Tantric S´ aivism in Early Medieval India: Recent Research and Future Directions

Shaman Hatley

Concordia University

Abstract

This essay reviews the state of the study of Tantric or ‘Esoteric’ Saivism in early medieval India, circa 500—1200 C.e. Focusing on research published over the past decade, the discussion covers the following subjects: early scriptural literature (the Saiva tantras or agamas), exegetical and philosophi­cal traditions, ritual and yoga, the roots of Tantric Saivism, intersections between tantra, purana, and the medieval temple, and debates concerning the relationship between Saivism and Tantric Buddhism. The essay concludes with a discussion of recent progress in reconstructing the historical contexts of early medieval Saivism, with a call for further inquiry into its social history.

Introduction

Although long neglected, study of Asia’s tantric traditions has blossomed in recent dec­ades. While particularly true of Tantric Buddhism, considerable advances have been made in the study of the Hindu tantric traditions as well. These comprise cults of a variety of deities in which texts known as tantras (as well as dgama and saiiiliitd) form the principal scriptural authorities, and which are characterized by systems of practice centered upon self-divinization (Flood 2006, pp. 9—15) and the application of mantra for the purposes of both liberation and occult power. The most influential branches of Hindu Tantra are the Vaisnava tradition of the Pancaratra and the Saiva ‘Path of Mantras’ (mantramdrga), in modem scholarship known generally as ‘Saiva Tantra’ or ‘Tantric Saivism’ — the focus of the present essay.

Tantric forms of Saivism come into evidence around the sixth century c.e. (Sanderson 2001, pp. 2—14), and within a short period become integral to the religious landscape of early medieval South and Southeast Asia, which for the present purposes I define as circa 6th—12th century c.e. Indeed, Saivism — including, if not especially, its tantric varieties — was prominent enough in early medieval India that Alexis Sanderson (2009), the most eminent scholar of the tradition, has recently declared this ‘the Saiva age.’ Others have also advanced bold arguments concerning the significance of Tantric Saivism (White 2003, pp. 2—7), and Hindu Tantra more broadly (Brooks 1999, p. ix), to the history and historiography of Hinduism. Consensus will undoubtedly take time to emerge, given that much of the data is only slowly becoming available; knowledge of the tantric traditions has long been hampered by the degree to which primary sources remain unpublished, understudied, and/or untranslated, when they survive at all. However, in the case of Sai­vism, the situation has steadily improved, and we can anticipate further major advances in the coming years.

Published in 1988, Sanderson’s ‘Saivism and the Tantric Traditions’ remains an excel­lent introduction to Tantric Saivism, mapping its varieties and their historical relationships with unprecedented insight. A lucid and more accessible introduction, surveying both tantric and lion-tantric forms of Saivism, is provided by Gavin Flood (2003). My purpose here is hence not to introduce or survey Tantric Saivism, but to review the state of the field and recent research. I will focus primarily on scholarship published over the past decade, although neither exclusively nor comprehensively, dividing the discussion into the following areas: the early scriptural literature, the exegetical and philosophical tradi­tions, Saiva ritual and yoga, the Atimarga and the roots of the Tantric Saiva tradition, Tantric Saivism in relation to the pnrdpas and temple worship, the relationship between Saiva and Buddhist tantric traditions, and Saivism in early medieval history.

The Early Tantras: Saina Scriptural Literature

Tantric Saiva accounts of revelation posit scripture emanating from the five faces of Sadasiva in ‘streams’ or ‘currents' (srotas). Two of these correspond to the primary histori­cal divisions within Tantric Saivism. First and probably more ancient is the cult of Sadasiva, generally referred to as the Saivasiddhanta (or Shaiva Siddhanta, etc.), for which texts called Siddhdntatantras form the principal scriptural authorities. Although today associated with Tamilnadu, home of a living tradition, the early medieval Saivasiddhanta was influential across the subcontinent. The second and more diverse ‘non-Saiddhantika’ division, the ‘Bhairava current' (bhairavasrotas), comprises cults of Bhairava — Siva in his guise as a fierce skullbearing ascetic (kapalin) — and a variety of goddesses, the early scrip­tural sources for which are designated Bhairavatantras (‘Tantras of Bhairava’).

It is within this stream that the Kaula (‘of the Clans [of goddesses']) systems emerge from as early as the eighth century, some of which remain influential even now (e.g. Srividya, and the cults of Kali in Bengal and Kerala). Although rooted in Tantric Saivism, these are also ‘Sakta’ or sakta-saiva insofar as goddesses (sakti) occupy positions of cultic and/or theologi­cal preeminence. It is the Bhairanatantras and Kaula tantras which form the scriptural back­ground to the lion-dualist exegetical tradition of Kashmir, while the Siddhdntatantras form the basis for the dualist exegesis of authors such as Sadyojyotis and Bhatta Ramakantha.

The remaining three streams are historically important, but poorly preserved: the cult of the Sisters (bhagini) of Tumburu (Siva as celestial musician) taught in the Vannitantras (‘Tantras of the Leftward Stream’); that of the Bhiitafantras, focused largely upon exorcistic magic; and that of the Garudatantras, focused primarily upon apotropaic and/or medicinal magic. While most research has focused upon the two major streams, new discoveries have also enriched our knowledge of more minor ones, as well as the tantric cult of Surya, the Sun (e.g. Acharya 2009; Sanderson 2001, pp. 13—14; Sanderson 2009, pp. 50— 51; Slouber 2007).

In one of his inimitable footnotes, Sanderson (2001, n. 1) has compiled a list of 122 tantras which the pre-twelfth century ‘Kashmirian authors show that they have direct knowledge of — 132 when augmented by texts mentioned in the Prayascittasanmccaya by Hdayasiva of Malwa. Some pre-twelfth century tantras not quoted by these authors also survive in manu­scripts.2 In addition, many early tantric works contain lists of tantras, which, to the extent that these texts actually existed, adds dozens of additional titles to the list (see, e.g., the Snkanthiyasanihitd [Hanneder 1998, pp. 237—68]). An assessment of how many of the pre­twelfth century Saiva tantras survive might be premature, but the number appears to be less than sixty; of these, only approximately twenty have appeared in printed editions, in whole or in part, including texts edited in doctoral theses as yet unpublished (Hatley 2007; Torzsok 1999).

And aside from two short works, the Vijnanabhairava (Singh 1979; Silbum 1999) and Vindsikhdtantra (Goudriaan 1985), it seems only the Mrgendragama (Hulin 1980; Brunner 1985), Rauravdgama (Dagens & Barazer-Billoret 2000), Yogiriihrdaya (Padoux 1994), and Nitydwd asikdrnava (Finn 1986) have been translated in whole, the former three into French and the latter into English.3 Quality is also a serious issue: relatively little of the literature which has reached publication takes into consideration all the available manuscript evidence. In other words, the early scriptural literature surviving in manuscripts represents a small fraction of what must have once existed, and the study of the surviving literature remains at an early stage. When one takes into consideration post-eleventh century litera­ture as well, the quantity of unpublished Hindu tantric texts expands exponentially.

Our knowledge of the scriptural literature of the Saivasiddhanta owes much to two large-scale publication endeavors based out of Tamilnadu. The first of these resulted in the publication series of the Saiva Siddhanta Paripalana Sangha (‘Organization for Preserv­ing the Saivasiddhanta’) of Devakottai during the first quarter of the 20th century. In early post-independence India, a major, ongoing project was commenced under the direction of Jean Filliozat. Based at the French research centers in Pondicherry (Institut Francais de Pondichery and Ecole framjaise d’Extreme-Orient), this endeavor has focused on the collection and transcription of Saivasiddhanta manuscripts and the preparation of critical editions, translations (primarily into French), and studies.

Special mention is war­ranted for the exceptional contributions of N. R. Bhatt (1. 1920—2009), which include critical editions of such fundamental texts as the Mrgendra (-tantra/dgama), Matahgapdramesvara (with the commentary of Ramakantha), and Raurava; and of Helene Brunner (1. 1920—2005), whose studies and translations illuminate innumerable dimensions of Saivism, especially ritual.

Their work has been carried forward most notably by Domi­nic Goodall, whose editions of early exegetical and scriptural works (Goodall 1998, 2004) of the Saivasiddhanta set new philological standards. Building upon the work of Sander­son and Brunner, Goodall (2004, pp. xiii—xxxiv) also contributes much needed clarity concerning the wide gulf separating the theology, ritual, and scriptural canon of the early pan-Indian Saivasiddhanta from those of the post-twelfth century South Indian tradition, though scholars frequently conflate these (note, e.g., Dhavamony 2005). Other recent products of Indo-French collaboration on the Saivasiddhanta include editions of the Ajita- mahatantra (Bhatt et al. 2005) and the Diptdgama (Barazer-Billoret et al. 2004-2009).

The state of knowledge of the more numerous and diverse early non-Saiddhantika tantras is comparatively poor, although it has improved considerably in the interval since the pub­lication of Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta’s survey of the literature (1981). While many key Saiva scriptural works, such as the Svacchandatantra (Kaul Shastri 1921—35), have been published on the basis of Kashmiri manuscripts, much attention is now being given to tantric texts transmitted (often exclusively) in Nepalese manuscripts. Knowledge of and access to these materials have been facilitated by the remarkable work of the Nepal-Ger­man Manuscript Preservation Project, which microfilmed more than 180,000 Nepalese manuscripts between 1970 and 2001.5 Research has been facilitated by a provisional list of titles made available m 2002.

It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of this collection, which has provided, tor instance, unique manuscripts of a Jain canonical text that was pre­sumed lost (Acharya 2007b), the original Skandapurdna (Adriaensen et al. 1998), and the Nisvasatattvasamhitd — probably the earliest extant work of tantric Saiva literature (Goodall & Isaacson 2007), currently being edited by Sanderson and Goodall.

Relying upon Nepa­lese manuscripts, the cult of the hunched-back goddess Kubjika has received particular scrutiny, with critical editions and studies of the Kubjikdmata (Goudriaan & Schoterman 1988; Heilijgers-Seelen 1994) as well as portions of the Satsdhasrasamhitd (Schoterman 1982) and Manthdnabliairavatantra (Dyczkowski 2009). Knowledge of the early Saiva cult of yoginis has also advanced through studies and partial editions of the Siddhayogesvanmata (Tbrzsok 1999, 2000) and Brahmaydmala (Hatley 2007).

The difficulties associated with working on this material suggest that progress will remain slow: a number of the unpublished tantras, such as the 24,000-thousand verse Jayadrathaydmala, are massive, or contain vexing textual problems. Such works could require decades for a single individual to critically edit, besides an unusual commitment from a publisher. For instance, Mark Dyczkowski’s (2009) monumental study, critical edition, and translation of one book of the Manthanabhairauatantra - the Kunidrikhanda - was prepared over a twenty-year period and occupies fourteen volumes.

Another level of difficulty lies in the peculiarities of the Middle-Indie influenced hybrid Sanskrit in which much of the literature is written — in emic terms referred to as Aisa, ‘the lan­guage of the Lord,’ to the study of which Judit Torzsok has made a major contribution (1999, pp. xxvi—lxix). The philological difficulties are compounded by the difficulties in locating these anonymous texts in time and place; while plausible relative chronologies can be established among select works (see e.g. Sanderson 2001), precise estimates gen­erally remain elusive. An example of the challenges and possibilities involved in situat­ing tantras in historical context is provided by Sanderson’s study of the Netratantra (2005b).

Saiva Exegetical Traditions

The academic study of Tantric Saivism derived great impetus from the largescale colo­nial-era editing ja reject represented by the Kashmir Series of Texts and Studies (c. 1911— 1947, for the Saiva works). Focused upon the non-dual Saiva exegetical literature of Kashmir, but including much more, the ksts made available a substantial corpus of Saiva documents, ranging from editions of key early scriptural texts, such as the Svacchandatantra and Maliriivijayottara, to the exegetical works of the Kashmirian polymath Abhinavagupta (fl. c. 975—1025 c.e.) and other authors of his lineage.

It is this rich tradition of non­dualist exegesis which has entered discourse on Indian philosophy and religion under the rubric of ‘Kashmir Shaivism.’ However, as Sanderson pointed out long ago (1983), the designation is misleading given that Kashmir was also an important center for the dualist and more orthodox Saivasiddhanta exegesis. The rubric ‘Trika’ (the ‘triad’ of goddesses, Para, Parapara, and Apara) or ‘Trika Saivism’ also seems inappropriate, for this intimates a cultic affiliation rather than a doctrinal system or set of related systems.

The rich corpus of non-dual Saiva exegesis has long attracted scholarly interest. Dycz- kowski (1989) remains a useful overview of non-dualist Saiva thought, and we now have the benefit of Sanderson’s erudite survey of the Kashmirian literature (2007b), both dual­ist and non-dualist, which is particularly valuable for its historical insights and treatment of lesser-known texts and authors. Much of the scholarly literature on non-dual Saivism has consisted of the translation and exposition of key texts or sections thereof (e.g. Pandey 1954; Gnoli 1999 [1972], 1990; Rastogi 1987; Dyczkowski 1992a,1992b; Sferra 1999; Torella 2002 [1994], 2007a,b,c,d etc; Hanneder 1998; Silbum & Padoux 1998; Dupuche 2003; Nemec 2005; Sanderson 2005a; Lawrence 2008).

This remains a vital mode of scholarship, for most of the exegetical works have not received detailed studies and remain untranslated. Monographs focused upon specific themes in Saiva doc­trine include Andre Padoux’s classic investigation of conceptions of sound and language (1990) — note also Torella’s (2004) and Sferra’s (2007) contributions to this subject — Paul Muller-Ortega’s phenomenological study of Abhinavagupta (1989), Jurgen Hanneder’s analysis of the Mdliriislokavarttika (1998), explicating Abhinavagupta’s complex vision of revelation and the canon, and David Lawrence’s philosophical inquiry into the Prat- yabhijna, ‘the doctrine of recognition’ (1999).

The dualist exegetical tradition of the Saivasiddhanta has attracted somewhat less atten­tion, but recent scholarship has advanced understanding considerably of two principal thinkers: Sadyojyotis (Borody 2005; Filliozat 1994, 2001; Sanderson 2006a) and the Kashmirian Bhatta Ramakantha (Goodall 1998; Goodall et al. 2008; Watson 2006). Sanderson (2006a) has made a strong argument for dating the former, proposing c. 675—725 c.e. as the most plausible period of activity, while Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat (2001) and Alex Watson (2006) have furthered knowledge of these authors’ respective doctrinal works.

T he editions of previously unpublished works of Bhatta Ramakantha (Goodall 1998; Goodall et al. 2008) represent particularly important contributions. Perhaps the greatest contribution to the study of dualist exegesis concerns ritual rather than doctrine, however: Brunner’s magnum opus, a copiously annotated four-volume translation of the Somasambhupaddliati (Brunner 1963—1998). A work of Aghorasiva, the famous 12th-century South Indian exe- gete, has also been re-edited recently with excellent annotation (Goodall et al. 2005) — the Pancavarapastava, concerned with the visualization of Sadasiva and his retinue.

Despite its richness and the long availability of textual sources, Saiva thought has been slow to enter the canon of ‘Indian philosophy,’ much less enter into dialogue with other theological and philosophical traditions. Recent scholarship does much to redress this sit­uation. Watson (2006) examines Bhatta Ramakantha’s arguments against the Buddhist doctrine of no-self in commendable detail, thereby situating the early Saivasiddhanta per­spective within one of the key debates of Indian philosophy.

Lawrence (1999, 2008), in contrast, examines the non-dualist Pratyabhijna (‘doctrine of recognition’) in the context of comparative philosophy, with inquiry into areas such as proofs for the existence of God (1999), deconstruction (1999), and narcissism (2008, pp. 39—58). Isabelle Ratie, for her part, has contributed impressive studies on subjectivity and memory in the Prat­yabhijna (2007a), as well as the ethical issues of alterity (2007b) and altruism (2009). While the existing body of research has become substantial and is often of high quality, most areas of the field still call for further endeavor, and in my opinion warrant a combi­nation of philological and historical as well as constructive and comparative approaches.

Ritual and Yoga

As mentioned, study of Saiva practice systems has benefitted enormously from Brunner’s annotated four-volume translation of the Somasambhupaddliati (Brunner 1963—1998), an 11th-century text of the genre dedicated to delineating ritual procedures, the paddhati. This comprises a rich scholarly resource, as illustrated by Heinrich von Stietencron (2005, ch. 10), who draws upon it as source material for querying medieval conceptions of reli­gious identity and the modern idea of‘Hinduism.’ Knowledge of the technical terminol­ogy of Saiva ritual, among other subjects, also benefits from the Tantrikabhidhdnakosa (‘Hindu Tantric Dictionary’), of which Brunner was a founding editor; two of five pro­jected volumes have so far been published (Brunner et al. 2000—2004).

While most aspects of Saiva ritual remain understudied, the liturgy of the medieval South Indian Saiva temple is an exception owing to Richard Davis’ insightful (and ele­gantly crafted) monograph (1991), based primarily upon the Kamikagama. A more recent volume edited by Gudrun Buhnemann (2003) advances understanding of mandalas and yantras across the Saiva, Smaita, and Pancaratra traditions, with essays by leading scholars in their subfields. The subject of mantra will also be enriched by publication of Padoux’s collected essays on the subject, in English translation (Padoux, forthcoming).

Jun Takashima has contributed studies on both initiation (Takashima 1992) and installation (pratistha) (2005), rich and important fields for future research. Kaula sexual ritual has received com­paratively detailed treatment: John Dupuche (2003) provides an annotated translation of chapter 29 of Abhinavagupta's Tantrdloka, on the subject of the erotic ‘clan rite’ (ku- layaga), while David White (2003) aims to reconstruct the earliest form of‘tantric sex,’ as situated within the contexts of cosmology, myth, and history. Rich and original, the lat­ter nonetheless draws on a relatively small portion of the relevant early sources, most of which are unpublished, and thus overlooks what appears to be the earliest variety of Saiva coital ritual (Hatley, forthcoming).

Saivism developed elaborate and highly influential systems of yoga, within a framework of six limbs (sadahga) rather than the eight of Patanjali’s Yogasutra. Knowledge of this subject has been enriched considerably by Somadeva Vasudeva’s erudite study of the Kaula yoga of the Malinivijayottara (2004), which he partially re-edits. His focus is upon this text’s yoga of the ‘conquest of the levels of reality' (tattvajaya), as well as the yoga of six limbs and ‘yogic suicide’ (utkranti). The complexity and richness of the subject is illustrated by the face that Vasudeva’s study (2004) and the earlier work of Dory Heilijgers-Seelen (1994) each explicate only one of multiple systems contained within their source texts (the Maliriivijayottara and Kubjikdmata, respectively).

A more conceptual approach to tantric yoga is offered by Flood (2006), whose sophisticated interpretation of the ‘tantric body’ focuses on the processes by which praxis inscribes or ‘entextualises’ the body with knowledge, especially of cosmology, as mediated by text and tradition. Also contributing to the study of Saiva yoga is White’s recent monograph (2009), which highlights the ‘out-of-body’ dimensions of yogic praxis through the ages.

Although it takes us beyond the ‘early medieval,’ an important emerging area of research lies in the connections between Tantric Saivism and hathayoga: late medieval tra­ditions of tantric yoga associated with the Natha cult placing considerable emphasis upon bodily discipline, especially breath control (prm.idydma) and posture (asana). While texts of hathayoga have long been available, and there have been insightful studies in the area (White 1996), new materials have come to light which help elucidate the transition from Kaula Saivism to hathayoga, circa 12th-14th centuries.

One of these is the Khecanvidyd attributed to Adinatha, admirably edited and analyzed by James Mallinson (2007). Even more pertinent are the Matsyendrasamhita, partially edited by Kiss (2010), and the fascinat­ing case of the so-called Amrfakutida, a hathayoga text surviving only in Persian and Ara­bic translations (Ernst 2003). In both of these, we find a Kaula cult of yogiriis alongside the incipient practices of hathayoga. As Kiss points out (Kiss 2010, pp. 8—11, 38—62), the Matsyendrasamhita adds to the mounting evidence of historical connections between the Kaula cult of the goddess Kubjika and early hathayoga.

The Atimarga and the Roots of 'Tantric Saivism

ne of the major advances of recent years lies in the emerging clarity concerning links between Tantric Saivism, or the Mantramarga, and Brahmanical Saiva ascetic orders: the Pasupatas and related groups, for which Sanderson (2006b, pp. 156—63) proposes use of the emic designation Atimarga (‘The Outer Path’). A number of recent contributions advance understanding of Pasupata literature (Acharya 2007a; Bisschop 2005), history and iconography (Acharya 2006), monasteries (Sears 2007), and Pasupata elements in the ancillary literature of the Atharvaveda (Bisschop & Griffiths 2003; cf. Sanderson 2007a, demonstrating tantric influence upon Orissan followers of the Atharvaveda). Minoru Hara’s numerous studies on Pasupata Saivism are also now conveniently available in a sin­gle volume (Hara 2002).

Most pertinent to the present discussion, Sanderson (2006b), on the basis of evidence from the unpublished Nisvdsatattvasamhitd, primarily, has shed light upon an obscure Atimarga group known as the Lakulas. As lie argues, their cosmology and ritual observances (yrata) evidence notable continuities with early Tantric Saivism, supplying a missing link between the Mantramarga and the comparatively orthodox Pasupatas.

This represents a major advance over earlier scholarship (Lorenzen 1991 [1972], 2002), which relied mainly on the limited data available from inscriptions, doxog- raphies, and literary works. In a related area, Shingo Einoo (2005, 2009) has made nota­ble contributions concerning the continuities between Vedic and tantric ritual. The close links identified between the early Mantramarga and Atimarga, and between Vedic and tantric ritual, undoubtedly bring us closer to the ‘roots’ and ‘origins’ of tantra than recent efforts less informed by study of early Saiva literature (Harper & Brown 2002; Samuel 2008, pt. 2), though these studies offer valuable perspectives and insights.

Tantra, Parana, and Temple

Another promising area of inquiry lies in study of the relationship between Tantric Saivism and more public, lay-oriented forms of the religion. The old Skandapurdpa (c. 6th-8th cen­tury c.e.) has provided material for several contributions in this area: Yuko Yokochi’s study of its Kausiki-Vindhyavasim cycle (2005) sheds much light on the rise of the ‘Great God­dess,’ a development significant to Tantric Saivism and popular religion alike; Peter Biss- chop (2006) draws upon the Skandapurdpa for elucidating the sacred geography of early Saivism; and the Kotivarsa myth of Skandapurdpa 171 has provided important data con­cerning early tantric literature (Sanderson 2001, pp. 6—7) and goddess cults (Hatley 2007, pp. 48—66). Phyllis Granoffs study of the myth of Brahma’s decapitation (2009) also dem­onstrates the rewards of examining puranic and tantric material m tandem. As with Saiva purdpas, the little-studied Sivadharma textual corpus, centered upon the religious practices of lay Saivas (‘Mahesvaras’), is likely to provide much relevant data for future research.

A related area lies in the relationship between tantric practice systems and temple litur­gies, which ties in to the larger issue of the relationship between Saiva textual sources and the art-historical record. While the content of the early tantras pertains primarily to individual esoteric ritual, Saiva officiants (dcdryas) also conducted rites of installation and consecration for temple images.

Moreover, there exists a little-studied scriptural genre known as the Pratisthdtantras concerned with the construction, installation, and consecra­tion of temples and images; some of these seem to predate the tenth century (e.g. the unpublished Devyamata and Pingaldmata). Research on these would be valuable for eluci­dating intersections between tantric practice and the early medieval temple and could possibly shed light on the subsequent temple-centered reconfiguration of the Saivasiddhanta in Tamilnadu, from the twelfth century (Sanderson 2007b, pp. 238—40). In the non-Saiddhantika traditions, a fascinating case is presented by the temples of goddesses known as yogirils. Prominent in both early Kaula tantras and Vajrayana Buddhism, yogirils became the focus of a temple cult from the tenth century, reflecting the adaptation of esoteric pantheons and praxis systems to a semi-public, calendrical liturgy (Dehejia 1986; Hatley 2007, pp. 110—28).

Tantric Buddhism and Tantric Saivism

One of the most fascinating and historically significant issues featuring in recent research has concerned the relationship between Buddhist and Hindu tantric traditions. While the issue is hardly new —‘which came first?’ speculation features prominently in colonial-era scholarship — it has received fresh impetus with Sanderson's contention (Sanderson 1994, 2001) that some Buddhist Yoginitantras, especially texts of the Cakrasamvara cycle, derive content from Saiva tantras of the Vidyapitha division of Bhairavatantras. Sanderson, more­over, extends this claim from one of textual to systemic influence, arguing that ‘almost everything concrete in the system is non-Buddhist in origin even if the whole is entirely Buddhist in function’ (Sanderson 1994, p. 92). His more recent studies have elaborated upon the philological evidence (Sanderson 2001, 2009) and provide a more developed historical narrative (2009).

A significant rejoinder has been presented by Ronald Davidson (2002, pp. 202—24), who rejects Sanderson’s claims of dependence on grounds ranging from the chronology of evidence to models of textual criticism. Recently, Sanderson (2009, pp. 189—220) has offered a compelling response on the text-critical issues while also adducing much additional documentation. On grounds largely distinct from Davidson’s, David Ruegg (2008, pp. 105—12) also voices strong objections to Sanderson’s thesis, advancing instead what he calls a ‘substratum’ model for understanding the syncretic and/or shared elements of Buddhism and Hinduism.

While Davidson’s critique (2002) reflects modest engagement with early Saiva literature, Ruegg’s evidences almost none: his concern is rather with conceptual and historical frameworks for understanding commonalities between the traditions. Despite Ruegg’s objections, his approach to eluci­dating a shared religious and cultural heritage, the ‘substratum’ which makes ‘symbiosis’ both possible and meaningful, could perhaps provide additional context for Sanderson’s thesis concerning Saiva influence on the Buddhist Yoginitantras. This is a debate that will undoubtedly continue, hopefully based upon specific engagement with the relevant primary sources and enriched by additional voices (note already Gray 2007, pp. 7-11; Hatley 2007, pp. 175-87; Sferra 2003).

Conclusion: Toward a Social History of Tantric Saivism

North American scholarship has increasingly come to focus upon the ‘lived’ or ‘embod­ied’ dimensions of the tantric traditions, as approached through ethnography, vernacular literatures, and critical theory, with emphasis on their social, gender, political, economic, and other contexts (e.g. Biernacki 2007; Davidson 2002; McDaniel 2004; Urban 2001). As the documentary record of early Saivism becomes better-known and increasingly accessible, we may expect scholarship in this area as well to reflect a broader range of methods and concerns (cf., e.g., White 2003 and Flood 2006).

Indeed, while we will never have for early medieval India the volume and variety of materials available for con­textualizing modem, colonial, and even late medieval religious data, the past decade’s scholarship demonstrates that the surviving sources do provide scope for reconstructing aspects of the social history of the early tantric traditions. In particular, much has been done to explicate the fascinating intersections between these traditions and medieval political formations in India and beyond (Davidson 2002; Sanderson 2003—2004, 2005b, 2007a, 2009; White 2003). It is hoped that future scholarship shall also succeed in illumi­nating early Saivism as a lived religion beyond the court.

In reconstructing the social history of Saivism, cultural and gender studies, historical anthropology, and the sociology of religion will undoubtedly be key. White (2003, 2009), for instance, affords examples of the insights possible through taking ethnographic data into consideration, alongside the textual and material, an approach Frederick Smith (2006) argues for in his rich study of deity and spirit possession. Nonetheless, for the fore­seeable future textual criticism shall remain essential, given the degree to which early Saiva texts remain unpublished and pose philological challenges.

A great percentage of the textual sources, overwhelmingly in Sanskrit and crucial for advancing understanding of premodern tantric traditions, languish in near-oblivion in manuscript form, in some cases a single fire, riot, rot, or theft away from perpetual obscurity. In this regard, prevail­ing attitudes toward philology and Sanskrit seem unhelpful.6 The shift toward study of the ‘embodied’ dimensions of Hindu Tantra has, for instance, been framed as a turn away from Sanskrit; in the words of Jeffrey Kripal, ‘I am naturally more interested in what Tantra feels like in Bengali than what it thinks in Sanskrit’ (1998; p. 29)7— a sentiment echoed in the catchy phrase ‘vernacular Tantra' (Elmore 2007, p. 762; Urban 2003, p. 275). Undoubtedly the language worlds of vernacular texts give us invaluable windows into the tantric traditions, but the equation of Sanskrit with philosophy suggests unfamil­iarity with the literature. In any case, deep contextualization must embrace the full gamut of source materials, whether linguistic or otherwise.

I have attempted to outline what I see as the current state of research on Tantric Saivism in early medieval India. In closing, I would suggest that this area of study appears poised on the threshold of a new maturity. While no single development leads me to suggest this, one important factor lies in recent progress in the critical editing of key early texts.1 The field's emerging maturity also finds reflection in the growing availability of texts in electronic formats, invaluable for facilitating textual research. While many scholars have contributed to this happy situation, the most important work has been car­ried out by the Digital Library of the Muktabodha Indological Research Institute, under the supervision of Mark Dyczkowski.(Of concern, though, is the dearth of instructional materials suitable for the undergraduate religion classroom; Tantric Saivism remains poorly represented in both primary source anthologies and introductory textbooks, with the exceptions of Goodall 1996 and Flood 1998, respectively.) Probably the most significant development in the field, however, lies with Sanderson’s recent historical studies (espe­cially Sanderson 2009), which, based on decades of research in uncharted territory, advance novel hypotheses concerning the history and significance of Saivism in early medieval South and Southeast Asia. The scholarly reception of this work remains to be seen, as do the ways in which new knowledge of Tantric Saivism might reshape the histo­riography of South Asian religions.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to Alberta Ferrario, Michael Gollner, Dominic Goodall, Harunaga Isaacson, John Nemec, Gene Thursby, and the anonymous reviewer, who provided valuable suggestions for improving this essay.

Short Biography

Shaman Hatley, an Assistant Professor in the Department of Religion of Concordia Uni­versity, Montreal, researches the literature, ritual, and social history of Tantric Saivism in medieval India, and religion in premodern Bengal. Hatley’s dissertation, ‘The Brah- mayamalatantra and Early Saiva Cult of Yoginis,’ analyses the history of the Saiva cult of yoginis and provides a partial critical edition of one of its earliest scriptural sources, the Brahmayamala. Hatley is a contributor to the Tdntrikabhidhdnakosa (‘A Dictionary of Tech­nical Terms from Hindu Tantric Literature’) and has authored several articles and book chapters concerning tantric practices and goddess cults. His current research focuses on the ritual roles and divinization of women in early Tantric Saivism and Buddhism. He completed his PhD in Religious Studies at the University of Pennsylvania in 2007.

Notes

Correspondence address: Shaman Harley, Department of Religion. Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West, Montreal QC, H3G IMS Canada. E-mail: shatley@alcor.concordia.ca.

1 Note that I include many Sakta traditions, such as the tantric cult of Kali, within the rubric of ‘Tantric Saivism;’ see the discussion of early scriptural literature. E.g. the Kaulajhananitnaya, which survives in a mid-11th century Nepalese manuscript (National Archives of Kathmandu accession no. 3-362, Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project microfilm reel A48/13).

Leaving aside non-scholarly efforts, notably Michael Magee's transcreations of tantric texts (on which see Brunner 1992). Though the text, being a South Indian Saiva temple dgama, is probably later than the others mentioned, the complete translation of the Ajitagama (Bhatt et al. 2004—2009) certainly deserves mention as well.

4 The situation might approach comparison to that of Tantric Buddhism: Isaacson (1998. p. 3) estimates there to be well over 1500 Buddhist Tantric works of all genres extant in their original language of composition, and another 2000 surviving in translations; of these, ‘an almost insignificant percentage has been edited or translated reliably. ’

5 According to the project website: http://www.uni-hamburg.de/ngmcp/index_e.html (accessed in October 2009).

6 In this regard, it is worth revisiting Mircea Eliade’s evaluation of the role of philology7 in the ‘creative hermeneu­tics’ at the core of his vision of the historian of religions: ‘For the History of Religions, as for many other humanist disciplines, ‘analysis’ is equivalent to ‘philology.’ One does not consider a scholar responsible unless he has mastered a philology (understanding by this term knowledge of the language, history, and culture of the societies whose reli­gion he studies)’ (1965, p. 6). 7 I would add that Kripal (1998. p. 28) also acknowledges that ‘enormous textual work still needs to be done' as a foundation for other levels of interpretation.

8 A number of such projects are being conducted under the auspices of the international project. ‘Early Tantra: Discovering the interrelationship and common ritual syntax of the Saiva. Buddhist. Vaisnava and Saura traditions.' Led by Harunaga Isaacson and Dominic Goodall, this involves more than a dozen scholars and aims at producing critical editions of several key works of early Tantric literature, including sections of the Nisvasatattvasamhita, Brahmayamala, and the MaiyuAiyamulakalpa. The project website is as follows: http://www.tantric-studies.org/ projects/early-tantra/ (accessed in February 2010).

9 The web address of the Digital Library is as follows: http://muktalib5.org/digital_library.htm (accessed in Febru­ary 2010). In addition to electronic transcriptions of printed editions, the Digital Library includes an impressive quantity of transcriptions directly from manuscripts (of which the level of accuracy could nonetheless be improved). The project also makes available older printed editions of Saiva texts, including the entire Kashmir Series of Texts and Studies and many volumes of the South Indian Devakottai series. Recently, it has commenced a fmitful collaboration with the Institut Francais de Pondicherv to make scans of the latter's large collection of Saivasiddhanta manuscript transcriptions available online.

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