Th e Story of Samkarsana’s and Krihsna’s Births: A Drama Involving Embryos

Th e Harivamśa (a long supplement to the Mahābhārata) contains the well-known story of Sam․kars․an․a’s and Kr․․sn․a’s births, which involves the killing of six fetuses, the miscarriage of a seventh and, fi nally, the exchange of the newborn Krn․a for a newborn girl. Episodes such as these have a rather odd ring to them; so much so that most modern interpreters simply recount them without hazarding any additional commentary. Th ough scholarly literature contains numerous mentions of these episodes, few attempts have been made to explain the underlying logic of such narratives. Examining these narratives for evidence of recurrent patterns and comparing them generally to similar stories found in other parts of the world,1 or specifically to the myths of Heracles,2 have contributed little to our understanding of their significance.

As I believe is the case with the other episodes from Kr․․sn․a’s childhood, the birth story cannot be dismissed as a mere hodgepodge of legends borrowed from the Ābhīras or similar pastoral tribes. Th e supposedly pastoral origin of these legends, a position that has held sway for decades, is based on questionable arguments. Reinterpreting the story on a symbolic level as if it were the fantasy of an overactive imagination does not do justice to the genre either. In what follows, rather than accept either of these positions, I will instead attempt to show how the Brahmins, those talented storytellers, carefully craft ed this narrative using material drawn from their own Vedic tradition to address their audience’s concerns. Such a long-standing tradition of narrative adaptation may likely have been a routine cultural practice and, as such, deserves careful analysis.

Brian K. Smith has rightly insisted that, in the ancient Brahmanical context, worlds as well as human beings were understood to have been generated in a state of imperfection. Even as cosmic realities and human beings first appear, they are usually described as either too similar to each other and therefore redundant ( jāmi ), or too differentiated or scattered ( prthak) to allow them to be productive. “Th at which is jāmi precludes production of true being because there are no sufficiently distinct components to join together; that which is pr․thak precludes production because no connections are possible between overly individualized components. All true being locates itself (or, rather, is made and placed) between these twin excesses of identity and isolation.”

To create a cosmos or a perfect human being, additional labor usually carried out by specific actions called rites (karman) is required. Smith’s research, which should be taken into account here, makes clear that, in the Indian context, a new creation oft en passes through a preliminary step of insufficiency or excess before its complete realization. Th e story of Sam․karsana’s and Kr․․sn․a’s births has to be situated against the backdrop of a procreative activity that engenders incomplete beings in need of later transformations to be viable. Seen in this light, this entire story is in no way peculiar and should first be examined in its own setting. My aim here is therefore to reexamine this “fetus story” in conjunction with stories coming out of the same tradition in an effort to discover its meaning inside the new religion of devotion to Krsna, which emerged a few centuries before the common era.4

The Story of Sam․kars․an․a’s and Kr․․sn․a’s Births according to the Harivamśa

A presentation, in its entirety, of the oldest and longest extant version of the episode is necessary as we begin our analysis. The story, which is found in the Harivam․śa 40–48, runs as follows.

Th e scene takes place at the end of the era preceding the present Kaliyuga, that is, the Dvāparayuga. Vis․n․u is awakened from a long cosmic sleep by Brahmā and the gods, all of whom are eager to speak with him. On behalf of them all, Brahmā first notices that the goddess Earth is in a paradoxical situation. Carrying out their royal tasks with the greatest of care, the kings multiply and trample down her body. They build so many cities and villages that there is no more space left on her surface.

Oppressed, the Earth needs to be relieved of her burden. Vis․n․u agrees to meet with her on the summit of Mount Meru. All of them listen to her complaints. She gets straight to the point and says that she is counting on Vis․n․u’s help, just as she had on so many occasions in the past. All the celestials agree that it is Vis․n․u’s function to relieve Earth of her burden and they are ready to collaborate. Brahmā

3. Brian K. Smith, Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998), 53. 4. Th e Harivamśa-parvan, which dates to the second or third century ce, reflects a trend of devotion to Krsna attested to at least two centuries before our era.

accepts and confesses he has already taken the initiative of sending some of the protagonists onto earth who will take part in the war of the Bhāratas, having himself created this well-known means of stopping the proliferation of kings. Th en, Brahmā concludes that it is time for him to retire. Wandering all around the worlds in search of new battles, the wise Brahmin Nārada goes to the assembly of the gods and notices that Vis․n․u has delayed his descent onto the earth.

He points out that, in the meanwhile, the gods had to go to Mathurā on other urgent business. All of the asuras, daityas, and dānavas whom Vis․n․u had so brilliantly defeated in an earlier battle—which had been waged by the gods for the sake of Tārakā, Br․haspati’s wife—have now come back to the city under the leadership of King Kam․sa, the latest incarnation of the great asura Kālanemi. Having assumed the name of Keśin, the ancient Hayagrīva is also there; Aris․․ta became a bull also named Aris․․ta; Lamba, Khara, Varāha, and Kiśora, in succession, became the herder Pralamba, the ass Dhenuka, and the wrestlers Cānūra and Mustika.

Vis․n․u smiles and simply answers that he already knows all of this and is waiting for Brahmā to prepare a terrestrial residence for him. Brahmā then quickly reveals an ancient curse to him. During a sacrifice, Kaśyapa, one of the main progenitors of all living beings, stole Varun․a’s cows with the help of his spouses, Aditi and Surabhi; he was then condemned to become a herder named Vasudeva, accompanied by both women who once again become his spouses under the names of Devakī and Rohin․ī. Leaving his celestial body, Vis․n․u will be born from Vasudeva and Devakī.

As soon as Nārada learns the news, he hurries to Mathurā and tells Kam․sa about Vis․n․u’s plans. In anger, Kam․sa orders his servants to put the couple under arrest and to kill all of Devakī’s babies (or fetuses, garbha) as soon as they are born. Considering the situation, Vis․n․u says to himself that aft er Kamsa kills Devakī’s first seven babies, he will deposit his self (ātman) into the eighth embryo (47.10). He goes immediately under the earth to a region called pātāla and fetches a group of six embryos ( garbha) of dānavas precisely called S․ad․garbhāh․ (“Th e Six Fetuses”). In fact, these embryos are sons of the former Kālanemi (47.12).

Brahmā granted them the favor that they would not be killed by any enemy, divine or human. Since they preferred Brahmā’s protection, Hiran․yakaśipu, whom Kālanemi referred to as his father (38.19), cursed them. In an attempt to thwart Brahmā’s favor, Hiran․yakaśipu condemned them to fall victim of the wrath of his own father reborn as King Kam․sa. He told them: “Since, disregarding me, you got a favor from Brahmā, by choosing Brahmā’s friendship, you forsake me and became my enemies. Therefore I abandon you. You will be made famous under the name given to you by your father, S․ad․garbhāh․. Your father himself will kill you all in the fetal state [garbhagatān]. You, the great asuras S․ad․garbhāh․, will become the six Devakī’s fetuses [[[garbha]]], so that Kam․sa may kill you while you are still embryos [garbhasthān]” (47.20–22).

Th en Vis․n․u enters their body in the guise of a dream (svapnarūpen․a), extracts (nis․kr․․sya) their vital principles ( prān․eśvarān), and gives them to Nidrā (or Yoganidrā), who is Sleep personified and the spouse who serves Vis․n․u-Nārāyan․a during the cosmic night. Vis․n․u tells her to insert ( yojayasva) the vital principles,

one aft er the other, into Devakī’s womb. He also asked her to transfer in the seventh month Devakī’s seventh embryo into Rohin․ī, another of Vasudeva’s wives (saptamo devakīgarbho . . . sam․krāmayitavyas te saptame māsi rohin․īm, 47.30). Vis․n․u says: “Because the embryo has been withdrawn [from Devakī’s womb] to be inserted into [another womb] [sam․kars․an․āt tu garbhasya], the child will be called Sam․kars․an․a. He will be my elder brother, resembling the moon. Kam․sa will think that Devakī lost this seventh child [literally, the seventh fetus fell, patito devakīgarbhah․ saptamah․] from fright, and will make every eff ort to prevent me, the eighth child, from being conceived in her womb” (47.31–32). Vis․n․u also orders Nidrā to be born in Yaśodā, the spouse of Nandagopa, Vasudeva’s herder, at exactly the same time as he himself will be born as Devakī’s eighth child, in the eighth month (as․․tamasya tu māsasya, 47.36). He also warns her that they will exchange mothers and that she will be considered to be Devakī’s daughter. Moreover, Nidrā is told that she will be killed by Kam․sa and appear in front of her killer as a great and ferocious goddess. Nidrā assures Vis․n․u that she will fully collaborate and disappears.

Everything occurs as Vis․n․u said. Devakī has seven children. Kam․sa kills the six first as soon as each of them is born, each time dashing them against a rock. Th e goddess provokes the miscarriage of Rohin․ī’s child, rips the fetus from Devakī’s womb, and places it into Rohin․ī’s womb, announcing that since the fetus was drawn (kars․an․a) from Devakī’s womb and deposited into her, she will give birth to a child who will be named Sam․kars․an․a (kars․an․enāsya garbhasya svagarbhe cāhitasya vai / sam․kars․an․o nāma śubhe tava putro bhavis․yati // 48.6). Devakī conceives an eighth child in which Hari (or Vis․n․u) establishes his dwelling.

Obeying Vis․n․u’s orders, Nidrā is conceived in Yaśodā’s womb, and both of them are born in their eighth month and at exactly the same time. Most versions call this girl Ekānam․śā (one and without any portion, probably a reference to the new moon). When Krsn․a is born, all sorts of portents appear upon the earth. Conscious of the danger incurred by his son, Vasudeva brings the baby to the cow-settlement (vraja) where Nandagopa and Yaśodā are living and carries the little girl back to Mathurā. As soon as he is warned of the birth of a girl, Kam․sa seizes her and smashes her head against the same rock. Th e girl jumps into the sky and is transformed into a threatening goddess who reveals to Kam․sa that his killer is already born.

The Vis․n․upurān․a (fourth or fifth century) and the Brahmapurān․a (a later text) have a shorter version of the story.5 A description of the marriage of Vasudeva and Devakī is added. While driving the car of the newlyweds, Kam․sa hears a voice saying that the eighth child of this woman will kill him. But Vasudeva, trying to soothe the king, promises to deliver all the children that she may bring forth to him. To better explain the threat, the narrator returns to the cosmic setting. These texts first mention a different birth story, one already known in the Mahābhārata (1.189.30–31).

5. Th e Bhāgavatapurān.a (ninth or tenth century) (Śrīmad Bhāgavatamahāpurān.a, with Sanskrit text and English translation, parts 1 and 2, Gorakhpur, India: Gita Press, 1971) follows the same pattern as the Vis․n.upurān.a (Sanskrit text and English translation by H. H. Wilson, Delhi: Nag Publishers, 1989) and the Brahmapurān.a (Delhi: Nag Publishers, 1985).

As soon as Vis․n․u hears Brahmā describing the sufferings of Earth, he plucks two hairs, one white and one black, and says to the gods that these hairs will descend upon Earth and relieve her of the burden of her distress by killing Kamsa, who is Kālanemi himself (Vis․n․u Purān․a 5.1.59–64). Nārada informs Kam․sa, who decides to confine Vasudeva and Devakī so as to kill each of their babies. According to these versions, the six babies are the sons of Hiran․yakaśipu (rather than Kālanemi’s sons as in the Harivam․śa), introduced by Nidrā into Devakī’s womb at Vis․n․u’s command. Vis․n․u told her:

Go, Nidrā, and by my command, conduct successively [into Devaki’s womb] the six embryos [․sad․garbhāh․] who reside at the bottom of the pātāla. When these have been put to death by Kam․sa, the one called Śes․a, a part of me, will be born in her womb through a small part [of my energy (tejas)] as her seventh child. Rohin․ī is Vasudeva’s other wife who resides in the cow-settlement; Goddess, you shall conduct this [part of me] into her womb as if it were a [normal] birth. People will say that Devakī miscarried from this seventh child through the anxiety of imprisonment and from fear of the king of the Bhojas [i.e., Kam․sa]. Th e child will be known by the name of Sam․kars․an․a since he was extracted [garbhasam․kars․an․āt] [from his mother’s womb and inserted into another womb]. He shall be a hero and look like the peak of the White Mountain. Th en I shall be born in Devakī’s womb and you must immediately go into Yaśodā’s womb. In the night of the eighth lunation of the dark half of the month of Nabhas, in the season of the rains, I shall be born. You shall receive birth on the ninth. (5.1.71–77) After more explanations to the goddess, the text quickly mentions the killing of the first six embryos, the transfer of the seventh, the births of Kr․․sn․a and the goddess, and the exchange of babies.

King Janamejaya’s “Natural” Interpretation of the Story of Kr․․sn․a’s Birth

Before becoming a warrior (ksatriya) able to fight against enemies like Jarāsam․dha, Vis․n․u must first pass through the stage of embryo in Devakī’s womb at Mathurā. His childhood is spent as a herder in Nandagopa’s cow-settlement, but he later returns to Mathurā and starts fighting with divine weapons.

In the Harivam․śa, King Janamejaya is so struck by the incongruity of Vis․n․u’s passage through a uterus that his first exchange with the Brahmin Vaiśam․pāyana deals with this very question. “How is it possible that Visnu who is inhabited by Prosperity [śrīgarbha] came to be carried in the [impure] womb garbha of a terrestrial woman” (cf. 30.8)? Even if Janamejaya knows full well that Vis․n․u and Sacrifice are one and the same, he nevertheless seems unable to move beyond the physical level. His question, which

6. See the texts gathered by Minoru Hara (“A Note on the Buddha’s Birth Story,” in Indianisme et bouddhisme: Mélanges offerts à Mgr. Étienne Lamotte [Louvain, Belgium: Université Catholique de Louvain, 1980], 143–57).includes an eloquent praise of Vis․n․u, changes little by little into a short treatise on embryology that it may prove useful to quote here.

35 For the Veda-knowers, he [i.e., Vis․n․u] is the one to be known [vedya]. For those who are characterized by might [[[prabhava]]], he is the mightiest [ prabhu]. For the beings [[[bhūta]]], he is identical with Soma. For those who shine like fire, he is identical to Agni.

36 For human beings [manus․ya], he is identical with mind [[[manas]]]. For ascetics, he is identical with ascetic power [[[tapas]]]. For those who behave wisely, he is discipline. For those who are full of energy [[[tejasvin]]], he is also energy [[[tejas]]].

37 For all creations, he is the creator, the ultimate cause of worlds. For those who deserve confrontation, he is confrontation [[[vigraha]]], as well as the issue [[[gati]]] for those seeking an issue [gatimant].

38 Wind [[[vāyu]]] has its origin in space [[[ākāśa]]]. Fire has wind for its breath. Gods have fire for their breath, and Madhusūdana [i.e., Vis․n․u] is the breath of fire.

39 Blood [śonita] originates from the organic fluid [[[rasa]]]. From blood, fl esh [mām․sa] is said to originate. From flesh fat [medas] originates, and from fat, it is explained that bone [[[asthi]] ] originates.

40 From bone, marrow [majjā] originates. From marrow, sperm [śukra] originates. From sperm, the fetus [ garbha] originates through an action based on the organic fluid [[[rasa]]].

41 Th e first part [of the fetus], that is made of water, is said to be the soma-mass [saumya rāśi ]. As is well known, the fetus produces heat, which is called the second mass [[[dvitīya]] rāśi ].

42 It should be known that sperm is made of soma and menstrual blood [ārtava] of fire [ pāvaka = agni ]. Both [[[elements]]] originate in the organic fluid [[[rasa]]]; their power [[[vīrya]]] is [the action of ] both Moon and Sun.

43 Sperm is classified as phlegm [[[kapha]]], and menstrual blood as bile [ pitta]. Heart is the seat of phlegm, and bile is established in the navel.

44 Tradition says that the heart, being in the middle of the body, is the seat of thought, and that the brilliant fi re stands inside the navel and the throat.

45 Mind should be regarded as Prajāpati, and phlegm as soma; tradition says that bile is fire, [so that] everything that moves is made of fire and soma.

46 Th e fetus, once set in motion, becomes a mass of flesh [[[arbuda]]], and wind makes its entrance, accompanied by the supreme Self [ paramātman].

47 Th en, standing in the body, it divides itself into five—prān․a, apāna, samāna, udāna and vyāna—and increases anew.

48 While circulating, prān․a increases its first seat [i.e., the middle of the body of the fetus]; apāna, the rear of the body; udāna, the top of the embodied being.

49 Vyāna allows complete extension of the limbs, and samāna stabilizes [the digested food]. Th en [the Self] becomes able to apprehend beings through the senses [[[indriya]]].

50 Earth, wind, space, water, and fire form the group of five [[[elements]]]. Tradition teaches that the senses [of the fetus] come into relationship with each of these elements.

51 They say that the body is made of earth, the breath is made of wind, the cavities of the body originate from space, the liquids [of the body] originate from water,

52 and that the light in the eye is fire [[[tejas]]]. Th e regulator of the [[[senses]]] is said to be the mind, and through its power, ordinary objects are set in motion [and shown to the Self]. 5 3 Since this is the way the Purus․a [i.e., Vis․n․u] goes about emitting all the eternal worlds, how can he assume a human nature in this perishable world?

According to King Janamejaya, the growth of the embryo depends on three great deities (Vis․n․u, Soma, and Agni), three principles (wind, water, and fi re), and three humors (vāyu or breath, kapha or phlegm, pitta or bile). He affirms that the entire world is supported by Moon and Sun, or by Soma (the ambrosia contained in the moon, and the corresponding ritual beverage) and Agni, or simply by water and fire. Considered as the result of the union of sperm (= water) and menstrual blood (= fi re), the embryo is composed of two masses, a soma-mass and an agni-mass, which explains the presence in the human being of the phlegm and bile.

Nevertheless, behind or beyond these two principles exists a third principle, vāyu (wind) or prān․a (breath), which ultimately depends on Vis․n․u himself. Janamejaya’s question makes clear that Vis․n․u is the god who governs all creatures, including the growth of beings in the embryonic state. How is it therefore possible for the great Vis․n․u, asks Janamejaya, to pass through all the steps of the development of the embryo? Th e information alluded to in Janamejaya’s question concurs with the conception of the development of the embryo found in similar Brahmanical texts.

Of course, Vaiśam․pāyana knows all this, but decides not to follow up with this sort of reasoning. Basically, the Brahmin’s answer moves the discussion with the king onto another plane. Before reviewing Vis․n․u’s various manifestations ( prādurbhāva) in the human world, he immediately reminds the king that Vis․n․u is the Yajña-Purus․a, the Sacrifice-Man, who sacrificed himself and from whom all parts of the universe are born (cf. Harivam․śa 31.3–9). Th e great Vis․n․u will appear in Devakī’s womb once again, but not the way Janamejaya imagines.

Th e fact that Visnu the Sacrifice manifests himself as the one who sacrifices as well as the object of sacrifice opens up at least two options that might shape different interpretations of the episode of his birth on earth. First, a sacrificer cannot sacrifice without passing through a period of initiation (dīks․ā), and the story of Vis․n․u’s manifestation could have used this line of interpretation. Th e specialists on the question of sacrifice know that man is the sacrifice and that, as sacrificer, he is

7. Harivam․śa 30.35–53 (my translation); also A. Couture, L’enfance de Krishna. Traduction des chapitres 30 à 78 du Harivamsha (Paris: Cerf; Québec: Les Presses de l’Université Laval, 1991), 89–91.

the measurement of the elements used in the sacrifice.8 Th e sacrificer even comes to be initiated by means of a rite in which the priests make the sacrificer an embryo such that he is born again and dons a divine body. Th is analogy is developed in texts describing the rites. G. U. Thite gives the following summary of the explanations found in the Śatapathabrāhman․a.

Th e water is sprinkled upon him [the sacrificer] and it symbolises the seed. Th us having made him possessed of seed, the priests consecrate him. With the fresh butter, the sacrificer is anointed. For that appertains to the embryos. They conduct him to the hut of the consecrated. Th e hut of the consecrated is the womb ( yoni ) and they conduct him to his own womb. Th e cloth covering the sacrificer is the amnion (ulba). Th e black antelope’s skin is the placenta ( jarāyu). Th e closing of the hands of the sacrificer is similar to that of [an] embryo (cp. [compare] also ŚB [Śatapathabrāhman․a] III.1.3.28, 2.2.26–28; 3.3.12). When the sacrificer being about to build an alter undergoes the consecration he pours into the fire-pan as seed in to the womb, his own self composed of metres, stomas, vital airs and deities (ŚB X.4.2.29).9

Krsna is the manifestation of Visnu, the best of men (purus․ottama) and the personification of sacrifice.10 As such, his passage through a uterus could be likened to a sort of initiation (dīks․ā). As a result of the ascetic practices he endures during his initiation, the initiated (dīks․ita) is said to sacrifice his own self, so that the offerings he pours into the fire in the subsequent parts of the ritual are interpreted as substitutes for his own body. One possible reading of Kr․․sn․a’s life as Vis․n․u’s manifestation could have been to say that his dedicated life as a warrior is likened to a sacrificial offering preceded by a period of initiation. Th en, Kr․․sn․a’s total life (from his conception onward) would be structured as the sacrifice itself. Th at said, it must be admitted that this interpretation is not explicitly formulated in this context and has to be dismissed.

A second line of interpretation could be envisaged in the Brahmanical context. Even if it is not specified in the Harivam․śa, King Janamejaya is undoubtedly aware of the fact that, during the embryonic period, Brahmins practice multiple prenatal rites aimed at protecting the mother and her fetus. In the Hindu tradition, the sam․skāras are cleansing rites or rites intended to achieve states of perfection which accompany human beings throughout life and begin not with the ceremonies surrounding birth, but much earlier with impregnation. Th e human being spends up to ten lunar months in the womb. Th e fetus grows little by little in the obscurity and silence of its mother’s womb before being born. Th is period of time appears to be particularly dangerous for the new life as well as for the mother. Th e garbhādhāna (or conception), pumsavana (or quickening of a male child), and sīmantonnayana (or hair-parting of the pregnant woman) are rituals intended to keep both mother

8. Śatapathabrāhman. a, trans. J. Eggeling. 5 vols. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1972), 3.1.4.23. 9. G. U. Thite, Sacrifice in the Brāhman. a-Texts (Poona, India: Poona University Press, 1975), 119. 10. Cf. Harivam․śa 30–31.

and child safe, to prepare the womb, to purify the fetus, to remove any obstacles to its growth, and even to influence its sex. According to the various treatises of dharma, these rites can either be performed on the mother once and for all or repeated aft er each impregnation.11 Even though these preparatory rites are well known and may have been mentioned in this context, neither King Janamejaya nor the Brahmin Vaiśam․pāyana mentions any of these in the present context. Such Brahmanical rituals are touched on later in the story but not for the embryonic period itself.

Nevertheless, since the Visnu who manifests himself in the human world is Sacrifice personified, one cannot help but think that the significance of his coming must be interpreted at a cosmic level. Th is is exactly the point that Vaiśam․pāyana emphasizes.

The Cosmic Context of the Story of Sam․kars․an․a’s and Kr․․sn․a’s Births

Before moving on to more specific issues, an examination of the setting of this birth story would seem to be in order. From the above summary and the analysis of Vaiśam․pāyana’s answer to Janamejaya’s question, it must already be clear that Kr․․sn․a’s birth and the whole affair of the fetuses have a cosmic significance. Kr․․sn․a’s destiny is embedded in the complex story of another of Vis․n․u’s descents into the world. The story is located in the end of the third yuga, the Dvāparayuga, the age of the world coming just before the present Kaliyuga, a period of deep suffering for Earth. One of the protagonists of the Mahābhārata,

Krsna sides with the Pān․d․avas against the Kauravas, and acts as Arjuna’s charioteer, becoming, as it were, Arjuna’s intelligence (buddhi ).13 Nevertheless, to explain why a new manifestation of Vis․n․u is needed at that very time, the Harivam․śa refers to another urgent matter (kāryāntara), the catastrophic situation of Earth in the city of Mathurā during Kam․sa’s reign. Kam․sa is an asura (46.3), one of the traditional and recurring enemies of the gods. He is described as a new incarnation of Kālanemi, a great asura who was killed by Hari during the first age (kr․tayuga) (Harivam․śa 32–38) and whose name means “the rim [of the wheel] of time,” an evocation of the wheel of births and deaths, the flux of a world submitted to an unending transmigration.

His father, Hiran․yakaśipu (the son of Kaśyapa and Diti, Harivam․śa 3.58), belongs to the same family of heroes, being also a daitya or dānava who formerly had been defeated by Vis․n․u disguised as a Man-Lion (narasim․ha). There would be no reason to narrate Kr․․sn․a’s birth in detail if he were intended merely to follow the normal path of human life. Kr․․sn․a is one of Vis․n․u’s manifestations, the personification of all sacrificial values, appearing once more on Earth to annihilate King Kam․sa and mark the domination of dharmic forces over the forces of dissolution. This story, with its weird episodes like the massacre of fetuses, must have been narrated

11. Lakshmi Kapani, La notion de sam․skāra, Tome I (Paris: De Boccard, 1992), 81–100.

12. See Harivam․śa 49.3; 49.30, 628*; 50.2, 629*; 79.1sq.

13. Cf. Katha Upanisad 3.3, where the intellect (buddhi) is compared to the rider (sārathi) of the chariot that is the body. (See Upanis․ads, trans. Patrick Olivelle [[[Oxford]]: Oxford University Press, 1996, 238–39].)

precisely for its cosmic effects. It takes place inside a text claiming to be a purān․a, an ancient tradition, made of paradigmatic stories having an impact on the condition of the whole world. Krsna is not an ordinary person, and his birth story has to make this point clear to its listeners and readers. As it takes on cosmic proportions, a mythology of the fetus becomes a cosmogony.

An old hymn of the Rigveda (10.121) presents Hiranyagarbha, the Golden Embryo, as a sort of secret epiphany of the Creator, containing the germ of the whole universe to be created. “In the beginning the Golden Embryo arose [hiran․yagarbha]. Once he was born, he was the one lord of creation. He held in place the earth and this sky. . . . When the high waters came, pregnant with the embryo that is everything, bringing forth fire, he arose from that as the one life’s breath of the gods.”14 Likewise, several other old texts speak of a golden egg containing an embryo from which Prajāpati, the lord of creatures, is born. Th is garbha has a golden or yellow color (as Krsna has a yellow garment), but no specific name. Creatures are contained in an indefinite whole, waiting for their nāman, their names, a sign of their passage from nonbeing (asat) to specific existence (sat). Th e Golden Embryo points to a sort of prehistory of the universe, a story of the creatures before they were created. Th e Chāndogya Upanisad contains the following account explaining why Brahman, the ultimate essence of the cosmos, is said to be the sun:

In the beginning this world was simply what is non-existing; and what is existing was that. It then developed and formed into an egg. It lay there for a full year and then it hatched, splitting in two, one half becoming silver and the other half gold. Th e silver half is this earth, while the golden half is the sky. Th e outer membrane is the mountains; the inner membrane, the clouds and the mist; the veins, the rivers; and the amniotic fluid, the ocean. Now, the hatchling that was born was the sun up there. And as it was being born, cries of joy and loud cheers rose up in celebration, as did all beings and all desires.15

Th e Purān․ic cosmogony appears to insert some old story of this sort into a more complex narrative. For our present needs, a few lines from chapter 1 of the Harivam․śa should suffice to illustrate this point:

Desirous of creating various creatures, Lord Vis․n․u Svayam․bhū at first emits waters in which he then ejaculates [tāsu vīryam avāsr․jat].

Tradition [[[śruti]] ] says that these waters were formerly designated as nārāh․; because his fi rst sojourn [[[ayana]]] took place in them, he is called Nārāyan․a. Th e egg, lying in the waters, has a golden color. Tradition teaches that Brahmā is born there on his own and was [therefore] called Self-existent [Svayam․bhū]. Having lived there for a full year, Lord

Hiran․yagarbha divided the egg into two, that is into heaven and earth.16

14. R․gveda 10.121.1 and 7 (Th e Rig Veda, An Anthology. One Hundred and Eight Hymns, Selected, Translated, and Annotated by Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty [[[Delhi]]: Penguin Books India, 1981, 27]). See Jean Varenne, Cosmogonies védiques (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1982), 218.

15. Chāndogya Upanis․ad 3.19.1–3 (in Upanis․ads, Olivelle’s translation, 127).

16. Harivam․śa 1.23–26, my translation.

The text is quite clear: Hiran․yagarbha, the Golden Embryo, is Vis․n․u himself. Having produced the waters, he hatched a golden egg from which Brahmā is born, and from Brahmā all the creatures.

At first sight, the story of the yellow-garmented Kr․․sn․a’s birth has no relationship with the Hiranyagarbha myth. The first six fetuses are killed, the seventh fetus “falls” and is transferred to the cow-settlement (vraja) to continue its growth, Krsna being the eight baby to be born. Nevertheless, when one realizes that the births of the first seven children prepare Krsna’s birth and that all of them are part of the same continuum, they must all be taken into account if we are to understand the last birth. Moreover, it is probably not by chance that Visnu, having reflected (cintayām āsa, 47.9) about the best way to enter the human world, went to the pātāla where all six embryos were “lying in a water-womb-house” or “in a cell or adytum made of water” ( jalagarbhagr․heśayāh․, 47.23), similar to the amniotic waters in which the fetus is immersed.

The pātāla is the lowermost region in a vast realm made of seven regions located under an earth conceived as a boat floating on the cosmic waters. According to the Mahābhārata and Purān․as, Snake Śes․a also lives in the same region. Th e S․ad․garbhāh․ and Snake Śes․a are all entities originating from regions connected to these cosmic waters and, when considered altogether, closer to the Golden Embryo than it might at first appear. Nevertheless, while linked to the Sadgarbhāh․ through a common origin in the same pātāla, given his close relationship with Krsna, Śea-Sam․karsana always remains distinct from them. More analysis is therefore needed to explain the specificity of the seventh embryo.

Instead of considering Vis․n․u as Aditi’s eldest son, as the Harivam․śa apparently does, older texts oft en present Mārtān․d․a (a form of the sun) as Aditi’s youngest son. Benjamin Preciado-Solis has convincingly argued that the story of Kr․․sn․a’s birth has a relationship with the myth of the birth of Mārtān․d․a. Attested to in the hymn 10.72 of the Rigveda, Mārtān․d․a is considered to be the last of Aditi’s eight sons. “Eight sons are there of Aditi, who were born of her body. With seven she went forth among the gods, but she threw Mārtānda, the son, aside.”17 Mārtān․d․a has been cast away by Aditi and therefore is linked to death. When commenting on those who,

17. Rigveda 10.72.8, Doniger O’Flaherty’s translation, 39.

in a certain ritual, off er a rice-pap to the ādityas, the Śatapathabrāhmana (an old ritual commentary) refers to this passage and adds the following explanations.

Now Aditi had eight sons. But those who are called “the gods, sons of Aditi” were only seven, for the eighth, Mārtān․d․a, she brought forth unformed: it was a mere lump of bodily matter as broad as it was high. Some, however, say that he was of the size of a man. Th e gods, sons of Aditi, then spake, “that which was born aft er us must not be lost: come let us fashion it.” They accordingly fashioned it as this man is fashioned. Th e flesh which was cut off him, and thrown down in a lump, became an elephant: hence they say that one must not accept an elephant [as a gift ], since the elephant has sprung from man. Now he whom they thus fashioned was Vivasvat, the Āditya [or the sun]; and of him [came] these creatures.

Aditi’s last son was not born like the others. He arrived unformed (avikr․ta) as a shapeless mass of flesh that the gods fashioned as a man. Th e word mārtān․․da (elsewhere written mārtan․․da) can be analyzed as the vrddhi (the strongest vowel gradation) of martān․․da, with the meaning of “born from a dead egg.” Th e predicate applies to the sun who, according to these myths, was born with a monstrous body needing to be reshaped before becoming a peaceful world-enlightening deity. Th e myth reflects the paradoxical situation of a sun which, at one and the same time, is necessary for life but risks burning up all living beings. Th is condition of “excessive differentiation”19 is still in a state of chaos that must be corrected, if creation is to become cosmos. Th e Maitrāyan․ī Sam․hitā (another old ritual commentary), also quoted by Preciado-Solis, gives another version of Mārtān․d․a’s birth that is closer to the story under study here.

Wishing for children Aditi cooked a pap. She ate what was left over [ucchista]. Dhātr․ and Aryaman were born to her. She cooked another. She ate what was left over. Mitra and Varun․a were born to her. She cooked another. She ate what was left over. Am․śa and Bhaga were born to her. She cooked another. She thought: Each time I eat what is left over, two sons are born to me. Probably I shall get something still better when I eat beforehand. Aft er she had eaten beforehand she served the pap. Her two next sons spoke even as children in the womb: “We

The Story of Krsna’s Birth and Other Stories Related to Aditi’s Sons

In the Purān․ic mythology, the wise progenitor Kaśyapa received thirteen spouses from the prajāpati Daks․a (Harivam․śa 2.47; 3.24). Aditi is one of them and, according to Harivam․śa 3.50–51, she gave birth to Vis․n․u, Indra, Aryaman, Dhātr․, Tvas․tr․, Pūs․an, Vivasvant, Savitr․, Mitra, Varun․a, Am․śa, and Bhaga, who are known as the ādityas. The present story deals with a new manifestation of Vis․n․u as Kr․․sn․a. The main versions of the story consider Vasudeva, the father of Kr․․sn․a, to be the incarnation of Kaśyapa, and his mother, Devakī, to be a new Aditi. The identification of Rohin․ī with Surabhi, the mother of the cows and another of Kaśyapa’s spouses, is also mentioned.

both shall be as much as all the sons of Aditi.” Th e sons of Aditi searched for someone to procure their abortion [nirhantāram]. Am․śa and Bhaga procured the abortion of those two. Therefore no oblation is made to them at the sacrifice. Instead Am․śa’s portion is the stake in betting. Bhaga [“Fortune”] went abroad. Therefore people say: “Go abroad, you meet fortune there!” Due to his vital energy Indra rose up. Th e other fœtus fell down dead.

18. Śatapatha-Brāhman. a 3.1.3–4, Vol. 2, 12–13, with slight changes.

19. See Smith, Reflections.

Th is, forsooth, was Mārtān․d․a of whom men are the descendants. Now Aditi turned to her sons saying: “Th is should be mine, this ought not to perish uselessly.” They said: “He should then call himself one of us, he should not look down on us.” Th is, verily, was Aditi’s son Vivasvat, the father of Manu Vaivasvata and Yama. Manu dwelled in this, Yama in yonder world.

Mārtān․d․a’s birth is preceded by the birth of six sons. When Aditi decided to take the first part of the pap, her haste caused the abortion of her next babies. Am․śa and Bhaga, who helped with the abortion, were punished. These two sons were Indra, who, in spite of the abortion, rose up because of his vital energy, and Mārtān․d․a, who was supposed to die but was called back to life by his brothers at his mother’s request and gave birth to Manu, the first human being, and Yama, the lord of the dead.

Th e Taittirīya Sam․hitā (a third old ritual commentary) relates a similar story that also deserves to be looked at in this context. Aditi, desirous of off spring, cooked a Brahman’s mess for the Sādhya gods; to her they gave the remains [ucches․an․a], she ate it, she became pregnant [reto ‘dhatte], of her the four Ādityas were born. A second [mess] she cooked; she reflected, “They have been born for me from the remains; if I eat first, then stronger ones will be born from me”; she ate first, she became pregnant, from her was born an egg which miscarried [vyr․ddham ān․․dam ajāyata]. She cooked a third [mess] for the Ādityas, [saying] “Let this labour be for enjoyment to me”; they said, “Let us choose a boon; let him who shall be born hence be one of us; let him who shall be prosperous among his off spring be for our enjoyment”; then was born the Āditya Vivasvant.

In this last case, the first four ādityas were born from the leftovers of a meal that Aditi cooked for the sādhya gods. Then, Aditi cooked a second mess and decided to eat first, thinking she would have a stronger son, but she miscarried. She only succeeded with the third meal and Vivasvant, the sun, was born as her last and most powerful son.

These stories tend to show that Sun, the āditya who has the most problematic relationship with human beings (he can burn all beings, yet he is a condition for all life), is also given an unusual birth (unformed embryo, abortion or miscarriage). It

seems probable, as Preciado-Solis has rightly observed, that Kr․․sn․a’s birth was modeled upon such old stories, especially since, in the Taittirīya Sam․hitā version, the first four sons are followed by a fifth one who aborted and a sixth one who survived (see accompanying table).

20. Wilhelm Rau’s translation of Maitrāyan. ī Samhitā 1.6.12 in “Twenty Indra Legends,” in German Scholars on India, Vol. 1 (Delhi: Cultural Department of the Embassy of FRG, 1973), 202, quoted by Preciado-Solis, Th e Krsna Cycle in the Purān. as, 62.

21. Taittirīya Sam․hitā 6.5.6 (Th e Veda of the Black Yajus School entitled Taittirīya Sanhitā, 2 vols. [[[Delhi]]: Motilal Banarsidass, 1967]), 541–42.

Narrative Parallels to the Harivam․ śa Version of the Story of Sam․ kars․an․a’s and Kr․․sn․a’s Births: A Synoptic Table

Śatapatha-Brāhman․a 3.1.3-4 7 first sons; the 8th son, unformed, reshaped into Vivasvant (the sun).

Maitrāyan․ī Sam․ hitā 1.6.12 6 first sons (the 5th and 6th were punished, because they helped with the abortion of the 7th and 8th sons); the 7th and 8th sons aborted; the 7th became Indra who rose up due to his own energy; the 8th is Mārtān․d․a (the sun), who fell down dead before being called back to life. Taittirīya Sam․ hitā 6.5.6 4 first sons; the 5th son aborted; the 6th son = Vivasvant (the sun).

Mahābhārata 1.91-93 7 first sons drowned; the 8th son = Bhīs․ma, who is forced to renounce all sexual activity.

Mahābhārata 1.13 sq. 1,000 fi rst sons to be born from Kadru, and who are later condemned to perish; the 1st son to be born half-formed from Vinatā = Arun․a (the sun’s charioteer); the 2nd son to be born from Vinatā, whose excessive fire has to be withdrawn = Garuda (Vis․n․u’s mount).

Harivam․ śa 41-48 Th e 6 fetuses (S․ad․garbhāh․), transferred from the Pātāla to be born from Devakī’s womb and killed by Kamsa; the 7th son miscarried from Devakī and transferred into Rohin․ī’s womb = Sam․karsana; the 8th son from Devakī, whose brightness must be reduced, carried to the cow-settlement and exchanged with Yaśodā’s baby = Krsna.

Preciado-Solis quotes another story, drawn from the Mahābhārata, which has a structure similar to that of Krsna’s birth. The gods involved are not the ādityas, but the vasus, and the story appears in the first book (chaps. 91–93) as an explanation of the birth of Bhīs․ma. Cursed by Brahmā for having looked at Gangā’s naked body, King Mahābhis․a was condemned to be born upon the earth as Śāntanu and to have the same Gan˙gā for his wife. At about the same time, the vasus were also condemned to be reborn in a human womb. As soon as they are born, they are to be thrown into the waters. In fact, seven of them were born from

Gan˙gā and drawn, while the eighth son became the famous Bhīs․ma. Not only are a series of embryos killed as if in preparation for the birth of the eighth, but the embryos have to pass through the waters, in the same way as did the S․ad․garbhāh․ before Kr․․sn․a’s birth. In Bhīs․ma’s birth story, no seventh child similar to Sam․kars․an․a appears, but curiously enough, the eighth son renounces all sexual activity, a sort of voluntary castration that fi ts the pattern observed in the stories quoted earlier.

I cannot close this section without considering the version of the story of Garud․a’s birth that also occurs in the Ādiparvan (bk. I of the Mahābhārata, chaps. 13–53) and which shares a very similar structure to the story under study here. Kaśyapa granted a wish to each of his spouses, Kadru and Vinatā. Kadru chose to have a thousand snakes, whereas Vinatā preferred two vigorous sons. Aft er a

pregnancy of fi ve hundred years, the former became the mother of a multitude of snakes. Eager to see her children, Vinatā broke the fi rst egg and saw a half-formed son (“the upper half of his body was fully grown, the other half stunted”22) who, at once, cursed his mother, condemning her to become her co-wife’s slave for fi ve hundred years. One day, Kadru entered into a discussion with Vinatā, of whom she was jealous, about the color of Uccaih․śravas, the horse of the sun. According to Vinatā, the horse was entirely white, whereas Kadru said its tail was black. They made a bet, and they stipulated that the loser would become the other’s slave.

All save one of the serpents refused to help their mother and were condemned to perish later in Janamejaya’s sacrifice. One of Kadru’s sons, however, was willing to disguise himself as jet black horse hairs and hung himself from Uccaihśravas’s tail. Th e next morning, when both women saw the horse, Vinatā had to admit that the horse’s tail was black and accordingly she agreed to subjugate herself to Kadru.

When his time had come, the second of Vinatā’s sons broke the shell of his egg, became gigantic in size and began to blaze monstrously. Garud․a was born like a bird with the brightness of Fire (agni ). As soon as he receives praise from the gods, he agrees to “withdraw” his burning rays (Mahābhārata 1.20.15). Garuda places Vinatā’s half-formed son in front of the sun so that he can block its rays and prevent all beings from being scorched. Th us Vinatā’s first son came to be known as Arun․a, the sun’s charioteer.

Even if, in this story, Kaśyapa’s descent comes from two different wives, their sons, egg-hatched snakes and birds, can be placed on the following continuum: a multitude of snakes destined to be destroyed, the half-formed Arun․a to whom an important cosmic function is given, and the over-blazing Garud․a whose fl ames have to be withdrawn before becoming Vis․n․u’s mount. As shown in the table, in spite of many differences, the story of Kr․․sn․a’s birth shares an identical narrative device concerning the last son with all these stories.

The device serves to explain the birth of an excessively powerful being (the sun, the terrible Bhīs․ma, the eagle Garuda, or the great Kr․․sn․a), whose strength has to be curtailed so that it might be tolerated inside the world. Th e penultimate son oft en receives the opposite treatment, since he is miscarried and continues his growth in some other way. There is another difference between the epic cases and those mentioned in the ritual texts referred to. In these older texts, the first sons to be born from Aditi are gods who keep on existing aft er the birth of Aditi’s last son. In contrast to the Mahābhārata and the Harivam․śa, here the first sons perish, whereas the seventh son, in Garuda’s birth story, protects living beings from the deadly sun and, in the

narrative of Kr․․sn․a’s birth, becomes the strange Sam․kars․an․a, the incarnation of Snake Śes․a, who acts as Kr․․sn․a’s elder brother. Th e Place of Śes․a-Sam․kars․an․a in the Story of Kr․․sn․a’s Birth The most original item inside the story of Kr․․sn․a’s birth must surely be the presence of a character named Sam․kars․an․a, the incarnation of Snake Śes․a or “Rest.” His

22. Mahābhārata 1.14.16 (Mahābhārata I. Th e Book of the Beginning, trans. and ed. J. A. B. van Buitenen [[[Wikipedia:Chicago|Chicago]]: University of Chicago Press, 1973], 72).

very existence challenges the goddess Nidrā’s ingenuity. Unless explicitly stated,23 Sam․kars․an․a (also called Balarāma, Rāma, Bala, etc.) always accompanies Kr․․sn․a. During Kr․․sn․a’s childhood, Sam․kars․an․a has no independent existence; he rather duplicates Kr․․sn․a, and the narrator Vaiśam․pāyana does not hesitate to say that Sam․kars․an․a and Kr․․sn․a form a unique body that has been duplicated (56.26).

Th e summary of the story that I presented at the beginning of this chapter reflects the sort of hesitation witnessed in the way the Harivam․śa speaks of Sam․kars․an․a. Th e S․ad․garbhāh․, having accepted Brahmā’s favor, form a distinct group of former enemies of the gods. As they were lying together in the pātāla, Vis․n․u went down there to fetch them. Nevertheless, Vaiśam․pāyana says that Devakī gave birth to seven embryos (48.1).

Once liberated from her seventh fetus, Devakī is said to have conceived the child which motivated Kam․sa to kill her first seven children (48.8). Śes․a-Sam․kars․an․a is counted among the fi rst seven, but has also a specific destiny. Thanks to the goddess, he will be extracted from Devakī’s womb at the seventh month and will continue his growth one more month in Rohin․ī’s womb, a spouse of Vasudeva dwelling in Nandagopa’s cow-settlement. From then on, Sam․kars․an․a is known as Kr․․sn․a’s elder brother, also called Rauhin․eya, Rohin․ī’s son (49.3,7; 54.21; 56.29; 57.10; etc.); he and Kr․․sn․a form such a close-knit unit (atiprasaktau, 51.12) that Nandagopa wonders about their relationship. Later, during his ablutions in the waters of the Yamunā, the sage Akrūra sees Snake Śes․a along with Vis․n․u, and realizes that both brothers are Śes․a’s and Vis․n․u’s incarnations (70.15–38).

Snake Śes․a is said to support the earth upon his head (Mahābhārata 1.32.13–25). He is also the one who, at the end of a cosmic era (kalpa), draws all beings together

(sam․kars․ayasi bhūtāni).24 Th is cosmic explanation of Sam․kars․an․a’s name concurs with the etymology unanimously given by the stories of the childhood. Sam․kars․an․a received his strange name because Devakī’s seventh embryo was drawn from or ripped from (sam․kars․an․a or kars․an․a) her womb before being inserted into Rohin․ī’s womb, whose own baby is said to have “fallen” ( patati ). Th e Vishnupurāna is explicit: “At the end of the kalpa, Rudra, who is identical with Sam․karsana, blazing with flames of venomous fire, proceeds from the mouths of this [[[Wikipedia:snake|snake]]] and devours the three worlds.”25 Located under the earth and supporting her, this celebrated snake completes Vsnu’s work. At the end of

the kalpa, he takes on a terrible form and sets the worlds ablaze, destroying them completely aside from a remnant that is also represented as Snake Śes․a, who serves as the couch on which Vis․n․u-Nārāyan․a sleeps during the cosmic night and symbolizes the material side of existence ( prakri ). From what we have just seen, Sam․kars․an․a, who appears to be famous because of his physical strength (bala), is also related to the violence associated with final destruction. Very nearly killed by the goddess who tore him from his mother’s womb, Devakī’s seventh embryo is quickly picked up, transferred to another womb

23. See Kāliya’s story, Harivam․śa 55.1; his absence during the Mahābhārata war.

24. Matsyapurān. a 248.46–47 (Ānandāśrama Sanskrit Series 54, Poona, India, 1909).

25. kalpānte yasya vaktrebhyo vis․ānalaśikhojjvalah․ / sam․kars․an. ātmako rudro nis․kramyātti jagattrayam // Vis․n. upurān. a 2.5.19 (my translation).

and thus saved by the goddess. One does not need an in-depth knowledge of the Purān․as to understand that Sam․kars․an․a follows precisely the same trajectory as Snake Śes․a, of whom he is said to be the incarnation. Th e sequence of episodes found in the story of Kr․․sn․a’s birth—the destruction of the living beings (the S․ad․garbhāh․ killed by Kamsa), a remnant saved (Śes․a-Sam․kars․an․a) and the appearance of an all-encompassing deity (Vis․n․u-Nārāyan․a-Kr․․sn․a)—is the typical pattern of the mythology of the cosmic dissolution ( pralaya).

Thre is no new creation ( pratisarga) without a purification and its attendant destruction. Th e cosmic renewal is the raison d’être of the dissolution of pralaya, as well as the ultimate aim of the appearance of Kr․․sn․a in the human world.

The likeliest conclusion to be drawn from this strange “coincidence” is that this piece of mythology involving fetuses forms a mythic prehistory to Vis․n․u’s manifestation as Kr․․sn․a. Th e purusottama Vis․n․u comes upon the earth to inaugurate a new way of life and cannot perform such a task without a rehearsal of the pralaya. As the Purus․ottama’s elder brother, Sam․kars․an․a summarizes the violence supposed by the destruction of an outdated world and its reduction to a remnant (śes․a), which symbolizes the inescapable support of the prakri or the material world.

Since the cosmic evolution described in the Purān․as cannot be carried out without the active presence of the great goddess, accordingly Vis․n․u could not appear in the world to confuse the enemies of dharma without the unfailing collaboration of the goddess Nidrā or Yoganidrā. Aft er having killed the asura Kālanemi, Visnu is said to have retreated to his celestial hermitage and lay down on a couch served by Nidrā, “a goddess born from his own body, one who obeys his commands.”26 Presented as the overarching māyā who is able to confound the world (mohayañ jagad, Harivam․śa 40.34), Nidrā also points to the cosmic significance of this entire set of episodes.