and by the end of the classical period with Hinduism. Very often numbers of rock-cut Jain temples and monasteries share a site with those of the other religions, as at Udayagiri, Bava Pyara, Ellora, Aihole, Badami, and Kalugumalai. The Ellora Caves are a late site, which contains temples of all three religions, as the earlier Buddhist ones give way to later Hindu excavations. There is considerable similarity between the styles of the different religions, but often the Jains placed large figures of one or more of the 24 tirthankaras in the open air rather than inside the shrine. These statues later began to be very large, normally standing nude figures in the kayotsarga meditation position (which is similar to standing at attention). Examples include the Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments and the Siddhachal Caves, with groups of statues, and a number of single figures including the 12th-century Gommateshwara statue, and the modern Statue of Vasupujya and, largest of all at 108 feet (32.9 meters) tall, the Statue of Ahimsa. In recent times, the use of murti images has become controversial within Jainism, and some smaller sects reject them entirely, while others are selective in terms of which figures they allow images of. In sects which largely disapprove of images, the religious buildings are far more simple. Following the regional styles in Hindu temples, Jain temples in North India generally use the north Indian nagara style, while those in South India use the dravida style, although the north Indian Māru-Gurjara style or Solanki style has made some inroads in the south over the last century or so. For example, the Mel Sithamur Jain large gopuram tower, similar to those of local Hindu temples. 420 Math in Tamil Nadu has a Temple Dilwara Charactistics of the original Māru-Gurjara style are "the external walls of the temples have been structured by increasing numbers of projections and recesses, accommodating sharply carved statues in niches. These are normally positioned in superimposed registers, above the lower bands of mouldings. The latter display continuous lines of horse riders, elephants, and kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned." The main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa subsidiary spirelets on it, and two smaller side-entrances with porches are common in larger temples. Later, with Dilwara in the lead, surrounding the main temple with a curtain of devakulikā shrines, each with a small spire became a distinctive feature of the Jain temples of West India, still employed in some modern temples. These are fairly plain on the outer walls, and often raised on a very high platform, so that the outside of larger temples can resemble a fortress with high walls.[9] However the entrance(s), often up high, wide steps, are not designed for actual defence, even though medieval Muslim armies and others destroyed many Jain temples in the past, often permanently. 421 Inside the temple, the Māru-Gurjara style features extremely lavish carving, especially on columns, large and intricately carved rosettes on the ceilings of mandapas, and a characteristic form of "flying arch" between columns, which has no structural role, and is purely decorative. Most early temples in the style are in various local shades of pink, buff or brown sandstone, but the Dilwara temples are in a very pure white marble which lightens the style and has become considered very desirable. While, before British India, large Buddhist or Hindu temples (and indeed Muslim mosques) have very often been built with funds from a ruler, this was infrequently the case with Jain temples. Instead they were typically funded by wealthy Jain individuals or families. For this reason, and often the smaller numbers of Jains in the population, Jain temples tend to be at the small or middle end of the range of sizes, but at pilgrimage sites they may cluster in large groups - there are altogether several hundred at Palitana, tightly packed within several high-walled compounds called "tuks" or "tonks".Temple charitable trusts, such as the very large Anandji Kalyanji Trust, founded in the 17th century and now maintaining 1,200 temples, play a very important role in funding temple building and maintenance. 422 However, in later years Jains started building temple-cities on hills based on the concept of mountains of immortality. Initially these temples were mainly carved out of rock faces and the use of bricks was almost negligible. In the initial years, many Jain temples were made adjoining the Buddhist temples following the Buddhist rock-cut style.Jain architecture is an offshoot of Hindu and Buddhist styles. From these pillars, there are richly carved brackets that emerge at about two thirds of their height. The squares thus formed create chambers, used as small chapels and contains the image of a deity. Jain temples have numerous pillars having a well designed structure, forming squares. The roofs of have pointy domes and wherever there is a dome, the pillars are omitted to create an octagonal space within. Entry into these temples is also from four doors that face the cardinal directions. In these four faced temples, the image of a Tirthankar faces back to back to face four cardinal directions. The only variation in architecture specific to Jain temples is the frequently seen four-faced or chaumukh design. Jain architecture seldom uses bricks and the system of carving out temples from rock faces was adopted. A fine example is is Adinatha. All of Jain temples are dedicated to one of the 24 Tirthankaras. The founder of Jainism is Vardamana or Mahavira (Great Hero). But it is said that he is the last Tirthankara or Jina. These "ornamented these holy hills with a crown of eternal Arhat chaityas (tabernacles of saints) shining with the splendor of jewels." An important aspect to be noted is that Hindus and Buddhists built temples, Jains built temple- cities on hills. In later years when Jains discovered the concept of mountains of immortality , they proceeded to deviate from Hindu and Buddhist sites and build on their own. By corbelling over the pendentives in level courses, the dome was gradually formed. As mentioned earlier, the leading idea of the plan of the Jain temple is that of a number of columns arranged in squares. Wherever it was intended to have a dome, pillars were omitted, so as to leave spaces in the form of octagons.The Temple Structure These columns, standing around for no apparent purpose, might make the place seem like a mindless labyrinth, but on closer scrutiny it becomes evident that there is a style and method in 423 it. The exits of Jain temples lead into a series of columned chambers into the central halls of the temple. Interior Layout Of Temple: The pointed spires above each dome is different, yet it signifies the position of a chapel, hall or any other chamber inside. The principle impression gathered from these temples is the variety of their sections but in harmony with each other. Simply put, these are temples within a temple, divided into sanctums and surrounded by a range of chapels and shrines, and the maze of columns act as a defense against plunderers The Ranakpur temple is built in white marble and the main chamber is supported by finely From the architectural perspective, seem to be rather cold compared to Hindu or Buddhist temples. The Architecture Splendor Of Jain Temples. carved columns, totaling 1,444 in all. On the top of a flight of stairs at the central entrance, there is a three-storied "Balanaka" (entrance hall), which has a dome roof. The temple is very large. It stands on a basement of 60m x 62m (*1) , which is like a stronghold. The Adinatha Temple of Ranakpur is also named Dharma Vihara temple after its builder. At a space that penetrates through two to three stories, various heights of domes are placed, and their ceilings have sculptures that are unbelievably intricate. A large number of columns are carved elaborately, and it is said that no two pillars are alike in design. 424 The splendor of the space is so pure as the entire temple from the floors to the ceilings is made of white marble. It also might be described as the realization of the Pure Land. Light is abundantly coming inside through gaps between ceilings and from courtyards, highlighting the intertwined spaces and fine carvings all around. Central Main Shrine is called "Mula-prasada," its interior is Garbagriha" (sanctum). A - Assembly hall in front. Of four portals of the main shrine. Each Ranga-mandapa connects with three storyed "Meghanada- mandapa" B - High hall in front. Having four "Mahadara-prasada" (two-faced-shrine) diagonally in four directions of the main shrine, the temple type is "Panchayatana" (five-shrined- type All these shrines hold a statue of Tirthankara or Jina (four in Chaturmukha, two in Mahadaraprasada), there are more than 100 statues in total. A line of "Deva-kulika" (small shrine) along "Bhamati" (cloister) surround the whole complex. In addition to this, there are two "Bhadraprasada" east and west sides, making the total composition much more intricate. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE On the other hand, a Jaina temple is not a house of God, temples means the "house but a place where a of God" and accordingly "Tirthankara" (Jina) gives it should be locked teachings. It is called securely as a human "Samavasarana," and the residence. doctrine of Jina should be preached in all directions. The garbhagriha at Hindu. The basic form of Jain temple is [garbhagriha + temple is "Four faced open mandapa]. form" in the temple design. HINDU TEMPLE -JAIN TEMPLES: Jain temples are said to be the richest temples in the world, surpassing even Mughal buildings in terms of grandeur and material wealth. Compared to the number of Hindu temples in India, Jain ones are few and spaced out. Each temple, though, followed a set pattern, styles, designed on principles of architecture in use during the period. These temple-cities were not built on a specific plan; instead they were the results of sporadic construction. Natural levels of the hill on which the city was being built accommodated various levels so that as one goes higher so does the architecture and grandeur increases. 425 The external and visible elements of religious buildings signify the faith of the particular community, where people have congregated for worship and exhibited their reverence and generate contact towards the divine. A tour of famous Jain temples in India would reveal the visual philosophy in architecture of temples and idols of Jain sects. In Jain doctrine prabhavana is an important social tendency to do good to others by building temples, setting up Jina-images, going on pilgrimages, and making donations to hospitals and animal sanctuaries. This way one can 'illuminate' the Jain religion to the world. Although Jain temples frequently share the architectural and artistic elements found in temples of other religions, they are distinctively Jain. 3 Their religious buildings are specifically adapted to Jain spiritual ideas and ritual practices. There are three striking features of Jain religious buildings: 1) There is usually more than one shrine in a temple. 2) Most are surrounded by additional buildings that form part of the religious building. 3) Lastly, temples are frequently clustered together to produce temple complexes or ‘temple-cities’. A Jain temple may be referred to by many different names. Terms for ‘temple’ used in early Jainism were sometimes unclear because activities such as teaching, worshipping and residing did not have special areas and often happened in the same place. As buildings and rooms in Jain temples became dedicated to certain purposes over time, so the terminology became more precise. The term used in the present day varies according to the region of India and the local language. There are several distinct architectural types of Jain temple in India. These range from cave temples, stupas, pavilions built to shelter holy footprints and statues through maṇḍapa-line temples, ‘four-faced’ temples – caturmukha temples – and havelī temples to hall temples, domestic house temples and small shrines found inside private homes. The most common type is that of the maṇḍapa-line temple, which has one or more shrines and halls. Also typical of a Jain religious context are mythological and cosmological temples, which reflect unique cosmological traditions. More rarely found temples are the towering kīrtti-stambha mandirs. 426 . Proximity of Jain Temple Architecture to Hindu temples: Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls. Form and Function in Jain Architecture. Four sided form: Jain temple architecture developed the four sided form, as opposed to Hindu temples, which tend to be linear in direction because of the metaphysical doctrines of Jainism. The concept of relativity in particular, or in other words, that there is no ‘one truth’. This means that for a temple, an architectural promenade that showed only one face of the tirthankara was against the concept of Jainism, this means that a number of overlapping ‘ways’ to reach the image were developed. This multiplicity of viewpoints, this duplicity of temple forms and facades was well reflected in later examples as well, as at the Hatheesingh temple at Ahmedabad, and the Shitalanatha temple at Calcutta. Mathematics and architecture share the search for order and beauty and the former plays a key role in achievements of the latter.This is so with all complex temple projects regardless of the religion-Hinduism or Jainism. The application of geometry is the principle guiding both grandeur and structural stability as seen in the Pyramids of Egypt, The Parthenon, The Colosseum and the TajMahal.4 TEMPLES OF JAIN RELIGION: The Jains called their temples"Caitya", or Chaityalaya from a root cita or ci meaning "heaped-up", is a Sanskrit term for a mound or pedestal or "funeral pile". The oldest temple has to be Ashtapada at or near Mount Kailash, but since it is inaccessible to humans, alternate is either the Palitana Tirth situated on the Shatrunjay Hill or the Sammed Shikharji on the Parasnath Hill.Among other pilgrim sites are Sankeshwar, Nakoda, Ranakpur and Girnar Hill.Most Jain pilgrim sites are located in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The Chaitya is a sacred construction of some sort, and has acquired different more specific meanings in different regions, including "caityavṛkṣa" for a sacred tree. There is a difference between the Buddhist and Jain connotation. In Buddhism Chaityas appear at the same sites like 427 the vihara, a strongly contrasting type of building with a low-ceilinged rectangular central hall, with small cells opening, off it, often on all sides. These often have a shrine set back at the centre of the back wall, containing a stupa in early examples, or a Buddha statue later. The vihara was the key building in Buddhist monastic complexes, used to live, study and pray in. Typical large sites contain several viharas for every chaitya According to K.L. Chanchreek,5 in early Jain literature, caitya meant ayatanas or temples where monks stayed. It also meant where the Jain idol was placed in a temple, but broadly it was a symbolism for any temple. In some texts, these are referred to as arhat-caitya or jina-caitya, meaning shrines for an Arhat or Jina. Major ancient Jaina archaeological sites such as the Kankali Tila near Mathura show Caitya-tree, Caitya-stupa, Caitya arches with Mahendradvajas and meditating Tirthankaras. 2 The word caitya appears in the Vedic literature of Hinduism. In early Buddhist and Hindu literature, a caitya is any 'piled up monument' or 'sacred tree' under which to meet or meditate. Different Caityas are referred to, in the Jaina sutras. They reveal that at different places in the outskirts of a village, town or a city there were Caityas. It was believed that there is a God in a Caitya and that he has to be worshipped with proper offerings. It is said that Mahavlra would. not stay in the Yajniya Cityas, Yajna-Shalas. He stayed in Caityas, which were certainly non-vedic in character and were visited by a large number of people.6 SYNTHETIC CHARACTER OF JAIN ARCHITECTURE The temples of Digambara and Śvetāmbara group of Jainas have similar styles of temples commonly and probably the Māru-Gurjara style of northwestern India .Though no one single type can be called upon- this one was popular.Many of the Jaina temples in northern and eastern India, as well as in central and southern India, house sculptural representations that are closely connected with certain clearly identified sites in the northwest of the country. Which means that there was some duplication (copy) in design. The other reason would be that most of its architectural elements including "shikhara" have been developed in Hindu architecture, and this 428 temple in itself does not come up with anything unique.However, in the Jaina architecture, sculpture is not supposed to insist on its value in itself. Instead, all the engravings serve for the entire architectural spaces, without going beyond the frames of architectural elements. The unique value attained by this Jaina temple resides in its "integration" and can be classified into these three kinds of architecture . 1."Sculptural Architecture." The essence of Indian architecture like medieval Hindu temples lies in sculpture revealing the whole building itself as a piece of sculptural with abundance of carvings in detail. It could also be called a "Massive Architecture." 2."Membranous Architecture," in opposition to the previous type emphasizes covering or enclosure of interior space rather than external sculpture like features. The examples could be buildings that do not have conspicuous facades, but once entering inside, there appear wonderful interior spaces. 3."Framework Architecture." Lacking both sculpturesque appearance and modernistic space concept, the attractiveness of this type of architecture exists in the undetermined space and a framework composition above. Their interior space and exterior space are continuous without clear distinction. Many Jain temples such as the Adinath integrate these 3 into 1 temple space. Thus they have both exquisite exteriors and interiors. As opposed to this, the Delwara temples at Mt. Abu do not have as attractive external appearance as their interior space, this temple also has the sculptural beauty at its exterior with the shikaras above the shrines. Moreover, even though the entire structure of Adinatha temple is made of stone, it is mainly a traberated construction where strong horizontal elements or lintels are held up by strong vertical elements or columns with large spaces between them. This is usually used to hold up a roof, creating a largely open space beneath, for whatever use the building is designed. The use of wider elements at the top of the post, called capitals, to help spread the load, is common to Jaina temple traditions. The structure is based on the framework of posts and beams, not on walls and arches. Consequently, the synthesis of these three kinds of architecture sublimated this temple to the level that no other Hindu buildings had achieved.7 429 THE MEANING OF JAIN TEMPLES: What enabled Jaina architecture to attain such integration? It was nothing else but the "Chaturmukha" (four faced) shrine form, which we have so far observed many times. If we compare in plan the central part of Adhinatha temple at Ranakpur to that of the Kharatara temple at Mt. Abu, which is the only temple that has a different form in the Delwara temples there, we will come to know that these two temple plans are quite similar. The central shrines of these temples are opened to four directions, and in front of each side, there is a "mandapa" (hall) covered by a domical ceiling. Incidentally, the basic form of a Hindu temple is [garbhagriha + mandapa]. Since the garbhagriha (sanctum) always has only one portal at its front side, it is quite unlikely that it has four mandapas at its four sides. The garbhagriha at Hindu temples means the "house of God" and accordingly it should be locked securely as a human residence. Meals and oil lamps are served to a statue of God during daytime and the door is closed at night in order for God to sleep. ___ 430 Mahavira in the center of Samavasarana( from "Kalpa-Sutra" c. 1475-1500, Detroit Institute of Art ) at Left and Sadri,Pali,Rajasthan at right. When a Jina obtains perfect knowledg, the gods prepare his Samavasarana, which is open to the four directions and takes either round plan or square plan.Below 2 pics On the other hand, a Jaina temple is not a house of God, but a place where a Tirthankara" (Jina) gives teachings. It is called "Samavasarana," and the doctrine of Jina should be preached in all directions. In Jainism, Samavasarana or Samosharana "Refuge to All" is a term for the divine preaching hall of the Tirthankara. The word samavasarana is derived from two words, sama meaning general and avasara meaning opportunity. A place where all have a common opportunity of acquiring the wisdom. The divine pavilion is built by heavenly beings (devas) after the tirthankara attain omniscience (Kevala Jnana). The theme of Samavasaranas has been popular in Jain art. What is characteristic about the form of Jaina images is that four statues of Tirthankaras are often combined back to back with each other, in either standing or sitting posture. It is called "Chaumukh" or " Chaturmukha" (four faced) image. If a temple is dedicated to this chaturmukha 431 image, its garbhagriha is also opened to all four directions, thus provides mandapa, which represent a place of both worship and teaching, in front of each side. “Vastu-shastra” has been written in many places from ancient times. In western India, a treatise called “Vriksharnava Shastra ” describes the Chaturmukh, which is uniqe only to Jain architecture.This basic “Four faced open form’ in which the central shrines are opened to four directions, and in front of each side, there is a “mandapa” (hall which represent a place of both worship and teaching). “Chaumukh” or ” Chaturmukha” (four faced) image – four statues of Tirthankaras are often combined back to back with each other, in either standing or sitting posture. Although many Jaina temples followed the mainstream style of Hindu temples initially with 1 main deity in the inner sanctum garbhagriha + mandapa, from the medieval period onwards, the Jains gradually developed their original “Four faced open form” in the temple design. This is the original style of Jain temple construction found in a majority of temples with the following building elements:  image-chamber – garbha-gṛha  hall – maṇḍapa  porch. These elements vary in number and relative proportions in various temples,but all Jain temples are built on a platform. The Plinth: Referred to as jagatī or vedī ,it physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and creates a distinct sacred area. And raises the temples above the ground to create a higher, sacred area that is qualitatively different from the lower profane area surrounding it. Worshippers take off their shoes before climbing up to the sacred temple area. This ascent, however short, is symbolically related to the idea of the difficulties – durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By extension it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment. On this pronounced plinth, the temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms are often much wider than the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation – pradakṣiṇā – of the building to take place on the sacred 432 level. This spaciousness also allows further shrines, surrounding the temple building, to be at the same level. This feature became particularly evolved in the Jain temple architecture of north-western India during the medieval age. The reason could have been to help distribute the weight of the structure above such as the columns which in turn support the roof- all of it pressing down in the plinth; which then is the most important part and this was realized by the later Jain architects who moved from simple to structural complexity.8 Lines of subsidiary shrines were interconnected to create protective walls surrounding the outer edge of the terraces. This helped to physically protect the temple structures and shield them from outside view. Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms, at least at the front entrance. The terraces are frequently very high, up to three or four metres tall. In many cases the platforms are tall enough to allow separate apartments or lower image-chambers to be created inside. The column-beam-corbel method of construction was the main structural principle governing the construction of every Hindu temples. The principles of equilibrium of forces in action by means of arch, vaults and other forms of functional engineering rules never really played a part in the evolution of Hindu temple. Its doesn’t mean that architects of Hindu temples were ignorant about these techniques, rather it is their conformance to tradition and strict adherence to precedents, reflecting a certain firmness in their cultural attitude (Brown, 1942). There was no instance of use of vaults or domes in the Hindu temple architecture, but arched niches were created on the surface of the walls and they rarely carry loads from above. The Hindu architects remained attached to his own traditional techniques and accomplished his task of construction by carefully study of the laws of gravity, obtaining the strength by the mass supporting mass and stability by the solid resistance of the weights acting vertically, all pressure being tranismitted directly downwards. As a result the use of mortar was pointless because there being almost no inclined pressure to distribute between the courses of masonary. Therefore, the Hindu temple architecture masonary developed as dry masonary system (Brown, 1942).9 433 Syādvāda, in Jaina metaphysics, holds that all judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses, expressed by the word syāt (Sanskrit: “may be”). The ways of looking at a thing (called naya) are infinite in number. This Syadvada or relativism of Jaina logic was also perhaps a driving force to develop chaturmukha-type of Jaina temples.. Never assuming one absolute ‘God’, the attitude of regarding even the twenty-four saviors of Tirthankaras (Jinas) as existence that can be seen from multilateral viewpoints made it possible to create chaturmukha images in which 4 statues are placed back to back with each other, and to develop an architectural style of chaturmukha shrine.Some famous examples of this type of architecture are –Chaturmukha Basadi of Karkala, Ranakpur temple, Mt Abu Jain temple etc. This is contrary to many other religions and Jain Dharm avoids dogmatism and eliminates selfrighteous statements like “This is the very truth” because as per Syadavada- everything has many aspects, and each religion, doctrine, and statement has a certain sense of truth From its early origins to the tenth century, the Hindu temple embodied a progressive elaboration of a simple formal schema based on a cuboidal sanctum and a solid form of distinctive curvature. The architectural form of the Jain temples also copied or based on the Hindu plan of the temple was the subject of wide experimentation, based on canonical sacred texts, within the regional schools of temple building in the Indian subcontinent. Practice of this knowledge in the constructive geometry of temple superstructures, with attention focused on the canonical rules for deriving the planar profile of a temple using a mandala (proportional grid) and the curvature of the sikhara (superstructure) using a rekha sutra (curve measure) was present in absence of modern surveying tools helped in erecting these huge edifices.10 The creation of temple-cities in the form outlined here is unique to the Jain faith.Jain templecities are groupings of temple compounds, which contain large numbers of individual and interconnected temples and smaller shrines. They are walled and entered through gateways. Temple-cities are not cities in the conventional sense. They do not contain streets, houses or shops. They are dedicated to the veneration of Jain values and the glory of the enlightened Jinas. 434 Most temple-cities are located on hills and have developed out of clusters of temples and walled compounds, which have been expanded over time. Donors give money to help build shrines and temples, which eventually form sizeable groups of temple compounds. There are numerous examples of temple-cities throughout India. The best known include: Mount Girnār Mount Śatruñjaya Mount Sameṭa Śikhara Mount Sonā-giri Shravana Belgola Mudabidri. Imitations of well-known templecities have also been built at smaller sites. Representations of temple-cities in Jain art and at other important Jain sites throughout India, and abroad, indicate the great importance of these holy sites for the Jain community. 435 COLUMN FOR A JAIN TEMPLE Rajasthan or Madhya Pradesh, India 10th-11th century Materials & Technique sculptures, sandstone Dimensions 136.8 h x 34.0 w x 26.0 d cm Jain architectural monuments, typically adorned inside and out with elaborate carvings, are among the oldest and most sophisticated in India. It is the serene elegance of Jina imagery, however, that most strongly reflects the asceticism central to the religion. The standing Jina of this column is naked, indicating that this image was made for members of the Digambara or ‘sky clad’ sect of Jainism. Digambara monks disassociate themselves from all earthly possessions, including clothing. The Jina’s only adornments are the whorls around the nipples and the shrivatsa mark, an auspicious and ancient symbol, on his chest. The Jina holds lotus blossoms in each hand, while his long arms hang away from the body in a pose representing bodyabandonment (kayotsarga). Attendants with flywhisks, celestial garland bearers and elephant riders surround the Jina. 436 By definition A temple-city is a term for a large number of temples built very closely together. Jain temple compounds tend to contain a multitude of major temple buildings and minor shrine structures. There is a clear tendency in Jain temple architecture towards creating numerous shrines. This leads to the construction of temple buildings with many shrines and storeys, which are often surrounded by further free-standing and interconnected shrines. These collections of religious buildings frequently combine temples of different forms. The religious buildings are regularly grouped into compounds and surrounded by high protective walls – prākāras. The enclosing walls can consist of uninterrupted lines of small shrines – deva-kulikās – which form a solid wall on the outside. The walled complexes – tunks – are strongly fortified. They have massive gateway structures and can be securely locked. Location By building several such walled compounds in one place.11 Different scholars have concluded that, Jain Architecture grew parallel with contemporary Architecture style of India. All the religion and culture have its distinctfeature and style. Therefore, there is unique style of Architecture with the Jain Architecture also. 12 Polygons: Let us take the example of the visual complexity in the temple forms of Pallava Architecture where polygons are used and such complexity is mainly created by repetition of architectural elements in the Vimana. In the south indian temple architecture (Dravidian Style) the super structure of the vimana or its several storeys are set with small temple shapes, Similar to the original shape. The smaller shapes are aligned in a definite pattern at each horizontal level, the repetition of these shapes at each band forming a kind of garland at each level. The repetition of identical shapes either in the vertical or in the horizontal or vertically as well as horizontally, is another frequently used procedure to add visual complexity to the temple form. The article mainly focuses on self similar iteration, repetition, fractalization and how it is applied to various examples starting from monolithic shrines. Shore temple at Mamallapuram to Kailashanathar and Vaikunda Permual temple in Kanchipuram. The use of recursive procedures involving self similar iteration and fractalization in the construction of vimana of pallava temple architecture give rise to a very distinct architectural style.13 The visual complexity and beauty of the vimana 437 lies behind the proportions of the arrangement of replicas of sala and kuta. The repetition in the vimana are not arbitrarily,but follow some rules and proportions. The repetition of sala and kuta in different rules of iteration create different fractal figures there by create visual complexity in the vimanas of pallava temple architecture.14 The architecture of Hindu temples is distinguished by certain formal features,A jaggedness of all surface and edges. Due to splitting of forms into subforms. The exteriors have forms of deities(Statutes-3D carved figures)humans,animals,mythicals,foliage decorative elements of all kind densely packed on the outside to create a distinctive visual texture on the temple surface. When arranged in horizontal layers- one after and under the other- in elevation they form a distinctive element. Finally repetitive motifs in different scales in the temple forms- repeated in decreasing sizes within an overall 3D motif. Fractals and forms in self similarity. To achieve greater visual complexity in order to express the idea of multiplying and growth,many different techniques of fractalization are foumd.particularly in columns.A square section can be split into8-16-32 sided polygons in successive sections along the column length with a production rule of P(n)-->P(2n) P is a regular polygon of n number of sides amongst other fractalisations too numerous to mention but easily visible to our eyes as we glance upon these accient structures that highlight a discovery of fractal Algebra and geometry that took place 1000sof years later to their creation.15 Mathematical ideas have formed new semiotic spaces, where those without a mathematical background can only "feel" the effects and many of their consequences in real life space. The truth of a theorem, equations, and many mathematical relations are basically correct, depending on what is meant by theorems, equations, and conceptual relations of mathematics itself. Mathematics that we know today tells the long road of human thought from ancient simple concepts and abstractions, which have relations and connectedness with each other with concepts. This then leads us to the intriguing question when looking at the splendor of the diverse ethnographies in the cultural landscape of the archipelago. The splendor of Borobudur Temple 438 which is known as one of the largest and most complex Buddhist sites on our planet, has extraordinary architecture, from its construction structure, to the ornamentation and decoration carved there. And we are also increasingly intrigued, when we also understand that at the time of the great temple was built, we do not use mathematical thinking as architects or civil engineering engineers today build a mega-structure similar to Borobudur. Similar mathematical ratios used elsewhere in ancient times: 16 4:6:9 Ratio: A survey conducted in 1977 in the Buddhist temple at Borobudur,Java revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples.There is an interesting geometric fact shown in Borobudur, These are as related to the mythology, about the parts of the temple, including the legs, body, and head of a human being representing the celestial body of the Buddha.. Algorithmic process: When the shapes and patterns used to create art, starts to acquire meaning contextually, it transcends into 'symbolism', art, is seen to have symbolic meanings and a positive contributing to art thus contributing to the overall understanding of the structure and ambience. These shapes evolving into patterns is an algorithmic process where the patterns fractal in nature. Thus making a logical connection between patterns and their meanings, that is, fractals and symbolism. In this type of religious architecture, the shapes have a set of meanings, their combinations have certain meanings, and the patterns evolved from them have, either a higher metaphorical meaning or a totally new interpretation. Thus 'symbolism' and 'fractals' are linked.17 439 Fig.taken from the book of Shri Trivedi showing the repeatativeness and consequent formation of fractals 440 In his PhD thesis on Critical Analysis of Jain Architecture in Bihar Region and its Influence on Regional Architecture, Ravish Kumar describes in considerable details in over 300 pages the detailed planning of temple construction but referring to Hindu temple construction techniques.18 Geometry:The Indian temple architecture inoculates high level of geometric Proportions. Different types of proportions can be analyzed from the plan and the elevation of the temple complex in 1505 AD, the main shrine was built and the prakara around it such that the center of the Garbha Griha (Sanctum Sanctorum) falls at the center of a square The Shrine dedicated to garuda (stone chariot) is at the center of a rectangular portion adjacent to the square mandala. The garuda fall at the central axis of the garbha griha, the northern gopuram 441 also along the central axis of the garbha griha to the other side and the southern gopuram is along the axis of the center of the rectangular enclosure. With garbha griha as the center, the 9 square mandala inscribed as shown in Figure 8, the Amman shrine and the mantapa (100 pillared hall) fall outside the mandala. The 2.4mx2.4m grid is taken from inside the temple complex, when it is extended outside the temple complex, we see that the other mantapas and structures fall with same grid. 19 Urushringas are subsidiary tower springing from the sides of the main shikhara tower and is smaller and narrower than the shikhara, and "engaged" or connected to it where they meet, except right at the top. It strengthens the feeling of height given by the temple, and may give some structural support by acting like a buttress, as well as adding to the visual symbolism of the temple as a sacred mountain.They often reflect the complex shape of the sanctuary structure at ground level, following the ratha projections up into the shikhara. The style of shikhara with urushringas is known as sekhari. Many of the temples in the famous Khajuraho Group of Monuments have sekhari towers, though others do not. On the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple there are 84 urushringas around the shikhara. The urushringa echoes the form of the main Sikhara, and often has its own amalaka and kalasha at the top, as in the Kandariya Mahadeva 442 Temple. The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school of Hinduism and Jainism - nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types of temples were under construction at about the same time in the late 10th century, and in use simultaneously. Will Durant states that this aspect of Khajuraho temples illustrates the tolerance and respect for different religious viewpoints in the Hindu and Jain traditions. 20 Chaturmukha : The mainstream of the style of Jaina temples was [garbhagriha + mandapa], which Jainas had modeled after Hindu temples. From the medieval period, they gradually developed their original "Four faced open form" in the temple design.. Hindu temples, on the other hand, could not extend their composition in four directions. And this they compensated by increasing the number of shrines when they wanted to enlarge its scale. Bhubaneshwar and the Jagannatha temple in Puri they have added two large mandapas in front of the basic edifice of [garbhagriha + mandapa], and placed them in a line.An example is the Jain temple Chaturmukh Basadi where Chaturmukha stands for four faces. As we were nearing, the basadi was visible from a distance and the view was magnificent as on left side there is basadi and on right side one could notice the statute of Bahubali on the top of the hill. King Immadi Bhairava (Bhairava II) 443 constructed the Basadi on top of a small rocky hill in 1586 AD. The Basadi has four identical entrances from the four quarters leading to the Garbagriha or sanctorium and hence is popularly known as Chaturmukha Basadi. It is also referred to as Tribhuvana Tilaka Jina Chaityalaya and Ratnaraya Dhama in some inscriptions. The Basadi is built in the form of a square mandapa with a doorway and pillared portico on each of its four sides and a pillared verandah. It has life size statues of three Tirthankaras on each side and small images of 24 Tirthankara. It took 30 years to construct this temple. In all, there are 108 pillars in the temple complex. Each pillar is an exhibition of the architectural skills of the masons of that time and carries a piece of history in itself. One needs to spend time to connect the dots from pillar to pillar. 444 _____________ Left : The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneshwar Right : The Pancha-Yatana-type Temple at Sinnar Quincunx or Panch Yatana: In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-insquare", is the plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the four angular ones are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the pattern of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are surmounted by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple, such as Angkor Wat, are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to represent the five peaks of Mount Meru. The Jaina architects devised this system to build four small shrines at four opposite angles of vimana (main shrine). This complex is called "Pancha-yatana" or Five-shrined-type. The Adhinatha temple at Ranakpur is also a kind of Pancha-yatana-type. In this case, the shrines at four opposite angles take a form of "two-faced-shrine". Furthermore, on both the north and south ends, there are four "side shrines," and eighty-six small shrines surround its periphery, and thus completing the entire temple. quincunx in mathematics is a geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of five units in the pattern corresponding to the five-spot on sixsided dice. 445 Adinath(Left) Floor Plan and the Ranakpur Jain Temple aerial view in Sadri Rajasthan showing the quincunx. The difference in the Jain and Hindu temples is that in Hindu temples, Pancha-yatana is quite similar to the one we see in the Mt. Abu Jain Temples where the "Ranga mandapa" (open-type hall) is in in front of "Mulaprasada" (central shrine) and connects it with surrounding cloisters giving the temple a continuous interior space. Similarly in t Ranakpur, each mandapa, which is covered by a domical ceiling, ties every part of the temple together into a continuous interior space with circularity, including several courtyards. This temple, so to speak, is a great integrity of all the elements of traditional Indian architecture, and brought it to an extremely high level completion. This composition was applied not only to Jain temples but also Buddhist and Hindu ones.21Different scholars have concluded that, Jain Architecture grew parallel with contemporary Architecture style of India. All the religion and culture have its distinctfeature and style. Therefore, there is unique style of Architecture with the Jain Architecture also. 22 Space is a term used to describe dimensional aspects existing between other, significant phenomena.The semiotics of space is a descriptive process enquiring into the relevant 446 significance of the relationships between objects and their spatial contexts. Since semiotics is the disciplined study of the life of signs that ‘stand for or represent’ something, space is generally overlooked as the background to other objects of attention. Mathematical ideas on the other hand have formed new semiotic spaces, where those without a mathematical background can only "feel" the effects and many of their consequences in real life space. The truth of a theorem, equations, and many mathematical relations are basically correct, depending on what is meant by theorems, equations, and conceptual relations of mathematics itself. Mathematics that we know today tells the long road of human thought from ancient simple concepts and abstractions, which have relations and connectedness with each other with concepts. This then leads us to the intriguing question when looking at the splendor of the diverse Jaina ethnographies in the cultural landscape of the archipelago.23 An example is the Māru-Gurjara architecture is still popular with Jain architects in temples and jain patronage and is a style of north Indian temple architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chaulukya dynasty (or Solaṅkī dynasty). It originates as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture. The dominant feature is the mathematical urushringa and subsidiary spirelets on it, and two smaller side-entrances with porches are common in larger temples, Lavishly decorated interiors,small low domes carved on the inside with a highly intricate rosette design. Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements between pillars, touching the horizontal beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved. These have no structural function, and are purely decorative. The style developed large pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain temples often having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the shrine.24 447 Temple with fractal designs The visual complexity in the temple forms of Pallava Architecture is mainly created by repetition of architectural elements in the Vimana. In the south indian temple architecture (Dravidian Style) the super structure of the vimana or its several storeys are set with small temple shapes, Similar to the original shape. The smaller shapes are aligned in a definite pattern at each horizontal level, the repetition of these shapes at each band forming a kind of garland at each level. The repetition of identical shapes either in the vertical or in the horizontal or vertically as well as horizontally, is another frequently used procedure to add visual complexity to the temple form.The article mainly focuses on self similar iteration, repetition, fractalization and how it is applied to various examples starting from monolithic shrines , Shore temple at Mamallapuram to Kailashanathar and Vaikunda Permual temple in Kanchipuram. The use of recursive procedures involving self similar iteration and fractalization in the construction of vimana of pallava temple architecture give rise to a very distinct architectural style. The visual complexity and beauty of the vimana lies behind the proportions of the arrangement of replicas of sala and kuta. The repetition in the vimana are not arbitrarily,but follow some rules and proportions. The repetition of sala and kuta in different rules of iteration create different fractal figures there by create visual complexity in the vimanas of pallava temple architecture.25 Adinath Temple 448 lwara Jain Temple Due to the change in social, economic and political conditions, the Jain architecture developed with new concept and new features. 26 Jain temple ritual is elaborate and full of symbolism. Temples and images are eternal in the Jain tradition, being involved in Jain cosmography. Due to the widespread and widely accepted and ever growing doctrine of Jainism and its eternal image-cult 27 new temples will adorn the lands and scientific nuances will illuminate their construction and existence and impact other designs of modernity. Performance has long been recognized to be a meaningful component in the worship of the Jina. The more splendid and aesthetically pleasing one’s expression of devotion, the more efficacious it is believed to be. 28 449 Interesting Facts About Dilwara Temple Mount Abu If you’re reading this post chances are you’re going to visit the Dilwara temple Mount Abu. For me, it is one of the most beautiful temples in India and it’s definitely the most beautiful Jain temple in the world. Before your visit, you should read this post for interesting facts about these five Jain temples as well as the history and background to it. 450 Photo By Geoffrey Samuel. Jain Hill Temples Hyper fractisation discussed above and the other are the Hill temple cities also discussed above 451 Interesting Facts About Dilwara Temple Mount Abu  The Jain Dilwara temple complex is located 2.5 km from the Mount Abu town centre  It is a major sacred pilgrimage site for Jains worldwide and is Mount Abu’s most popular attraction  The temple complex is set in beautiful surroundings of mango trees and wooded hills – a walk around the complex is worth it  The Dilwara temples predates the town of Mount Abu by several centuries and was built when this site was just a remote mountain area  The complex contains five Jain temples which are known worldwide for their superb marble carvings  Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples are the most famous among the five Jain Dilwara temples  It is believed that the artisans were paid according to the amount of dust they collected, encouraging them to carve ever more intricately Information About the Dilwara Temple Complex 452 Set in beautiful surroundings of mango trees and wooded hills, the Jain Dilwara temple complex is located 2.5 km (miles) from the Mount Abu town centre. Built by Vastupal Tejpal between the 11th and 13th centuries AD, these temples are famous worldwide for their superb marble carvings. This complex of five main temples is considered to be a major sacred pilgrimage site for Jains worldwide and is Mount Abu’s most popular attraction. The Dilwara temple complex predates the town of Mount Abu by several centuries and was built when this site was just a remote mountain area. The Dilwara temple complex is surrounded by a high white wall which dazzles in the sunlight. The entrance way to the marble temples is opulent. For Jain pilgrims, there is a resthouse on the approach road with facilities to bathe and prepare themselves, which is mandatory to perform puja to the idols. The approach road is also lined with stalls selling a collection of tourist kitsch lending a carnival atmosphere to the sanctity of the temples. It would be beautiful and serene here except for the noisy tourist guides and visitors that break the sanctity of these magnificent temples. Among the beautiful Jain temples built in India, none is more spectacular or ornate in terms of architectural perfection and beauty than the Dilwara temples in Mount Abu. It is suggested that the artisans were paid according to the amount of dust they collected, encouraging them to carve ever more intricately. The intricately carved ornamental details can be seen in the minutely carved ceilings, doorways, pillars and panels. 453 The Dilwara temple complex consists of five individual temples, each different to the other in detail and finery. Each temple is named after the small village in which it is located. 1. Parshvanatha – dedicated to the 23rd Jain Tirthankara, Parshva 2. Vimal Vasahi – dedicated to the 1st Jain Tirthankara, Adinath 3. Luna Vasahi – dedicated to the 22nd Jain Tirthankara, Neminatha 4. Pithalhar – dedicated to the 1st Jain Tirthankar, Rishabha 5. Mahavir Swami – dedicated to the last Jain Tirthankara, Mahavira Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples are the most famous among the five Jain Dilwara temples. The remaining three Dilwara temples are smaller, but just as elegant as these two. 1. Parshvanatha Dilwara Temple From the entrance on the left, the first temple to be reached is Parshvanatha or Chaumukha Temple. It is dedicated to Lord Parshvanath. Who built Dilwara Temple? Parshvanatha Dilwara temple was built by Mandlik and his family in 1458-59. Dilwara Temple Architecture 454 The temple is situated in a three-storied, grey sandstone building, the tallest in the Dilwara temple complex. Combining 13th- and 15th-century styles, it is generally regarded as inferior to the two main temples. On all four faces of the sanctum on the ground floor are four big mandaps that contains fourfaced images of the 23rd Jain Tirthankara, Parsvanatha (hence Chaumukha Temple). The outer walls of the sanctum comprise beautiful sculptures in gray sandstone, depicting Dikpals, double set of Vidhyadevis – one of standing figures and the other of sitting ones, a set of all 24 Yakshinis, Shalabhanjikas and other decorative sculptures especially females comparable to the ones in Khajuraho and Konark. Dilwara Temple, Kanhaiya Bhatulkar https://www.quora.com/How-many-pillars-are-there-in-theDilwara-Temple 455 Interesting Facts About Dilwara Temple Mount Abu 2. If you’re reading this post chances are you’re going to visit the Dilwara temple Mount Abu. For me, it is one of the most beautiful temples in India and it’s definitely the most beautiful Jain temple in the world. Before your visit, you should read this post for interesting facts about these five Jain temples as well as the history and background to it. 3. 4. 456 The Vimal Vasahi or Adinatha Temple lies directly ahead of Parshvanatha or Chaumukha Temple. Who built Dilwara Temple? Vimal Visahi Dilwara temple was built in 1031 AD by Vimal Shah, the chief minister of Bhimdev I, the Chalukya King of Gujarat. Dilwara Temple History This Dilwara temple is dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankara, Adinath. It is the oldest and most famous temple in the Dilwara temple complex. Carved entirely out of white marble, it is believed to have taken 1,500 masons and 1,200 labourers 14 years to build and cost Rs 185.3 million. The white marble of which the entire temple is built was brought from the relatively nearby marble quarries of Ambaji in Gujarat, 25 km south of Abu Road. Dilwara Temple Architecture Each and every inch of the temple’s interiors are adorned with intricate marble carvings. Makaras guard the entrance, and below them are conches. The cusped arches and ornate capitals are beautifully designed and superbly made. 457 Immediately outside the entrance to the temple is a small portico known as the Hastishala (elephant hall), built by Prithvipal in 1147-1159 which contains a figure of the patron, Vimal Shah, on horseback. The riders on the 10 beautifully carved elephants that surround him were removed during Alauddin Khilji’s reign. Dilwara belonged to Saivite Hindus who were unwilling to part with it until Vimal Shah could prove that it had once belonged to a Jain community. In a dream, the goddess Ambika (Ambadevi or Durga) instructed him to dig under a champak tree where he found a huge image of Adinatha and so won the land. To the southwest, behind the hall, is a small shrine to Ambika, once the premier deity. 458 Similar to many other Jain temples, the plain exterior of the temple conceals a wonderful ornately carved interior which is remarkably well preserved given its age. The ceilings feature engraved designs of lotus-buds, petals, flowers and scenes from Jain and Hindu mythology. The main temple is set within a rectangular court lined with small shrines and a double colonnade, an early example of the Jain architectural style in Western India. 459 The temple stands in an open courtyard surrounded by a corridor. The walls of the main hall are lined with 57 shrines. Architecturally, it is suggested that these are related to the cells which surround the walls of Buddhist monasteries, but in the Jain temple the shrines are reduced in size to house simple images of a seated Jain saint. Although the carving of the images themselves is simple, the ceiling panels in front of the saints’ cells are astonishingly ornate. 460 Going clockwise round the cells, some of the more important ceiling sculptures illustrate: cell 1, lions, dancers and musicians; cells 2-7, people bringing offerings, birds, music-making; cell 8, Jain teacher preaching; cell 9, the major auspicious events in the life of the Tirthankars; and cell 10, Neminath’s life, including his marriage, and playing with Krishna and the gopis. In the southeast corner of the temple between cells 22 and 23 is a large black idol of Adinath, supposedly installed by Vimal Shah in 1031. Cell 32 shows Krishna subduing Kaliya Nag, half human and half snake, and other Krishna scenes; cell 38, the 16-armed goddess Vidyadevi (goddess of knowledge); cells 46-48, 16-armed goddesses, including the goddess of smallpox, Shitala Mata; and cell 49, Narasimha, the ‘manlion’ tearing open the stomach of the demon Hiranya-Kashyapa, surrounded by an opening lotus. As in Gujarati Hindu temples, the main hall focuses on the sanctum which contains the 2½-m image of Adinatha or Lord Rishabdev, the first Jain Tirthankara. The sanctum is meant for worship to the deity. The sanctum with a pyramidal roof has a vestibule with entrances on three sides. To the east of the sanctum is the mandapa (grand hall), a form of octagonal nave nearly 8 metres in diameter. Its 6-metre-wide central dome is supported by eight/twelve decorated columns and nicely carved out arches. The exquisite lotus ceiling carved from a single block of marble rises in 11 concentric circles, carved with elaborately repeated figures. On the pillars are carved female figurines playing musical instruments and superimposed across the lower rings are 16 brackets carved in the form of the goddesses of knowledge, each one holding her own symbol which is believed to be a memorial of victorious Brahma Kumaris follower from the last Kalpa. 3. Luna Vasihi Dilwara Temple 461 Who built Dilwara Temple? To the north of Vimal Vasahi or Adinatha Temple, Luna Vasihi or Neminatha Temple was built in 1230 AD by two wealthy brothers, Vastupal and Tejapal, ministers of Virdhaval, the Vaghela ruler of Gujarat for Rs 125.3 million. Dedicated to the 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha, this temple was built in memory of their late brother Luna. Dilwara Temple History Designed after Vimal Vasahi temple, this temple took 2,500 workers 15 years to build. This temple is smaller than Vimal Vasahi but the ground plan and architecture is similar. However, the architectural details here are far more perfect and refined. Dilwara Temple Architecture 462 The attractive niches on either side of the sanctum’s entrance were for the builders’ wives. The decorative carving and jali work within this temple are so fine that the marble looks almost transparent in some places. The small domes in front of the shrine containing the bejewelled Neminatha figure, the exquisitely carved lotus on the sabha mandapa ceiling and the sculptures on the colonnades are especially noteworthy. The Rang mandap or grand hall features a central dome from which hangs a big ornamental pendent featuring an elaborate carving of a lotus. Arranged in a circular band are 72 figures of Tirthankars in sitting posture and just below this band are 360 small figures of Jain monks in another circular band. 463 464 The Hathishala or elephant cell features 10 beautiful marble elephants neatly polished and realistically modelled. The Navchowki or main hall features some of the most magnificent and delicate marble stone cutting work of the temple. Each of the nine ceilings here seems to exceed the others in beauty and grace. The Gudh mandap or sanctum features a black marble idol of the 22nd Jain Tirthankar Neminatha. The Kirthi Stambha is a big black stone pillar that stands on the left side of this Dilwara temple. The pillar was constructed by Maharana Kumbha of Mewar. 4. Pitalhar Dilwara Temple Opposite the Vimal Visahi stands the unfinished Pitalhar or Rishabha Dev Temple. Who built Dilwara Temple? Pitalhar Dilwara temple was built in the late 13 th century by Brahma Shah, the Mewari Maharana Pratap’s chief minister. Dilwara Temple History Pitalhar Dilwara temple is dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankara, Rishabha Dev or Adinath. Construction of the mandap and the corridor was curtailed by war with Gujarat and never completed. Dilwara Temple Architecture The Shrine consists of a Garbhagriha (grand hall), Gudh mandap (sanctum) and Navchowki (main hall). A massive metal statue of Adinath, cast in five metals, – gold, silver, copper, braas and zinc – is installed in the temple. The main metal used in this statue is pital (brass), hence the name ‘Pittalhar’. According to the inscription on it, the old mutilated idol was replaced and installed in 1468-69 AD and weighs 108 maunds (4.3 tonnes). The image, cast by an artist named Deta, is 8 ft (2.4 m) high, 5.5 ft (1.7 m) broad and 41 inches in height. 5. Mahavir Swami Temple 465 Mahavir Swami Temple is a small structure constructed in 1582 and dedicated to Lord Mahavira. There are pictures on the upper walls of the porch painted in 1764 by the artists of Sirohi. REFERENCES 1 Jainas a significant Religious Minority, Chapter 10 from Facets of Jainology-Research Papers on JainSociety,Religion and Culture, Vilas Sangave,Popular Prakashan,New Delhi,2001 page 81 2 Sthānakavāsī is a sect of Śvētāmbara Jainism founded by a merchant named Lavaji in 1653 AD. It believes that idol worship is not essential in the path of soul purification and attainment of Nirvana/Moksha. 3 Jaina-Tempelarchitektur in Indien: "Habilitation (postdoctoral qualification) in the Department of Architectural History and Monument Preservation, Faculty of Architecture, RWTH Aachen University( Translated:Jaina Temple Architecture in India: The Development of a Distinct Language in Space and Ritual") Thesis 2008. Monographien zur indischen Archäologie, Kunst und Philologie 19, Published by Stiftung Ernst Waldschmidt, G+H-Verlag, Berlin 2009. 4. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, Architecture Style Developing through Application of Mathematics: Concepts of Geometry &Proportion in Architecture Ar.Muzaffar Ali et al, Vol. 2 Issue 9, September – 2013 5. Jaina Religion, History and Tradition Hardcover, K.L. Chanchreek (Editor), Mahesh K. Jain (Editor), Shree Publishers & Distributors 2004 6."THE CONCEPT OF JINA CAITYA IN JAINISM",M. Nirmala ,Doctoral Thesis Department of Jainology, Univeristy of Madras,2005 7. TAKEO KAMIYA,Blog, http://www.kamit.jp/03_jaina/6_ranakpur/ran_eng.htm 8. For a detailed analysis of the structural characteristics of Jain Temples see the comprehensive treatment in -The Jagatī or Vedī (Plinth) in Jain Temple Architecture, Srishti Dokras, academia.edu 9.Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture,Shweta Vardia, Master’s Thesis, Erasmus Mundus Programme, ADVANCED MASTERS IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MONUMENTS AND HISTORICAL CONSTRUCTIONS Researchgate July 2008 See Indian Architecture,Buddhist and hindu Period,Percy Brown,1942( not available) but quoted in the above thesis as well as, Chhotelal Jain’s Jaina Bibliography, Volume 1,Vir Sewa Mandir,1982 466 10. Infinite Sequences in the Constructive Geometry Of Tenth-Century Hindu Temple SuperstructuresSambit Datta,School of Architecture and Building, Deakin University,AUSTRALIA 11. Māru-Gurjara Temples Under the Solaṅkīs, throughout India and in the Diaspora- the international jaina style? Julia A. B. Hegewald, ars orientalis 45. 12. Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy- National Institute of Technology,Patne,Department of Architecture ,2018 file:///C:/Users/blah/Downloads/Critical_Analysis_of_Jain_Architecture_i.pdf 13. The Visual Complexity in the Temple forms of Pallava Architecture Jaikumar Ranganathan,Dr.G.Subbaiyan, researchgate,February 2018, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323199666_The_Visual_Complexity_in_the_Temple_f orms_of_Pallava_Architecture 14. See Fn 10- Infinite Sequences in the Constructive Geometry Of Tenth-Century Hindu Temple SuperstructuresSambit Datta,School of Architecture and Building, Deakin University,AUSTRALIA 15 Hindu Temple-Models of a fractal Universe,Kirti Trivedi, International Seminar on Mayonic Science and Technology, 243-258.1993, Also published in the Visual Computer 1989 16. See my Book Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur,Chapter 8, page 192 academia.edu 17. Shapes, Patterns and Meanings in Indian Temple ArchitectureTanisha Dutta,V. S. Adane,Researchgate,2018. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328960511_Shapes_Patterns_and_Meanings_in_India n_Temple_Architecture 18 DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA PATNA 800 005, BIHAR August 2018 19.Visual reconstruction of Hampi Temple - Construed Graphically, Pictorially and Digitally Reconstrucción visual (gráfica, ilustrada y digital) del Templo Hampi Ar. Meera Natampally ,National Institute of Advanced Studies. India, Virtual archeology review. 20 Will Durant, Our Oriental Heritage - The Story of Civilization, Simon & Schuster, (1976),Vol. I Our Oriental Heritage 21. See my book Dr Uday Dokras-Hindu Temples of Bharat, Cambodia and Indonesia Essays page 313-314, academia.edu 22 Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy- National Institute of Technology,Patne,Department of Architecture ,2018 467 file:///C:/Users/blah/Downloads/Critical_Analysis_of_Jain_Architecture_i.pdf 23. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho Iasef Md Rian, Jin-Ho Park, Hyung Uk Ahn Department of Architecture, Inha University, South Korea 2006 24 Such as Keshava Temple of Somnathpur, or the Yellamma Temple in Karnataka. 25 The Visual Complexity in the Temple forms of Pallava Architecture,Jaikumar Ranganathan,Dr.G.Subbaiyan, researchgate,February 2018, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323199666_The_Visual_Complexity_in_the_Temple_f orms_of_Pallava_Architecture 26. Development of Jain Architecture from Caves to Temple Architecture in Maharashtra,Ar. Pranoti Kiran Meghal, International Journal of Engineering Research Volume No.7, Issue Special 2, pp : 188-194 27 The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century,Dundas,1992 See also Il Sentiero Jaina della Nonviolenza e della Liberazione, di Simone Gall - 08/10/2017 28.Aesthetic Pleasure in the Worship of the Jina: Understanding Performance in Jain Devotional Culture’ Aleksandra Restifo, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/10/4/251 468 CHAPTER XII The Vedī (Plinth) in Hindu & Jain Temple Architecture Introduction: In Architecture, the concept of a plinth is pretty basic: To create a base or platform, then put whatever one builds on top of it. You may not think there are too many ways to mess with that basic formula, and to a degree you're right. Still, when we talk about plinths, there are three main uses. To understand the Plinth we need to familiarize with the other concepts of Grid: The grid is a useful device for expressing design rules about the placement of elements in a layout. By expressing position rules for elements in relation to a grid, a designer can organize decisions in a layout design problem systematically. Grids and placement rules offer a discipline that can help a designer work effectively to lay out complex designs, and it can also facilitate group design work. The grid, one of the oldest architectural design tools, is a useful device for controlling the position of building elements. Grids have been and continue to be used in all manner of layout tasks from urban design to building construction. A grid can help a designer control the positions of built and space elements, making the layout task more systematic. By determining positions of different building elements in relation to a grid or to a set of grids, the designer can specify design rules that describe a typology of physical forms.1 Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, 469 Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.T he Teli temple reflects in its proportions a careful expansion of the grid system known from square temples in Central India in the eighth century.” y. In fig. 4 I give a ground plan for the Teli temple. Several plain bhitta platforms support the base moldings (vedibandha) of the temple walls (figs. 6, zo). These consist of khura, kumbha, a broad antarapatta-setback (decorated with a vedika pattern of small pillarets with a broad cross-beam of foliage), and a kapotapalihood. The frieze of the wall (janghd) has doors on the central bhadra projections which lead to broad recesses which now lack their images. On the corners, smaller niches in the form of shrine models with entry doorways (fig. 20) also lack images. Percy Brown records the inner dimensions of the sanctum of this temple as 1 5 x 30 ft. (a ratio of i: 2).16 This is not correct. The sanctum measures ca. 6 x 9 meters, the ratio being 2: 3. In fig. 5, I give a diagram of one quarter of the temple's ground plan showing the grid from which the architect has generated his plan. The sanctum is defined by 4 x 6 squares; the walls are two squares thick, measured from the corners. (Each square of this grid is ca. I .5 meters on a side.) Corner buttresses measure 2 x 2 squares at the khura-hoof of the wall's moldings (fig. 6). The central bhadra projection on each side projects a full square. The opening into the bhadra shrine is ca. two squares wide. 2 The Grid of the Jain Temple at Dilwara, Mount Abu 470 1. The base for a pedestal. This type of plinth is not so much a matter of architecture as it is a matter of art (or at least the display of art). Most pedestals have a wide base that supports them and whatever they're holding; that's the plinth.Incidentally, the bottom part of a piece of furniture that actually touches the floor is sometimes called a plinth as well. That would make your chair a glorified pedestal, and you sitting in it a work of art. There's your ego boost for the day. 2. The base for a column. All three Classical orders of columns (including Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian) are traditionally placed on top of plinths. However, there use is not limited to Classical or even Western architecture. Columns and similar support structures in Asia, Africa, and the Americas often contained a plinth or plinth-like base. 3. The bases for much larger structures. In fact, many houses and other buildings are built on very large plinths that serve as the bottom-most structure supporting that edifice. Look around your city or neighborhood: there's a good chance that some structures are resting on massive bases of stone, concrete, or other strong materials. Definition: When something's important, we tend to raise it off the ground. This is universal in human cultures; we try to visually separate the things we make from the earth itself. The Plinth allows us to do this. 471 A plinth is a base or platform that's used to support something else above the ground. The plinth is one of the most underappreciated, and yet most important, elements of architecture found around the world and used throughout history. Ironically, the one thing we can't actually put on a pedestal (because it is one) is the thing that may most deserve it. Taranga Jain Temple,Kheralu,Gujrath showing Plinth and super structure 472 Although many Jaina temples followed the mainstream style of Hindu temples initially with 1 main deity in the inner sanctum garbhagriha + mandapa, from the medieval period onwards, the Jains gradually developed their original “Four faced open form” in the temple design. This is the original style of Jain temple construction and majority of Jain temples in India consists of these core building elements: PARTS OF A JAIN TEMPLE The majority of Jain temples in India consist of a few core building elements. Lets understand their function and symbolism. Starting from the outer to the inner – 1. ASPRĀKĀRA – HIGH BOUNDARY WALL Almost without exception, Jain temples are enclosed by free-standing detached compound walls, encircling the entire sacred temple area. The symbolism is for the devotee entering to be leave his ordinary concerns of the householder life before entering the holy ground. 2. JAGATĪ OR VEDĪ – PLATFORM Although may be varied in relative proportions and forms, all Jain temples are built on a platform or terrace that physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and creates a distinct sacred area.On this pronounced plinth, the temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms are often much wider than the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation – pradakṣiṇā – of the building to take place on the sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further shrines, surrounding the temple building, to be at the same level. The symbolism is related to the idea of the difficulties –durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By extension it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment. 3. ARDHAMANDAPA – FRONT PORCH This is the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to shrines and maṇḍapas. At the main gateway, a worshiper bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. The gateway greets the worshiper with a host of sculpted secular figures on the outer walls; representing the worldly concerns of man. Usually the gateway to a temple will be a massive and magnificent construction. When we stand in front our feeling of insignificance helps to break our ego. The Symbolism is that this marks another transition from the outer world to the inner world of the temple. Porches are very small, simple halls that provide access to. 4. MANDAPA – HALL This is the hall or halls in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees. The halls can have 473 side walls and be closed or may simply have pillars, which leave the sides open. Temple halls create an approach to the shrine and house more religious statues and ritual equipment. Halls are used for rituals, the recitation of sacred texts, meditation and for larger gatherings that involve singing hymns etc. Here, often the worshiper will come across mythological themes, carved on the inner walls, to attune his attitude towards higher ideals. The symbolism here is that the devotee must prepare to leave even his concerns for the temple and fellow devottees and prepare to enter the inner sanctum. 5. ANTARĀLA – INTERMEDIATE CHAMBER Some temples have this additional element. This small vestibule is a space between the main sanctuary and its hall, in which worshippers can stand and gaze at the idol or follow rituals conducted within the shrine. As the worshiper progresses towards the inner sanctum, the sculptural details and decorations become simpler. The symbolism is again to help the worshiper to put aside distractions and try focusing their attention on the sanctum. 6. PRADAKSHINA PATHA – CIRCUMAMBULATION PASSAGEWAY It consists of enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess. The symbolism here is that this represents an encircling of the universe itself. 7. SHIKHARA – TOWER or SPIRE The upper part of the Garbh griha is called as the Sikhara; the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple, Vastu Shastra says that the design of the Shikhara over the Garbhagrahamm attracts energies from the cosmos from the cosmos, much like an aerial or even like our nose attracts pranavayu (oxygen) from air. The symbolism here that it represents the axis of the world through Mount Meru. 8. GAMBHARA – INNER SANCTUM The main part of Jain temple is called “Gambhara” (Garbha Graha) which is the nucleus and the innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the main deity (mulnayak) is placed. This is the focal point of the building and beside a statue of a sacred figure it may house abstract religious element, such as the eight auspicious symbols, the siddhacakra, the cosmic person, yantras and sacred syllables or mantras. The shrine or garbha-griha (womb space) is usually devoid of any ornamentation to avoid distraction and lead the worshiper further to tranquility. The Symbolism here is in the name – garbha = womb, graha = home; representing the final journey of the soul to its real self. 474 Ideology of Design: According to the Jaina ethics, a man’s life is asummation of countless individual lifespans bound up in the cycle of rebirth. One can from achieve enlightenment thorough pure deeds, thoughts and dedication. Thus, in this world the temple is the symbol of enlightenment: it is the place where we can be closer to our soul and through rituals and ceremonies men can discover the divine knowledge. The walk to the inner sanctum by the devotee indicates that he has to leave the grand external world outside and direct our minds inward, light up the lamp of knowledge there and by seeing the Jina we are to behold our Atma within the sanctum sanctorum of our hearts.Thus the ideology behind the designing of Jain temples is to link man with himself. It is a depiction of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the microcosm (the inner space) and has developed over thousands of years; the elements may vary in number and relative proportions in various temples,but all Jain temples are built on a platform. The Plinth: Referred to as jagatī or vedī ,it physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and creates a distinct sacred area. And raises the temples above the ground to create a higher, sacred area that is qualitatively different from the lower profane area surrounding it. The column-beam-corbel method of construction was the main structural principle governing the construction of every Hindu and later Jain temples. The principles of equilibrium of forces in action by means of arch, vaults and other forms of functional engineering rules never really played a part in the evolution of Hindu temple. Its doesn’t mean that architects of Hindu temples were ignorant about these techniques, rather it is their conformance to tradition and strict adherence to precedents, reflecting a certain firmness. Worshippers take off their shoes before climbing up to the sacred temple area. This ascent, however short, is symbolically related to the idea of the difficulties – durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By extension it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment. On this pronounced plinth, the temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms are often much wider than the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation – pradakṣiṇā – of the building to take place on the sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further shrines, surrounding the temple building, to be at the same level. This feature became particularly evolved in the Jain temple architecture of north-western India during the medieval age. The reason could have been to help distribute the weight of the structure above such as the 475 columns which in turn support the roof- all of it pressing down in the plinth; which then is the most important part and this was realized by the later Jain architects who moved from simple to structural complexity.4 Lines of subsidiary shrines were interconnected to create protective walls surrounding the outer edge of the terraces. This helped to physically protect the temple structures and shield them from outside view. Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms, at least at the front entrance. The terraces are frequently very high, up to three or four metres tall. In many cases the platforms are tall enough to allow separate apartments or lower image-chambers to be created inside. Uses of Vedi The concept of a plinth is pretty basic: create a base or platform, then put whatever you're building on top of it. When we talk about plinths in Jain temples, there are three main uses. 1. The base for a pedestal. This type of plinth is not so much a matter of architecture as it is a matter of art (or at least the display of art). Most pedestals have a wide base that supports them and whatever they're holding; that's the plinth. Incidentally, the bottom part of a piece of furniture that actually touches the floor is sometimes called a plinth as well. That would make the chair a glorified pedestal, and the one sitting in it a work of art. 2. The base for a column. All three Classical orders of columns (including Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian) are traditionally placed on top of plinths. However, there use is not limited to Classical or even Western architecture. Columns and similar support structures in Asia, Africa, and the Americas often contained a plinth or plinth-like base. 3. The bases for much larger structures. In fact, many houses and other buildings are built on very large plinths that serve as the bottom-most structure supporting that edifice. Diagrammatic example of the Plinth showing the Osiyan Temple of Rajasthan(Below pictures) 476 Osiyan Jain Temple,Jodhpur, Rajasthan.CEPT University,Temple-Overall Plans, Plan At Plinth Level, Plan Above Parapet, Harihara Temple – 3 477 Part of the plinth seen in this pic of the Osiyan temple. Above and Below 478 Temple structure showing the plinth positioning (Encyclopedia Britannica) The Chaturmukha Jain Temple of Ranakpur as an example No 2: 479 The plinth of this temple supports 1444 marble pillars, twenty-nine halls, 80 domes and 426 columns The most outstanding feature of this temple is its infinite number of pillars. This temple can be called a treasure house of pillars or a city of pillars. In whichever direction one might turn one's eyes meet pillars and pillars big, small, broad, narrow, ornate or plain. But the ingenious designer has arranged them in such a manner that none of them obstructs the view of the pilgrim wishing to have a Darshana' (glimpse) of God. From any corner of the temple one can easily view the Lord's image. These innumerable pillars have given rise to the popular belief that there are about 1444 pillars in the temple.In the North of this temple, there is a Rayan tree (Mimusos laxandra) and the foot prints of Bhagavan Rishabhadev on a slab of marble. They remind us of the life and preaching of Bhagavan Risabhadev and of Shatrunjaya, the foremost among the places of Jain pilgrimage. The architecture and stone carvings of the temple are based on the Ancient Mirpur Jain Temple at Mirpur in Rajasthan. The temple is a grand white marble structure spread over 48,000 square feet (4,500 m2) On one hand the temple has been made artistic with it's two upper storeys, on the other the designer has shown foresight in constructing some nine cellars in which the sacred images could be safely preserved in the event or a crisis. It is believed that there are many Jain images in these cellars. These cellars must be an additional streng and support to the entire structure and must have sustained it against the onslaught of time and the elements The Jain temples of Mount Abu are famous for the carvings, but the Ranakpur temple also is second to none in its delicate carvings. What attracts one most is its complexity and vast expanse of its structure. There is a popular saying among the people: The canings of Abu and the architecture of Ranakpur are unique". The eroding sweep of time and nature and wanton and mindless destruction by foreign invaders did much damage to this holy shrine. For a long time it wore a deserted look as pilgrims didn't find it safe to go to this secluded place infested with wild animals and dacoits. 480 Plinth of various temples a) Straight b) Conical c) Cascading REFERENCES 1.Grids in Design and CAD Mark D. Gross University of Colorado at Boulder https://depts.washington.edu/dmgftp/publications/pdfs/acadia_91_mdg.pdf 2. Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples Author(s): Michael W. Meister Source: Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4, (1983), pp. 266-296 3. Indian Architecture, Brown, Percy: Bombay, 2nd Edn. 4. Chakravarti , Glassenapp, H.V. : Doctrine of Karman in Jaina Philosophy, Bombay, 1942 . As mentioned in Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture, Shweta Vardia, Master’s Thesis, Erasmus Mundus Programme, ADVANCED MASTERS IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MONUMENTS AND HISTORICAL CONSTRUCTIONS Researchgate July 2008 481 CHAPTER XIII IDOLS IN HINDUISM The stone or metal deity images in Hindu temples and shrines are not mere symbols of the Gods. They are the form through which their love, power and blessings flood forth into this world. We may lik-en this mystery to our ability to communicate with others through the telephone. We do not talk to the telephone; rather we use it as a means of communication with another person. Without the telephone, we could not converse across long distances; and without the sanctified icon in the temple, we cannot easily commune with the Deity. Divinity can also be invoked and felt in a sacred fire, or in a tree, or in the enlightened person of a satguru. In our temples, God is invoked in the sanctum by highly trained priests. Through the practice of yoga, or meditation, we invoke God inside ourself. Yoga means to yoke oneself to God within. The image or icon of worship is a focus for our prayers and devotions. Another way to explain icon worship is to acknowledge that Hindus believe God is everywhere, in all things, whether stone, wood, creatures or people. So, it is not surprising that they feel comfortable worshiping the Divine in His material manifestation. The Hindu can see God in stone and water, fire, air and ether, and inside his own soul. Indeed, there are Hindu temples which have in the sanctum sanctorum no image at all but a yantra, a symbolic or mystic diagram. 482 However, the sight of the image en-hances the devotee's worship. Elaboration: In Hinduism one of the ultimate attainments is when the seeker transcends the need of all form and symbol. This is the yogi's goal. In this way Hinduism is the least idoloriented of all the religions of the world. There is no religion that is more aware of the transcendent, timeless, formless, causeless Truth. Nor is there any religion which uses more symbols to represent Truth in preparation for that realization. Humorously speaking, Hindus are not idle worshipers. I have never seen a Hindu worship in a lazy or idle way. They worship with great vigor and devotion, with unstinting regularity and constancy. There's nothing idle about our ways of worship! (A little humor never hurts.) But, of course, the question is about "graven images." All religions have their symbols of holiness through which the sacred flows into the mundane. To name a few: the Christian cross, or statues of Mother Mary and Saint Theresa, the holy Kaaba in Mecca, the Sikh Adi Granth enshrined in the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Arc and Torah of the Jews, the image of a meditating Buddha, the totems of indigenous and Pagan faiths, and the artifacts of the holy men and women of all religions. Such icons, or graven images, are held in awe by the followers of the respective faiths. The question is, does this make all such religionists idol worshipers? The answer is, yes and no. From our perspective, idol worship is an intelligent, mystical practice shared by all of the world's great faiths. The human mind releases itself from suffering through the use of forms and symbols that awaken reverence, evoke sanctity and spiritual wisdom. Even a fundamentalist Christian who rejects all forms of idol worship, including those of the Catholic and Episcopal churches, would resent someone who showed disrespect for his Bible. This is because he considers it sacred. His book and the Hindu's icon are much alike in this way. Murti embodiment, or solid object') is a general term for an image, statue or idol of a deity or mortal in Indian culture. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. A murti is itself not a god in Hinduism, but it is a shape, embodiment or manifestation of a deity. Murti are also found in some nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered mortals inside Jain temples, and are worshiped in murtipujaka rituals. 483 A murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metal casting or through pottery. Ancient era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas. The expressions in a murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions, ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga, Kali), as well as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge and harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples. Other murti forms found in Hinduism include the linga. A murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a beloved guest and serve as a participant of puja in Hinduism. In other occasions, it serves as the centre of attention in annual festive processions and these are called utsava murti. The earliest murti are mentioned by Pāṇini in 4th century BCE. Prior to that the agnicayana ritual ground seemed to served as a template for the temple. Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi, or vigraha or pratima. The earliest mention of the term murti occurs in primary Upanishads composed in the 1st millennium BCE, particularly in verse 3.2 of Aitareya Upanishad, verse 1.13 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, verse 6.14 of Maitrayaniya Upanishad and verse 1.5 of Prashna Upanishad. For example, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad uses the term to mean a "form, manifestation of time". The section sets out to prove Time exists, acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists by Pramana (epistemology in Indian philosophy), then inserts a theory of inductive inference for epistemological proof as follows, On account of subtleness of Time, this is the proof of its reality; On account of it the Time is demonstrated. Because without proof, the assumption which is to be proved, is not admissible; But, that which is itself to be proved or demonstrated, when one comprehends it in its parts, becomes the ground of proof, through which it brings itself into consciousness (in the inductive way). — Maitri Upanishad 6.14 484 Krishna Temple Madura is a photograph by Kantilal Patel which was uploaded on November 25th, 2011. One of the earliest firm textual evidence of Deva images, in the sense of murti, is found in Jivikarthe Capanye by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini who lived about 4th century BCE. He mentions Acala and Cala, with former referring to images in a shrine, and the latter meaning images that were carried from place to place. Panini also mentions Devalaka, meaning custodians of images of worship who show the images but do not sell them, as well as Jivika as 485 people whose source of livelihood was the gifts they received from devotees. In ancient Sanskrit texts that follow Panini's work, numerous references are found to divine images with terms such as Devagrha, Devagara, Devakula, Devayatana and others. These texts, states Noel Salmond, strongly suggest that temples and murti were in existence in ancient India by about 4th century BCE. Recent archaeological evidence confirms that the knowledge and art of sculpture was established in India by the Maurya Empire period (~3rd century BCE). By early 1st millennium BCE, the term murti meant idols, image or statue in various Indian texts such as Bhavishya Purana verse 132.5.7, Brihat Samhita 1.8.29 and inscriptions in different parts of India. The term murti has been a more generic term referring to an idol or statue of anyone, either a deity, of any human being, animal or any art. Pratima includes murti as well as painting of any non-anthropomorphic object. In contrast, Bera or Bimba meant "idol of god" only, and Vigraha was synonymous with Bimba.[2] Murti in diverse Hindu traditions vary widely in their expression. Raudra or ugra images express destruction, fear and violence, such as Kali image on left. Shanta or saumya images express joy, knowledge and harmony, such as Saraswati (centre). Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples. Linga murti (right) are an alternate form. A murti in contemporary usage is any image or statue. It may be found inside or outside a temple or home, installed to be moved with a festive procession (utsava murti), or just be a landmark. It is a significant part of Hindu iconography, and is implemented in many ways. Two major categories include:  Raudra or Ugra - are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols were worshipped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or errors. Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in remote areas of a kingdom. Shanta and Saumya - are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns. 486 Beyond anthropomorphic forms of religious murti, some traditions of Hinduism cherish aniconism, where alternate symbols are shaped into a murti, such as the linga for Shiva, yoni for Devi, and the saligrama for Vishnu. Shilpa Shastras, Tantra, and Āgama (Hinduism) Murti, when produced properly, are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras. They recommend materials, measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti. Explanation of the metaphysical significance of each stage of manufacture and the prescription of specific mantras to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the image are found in the liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras. In Tantric traditions, a murti is installed by priests through the Prana pratishta ceremony, where mantras are recited sometimes with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one would welcome a friend. According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric traditions through texts such as Tantra-tattva follow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti. Some tantra texts such as the Pancaratraraksa state that anyone who considers an icon of Vishnu as nothing but "an ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell". The use of murti and particularly the prana pratistha consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticised by Hindu groups. These groups state that this practice came from more recent "false tantra books", and there is not a single word in the Vedas about such a ceremony. A Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a murti Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity, Salutations to you! I worship you per rules, kindly accept it. May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere, May they forgive us now, we bow to them. —Brihat Samhita 59.10 - 59.11 The artists who make any art or craft, including murti, were known as shilpins. The formally trained Shilpins shape the murti not in accordance with fancy but in accordance with canonical manuals such as the Agamas and the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma. The material of construction range from clay to wood to marble to metal alloys such as panchaloha. The sixth century Brihat Samhita and eighth century text Manasara-Silpasastra (literally: "treatise on art using method of measurement"), identify nine materials for murti construction – gold, silver, copper, stone, wood, sudha (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), sarkara (gravel, 487 grit), abhasa (marble types), and earth (clay, terracotta). For abhasa, the texts describe working methods for various types of marble, specialised stones, colours, and a range of opacity (transparent, translucent and crystal). Brihat Samhita, a 6th-century encyclopaedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to gemology to murti and temple design, specifies in Chapter 56 that the pratima (murti) height should be of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the Pratima height and the sanctum sanctorum room's width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum room width, thereafter the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions. Chapter 58 of the text describes the ratios of various anatomical parts of a murti, from head to toe, along with the recommendation in verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations in dress, decoration and dimensions of local regional traditions for the murti is the artistic tradition. Proper murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts. They describe proportions, posture, expressions among other details, often referencing to nature. The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items the murti holds in its hands, colours, garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and other details. The texts also include chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras, different types of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate the area near the murti. The texts recommend that the material of construction and relative scale of murti be correlated to the scale of the temple dimensions, using twelve types of comparative measurements. Material:In Southern India, the material used predominantly for murti is black granite, while material in North India is white marble. However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter, but the faith and meditation on the universal Absolute Brahman. More particularly, devotees meditate or worship on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through murti symbolism of God (saguna Brahman) during a puja before a murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of Jainism, thus making the material of construction or the specific shape of the murti not spiritually important. 488 According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the Buddha figure and of animal and human, did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the orthodox 'Hindu' deities". This view is, however, not shared by other scholars. Trudy King et al. state that stone images of reverential figures and guardian spirits (yaksha) were first produced in Jainism and Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations, and this knowledge grew into iconographic traditions and stone monuments in India including those for Buddhism . 489 Ganesh A murti of mother goddess Matrika, from Rajasthan 6th century CE. Major Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartaism favour the use of murti. These traditions suggest to dedicate time and focus spirituality through anthropomorphic or non-anthropomorphic icons. Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita, states in verse 12.5,that it is much more difficult to find God As the unmanifested than God with form, due to human beings having the need to perceive via the senses. In Hinduism, states Jeaneane Fowler, a murti itself is not god, it is an "image of god" and thus a symbol and representation. A murti is a form and manifestation, states Fowler, of the formless Absolute.[ Thus a literal translation of murti as 'idol' is incorrect, when idol is understood as superstitious end in itself. Just like the photograph of a person is not the real person, a murti is an image in Hinduism but not the real thing, but in both cases the image reminds of something of emotional and real value to the viewer. When a person worships a murti, it is assumed to be a 490 manifestation of the essence or spirit of the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideas and needs are meditated through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or Brahman is not confined in it. A collection of modern-day murti featuring the elephant-headed God, Lord Ganesha. Devotional (bhakti movement) practices centred on cultivating a deep and personal bond of love with God, often expressed and facilitated with one or more murti, and includes individual or community hymns, japa or singing (bhajan, kirtan or aarti). Acts of devotion, in major temples particularly, are structured on treating the murti as the manifestation of a revered guest, and the daily routine can include awakening the murti in the morning and making sure that it "is washed, dressed, and garlanded." In Vaishnavism, the building of a temple for the murti is considered an act of devotion, but non-murti symbolism is also common wherein the aromatic Tulsi plant or Saligrama is an aniconic reminder of the spiritualism in Vishnu. These puja rituals with the murti correspond to ancient cultural practices for a beloved guest, and the murti is welcomed, taken care of, and then requested to retire. Christopher John Fuller states that an image in Hinduism cannot be equated with a deity and the object of worship is the divine whose power is inside the image, and the image is not the object of worship itself, Hindus believe everything is worthy of worship as it contains divine energy emanating from the one god. According to the Agamas, the bimba murti (स्र्ूलमूशतथ / शिम्बमूशतथ ) is different from the mantra murti from the perspective of rituals, gestures, hymns and offerings. Some Hindu denominations like Arya Samaj and Satya Mahima Dharma reject idol worship. Murti and temples were well established in South Asia, before the start of Delhi Sultanate in the late 12th century CE. They became a target of destruction during raids and religious wars between Islam and Hinduism through the 18th-century. During the colonial era, Christian missionaries aiming to convert Hindus to Christianity wrote memoirs and books that were widely distributed in Europe, which Mitter, Pennington and other scholars call as fictionalised stereotypes, where murti were claimed as the evidence of lack of spiritual heritage in primitive Hindus, of "idolatry and savage worship of stones" practices akin to Biblical demons, calling Murti as monstrous devils to eroticised bizarre beings carved in stone. The British Missionary Society with colonial government's assistance bought and 491 sometimes seized, then transferred murti from India and displayed it in their "trophies" room in the United Kingdom with the note claiming that these were given up by Hindus who now accept the "folly and sin of idolatry".In other instances, the colonial British authorities, seeking additional government revenue, introduced Pilgrim Tax on Hindus to view murti inside major temples. The missionaries and orientalist scholars attempted to justify the need for colonial rule of India by attacking murti as a symbol of depravity and primitiveness, arguing that it was, states Tanisha Ramachandran, "the White Man's Burden to create a moral society" in India. This literature by the Christian missionaries constructed the foundation of a "Hindu image" in Europe, during the colonial era, and it blamed murti idolatry as "the cause for the ills of Indian society". By 19thcentury, ideas such as pantheism (universe is identical with god), contained in newly translated Sanskrit texts were linked to idolatry of murti and declared as additional evidence of superstitions and evil by Christian missionaries and colonial authorities in British India. The polemics of Christian missionaries in colonial India triggered a debate among Hindus, yielding divergent responses.. It ranged from activists such as Rammohun Roy who denounced all murti, to Vivekananda who refused to denounce murti and asked Hindus in India and Christians in the West to introspect, that images are used everywhere to help think and as a road to ideas, in the following words, Superstition is a great enemy of man, but bigotry is worse. Why does a Christian go to church? Why is the cross holy? Why is the face turned toward the sky in prayer? Why are there so many images in the Catholic Church? Why are there so many images in the minds of Protestants when they pray? My brethren, we can no more think about anything without a mental image than we can live without breathing. By the law of association the material image calls up the mental idea and vice versa. — Vivekananda, World Parliament of Religions Religious intolerance and polemics, state Halbertal and Margalit, have historically targeted idols and material symbols cherished by other religions, while encouraging the worship of material symbols of one's own religion, characterising the material symbols of others as grotesque and wrong, in some cases dehumanising the others and encouraging the destruction of idols of the others. The outsider conflates and stereotypes the "strange worship" of the other religions as 492 "false worship" first, then calls "false worship" as "improper worship and false belief" of pagan or an equivalent term, thereafter constructing an identity of the others as "primitive and barbarians" that need to be saved, followed by justified intolerance and often violence against those who cherish a different material symbol than one's own.[69] In the history of Hinduism and India, states Pennington, Hindu deity images (murti) have been a religious lens for focusing this anti-Hindu polemic and was the basis for distortions, accusations and attacks by non-Indian religious powers and missionaries.[ Ancient Indian texts assert the significance of murti in spiritual terms. The Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, whose palm-leaf manuscripts were discovered in the 1970s among remote villages of Orissa – four in Oriya language and one in crude Sanskrit, asserts that the doctrine of murti art making is founded on the principles of origin and evolution of universe, is a "form of every form of cosmic creator" that empirically exists in nature, and it functions to inspire a devotee towards contemplating the Ultimate Supreme Principle (Brahman). This text, whose composition date is unknown but probably from late 1st millennium CE, discusses the significance of images as, state Alice Boner and others, "inspiring, elevating and purifying influence" on the viewer and "means of communicating a vision of supreme truth and for giving a taste of the infinite that lies beyond". It adds (abridged): From the contemplation of images grows delight, from delight faith, from faith steadfast devotion, through such devotion arises that higher understanding (parāvidyā) that is the royal road to moksha. Without the guidance of images, the mind of the devotee may go astray and form wrong imaginations. Images dispel false imaginations. (... ) It is in the mind of Rishis (sages), who see and have the power of discerning the essence of all created things of manifested forms. They see their different characters, the divine and the demoniac, the creative and the destructive forces, in their eternal interplay. It is this vision of Rishis, of gigantic drama of cosmic powers in eternal conflict, which the Sthapakas (Silpins, murti and temple artists) drew the subject-matter for their work. — Pippalada, Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Introduction by Alice Boner et al In the fifth chapter of Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Pippalada asserts, "from tattva-rupa (essence of a form, underlying principle) come the pratirupani (images)". In the sixth chapter, Pippalada repeats his message that the artist portrays the particular and universal concepts, with the 493 statement "the work of the Sthapaka is a creation similar to that of the Prajapati" (that which created the universe). Non-theistic Jaina scholars such as Jnansundar, states John Cort, have argued the significance of murti along the same lines, asserting that "no matter what the field – scientific, commercial, religious – there can be no knowledge without an icon", images are part of how human beings learn and focus their thoughts, icons are necessary and inseparable from spiritual endeavours in Jainism. While murti are an easily and commonly visible aspect of Hinduism, they are not necessary to Hindu worship. Among Hindus, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised Self (Soul, Atman) and the Universal Principle (Brahman, god) within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. Those who have yet to reach this height of realisation, various symbolic manifestations through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient Hindu scriptures. For example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states: A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself, images are for those who have not reached this knowledge. (Verse 59) — Jabaladarsana Upanishad, Introduction: All religions have been engaging in idolatry without actually knowing it – it’s always hard to see whether someone is really worshipping something, or just using it as a symbol of a totally different thing. Are Christians idol worshippers? Exodus 20:4, 5: “You must not make for yourself a carved image or a form like anything that is in the heavens above or that is on the earth underneath or that is in the waters under the earth. You must not bow down to them nor be induced to serve them, because I Jehovah your God am a God exacting exclusive devotion.” The Christians worship the statue of Jesus or the Cross or Jesus in the cross in their Church. Catholics pray to Mary and have statues of her. Isn’t that idolatry? If you come to India, especially South India, you can see thousands of new Churches made as replica of Hindu temples, with Dwaja Sthamba (flag banner high column) among other things, creating more idols 494 to worship. I don’t think anything other than the cemetery in the Churches that doesn’t fit into external culture. Christianity is almost Indianised. During first few centuries Jesus was pictured as Asiatic – bald, bearded and short – because of Asian origin. Later all images of Jesus became that of a European white man. So their idol clearly is Jesus Christ of European race. Can a Christian worship a black or Asian Jesus? Their main idols are Christ and Cross. Islam doesn’t have direct “idol worship” as Christians or Hindus do. The first condition to be a Muslim is: the act of worship should be devoted to Allah Alone. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning): “And they were commanded not, but that they should worship Allah, and worship none but Him Alone (abstaining from ascribing partners to Him).” [Al-Bayyinah 98:5] But you can see Idolatry in that religion too. Islam asks Muslims to pray towards Mecca. Direction or destination is focal point – an idol as per definition. Something becomes sacred only when you worship it. Muslims worship the black Kaaba Stone in Mecca. There are three explanations for the stone – (1) As per Islamic belief- it is sent by their god, Allah (2) Some serious historians say it’s a Shiv Linga (3) some people claim it’s a Meteorite. Whatever it is, Kaaba is an important icon that they worship. Zamzam water in Makkah is also sacred for them. Let alone idols, Islam strictly prohibits worshipping any man-made objects. Millions of copies of Holy Quran are printed in many printing presses by men and made into book form by man. Isn’t it a man-made object? How can it be worshipped? If you say it is a representation of god’s words, it is an idol by definition. The printed quotes are photo-framed, kept in the wall and worshipped. It’s also man-made. Alphabets used to describe god are also man-made images. Most of the Mosques (place of worship) have photograph of Kaaba. Some are visiting Dargah (grave of a revered religious figure) to offer worship. To my understanding, Muslims are forbidden to, and therefore do not, worship Prophet Mohammed. Muslims shouldn’t even keep images of him. But indirectly they do. If anybody talks one word against him, he/she will be cut into pieces. Isn’t that fanatic worship? Millions of Muslims worship holy hair of Prophet Mohammed and now building India’s biggest mosque 495 Sha’re Mubarak Masjid (literally: Blessed Hair Grand Mosque) in Kerala. You can also find images of Muhammad’s face in manuscript illustrations from hundreds of years ago, some of which are on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Some of the earliest Islamic coins were minted with Muhammad’s face on them! The celebration of Muhammad birthday is contradictory to Islamic law. But India has official Holiday on Prophet’s birthday similar to Christmas and Krishna Jayanti. What is it other than iconic worship? I agree lot of Muslims still worship only the formless God. But, they are still praying to a God which has all other attributes except that of “form”. Therefore they only seem to be rejecting the attribute of “form”, whereas they still seem to accept all other attributes in God (omnipotence, omnipresence etc.) which are also accepted by people from other religions who worship and pray to God using idols. Even atheist philosophies like Marxism follow Idolatry. They have created Martyrs who they worship with garland and flowers. They call it “Rakthasakshi Mandapam”- Temple for martyrs. The world capital of superstitious worship is communist China. Even African tribals are better than Chinese when it comes to superstitions and idol worships. From a Western viewpoint, Hindus are still worst. They worship almost everything. Apart from 33 crores Gods and Goddesses, they worship rat, cow, stones, birds, sexual organs, mountain, weapons etc. They have made idols or icons out of almost everything in this universe. But Hindus have the honesty and courage to admit that, “Yes we do have idol worship and that is important to our religion.” An Idol is an adjective of God. Idol is NOT an equivalent word for Vigraha (body or form) and Bimba (image, picture or object) in Sanskrit. The word ‘idol’ may be inadequate to mean ‘Vigraha’, except to indicate that the ‘shilpa’ or ‘figure’ indicates a kind of ‘model’ through which to visualize God. In Sanskrit, “Viseshal Grahyathe ithi Vigraha” (The One which is acceptable or liked or holds passionately) is Vigraham. In early stages of one’s quest for divinity, a representative form becomes necessary. That’s how the concept of Vigrahas (idols) came up in all religions. Vigraha (Vishesham Grihamiti = Special abode), Pratima (Mam prati = In front of me), Bimba smile emoticon Image) or Moorti smile 496 emoticon the utensil to fill) are synonyms of Vigraha. The purpose of Vigraha is actually to help the seekers to focus on the concepts. So, the seekers are seeing the manifestation of a divine power in such idol. They believe use of an idol or a physical symbol in worship and prayer is intended to enhance the focus on Brahmam (the universal or supreme god) with respect to a certain attribute (Saguna) of Brahmam. Such Idol worship is called “Saguna Aradhana” (Worshipping forms and names) in India. Contrary to popular misconceptions, idol is not the god for Hindus. For the beginners, it is like this: Those who wish to offer worship to the Brahmam in whichever form he/she prefers, invite ‘That’ into the favourite ‘Vigraha’. Aavahayami (I invite), Sthapayami (I establish/seat), Poojayami (I worship). Then we offer water, flowers, leaves, fragrant substances, delicious food, music, dance etc. as part of worship to ‘That’. Then we ask ‘That’ to grant our wishes and needs. At the end of the day or period of worship, we offer the pooja again and ask ‘That’ to leave the Vigraha. This process is called Visarjana (disperse). Then it becomes just an idol. In short, if you carefully observe you can see all religions and ideologies have some form of idol worship – it may be a statue, book, person, symbol, icon or thing. Everybody worships either images and or political symbols. The only difference would be in the method or degree in worshipping. It is thus quite apparent for the entire mankind – all religions – whether it is atheism, pluralism, animism, fanaticism, fundamentalism, gurudom, kingdom of priests and extreme materialism, the idol worship comes natural. Man creates various idols or images and then stuck there. They fight and kill for those idols. So, there is no point in anybody holding a “Holier than Thou” attitude. Why can’t a believer move beyond idols or images? Because human mind needs some form of image or imagery to its very survival. This is the limitation of all religions. So, our ancestors, the great sages, found that humans have to move beyond beliefs if he/she wants to realize the truth. They should go beyond idolatry – it is Nirguna Aradhana. The only religion that talks about truly formless and undefined god is Sanatan Dharma. It says the Brahmam – the divine power – is truly without a form, a gender or anything for that matter, while all other religions believe that god has a gender, a race and a language. As Sankracharya says, “To describe Brahmam even the words recoil.” So anybody trying to 497 describe god through words or images (Idolatry) is like blinds describing elephant. You have to go beyond a name and a form (shape) to realise the Brahmam. (Lalitha Sahasranamam says ‘Nama roopa vivarjitha’) Vedas say the Brahmam is formless, ineffable (nirguna) and Unmoved Mover. Upanishads describe Nirguna Brahmam- the ineffable God as, “Whole is that, whole too is this and from the whole, whole cometh and take whole, yet whole remains.” This cannot be understood with using mind as the mind CANNOT go beyond images (idols) or beliefs. That’s the reason our ancestors said God is an experience to be experienced by the experiencer. It cannot be explained. It cannot be described. In his final stages of quest, a Sanatan Dharma follower realizes and sees god’s presence in everything in the universe (Isavasyam idam sarvam). That’s why he prays “May all beings be happy” (Lokah Samastah Sukhino Bhavantu). That’s how the universal compassion develops. That’s how the inclusive philosophy of non-violence, equality and tolerance develops. That’s why ancient Indians could welcome and accept all religions, ideologies and philosophies including Atheism. No beliefs in the world can take a human being to such elevated higher dimension. the whole idea of doing idol worship or not-doing idol worship is a malicious propaganda to convert people from older religions. Idols are used as means to worship God or its infinite representations. No Hindus consider that there are two Param-Atma or supreme God, but they consider that he has infinite representation & yet no form because God is totality of all things & non-things. Hindus consider God to be in all things, everywhere, omnipresent, omni-potent & considered world to be just manifestation of his own self out of his mere wish. And Idols are ways to focus some positive manifestation of God to remove all other distractions. They used lamps, stones, pictures, or music for same purpose. No Ram, Shiva or Ganesh worshiper will say that you are worshiping wrong God, because they are clear that you select the channel or image that you love most, focus on that characteristics but eventually you merge to same God. While Upanishads are the first to describe one God that pervades all, before any other religion could even come into being, still later religions could use propaganda & disparage Hinduism. The whole idea of idol worship or not idol worship is a big deceitful propaganda. Hindus philosophy 498 defines the whole thing in one of the most clear languages known to humans Sanskrit & in of of the most refined philosophies as accepted by best philosophers world wide. God of Upanishads is most in sync whatever scientists and greater philosophers have found till date. a Hindu believes God exists in stones. But he understands that it doesn’t mean God is the stone. One must realize that Hindus do not worship any idol but worship God through the image. The best explanation of image worship that I have come across is that of Swami Tapasyananda: …Worship of a God who is not also the Absolute is idolatry, and a mere Absolute, who is characterless and is irresponsive, is not better than matter. The Vedanta accepts the Supreme as both Personal and Impersonal. When the votary in the course of his spiritual development becomes de-personalized on achieving the elimination of his ego-based body-mind, he will be able to understand the true Impersonal. Till then, that is, so long as he is a person, the Impersonal and the Absolute can only mean for him a Personal Being who is much more than what he, a person, has grasped or can grasp of Him. To illustrate, the Impersonal-Personal Divine of the Vedanta is the ocean and the God of adoration of the devotee is like a big field or backwater into which the water of that ocean has flowed. The many deities that form the object of worship of Vedantism are like these tanks and backwaters in the analogy. They are so many manifestations of the Personal-Impersonal Sat-chit-ananda in the thought structures of those who adore Him, or are forms adopted by Him for the achievement of cosmic purposes in his world-play. The worship of these forms with an understanding of the infinitude that informs their finitude ...... is the only form of true worship that the human mind is capable of, so long as man remains a limited person. The other ideas of the Divine which Semitic religions hold – their so called boasted monotheism – is only a form of disguised idolatry; for when it is said that Jehovah is a jealous God, or that there is no God but Allah, it is obvious that the Supreme Being is being identified as an exclusive individual and not as an expression of an Infinite Being in terms of the human mind. When the link with the Infinite is forgotten, a Deity, whether it is a monotheistic entity or a polytheistic being becomes a mere idol. Real worship of the Supreme Being is possible only when the principle of Vedantic theism is understood – that principle being the perception of the Infinite Personal-Impersonal Being through a limited manifestation of Him. 499 A Vedantic Deity is never aggressive, demanding the overthrow of other deities. But, a monotheistic Deity, always a jealous God, cannot tolerate another Deity. As Toynbee has pointed out, the monotheistic Deity of the Semitics is only an apotheosis of the group or tribal consciousness of certain people, a sentiment that held together societies before nationalism took its place. Just as the nationalistic patriotism is eager to absorb all other countries, that form of group consciousness masquerading as monotheism wants to supplant all other religions and establish its Deity in their sanctuaries. Proselytism, for which many religions stand but which has no place in the Vedantic scheme, is the consequence of the Infinite Being but a personalisation of the group consciousness of a people. The principle enunciated above in regard to Deities is applicable also to worship of God in holy images, which critics, who are practicing real idolatry, have stigmatised as idolatry. The Vedantin’s God is not an individual as the Semite’s. He is the Universal Spirit who has manifested as All-Nature. He is one with all, and if a person with faith wants to see Him anywhere, He is present there. Like water running all through the ground, He is everywhere; and if the well of faith is dug, He becomes available for worship. A holy image is thus a point at which His real presence is available for imperfect man to apprehend and commune with. It is not a mere means for practising concentration as some apologists say. It is much more. It is a point of real communion with the Divine when the eye of faith reveals Him as accepting the worship and offering made by the devotee. [Adapted from Swami Tapasyananda’s introductory remarks in ‘A Primer of Hinduism’ by D.S.Sarma] Murthi Puja became a subject of intense debate in 19th century Bengal mainly due to Christian missionary propaganda. Even educated Bengali Hindus began opposing murthi Puja. I am posting below a conversation between M and Sri Ramakrishna where M asks Sri Ramakrishna about murthi puja.. Idols in the Hindu Way of Life – Why Are They Worshipped? 500 . India is one place where they went into elaborate systems of idol-making. This has been misunderstood by other cultures as worshiping some doll as a god. No. Here, people are very much aware that it is we who create the shapes and forms. If you look at it from the standpoint of modern science, we know today that everything is the same energy, but everything is not the same in the world. This energy can be like an animal or this energy can function like the Divine. When I say “the Divine,” I am not talking about you as a being. I am talking about the body itself. The physical body itself can be transformed into a Divine entity if we just reorganize our systems in a particular way. Hindu is a cultural identity, not a religious identity. In the Hindu way of life, the only important thing in human life is his liberation. For example, between the full moon day and the new moon day, each of the fourteen nights are so different. Today, we live with so much electric light, so you don't know the difference. Suppose you lived on a farm or in a forest where there was no electricity, then every night would be very different because the moon comes up at different times and it has different shapes and forms. But it is the same moon. It is not a different entity. The same moon has different impacts at different times. Just a little rearrangement, see what a difference it has made. Similarly, if you re-arrange the energy system in the body, this body which is just a mass of flesh right now, can become a divine entity. The whole system of yoga is oriented towards this. Gradually, if you give it sufficient attention and practice, you will see that this body is no longer just craving for self-preservation and procreation, it has become something else altogether. It is 501 no longer just a physical entity. Though it is physical, though it is biology, it need not be limited to the physical. It can function and operate in a completely different dimension. Its very presence can become different. It is from this context that many yogis who made their bodies in a certain way, allowed people to worship their bodies. They themselves would not be there in the body, but they let people worship their body because it has become like a divine entity. It is a reorganized energy – completely engineered. The Hindu Way of Life One fundamental thing that I would like to clear up about the Hindu way of life is, with the Hindu, there is no “ism” because it is a geographical and cultural identity. Anyone born in the land of Indus is a Hindu. There is no particular belief system, god or ideology which you can call as the Hindu way of life. Whatever you do in this culture is Hindu. You can worship a man-god and be a Hindu. You can worship a woman-god and be a Hindu. You can worship a cow and be a Hindu. You can worship a tree and be a Hindu. Or you don’t worship anything and you can be a Hindu. Hindu is a cultural identity, not a religious identity. In the Hindu way of life, the only important thing in human life is his liberation. Mukti is the only goal. The Science of Idol-Making There is a whole science of idol-making where a certain form is created with a particular material and energized in a certain way. Different idols are made in different ways where they relocate or rearrange the chakras in certain places to make them into completely different possibilities. Idolmaking is that science through which you manifest the energy in a particular way so that your quality of life can be enhanced. The temple was not created as a place of God or a place of prayer. It was created as a place of energy where everyone could go and make use of it. Temples in India, were built as a very deep science. They were not created for worship. When I say temple, I am referring to the ancient temples. Most modern temples are built just the way you build shopping complexes. Temple building is a very deep science. If the basic aspects of the 502 temple – the size and shape of the idol, the mudra that the idol holds, the parikrama, the garbha griha, and the mantras used to consecrate the idol are properly matched, a powerful energy system is created. In Indian tradition, no one told you that if you go to a temple, you must worship and give money and ask for something. This is something that people have started now. Traditionally, they told you, if you go to the temple, you must sit for a while and come. But today you just touch your bottom to the floor and run away. This is not the way. You are required to sit there because there is a field of energy that has been created. In the morning, before you go out into the world, the first thing you do is you go sit in the temple for a while. This is a way of recharging yourself with very positive vibrations of life so that you go into the world with a different perspective. The temple was not created as a place of God or a place of prayer. No one was ever allowed to lead a prayer. It was created as a place of energy where everyone could go and make use of it. 1. Till the realisation of perfect knowledge a man should continue the ritualistic worship of Shiva. 59-60. In order to convince the world, the rituals must be continued. Just as the sun is reflected in many vessels, in the same manner, O devas, know that the supreme Brahman, Shiva, assumes the form of whatever is seen or heard in the world real or unreal. 2. There is difference in vessels but not in the water they contain. This is what those who know the real meaning of the Vedas say. 3. "Lord Shiva is within the heart of beings in this world." Of what avail are images to those who have the real knowledge? 4. Having an image is very auspicious for a person who has no such knowledge. It is a ladder that enables him to climb to a higher position. 5. It is very difficult to climb to a position without a support. The image is only a means to achieve the Nirguna Shiva. 6. The attainment of the Nirguna through a Saguna is certainly possible. In this manner, the symbols of all lords are conductive to steady faith and belief. 503 7. This lord is very great and this is the mode of worship of that lord. If there is no image, of what avail are scents, sandal paste, flowers etc? 8. Till the realisation of true knowledge, the image shall necessarily be worshipped. If any one does not worship the image before he attains perfect knowledge, his downfall is sure. These are aesthetic expressions of devotion in architecture and sculpture, music and painting. Idols are the personifications of the Almighty or the natural forces, in one aspect or another for a closer identification and understanding of them rather conveniently by common people, who feel a more intimate and trustworthy relationship with the deity with his assumed and acknowledged form and figure in their hearts and before their eyes. Temples were located and built in a manner to best utilise the magnetic energy and desirable properties of earth and mother nature to help a devotee to concentrate and meditate more peacefully. Besides temples serve as centres of religious discourses, festive celebrations and social interactions. The practice of Idol Worship in Hinduism. In Indian society, idol worship is one of the major superstitions that preclude the development of a scientific bent of mind….. Almost all societies of the world practiced them in one form or another during certain period. But, considering its evil effect, many societies began to shed ‘Idol worship’. Jewish society dropped it during 600 BC. European societies gave-up idol worship from the third century onwards synchronizing with the spread of Christianity. Arabian societies dispensed with idolatry from the seventh century onwards coinciding with the spread of Islam….. “In India, idolatry remains as an integral part of Hindu religion. It is being given much importance by the priestly class to further their interests. Many fictitious stories about the effectiveness of the worship of the idols of Gods and Goddesses are being spread by the priestly class. Believing those fictitious stories, Hindus throng the temples in large numbers to worship the different idols….. “The masses assume that by worshipping idols, their sins will be forgiven and they will be rewarded in this life as well as after life. Only under that notion, they perform costly pilgrimages to the so called holy places and fill the temple coffers with money and valuables. This illusion prevents people from acquiring worldly wisdom. It also averts people from realizing the value of thought and work. As 504 a result, people live in vain hope. They expect wonders to happen in their lives. Under this false hope, they don’t involve themselves in any productive and creative activities sincerely. This wrong mental attitude towards life and work acts as a major hurdle to our progress.” Idolworship has been the favorite weapon Hinduphobic people who have used it to criticize Hinduism for the last many centuries. It is considered as the foremost evidence that establishes Hinduism as being nothing more than a set of superstitions. The passages about ‘idol-worship’ that have been quoted at the beginning are from an article titled ‘Superstition and Indians’ by N. Anandan, published in the July 2011 issue of ‘The Modern Rationalist.’ Though the article is a few years old, the views expressed in the article clearly sums up the view of many self-claimed liberals, rationalists, and secularists of present society about the issue of idol worship in Hinduism. Now let us see what idol worship really is and how valid are these assessments and criticisms. Idol Worship and Moksha Photo: The Hindu ‘Idol Worship’ or ‘Image worship’ is one of the central aspects of Hindu practice. Sanatana Dharma has created a wide framework of spiritual practices and lifestyle choices to suit people of different temperaments and competencies. Hence, it has an equal place for those who worship nature as well as those who contemplate on their innermost self. Further, these diverse practices are not segregated belief systems distinct from one another as many scholars have concluded over last few centuries. Instead, these diversities are expressions of one united wholeness. There is a unity in the goal that various spiritual paths lead to as well as in the framework that upholds these diverse paths. The ultimate goal of Hinduism is Moksha or Liberation and every aspect of life, both secular and spiritual have been propounded to assist a person to eventually attain this goal. Hence, there is clearly a unity in the ultimate goal. Further, there is another unity that interconnects all the various paths and stays beneath them, and acts as the very foundation of them. It is the unity provided by Dharma which upholds life and which is the framework that has made it possible for such diverse paths to express itself without losing the eye on the goal. Hence, Idol worship is one of the prominent valid means that a person can adopt to travel the path that leads to Moksha. The validity of the worship of idols is its efficacy in helping a devotee to connect with his object of devotion i.e. Brahman. In fact, the worship of the idol is not about worshiping stone or wood. Instead, it is about worshiping Brahman/God who has manifested in the form of a Devata (deity) in that idol. Before proceeding further, let us briefly understand how Brahman is understood in 505 Hinduism. Concept of God in Hinduism God or Supreme reality is referred by the term ‘Brahman’ in Hinduism. Unlike some religions that conceive God as a creator who is different from his creations, Hinduism recognizes that Brahman is both transcendent reality as well as immanent reality. Hindu scriptures speak about Brahman as being present in all objects as their very innermost Self-Atman. The term Brahman therefore refers to the transcendent aspect and the term Atman to the immanent aspect. Hence, the often quoted Vedanta definition of Moksha as the realization of ‘Brahma-Atma-Aikyam-Union of Brahman and Atman’. The scriptures further speak about Brahman in its transcendent absolute state as being nameless, formless, attribute-less, and birth-less infinite whole. At the same time, the scriptures also recognize that this Brahman can take an infinite number of forms and names as well. He is formless, yet a repository of all forms. Hence, the famous Veda statement “One truth is called by various names” (Rig Veda 1.164.46). Yaska in his Nirukta says that there is only one God, and that God appears as Agni on the physical universe, as Indra in the middle realms, and as Savitr in the celestial realms. Further, various other deities in these three realms are various aspects of these three manifestations of God.(1) Therefore, though Brahman is one infinite whole without any forms, he himself assumes various forms of Devatas/deities to uphold the Universe. Hence, various Devatas are in essence non-different from Brahman, but in their limited aspect (of name and form), they represent particular aspect/attribute of Brahman. Therefore, Devatas serve as a bridge between devotees (who cannot comprehend Brahman because He is beyond perception) and Brahman (who is the end goal of spiritual path). Worship or Upasana in Hinduism As mentioned about, Moksha is possible only by the realization of Brahman as being non-different from the innermost Self (Atman). In other-words, Moksha is possible through Self-Realization or Atma Jnana. But, people in general are completely attached to the material objects. A person identifies himself with his name, body, and his possessions. Therefore, in order to truly realize the innermost Self, a person must remove the false identifications with his possessions, with the body and the mind. But, this is not easy. The mind is full of thought patterns called Vrittis. The mind is further afflicted by impurities like lust, anger, delusion, pride, etc. that increase the attachment to the body and material objects. Hence, the false identifications can be removed only by purifying the mind by removing the impurities and further calming the mind by bringing thought Vrittis to rest. Yoga Sutra calls this as “Chitta-Vritti Nirodha”. This purification and the 506 stilling of mind in turn is brought about by the practice of duties (Dharma Anushtana) and devotion (Bhakti/Upasana). It is for this reason, the Vedas are divided into Karma Khanda (duty/actions portion), Upasana Khanda (Meditation/devotion portion) and Jnana Khanda (Knowledge portion). The purpose of Upasana is to attain one-pointed concentration, so that the mind can be stilled. Upasana literally means ‘to sit near or become close to.’ Hence, the act of worship is nothing but bringing a devotee close to his devata/deity. In fact, Mahanirvana Tantra (14.123) defines worship as the union of the Jiva (individual) with Atman (God). How is this closeness achieved? By the practice of various external and internal spiritual practices. In fact, every external practice has been designed such that it induces certain internal transformations. The external practices may be in the form of Yajna (fire ritual), Tarpana (using water), or Murti puja (representing earth element) wherein the Devata is invoked in the fire, water, or the idol respectively. These external practices are accompanied by internal meditations on the Devatas. These internal meditations itself are referred as Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation) in Patanjali Yoga. These meditations are referred as Vidyas (Knowledge of the deities) in the Upanishads. It is by concentrating on the Nama (name), Mantra, or the Rupa (form) of the Devata, a person purifies the mind and removes all thought Vrittis of it. Therefore, Upasana is inevitable for spiritual progress. But, this Upasana is not a one size fits all kind of practice. Instead, there are hundreds of methods of Upasanas that have been explained in various scriptures to help people of various temperaments. Idol-Worship is one such important and very effective mode of worship. Philosophy behind the practice of Idol Worship The most important element of Idol worship is Idol itself. Idol called as ‘Murti’ is both a symbol for God as well as His abode. An Idol is basically a form, an image that represents a particular Devata. Hence, the primary function of an Idol is that of ‘Pratima’. It acts as a symbol that helps a devotee to have a connection, to have some perception of the essence of Devata, who otherwise is beyond sensory perception. Thus, Idol can be understood as a reflection, an image that gives a glimpse of the Devata, just as a photograph of a person helps one to remember him. This function of the Idol or Murti as a Pratima is very crucial in the practice of one pointed concentration and meditation. A meditator who thus meditates realizes that the Idol itself is neither Brahman nor Devata, but it is a reflection, an image of the Devata that aids concentration. This concentration will further lead to deep meditation on that form, which will slowly result in 507 the manifestation of the real Devata within the mind. This fact is further brought out in the iconography details that is associated with each deity. Devatas have many common features, yet each one of them have some unique features as well. These are not accidental or the products of imagination of some artists of the old. Instead, each element of the iconography represents a particular element about that Devata. For example, the moon on Shiva’s head represents Shiva as being endowed with pure Knowledge. Photo: e www.newindianexpress.com 508 Similarly, the ten hands depicted in some deities represent the 10 directions that include the top and bottom. The idols are made only according to the iconographic descriptions given in various scriptures and not otherwise. These show that, idols act as symbols for decoding the essence of various deities and when concentrated upon the idols, thought Vrittis corresponding to those aspects of Devatas are formed in the mind. This kind of meditation where external or internal aids are used as props to attain one-pointed concentration is well established in the Upanishads, Puranas, as well as Tantrika literatures. But, this is only one way of worshiping Devatas using Idols. The other way is self-evident in the very name with which the idols are referred- ‘Murti’. Murti literally means form, manifestation, embodiment, or simply an abode. Hence, idol is not simply a symbol, but it is a place that can hold the energy and the essence of the particular manifestation of Brahman. That is, the idol is nothing but a body of the Devata. It is for this reason, the worship of the Devata begins with Prana Pratishtapana where in the life-force, the essence, as well as the form of the deity is infused into the stone or wooden idol. This is done through procedures like Kumbabhishekam etc. in the temples. In fact, without consecration, the stone idol remains simply a stone and does not become a Pratima (image) of God. Regarding this, S.K. Ramachandra Rao, a renowned author and Sanskrit scholar says: “The devotee knows that the image of a god is a mere artefact and toy unless it is properly consecrated. And consecration involves the investment of the devotee’s devotion and passion, and getting the devotee effectively related to the particular god invoked in the image. Rituals are naturally important for transforming an artefact into an icon. The icon is meant to accommodate the rituals, so that human devotion can flower out in the light of God that is reflected through the icon.”(2) Therefore, the idols are not just the symbol or a reflection of the Devata, but it is the very abode of the Devata. A common criticism of Idol worship is that Hindus worship the stone and other such insentient objects. But, as seen above it is not the stone that is worshiped, but the Devata who has occupied the stone idol for a duration of time, who is worshiped. Jagadguru Sri Abhivnava Vidyatheertha MahaSwamiji, the late Shankaracharya of ‘Sringeri Peetham’ says: “We do not worship mere stones. If we did, then, on seeing a stone idol, we would have addressed it as, ‘O Stone’ and not as ‘O Lord.’ We use idols as aids to worship, realizing that it is He who resides in them. In the temple deities, the divine presence is installed through the Kumbhabhishekam performed to consecrate the idols. This is strengthened by the sincerity and 509 tapas (austerity) of the priests performing the worship, and by the special characteristics of certain idols. Though without form Ishwara (God) is capable of giving Darshana (appearing in front of) to His devotees. He indeed does so.”(3) Photo: http://belurmath.org/ The fact that idols act as an abode, or a body of the deity can also be ascertained by the manner in which they are made and the philosophy that guides the idol making. The work of art is no different from that of Yoga. In the Hindu scheme of life, all actions are indeed a Yoga, or a Yajna when they are done with one pointed concentration and without the hankering of the results. Hence, for a sculptor, his making of idols for worship itself is a Yoga. When a sculptor is commissioned to make an idol, he is supposed to prepare himself thoroughly through purification rituals, withdrawal from mundane routine, and meditate. The sculptor then contemplates on the Dyana mantra (meditation mantras giving iconographic descriptions of the deities) for an extensive period till the image of the deity becomes stable and clear in his mind. It is for this reason the Shilpa-Shastra(4) (treatise on sculpting) says that a sculptor must be well versed with Atharvaveda, treatises of sculpture, and the Vedic mantras by which the deities are invoked. Shukracharya says: “Let the imager establish images in temples by meditation on the deities who are the objects of his devotion. For the successful achievement of this Yoga, the lineaments of the image are described in books to be dwelt upon in detail. In no other way, not even by direct and immediate vision of the actual object, is it possible to be so absorbed in contemplation, as thus in the making of images.”(5) Therefore, a sculptor should not make any idols by looking at other idols. For then, there will not be any spiritual element in the idol thus made. Instead, the sculptor must become so completely absorbed in the deity such that he must be pre-occupied with this even during mundane activities like eating food, going to sleep, etc. By such a practice, a sculptor is not only able to perceive clearly the image of the Devata in his mind, but he will also perceive the very presence of Devata all around him. Only an image carved out after such contemplation of God, can truly become worthy of worship. (6) Thus, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy concludes: “the imager is required, after emptying his heart of all extraneous interests, to visualize within himself an intelligible image, to identify himself with therewith, and holding this image as long as is necessary, then only to proceed to the work of embodiment in stone, metal, or pigment.”(7) These clearly establish few points: An idol is first and foremost a symbol, a reflection of God who is formless. An idol is the body or an abode that a particular form of God occupies. An idol itself is prepared 510 and concentrated, such that it becomes a proper body that can be occupied by the deity. Therefore, instead of assuming Idol worship as stone worship, a correct understanding is that it is the worship of a Deity who has temporarily taken the idol as an abode or body. Now, just as human souls re-incarnate by changing bodies, similarly, the deities can be invoked in a new idol, once the old ones are degenerated, or broken, or are simply become unfit for worship. This is clearly witnessed in the Puri festival of Nabakalebara, in which Lord Jagannatha is given a new body by installing new idols once every 19 years. Hence, no questions of Hindu Gods being harmed when an idol is broken, or Gods being insulted when some rationalist urinates on the idols arises. Such statements and actions only goes to depict not only the crass ignorance of such people, but also their perverted thinking. Much of the misconception and criticism of Idol worship has been because of the perception of Idol worship in isolation and the subsequent branding of them as superstition. But, when idol worship is perceived from the standpoint of the framework of spirituality and worship, idol worship is just one among the various practices that can help a person to travel the path towards Moksha. An analysis of certain criticisms that have been made against Idol worship will be taken up in the next part. The Idol—A Prop For The Spiritual Neophyte Idol is a support for the neophyte. It is a prop of his spiritual childhood. A form or image is necessary for worship in the beginning. It is an external symbol of God for worship. It is a reminder of God. The material image calls up the mental idea. Steadiness of mind is obtained by image worship. The worshipper will have to associate the ideas of infinity, omnipotence, omniscience, purity, perfection, freedom, holiness, truth, omnipresence. It is not possible for all to fix the mind on the Absolute or the Infinite. A concrete form is necessary for the vast majority for practising concentration. To behold God everywhere and to practise the presence of God is not possible for the ordinary man. Idol worship is the easiest form of worship for the modern man. A symbol is absolutely indispensable for fixing the mind. The mind wants a prop to lean upon. It cannot have a conception of the Absolute in the initial stages. Without the help of some external aid, in the initial stages, the mind cannot be centralised. In the beginning, concentration or meditation is not possible without a symbol. 511 EVERYONE AN IDOL-WORSHIPPER There is no direct reference to worship of idols in the Vedas (HB: There is reference to thinking image of Bhagwan and doing dhyan which is form of Saanketik Sadhna or Saanketik Moorti Pujan, idol worship). The Puranas and the Agamas give descriptions of idol-worship both in the houses and in the temples. Idol-worship is not peculiar to Hinduism. Few newest religions adopted this great concept: christians worship the cross. They have the image of the cross in their mind. The Mohammedans keep the image of Kaaba stone when they kneel and do prayers, but ignorantly deny the same. The people of the whole world, save a few Yogis and Vedantins, are all worshippers of idols. They keep some image or the other in the mind. [HB: Even calling gods by names like allah or jesus is connoting image of god in the form of symbol or name. ॐ is the symbol that is also beginning of Idol worship.] The mental image also is a form of idol. The difference is not one of kind, but only one of degree. All worshippers, however intellectual they may be, generate a form in the mind and make the mind dwell on that image. Everyone is an idol-worshipper. Pictures, drawing, etc., are only forms of Pratima. A gross mind needs a concrete symbol as a prop or Alambana; a subtle mind requires an abstract symbol. Even a Vedantin has the symbol OM for fixing the wandering mind. It is not only the pictures or images in stone and wood that are idols. Dialectics and leaders also become idols. So, why condemn idolatry? A MEDIUM FOR ESTABLISHING COMMUNION WITH GOD Idols are not the idle fancies of sculptors, but shining channels through which the heart of the devotee is attracted to and flows towards God. Though the image is worshipped, the devotee feels the presence of the Bhagwan in it and pours out his devotion unto it. It is the appalling ignorance of the modern sensual man that clouds his vision and prevents him from seeing Divinity in lovely and enchanting idols of His form. The very scientific advances of this century ought to convince you of the glory of idol worship. How are the songsters and orators confined to a small box-like thing to be called a radio? It is a mere piece of a mechanical lifeless structure which breaks into a thousand pieces if you throw it away violently; and yet, if you know how to handle it, you can hear through it, the music that is being played several thousands of miles 512 away, the discourse that is being delivered in the remotest part of the globe. Even as you can catch the sound waves of people all over the world through the radio receiving set, it is possible to commune with the all-pervading Bhagwan through the medium of an idol. The divinity of the all-pervading ‘God is vibrant in every atom of creation. There is not a speck of space where He is not. Why do you then say that He is not in the idols? There are others who would glibly say, “Oh, God is all-pervading formless being. How can He be confined to this idol?” Are these people ever conscious of His omnipresence? Do they always see Him and Him alone in everything? No. It is their ego that prevents them from bowing to the idols of God and with that motive puts this lame excuse forward! Empty vessels only make much sound. A practical man who does meditation and worship, who is full of knowledge and real devotion keeps always silence. He influences and teaches others through silence. He only knows whether a Murti is necessary in the beginning for concentration or not. However intellectual one may be, he cannot concentrate without the help of some symbol in the beginning. An intellectual and learned person, on account of his pride and vanity only says, “I do not like a Murti. I do not wish to concentrate on a form.” He cannot concentrate on the formless one. He thinks that people will laugh at him when they come to know that he is meditating on a form. He never does any meditation on the formless one. He simply talks and argues and poses. He wastes his life in unnecessary discussions only. An ounce of his practice is better than tons of theories. Intellect is a hindrance in the vast majority of intellectual persons. They say that the existence of Brahman is a guess work, Samadhi is a bluff of the mind and Self-realisation is an imagination of the Vedantins. Deluded souls! They are steeped in ignorance. They are carried away by their secular knowledge which is mere husk when compared to the Knowledge of the Self. There is no hope of salvation for such people. First their wrong Samskaras should be flushed by good Samskaras through Satsanga. Then only they will realise their mistakes. May the Bhagwan bestow on them clear understanding and thirsting for real knowledge! 513 A Symbol of God – Idol Worship Knowing The Presence of Bhagwan Pratima (idol) is a substitute or symbol. The image in a temple, though it is made of stone, wood or metal, is precious for a devotee as it bears the mark of his Bhagwan, as it stands for something which he holds holy and eternal. A flag is only a small piece of painted cloth, but it stands for a soldier for something that he holds very dear. He is prepared to give up his life in defending his flag. Similarly the image is very dear to a devotee. It speaks to him in its own language of devotion. Just as the flag arouses martial valour in the soldier, so also the image arouses devotion in the devotee. The Bhagwan is superimposed on the image and the image generates divine thoughts in the worshipper. A piece of ordinary white paper or coloured paper has no value. You throw it away. But, if there is the stamp or picture of the King or Emperor on the paper (currency notes), you keep it safe in your money purse or trunk. Even so, an ordinary piece of stone has no value for you. You throw it away. But, if you behold the stone Murti of Bhagwan Krishna at Pandharpur or any other Murti in shrines, you bow your head with folded hands, because there is the stamp of the Bhagwan on the stone. The devotee superimposes on the stone Murti his own Beloved and all the attributes of the Bhagwan. When you worship an image, you do not say, “This image has come from Jaipur. It was brought by Prabhu Singh. Its weight is 50 lbs. It is made of white marble. It has cost me Rs, 500/-.” You superimpose all the attributes of the Bhagwan on the image and pray, “O Antaryamin (Inner Ruler)! You are all-pervading; you are omnipotent, omniscient, all-merciful. You are the source for everything. You are self-existent. You are Sat-Chit-Ananda. You are eternal, unchanging. You are the Life of my life, Soul of my soul! Give me light and knowledge! Let me dwell in Thee for ever.” When your devotion and meditation become intense and deep, you do not see the stone image. You behold the Bhagwan only, who is chaitanya. Image worship is very necessary for beginners. AN INTEGRAL PART OF VIRAT For a beginner, Pratima is an absolute necessity. By worshipping an idol, Isvara is pleased. The Pratima is made up of the five elements. The five elements constitute the body of the Bhagwan. The idol remains an idol, but the worship goes to the Bhagwan. [HB: Bhagwan is controller of 514 Five elements. He is beyond and within Five elements. Five elements gave birth to Universe and planets – every element of this earth. We cannot access materials which are beyond these five elements, we need five elements (idol) to pray to Bhagwan]. Pandav’s son Arjun is the only and most fortunate person in this Mahayug (Sat, Treta, Dwapar, Kali) to get the Virat roop darshan of Shree Krishn. If you shake hands with a man, he is highly pleased. You have touched only a small part of his body and yet he is highly pleased. He smiles and welcomes you. Even so, the Bhagwan is highly pleased when a small portion of His Virat (cosmic) body is worshipped. An idol is a part of the body of the Bhagwan. The whole world is His Body, Virat Form. The devotion goes to the Bhagwan. The worshipper superimposes on the image the Bhagwan and all His attributes. He does Shodasopachara for the idol, the sixteen kinds of paying respects or service to the Bhagwan, such as Padyam (water for washing the feet), Arghyam, Asana (seat), Snana (bathing), offering clothes, Achamana (water for sipping), applying sandal paste, offering flowers (Archana), burning incense, waving of lights and camphor, Maha Naivedyam, etc. The wandering mind is fixed now in this form of worship. The aspirant gradually feels the nearness of the Bhagwan. He attains purity of heart and slowly annihilates his egoism. To the worshipper who believes the symbol, any kind of image is the body of the Bhagwan under the form of stone, clay, brass, picture, Saligram, etc. Such worship can never be idolatry. All matter is a manifestation of God. God is present in everything which exists. Everything is an object of worship, for all is a manifestation of God who is therein worshipped. The very act of worship implies that the object of worship is superior and conscious. This way of looking at things must be attained by the devotee. The untutored mind must be trained to view things in the above manner. IDOL WORSHIP DEVELOPS DEVOTION Idol worship makes concentration of mind simpler and easier. You can bring before your mind’s eye the great Lilas the Bhagwan has played in His particular Avataras in which you view Him. This is one of the easiest modes of Self-realisation. [HB: It lets you trust Bhagwan completely without causing distress to fellow humans.] 515 Just as the picture of a famous warrior evokes heroism in your heart, a look at the picture of God will elevate your mind to divine heights. Just as the child develops the maternal Bhava (motherfeeling) of the future caressing, nursing, protecting mother by playing with its imaginary toychild made up of rags and suckling the child in an imaginary manner, so also the devotee develops the feeling of devotion by worshipping the Pratima and concentrating on it. REGULAR WORSHIP UNVEILS THE DIVINITY IN THE IDOL Regular worship with correct recitment of mantras*, Puja and other modes of demonstrating our inner feeling of recognition of Divinity in the idol unveils the Divinity latent in it. This is truly a wonder and a miracle. The picture comes to life. The idol speaks. It will answer your questions and solve your problems. The God in you has the power to awaken the latent Divinity in the idol. It is like a powerful lens that focuses the sun’s rays on to a bundle of cotton. The lens is not fire and the cotton is not fire either nor can the sun’s rays, by themselves, burn the cotton. When the three are brought together in a particular manner, fire is generated and the cotton is burnt. Similar is the case with the idol, the Sadhaka and the all-pervading Divinity. Puja makes the idol shine with divine resplendence. God is then enshrined in the idol. From here, He will protect you in a special manner. The idol will perform miracles. The place where it is installed is at once transformed into a temple, a Vaikuntha or a Kailasa in reality. Those who live in such a place are freed from miseries, from diseases, from failures and from Samsara itself. The awakened Divinity in the idol acts as a guardian blessing all, conferring the highest good on those who bow to it. : Vedic mantras decode the positive energy which is already around us, mantras are keys to unleash the power within and around. The mantras are given by Bhagwan himself so that we can easily chant them and meet Bhagwan]. THE IMAGE, A MASS OF CHAITANYA The idol is only a symbol of the Divine. A devotee does not behold therein a block of stone or a mass of metal. It is an emblem of God for him. He visualises the Indwelling Presence in the Murti or image. All the Saiva Nayanars or saints of South India attained God-realisation through worship of the Lingam, the image of Bhagwan Siva. For a devotee, the image is a mass of Chaitanya or consciousness. He draws inspiration from the image. The image guides him. It talks to him. It assumes human form to help him in a variety of ways. The image of Bhagwan Siva in the temple of Madurai in South India helped the fuel-cutter and the old woman. The 516 image in the temple of Tirupati assumed human form and gave witness in the court to help his devotees. There are marvels and mysteries. Only the devotees understand these. There are many incidents when Banke Bihari actually helped his devotees. WHEN IDOLS BECAME ALIVE For a Bhakta or a sage, there is no such thing as Jada or insentient matter. Everything is Vasudeva or Chaitanya—Vasudevah Sarvam Iti. The devotee beholds actually the Bhagwan in the idol. Narsi Mehta was put to the test by a Raja. The Raja said: “O Narsi, if you are a sincere devotee of Bhagwan Krishna, if as you say the idol is Bhagwan Krishna Himself, let this idol move.” According to the prayer of Narsi Mehta, the idol moved. The sacred bull Nandi before Siva’s idol took the food offered by Tulasidas. The Murti played with Mira Bai. It was full of life and Chaitanya for her. You will like: Ghar Wapsi, Revert to Hinduism Needed to Save Indian Hindu When Appayya Dikshitar went to Tirupati temple in South India, the Vaishnavas refused him admission. The next morning they found the Vishnu Murti in the temple changed into Siva Murti. The Mahant was much astonished and startled, asked pardon and prayed to Appayya Dikshitar to change the Murti again into Vishnu Murti. Kanaka Das was a great devotee of Bhagwan Krishna in Udipi, in the district of South Kanara in South India. He was not allowed to enter the temple on account of his low birth [HB: Caste 517 system invoked by britishers. Native Hindus believed in Varna System]. Kanaka Das went round the temple and saw a small window at the back of the temple. He seated himself in front of the window. He was soon lost in singing songs in praise of Bhagwan Krishna. Many people gathered round him. They were very much attracted by the sweet melody of his music and the depth of his devotion. Bhagwan Krishna turned round to enable Kanaka Das to get His Darshan. The priests were struck with wonder. Even today, pilgrims are shown the window and the place where Kanaka Das sat and sang. The Murti is the same as the Bhagwan, for it is the vehicle of expression for the MantraChaitanya which is the Devata. The same attitude should the devotee have in regard to the Murti in the temple, which he would evince if the Bhagwan would appear before him in person and speak to him in articulate sound. Even today, the brilliant eyes of Shri Bankey Bihari will make one unconscious if seen for too long a stretch. That is the reason that the kapat is closed and Bihari Ji’s darshan is stopped after every few minutes. During Janmaashtmi , it is done every single minute. Shree Krishn, Bihari Ji also respond to the Bhakti bhav of those Bhakts who are deeply in love with Shree Krishn, he follows them to their homes. Many occasions, Bihari Ji’s idol was not seen in temple and after some time, he was again seen giving darshan to Bhakts. VEDANTA AND IDOL WORSHIP A pseudo-Vedantin feels himself ashamed to bow or prostrate before an idol in the temple. He feels that his Advaita will evaporate if he prostrates. Study the lives of the reputed Tamil saints, Appar, Sundarar, Sambandhar, etc. They had the highest Advaitic realisation. They saw Bhagwan Siva everywhere and yet they visited all temples of Siva, prostrated before the idol and sang hymns, which are on record now. The sixty-three Nayanar saints practised Chariyai and Kriyai only and attained God-realisation thereby. They swept the floor of the temple, collected flowers, made garlands for the Bhagwan and put on lights in the temple. They were illiterate, but attained the highest realisation. They were practical Yogis and their hearts were saturated with pure devotion. They were an embodiment of Karma Yoga. All practised the Yoga of Synthesis. The idol in the temple was all Chaitanya or consciousness for them. It was not a mere block of stone. 518 Madhusudana Swami, who had Advaita realisation, who beheld oneness of the Self, who had Advaitic Bhava, was intensely attached to the form of Bhagwan Krishna with flute in His hands. Tulasidas realised the all-pervading essence. He had cosmic consciousness. He communed with the all-pervading, formless Bhagwan. And yet his passion for Bhagwan Rama with bow in His hand did not vanish. When he had been to Brindavan and saw the Murti of Bhagwan Krishna with flute in His hands, he said, “I will not bow my head to this form.” At once Bhagwan Krishna’s form assumed the form of Bhagwan Rama. Then only he bowed his head. Tukaram also had the same cosmic experience as that of Tulasidas. He sings in his Abhanga, “I see my Bhagwan all-pervading, just as sweetness pervades the sugar-cane” and yet he always speaks of his Bhagwan Vittala of Pandharpur with His hands on the hips. Mira also realised her identity with the all-pervading Krishna and yet she was not tired of repeating again and again, “Mere Girdhar Nagar”. From the above facts, we can clearly infer that one can realise God through worship of Murti or idol, that the worship of the Bhagwan in Saguna form is a great aid for Vedantic realisation also and for the realisation of the Bhagwan in His all-pervading, formless aspect and that the worship of the Murti is very essential for the purpose of concentration and meditation in the beginning and that such a worship is not in any way a hindrance to the attainment of God-consciousness and those who vehemently attack Murti Puja are groping in extreme darkness and ignorance and they have no real knowledge of Puja and worship and that they enter into unnecessary, vain debates and discussions against Murti Puja to show that they are learned persons and that they have not done any real Sadhana at all. They are persons who have made idle talking and tall talk as their habit and profession. They have ruined themselves. They have unsettled the minds of countless persons and ruined them also. The whole world worships symbols and Murtis only in some form or the other. The mind is disciplined in the beginning by fixing it on a concrete object or symbol. When it is rendered steady and subtle, it can be fixed later on on an abstract idea such as “Aham Brahma Asmi”. When one advances in meditation, the form melts in the formless and he becomes one with the formless essence. Image worship is not contrary to the view of Vedanta. It is rather a help. FROM RITUALISTIC BHAKTI TO PARA BHAKTI 519 Bhakti is of two kinds, viz., higher Bhakti or Para Bhakti and lower Bhakti or ritualistic Bhakti. Ritualistic worship is Vaidhi or Gauni Bhakti. It is formal Bhakti. Vaidhi Bhakti is the lower type of devotion depending on external aids. It is lower Bhakti. The mind becomes purer and purer. The aspirant gradually develops love for God through ritualistic worship. He who does ritualistic worship rings bells, adores a Pratika (symbol) or Pratima (image), does Puja, Arati, etc., with flowers, sandal paste, burns incense and waves light before the image, offers Naivedya or food for God, etc. Mukhya Bhakti or Para Bhakti is advanced type of devotion. It is higher Bhakti. It transcends all convention. A devotee of this type knows no rule. He does not perform any external worship. He beholds his Bhagwan everywhere, in every object. His heart is saturated with love for God. The whole world is Brindavan for him. His state is ineffable. He attains the acme of bliss. He radiates love, purity and joy wherever he goes and inspires all who come in contact with him. The aspirant who worships the idol in the beginning beholds the Bhagwan everywhere and develops Para Bhakti. From Vaidhi Bhakti, he passes on to Ragatmika Bhakti or Prema Bhakti. He beholds the whole world as the Bhagwan. The ideas of good and bad, right and wrong, rogue, etc., vanish. He sees the Bhagwan in a rogue, dacoit, cobra, scorpion, ant, dog, tree, log of wood, block of stone, sun, moon, stars, fire, water, earth, etc. His vision or experience baffles description. Glory to such exalted Bhaktas who are veritable Gods on earth, who live to lift others from the quagmire of Samsara and save them from the clutches of death! Hinduism leads the aspirants gradually from material images to mental images and from the diverse mental images to the one Personal God and from the Personal God to the Impersonal Absolute or transcendental Nirguna Brahman. THE GLORY OF GREATEST HINDU PHILOSOPHY How sublime is Hindu philosophy and Hindu mode of worship! It does not stop or end with the worship of the idol. The Sadhaka is taken step by step to higher stages of devotion and Samadhi or communion through the worship of the idol. Though he worships the idol, he has to keep before his mental eye the all-pervading Bhagwan. He has to feel His Presence in his heart and all objects also. Even in worshipping a small idol, he has to repeat the Purusha Sukta and to think of the Virat Purusha with countless heads, countless eyes, countless hands, who extends beyond the universe and of the Bhagwan or Atman who dwells in the hearts of all beings. The same man 520 who burns incense, scented sticks and camphor before the idol says, “The sun does not shine there nor the moon nor the stars nor the lightning. How then could the little fire shine there? All shine after Him. His effulgence alone illumines the whole world.” The ways and rules of worship—Puja Vidhi—and the secrets of worship that are described in the Hindu scriptures are scientifically accurate and highly rational. It is only ignorant people who have not studied the scriptures, who have not associated with the devotees and great souls, who vilify worship of idols or Murtis. Every other religion lays certain fixed dogmas and attempts to force people to follow them. It has only one kind of drug to treat several diseases. It gives only one kind of food for all and for all conditions. It places before the followers only one coat. It must fit Albert, Atkinson, Ahluwallia, Antony, Abdul Rahman. The Hindus know that the images, crosses and crescents are simply so many symbols to fix the mind in the beginning for developing concentration, so many concrete pegs to hang their spiritual ideas and convictions on. The symbol is not necessary for everyone. It is not compulsory in Hinduism. It is not needed for an advanced Yogi or sage. A symbol is like the slate which is useful for a boy of the first standard. Those who are not in need of it have no right to say that it is wrong. If they say that it is wrong, they only betray their ignorance. CONCLUSION TO GREAT SCIENCE OF HINDU IDOL WORSHIP There is nothing wrong in worshipping an idol in the beginning. You must superimpose God and His attributes on the idol. You must think of the Antar-Atma that is hidden in the idol. The aspirant gradually begins to feel that the Bhagwan he worships is in the idol, in the hearts of all creatures and in all the names and forms of this universe. He begins to feel His presence everywhere. Idolatry is only the beginning of Dharma. Certainly it is not its end. The same Hindu scriptures which prescribe idol-worship for beginners speak of meditation on the Infinite or the Absolute, contemplation on the significance of the “Tat Tvam Asi” Mahavakya, for advanced aspirants. There are different grades of worship. The first is the worship of idols (the easiest of all). The next is recitation of Mantras and offering of prayers. Mental worship is superior to worship with flowers. Meditation on the Absolute or the attributeless Nirguna Brahman is the best of all. The supreme state is Self-realisation or Brahma-sakshatkara. The second in rank is meditation. The Yogi practises Sadhana or unceasing meditation on the Supreme Self. The third is the 521 worship of symbols. The fourth is the performance of rituals and pilgrimages to holy places. The Sastras and Gurus are like kind mothers. They take hold of the hands of the aspirants, take them step by step, stage by stage, till they are established in Nirvikalpa Samadhi or super-conscious state. They prescribe gross forms of Sadhana or spiritual practices for the neophytes or beginners, with gross mind, and give lessons on abstract meditation for the advanced aspirants who are endowed with pure, subtle and sharp intellect. Each marks a stage of progress. The human soul makes different kinds of attempts to grasp and realise the Infinite or the Absolute according to his strength, degree of evolution. He soars higher and higher, gathers more and more strength and eventually merges himself in the Supreme and attains oneness or identity. Glory to the Hindu Rishis (and the Hindu scriptures) who take the aspirants from the lower to the higher form of worship, stage by stage, step by step and ultimately help them to rest in the attributeless, all-pervading, formless, timeless, spaceless Brahman or the infinite and the unconditional Brahman of the Upanishads. Beloved children of the Bhagwan! Shed your ignorant disbelief this moment. Enshrine supreme, unshakable, living faith in your heart this very moment. Recall to your mind the glorious examples of Sri Mira, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and the South Indian Alwars and Nayanars. They believed; they reaped the rich spiritual harvests. You, too, can enjoy great peace, happiness and prosperity here and attain Him here and now if you have this faith in idolworshipping. Though you may perform external worship at regular intervals, let the internal worship of the Bhagwan in your heart be constant, unbroken. Here worship attains completeness. Life is a divine worship. May you realise the significance of the universal worship of the Virat in daily life and performing it, attain the summum bonum of life. May the Bhagwan bless you all! VISITING A HINDU MANDIR, A DIVINE PLACE OF CONCENTRATION In the Kali Yuga and in the material world of busy day-to-day life, the temple of the Bhagwan affords great opportunities for the evolution of man through concentration and devotion. The precincts of the temple are so sacred and give a peace which no other atmosphere can give. There is a divine vibration in the entire area. By the constant and regular Puja during the three sessions of the day, the recitation of the Holy Vedas and chanting of specific Mantras throughout the year, 522 the auspiciousness of the temple increases everyday and the entire atmosphere elevates the soul of man to a very great degree. The shrine in which the Murti of the Supreme Bhagwan is installed is a hallowed place which exerts a powerful spiritual influence that can transform the minds of persons into a state of higher purity. The daily worships through prayers, invocations and Abhisheka and Archana, performed at the temple, endow the whole environment with a holiness and splendour that infuses into all a feeling of reverence, piety and devotion, whenever they enter its premises. But the sanctity of the temple should be carefully maintained by observing the prescribed rules usually connected with the maintenance of places of divine worship. External and internal Saucha are both necessary in the worship of the Devata in a temple. The temple dedicated to the Archavatara of the Bhagwan is a visible representation of the body of the Virat-Purusha and the rituals of worship in the temple are objective acts expressing the whole process of spiritual Sadhana. The temple is the microcosmic embodiment of the universe indwelt by the Antaryamin, Isvara, whose worship we conduct at the sacred temple. The Bhagwan is invoked by means of the powerful Mantras of the Srutis, Smritis and Tantras and the Murti in the temple becomes a living manifestation of the force of the Divine, ready to fulfil the noble aspirations of the devout Archaka. Archana is the easiest and the safest means of cultivating the love of the Almighty, for it becomes the link between His transcendent being and the world in which the devotee is placed. The one special feature of Archana-Bhakti is that it seeks to evoke the finer forms of the religious consciousness in man through offering to God articles of devotion by means of the physical forms which are the immediate aspects of the manifestations of God-Being, revealed to the senses here. Hence Archana is the foundation on which is constructed the grand edifice of spiritual effort and realisation. It is one among the nine gems of the way in which man aspires to reach God. Worship the Bhagwan with intense faith and aspiration. The Bhagwan will surely bestow His grace upon you all. All are blessed—one who causes the temple to be built, who actually builds 523 it, who assists in it, who is happy about it, who performs worship in it, who prostrates oneself before it with faith and adorns the Bhagwan always in one’s heart, with sincerity and love. The Bhagwan is everywhere and He allows Himself to be adored at particular places on account of the supreme compassion that He has for all beings. GLORY OF PRASAD Prasad is that which gives Peace. During Kirtan, worship, Puja, Havan and Arati, Badam, Kismis, milk, sweets, fruits are offered to the Bhagwan. After offering them to the Bhagwan, they are shared between the members of the house or the Bhaktas in a temple. Puja is done by Bael leaves, flowers, Tulasi, Vibhuti and these are given as Prasad from the Bhagwan. Vibhuti is the Prasad of Bhagwan Siva. It is to be applied on the forehead. A small portion can be taken in. Kumkum is the Prasad of Sri Devi or Sakti. It is to be applied at the space between the eyebrows (Ajna or Bhrumadhya). Tulasi is the Prasad of Bhagwan Vishnu, Rama or Krishna. It is to be taken in. They are charged with mysterious powers by the chanting of the Mantras during Puja and Havan. The mental Bhava of the devotee offering Bhog to the Bhagwan has a very great effect. If an ardent devotee of the Bhagwan offers anything to the Bhagwan, that Prasad, if taken, would bring very great change even in the minds of atheists. The Grace of the Bhagwan descends through Prasad. Go through the life of Narada. You will realise the greatness of the sacred 524 leavings of the Bhagwan as well as those of advanced Sadhakas 525 and saints. Namdev offered rice, etc., to Panduranga Vittala and He ate the food and shared with Namdev as well. If the food is offered with a yearning heart, sometimes, the Bhagwan takes that food assuming a physical form. In other cases, the Bhagwan enjoys the subtle essence of the food offered and the food remains as it is in the shape of Prasad. While feeding Mahatmas and the poor people, that which is left behind is taken as Prasad. When a sacrifice is performed, the participants share the Prasad which bestows the blessings of the gods. When Dasaratha performed Putrakameshti (wishing for son) sacrifice, he got a vessel full of sweetened rice which he gave to his queens, by taking which they became pregnant. Prasad is the most sacred object for a devotee. One should consider himself lucky to take the Prasad and there is no restriction of any kind in taking Prasad. Time and place and the condition in which one is placed—all these do not affect him in any way. Prasad is all-purifying. The benefits of Prasad and Charanamrit are beyond description. They have the power to change entirely the outlook of a man’s life. Prasad and Charanamrit have the power to cure diseases and even bring back to life dead persons. There have been ever so many instances in the past in this holy land of ours which bear witness to the potency and efficacy of Prasad. Prasad destroys all pains and sins. It is an antidote for misery, pain and anxiety. Faith is the important factor in testing the accuracy of this statement. For faithless persons it brings very little effect. 526 Those who are brought up in modern education and culture have forgotten all about the glory of Prasad. Many English-educated persons do not attach any importance to Prasad when they get it from the Mahatma. This is a serious mistake. Prasad is a great purifier. As they are brought up in the Western style of living, they have imbibed the spirit of Westerners and forgotten the spirit of the true children of Indian Rishis of yore. Live for a week in Brindavan or Ayodhya or Benares or Pandharpur. You will realise the glory and the miraculous effects of Prasad. Many incurable diseases are cured. Many sincere devotional aspirants get wonderful spiritual experiences from mere Prasad alone. Prasad is a panacea. Prasad is a spiritual elixir. Prasad is the Grace of the Bhagwan. Prasad is a cure-all and an ideal ‘pick-me-up.’ Prasad is an embodiment of Sakti. Prasad is Divinity in manifestation. Prasad energises, vivifies, invigorates and infuses devotion. It should be taken with great faith. Prasad bestows good health, long life, peace and prosperity on all. Glory to Prasad, the bestower of Peace and Bliss! Glory to the Bhagwan of the Prasad, the giver of immortality and undying happiness! Philosophy of Sacred Hindu Symbols Bells are rung in temples and while doing Puja to shut out the external sounds and to make the mind inward and concentrated. Lights are waved before the Deity. This denotes that the Bhagwan is Jyoti Svarupa. He is alllight. The devotee says, “O Bhagwan! Thou art the self-effulgent Light of the universe. Thou art the light in the sun, moon and fire. Remove the darkness in me by bestowing your divine Light. May my intellect be illumined.” This is the significance of waving lights. Dhoop or scented sticks are burnt before the Deity. The smoke spreads in the whole room. It acts as a disinfectant. Burning of Dhoop denotes that the Bhagwan is all-pervading, that He fills the whole universe by His living presence. It is to remind this fact that Dhoop is burnt. The devotee prays, “O Bhagwan! Let the Vasanas and Samskaras dormant in me vanish like the smoke of this Dhoop and become ashes. Let me become stainless.” Burning of camphor denotes that the individual ego melts like the camphor and the Jivatman becomes one with the supreme Light of lights. 527 The pasting of sandal reminds the devotee that he should, in his difficulties, be as patient as the sandal. Sandal emanates sweet odour when it is pasted. So also the devotee should not murmur when difficulties arise, but on the other hand, remain cheerful and happy and emanates sweetness and gentleness like the sandal. He should not hate even his enemy. This is another precept we learn from this. Though the sandalwood is crushed and pasted, it silently wears out emanating only very sweet odour. One should not wish evil even to his enemy. SHIV LING – THE DIVINE SYMBOL OF SHIV The popular belief is that the Siva Lingam represents the phallus or the virile organ, the emblem of the generative power or principle in nature. This is not only a serious mistake, but a grave blunder. In the post-Vedic period, the Linga became symbolical of the generative power of Bhagwan Siva. Linga is the differentiating mark. It is certainly not the s*x mark. You will find in the Linga Purana: Pradhanam Prakriti Yadahurlingamuttamam Gandhavarnarasaiheenam Sabda-sparsadi-varjitam The foremost Lingam which is primary and is devoid of smell, colour, taste, hearing, touch, etc., is spoken of as Prakriti (Nature). Linga means “Mark” in Sanskrit. It is a symbol which points to an inference. When you see a big flood in a river, you infer that there have been heavy rains the previous day. When you see smoke, you infer that there is fire. This vast world of countless forms is a Linga of the Omnipotent Bhagwan. The Siva Linga is a symbol of Bhagwan Siva. When you look at the Linga, your mind is at once elevated and you begin to think of the Bhagwan. Bhagwan Siva is really formless. He has no form of His own and yet all forms are His forms. All forms are pervaded by Bhagwan Siva. Every form is the form or Linga of Bhagwan Siva. There is a mysterious power or indescribable Sakti in the Linga to induce concentration of the mind. Just as the mind is focussed easily in crystal gazing, so also it attains one-pointedness when it looks at the Lingam. That is the reason why the ancient Rishis of India and the seers have prescribed the Lingam for being installed in the temples of Bhagwan Siva. Siva Linga speaks to you in the unmistakable language of silence: “I am one without a second, I am formless.” Pure, pious souls only can understand this language. A curious, passionate, impure 528 foreigner of little understanding or intelligence says sarcastically, “Oh! The Hindus worship the phallus or s*x organ. They are ignorant people. They have no philosophy.” When a foreigner tries to learn Tamil or Hindustani language, he first tries to pick up some vulgar words. This is his curiosity nature. Even so, the curious foreigner tries to find out some defects in the worship of symbol. Linga is only the outward symbol of the formless being Bhagwan Siva who is the indivisible, all-pervading, eternal, auspicious, ever-pure, immortal essence of this vast universe, who is the undying soul seated in the chambers of your heart, who is your Indweller, innermost Self or Atman, and who is identical with the Supreme Brahman. Sphatikalinga is also a symbol of Bhagwan Siva. This is prescribed for Aradhana or worship of Bhagwan Siva. It is made up of quartz. It has no colour of its own but takes on the colour of the substances which come in contact with it. It represents the Nirguna Brahman or the attributeless Supreme Self or formless and attributeless Siva. For a sincere devotee, the Linga is not a block of stone. It is all radiant Tejas or Chaitanya. The Linga talks to him, makes him shed profuse tears, produces horripilation and melting of heart, raises him above body-consciousness and helps to commune with the Bhagwan and attain Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Bhagwan Rama worshipped the Siva Linga at Rameshwar. Ravana, the learned scholar, worshipped the golden Linga. What a lot of mystic Sakti there should be in the Linga! May you all attain the formless Siva through the worship of the Linga, the symbol of Bhagwan Siva which helps concentration of mind and which serves as a prop for the mind to lean upon in the beginning for the neophytes! FAITH AND IDOL WORSHIP Puran Chand’s Guru had initiated him into the Narayana Mantra and given him a small Murti (idol) of Bhagwan Narayana for worship. Puran was regular in his worship and did not omit repetition of the sacred Mantra, but there was no sign of the idol blessing him; so he went to his Guru and asked him the reason. The Guru smiled at Puran and said, “Well son, take this idol of Bhagwan Siva. I shall initiate you into the Siva Mantra. Worship Bhagwan Siva with faith and devotion. He is considered as Bhole Nath and is easily propitiable; He will bless you soon.” The next six months saw Puran Chand immersed in Japa and worship of Bhagwan Siva. The idol of Bhagwan Narayana was placed on a dusty shelf in the puja room. After many months, Puran 529 Chand once more went to his Guru and complained that his worship of Siva had brought him no result. He begged him to give him the Murti and Mantra of a Devata that would bless him. Surya/Karan The Guru smiled again; the time for enlightenment had come, yet he felt the disciple would learn from experience. So he said, “Good son, in this Yuga, Mother Kali is Pratyaksha Devata. Worship this image of Her and repeat the Navarna Mantra and you will obtain Her Grace.” This time, Puran Chand had no misgivings whatsoever; he had full faith. Kali worship commenced; Siva joined company with Narayana on the shelf. With devotion, Puran was waving incense before the image of Mother Kali when the fumes rose up and reached the shelf where the other two idols were kept. Puran was enraged. What right had Siva to inhale the incense intended for Mother Kali? He had refused to be propitiated when he had tirelessly 530 worshipped Him; it was Mother Kali whom he now worshipped. In great anger he took down the image of Siva in his hands and began to insert cotton wool in His nose to stop Him from inhaling the incense. Before he could accomplish his task, however, the idol disappeared and before him stood the Bhagwan, smiling in all His mercy and compassion. Speechless with wonder and amazement, Puran prostrated himself before the Bhagwan who told him to ask for any boon as He was immensely pleased with his devotion. Puran answered, “My Bhagwan, I am much perplexed. You did not deign to bless me when I devoutly worshipped You and repeated the Panchakshara Mantra for six months. But You suddenly chose to reveal yourself to me when I had discarded Your image and given up Your worship. What is this mystery, O Bhagwan?” The Bhagwan answered, “My child, there is no mystery to be explained; how could I reveal Myself when you treated Me as a mere image, as a mere piece of metal worshipped or thrown away according to your whim? Today you treated My image as a living presence when you wanted to plug the nostrils with cotton wool; thus you revealed that you recognised My living presence in the idol and I could no longer withhold Myself from you.” Speechless and enlightened, Puran bowed once more and was immersed in His Love. He could ask for no greater boon, for in His love he found fulfilment. Idol worship is the greatest asset a common person can have, because it helps in praying Bhagwan in simplest form. The establishment of conversation between Bhagwan and Bhakt is done through Idol worship. Mantras, scared chants and communication shortens the distance of connectivity with Bhagwan with the medium of Idol worship. Temples have amazing science behind their structure and conception  The purpose of visiting a temple is to take all the positive energy that gets transferred from the Earth’s surface to the human body through various mediums  The copper plate placed beneath the idol absorbs the magnetic waves and radiates it to the surroundings Temples, Shrines, Holy places – places of worship have been known by many names but they all tender to one feeling- Faith. Since time immemorial, men have been arguing about whether the devotion towards the heaven above is futile or whether it holds some meaning. It’s a neverending debate between belief and logic. 531 This debate is best fought in India, a country known for budding science enthusiasts and age-old priests/sages, all thriving on the same piece of land. A country with many faiths each with its own unique face in the form of a shrine. A country with endless structures of age-old stone art stretched over the landscape, wherever your eyes can see. Having said that, India is also a country that gave birth to many self-proclaimed atheists in the field of science and technology (Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, an astrophysicist) and in the field of films (John Abraham, a movie star). But what if we told you that temples, structures that symbolize faith or religion, have amazing science behind their structure and conception. Here are 6 reasons proving how faith and science can go hand in hand in the Hindu temples. Structure Temples in Andhra Pradesh (Representational Image). Image source: Wikimedia Commons Take into consideration the distribution of magnetic energy from the north and south poles and you’ll realize that temples are strategically built at the core of this positive energy from these poles. ‘Garbhagriha’-A name given to the center of a temple is an area where the idol is placed. It is also the place where earth natural magnetic waves are found to be at their peak. Account these small nuances when it comes to the structure of the temple and many questions can be answered. Strategic placement of the idol 532 Ever wondered why your body feels a whole wave of positive energy when you stand near the idol? It’s the copper plate placed beneath the idol that absorbs the magnetic waves and radiates it to the surroundings. An idol is a representation of the God above. It’s a physical image that helps you visualize the divine and hence concentrate. Worshipping the idol helps the devotee move on to the next step 533 and that’s mental prayers. All together this process helps a person concentrate and hence strengthen his mind. Parikrama The priest tells you to take three rounds of the idol after your mental prayers. This act is known as parikrama. An idol that’s charged with positive energy radiates its energy to anything in its vicinity. Therefore your three rounds rejuvenate our mind body and soul as it charges you up with positive energies. Temple bells A temple bell is not made of some ordinary metal; it’s an amalgamation of cadmium, zinc, lead, copper, nickel, chromium and manganese. The ratio in which they are combined leads it to produce a distinct sound for about seven seconds this unites the left and ride side of your brain such that the echo of the sound touches your bodies seven healing chakras. It sends your brain in a stage of the trace for microseconds and it becomes extremely receptive and aware. In Hinduism blowing the Conch is associated with the sacred syllable and sound ‘Om’. This, in turn, is believed to be the sound that which brings in a new hope. With the positive energy already radiating in the temples, the sound has a more powerful impact. The purpose of visiting a temple isn’t to offer valuables to the deity; it’s to take all the positive energy that gets transferred from the Earths surface to the human body through various mediums. This rejuvenates your senses and hence compels you to spend some tine after offering prayers to make your visit rewarding. The idols represent various deities being worshiped and considered personification of the same. They help people to concentrate upon and assist in prayers and other religious activities. Whether people may agree or not, idolatry exists in every religion. For Christians it is Cross with or without Jesus, portrait of Mother Mary, etc; and for Muslims the Holy Mecca and the central enclosure containing the Holy Stone. Hinduism believe in Polytheism where they prey to every element that enable the existence of this Universe. There are 33 Principal Deities (not 33 crore as commonly believed), each representing one such element including fire, water 534 Hinduism is a wrong word & Hinduism do not qualify for “ism” as there is neither any imposers nor any single authority who dictate the religion or activity, like Marxism Leninism etc. Hindu is a term coined by British in 1868 for adminstrative convinience to call people who are not Christians Parsis Muslims. Hindu is not a religion but a way of life and state of mind - Supreme Court of India in 1995. Secondly, whatever Murti or Vigraha you see in the World being worshipped by Sanatana Dharmic faiths or in Vedantic traditions are not translatable from Sanskrit “Vigraha” to Idol. As Idol may mean p You can concentrate the rays on paper or any object.. Then the point where the rays converge gets heated and burn. Similarly you need an object to concentrate your mind. We know that God is everywhere but an idol will make it easy for us to concentrate. Hinduism is not at all strict in its teachings. Nowhere it is told that you need an idol. It is left to the devotee…He can do it in whatever way he likes. Not all but quite a good percentage of Hindus offer obeisance to idols. It is not believing in idols per se, it is believing in the concept of the Isht (personal god) that manifests through the idols. Also except the priestly class, this offering of obeisance is for a limited time duration (say morning or evening) or when someone visits a temple. Without going to the complicate details let us understand this: the latent aim of someone believing in the Sanatan Dharma is to move from the mundane to the highest purpose of life across lifetimes. In “50 Great Myths about Religions” by John Morreal and Tamara Sonn. The authors have done an excellent job in busting various myths about religions and have put all religions in a positive light. Here is what the book says about idol worship in Hinduism and I totally agree. 535 Puja is worship. The Sanskrit term puja is used in Hinduism to refer to the worship of a deity through observance of rituals including daily prayer offerings after a bath or as varied as the following:  Sandhyopasana: The meditation on God as the light of knowledge and wisdom at dawn and dusk  Aarti: Ritual of worship in which light or lamps are offered to the deities amid devotional songs and prayer chants.  Homa: The offering of oblations to the deity in a duly consecrated fire  Jagarana: Keeping vigil at night amidst much devotional singing as a part of spiritual discipline.  Upavasa: Ceremonial fasting. All these rituals for puja are a means to achieve purity of mind and focusing on the divine, which Hindus believe, can be a fitting stepping stone to knowing the Supreme Being or Brahman. Why You Need an Image or Idol for a Puja For the puja, it is important for a devotee to set an idol or icon or a picture or even symbolic holy object, such as the shivalingam, salagrama, or yantra before them to help them contemplate and 536 revere god through the image. For most, it is difficult to concentrate and the mind keeps wavering, so the image can be considered as an actualized form of the ideal and this makes it easy to focus. According to the concept of ‘Archavatara,’ if the puja is performed with utmost devotion, during puja god descends and it is the image that houses Almighty. The Steps of Puja in the Vedic Tradition 1. Dipajvalana: Lighting the lamp and praying to it as the symbol of the deity and requesting it to burn steadily till the puja is over. 2. Guruvandana: Obeisance to one’s own guru or spiritual teacher. 3. Ganesha Vandana: Prayer to Lord Ganesha or Ganapati for the removal of obstacles to the puja. 4. Ghantanada: Ringing the bell with appropriate mantras to drive away the evil forces and welcome the gods. Ringing the bell is also necessary during ceremonial bath of the deity and offering incense etc. 5. Vedic Recitation: Reciting two Vedic mantras from Rig Veda 10.63.3 and 4.50.6 to steady the mind. 6. Mantapadhyana: Meditation on the miniature shrine structure, generally made of wood. 7. Asanamantra: Mantra for purification and steadiness of the seat of the deity. 8. Pranayama & Sankalpa: A short breathing exercise to purify your breath, settle and focus your mind. 9. Purification of Puja Water: Ceremonial purification of the water in the kalasa or water vessel, to make it fit for use in puja. 10. Purification of Puja Items: Filling up the sankha, conch, with that water and inviting its presiding deities such as Surya, Varuna, and Chandra, to reside in it in a subtle form and then sprinkling that water over all the articles of puja to consecrate them. 11. Sanctifying the Body: Nyasa with the Purusasukta (Rigveda 10.7.90) to invoke the presence of the deity into the image or idol and offering the upacharas. 12. Offering the Upacharas: There are a number of items to be offered and tasks to be performed before the Lord as an outpouring of love and devotion for god. These include a seat for the deity, water, flower, honey, cloth, incense, fruits, betel leaf, camphor, etc. 537 Simple Steps of a Traditional Hindu Worship: In the Panchayatana Puja, i.e., puja to the five deities – Shiva, Devi, Vishnu, Ganesha, and Surya, one’s own family deity should be kept in the center and the other four around it in the prescribed order. 1. Bathing: Pouring water for bathing the idol, is to be done with gosrnga or the horn of a cow, for the Shiva lingam; and with sankha or conch, for Vishnu or salagrama shila. 2. Clothing & Flower Decoration: While offering cloth in puja, different types of cloth are offered to different deities as is stated in scriptural injunctions. In the daily puja, flowers can be offered instead of cloth. 3. Incense & Lamp: Dhupa or incense is offered to the feet and deepa or light is held before the face of the deity. During arati, the deepa is waved in small arcs before the deity’s face and then before the whole image. 4. Circumbulation: Pradakshina is done three times, slowly in the clockwise direction, with hands in namaskara posture. 5. Prostration: Then is the shastangapranama or prostration. The devotee lies down straight with his face facing the floor and hands stretched in namaskara above his head in the direction of the deity. 6. Distribution of Prasada: Last step is the Tirtha and Prasada, partaking of the consecrated water and food offering of the puja by all who have been a part of the puja or witnessed it. The Hindu scriptures consider these rituals as the kindergarten of faith. When understood properly and performed meticulously, they lead to inner purity and concentration. When this concentration deepens, these external rituals drop off by themselves and the devotee can perform internal worship or manasapuja. Until then these rituals help a devotee on his path of worship. Let us take the instance of the Taj Mahal (Agra). While the Taj Mahal represents love and romance and the aesthetic taste of the culture, it also represents the desperate exploitation of labour, the appropriation of resources and the inequity prevalent in that culture. Architecture here simultaneously describes love and tyranny. We could perhaps think of a number of cases of such contradictory representations: the Babri Masjid of Ayodhya could be read as an account of 538 Indian Heritage or a symbol of Hindu hatred, the Capital Complex in Chandigarh, as a sign of democratic modernism or an indication of western hegemony. Similarly the National Crafts Museum of New Delhi could be seen as a representation or assertion of Indian identity or the detachment or objectification of the Indian Folk Arts through the formal museum format; a chawl in Mumbai could represent a productive energy centre of the city or the abusive living condition of the labour (not housing but warehousing people), a slum as a celebration of entrepreneurship or urban decay. All these examples seem to suggest that each symbol can simultaneously denote not only different but contradicting meanings. On the other hand we could also identify how various contradictory symbols suggest similar meanings: the Hiranandani Complex (Mumbai) malls with Greek columns and pediments and the high-tech glass and steel shopping centre of Gurgaon near Delhi, both suggest the existence and growth of the same consumer middle class. The new Jain temples in Mumbai that employ traditional materials and processes, the Bahai Temple in Delhi designed as a high-tech shell structure and the Radha Parthasarathi Temple in New Delhi, experimenting with reinforced concrete, all suggest a kind of religious fundamentalism that supports cutting edge and expensive building processes. Similarly, the legislative assembly of Bangalore with its traditional and classical symbols, the assembly of Mumbai with an imposing modern form and the assembly of Bhopal that borrows symbols from ancient history, all represent the same seat of power, that of the state authority. To complicate things further, it is extremely difficult to find any relations between formal abstractions and identity. For example a monumental scale does not necessarily indicate and impose power. The Red Fort (Delhi) in all its might today is one of the most accessible places; the pristine arcades of the Fort area in Mumbai today harbour a large informal industry. These places no longer represent an Empire. They no longer exert power (like Bataille’s monuments) or are symbols of colonization – their symbolism has been inverted, converted and internalized. From these examples we could possibly conclude that the relationship between a symbol and identity is a construction of the architectural theorist and hence it is misleading to discuss the issue of identity solely through the discourse of the symbol. 539 1.2. The Idea of the Local in architecture Our literature review shows that the term ‘Local’ is the second most important idea through which the issue of identity is discussed. Here all concerns seem to hinge around and oscillate between the need to assert the local and a desire to embrace the extra-local (international, global, western etc.). “The search for roots” and “looking ahead in time” are the two respective positions that get articulated through this concern. Often buildings are conveniently bracketed into themes like “nationalist”, “regionalist” etc. to very clearly distinguish from the other “internationalist” or “global” ones. Beyond both these positions, is another position that aims at “looking at real problems, rather then self-consciously trying to find identity as an end in itself” (Correa, 1983). This position attempts to locate the local in specific issues such as climate, behaviour etc. rather than leaning on oversimplifications of history and progress. In discussions that focus on the binary understanding of nationalist/internationalist or regional/global, this new category viz. “Critical regionalism” (Frampton,1985) seeks “contextual inspiration” while simultaneously celebrating the “progressive modern”. Fredrick Jameson’s (1994) criticism of Frampton’s “Critical Regionalism” begins to articulate the perceived difference in the various positions on the local, where he suggests that the search for the local (whether in history, progress or climate) itself may be a product of the global multinational capitalism. Jameson tries to suggest that all these positions are actually the functions of the market and in that sense not too different at all. Let us now examine the power of architecture to produce a sense of local, if any. Here the cases dealing with “constructing the nation” through architectural explorations, become particularly important. The three capital cities of New Delhi, Chandigarh and Bangalore are invariably cited as instances of the state’s attempts at manufacturing a sense of authority (Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997), a sense of modernity (Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997; Bhat and Scriver, 1990 Curtis, 1985; Kalia, 1987) and a sense of tradition (Lang, 2002, Bahga, Bahga and Bahga, 1993) respectively amongst its subjects. Revisiting these sites, one fails to observe any traces of ‘authority’, ‘modernity’ and ‘tradition’ in the public realm. On the contrary exactly opposite accounts are available. While New Delhi is known for the misbehaviour and non-performance of the public 540 service sector, Chandigarh still remains a feudal city (Correa, 1987) of Babus[1] without public transportation and Bangalore on the other hand looks like the most progressive city experimenting with Public Private Partnerships and being recognised as India’s Silicon Valley. Architecture here seems too meagre a phenomenon to influence the manner in which nationalism is imagined, experienced and executed. On the other hand, Eric Hobsbawm (1990) theoretically articulates how state impositions cannot be considered as identity at all: “First, official ideologies of states and movements are not guides to what is in the minds of even the most loyal citizens or supporters. Second, and more specifically, we cannot assume that for most people national identification – when it exists – excludes or is always or ever superior to, the remainder of the set of identifications, which constitute the social being. In fact, it is always combined with identifications of another kind, even when it is felt to be superior to them. Thirdly, national identification and what it is believed to imply, can change and shift in time, even in the course of quite short periods. In my judgment this is the area of national studies in which, thinking and research are most urgently needed today”. (Hobsbawm, 1990) Several post-colonial theories on the sub-national (including people from various diverse regions within the same nation), the subaltern (including people who are generally classified as the minority groups determined through race, religion, caste, class etc) and the trans-national (including people belonging to a certain nationality, but living in other countries) identities challenge the grand unifying concept whereby a nation defines the identity of its people. But more importantly these theories situate the identity issue in the political realm rather than in the aesthetics. Let us further consider the attempts to claim an overtly local identity through the examples of some institutions. We could consider three cases: the National Crafts Museum in New Delhi, the Jodhpur University Complex and the Centre for Development Studies in Tiruanathapuram. All three institutions utilise local processes and materials to develop their architecture. Moreover, they also attempt to recreate physical scales, symbols and spaces that one would experience in the Indian village or a pre-colonial town. But the question that still remains is whether this process of engaging images to represent the past of the locale makes these institutions more local than the others. The first contention, as we understand, is that there has been never a museum, a 541 university and an international institute in an Indian village. The contexts of the village never produced such a programme. Such programmes seem to be a product of an extremely centralised state aspiring to develop institutions to represent its concerns. Delving deeper into the production of these buildings, we find that these were all state projects that were initiated during the years of political emergency project was being challenged and a quest for regional identities was developing. This was also the time when a number of regional parties in India developed after the intense centralisation imposed by Indira Gandhi – all asserting regional identities and in the process building and reinforcing localized constituencies. In such a political environment, then it is obvious that the state would support projects that asserted a high degree of regionalism. In the above examples, architecture uses extreme symbolism to execute such visions of the state. However, inspite of their claims of a search for a regional identity, the National Crafts Museum remains as much a museum objectifying the village cultures, the Jodhpur University also reflects its education mandate and purpose like any other university in India and the Centre for Development Studies undertakes the best political and cultural studies on par with any International Institute. The question then is for whom is the regional identity created? Or what effects are expected (both within and outside the profession of architects) after such attempts are made? We could identify several writings that suggest attempts to create a nationalist or a regionalist identity . But to find writings that undertake the task of examining whether the respective buildings actually manifest any notion of identity is extremely rare! While the discourse of the local against global has been a favourite amongst architectural theorists, the paper argues that these theoretical explorations remain far from being adequate in representing the constituencies central to these theoretical writings. The exact relation between architecture and identity remains undiscovered. The power of architecture to represent the ‘local’ requires a thorough reexamining. LOCATING THE NOTION OF IDENTITY The arguments in the earlier section question the relationship between architecture and identity. Perhaps a more thorough investigation of the concept of “identity” is crucial in order, to establish 542 such a link. The complexity and ambiguity of the term “identity” can be clarified through the question: “what is one’s/your/my/our/its/their identity? Often burdened adjectives like Brahmin, rich, Indian, Punjabi, male, NRI[4], urban, global etc. are used to answer this. Sometimes even more opaque adjectives like traditional, folk, contemporary, progressive, orthodox, classical etc summarise the answer. The problems with these adjectives are that they themselves are summations for a complex cultural subjectivity, which might have several layers of contradicting description. For example, the term Brahmin could be described as the priest community, the Indian upper caste, the knowledge bearing community, the enlightened community, the power holders, the exploitative feudal lords etc. The rendering of the particular description depends upon the intentions of the describer. Hence the adjective itself does not have a clear definition. The problem of deciphering identity becomes more acute when more than one such adjective is used to describe identity. In fact, asking such questions or answering the question in such adjectives suggests a very essentialist understanding of the concept which does not grasp the complexity and the process crucial to the production of identities . In order to understand the issue of identity in its complexity one would also have to make a few theoretical clarifications on the question of identity. The first one deals with the issue of it being an imagined concept. Benedict Anderson (1985) suggests: “Communities are to be distinguished, not by their falsity/genuineness, but by the style in which they are imagined”. The imagination of identity becomes the backbone for the making of the community itself. “Perhaps instead of thinking of identity as an already accomplished fact, which the new cultural practices then represent, we should think, instead, of identity as a “production” which is never complete, always in process, and always constituted within, not outside, representation” (Hall, 1998). Here we embark on the second theoretical clarification of identity being an evolving process rather than a fixed entity. Thus, it is evident that identities are not static or predefined but “infinitely malleable” . Echoing this notion, and enlarging it further is Appudarai’s (1996) thesis of the ‘production of locality’: “I want to unsettle the idea of the local as somehow given, and draw attention to the fact that any form of local social life requires agency, purpose, vision, design. The local is as much a process and a project as anything else”. 543 Lastly one needs to ask why we are asking this question at all. A. G. K. Menon (1989) suspects that the need to assert a local identity is related to the recent political history in India characterised by “the rise of cultural fundamentalism and communalism” (Menon 1989). So also in the context of this research project and questions raised in its brief[5] (where five postcolonial contexts are under study, four of which representing the third-world), the issue of the local versus the global become a central theme. The most important question seems to be: How do countries from the other (non-west) contexts represent their identities? And all of this is to be discussed in a platform created in the west. We aim at foregrounding the whole issue of identity being an entity for global consumption just as it could be a vehicle for fundamentalist construction of nationhood. Homi Bhabha (1994) summarises the complexity of the concept: “Each time the encounter with identity occurs at the point which something exceeds the frame of the image, it eludes the eye, evacuates the self as a site of identity and autonomy and – most important- leaves a resistant trace, a stain of the subject, a sign of resistance. We are no longer confronted with an ontological problem of being but with a discursive strategy of the moment of interrogation, a moment in which the demand for identification becomes, primarily, a response to other questions of signification and desire, culture and politics.” (Bhabha, 1994) The above theoretical articulations allow us to relocate the notion of identity beyond the discourses of ‘symbol’ and the ‘local’ into a larger cultural space. Henry Lefebvre’s (1991) views on the “production” of space are of utmost relevance here to describe the cultural space. He sees different forms of cultural construction as central to the production of space – principally in terms of class, but also gender, ethnicity, sexuality, family relations and age. He suggests: “space as a historical production, at once the medium and outcome of social being. It is not a theatre or a setting but a social production, a concrete abstraction, simultaneously mental and material, work and product – such that social relations have no real existence except in and through space” (Lefebvre, 1991). The paper argues that – it is in such a cultural space that identity is imagined, nurtured as a process, and values are associated to it. Identity is further used to manipulate such a space. Identity, being produced by a culture space, becomes an agent to reproduce it. 544 THE IDEA OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE The earlier section locates the notion of identity in a larger realm of the cultural space. In this section we would explore the idea of the cultural space to articulate a framework for analysis of architecture to deal with the identity issue. One of the first deconstructions required for such an analysis is regarding the position of “urban professionals such as planners and architects who believe themselves to be democratic negotiators, community advocates, neutral social scientists, exponents of the beautiful and masterful shapers of space” (Borden, Rendell, Kerr and Pivaro, 2002). However they seem to act only as part of a much broader cultural space, which is governed by “deeper systems of power, economics and signification” (Borden, Rendell, Kerr and Pivaro, 2002). And in such larger and deeper systems, architecture and architects remain too feeble to create or manipulate identity. To construct an understanding of identity, perhaps there is a need to broaden the perspective from looking at architects and architectural form to a larger cultural landscape. To develop the idea of the cultural landscape, Edward Soja’s formulations are significant. He articulates a critique of the architectural discipline’s vision of the city as a “collection of separate cells with built environment compacted together to form an urban mass” (Soja, 2002). His critique exhorts the architectural community to understand “a radically different large scale spatial or regional vision of the city as an expansive urban system of movement and flows of goods being produced and people living not just in built environments but in constructed geographies characterized by different patterns of income, unemployment, education levels, ethnic and racial cultures, housing and job densities etc.” (Soja, 2002) Soja advises architects to “think and work at the regional scale because it provides a very important entry point into the heart of what has been reshaping our cities” (Soja, 2002). This, in Soja’s words, will stir the architect away from “wild gropings into vague new concepts that may sound flashy and appealing but don’t necessarily lead us anywhere” (Soja 2002). It is the notion of the “regional” in Soja’s writing that we adapt here towards formulating the idea of the cultural landscape which allows us not only a much broader investigations into the various contexts of architectural intervention, but also elopes from the restrictions and connotations of the terms – space, region and the city. 545 The first formulation towards constructing the new framework using the idea of cultural landscape is to shift the analysis of architecture from a focus on buildings to a reading of landscapes. To illustrate this shift in the analysis of architecture, let us consider the case of housing development in Mumbai during early twentieth century. We find a number of accounts (Alff, 1991, Dalvi, 2000, Iyer, 2000) describing these developments as Art Deco explorations and a birth of Modern Bombay. These accounts elaborately document certain buildings that embody these Art Deco characteristics. It is through such an identification of the Art Deco, the idea the “Modern” identity is constructed (Alff, 1991, Dalvi, 2000). The reading of the larger landscape however would lead to the construction of a completely different scenario. The development of housing in the 1920’s was undertaken by the city administration, which brought two new concepts to India: the apartment type and the garden township. An investigation into history indicates that during the 1920’s the status of the city was shifting from being a market place and an industrial centre towards becoming an administrative and financial capital for the region where the English educated Indian bureaucrats (Babus) were demanding a European lifestyle. It was for this group, that the apartment type and garden townships were built. If we were to further describe the landscape of these townships, we find a number of slum quarters developing on the edges of these settlements to serve the new apartments. The continuing feudalism is evident when we find at least one maidservant in each of the houses. Thus through this reading, the landscape is not modern as the building centric view seems to suggest – rather it is unequally modern! The case of early twentieth century housing in Mumbai effectively shows how when we shift the framework from buildings to landscape, the notion of describing identity through the adjective of “Modern” collapses and it is displaced by a new construction of Bombay during the 1920’s – that which harboured and supported indigenous feudal and thus not “Modern” as we would conventionally understand the term. The second formulation in developing the new framework is a shift from focusing on forms to understanding of types. Aldo Rossi (1984) employed the notion of type to understand landscapes (Rossi was referring specifically to urban landscapes). The conception of type is useful not only as a “repetitive typical” (Rossi, 1984) that constructs and (hence) represents the landscape, but also as a “typology” that informs substantially the behavioural pattern that gets imposed by the type. This subsequently elaborates the contexts of the architectural production and the issue of 546 identity. The useful examples here would be the development of large institutions in India during British colonisation like the Victoria and Albert Museum (Calcutta), the Municipal Corporation Building (Bombay), the Muir College (Allahabad), the High Court Building (Bombay) etc. These buildings are often described through elaborate documentation and analysis of their elements and forms (Tillotson, 1989). Further, genealogies of these forms are traced and terms like IndoSaracenic, Gothic Revival and Vernacular Architecture are manufactured to facilitate their descriptions and origins. This then becomes the basis to describe the newly forming unique “Indian” identity that attempts to localise traditional Indian or European forms to create its own distinct architecture. But if we shift the framework from looking at forms to looking at types, a very different picture of these institutions emerges. The type of institutions during the colonial period speaks specifically of a fundamentally different kind of organisation in education, governance, justice etc. The elaborate arcades of the courts and the educational institutions, the large gathering space within the museum, the clearly demarcated bureaucratic capsules in the administration buildings indicate a distinct shift in the form of the government that wanted a change in the power distribution. The idea of the Public Space was getting formed through these building types. One clearly notes the immense pressure the colonial government would have been under from groups demanding political freedom. These were types, perhaps introduced to legitimise the colonial rule. The case of institutions that were created after independence like the Gandhi Smarakh Ashram (Ahmedabad), Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), Jodhpur University (Jodhpur) etc would also be illustrative to describe the shift from form to type. Accounts of these institutions largely speak about the negotiation of the “Indian outdoor space” and “modern form” for creation of a “Modern Indian” identity (Bhat and Scriver, 1990, Bahga, Bahga and Bahga, 1993, Lang, Desai and Desai, 1997). The shift in the analysis from form to type would however focus on the campus type built for a completely new set of programmes and sponsored by the state. Here again a new type is developed for a context of a new nation with very clear state intentions towards developing generous campus environments dedicated for education and research. Nothing specifically is Indian (as there was never any context for such institutions in India earlier) except for the symbolism. The state obviously is at the centre of power here aiming to manipulate its citizens for the projection and representation of a stronger nation. We can also 547 see how the state is forced to share this power and form a different opinion regarding itself. The type-based analysis allows to distinctively move away from reductionist notions of identity that are explained through adjectives of “Colonial” or “Indian”. It is now able to specifically focus on the changes in behavioural pattern that the type enforces, like the public access to government in the case of colonial institutions and the generous education environment in the institutions built after independence. And through the understanding of this shift in the behavioural pattern we could throw some light on the complex identity issue. The third formulation in the development of the framework takes off from our earlier section: “Myth of the Local” where the geographic region becomes the most important basis to establish the local. The notions of Rajasthani architecture or Gujarati architecture or even Indian architecture are formed on the ideas of the locale that get generated along geographic regions. In the assertion of identity, architecture seldom is able to represent a geographic region, but rather more accurately represents a cultural community, which might get identified due to a sharing of common social, political or economical backgrounds. Leo van den Berg’s (1987) conceptualisation of the urban landscapes as a function of spatial behaviour of its actors becomes central to this argument. Many theorists have significantly contributed to this conceptualisation of landscapes as a function of its actors (Latour, 1999 and Law, 1999 Bunschoten, 2001). The earlier example of Bombay’s housing type in early twentieth century clearly indicates that the development of this type had nothing to do with the geography of Mumbai, but actually was the function of the new economic community of Babus. Similarly the cases of institutions in colonial and independent India inform us on the changing role of the state and the power redistribution amongst the citizens rather than the specific geographic locations where the institutions are built. The analytical shift of associating an architectural product from a geographic region to cultural actors could be best demonstrated with comparing the two works of the same architect: National Crafts Museum (New Delhi) and Bharat Bhavan (Bhopal). Both of these were state projects and were designed around the same time with a similar programme for a museum. The two projects however have a distinctly different expression: while National Crafts Museum has an overt display of the Indian Folk objects quoted for their “Indian identity” (Khan, 1984), Bharat Bhavan is an example of the campus type well carved in the contours of the landscape without any distinct elements of traditional Indian architecture, but with ample spaces 548 for discussions, experimental arts and research. When we investigate the specific actors involved in the project, we find that the two projects were influenced by two different actors: Jyotindra Jain and Jagdish Swaminathan respectively. Very clearly, the intentions of the two actors are seen in these projects where, Jain advocates the display of traditional Indian Art as museum objects and Swaminathan remains preoccupied with providing spaces for all kinds of artists in a museum space. The actor analysis aims at understanding the architectural production as a function of the interests of the various actors involved. The issue of identity could be filtered through such an understanding. While Jain’s National Arts and Crafts Museum clearly aims at forcing an Indian Identity on its people through high objectification of the Indian folk, Swaminathan’s Bharat Bhavan seeks to provide spaces for legitimising Indian Art Practices as contemporary art. REFERENCES ARCHITECTURE & CONTEMPORARY INDIAN IDENTITY-Rupali Gupte, Rahul Mehrotra and Prasad Shetty, December 2004https://bardstudio.in/architecture-and-contemporary-indianidentity/ 549 CHAPTER XIV ROCKS AS A TEMPLE MATERIAL 1. Introduction to Rock-cut architecture is the creation of structures, buildings, and sculptures by excavating solid rock where it naturally occurs. Rock-cut architecture is designed and made by man from the start to finish. In India and China, the terms cave and cavern are often applied to this form of man-made architecture. However, caves and caverns that began in natural form are not considered to be rock-cut architecture even if extensively modified. Although rock-cut structures differ from traditionally built structures in many ways, many rock-cut structures are made to replicate the facade or interior of traditional architectural forms. Interiors were usually carved out by starting at the roof of the planned space and then working downward. This technique prevents stones falling on workers below. The three main uses of rock-cut architecture were temples (like those in India), tombs (like those in Petra, Jordan) and cave dwellings (like those in Cappadocia, Turkey). Some rock-cut architecture, mostly for tombs, is excavated entirely in chambers under the surface of relatively level rock. If the excavation is instead made into the side of a cliff or steep slope, there can be an impressive facade, as found in Lycian tombs, Petra, Ajanta and elsewhere. The most laborious and impressive rock-cut architecture is the excavation of tall free-standing monolithic structures entirely below the surface level of the surrounding rock, in a large excavated hole around the structure. Ellora in India and Lalibela in Ethiopia (built by the Zagwe dynasty) provide the most spectacular and famous examples of such structures. Rock-cut architecture, though intensely laborious with ancient tools and methods, was presumably combined with quarrying the rock for use elsewhere; the huge amounts of stone removed have normally vanished from the site. It is also said to be cut, hewn, etc., "from the living rock".[2] Another term sometimes associated with rock-cut architecture is monolithic 550 architecture, which is rather applied to free-standing structures made of a single piece of material. Monolithic architecture is often rock-cut architecture (e.g. Ellora Kailasanathar Temple), but monolithic structures might be also cast of artificial material, e.g. concrete. The 57ft high monolithic statue of Bahubali (Gommateshwara statue) built in 981 CE in India The Gommateshwara statue (Bahubali), the largest monolithic statue in the world, at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, India, was built in 983 CE and was carved from a large single block of granite.[3][4] In many parts of the world there are also rock reliefs, relief sculptures carved into rock faces, outside caves or at other sites. 2. Introduction: There are more than 1,500 known rock-cut structures in India. Many of these structures contain artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient and medieval structures represent significant achievements of structural engineering and craftsmanship. The effort expended often astonishes visitors, but seen from one aspect, a rock-cut structure is a decorated rock quarry; most of the stone removed was typically put to economic use elsewhere. Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance in that country than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world. Rock-cut architecture is the practice of 551 creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the only rock left makes up the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature. First wave of construction (2nd century BCE–4th century CE) The Great Chaitya in the Karla Caves, Maharashtra, India, 1st-century CE.Probably owing to the 2nd century BCE fall of the Mauryan Empire and the subsequent persecutions of Buddhism under Pushyamitra Sunga, it is thought that many Buddhists relocated to the Deccan under the protection of the Andhra dynasty, thus shifting the cave-building effort to western India: an enormous effort at creating religious caves (usually Buddhist or Jain) continued there until the 2nd century CE, culminating with the Karla Caves or the Pandavleni Caves. These caves generally followed an apsidal plan with a stupa in the back for the chaityas, and a rectangular plan with surrounding cells for the viharas. When Buddhist missionaries arrived, they naturally gravitated to caves for use as temples and abodes, in accord with their religious ideas of asceticism and the monastic life. Second wave of cave construction (5th–6th century CE The construction of caves would wane after the 2nd century CE, possibly due to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism and the associated intense architectural and artistic production in Gandhara and Amaravati. The building of rock-cut caves would revive briefly in the 6th century CE, with the magnificent achievements of Ajanta and Ellora, before finally subsiding as Hinduism replaced Buddhism in the sub-continent, and stand-alone temples became more prevalent. The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, a World Heritage Site, are 30 rock-cut cave Buddhist temples carved into the sheer vertical side of a gorge near a waterfall-fed pool located in the hills of the Sahyadri mountains. Like all the locations of Buddhist caves, this one is located near main trade routes and spans six centuries beginning in the 2nd or 1st century B.C. A period of intense building activity at this site occurred under the Vakataka king Harisena between 460 and 478 A profuse variety of decorative sculpture, intricately carved columns and carved reliefs are found, including exquisitely carved cornices and pilaster. Skilled artisans crafted living rock to imitate 552 timbered wood (such as lintels) in construction and grain and intricate decorative carving, although such architectural elements were ornamental and not functional in the classical sense.[31] Later many Hindu kings from southern India patronize many cave temples dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses. One such prominent example of cave temple architecture are the Badami Cave Temples at Badami, the early Chalukya capital, carved out in the 6th century. There are four cave temples hewn from the sides of cliffs, three Hindu and one Jain, that contain carved architectural elements such as decorative pillars and brackets as well as finely carved sculpture and richly etched ceiling panels. Nearby are many small Buddhist cave shrines. at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) took place. Final wave of cave construction (6th–15th century CE At Ellora, on the hill to the northeast of the main complex of caves, is a Jain cave temple containing a 16-foot (4.9 m) rock-carved image of Lord Parshvanath with an inscription dated 1234/5 CE. This well preserved image is flanked by Dharaıendra and Padmavati, is still under active worship. The inscription mentions the site as Charana Hill, a holy site. This was the last excavation at Ellora. The Ankai Fort caves are thought to be from the same period. The final wave of Indian rock-cut cave construction occurred at Gwalior with five clusters of rock-cut monuments surrounding the Gwalior fort, two centuries after the Ellora Parshvantha cave temple. They contain many monumental Jain images. South-West Group: Now termed Trishalagiri.[37] The group is the first one encountered when driving to the Urvai Gate, just outside the fortifications. There are the oldest Jain monuments in Gwalior from the post-Gupta period. Archaeologist L.B. Singh dates them to 6th to 8th cent AD. The Pallava architects started the carving of rock for the creation of monolithic copies of structural temples. A feature of the rock-cut cave temple distribution until the time of the early Pallavas is that they did not move further south than Arakandanallur, with the solitary exception of Tiruchitrapalli on the south bank of the Kaveri River, the traditional southern boundary between north and south. Also, good granite exposures for rock-cut structures were generally not available south of the river. 553 Modality of carving: A rock cut temple is carved from a large rock and excavated and cut to imitate a wooden or masonry temple with wall decorations and works of art. Pancha Rathas is an example of monolith Indian rock cut architecture dating from the late 7th century located at Mamallapuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ellora cave temple 16, the Kailash Temple, is singular in that it was excavated from the top down rather than by the usual practice of carving into the scarp of a hillside. The Kailash Temple was created through a single, huge top-down excavation 100 feet deep down into the volcanic basaltic cliff rock. It was commissioned in the 8th century by King Krishna I and took more than 100 years to complete. The Kailash Temple, or cave 16 as it is known at Ellora Caves located at Maharashtra on the Deccan Plateau, is a huge monolithic temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. There are 34 caves built at this site, but the other 33 caves, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain, were carved into the side of the plateau rock. The effect of the Kailash Temple is that of a free-standing temple surrounded by smaller cave shrines carved out of the same black rock. The Kailash Temple is carved with figures of gods and goddesses from the Hindu Puranas, along with mystical beings like the heavenly nymphs and musicians and figures of good fortune and fertility. Ellora Caves is also a World Heritage Site, Free Standing Rock temples: There is no timeline that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of freestanding structures, especially Buddhist temples, began in the 3rd century BCE, whereas Hindu temples started to be built from the 5th century CE. Meanwhile, rock cut temples continued to be excavated until the 12th century. 554 A The Descent of the Ganges, also known as Arjuna's Penance, at Mamallapuram, is one of the largest rock reliefs in Asia and features in several Hindu myths. In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred places. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were believed to be as sacred as natural caves. The sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free-standing ones, was designed to have the same cave-like feeling, as it is generally small and dark, without natural light. The oldest rock-cut architecture is found in the Barabar caves, Bihar, which were built around the 3rd century BC. Other early cave temples are found in the western Deccan; these are mostly Buddhist shrines and monasteries, dating between 100 BC and 170 AD. Originally, there were probably wooden structures associated with them, which would have deteriorated over time. Historically, artisans carried forward design elements from wood in their rock-cut temples: skilled craftsmen carved rock to imitate timber texture, grain, and structure. The earliest cave temples include the Bhaja Caves, the Karla Caves, the Bedse Caves, the Kanheri Caves, and some of the Ajanta Caves. Relics found in these caves suggest a connection between the religious and the commercial. Buddhist missionaries are known to have accompanied traders on the busy international trading routes through India. Some of the more sumptuous cave temples, commissioned by wealthy traders, included pillars, arches, and elaborate facades. They were made during the period when maritime trade boomed between the Roman Empire and south-east Asia. 555 Although free-standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century, rock-cut cave temples continued to be built in parallel. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more sophisticated, as in the Ellora Caves. The monolithic Kailash Temple is considered to be the peak of this type construction. Although cave temples continued to be built until the 12th century, rock-cut architecture became almost totally structural in nature. That is, rocks were cut into bricks and used to build free-standing structures. Kailash was the last spectacular rock-cut excavated temple.[7] Numerous rock reliefs, relief sculptures carved into rock faces, have been found outside caves or at other sites. New discoveries of relatively small rock-cut sites, mostly Buddhist, continue to be made in the 21st century, especially in the Deccan. Water bodies: The temple architecture is simply not a representation of the skill of the architect or a craftsperson, but it is the realization and culmination of the religious concept. It is an embodiment of devotion which inspire their existence in a visible form. In ancient times, religious considerations were not only behind the forms and structure of temple, but also the aesthetic idioms at particular point of time when they were commissioned. T. V. Sairam has aptly said “They are the symbols of art and religion” 1 . The architecture of any region has influences of its geographical position, climate, social-political conditions and other related factors. In ancient India, the water bodies were the hubs for the settlements of human civilization. For example, the Indus Civilization had its maximum settlements alongside the rivers or other water bodies.1 “ Water bodies have been mentioned as an important component of town planning in the Vastushastras 3 text of India, and also been mentioned in the Arthashastra4 of Kautilya and Smaranganasutradhara5 of King Bhoja. Being situated near the water bodies, clay was the easily available material in Gangetic plains6 . Also along with the clay, in forested region, wood played an important role of useful construction material. Here, not only the wood but sometimes different species of grass, reed bamboo were also frequently used. The availability of local building material was the obvious choice to be used for construction. For instance, trap in Deccan and granite were used in the region of south around Halebid8 . Besides, the topographical features such as mountains, hills, ravines provided opportunities to experiment different artistic skills. Certainly, due to these experimentation, we find rock-cut activities in region naturally blessed with hills . The setting up of sacred spaces such as tumuli, hut, temples, 556 groves and enclosures has been a characteristic feature in the religious movements throughout history of the world. All such temple structures have remained the expressions of deeply ingrained religious sentiments and spiritual values. Due to popularity Buddhism and Jainism sects, Brahmanical lineage had to struggle for some time when these sects were prominently patronized by the royal court. There was a gradual change in mode of worship. Transformations in the religious order were also accepted by the masses due to the over-burdened rituals and the rigid low-caste status. The kingdom itself protected the Buddhist monasteries, where trader got shelter and sometimes, probably deposited their money. Gradually, it created a vast network among the traders of India and outside. The chaityas and vihāras began to flourish along with the ancient trade routes also known as „Silk Route‟. 1 Examples of Complex Rock-Cut Architecture complexes The Rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient Indian art specimen. Most of these rock-cut structures are closely associated with various religions and religious activities. In the beginning, remarkable Buddhist and Jain rock-cut structures were built in areas such as Bihar in the east and Maharashtra in the west. Numerous caves were excavated by the Buddhist monks for prayer and residence 557 purposes. The best example of this is Chaityas (prayer halls) and viharas (monasteries). Inside these rock-cut structures, windows and balconies and gates were carved as huge arch shaped openings. Rock-cut architecture occupies a very important place in the history of Indian Architecture. The rock-cut architecture differs from traditional buildings in many ways. The rock-cut art is more similar to sculpture than architecture as structures were produced by cutting out solid rocks. Let's have a look at various specimen of rock-cut architecture in ancient India. Some prominent rock-cut structures of ancient India are Chaityas, Viharas, temples etc. Early Caves 558 Natural caves were the earliest caves used by local inhabitants. The natives used such caves for different purposes like places of worship and shelters. The Mesolithic period (6000 BC) saw the first use and modifications of the early caves, a fact manifested by archaeological evidences. The overhanging rocks embellished with petroglyphs or rock-cut designs that were created by carving, chiseling and abrading part of rock surfaces forms the early instances of such rock caves. The Bhimbetka rock shelters inside the tiger reserve called ‘Ratapani Wildlife Santuary’ located on the verge of the Deccan Plateau in Raisen District in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India, illustrates the settlement of human life in these rock shelters some hundreds of thousands years ago as also of the initiation of Stone Age in India. UNESCO declared this place as a World Heritage Site in 2003 which bears several Stone Age rock paintings, some of which are more than 30,000 years old. Early manifestations of dance art are also palpable from these caves. The oldest surviving Indian rock-cut caves are the Barabar Caves that are situated in the Makhdumpur Block of Jehanabad district in the Indian state of Bihar. Some of these caves, 559 most of which trace back to the 3rd century BC during the rule of the Maurya Empire (322– 185 BCE), bear Ashokan inscriptions. These caves from the time of the great Indian emperor Ashoka and his grandson, Dasharatha speak volume of the policy of religious tolerance undertaken by the two emperors who were otherwise Buddhists. Different Jain sects thrived under their rule. Ascetics from Ajivika sect, a ?rama?a movement that remained a major contemporary of early Buddhism and Jainism, which was founded in the 5th century BCE by Makkhali Gosala, used these caves. Many rock-cut Hindu and Buddhist sculptures are found in these caves. Cave Temples The Western Deccan region consists of many early cave temples that date back to a period between 100 BC and 170 AD. Most of these cave temples stood as Buddhist monasteries and shrines. Presumably these caves had wooden structures that decayed with time. The Bhaja Caves tracing back to the 2nd century BC that include a total of 22 rock-cut caves situated in city of Pune, Maharashtra; the Bedse or Bedsa Caves dating back to around 1st century BC, located in Maval taluka, Pune, Maharashtra; the Karla or Karle Caves or Karla Cells that developed as ancient Indian Buddhist rock-cut cave shrines between 2nd century BC to 5th century AD, situated in Karli, Maharashtra; the Kanheri Caves comprising of a group of rock-cut monuments dating back between 1st century BCE to 10th century CE, situated within the forests of the ‘Sanjay Gandhi National Park’ in the western outskirts of Mumbai, Maharashtra; and some of the famous Ajanta Caves comprising of 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the 2nd century BCE to around 480 or 650 CE, located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra are counted as the earliest surviving cave temples in India. Caves as Shelters: The Buddhist missionaries employed the caves as shrines and shelters conforming to the religious concepts of asceticism leading a monastic life. The ancient Buddhist and Jain cave basadis, monasteries and temples are instances of early rock-cut architecture. The caves at Kanheri and Ajanta saw eventual occupation by the Buddhist monks. Indications of association between the religion and commerce are palpable from the 560 relics of the caves. Sources mention that traders many a times travelled the active international trade routes through India in company of the Buddhist missionaries. For instance the Bhaja Caves situated 400 feet above the Bhaja village lies on a significant ageold trade route that ran from the Arabian Sea eastward to the Deccan plateau. Buddhism ideology advocated trade practices and these Buddhist monasteries often provided lodging facilities for traders who stopped over in these Buddhist abodes while on trade routes. According to sources the natives of Indus Valley commenced on maritime trading contact with Mesopotamia during the 3rd millennium BCE and as such trade prospered between South-East Asia and the Roman Empire, some of the cave temples witnessed inclusion of elaborate facades, arches and pillars courtesy patronage of wealthy traders. Royal and mercantile endowments soon started pouring in which saw elaboration of cave interiors including embellishment of interior walls of the caves with exquisite carvings, reliefs and paintings. The exteriors of the caves were face-lifted with facades and the interiors were apportioned for different purposes like developing areas for cave shrines called chaityas which are the congregational worship halls and viharas or monasteries where the monks resided. As centuries passed the skilled artisans turned the more simple caves into elaborate structures that looked more like free-standing buildings. The wood-like themes embellished on these ancient rock-cut caves showcase the craftsmanship of artists of those times who skilfully etched timber texture, structure and grain in these caves. The pillared inner circle chamber of earliest rock-cut garbhagriha, that is the sanctum sanctorum, allowed devotees to circumambulate around the stupa. Udaigiri and Badami Cave temples During the Mauryan rule, the use of stone had become common for column and statues, the sort employed being sandstone, which was to survive for centuries. Buddhist stone relief of 1st century B.C. fortunately make an attempt to depict more ancient building which had been existed. The apartments are cut along the face of the rocks and doorway of the latter carries at the top of arched shape framework imitating the pattern of the curved roof in wood. This series of caves indicate that the simplest form of such temples consisted of a circular cell or shrine alone. „with such simple beginnings, the cave-architecture 561 in India attained great skill and impressiveness as in Ellora. Formed in 160 BC the Buddhist rock-cut temples the rock shrines belonging to Jainas are not on a large scale. A group of caves in the hills of the Khandagiri and Udayagiri in Puri district of Odisa represent the earliest examples of the rock-cut building. These sandstone hills are situated on the either side of a narrow gorge. The narratives carved on the reliefs of the gateways and railings of the stupas such as Sanchi and Bharhut provide details about the wooden architecture of that period. City gates, huts, shrines, palaces have been depicted in detail. We can have a better idea about the wooden architecture into rock-cut Many cave temples were later developed under the patronisation of southern Indian Hindu kings and were dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses. The earliest known examples of Hindu temples are the Badami Cave temples that comprise of four Hindu cave temples apart from a Jain and presumably a Buddhist cave temple situated in the town of Badami in northern Karnataka. These cave temples date back to the 6th century and are regarded as fine examples of Badami-Chalukya architecture that adorn decorative pillars, intricately carved sculptures, embellished brackets and finely chiseled ceiling panels. Striking sculptures adorning these cave temples including that of Tandava-dancing Shiva as Nataraja in Cave 1 and relief of Vishnu as Trivikrama in Cave 2 among others illustrate Hindu themes and divinities. Although several ancient stupas, monasteries and temples were destroyed due to several reasons including degradation and vandalism, the cave temples stood the test of time and survived presumably due to less visibility as also because of the fact that these were constructed out of more durable material compared to masonry and wood. Most of the cave temples that exist today, which counts to around 1200, are Buddhist temples. Monolithic Rock-Cut Temples The architects of the Pallava Dynasty initiated rock carving to create monolithic structures that resemble temples. A monolithic rock-cut temple is chiselled out of a single colossal rock in the shape of masonry or wooden temples including embellishment on walls and other areas showcasing fine work of art and engineering. The Pancha Rathas or Pandava 562 Rathas of Mahabalipuram situated on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal are the most excellent architectural edifices typifying monolith Indian rock cut architecture. The five structures shaped as rathas or chariots chiselled out of large block of stone of granite dates back to the 7th century and are named after the five Pandava brothers and their common spouse Draupadi from the great Indian epic ‘Mahabharata’. Marked as ‘Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram’ by ‘UNESCO’ and enlisted in its World Heritage Sites list, the site showcases varied Dravidian architecture. It has reflections of the Buddhist Viharas and Chaityas and became templates to temples of much higher dimensions built later in Tamil Nadu. The Kailash temple considered as one of the most colossal age-old rock-cut Hindu temples forms cave temple number 16 of Ellora, which is counted among the largest rock-cut monastery-temple caves complexes of the world and marked as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Maharashtra, India. Among the 100 caves of Ellora, 34 caves are open to public of which the Kailash temple shaped as a chariot is regarded as one of the most magnificent cave temples in India. Construction of this megalith is attributed to the 8th century king Krishna I of the Rashtrakuta dynasty in 756-773 CE. Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the temple showcases fine architectural works including relief panels depicting the two main Hindu Epics namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Pallava and Chalukya styles of architecture are noticed in this cave temple which is decorated with carved sculptures including that of gods and goddesses from the Hindu 563 Puranas, mystical beings such as divine musicians and nymphs and figures depicting fertility and good fortune. These temples are preserved thanks to the construction technologies of their time. Rock architecture was also sustained longer as mode in the northern zone. It developed more vigorously particularly under the Rashtrakutas as could be seen from their enormous output and such large scale compositions as the caves at Elephanta, Dhumarlena and Jogeshvari, not to speak of the monolithic carvings of the Kailash temple, and the Jain Chota Kailash and the Jain chaumukh in the Indra Sabha complex. But rock architecture soon became a mere second to structural stone constructions in the southern zone of the Chalukyas as would be seen in the sequel.175 K. V. Soundra Rajan176 has a firm view that “it is of no small significance that the Chalukyas should have chosen Elephanata 564 and Ellora for their marathon innings, largely because they were the political panorama of the erstwhile Vakatakas and Kalachuris which latter unmistakably laid low politically, culturally and logistically and did not stop this chase until Harshvardhana of Kannauj also had been stemmed across the banks of Narmada to show how authentically they were the lord of Dakshinapatha. The ring of the Mahakuta pillar record and the Aihole prashasti (eulogy) of Pulkesin and the glow of the resurgent art of the Chalukyas do not befit nor admit of a borrowed art legacy for themselves after the fall of the Vakatakas, through the Kalachuris who claimed Konkan by proxy and the area around Ajanta and Ellora by sheer strategy”. 177 If we see from the architectural point of view, the cave art at Ellora has many sidelights. Its ritual framework is reasonably elaborate and well sustains an integrated god-consort pattern. It presents purely Shaiva contexts as well as mixed Shaiva and Vaishnava nexus, often predicated in context to a basic Shiva shrine. The one example prior to it is presented only at Badami, the parent zone, a purely Vaishnava situation in cave no.3. Rashtrakutas also initially continued the Shaiva-Vaishnav nexus in its creation at Ellora. In monolithic stage, this becomes less and an exultant Shaiva domain is revealed. But one element which spotlights the monolithic mode of the Rashtrakutas is the provision not only for both extra-Vindhyan and south Indian usages in layout, but also in a meticulous of a prakāra (surrounding wall) wall for the temple complex. Thus it may be stated that the Rashtrakutas, in their monoliths, desired to present the whole temple panorama and transplanted the scene available at Pattadkal in Karnataka region. The Ellora caves Ellora village is located in the Indian state of Maharashtra. There are 34 caves in total here that became sacred for the Buddhists, Jains and Hindus. The place is situated in 29 km from the large city Aurangabad. All the cave temples were cut in the Western 2 km long part of the volcanic origin rock during the VI – IX centuries. The caves are divided in three groups according to their religious affiliation and numbered by the modern researchers for the convenience: first 13 caves are Buddhist, the caves from 14 to 29 are Hindus and 4more are Jain. The Kailasha temple is a temple of the 16th cave of Ellora and it is dedicated to Brahmans gods. It was constructed during the reign of the King Krishna I in the VIII century. The temple was cut 565 The Kailasha temple in the Ellora caves 566 The Kailasha temple in the Ellora caves from the monolith rock and richly decorated by the masters of the stone carving, who proceeded with their work from the top down. 567 Such a technique presupposes zero engineering mistakes as no reparation work is possible. This makes the precise work of Indian masters so astonishing. Thanks to the way of the construction and the rest part of the rock’s protection, the 12 centuries of its history did not affect the structure too much. The temple is dedicated to Shiva, hence the name – Kailash mountain in the Tibet is believed to be the place of the god’s rest, where he meditates with his wife Parvati. The height of the building, or the depth in this case, is 33 metres. The courtyard of the temple is 51 metres wide and 58 metres long. The basement of the building is decorated with 3 metres high figures of elephants. The Kailash temple is in the UNESCO World Heritage list. The Ajanta caves are the Buddhism cultural heritage object and a major tourist attraction. Its beautiful name derives from the name of the village near. The cave temples appeared there first in the II-I centuries BC on the territory of the Indian state of Maharashtra at the distance of 107 km from the city Aurangabad. Several Buddhist temples were cut in the rocks and decorated during the times of the Gupta Empire, which occupied Northern and Central India in the IV-VI centuries. The objects of art – sculptures and paintings – served as the basis for the including of the place into the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1983. In total, there are 30 caves constructed at different times. 568 he Kailasha temple Ajanta Caves The Ajanta caves The Ajanta cave No26, source: kevin standage 569 For a long time the Ajanta caves were hidden in jungles. Only a few Indian sources mentioned their existence and some locals also knew the location. In 1819, the British officer went for hunting and accidently found them. The Europeans got acquainted with the place. The caves were cleaned from the congested mud and garbage and quickly became a popular place to visit. The basalt rock where the caves were cut in is a part of the Deccan plateau. The U-shaped rock follows the lines of the river Waghora. The quite place was a nice location for Buddhist monks, who used to sequester themselves there for praying and meditation. Each cave had a staircase leading to the water, most of the stairs disappeared over time. The Ajanta caves The earliest painting found here dates back to the II century BC, but the decorations also include traditional Indian stone carvings. Even with the modest lighting inside the caves the art displayed there is impressive and strikes the tourists with its workmanship. The researchers found the evidence that the decorating works and excavating were implemented simultaneously. The workers excavated the tunnel and then carved the space around it adorning the walls with stone carving. Then the sculptures and paintings were added. The Badami caves The Badami cave temples. Source: badami-besttourismplaces.com 570 The Badami caves are located in the Indian State of Karnataka and comprise 4 temples: three for Brahmans gods and one for Jain. The caves were developed along the shore line of the artificial lake Agastya. The oldest temple belongs to Vishnu, the god depicted there in the sandstone. Also it is the largest temple in the complex. It was built in the VI century. One more temple is dedicated to Vishnu and one is for dancing Shiva. All the temples had been completed by the VIII century. The temples are similar in its structure: a terrace, a column hall, a sanctuary. The height and the depth of the excavated parts are different, but main halls are usually spacious, with the length of the wall being about 20 metres. The temple entrance.Source: wondermondo.com India possesses many underground architectural treasures with the most being of them being listed. For example, there are the Elephanta caves on island of the same name and the underground temple of Shiva in Hampi. The climate conditions and resources affected the locations of the sacred structure in the earlier history of India making them hide in the rocks, which preserved them eventually for the next generations. India – stepwells from the dream The first part of the article is about underground construction history in India. Weather conditions and social traditions formed special water supplying system making its architectural form unique. The cultural and religious features turned the stepwells into the world heritage architectural sights. 571 reasoning behind its creations. Repeated steps Chand baori stepwell is one of the deepest stepwells in India. It is well-known thanks to the movie made by Tarsem Singh, the director of Indian origin, who chose it as one of the movie’s locations. The place resembles Escher’s lithographs and it looks so otherworldly that many cinemagoers thought it being digital graphic. However, this is just another Indian reality, a bit sprayed with the digital modern methods to match the glamourous beauty of the movie. And the repeated geometric pattern has perfect practical 572 Chand baori stepwell in the Abhaneri village, Rajasthan state, India The stepwells, also known as baudi, baori or baoli – depending on the province, in the Gujarat state are called “vav”. These are the unique architectural structures, which are found only in India. The stairs build up into the well’s walls has the same repeated fragments of steps, allowing 573 access to the water no matter the level. Monsoon Indian climate is not as gentle as some tourists may think, especially back then, when there was no modern water supplying system. Such a design made the water equally accessible through high waters and dry season. Besides its actual function, the stepwells also acted as the places for religious celebrations and as places for social meetings. The water has a sacred meaning in Indian religious practices, so the stepwell usually were constructed as parts of the larger temple complexes. Chand baori stepwell was built sometime in the IX century by the order of Kind Chanda. The stepwell has all together about 3,500 steps distributed at 13 levels, 20 m deep. Queen’s stepwell Rani-ki-vav (The stepwell of the Queen) in Patan, Gujarat state. The depth of the complex is 24 m, the width and lengths – 20 m and 64 m. Legend has it, that the stepwell was built by the Queen Udayamati, King Bhima widow, commemorating the memory of her husband. 3D image of the well Rani-Ki-Vav to carry out the restoration work, the company CyArk & The Smithsonian. Source: blog.punchcad.com Some time passed after its completion and it was flooded by the river Saraswati. The temple galleries were stuffed with silt, paradoxically, preserving them for us instead of demolishing. The complex was cleared only in the XX century. The place was included into the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2014. Rani-ki-vav was designed as a turned upside-down temple with 7 levels at different depths. The structures aligned from the West to the East. It includes besides the 574 galleries several spaces for religious ceremonies.The deepest level is the 4th one and it leads to the tank 9.5m long 9.4 m wide at the depth of 23 m. The temple decorated with more than 500 sculptures and about 1000 smaller sculptures and basreliefs depicting heroes of the myths and gods.The well itself is situated in the western part of the complex and has the depth of 30 m. It is 10 m in diameter. The wall was fractured in some places and it made visible, that it was built of bricks and then faced with stones. The vertical bearings support richly decorated galleries of carved stone. Also the complex has the small passage at the base level, leading to the 30 km long tunnel. It provided the escape route to the neighbor settlement Sidhpur. Now it is blocked by mud and stones. 2 Rani-ki-vav. Source: sahapedia.org REFERENCES 1. Development of Rock-cut Architecturehttps://sg.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/75375/10/10_chapter%202.pdf 2.By Rock-cut temples in India – the history of the construction-Svetlana Bukreeva& Editorial staff of portal “Underground expert” https://undergroundexpert.info/en/underground-spaceuse/implemented-projects/india-stepwells/ 575 CHAPTER XV CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND BUILDING ELEMENTS The history of building is marked by a number of trends. One is the increasing durability of the materials used. Early building materials were perishable, such as leaves, branches, and animal hides. Later, more durable natural materials—such as clay, stone, and timber—and, finally, synthetic materials—such as brick, concrete, metals, and plastics—were used. Another is a quest for buildings of ever greater height and span; this was made possible by the development of stronger materials and by knowledge of how materials behave and how to exploit them to greater advantage. A third major trend involves the degree of control exercised over the interior environment of buildings: increasingly precise regulation of air temperature, light and sound levels, humidity, odours, air speed, and other factors that affect human comfort has been possible. Yet another trend is the change in energy available to the construction process, starting with human muscle power and developing toward the powerful machinery used today. The present state of construction is complex. There is a wide range of building products and systems which are aimed primarily at groups of building types or markets. The design process for buildings is highly organized and draws upon research establishments that study material properties and performance, code officials who adopt and enforce safety standards, and design professionals who determine user needs and design a building to meet those needs. The construction process is also highly organized; it includes the manufacturers of building products and systems, the craftsmen who assemble them on the building site, the contractors who employ and coordinate the work of the craftsmen, and consultants who specialize in such aspects as construction management, quality control, and insurance.In those days huge Hindu 576 temples such as the Angkor in Cambodia were built by using material available there and commonly found. Large structures in Egypt, like the other great river valley cultures, Egypt built its cities with mud brick; fired brick did not appear there until Roman times. Timber was used sparingly, for it was never abundant. It was used mainly in roofs, where it was heavily supplemented by reeds. Only a few royal buildings were built with full timber frames. It was against this drab background of endless mud brick houses that a new technology of cut-stone construction emerged in the temples and pyramids of the 4th dynasty (c. 2575–c. 2465 BCE). Egypt, unlike Mesopotamia or the Indus valley, had excellent deposits of stone exposed above ground; limestone, sandstone, and granite were all available. But the extracting, moving, and working of stone was a costly process, and the quarrying of stone was a state monopoly. Stone emerged as an elite construction material used only for important state buildings. The Egyptians developed cut stone for use in royal mortuary buildings not only for its strength but also for its durability. It seemed the best material to offer eternal protection to the pharaoh’s ka, the vital force he derived from the sun-god and through which he ruled. Thus stone had both a functional and symbolic significance. Within the long tradition of brick masonry, stone construction appeared abruptly, with little transition. The brick mastaba tombs of the early kings and nobles suddenly gave way to the stone technics of King Djoser’s ceremonial complex at Ṣaqqārah, the construction of which is associated with his adviser and builder Imhotep. It is a structure of somewhat curious and uncertain forms but of great elegance in execution and detail. It consists mostly of massive limestone walls that enclose a series of interior courtyards. The walls have convoluted surfaces, which recall the mastaba tombs, with dummy doors, and there are even whole dummy buildings of solid stone. The complex has a large entrance hall with a roof supported by massive stone lintels that rest on rows of short wing walls projecting from the enclosing walls. There are no free-standing columns, but incipient fluted columns appear at the ends of the wing walls and engaged 3/4-columns project from the walls of the courtyards. The complex also contains the first pyramid, created from successively smaller mastabas. All these elements are built of small stones, which could be handled by one or two 577 men. It represents a technology that was already highly developed, involving elaborate methods of quarrying, transporting, and working stone. The construction process began at the quarries. Most of them were open-faced, although in some cases tunnels were extended several hundred metres into cliffs to reach the best quality stone. For extracting sedimentary rock, the chief tool was the mason’s pick with a 2.5kilogram metal head and a 45-centimetre haft. With these picks vertical channels as wide as a man were cut around rectangular blocks, exposing five faces. The final separation of the sixth face was accomplished by drilling rows of holes into the rock with metal bow drills. Wooden wedges were driven into the holes to fill them completely. The wedges were doused with water, which they absorbed and which caused them to expand, breaking the stone free from its bed. In the extraction of igneous rock such as granite, which is much harder and stronger than limestone, the mason’s pick was supplemented by balls of dolerite weighing up to 5 kilograms, which were used to break the rock by beating and pounding. Granite was also drilled and sawed with the help of abrasives, and expanding wooden wedges were used in splitting. The Egyptians were able to move blocks weighing up to 1,000,000 kilograms from quarries to distant building sites. This was an amazing accomplishment, as their only machinery was levers and crude wooden sledges worked by masses of men and draft animals. There were no wheeled vehicles before 1500 BCE, and they were never widely used in building. Most quarries were near the Nile, however, and boats were also extensively used in transporting stone. At the building site the rough stones were precisely finished to their final forms, with particular attention to their exposed faces. This was done with metal chisels and mallets; squares, plumb bobs, and straightedges were used to check the accuracy of the work. These tools remained standard until the 19th century. After the first appearance of small stones at Ṣaqqārah, their size began to increase until they attained the cyclopean scale usually associated with Egyptian masonry at about the time of the building of the pyramids. In spite of the heavy loads that stone structures created, foundations were of a surprisingly shoddy and improvised character, made of small blocks of poor quality stone. Not until the 25th 578 dynasty (c. 750–656 BCE) were important buildings placed on a below-grade (underground) platform of masonry several metres thick. The Egyptians possessed no lifting machinery to raise stones vertically. It is generally thought that the laying of successive courses of masonry was accomplished with earth or mud brick ramps, over which the stones were dragged to their places in the walls by animal and human muscle power. Later, as the ramps were removed, they served as platforms for the masons to apply the final finishes to the stone surfaces. The remains of such ramps can still be seen at unfinished temples that were begun in the Ptolemaic period. The stones were usually laid with a bed of mortar made of gypsum, sand, and water, which perhaps acted more as a lubricant to push the stone into place than as a bonding agent. There was also limited use of metal dovetail anchors between blocks. The great Pyramids of Giza, the tallest of which rose to a height of 147 metres (481 feet), are a marvelous technological achievement, and their visual impact is stunning even today; it was not until the 19th century that taller structures would be built. But they also represent a dead end in massive stone construction, which soon moved in the direction of lighter and more flexible stone frames and the creation of larger interior spaces. The free-standing stone column supporting stone beams appeared for the first time in the royal temples associated with the pyramids of about 2600 BCE. Square granite columns carrying heavy granite lintels spanned 3 to 4 metres (10 to 13 feet); the spaces between the lintels were roofed by massive granite slabs. In these structures the abstract notion of the timber frames of the early royal buildings was translated into stone. Although stone is more durable than timber, it is quite different in structural strength. Stone is much stronger in compression than timber but is weaker in tension. For this reason, stone works well for columns, which could be made very high—for example, 24 metres (80 feet) in the great temple of Amon-Re at Karnak. But stone lintels spanning between columns are limited by the tension they develop on their bottom surfaces; their maximum span is perhaps 5 metres (16 feet). Thus, for longer spans, another structural form was needed to exploit the higher compressive strength of stone. But the arch, which could span a longer distance in 579 compression, remained confined to the sewers and to the underground roofs of the tombs of minor officials. So, perhaps with the image of the timber building frame still strong in their minds, the Egyptian masons were content to explore the limitations of the analogous stone frame in a series of great temples built during the New Kingdom (1539–1075 BCE) at Karnak and Luxor, culminating in the elegant loggias of Queen Hatshepsut’s temple at Dayr al-Baḥrī. The paradigm of the stone-frame temple that they established would endure to the end of the Classical world. Greek and Hellenistic cultures Use of the Egyptian stone frame diffused throughout the eastern Mediterranean after 1800 BCE, and the cultures of mainland Greece were particularly attracted to it. In the Greek world of the Aegean and southern Italy, many stone-frame temples were built; some have survived to the present day in various states of preservation. They were built largely of local marble or limestone; there was no granite for huge monoliths. The basic technology was little changed from that of Egypt; the major difference was in the labour force. There were no state-mobilized masses of unskilled workers to move huge stones; there were instead small groups of skilled masons who worked independently. The building accounts of the Parthenon show that each column was built under a separate contract with a master mason. There was certainly lifting machinery for handling the blocks, although its precise description is unknown; the concealed faces of stones still have grooves and holes that engaged the ropes used to lift them into place. Metal cramps and dowels were introduced for joining stones together; mortar was almost never used. There was some experimentation with iron beams to reinforce longer spans in stone, but the maximum remained about 5 to 6 metres (16 to 20 feet). Longer spans were achieved with timber beams supported by the stone frame; the solid stone roof slabs of the great Egyptian temples could not be duplicated. Much of the mason’s effort was concentrated on the refinements of detail and optical corrections for which Greek architecture is justly famous. This same sense is also seen in the first surviving construction drawings, which were made on the unfinished surfaces of the stone walls of the Temple of Didyma. Such drawings would normally have been erased 580 during the final finishing of the wall surfaces, and those at Didyma survived because the temple was never completed. The drawings show how the masons developed the final profiles of columns and moldings—a rare glimpse of the design processes of builders before the days of pencil and paper. In contrast to stone technology, which remained largely unchanged from Egyptian methods, clay masonry underwent considerable development. Although mud brick remained standard for dwellings, fired brick was more widely used and began to be laid with lime mortar, a technique borrowed from stone construction. Glazed brick also appeared in this period, particularly outside the Greek world among the Babylonians and Persians, who made considerable use of it in royal palaces. A fine surviving example is the Ishtar Gate of the Palace of Nebuchadrezzar at Babylon, with a true arch spanning 7.5 metres (25 feet) and dated to 575 BCE. Another major innovation was the fired clay roof tile. This was much more waterproof than thatch, and tile roofs could have the lower pitch characteristic of Greek temples. Hollow terra-cotta blocks for wall ornaments also appeared about this time, probably derived from the highly advanced pottery industry, which routinely made fired clay vessels more than one metre long. Although stone technology remained confined to the trabeated (column-and-beam, or postand-lintel) frame, there were a few structures that hinted at future developments. Perhaps the most spectacular building achievement of the age was the Pharos of Alexandria, the great lighthouse built for Ptolemy II in the 3rd century BCE. It was a huge stone tower nearly as high as the Great Pyramid but much smaller at the base—perhaps 30 metres (100 feet) square. Within this mass of masonry was a complex system of ramps over which pack animals carried fuel for the beacon at the top. The Pharos was the first high-rise building, but the limitations of masonry structures and the lack of a rapid way of moving people vertically precluded any further development of tall buildings until the 19th century. The Pharos remained the only example of this type long after it was demolished by the Arabs beginning in the 7th century CE. Another example of a new stone technology that was tried but not pursued further by the Greeks was the underground tombs of Mycenae, built about 1300 BCE. These tombs have main 581 chambers enclosed by pointed domes of corbeled stone construction, about 14 metres (47 feet) in diameter and 13 metres (43 feet) high. Crude versions of the corbel dome had appeared earlier in Mesopotamian tombs and the tholoi of Neolithic Europe, but in Mycenae the technics were refined and enlarged in scale. A corbel dome or arch does not develop the high compressive forces that characterize true arches and domes, which are built of radial segments of stone or brick. Thus it does not take full advantage of the great compressive strength of stone and cannot span long distances; 14 metres is near the upper limit. Greek masons did not choose to explore this type of structure; their buildings remained largely concerned with exterior forms. The Roman builders who followed them, however, exploited masonry to its full potential and created the first great interior spaces. 1. Brick temple in Mayammar being built Rock Cut Technique Excavation of the basaltic mountain could have been done by cutting a tunnel section on the roof level, which later got continued downwards. After the basic vertical profile was achieved, the further inwards scooping in could have been adopted, as observed in cave 24 The rock out of which the sculpture or the structure has to be made could have been divided 582 into rectangles that are carved on the rock according to the measurements. The rectangles form a grid, based on which the shape and design of the structure is decided. The rectangles are kept or chiseled out depending on the outline and shape of the structure . The form of the caves could have been achieved with such precision and refinement, by the process of scooping into the rock. The sequential procedure could have resulted in the appropriate design of the caves we see today. On the other hand, if we pay attention to the reliefs, and sculptures present in the caves, it can be said that they were scooped out and chiseled on the surfaced rock that was achieved after the excavation a d e f b c Fig 3 Rock Cut Technique Fig 4 Ceiling Typology Ceiling Typologies with respect to Functional Spaces If we take the case of the Ajanta caves, They comprise of a series of viharas and chaitya halls having differences in their respective ceilings observed as well. The viharas had private cells for the then monks, to reside and meditate inside. These cells were places surrounding the central common space which might have served as a place of congregation. These viharas, being the private spaces, did not require a lot of light. This could have been the reason behind 583 the low height flat ceilings in the viharas. Since the spaces were private, they had to appear as if they were calm and secluded. The less the presence of light, the more the space appears subtle. On the contrary, the chaitya halls had high vaulted ceilings, complimented by the sun windows at the entrances. These windows on one hand, enhanced the grandeur, and on the other hand, enabled the maximum penetration of light as well. Chaityas were mostly prayer halls that housed a larger number of people and were used to a maximum during the daytime. To add on to the serenity of the prayer hall, light was used as an aesthetic element. To achieve this, the ceiling height had to be more making sure that the light faces no obstruction. The main attraction of these prayer halls is the stupa placed at the apsidal end of the hall, which was intended to be focused and highlighted. Had it been a flat ceiling, the complete appearance would have been destroyed. The vaulted ceiling stands as a symbol of grandeur and helps makes the stupa focal element in the whole setting. It also lets the light from the sun window, easily access the stupa and illuminate it so well, that anybody gets overwhelmed inside. The vaulted ceiling along with the sun window function together to achieve the intention of highlighting stupa, and everything else in the cave stands as a backdrop thus making stupa a focal point (fig 4f). The ceiling being a functional element stands aesthetically pleasing as well. Beams and rafters are carved on the rock. This could have been done to imitate the ancient wooden construction and add an aesthetic quality. In viharas, the ratio of span to height is less than that in chaityas. The viharas have a larger span to accomodate private cells, whereas, the absence of these cells in chaityas result in a lesser span. Suvithapay Services Year of Establishment1995 Legal Status of FirmSole Proprietorship (Individual) Nature of Business; temple Service Provider IndiaMART Member SinceJun 2015 Suvithapay Services was established in the year 2011. We provide the Temple Construction Services. We provide these services with the help of well trained and highly experienced professionals who consult the clients on various aspects in order to provide them. We provide these services with the help of well trained and highly experienced professionals who consult the clients on various aspects in order to provide them best services. These services are rendered as per the requirements of the clients in compliance with defined industry norms to avoid flaw in construction work. 584 In case of Hindu temples, the Design Plan was of such gigantic structures and with such amazing embellishments that bricks, which were used initially earlier on were discarded towards a more load bearing and carving bearable material- stone. Beams and columns are two important types of structural elements that play a key role in creating a safe load path to transfer the weight and forces on a structure to the foundations and into the ground. Beams and columns could be built using the same shapes and materials but each serves a different function and is designed differently. Beams are usually horizontal structural elements that carry loads perpendicular to their longitudinal direction. Think of a balancing beam in gymnastics. It’s a rectangular object 15 feet long and supported at both ends. When a person is walking on the beam near the middle of the span, their weight is a vertical downward force acting perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the beam. 585 Beams are used to support the weight of floors, ceilings and roofs of a building and to transfer the load to a vertical load bearing element of the structure. Sometimes bigger and heavier beams called transfer beams are used to support the cumulative weight of stacked walls or other beams and transfer the load to the supports. The design or sizing of beams requires understanding of basic physics principles and engineering statics. A structural engineer is trained and fully equipped to check the loads acting on a beam, calculate the forces and stresses on it and choose the material, size and shape accordingly. Part of the engineering consulting work I provide to my clients is structural design of beams in new buildings and restoration or strengthening of existing beams in a structure. a d b e c f Beams in a Greel temple( Left) Beams and columns in Ellora(right) 586 When working on the structural design of a new beam or restoration of an existing one, there are a few factors I take into account. These factors include how much load is acting on the beam, the length or span of the beam, clear height available below the beam or any limitations on geometry, deflection limits of the beam, strength of the material, as well as fire rating and resistance. Similar factors are used when designing columns. Columns are vertical structural elements where the load is transferred parallel to the longitudinal axis as compression, and sometimes as tension . For example, think of a rectangular table with four legs at the corners. The weight of the table and all the objects on the table is transferred to the floor through the legs acting in compression. In this case the legs can be considered as columns. Columns are used to support floor/roof beams and the columns of the floor above. The columns at the bottom floor of a tall building must carry the accumulative weight of all the floors above. This is why the location of columns ideally should be consistent throughout all floors. This is not always possible especially with a challenging architectural design where each floor has a different layout. In such cases I often encourage clients to engage the structural design team early in the project to collaborate with the architects to brainstorm the most ideal column layout. When designing a column in a new building I take a few factors into consideration. I start with calculating the weight of floors/roof supported by the column then choose the material and size as required. The height of the column plays a major part in the overall size of the column. A column that supports 1000 pounds and is 10 feet tall may need to be twice as large as a column supporting 1000 pounds and is 20 feet tall. It all depends on the columns geometry and material properties. The role played by sculpted structural members in execution of a good design is not unknown. Beams are as important as any other member and are a part of the basic framework. The intriguing fact is the unknown reason for the presence and absence of beams in Ajanta. Not all 587 caves have beams. The reasons are still unknown. There is only one way that the beams could have acted as a structural support system, and that is, if the rock at that particular portion has had cracks, resulting in the possibility of collapse or breakage. Then beams could have acted as a later addition by scooping in some more to prevent the further damage and support the cracks. Since the whole setting has been carved out of a single rock, no special structural supports other than the columns would have been needed. Despite this, most of the caves have beams. In cave 2, there are shallow beams, whereas in some other caves, the depth has increased. The beams could have been a result of the intention to plan according to the grid. In caves like 6 and 7 where the columns were arranged in grid, the beams also follow the grid pattern, resembling present day drop slab construction. (fig 7b) The presence of beams could have been an imitation of wooden beam construction like in cave 10, since there was no additional structural support needed, or, it might have been done to create a visual frame which could emphasize the cells, that fell in exact centre and the statue as well. The upper and lower tie beams together with the left and right columns look like a framed photograph having the statue, only three-dimensional. (fig 7c) The trial and error method did not stop here. The caves 13 and 15 are without any columns whereas, cave 12 have columns only towards the entrance like the prostyle temples during the roman times. This also would have been done on a complete experimental basis, since the columns are not equally spaced, and each has a different thickness. Ceiling Heights Most of the caves throughout the world have a high ceiling height. The reason is to allow proper ventilation. Higher ceiling height allows hot air mass to rise up and hence keeps it away from the normal height, allowing cool air to settle there. Since, cool air is denser, it gets settled there and keeps that part of the room volume cooler. But, most of the ceilings at Ajanta are low raised. There is a possibility that this was done experimentally to achieve the necessary ventilation 588 required, but by using a different strategy. The low height could have been planned to allow the tunnel effect in a horizontal manner. Since the height of the ceiling was low, there was nowhere else for the hot air to go, possibly except the cells on the either ends which had cool water in them. That water could have cooled down the hot air in return. It can be said, that the principle of evaporative cooling could have been used, at that time, which now acts as a working principle for air conditioners. a d b e c f Fig 5 Illustration of Tunnel Effect inside the Cave 589 Typology of Pillars The typical Buddhist columns are of two types - Persepolitian and Graeco-roman. Persepolitian type is an octagonal column with bell shaped capital supporting animal sculptures. The shaft is highly polished and has a vase shaped base. The Graeco-roman is rectangular, octagonal or circular with shallow flutes. They are tall and slender, with a height 6-8 times its lower diameter. At the top, is a capital usually with a fluted vase motif. Ajanta has both the typologies; some pillars are even combination of both. The Chaityas have very simple columns with minimum ornamentation. The columns are tall and slender so as to support the heavy vaulted ceiling above, whereas the viharas have a varied range of columns with varying slenderness ratios. For example caves 1, 2, 4, 17 etc have similar type of columns having octagonal shafts with medium thicknesses. (fig 6a)These caves are of similar sizes as well. The prototype for pillared porch at the entrance initiated at cave 2 (fig 6b). This indicates that cave 1 was among the earliest constructions. The placement of pillars and selection of slenderness ratios as well as the design seems to be an outcome of the various experiments and ideas. As one moves from the starting, the differences can be easily observed in the design. For example, if we consider caves 6, 7 and cave 10 which were viharas and chaitya respectively, we can see the variation in the interior spaces. Caves 6 and 7 have an antechamber separated from the main common hall by a series of pillars before entering the individual cells. This partial separation is kept intact in cave 10, the only difference being that the columns are not arranged in the grid as in caves 6 and 7. (fig 6c [8]) Cave 10 has two rows of columns widely spaced from each other which help outline the path from entrance to the stupa, providing a perfect perspective. There has been gradual development in the design of caves .The evidence can be seen in the caves from 1- 9. Cave 1 has just a periphery of columns, followed by some more caves. This was later modified in cave 6, where a grid form was intended and the evidence is more number of columns symmetrically placed. Since, the number of columns increased, the slenderness also increased. The thickness of columns in the earlier caves is compensated in cave 6 by using more number of columns which are slender. By the time, it was cave 10's turn; there might have been an intention of creating a prayer hall. As cave 10, is the first cave where the columns, demarcate the clear walkway that straight away leads to the stupa. 590 It is believed that caves of Ajanta had cisterns for the storage of water. In some of the caves, the viharas on either side of the central hall are slightly elevated. They could have accommodated cisterns in side. The cisterns could have stored the water, as well as acted as a refrigerant to cool down the hot air. Since there is no evidence of wells, in the caves, cisterns could have been the only source of water, which could have been stored in them during the rainy season. There are channeled sections cut into the rock , which could have helped carry the water into the cisterns. Waghora river would have served as the major water source . There might have been a water bearing zone near the river, which could yield a good quantity of water, to be used in summer months, if the river went dry. 591 a b c Water storage and Channelization Stone Temple Monarchs-Pallava's influence cannot be underestimated in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka Salient Features of the Pallava Architecture  The Pallava architecture shows the transition from the Rock Cut Architecture to the Stone built temples.  The earliest examples of the Pallava art are the rock cut temples of the 7th century AD, while the later examples are of structural temples built in 8th and 9th century.  The rock cut reliefs of the Pallavas are the earliest surviving royal portraits after the Kushana images. At the end of 6th century, King Harsha ruled in the North and he patronized the Buddhist Institutions. In South, Pallavas expanded themselves from the much of the Andhra Pradesh of today to much of Tamil Nadu. The Pallava Kings are known to be one of the greatest patrons of the art, music, architecture, dance and literature. King Mahendravarman was a poet and a playwright who wrote a satire on contemporary life titled “Mattavilasa Prahasana“. Another King of Pallava Dynasty named Rajsimha (Narsimhamvaraman) was such a great lover of art that he used the title “Kalasamudra” for himself. 592 The Pallavas built an array of temples across the land they seized. Laying the groundwork for medieval South Indian architecture, the once rulers of South India influenced several other major kingdoms across Southeast Asia. Originally a pastoral tribe for 500 years, the Pallavas established their dynasty on the ruins of the kingdom of the Satvahanas. Witnessing a prominent rise in the Cult of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva, Kanchipuram served as a major pilgrimage site for the Hindu devotees at the time. The temples built in their tribute became not only a place of worship but also became significant administrative and cultural centers. Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram The Shore Temple has three shrines within its boundaries Overlooking the shores of the Bay of Bengal, the Shore Temple complex was the site of a busy port during the early years of empire. Built using blocks of granite, there are three temples that are spread across the vast area. The main temple, a tribute to Lord Shiva, faces the east so that sun rays shine upon the Shiva Linga, located in the garbhagriha. Of the other two shrines leftover, one is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and another to Lord Shiva. Lord Vishnu's complex sits in between both Shiva complexes as a symbol of balance. The temple walls are elaborately embellished with large sculptures of Nandi and a series of rearing lions. 593 Legends say that Marco Polo and other European merchants called the site, Seven Pagodas. Acting as a landmarks for ships, the name became widespread among merchants. It is believed that Shore Temple along with six other pagoda shaped monuments once stood across the shore of the Bay of Bengal. Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple Dravidian architecture style has a prominent influence on the Kailasanathar Temple A prominent representation of Dravidian architecture, the compound of the Kachi Kailasanathar Temple is adorned by carvings of half-animal deities which were popular at the time. A place of unwavering faith, the complex served also as a safe sanctuary for the Pallava rulers during times of war. A secret tunnel used for escape was built by the emperors. Multi-directional mythical lions, in abundance, are engraved upon the pillars of the subshrines. Sculptures of Lord Shiva holding the musical instrument Veena are also decorated on the walls. One can observe the tangible differences in the modern version of the classical instrument to its past. The main shrine has a 16 sided Shiva linga with a exquisitely carved sculpture of Nandi in some distance to serve as a guard to the deity. 594 Nalanda Gedige Temple The Pallavan influence was as far as Sri Lanka where the Nalanda Gedige Temple stands The influence of the Pallavas, at its peak, was far and wide reaching to areas of the Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. The Naland Gedige Temple, a Vishnu sanctum, is one such evidence of the far reaching reputation and power of the once dominant South Indian kingdom. Standing in the Natale district of Sri Lanka which was once considered the center of the country, a limited number of Hindu deities grace the walls of the holy place. However, a statue of Lord Kubera does find itself a commemorative place - something that is only visible across temples in the island nation. A flamboyant mix of Hindu and Buddhist architecture compose the temple complex. Several sections which are eroded highlight the strong Madras influence in the area while one can also discover Tantric Buddhist carvings famous in Khajuraho. Mandagapattu Cave Temple 595 The Managapattu Cave Temples are one of the oldest temples from the time of the Pallavas The rock-cut cave temple is another Pallavan wonder and one of the oldest temple from their rule. An inscription in the Pallava Grandha script at the entrance of the temple dedicates the holy sanctum to the trinity of Lord Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu. Two gatekeepers, marked with their fierce expressions, are carved into the wall of the complex. Interestingly, the temple is built without the use of wood, metal, timber or even brick. The king who built this sanctuary, Mahendravarman I, boasts doing the same in one of the inscriptions on the temple walls. REFERENCES 1. AJANTA CAVES: A PERSPECTIVE ON CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES, Akanksha Agrawal1, P.Megha Naidu2, Ravindra Patnayaka3 14th year student, B.Arch, School of Architecture, GITAM University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India 24th year student, B.Arch, School of Architecture, GITAM University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India 3Assistant Professor, School of Architecture, GITAM University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India 2. Expanding beyond the gates of South India, the Pallava's influence cannot be underestimated in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, Meenketan Jha, 2018 3. The rock-cut temples in India preceded stone building’ 9 SEPTEMBER 1956 BY JULIAN HUXLEY ESSAYS 596 CHAPTER XVI Lighting in ancient Temples “More and more, so it seems to me, light is the beautifier of the building.” -Frank Lloyd Wright The ancient scriptures and the religious beliefs have dictated the architecture of the Hindu temples which were built not only as monuments providing shelter to the religious symbols and the worshippers, but as the cosmos itself( See Chapter in this book). Evolving from a cave, onto a hut or a modest abode of timber, the temple gradually developed into a substantial structure embellished with decorative moldings and ornaments and meaningful sculptures. The use of the giant grid or square as the basic unit in Indian temple architecture was chiefly a matter of religious significance it was the ground plan of all well planned temples. Each of the squares was thought to be the abode of a deity, and the location of the square within the ground plan accorded with the importance attached to the deity. East west facing temple According to the Vastupurushamandala,( see chapter before) which is the diagram of the Hindu Temple’s program, as well as its metaphysical plan, the Vastu (signifies residence) was a place of adjustments of the solar and lunar cycles for placement of the deities.The 32 divinities 597 (padadevatas) in the square borders include the regents of the cardinal points and the 28 stars (nakshtras).The black square in the center, the garbhagriha (the womb chamber), is the location of the central shrine, the place for the main deity, the seat of Brahman (one of the chief Indian Gods, known as the creator of all living beings) In the center of the temple is the womb where the diety resides and nothing should distract devotees senses, including vision, so it was felt.Therefore, this innermost sanctum of the temple is shrouded in total darkness and the progression into the temple is a ritual movement where the devotee goes through the dynamic experience of the darkening spaces before reaching the darkest sacred chamber. This journey is both spiritual and physiological. The treatment of light ensures that by the time the pilgrim reaches the innermost chamber (garbhagriha) his/her eyes slowly become accustomed to the darkness and his/her state of mind befitting worship and is no longer plagued by worldly thoughts. During this procession, one passes through many doorways, colonnaded halls and corridors, which are decorated with sacred carvings.These sacred symbols have a profound impact on the mind of the devotee; they simulate the mystery that envelops the universe and the divine spirit that illumines the universe . Reaching the holy sanctum, the worshipper enters a place for individual selfrealization and personal relation with the divine.Thus, along the two previously mentioned premises the design of the Hindu Temple accommodated the faith, creating a procession toward the “holy darkness” that enhanced the spiritual experience. 1 & 2 Oil Lamps too: There is a deeper significance to the diya. The oil in the diya symbolises the dirt in the human mind — such as greed, jealousy, hatred, lust etc — which human beings tend to nurture. The cotton in the diya is symbolic of the atma or the self or the soul. The diya presents light when the oil is burnt by the wick. Hence, lighting of the diyas signifies that one needs to get rid of the selfish and materialistic thoughts. This frees one from all forms of sadness, guiding the path to enlightenment and to connect with the Supreme Being On Diwali people light millions of diyas. These beautiful diyas hold a deep significance and are symbolic of our journey to enlightenment. In India, almost every household has a custom of lighting a deepam or diya( Open Oil lamp with wick) twice a day — in the morning and evening. This is a part of prayer. All ceremonies, daily worship rituals, auspicious functions, religious 598 occasions as well as new ventures start with lightning of the lamp. Diya is essential in Hinduism because it signifies purity, goodness, good luck and power. The presence of light means the nonexistence of darkness and evil forces. According to the Hindu faith, the rising sun is worshipped before beginning the rituals for the residing deity of the temple. ... These finding support the notion of a procession from the lit entrance toward darkness as dictated by the faith. Light is an integral part of the religious ethos of Hinduism- and not necessarily electric light because a few years ago there was’nt any in India and also before tht anywhere else. I remember spending my childhood studying under an oil lamp preparing for my exams; until the Nagpur Light and Power Co. Pvt Ltd was started by Mr. DPR Cassad in 1954 to provide electricity to the city( not the entire one). Since, Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day when there is supreme darkness everywhere; people light millions of lamps to get rid of the darkness. It is believed that evil spirits and forces gain power and become active when there is no light. So diyas are lit in every corner of the house to weaken those evil forces. Significance of diyas On Diwali people light millions of diyas. These beautiful diyas hold a deep significance and are symbolic of our journey to enlightenment. The oil in the diya symbolises negatives in the human mind. The wick is symbolic of the atma. Lighting of diyas signifies getting rid of selfish thoughts. 599 In India, almost every household has a custom of lighting a deepam or diya twice a day — in the morning and evening. This is a part of prayer. All ceremonies, daily worship rituals, auspicious functions, religious occasions as well as new ventures start with lightning of the lamp. Diya is essential in Hinduism because it signifies purity, goodness, good luck and power. The presence of light means the non-existence of darkness and evil forces. Since, Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day when there is supreme darkness everywhere; people light millions of lamps to get rid of the darkness. It is believed that evil spirits and forces gain power and become active when there is no light. So diyas are lit in every corner of the house to weaken those evil forces. the foundation stone laying ceremony of the most important temple in the world for hindus0 the Ram Janmabhoomi Temple at Ayodhya, Ayodhya the city in Uttar Pradesh had its every street illuminated with earthen lamps ahead of the foundation stone laying ceremony. Diyas were also lit on the banks of Saryu river as part of the 'deepotsava' celebrations in the temple town which will see Prime Minister Narendra Modi and other dignitaries arrive today for the 'bhoomi pujan' ceremony of the Ram Temple.The entire Ayodhya has been decked up and massive preparations have been made for this occasion with a festive air.Earlier chief minister Yogi Adityanath had said that 11,000 diyas will be lit at Ram Ki Paidi on the banks of the Saryu river and that all houses and temples in Ayodhya will be celebrating with a 'deepotsava' (festival of lights) on the nights of August 4 and 5.Adityanath burst firecrackers and lit earthen lamps at his official residence on in Lucknow as part of 'deepotsava'. The construction work of Ram temple will begin after the foundation stone laying ceremony, in which dignitaries from various political and religious fields have been invited to participate.Apart from Ayodhya other cities in like Kanpur were also illuminated to celebrate the grand event. Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) workers light earthen lamps in the city, as part of 'deepotsava'.Chief Minister's residence in Uttarakhand will be decorated with 5100 diyas filled with Ghee on Wednesday evening to celebrate the occasion of the 'bhoomi pujan' of the Ram Temple in Ayodhya today by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Uttrakhand Chief Minister Trivendra Singh Rawat has said that Lord Ram Temple being built in Ayodhya is associated with "our belief". He also appealed to people in the state to light diyas at their homes on the occasion. Earthen lamps were lit at Ujjain's 600 Mahakaleshwar Temple in Madhya Pradesh and in Punjab too people lit lamps as part of 'deepotsava'. Prime Minister Narendra Modi will perform 'pooja' at Hanumangarhi and Shree Ramlala Virajman before performing 'bhoomi pujan' of the Ram Temple in Ayodhya on Wednesday, informed Prime Minister's Office (PMO) on Tuesday. Hindu Temples Are Not All Alike Ideally, temples (often called mandirs) are built in accordance with the ancient scriptures, planned out by skilled Indian architects to resemble the traditional styles found in India. This ideal temple has certain features: 1) a central sanctum enshrines the main Deity; 2) other Deities in the pantheon are represented by murtis in secondary sanctums or shrines; 3) the structure has no basement; 4) cultural and social activities are provided for in separate facilities, not in the main area dedicated for worship; 5) trained, ordained priests perform a daily regimen of pujas (others do not enter the shrines); 6) the temple openly represents a particular denomination of Hinduism and a specific lineage of teaching and liturgy. While these principles are well known among the thousands of communities of Hindus around the world, the reality is that each temple comes up in it own way, organically, with the above ideals flexing with the exigencies of the day, the resources and often mixed geographical background of the constituents. Hence, we now have a vast variety of temples, particularly outside India, each serving the needs of its community as a center of worship, culture, community service and spiritual fellowship. Every temple is unique. Agamic temples provide elaborate pujas several times per day. The main Deities are in distinct, prominent sanctums. Individuals come and go at any time and worship privately or as a family. Other temples may be structured as a simple hall with a stage in front, and Deities on pedestals usually around the perimeter of the room. The style of worship here is often congregational, with temple members gathering at a set time for a structured service conducted by a priest or elder. In some mandirs devotees may do a simple puja themselves. Services may include some form of teaching, such as a lecture by a swami or lay leader, and devotional singing or dramatic readings from the epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. 601 Light is the soul of architecture design. Light allows us to see, to know where we are and what around us. Beyond exposing things to view and feel, light models those objects to enhance visual and to help us define the physical world. Nothing would be visible without light, light also makes it possible to express and show to the mind’s eye things that eludes the physical one. Light helps us redefine the relationships of people with the environment and with themselves. It is divided into natural light and artificial light. Natural light is a gift of nature. Civilized man learns to use artificial light sources which free him from total dependence on daylight, we also learn to appreciate the value of daylight and become aware of its special advantages. Ancient Architects of temples knew that light controls people’s behavior and emotions. It can make people even happier. When people design light for space they need to put in position of people working in that space. Even lighting seems very functional “Space and light and order. Those are the things that men need just as much as they need bread or a place to sleep” -Le Corbusier, August27, 1965 They explored daylight as an element of form making in architecture. Temples have used the natural light effect in buildings to create a specific atmosphere. Light and different shadows casted give a sense of motion. Shadows create drama and emphasize light and moving forms that depend on a source of light for their stability. As the sun makes its daily transit from east to west, 602 shadows convey sense of time. Daylight is inextricably linked with windows.Most of the temple designs use different elements to work with light in the space to create different atmospheres. Natural light provides us with the means to show spaces and volumes and interact with our environment to make people enjoy the space. Throughout time sacred monuments have provided spaces to facilitate a dialogue between man and God. The simplicity and the functional character of the monuments as well as the deliberate arrangement of architectural elements helped to create a holy atmosphere through the manipulation of light. Techniques such as light reflected front the walls creating mysterious shadows, subdued light filtering through the openings, light used as a focal point, etc. were some of the ways that natural light was used to represent itself as a fundamental connection to god. Thus, natural light was used as an important part of religious symbolism. Though light has been such an important element in the design of sacred monuments, not much has been written on the subject. 1The findings of this thesis supported the ritual procession toward the “holy darkness”, or how light/darkness could dramatize the spiritual experience in the sacred spaces of the temple.The temple interiors were designed to be dark so the human eye is not distracted by the material world to let the mind enter the spiritual world of God. As seen in the Brihadeshvara Temple, natural light is introduced in a progressive light quality from brightness to darkness accommodating the ritual movement of the worshiper, and adjusting his/her eyes. Historic design of this spiritual experience complies with the current IES four major principles of lighting design in houses of worship.The Temple’s light/darkness combine task lighting (functional), accent lighting (spiritual), architectural lighting (functional and spiritual), and celebration light (spiritual). Spiritual state and affects the mood of the user in the sacred space. Faith dictates the treatment of light/darkness in the sacred setting as means to enhance the spiritual experience.The simulated values whencompared to the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) standards demonstrated that digitized simulations can illustrate the significance of light/darkness in sacred settings as a spiritual experience. Even if there are differences in the building size and techniques in each of the three Hindu temples, on the whole the quality of light inside the structure did not 603 undergo much change. Also though there was significant progress in the technology of lighting design from the 8th century to the 11th century, due to the changes in the political scenario, there was no further progress in this aspect of south Indian temple design from the 12th century AD onwards. Hindu religious requirement was for light. The sculptor and the architect were often one and the same person very often in India and it would be highly misleading to treat sculpture and architecture separately. As a matter of fact, sculpture was introduced as a decorative element over the facade on outer walls of a temple. The author of the above research found in the Sanchi temple of about the 5th century that very simple the structure with bare and undecorated the walls areare made more legant by providing a variety of perforated screen windows and thus some variation are introduced by about the middle of the 5th century and about a 100 years later in the Durga temple at Aihole, sculpture were added at the base of the pillar round theverandah and gradually in the Vaitala Deul, datable to about the beginning of the 7th century, the sculptor has made rich use of the niches in the ribbon like projections to embellish and decorate the temple. 604 Meenakshi Amman Temple Madurai Natural light is a powerful architectural tool. As the importance of sustainable design grows, passive strategies like daylighting have become critical in reducing the impact of the built environment. Additionally, research in the last decade has shown daylighting to have significant health and wellness benefits for users. Today, we have more tools than ever to harness daylight. From innovative reflective materials to advanced computer modeling, architects are using modern technology to light buildings more efficiently. When you embrace these systems, you’ll create a brighter future. What is Passive Daylighting? Passive daylighting strategies promote the quantity and even distribution of daylight throughout a building by collecting natural light and reflecting itt into darker areas of the building. What makes this a “passive” strategy is that the design elements do not require any special mechanical equipment or energy sources. As soon as the sun rises, the passive daylighting 605 strategies collect and reflect light throughout the building. Architects use windows, skylights, clear doors, light tubes, mirrors, light shelves and other reflective surfaces to collect and direct light to key areas in the room. For example, if a waiting area is located in a dark corner with no nearby windows, architects can redirect light from other well-lit parts of the room using passive reflecting elements. This type of system is incredibly beneficial both for building owners and for visitors. You’ll use less energy to keep the building lit during the day. This, in turn, could save you money and help you reach sustainability and renewability goals.This is what natural lighting does: It improves  Mood  Employee and visitor satisfaction  Student performance and learning  Healing (especially in hospital environments)  Productivity  Cognitive function  Circadian rhythms Passive Daylighting Strategies Every temple building is different, which is why architects customizd passive daylighting strategies based on the building’s location and its intended use. The goal of daylighting was to collect enough daylight in the summer and also keep the visibility and heat of the structure up during rains and winter. Today we can think of a few design elements that architects use to bring in as much natural daylight as possible:  Building orientation. Light direction is important. Light that comes from the south is usually best for daylighting as sunlight is consistent throughout the day and year. This orientation can also be used for solar heat gain. Light that comes from the north is the next best, as the sunlight is as consistent as the south, just in a lower quantity. Light that comes from the east and west should be avoided if possible. Sunlight at these orientations is harsh, it only occurs during half the day, and the height of the sun changes throughout the year, making sunlight harder to control. Temples were designed we assume to enable the most daylight (like front entrances) face north or south, while rooms that require less daylight (like storage rooms) face east or west. 606  Windows. To bring as much light into the building as possible, architects use windows with tall head heights. They can also use uniform windows across a façade to light the space evenly angle.  Skylights. Skylights allow daylight to enter from above, which is useful in spaces at the center of the building where light from windows can’t reach. As with windows, uniform skylight spacing results in uniform lighting. Architects can also place skylights high above the floor, allowing the light to diffuse before it reaches the ground.  Clerestories. Windows that are high above eye level, or clerestories, can light up an entire room. Architects usually combine clerestories with a reflective roof material or paint. The light enters through the clerestories and reflects off the roof, spreading very diffuse light around the room below.  External Shading Systems. At certain times of the day at each orientation, the light will be too bright and may produce a strong glare inside the building. To prevent this, architects design custom external shading systems to protect windows and other transparent openings. These systems usually include a combination of horizontal and vertical elements, but vary depending on the geographical location, climate, and building orientation.  Light shelves. A reflective horizontal shelf placed above windows reduces glare and directs light deeper into the space.  Solar tubes. These channel sunlight from the roof through a narrow opening. During the day, they loo like ordinary ceiling lamps, but they are powered by the sun rather than electricity. These work well when placed directly above desks, where people need 607 plenty of light.  Light wall colors. Light, reflective paint helps light to bounce around the room and makes the space feel brighter.  Parametric modeling, daylight simulation, and artificial intelligence (AI). Modern architecture firms use parametric software to generate optimized daylighting strategies for buildings. Daylight simulation software analyzes the building geometry and calculates the anticipated daylighting levels throughout the building at any given time of  year. AI is the latest development, and its potential yet to be seen, but it is capable of synthesizing massive data sets in seconds to automatically generate a solution, then learn from the solution to create a more efficient solution. Architects often use a combination of these strategies to maximize natural light in a space 1. The building features a central atrium that connects the interior and exterior spaces. 2. Maximize exterior windows on the north and south orientation. 608 3. Create custom external shading system to prevents glare and unwanted Passive daylighting systems will continue to play a key role in architecture well into the future. When a temple design embraces natural light, it will foster better environmental stewardship and encourage the visitors to lead a enhanced spiritual and healthy experience. Light falling on a temple 609 Details of Shikhara Stone masonary of a modern Hindu temple Six Secrets About Temple Worship that depend on natural or artificial light 1. One God, Many Gods In the Hindu pantheon there are said to be 330 million Gods. Even so, all Hindus believe in one Supreme Being who pervades the entire universe. The many Gods are perceived as divine creations of that one Being. These Gods, or Mahadevas, are real beings, capable of thought and feeling beyond the limited thought and feeling of embodied man. So, Hinduism has one God, but it has many Gods. There are only a few of these Gods for whom temples are built and pujas conducted. Ganesha, Siva, Subramaniam, Vishnu and Shakti are the most prominent Deities in contemporary Hinduism. Of course, there are many others for whom certain rites or mantras are done in daily ceremony, often in the home shrine. These include Brahma, Surya, Sarasvati, Lakshmi, Agni, Chandra, Ayyappan, Hanuman, Mariyamman and others. The Hindu traditionally adopts an Ishta Devata. This is a personal Deity chosen from the many Hindu Gods, often according to the devotee's family background or the feeling of closeness to one form of divine manifestation. It is the unique and all-encompassing nature of Hinduism that 610 one devotee may be worshiping Ganesha while his friend worships Subramaniam or Vishnu, and yet both honor the other's choice and feel no sense of conflict. The profound understanding and universal acceptance that are unique in Hinduism are reflected in this faculty for accommodating different approaches to the Divine, allowing for different names and forms of God to be worshiped side by side within the temple walls. It may even happen that one may adopt a different personal Deity through the years according to one's spiritual unfoldment and inner needs. 2. Temples Are Transformative! Visiting a Hindu temple, receiving darshan from the majestic Gods of our religion, can altogether change the life of a worshiper. It alters the flow of the pranas, or life currents, within his body. It draws his awareness into the deeper chakras. It adjusts his beliefs and the attitudes that are the natural consequence of those beliefs. But the change is slow. He lives with the experience for months and months after his visit to the temple. He comes to know and love the Deity. The Deity comes to know and love him, helping and guiding his entire evolutionary pattern. Darshan coming from the great temples of our Gods can change the patterns of karma dating back many past lives, clearing and clarifying conditions that were created hundreds of years ago and are but seeds now, waiting to manifest in the future. Through the grace of the Gods, those seeds can be removed if the manifestation in the future would not enhance the evolution of the soul. 3. Three Worlds Communing Hinduism views existence as composed of three worlds. The First World is the physical universe, the Second World is the subtle astral or mental plane of existence in which the devas, or angels, and spirits live, and the Third World is the spiritual sphere of the Mahadevas, the Deities, the Gods. Hinduism is the harmonious working together of these three worlds. Religion blossoms for the Hindu as he awakens to the existence of the Second and Third Worlds. These inner worlds naturally inspire in man responses of love and devotion and even awe. They are that wonderful. It is in the Hindu temple that the three worlds meet and devotees invoke the Gods of our religion. The temple is built as a palace in which the Gods reside. It is the visible home of the Gods, a 611 sacred place unlike every other place on the Earth. The Hindu must associate himself with these Gods in a very sensitive way when he approaches the temple. These intelligent beings have evolved through eons of time and are able to help mankind without themselves having to live in a physical body. These great Mahadevas, with their multitudes of angelic devas, live and work constantly and tirelessly for the people of our religion, protecting and guiding them, opening new doors and closing unused ones. The reality of the Mahadevas and their darshan can be experienced by the devotee through his awakened ajna vision, or more often as the physical sight of the image in the sanctum coupled with the inner knowing that He is there within the microcosm. This darshan can be felt by all devotees, becoming stronger and more defined as devotion is perfected. Through this darshan, messages can be channeled along the vibratory emanations that radiate out from the Mahadevas, as well as from their representatives, the Second World devas who carry out their work for them in shrines and altars. 4. Where Problems Can Be Dissolved Hindus always want to live near a temple so they can frequent it regularly. When we go to the temple, we leave with our mind filled with the shakti of the Deity. We are filled and thrilled with the shakti of the temple in every nerve current of our body. When we return to our home, we light an oil lamp, and that brings the power of the temple into the home. This simple act brings the devas in the Second World right into your home, where they can bless the rest of the family who perhaps did not go to the temple. The devotee stands before the sanctum and telepathically tells the Gods a problem, and with hopeful faith leaves and waits. Days or weeks later, after he had forgotten about his prayer, he suddenly realizes the problem has disappeared. He attempts to trace the source of its solution and finds that a simple, favorable play of circumstance and events brought it about. Had the Gods answered his prayer, or would it have happened anyway? He brings another prayer to the Gods, and again in time an answer appears in the natural course of his life. It appears to him that the Gods are hearing and responding to his needs. Trust and 612 love have taken root. He goes on, year after year, bringing the Gods into his secular affairs, while just as carefully the Gods are bringing him into their celestial spheres, enlivening his soul with energy, joy and intelligence. The Hindu looks to the Gods for very practical assistance. He devoutly believes that the Gods from their dwelling in the Third World are capable of consciously working with the forces of evolution in the universe and they could then certainly manage a few simpler problems. He devoutly believes that the Gods are given to care for man on the planet and see him through his tenure on Earth, and that their decisions are vast in their implications. 5. Puja Is Communion The physical representation of the God, be it a stone or metal image, a yantra or other sacred form, simply marks the place that the God will manifest in or hover above in His etheric body. It can be conceived as an antenna to receive the divine rays of the God or as the material body in or through which the God manifests in this First World. Man takes one body and then another in his progression through the cycles of birth and death and rebirth. Similarly, the Gods in their subtle bodies inhabit, for brief or protracted spans of time, these temple images. When we perform puja, a religious ritual, we are attracting the attention of the devas and Mahadevas in the inner worlds. That is the purpose of a puja; it is a form of communication. To enhance this communication, we establish an altar in the temple and in the home. This becomes charged or magnetized through our devotional thoughts and feelings, which radiate out and affect the surrounding environment. Chanting and satsanga and ceremonial rituals all contribute to this sanctifying process, creating an atmosphere to which the Gods are drawn and in which they can manifest. By the word manifest, I mean they actually come and dwell there and can stay for periods of time, providing the vibration is kept pure and undisturbed. The altar takes on a certain power. In our religion there are altars in temples all over the world inhabited by the devas and the great Gods. When you enter these holy places, you can sense their sanctity. You can feel the presence of these divine beings, and this radiation from them is known as darshan. 613 6. Dealing with Disbelief In the beginning stages of worship, a Hindu soul may have to wrestle with disbelief in the Gods. He may wonder whether they really exist, especially if his own intuition is obscured by assimilation of Western, existentialist beliefs and attitudes. Yet, he senses their existence, and this sensing brings him back to the temple. He is looking for proof, immersed in the process of coming to know the Gods for himself. He is heartened and assured by hundreds of saints and rishis who have fathomed and found close and enduring relationships with the Gods, and who then extolled their greatness in pages of scripture and chronicle. The Gods of Hinduism create, preserve and protect mankind. Their overview spans time itself, and yet their detailed focus upon the complicated fabric of human affairs is just as awesome. It is through their sanction that all things continue, and through their will that they cease. It is through their grace that all good things happen, and all things that happen are for the good. Now, you may wonder why one would put himself under this divine authority so willingly, thus losing his semblance of freedom. But does one not willingly put himself in total harmony with those whom he loves? Of course he does. And loving these great souls comes so naturally. Their timeless wisdom, their vast intelligence, their thoroughly benign natures, their ceaseless concern for the problems and well-being of devotees, and their power and sheer godly brilliance--all these inspire our love. 7.Rites of Passage A central part of every Hindu's life, samskaras are sacred rites of passage, such as coming of age and marriage, and childhood rites, including name-giving, first feeding, ear-piercing and headshaving. They are held in temples, homes or halls. You may observe samskaras in progress during your visit. Consult with the temple priest for more information. These rites usually include a puja and a homa, or fire ceremony. If you request a samskara, the priest will set an auspicious time, explain how to prepare, what to bring, and what to do during the ceremony. 614 8.Fire Rites Major pujas in temples are often preceded by a homa, or "fire-offering," among the most ancient forms of Hindu worship. Fire is the object of worship, and oblations are offered into a sanctified fire pit, which is usually made of earthen bricks. One or more priests sit near and tend the fire, offering wood, ghee, grains and dried herbs while chanting mantras from the Vedas and Agamas. The rites invoke the temple's main Deity as well as other Gods, such as Ganesha, Agni and Varuna. 9. Multiplicity of proceedings In a Hindu temple there is often a multiplicity of simultaneous proceedings and ceremonies. In one corner, an extended family, or clan, with its hundreds of tightly knit members, may be joyously celebrating a wedding. At another shrine a lady might be crying in front of the Deity, saddened by some misfortune and in need of solace. Elsewhere in the crowded precincts, a baby is being blessed, and several groups of temple musicians are filling the chamber with the shrill sounds of the nagasvaram and drum. After the puja reaches its zenith, brahmin priests move in and out of the sanctum, passing camphor and sacred ash and holy water to hundreds of worshipers crowding eagerly to get a glimpse of the Deity. All of this is happening at once, unplanned and yet totally organized. It is a wonderful experience, and such a diverse array of devotional ceremonies and such an intensity of worship can only be seen in a Hindu temple. There is no place on Earth quite like a Hindu temple." 10. Natural light better than artificial light Using as much natural light in interior spaces as much as possible has many advantage over using artificial light. Artificial light is unable to replace some effect of natural light, for example, in the morning when you wake up, natural light go through the window come to interior space. It will make people feel warm, comfortable, and festive. Natural produces positive effects, both physiological and psychological. Making good use of natural light cuts the need of artificial lighting and helps provide a feeling of well being to our everyday life. We need to maximize use of natural light. 615 In order to begin considering the inclusion of daylight in atemple, designers must have one or more compelling reasons for doing so. Most often daylight is used as either a primary or a secondary interior illuminant; but even if it is used only to provide a particular design effect, the designer must consider the impact of the light on all aspects of the building and its occupants. Many reasons can justify considering daylight as a light source both residential and commercial buildings, although some of the reasons may apply more to one building category than the other. Among the reasons is quality of the light, importance of daylight as a design element, energy conservation from the use of daylight as a primary illuminant. Natural light is a design element that some designers use as the central design determinant in their work. These designers use the need for varying quantity of natural light in different space of the building to establish the general form, spatial arrangement, and massing for the building. 11. Quality of natural light The quality of daylight as an illuminant is an important reason to use natural light in a building. Natural light combination of sunlight and skylight is the one light source that most closely matches human visual response. Natural light is a full-spectrum light. Quality of daylight is good for vision. It is provide a good visual environment. A good visual environment also affects people ability to see objects and feeling of space. 12. Natural light adds a sense of spaciousness to a room; because natural light can make the room seems larger. Spaciousness is thought to give a feeling of openness produced primarily through visual perception of a space, is a phenomenon that has been studied by a number of building environment researchers. 13. Natural light and architecture 1. Natural light keeps changing through times. Most of architects can be accurately determined and can determine the size of the space to determine the spatial orientation of light to selected materials and processing methods, artificial lighting designed space. 616 2.However, architects cannot control natural light, which from morning to night, day after day changes. Its existence gives life of space, modeling the spatial sensibility. Natural light for the space, like the air of life, these two have symbiotic relationship. Architects respond to natural light and space collision exhibited by the rich content to be thinking, attention to natural light in the space of visual forms of expression and the spirit of the great potential of creating situations, not just considered as a means to eliminate the dark. Bring natural light into interior design that many positive effects, including the considerable financial savings in energy and overall effects natural light has on well-being, as well as the challenges natural light presents. Natural light is considered a beneficial design for many reasons: human health, comfort and satisfaction, energy conservation, view. 3.Lack of natural light in a space, what will happen? Some of the modern architectures do not have windows, they use artificial lighting and ventilation by air condition, when people work in this kind of space they feel unhealthy. If there is a lack of natural light in a space, people are not able to see out to have a view cut. They will feel cooped-up, isolated and claustrophobic. It also makes people feel depressed and tensed. 4. Natural light promotes human health Lack of natural light also impacts on the health of building occupants. It becomes ever more important as light itself is nourishment. Too much artificial lighting and too little natural light affect the human health. Human’s psychological needs may include spirit, mood, atmosphere, and perception. Light creates spirit of space change atmosphere to control human emotion. 5.Natural light creates spirit of space which changes atmosphere to control human emotion. Natural light was employed to arouse feelings of mysticism and to give the blessedness of a place. Commonly identified with spiritual forces and beings due 617 to its awing powers over life on earth, light could manifest a divine presence for believers. The best example to using natural light create spirit should be a temple. Most of temple design have a dark corridor, when people enter it, light from outside go through the roof enter the space attract your eyes to look up, you will feel that light is holy and warm; they believe that god is watching over them. It is the use of visual effects that has played the role of psychological change. 6. Natural light is the only light; because it has mood and it provides a common agreement for man and it is the only light that makes architecture. Architects had started to question whether light exists in its own right, visible in itself and not only for making other things visible. Some people believe that spiritual and mystical light, apart from having a materialistic aspect due to its non-physical characteristics, is considered a kind of bond between God and man in a spiritual. 7. Vitalizing light provides mystical atmosphere. It played an active role; it lent the various, consciously selected materials every conceivable facet, modulation, and nuance of color and there by produced the atmospheric moods of light 8. Light influence mood The psychological factors should not be overlooked. People need to change perspective in order to relax the eyes and mood. 9. Light create atmosphere Light creates atmosphere. Many factors affect the building atmosphere. Natural light is one of the most important factors. In the film, a sad, mysterious and gloomy atmosphere is difficult to use bright light illumination. In space, it is the same. Architecture needs to use light to create a different order and rhythm change the spatial effect gives different atmosphere. 10.Light change human perception Light gives space luminance and energy. It is a most vivid and elements in architecture. 618 The church of the light shows the sense of natural element of light. Space is completely surrounded by concrete walls. Inside is darkness, in that darkness floats a cross of light itself. Outdoor light that has been rendered abstract by the opening in the wall impacts tension to the space and makes it sacred. Conclusion: Natural daylight is irreplaceable and is a major natural element in our life. More and more architectures design to bring natural light in to interior space to change the close space becomes natural and exciting open space. Whether a temple is modern or ancient,t they enhance use of natural light to make space look bigger and brightness. They also use light to controls people’s behavior and their emotions. It can make them happier and less stressful by lightening their mood. REFERENCES 1 Mukherji, Anuradha (2001). The holy light: a study of natural light in Hindu temples in the southern region of Tamilnadu, India (7th century AD to 17th century AD). Master's thesis, Texas A&M University. Available electronically from http : / /hdl .handle .net /1969 .1 /ETD -TAMU 2001 -THESIS -M83. 2. A Study of Light/Darkness in Sacred Settings: Digital SimulationsAnat Geva and Anuradha Mukherji,Int’l Jour.Architectural Computing,Issue 3 Vol 5,2007 Studying light/darkness and sacred architecture reveals that the“holy” light dramatizes the 619 APPENDIX Biggest Hindu Temple in the World Under Construction - Chandrodaya Mandir Chandrodaya Temple - Largest temple in the world Chandrodaya Temple - Largest Hindu Temple in the World Under Construction: A temple is being built in India, beyond which the Burj Khalifa will also fail. Among all the countries of the world, India is the only country where the most amazing things are present. Everything here is very different, be it language, culture, dress or people here, everything is different. There is so much beauty here that people from all over the world throng to see it. Amazing facts about India in hindi - world's biggest temple To further enhance the beauty of India, India is now going to have the tallest temple in the world. Which will create a different history. By now you must have heard about the tallest wall in the world from the tallest building in the world, but I am going to tell you today about the world's highest religious place and the world's tallest temple. Yes, this temple is being built in Uttar Pradesh, India. The special thing is that the foundation of this temple will be deeper than Burj Khalifa, the tallest building in the world. Let us tell you the characteristics of this temple? Interesting Facts about Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir in India: World’s Tallest Temple under Construction India is touching dizzying heights of wonder with back-to-back new constructions, including the world’s highest golf course in Assam, the world’s largest bird sculpture of Jatayu in Kerala, the world’s tallest railway bridge in Jammu & Kashmir, the world’s tallest statue of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat, the world’s tallest clock tower in Karnataka, and the world’s tallest temple in Uttar Pradesh. 620 Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir in Mathura is not only India’s but the world’s tallest temple under construction at a whopping cost of INR 700 crore which is equivalent to 102 million US dollars. Speculated to be one of the most expensive temple buildings in the world, this ISKCON temple will boast an astounding height of nearly 700 feet on completion. One of the most interesting facts about Vrindavan Chandrodaya Temple in Mathura is that its foundation is deeper than the world’s tallest sky scraper Burj Khalifa in Dubai by five meters. Burj Khalifa has got its foundation rooted 50 meters under the surface. The temple complex sprawls over 26 acres, while the temple is spread over 5 acres. The complex under construction will comprise 12 forests and four temples. The forests will be named Madhuvana, Talavana, Kumudavana, Bahulavana, Kamyavana, Khadiravana, Vrindavana, Bhadravana, Bilvavana, Lohavana, Bhandiravana and Mahavana after the twelve gardens of Braja. The forests will be modeled on the gardens described in the stories of Lord Sri Krishna. Each forest will consist of orchards, lush vegetation, green pastures, waterfalls, lotus ponds, musical fountains and artificial hillocks. The tallest structure of Vrindavan Chandrodaya 621 Mandir in Mathura will have four temples on its four ends. The temples will be dedicated to Krishna Radha, Krishna Balram, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and Swami Praphupada. There will be a heritage museum and a viewing tower with telescopes in the temple complex. Visitors can catch panoramic views of the premises, Vrindavan town and the Yamuna River from the viewing tower. The main tower of the temple will have an elevator. There will be a light and sound show on the universe’s planetary systems, as described in the Vedic literatures of India, for visitors. Various accommodation options will be there for visitors in order to facilitate their stay for a few days. The complex will also feature a skywalk from one end to the other end. The temple authority are planning to organize a night safari for devotees on demand, among other facilities. There will be a helipad too. The complex of Vrindavan Chandrodaya Temple in Mathura will have a 12-acre parking lot and a Krishna theme park with fun rides for kids as well as laser shows. Visitors will be allowed to 622 join celebration of all Indian Hindu festivals and participate in spiritual events at the temple complex throughout the year. Reportedly, welfare programs for the underprivileged children and widows of Vrindavan will be on the agenda of the temple authority. Vrindavan is a 3-hr drive from New Delhi IGI Airport, which is well connected with major US cities by Air India, Jet Airways, British Airways and other airlines. The 210-meter tower of Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir in Mathura will surpass the height of Qutub Minar by three times. You will be able to marvel at the world’s tallest temple in India Biggest Hindu Temple in theWorld Under Construction – # 1. Biggest Hindu Temple in the World Under Construction - Actually the name of this tallest temple in the world is Chandrodaya Mandir, which is being built in Vrindavan in Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh. Since it is being built in Vrindavan, it is called Chandrodaya Vrindavan Temple. 623 #2. Largest Hindu Temple in the World - Chandrodaya Mandir- This temple is being made the International Krishnabhavnama Sangh of ISKCON. The foundation stone of this temple was laid by President Pranab Mukherjee on 16 November 2014. 3. The most special thing about this temple will be that it will have about 166 floors, which are not in any temple in the world. Biggest Temple In The World # 4. Spread over 26 acres of land, 12 artificial forests will be built around this temple. These forests will be according to the 12 forests (Dvadashkanan) of Brajmandal of Krishna period, given in Srimad Bhagavat and other scriptures. There will be many hundreds of trees and many gardens in these forests. World's Biggest Temple # 5. The temple is spread over a total of 70 acres. Which will have car-parking facility on 12 acres, and also a helipad. Apart from this, there will also be a Krishna theme park where light and sound shows will be arranged. Largest Hindu Temple # 6. The special thing will be that the main temple will be a mixture of traditional Nagara architecture and modern architecture. # 7. Arjunnath, associated with Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir, told a special conversation with IBN Khabar that the total cost of construction of this temple will be Rs 700 crore. He told that about 25 companies of India and abroad are engaged in the construction of this temple. Everyone considers India as a religious place. Every place here sees a different beauty. After the construction of the Chandrodaya temple, another title will be added to India's account. And this is not just the duty of some people, it is also ours that together we should increase the identity of India and all this will be successful only together. # 8. Arjunnath told that there will be a total of 511 blocks of the temple, which will be constructed by March next year. He informed that construction of 140 blocks has been completed so far. 624 # 9. Chandrodaya Mandir will be the tallest temple in the world. The height of this temple will be about 210 meters. While the height of the entire building will be 828 meters. The temple will have a foundation of 55 meters, higher than the foundation of Burj Khalifa, the world's tallest building in Dubai. # 10. According to Arjunnath, the height of this temple will be 3 times higher than the Qutub Minar, the Mughal historical building in India. # 11. Arjunnath told that about 10 thousand devotees will be able to have darshan together in the temple while 1 lakh people can gather at the time of celebration or festival. . Srila Prabhupada in a lecture in front of Rupa Goswami Samadhi Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir is an under construction temple at Vrindavan, Mathura, India. As planned, it wil 625 l be the tallest religious monument in the world. At its potential cost of ₹300 crore (US$42 million) it is likely to be one of the most expensive temples in world. The temple has been planned by ISKCON Bangalore. The planned effort includes the temple rising to a height of about 700 feet (213 meters or 70 floors) and a built-up area of 540,000 sq. ft. (~50,000 sq. m.)[4] The project is set in 62 acres of land and includes 12 acres for parking and a helipad.[5] In 1972, Srila Prabhupada, the founder and Acharya of ISKCON spoke about the principle of Yukta Vairāgya right in front of the Bhajan Kutir (a simple and austere dwelling of an ascetic primarily intended to perform his spiritual activities like chanting Krishna's names, writing and teaching) of Sri Rupa Goswami (see picture) to his dozen or more western disciples who were accompanying him on a visit to Vrindavan, India. He said: Just like we have got a tendency to construct a skyscraper building. As in your country, you do. So you should not attached to the skyscraper building, but you can utilize the tendency by 626 constructing a big temple like skyscraper for Krishna. In this way, you have to purify your material activities. — Srila Prabhupada's lecture in Vrindavan, 29 October 1972[6] Inspired by this vision and statement of Srila Prabhupada, the devotees of ISKCON Bangalore or the ritviks conceived the Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir project to build a skyscraper temple for Lord Sri Krishna. The foundation stone laying ceremony of Chandrodaya temple in Mathura district was done on 16 March 2014, on the eve of the auspicious occasion of Holi Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir underconstruction Madhu Pandit Dasa had a meeting with President Pranab Mukherjee where he briefed him about the idea of creating the temple. In March 2014, the Uttar Pradesh Chief minister Akhilesh Yadav inaugurated the project. and on 16 November 2014, the President of India, Pranab Mukherjee laid the foundation stone of the temple.The temple building is in under construction. Planned amenities  Helipad.  12 acres of parking for vehicles.  Canteen for food and drinks.  An indoor Radha-Krishna recreational park.  Krishna heritage museum.  There will be telescopes placed on the top floor from where people can see entire Vrindavan.  Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir Theme Park.  A viewing tower provide some glimpses to the grand temple.  A capsule elevator will rise up through the temple core. 627  Different planetary systems in the universe as described in the Vedic literatures, through an immersive sound, light and diorama show.  Varieties of housing and accommodation are part of the project to facilitate the visitors to stay for a few days  A gentle gurgling Yamuna creek will also be recreated in the forests which shall also provide a boating opportunity for the visitors. For those who wish to walk, there will be a path build for a skywalk.  Temple will be surrounded by about 30 acres of wooded area that constitute recreated forests of Braj.  The temple will have a viewing tower on the top and one can enjoy panoramic views of Mathura, Agra and river Yamuna from there.  A night safari will also be organised by the temple 628 Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir, currently under construction (2016), is set to become the world’s tallest religious skyscraper. Located in the Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh, India, the Hindu temple will have a footprint of around 5 acres and reach a height of 213 m (700 ft). It is being built by ISKCON Bangalore at a cost of 300 crore (US$45 million), making it one of the most expensive temples ever built. 629 Designed by Indian practice InGenious Studio, the rocket ship-like tiered building combines traditional Nagara architecture with the sleek elegance of modernist design. The two distinct features of Nagara temple architecture are:  In plan, the temple is a square with the middle of each side having a number of graduated projections resulting in a cruciform shape.  In elevation, a Shikhara (tower), gradually inclines inwards in a convex curve. There is strong emphasis on vertical lines in the elevations. Much more than just a temple, the structure will include a theme park, drawing inspiration from Vedic literature. A capsule elevator will take visitors through an immersive ‘light and sound experience’ up to a viewing deck. 630 The temple will commemorate the Hindu deity Lord Sri Krishna, who is said to have grown up in Vrindavan. Surrounding the temple, 26 acres of forest will be cultivated to emulate the descriptions given by Krishna of the 12 forests of Braj. The project is expected to be funded by donations from devotees, as well as by the sale of apartments and villas that will be built in the vicinity of the temple complex. The foundation stone was laid in November 2014, and the project is scheduled for completion in 2019. 631 632 633 634 About the temple Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir is the world’s tallest temple under-construction at Vrindavan, Mathura, India. At cost of INR300 crore (US$49 million) it will be one of the most expensively built temple in world by ISKCON. The temple has a footprint of about 5 acres and rises to a height of about 700 feet (213 meters or 70 floors) and a built-up area of 5,40,000 sq. ft. The temple is planned to be vibrant with festivals and religious activities throughout the year. A look-alike of the verdant forests of Vrindavan will be recreated around this magnificent temple. It will be spread over a sprawling 26 acres, it will consist of the twelve forests (dvadashakanana) of Braj, with varieties of lush vegetation, green pastures, elegant vistas of fruit bearing trees, flower laden creepers serenaded by bird songs, clear water lakes with lotuses and lilies and water falls that tumble from small artificial hillocks – all recreated from descriptions in the SrimadBhagavatam and other source books of Lord Sri Krishna – to transport the visitors to Krishna’s times in Vrindavan. The project is set in 62 acres of land and will includes 12 acres for parking and a helipad.. The structural design has been outsourced to a US-based company, TRC Worldwide Engineering Brentwood. Structural design advisor’s are from Civil Engineering Department IIT and Sanrachna Consultants, New Delhi. The lead architects are Ingenious Studio Pvt Ltd. Quintessence Design Studio will carry out landscaping for the whole temple area. HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) will be installed by Gupta Consultants & Associates. All the electricals and wiring will be done with the help of WBG Consultants. The temple, with a traditional Nagra architecture at the entrance, will have elements of a glass façade that would stretch to the 70th floor. 635 ABOUT THE AUTHORS Ms.SRISHTI DOKRAS B.Arch. (Institute for Design Education and Architectural Studies) Nagpur India Visiting Architect, Australia & USA Consultant - Design and Architecture, EsselworldGorewada International Zoo- Largest in Asia DrUdayDokras B.Sc., B.A.(Managerial Economics), LLB. Nagpur University,India Graduate Studies,Queen’s University, Canada MBA (CALSTATE,USA) Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University,Sweden Ph.D (Management) Stockholm University, Sweden Currently- CONSULTANT- Gorewada International Zoo, Nagpur,India- Largest Zoo and Safari in Asia __________________________________________________________ 2 TTemple Tech. 636 CHAPTER I -INTRODUCTION Why TEMPLES NOW and NOT EARLIER when the Gods lived on this EARTH? 7 Age of temples 8 The rise of the Gupta Empire 9 HINDU TEMPLE PLAN 10 VastuShastra 10 The temple plan 10 Garbhagriha 10 Shikara or Vimanam Antarala11 Mandapa11 Amalaka11 Gopuram11 SthalaVruksham11 Thirtham12 .Vahana12 .Passage Way (antara-mandala): 12 Flag post (dhwajastamba): 12 sacrificial altar (The Balipitha):12 Lamp post (Dipastamba): 12 Surrounding wall (Prakara): 12 Additional structures: 12 The importance of the SQUARE13 Preparation of the site:14 Legand of Vastu 15 Initiated by a patron (yajamana 15 Temple Craftsmen 16 Land 18 Use of stones and other construction materials in India 20 Ownership of land 21 REFERENCES of SECTION A 23 SECTION B Yantra, Mantra, and Mandala 29 Vastu Importance 32 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUND: 33 Shape of Plot 34 SILANYASA 36 Example 36 Evolution of Temple Architecture 41 scientific reasons behind the rituals in Hinduism according ancient texts 41 SANCTUM MAHAMANDAPAM DWAJASTHAMBA RAJAGOPURAM43 Construction Tech 45 CHAPTER II The South Indian Hindu temple building design system- On the architecture of the Silpa Sastra and the Dravida style K. J. Oijevaar,2007.Delft University of Technology 49 Introduction 49 Vastu Purusha 50 637 Orientation - The gnomon 54 Zoning in the temple – Using the grid 55 CHAPTER III Temples Vastu Shastra 62 Origin of Vastu Shastra 62 Ayadi Calculations :66 There are eight types of Aaya’s representing each direction 75 Amsa 76-77 Kalamruta method 78 The Historical Background: 82 There are saying like Nadi Shotriyo Raja Devagyo Na Chikitasak Tatra Vaso Na Kartavaya 85 Dushta Bharya Shath Mitra Bhratiyaschottar Dayak;85 Sasarpe Ch Grahey Vaso Mirturev Na Sanshaya.85 Roots 84 45 celestial beings, out of whom 32 from without and 13 from within caught hold of the devotee.88 Results of Doors in 32 Padas 89 Temple Vastu 91 Theory of Indian Temple Architecture & Hindu Vastu-shastra 91 Religious Vaastu – Temples 95 CHAPTER IV-Earth’s magnetic fields and Temple Construction and Location 100 Where a Temple Should Be Constructed/Located? 100 Geomagnetic field 103 Study finds evidence for a human magnetic sense that lets your brain detect the Earth’s magnetic field 109 Idol Worship 112 Temple location 114 Vimana 119 This is a Tantra mechanism 119 The Lotus 121 The Purnakumbha 121 Fruits and Leaves 121 Naivedya or Prasad 122 Ringing Bells: 122 Aroma Theropy: Sound healing- Lighting Camphour and offering flowers: 122 638 The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana 125 vastu directional chakara 125 Vastu treatise 126 Shilpa meaning 128 Paintingz 129 Guilds 131 Pancharath 134 Konark Sun Temple (Konark Surya Mandir 135 Pancha Rathas (also known as Five Rathas or Pandava Rathas) is a monument complex at Mahabalipuram, 136 The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram 139 Ratha temples 145 Drawings of the temple interior made in 1880 Section of Dharmaraja Ratha, Panikkar, K. M. (1880) The Cave Temples of India James Burgess and James Fergusson. Section by R. Chisholm 148 CHAPTER- Hindu temples as a Mandala 152 MANDALA AND THE BINDU 154 What are yantras? How is it useful? 155 Types 156 The Science of Yantras by Sadguru 159 Mandala in Hinduism 161 Mandala in Buddhism 161 Mandala design of INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL CENTER FOR THE ARTS, 1986, NEW DELHI – 163-64 Symbology of Mandalas 165 History 166 Teaching Mandala 167 Healing Mandala 167 Sand Mandala168 Wheel with eight spokes: 168 Uses 168 Traditional meanings169 Elephant 170 Flower 171 Circle 174 Geometric 176 The Importance Of Sacred Mount Meru 177 Description of Mount Meru in the Puranas 181 Example of the Borubudur Temple in Central Java: 188-195 Mysteries of the Temple Complex A.ANGKOR WAT HINDU TEMPLE IN CAMBODIA AS A MANDALA 196- 230 B. The Borobodur Temple (Stupa) as a MANDALA 231-245 C. HINDU CAMBODIAN Temple designs- and Hindu Cosmology 246-259 639 CHAPTER VI- VASTUPADDViNYASA—THE PLAN 260 Site 161 Analysis 161 Planning 162 Transportation 162 Tabulation of common terms 262-272 Exceptions to the square grid principle 275 Schools of temple building tradition 278 64 SQUARES DIAGRAM 282 81 SQUARES DIAGRAM 283 Name of Vastus 286 Slope 291 Extension 292 Location of Plot 298 VASTUPARIKSA 301 The Hindu order consists of four principles: 304 Sthamba or pillar and the thickness of walls 310 Prastára or entablature 314 Intercolumniation 316 The building order 316 PROPORTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE Minakshi Rajput Singh 318 Study of Golden Ratio in Architecture 319 Sriyantra Related to Divine Ratio 319 The King And Queen of the Golden Triangles 321 The Family of the Golden Triangles 321 Study of Ancient Indian Temple Architecture 322 Sriyantra and Its Two Types 322 Study of Lakshamana Temple at Khajuraho and the Possible Derivation from Sriyantra323 Lotus temple at Delhi 325- 334 C H A P T E R VIII-HINDU TEMPLE AND THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BODY: COMPARISON 335 Manipura Chakra manipura chakra 341 Chakras are vital energy points (Kundalini energy 343 Symbolism of the temple 348 CHAPTER IX- Temple Gopuram as Cosmos & spiritual light house 354 MANDALA: Religious meaning 358 MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 361 Angkor wat 362 Mandala in Meenakshi temple Madurai with biggest GOPURAMs in the world -Temple Structure 364 Ayirakkal Mandapam – It literally translates to ‘hall with thousand pillars.’366. Kilikoondu Mandapam – This ‘mandapam’ was originally built to house hundreds of parrots. 366 Ashta Shakthi Mandapam – This hall houses the sculptures of eight goddesses. 366 Nayaka Mandapam – 100 pillar hall 366 640 The Vastu Purush Mandala is a cosmic geometrical wonder 377 Image of the Universe: 377 DECODING THE DEVTAS & ASURAS The 45 Energy Fields PADAVINAYASA ModularGrid 377 BRAHMA DEVTASvsASURAS THE ETERNAL WAR- Energy Fields Next to Brahma ARYAMA 377 CHAPTER X-START OF THE CIVIL WORKS 382 Gridlines 382 Nakshatra list 394 temple complex being looked upon as a representation of Sri Chakra. 406 The divine dance of Lord Nataraja 409 Mandapam or the Temple Hall- The sculptures 414 Wall Lines and Grid: 414 CHAPTER XI- Architectural Characteristics of the Jain “Temples” and Hindu temples 419 PLAN OF THE TEMPLE 426 HINDU TEMPLE -JAIN TEMPLES 426 Proximity of Jain Temple Architecture to Hindu temples: 428 Four sided form: 428 Mathematics and TEMPLES OF JAIN RELIGION 428 SYNTHETIC CHARACTER OF JAIN ARCHITECTURE 429 Meaning 431 Temple city 438 Algorithms 440 Chaturmukh 444 Temple examples 450 CHAPTER XII-The Vedī (Plinth) in Hindu & Jain Temple Architecture 470 PARTS OF A JAIN TEMPLE475 1. ASPRĀKĀRA – HIGH BOUNDARY WALL 475 2. JAGATĪ OR VEDĪ – PLATFORM 475 ARDHAMANDAPA – FRONT PORCH. 475 4. MANDAPA – HALL 475 5. ANTARĀLA – INTERMEDIATE CHAMBER 476 6. PRADAKSHINA PATHA – CIRCUMAMBULATION PASSAGEWAY 475 7. SHIKHARA – TOWER or SPIRE475 8. GAMBHARA – INNER SANCTUM 475 Ideology of Design:476 The Plinth 476 Uses of Vedi 477 CHAPTER XIII-IDOLS IN HINDUISM 483 Murti 484 Material: 489 A collection of modern-day murti 492 Hindu is a cultural identity 502 The Hindu Way of Life 503 The Science of Idol-Making 503 The practice of Idol Worship in Hinduism 505 641 The Idol—A Prop For The Spiritual Neophyte 512 EVERYONE AN IDOL-WORSHIPPER 513 MEDIUM FOR ESTABLISHING COMMUNION WITH GOD 513 Symbol of God 515 Virat 515 REGULAR WORSHIP UNVEILS THE DIVINITY IN THE IDOL 516 ALIVE IDOLS 517 FROM RITUALISTIC BHAKTI TO PARA BHAKTI 520 Philosophy of Sacred Hindu Symbols 528 Faith and Idols 530 Temples have amazing science behind their structure and conception 532 Strategic placement of the idol 523 THE IDEA OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE 546 CHAPTER XIV -ROCKS AS A TEMPLE MATERIAL 551 Introduction to Rock-cut architecture 551 First wave of construction (2nd century BCE–4th century CE) 553 Second wave of cave construction (5th–6th century CE 553 Final wave of cave construction (6th–15th century CE 554 Free Standing Rock temples 555 Water bodies 557 Examples of Complex Rock-Cut Architecture complexes 558 Early Caves 559 Cave temples 560 Monolithic Rock-Cut Temples 562 Udaigiri and Badami Cave temples 563 The Ellora caves 506 The Ajanta caves 575 CHAPTER XV- CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND BUILDING ELEMENTS 577 Rock Cut Technique 583 Ceiling Typologies with respect to Functional Spaces 584 Typology of Pillars 591 CHAPTER XVI-Lighting in ancient Temples 598 The treatment of light 599 Diwali 599 Significance of Diyas 600’Hindu temples not alike 602 Every temple unique 602 Light is the soul of architecture design 603 Spiritual state and affects the mood of the user in the sacred space.605 What is Passive Daylighting? 606 One God, Many Gods 611 642 Temples Are Transformative! 612 Three Worlds Communing 612 Where Problems Can Be Dissolved 613 Puja Is Communion 613 Dealing with Disbelief 415 Rites of Passage 416 Fire Rites 416 Multiplicity of proceedings 416 Natural light better than artificial light 416 1. Natural light keeps changing through times 416 2.However, architects cannot control natural light, 617 3.Lack of natural light in a space, what will happen?617 4. Natural light promotes human health 618 5.Natural light creates spirit of space which changes atmosphere to control human emotion 618 6. Natural light is the only light; 619 7. Vitalizing light provides mystical atmosphere. 619 8. Light influence mood 619 9. Light create atmosphere 619 10.Light change human perception 620 Conclusion:620 BIGGEST TEMPLE IN THE WORLD 621 About the Authors 638 Detailed Contents 639 643 Dr UDAY DOKRAS PhD (Stockholm) T 2 T T E E C M H P L E 644 2 T Temple Tech 645