The “transience of things”
in Vajrayana Buddhist
visual culture
Rui Oliveira Lopes
rui.o.lopes@gmail.com
Abstract
Resumo
The idea of impermanence (anitya) is known as a critical concept
found in Buddhism, regarded as one of the three marks of
existence (trilaksana), along with suffering (duhkha) and non-self
or self-annihilation (anātman). Buddha propagated the law of
dependent arising (pratītyasamutpāda), which presents the idea
that any phenomena arise in dependence on outer conditions
and because of the natural flow of these conditions. Therefore,
no worldly phenomena have a permanent essence or existence.
The transience of all things deals with the awareness to ephemera,
like ageing, illness, death, and rebirth, admitting that all conditioned
things are in a constant state of flux. The notion that time is an
illusion has been discussed more recently by physicists such
as Julian Barbour, Carlo Rovelli, among others. However, this
is a well-known concept in religious thought extant not only in
Dharmic religions but also in Abrahamic and Taoic religions.
Religious thought demonstrates different perspectives toward the
impermanent nature of life, manifested in the sacred scriptures,
in the classical spiritual literature, as well as in the religious arts.
This paper examines the representation of the doctrines of
impermanence and momentariness in Vajrayana Buddhist visual
culture as a form of self-expression of the transient nature of
the worldly existence. Ancient art treatises deal with the subject
of artistic creativity as a form of self-expression and a means by
which one could achieve another state of mind, transcending
his human temporal condition. Therefore, the act of creating an
image is often considered a process of visualisation to pursuit
spiritual edification and meditation, leading to a way of living
or a form of spiritual liberation. This paper argues that the
religious concept of impermanence is represented in Buddhist
visual culture in two ways: first, by the mnemonic function of
the image as a reminder of our transient condition, through
expressions of momentaneous existence, material detachment
and emptiness; and second, by the intrinsic tempos involved in
the creation of images and ritual implements, which emulates
the constant state of flux of all conditioned things.
A ideia de impermanência (anitya) é um conceito fundamental no
Budismo, que se define como uma das três evidências de existência
(trilaksana), juntamente com sofrimento (duhkha) e o não-ser
ou niilismo do eu (anātman). O Buda difundiu a lei da originação
dependente (pratītyasamutpāda), que essencialmente apresenta
a ideia de que qualquer fenómeno emerge em dependência
de condições exteriores e como resultado da dinâmica natural
dessas condições. Consequentemente, qualquer fenómeno
mundano é inibido de essência ou existência permanente.
A natureza transitória de todas as coisas relaciona-se intrinsecamente
com o efémero,o envelhecimento,a doença,a morte e o renascimento,
admitindo-se que todas as coisas condicionadas se encontram
num estado de constante fluxo. A noção de que o tempo é, na
verdade, uma ilusão tem sido amplamente discutida por fisicos
como Julian Barbour, Carlo Roseli, e outros. Contudo, a ilusão do
tempo é conceito central no pensamento religioso não apenas
entre as religiões Dármicas, mas também nas religiões Abraâmicas
e Taoicas. O pensamento religioso evidencia perspectivas distintas
sobre a natureza impermanente da vida, tanto nos textos sagrados
como na literatura espiritual e nas artes religiosas.
Este texto examina a representação das doutrinas da impermanência
e momentaneidade na cultural visual do Budismo Vajrayana como
uma forma de auto-expressão e meditação na essência transitória
das coisas mundanas. Antigos tratados de arte exploram
estas praticas artísticas como uma forma de auto-expressão
e como um método ritualístico através do qual o praticante
pretende atingir um elevado estado psíquico, transcendendo
a sua condição humana temporal. Consequentemente, o acto
de criar uma imagem, como resultado de uma performance
ritual, é, em si, um processo de visualização no sentido de um
estado meditativo e de edificação espiritual, conducente a
uma outra forma de existência e liberação. Este texto, propõe
que o conceito teológico de impermanência é representado
na cultura visual Budista de duas formas: primeiro, através
de uma função didática mnemônica da imagem, trazendo
à memória a nossa condição transitória, através de expressões
de existência momentânea, desapego material e vazio; e, em
segundo, através de tempos intrínsecos envolvidos no processo
de criação de imagens e implementos rituais que emulam o
estado constante de fluxo de todas as coisas condicionadas.
Keywords
Tempo, Impermanência, Momentaneidade, Roda da Vida,
Kapala, Visualização, Tantra
Palavras-chave
Time, Ompermanence, Momentariness, Wheel of life,
Mandala, Kapala, Visualisation, Tantra
107
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD)
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
Impermanence: on time and temporality in Buddhist doctrine
André Bareau states that “ever since its origin, the Buddhist doctrine is
concerned with the problem of time” (Bareau 1957). In Buddhist philosophy,
impermanence (anitya)1 refers to the idea that all conditioned things are temporary, without substance, continually changing, and in a continuous state of
flux. Because of this impermanence and transient nature of all conditioned
things, individuals tend to ignore it and develop attachment, which leads to
suffering (duhkha) that is innate in the repeated cycle of existence (birth, ageing, death, rebirth, and death again), known as samsāra. It is through careful
examination and cultivation of interior experience that one may achieve a
state of consciousness realising that there is no real “I” or “Self” (anātman).
In Buddhism, Self is a mere construction of our mind based on a collection
of constantly changing physical and mental experiences and emotions. It is
only through a full understanding, realisation, and acceptance of these three
marks of existence that one can end suffering and the continuous cycle of
momentaneous existence. This is the path leading to liberation (moksa) and
enlightenment (nirvāna).
The Buddhist doctrine of momentariness and impermanence is not
about time itself, but rather about existence within time. All things are impermanent and only exist within a limited duration of time. It is a phenomenon
of momentary existence which repeats through the cycle of birth and rebirth,
and it is atomized into a succession of moments or instants (ksana) in continuous change (Gupta 1980; Craig 1998). Kelsang Gyatso, an eminent monk of
the Gelugpa tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, states that there are two kinds
of impermanence: gross and subtle impermanence. Gross impermanence
is more visible and easily recognisable in all sentient beings as well as in all
inanimate things. Ageing and death, as well as the loss of freshness of flowers
in a vase, the change of landscape after a forest fire, or the decay of a building, are vivid examples of the transient nature of things and their existence
within time (Gyatso 1984). Meditating on impermanence and the transient
nature of everything, including ourselves, is the path that will lead to the end
of suffering and, as a result, to solve temporary problems. In its turn, subtle
impermanence requires a higher level of awareness to the subtle changes
in ourselves as well as in all the other things around us that are in a constant
flux of change.
It was through the meditation of impermanence that Siddhārtha Gautama attained enlightenment. Since his awakening from ignorance about the
truth, his followers benefit from what is known as the Three Jewels or Refuges
(triratna): the Buddha, as the fully enlightened one; the dharma, the teachings of the Buddha, and the samgha, his followers — which refers not only
to the Buddhist monastic community (monks and nuns) but also considers
108
Fig. 1
Wheel of Life (bhāvacakka), Pigments
on cloth, 19th century, 115 x 76 cm.
Rubin Museum of Art. Accession number:
C2006.66.131, HAR78.
109
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
the interrelation between them and the broader
Buddhist community constituted of lay people
who have taken the “refuges” and embraced
Buddhism (Gombrich 1996; Harvey 2013). As
Harvey (2013) explains, “refuge” is not a place to
hide, but rather a process of meditation which
purifies, uplifts, and strengthens the heart and
mind. Meditation on the Buddha, both the historical buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, and all the
other past and future Buddhas, relates with the
consciousness of the rediscovery of the dharma
and the principle of awakening as a supreme
form of attainment (siddhi). Meditation on dharma is to follow the path of the Middle Way, a
term used to describe the Noble Eightfold Path
rediscovered by the historical Buddha, leading
to liberation and the end of impermanence and
suffering. Finally, samgha (Buddhist community) is related to the practice of the right way
of life according to individual choices between
monastic or lay Buddhist path and the karmic
correlation between both. In many Buddhist traditions, it is generally accepted that those who
choose a monastic life tend to be in a better
position and suitable environment to cultivate a
state of complete detachment and attain liberation and enlightenment. However, that does not
necessarily mean that only Buddhist monks will
achieve nirvāna and those who live a secular life
will not.
The essence of Buddha’s teachings is principally concerned with the problem of time
— impermanence — as a soteriological system.
His teachings are abridged in the Four Noble
Truths (catvāri āryasatyāni), which are the principles that he came to understand and be aware
of while meditating under the bodhi tree: the
truth of suffering (duhkha); the truth of the origin of suffering (pratītyasamutpāda); the truth
of the cessation of suffering (nirodha); and the
truth of the path to the cessation of suffering
(mārga). These truths represent the awakening
of the Buddha and his rediscovery of the path
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
Fig. 2
Yamāntaka, Pigments on cloth, 18th
century, 42 x 27 cm. Shelley & Donald
Rubin Collection. Accession number:
P1994.10.13.
110
of liberation and the end of temporal existence
for his followers. These philosophical concepts
over the nature of time and momentariness
of all things, as a gradual development of the
teaching of impermanence, became especially
critical in the Theravāda tradition, the oldest remaining Buddhist school, currently predominant
in Southeast Asia (Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Sri Lanka) (Bareau 1957; Miyamoto
1959; Prasad 1988) as well as in the Vajrayana
tradition in Tibet. In the Mahāyāna tradition, the
discussion of time is mostly concerned with the
definition of three times: past; present; and future. The old Dārstāntika school in the Mahāyāna tradition argues that the three times are permanent, while the conditioned things within it
(all sentient beings and inanimate things) are
impermanent. The Mahāyāna sutras state that
the Buddha as an Enlightened One was able to
understand the nature and the essence of the
three times and, consequently, transcend temporal existence (Lancaster 1974). The cognition
of the three times is transcendent and beyond
the reach of the ordinary man in his current state
of mind and awareness. The dispute about the
notions of time (impermanence) and temporality (eternity) among the early schools of Buddhism as an ontological system is at the core of
the significant different viewpoints of Buddhist
traditions (Bareau 1957; Inada 1974; Kalupahana 1974; Stambaugh 1990). For instance, Tibetan Buddhism teaches about four dimensions of
time: past, present, future and the timeless time.
While the three times are impermanent, the
timeless time is permanent (Duckworth 2019).
On the other hand, in Zen Buddhism, the Japanese monk Dōgen Zenji discussed the nature
of time and being, conceiving the definition of
being-time ujī in which there is an intrinsic a necessary causal relation between time and being
(Stambaugh 1990; Roberts 2018). Nevertheless,
these schools agreed with the fundamental
precepts of Buddhism — Impermanence, Four
Fig. 3
Yamāntaka, Pigments on cloth, 18th
century. Private collection (In catalogue of
the exhibition Quintessence of Returning
Tibetan Cultural Relics from Overseas.
Beijing, China, July 2012).
111
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
Noble Truths, Dependent Origination, and NonSelf2 — as the central Buddhist doctrines.
The Buddhist concept of impermanence is
necessarily related to the principle of detachment (naiskramya), also referred in Buddhism
as non-attachment or renunciation. In the Great
Sutra on the Ending of Craving, the Buddha
teaches that we experience suffering because
we tend to feel desire and craving for worldly
things and emotions, which are impermanent. As
a solution, the first practice of the Noble Eightfold Path is the renunciation as “right intention”
(samyaksamādhi). The ultimate expressions of
detachment and renunciation are not necessarily the cultivation of poverty and renunciation to
material comfort, but rather the renouncement
to the sentiment of grasping. It is this sentiment
of grasping that causes material and mental attachment to samsāra (cyclic mundane existence)
and obstructs the way to liberation. To attain
nirvāna, the Buddha exhorted his followers to
develop renunciation as a means of eliminating
attachment to the pleasures of the senses and
cultivate the path of the right intention through
morality, concentration, and wisdom (Bushwell
and Lopez 1976). In this context, while morality
is more linked to the desires of the body and the
speech, concentration and wisdom are entirely
focused in the constant awareness and meditation on our impermanent condition or existence
in a limited time.
As in many religious traditions, the central
teachings of Buddhism around the doctrine of
impermanence had a tremendous impact on
visual culture and aesthetics. Buddhist rituals
and meditation practices urged the production of material culture and the development
of representation systems used as a process of
visualisation for inner development. This paper
examines the modes of visual representation
of the concepts of impermanence, transience,
ephemera, and cycle in Buddhist visual culture,
from the evident expressions of meditation on
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
impermanence through the manufacture of objects made of skulls and human bones in Tantric Buddhism, the representation of cycles, personifications
of time and death, and the Tibetan tradition of creation and destruction of
sand mandalas.
Time: the cosmic cycle of life, death, and rebirth
The concept of cyclical patterns of existence is widely represented in
Buddhist myths as well as in its visual culture and iconography. The complexity of Buddhist cosmology is often explained through the construction
of visual diagrams representing the concepts of the universe and the cosmic
cycle of life, death and reincarnation (samsāra) with concerning to human suffering and existence. Samsāra means “round” or “circle” that is governed by
the principles of causality (karma). Such diagrams, symbolically representing
the samsāra are known as bhāvacakka (wheel of life) or samsāracakka (wheel
of samsāra) and are often found in Tibetan Buddhist visual culture (Fig. 1).
The wheel is an archetype of motion, continuity, and change, represented as
a mimesis of the phenomenal universe. It is an archaic solar symbol related to
the notion of time within a timeless eternity — a primordial sacred existence
(Jung 1969). When discussing the Indian symbols of time and eternity, Mircea
Eliade distinguished a mythic or sacred time which is qualitatively distinct
from profane time. While the sacred time is a-temporal and transcendental,
the profane time is measurable, impermanent, chronological, and “historical”
(Eliade 1961). The wheel of life is a cosmological diagram that synthesises
Buddhist view of the universe and the teachings about the endless cycle of
life, the principles of causality, different realms of existence, and the possibility of liberation. The earliest representation of the wheel of life is found
in the Ajanta Caves complex in India, although it became one of the most
distinctive subjects in Himalayan murals and roll paintings on cotton, known
as thangka (Haldar 1950; Talim 2006). According to several early Indian texts,
Buddha himself is the creator of the Wheel of Life and instructed his disciples
to paint it in the entrance of Buddhist monasteries for the instruction of the
laity and illiterate (Bushwell and Lopez 1976; Fremantle 2001).
As a cosmological diagram, the representation of the Wheel of Life is systematically accurate in the hierarchy of the elements included in the pictorial
composition, remaining generally unchangeable since the 5th century.
Yama, the wrathful God of Death, holds the circle of samsāra containing the three mental poisons (trivisa), the principles of causality (karma), the
six realms of existence of possible rebirth (samsāra), and the twelve nidānas
(dvādaśanidānāni), also known as the twelve links of dependent origination,
causing consciousness to be trapped in samsāra. Yama, represented with
three eyes and a crown of skulls, clutches the Wheel of Life with both hands
and both feet, ready to devour life and everything existing in the samsāra.
Yama symbolises the impermanence of all sentient things trapped in eternal
112
Fig. 4
Virūpa stopping the Sun, Pigment on
cloth, 17th century. Rubin Museum of Art.
113
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
suffering due to their attachment and ignorance
of the nature of the universe. Occasionally, Māra,
the “Maker of Death” and the tempter of Buddha, devoted to preventing him from achieving
liberation from the cycle of birth and death, is
represented holding the Wheel of Life. Māra is
described as the personification of the antagonistic forces to enlightenment.
The Wheel of Life is divided into four circular layers. The hub, in the centre of the composition, contains the three poisons of delusion or ignorance (mohagginā), aggression or
aversion (dosagginā), and desire or attachment
(rāgagginā), respectively represented by a pig,
a snake, and a bird. In Buddhism, these three
poisons or fires are primary causes that keep all
sentient beings trapped in samsāra. Positioned
in a circular formation, the snake usually comes
out of the pig’s mouth and the bird from the
snake’s mouth, as it is said that ignorance leads
to aversion and attachment. Again, the circular
disposition of these three animals indicates the
endless circle in which humans are trapped.
In the Ādittapariyāya Sūtra (Fire Sermon), the
Buddha refers to the three fires as a process of
detachment from the five senses of mind and
body that lead to feeling and craving. He describes the five senses as being “burning” with
delusion, aggression, and desire, determining
all causal relations and a duality between good
and bad, affecting the possibilities of rebirth. A
conscious disciple is aware of these fires and
becomes disenchanted, dispassionate, and
consequently, released from suffering3.
The second layer, divided into two half-circles, represents karma. One half, with a white
background, depicts people in a lively celebration towards an ascending direction, while the
other half, with a black background, depicts
people subjected to suffering, chained and
dragged by demons towards a descending direction. The ascending/descending direction
of the people in the karmic layer together with
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
Fig. 5
Virūpa stopping the Sun, Bronze.
Private Collection.
Fig. 6
Mahasiddha (Skull cup bearer), Brass with
pigment, 17th century, 12 x 7,6 x 5,7 cm.
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accession
number: 2004.81.
114
the contrasting light/dark background is generally interpreted as a path of bliss opposed to a
path of misfortune. This layer represents the last
stage of death and rebirth and the consequent
higher or lower rebirth condition based on the
result of their actions and inner intentions (cetanā). The Buddha defined karma as intention,
contrasting to Brahmin ritualism and shifting the
focus from the physical action to the psychological process (Gombrich 1996). In the Nibbedhika
Sūtra (Penetrative Explanation), the Buddha explains that karma is more than just physical actions as it also involves the Buddhist notions of
right speech and right mindfulness: “Intention, I
tell you, is kamma. Intending, one does kamma
by way of body, speech, & intellect”4. He further
indicated which are the possibilities of rebirth
according to karma: “And what is the diversity
in kamma? There is kamma to be experienced
in hell, kamma to be experienced in the realm of
common animals, kamma to be experienced in
the realm of the hungry shades [ghosts], kamma
to be experienced in the human world, kamma
to be experienced in the world of the devas. This
is called the diversity in kamma”. These are represented in the third layer of the Wheel of Life.
At last, Buddha explains that the practice of the
eightfold path leads to the cessation of karma
and the endless cycle of rebirth.
The third layer depicts the six realms of rebirths, typically divided into two groups. The
higher realms of divinities (deva), demigods
(asura), and humans (manusya) are usually positioned in the top half of the wheel, while the
lower realms of animals (tiryagyoni), hungry
ghosts (preta), and hell (nāraka) are positioned
in the bottom half. Frequently, the third layer
represents only five realms, excluding the realm
of demigods or merging it with the realm of divinities as they are very similar. We can see contrasting examples in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The asuras
are ranked between the gods and humans. Because of their jealousy of the good fortunes of
115
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
the divinities, they were expelled from the Heaven by Indra. As a result, the
asura continues to engage in warfare against the devas, with the hope to regain their place in the heavens. Occasionally, the Wheel of Life represents the
quarrel of the asura, attempting to recover their heavenly privilege (Fig. 1). In
this painting, the artist rigorously depicted a discontinuous line as a moralistic
expression to indicate the unfortunate rebirth of those who belonged to the
highest realm, demonstrating that even those in the highest plane of existence are subjected to karma. The realm of humans is among the blissful forms
of rebirth as they do not experience suffering as heavily as in other realms.
Additionally, humans are in a privileged position to achieve enlightenment.
Generally positioned in the bottom half of the wheel, the lower realms
represent those who experience substantial suffering as a result of bad karma. In pictorial representations of the wheel of life, the animal realm does not
usually portray any animals experiencing any form of suffering, as its generally acknowledged that animals are exploited by humans and do not have the
self-awareness that is needed to achieve liberation. On the contrary, the hell
realm, traditionally positioned at the bottom centre, is populated with people
experiencing horrible tortures in the most varied ways. The punishments are
usually presided by Yama, as the king of hell and the one who decides the decease’s destination upon death. The realm of hell (nāraka) is, in fact, closer to
purgatory as the punishment is not eternal, but only temporary until the bad
karma is worked off (Bushwell and Lopez 1976). Demons are often represented with wrathful expressions, surrounded by garlands of fire and easily identified by their ultramarine blue or black skin colour, echoing the attributes of
Yama. Frequently, paintings of the Wheel of Life depict Maudgalyāyana, one
of the Buddha’s closest disciples, who became known for his filial piety in
popular literature, describing his efforts to rescue his mother from the realm
of hell. Advised by the Buddha, Maudgalyāyana made merits on behalf of his
mother, helping her to be reborn in a better condition (Teiser 2004, 2008).
At the bottom right of the Wheel of Life is the hungry ghosts (preta)
realm, which depicts supernatural beings under a higher level of suffering
than that of humans. Pretas are said to have been born in such an unfortunate
condition as a consequence of their greed and avarice, as well as deceitful
and corrupted behaviour during their previous life. They are traditionally represented as human-like having distended abdomens and emaciated bodies
as they are unable to eat or drink, despite their voracious appetite because
they have an extremely thin neck and tiny mouth. In Zen and Mahāyāna Buddhism, there are several rituals to ease the suffering of hungry ghosts. Communities organise special festivities to present offerings to hungry ghosts and
help them to achieve a better condition of rebirth. People rebirth in the realm
of hungry ghosts because of their greed, envy, and jealousy. The six realms
of rebirth and temporary existence are interrelated by karma the cause and
effect of actions (Padmasambhava 1987). The length of time or life span in
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
each of these realms are not necessarily the same. Those in the lower realms
remain in that condition for much more extended periods. Regardless of this
separation of realms determined by the endless cycle of rebirth, the human
realm, for instance, is also interlinked with other realms through their life experience and the karmic effects in the present life (ditthadhammavedaniya).
A human will momentously experience the lower states when greedy, hateful
or ignorant, or can momentously experience the higher states when happy,
aware or detached from emotions.
The fourth layer and outer rim represent the twelve nidānas (dvādaśanidānāni), also known as the twelve links of dependent origination which represent a samsāric causal chain reaction - pratityasamutpada (“interdependent
origination”) — that is responsible for the endless cycle of rebirth. Along the
outer edge, the twelve links of dependent origination symbolize how consciousness becomes trapped in samsāra under the power of ignorance, which
leads to actions with karmic repercussions, the sensual desires of the body and
mind, mental grasping at pleasures and existence, and ultimately birth, old
age, and death.
Nidānas means “fetters” in this causal chain that one needs to be aware
of and avoid to achieve liberation from samsāra. The twelve nidānas are: ignorance (avidyā); volitional formations (samskāra); consciousness (vijñāna);
name and form (nāmarūpa); the six senses (sadāyatana); physical contact
(sparśa); feeling (vedanā); craving (trsna); grasping (upādāna); becoming
(bhava); being born (jāti); and ageing and death (jarāmarana). The iconography of the twelve nidānas is generally standardized with minor variations
(Hartmann 1940). Conventionally, a blindman represents ignorance as the
main fetter keeping us trapped in our impermanent condition; a potter represents our volitions in the way we mould ourselves through our actions; the
curiosity a man gazing into the sky or a monkey hanging on a tree or a rooftop represents our consciousness or sense of discernment; two men in a boat
represent name and form as the physical and non-physical components of a
person’s experience; a house or houses with a total of six windows represents
the six senses as the means through which we experience the world and are
attached to the pleasures of life; a couple in sexual intercourse represents
sensory contact which will lead to the six senses; a man piercing his eye with
an arrow represents the pleasant and unpleasant sensations that will lead
to craving; a man receiving a drink or food represents the sense of craving
which leads to pain; a monkey picking fruit represents our greedy behaviour;
a pregnant woman represents becoming or our emotional tendencies which
will lead to the arising of the sense of self; a woman giving birth represents
the karmic actions that lead to rebirth; a wrapped corpse being carried represents death. In the Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sūtra, the Buddha addresses to the twelve causative links of dependent origination explaining how they
give rise the sense of self leading to suffering:
116
At last, the surroundings of the Wheel of Life often represents the historical Buddha, Śākyamuni, and other manifestations of Buddha, such as
Maitreya and Avalokiteśvara as soteriological possibilities to escape from the
endless cycle of death and rebirth (Schmid 2008).
The textual illustration of the Wheel of Life (bhavacakra) is one of the
most relevant themes in Buddhist visual culture as it portrays the totality of
Buddhist doctrine concerning the samsāra, which deals with the notions of
temporality and eternity — time (profane) and a greater time (sacred). The
wheel itself stands as a metaphor for the repeating cycles of momentariness
and the constancy within a change of condition. The circularity of the wheel
relates to the delimitation of time and space — impermanent/mundane as opposite to timeless/transcendent. Tibetan thangkas and murals at the entrance
of monasteries and temples feature the wheel of life not only as a chart of
moral and cosmological samsāric paths determined by a chain of causations
but mostly as a pedagogical visual reference to abolish the three main factors
that keep humans trapped in this endless impermanent condition: delusion,
hatred and greed. As a result, most depictions of the Wheel of Life are not
concerned with aesthetic values, but rather with its didactic function and canonical illustration.
Yama/Yamāntaka: abolishing time
In the context of the representation of time as an endless cycle of death
and rebirth, another popular theme is the portrayal of Yama, the Lord of the Underworld, who is the personification of impermanence. As mentioned above,
Yama is the one devouring life while holding the wheel of samsāra, standing as
a metaphor of impermanence and the ultimate obstacle to enlightenment. As
such, Yama is also related to the signs of momentariness, specifically birth, old
age, sickness, suffering, and death. Yama is traditionally represented as a wrathful figure with a predominant belly and blue skin riding a buffalo. He holds
a skull cup filled with blood or a lasso in his left hand and a vajra or a bone
117
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
“And what is dependent co-arising? From ignorance as a requisite condition come fabrications. From fabrications as a requisite condition comes
consciousness. From consciousness as a requisite condition comes name&-form. From name-&-form as a requisite condition come the six sense
media. From the six sense, media as a requisite condition comes contact.
From contact as a requisite condition comes feeling. From feeling as a
requisite condition comes craving. From craving as a requisite condition
comes clinging/sustenance. From clinging/sustenance as a requisite condition comes becoming. From becoming as a requisite condition comes
birth. From birth as a requisite condition, then ageing & death, sorrow,
lamentation, pain, distress, & despair come into play. Such is the origination of this entire mass of stress & suffering.”5
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
mace in his right hand. In Abhidharma school of Theravāda Buddhism, Yama
is a wrathful god (krodha-vighnantaka, often depicted as a judge in the hell
realm, presiding the infernal bureaucracy of punishment and subterraneous
prisons, which became very popular in Chinese visual culture (Bushwell and
Lopez 1976) (Fig. 3). Despite this negative and evil representation, Yama is still
considered as one of the eight dharmapāla (protector of dharma — Buddha’s
teachings), upper supernatural beings understood to be protectors of Buddhism and, consequently, a defender of dharma (Linrothe 1999). It seems that
Yama stands simultaneously in between impermanence and the path to a timeless existence, as the idea of and meditation on death is a reminder to humans’
impermanent condition conducive to awareness and, ultimately, to liberation.
However, in Vajrayana Buddhism in Tibet and Nepal, Yama is often and
most commonly represented in association with its antithetical manifestation, Yamāntaka, the destroyer of Yama. Yamāntaka is generally identified
as a wrathful manifestation of Mañjuśrī, a bodhisattva in the Mahāyāna tradition, but a tantric deity in Vajrayana Buddhism, particularly among the Sakya,
Kagyu and Gelug traditions. Tibetan manuscripts describe that one day Yama
was ravaging around Tibet and they appealed to Mañjuśrī to protect them
and to assume the form of Yamāntaka, and he destroyed Yama and all evil
spirits. The imagery of Yamāntaka is essential in the rituals and tantric practice
in Vajrayana Buddhism as it is one of the three primary religious protectors,
along with Mahākāla and Vaiśravana. Unlike the Mahāyāna tradition, which
emphasize a gradual path of spiritual evolution to attain the body, the speech
and the mind of Buddha throughout many lifetimes, Vajrayana Buddhism
offers a more radical and esoteric path to spiritual enlightenment. Esoteric Buddhism claims that humans are already enlightened, but restrained of
their untrained and defiled sensory and psychological functions that prevent
them from awakening. One of the influential treatises on the Buddha nature
composed by the third Karmapa Lama of the Kagyu tradition, Rangjug Dorge
(1284-1339) quotes the Hevajra Tantra, which states: “The Lord said: ‘All beings are buddhas, but this is obscured by accidental defilement. When this is
removed, they are buddhas at once, of this, there is no doubt’” (Snellgrove
1959; Thrangu 2006). All beings dwelling in samsāra are in possession of
the Buddha nature (essence), but because they are ignorant of the truth and
the Buddha nature, they are trapped in the six realms of samsāra. According
to Esoteric tantric Buddhism, the Buddha nature is obscured by incidental
stains, which are the negative qualities of the body, speech and, mind. These
are usually referred to as outer (physical), inner (mental) and secret (emptiness of all phenomena) afflictions or defilements that obstruct one from attaining enlightenment. Esoteric Buddhism recommends the rigorous meditative tantric practice to attain Buddhahood in the current lifetime, or just a
few lifetimes, rather than through compassionate deeds for several lifetimes,
like in the Mahāyāna bodhisattva path (Kossak, Singer, and Bruce-Gardner
118
“Now, if the adept [...] should paint to oppress that [defilement] which coerces, then at the beginning of the dark part of the month the [result will
be that the] coercing one will burn himself up. In the second watch, chills
and fevers will manifest his spirit completely stupefied. In the third watch,
he will forsake his life. After death, he will depart this world [...]. As for [the]
painting, this image, the likeness of Yamantaka [with] six faces, six arms
and feet, black in colour, with a big belly, bearing a skull, his hair flaring
out in anger, a tiger skin wrapped around the hips, holding all kinds of
119
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
1999). In this context, tantric meditation through the visualisation of wrathful
representation of Yamāntaka, Mahākāla, and Vaiśravana is particularly crucial
in the process of obliteration of obstructive defilements, towards the abolition of momentary existence in the cycle of samsāra. While Yamāntaka, the
destroyer of death, and Mahākāla (mahā - “great” and kāla - “time/death”), the
god of time, are metaphorically related to the abolition of death and temporal existence, Vaiśravana is the guardian of the North and protector of Buddhist monks, thought to bestow prosperity, giving the monks the freedom to
pursue spiritual goals.
These representations of wrathful gods are part of a complex process of
visualisation in tantra practice, similar to conceptions of visualisation for spiritual
meditation defined as composito loci by Ignatius Loyola in the Spiritual Exercises. Wrathful gods in Esoteric Buddhism are often represented bearing symbols
associated with death and violence, such as skulls filled with blood, necklaces
of skulls, and bone weapons. However, these images are understood as metaphors for the outer, inner and secret states (anger, greed, passion, and ignorance) that need to be destroyed, leading to the destruction of death itself. The
process of visualisation as meditation aims to ultimately enable the initiate to
internally create the image of the deity and hold it firmly in all its complexity
during long periods of meditation. Through this process, the initiate develops
the ability to access deep levels of the subconscious, away from defilement
and illusion (Kossak, Singer, and Bruce-Gardner 1999). Gradually, the initiate
will get closer to the body, speech, and mind of the Buddha nature and integrate himself with the wisdom associated with the deity.
Early Tantric Buddhist spiritual exercise compendia, such as the Sādhanamālā (Garland of Realisation), Nispannayogāvalī (Garland of Completed Yogas), and the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa (The Fundamental Mantra of Mañjuśrī) offer
comprehensive prescriptive descriptions of tantric deities, which were used
to set the conventions in Himalayan sacred art. These texts prescribe regular
procedures for tantric ritual practices which conventionally describe the deities in great detail, explaining their attributes and iconography. For instance,
the chapter Abhicāraka in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa describes rites involving
painted images of Yamāntaka. The execution of the painting, as well as the
materials applied, are an integral part of the tantric ritual.
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
implements and weapons, raising his hands in a terrifying manner, eyes
red, with a cruel and evil appearance, three eyes like pennons, hair standing up vertically, a mass of flames or flying like black smoke, [skin] the colour of a dark snow or rain cloud, his appearance like that of the cosmic fire
of destruction. One should paint him riding a water buffalo. A matter of a
wrathful, cruel and dreadful [appearance]. Anger and cruelty are his eternal calling. Wrathful and fear-inspiring, implacably grasping evil. Amidst
cruelty, he is at the extreme of cruelty. He can destroy all sentient beings.
Paint him with this anger. Use your own blood for colour. Mix it together
to make a dull wash of colour. With dog’s grease mixed with cow butter fill
up a skull cup. Use a brush-tip made of a dead man’s hair. For the handle,
use a bone from a dog. Fast, and then one should paint.” (Linrothe 1999)
Once the painting is finished is only completed with consecration rituals
known as Buddhābhiseka, which involves the recitation of mantras, placement of offerings, leading to the sacred empowerment of these images.
Yamāntaka is conventionally depicted in union with his consort, Cāmundā, or as a solitary hero (ekavīra). The latter is particularly prevalent in
both small scale sculpture figurines and pictorial thangkas (Bushwell and
Lopez 1976).
In one common pictorial representation, Yamāntaka stands with an aggressive stance of pratyālīdha as a destroyer of obstacles that prevent humans from achieving enlightenment (Fig. 3). The posture is described in the
Nātyaśāstra treatise of classical dance and performing arts to represent destruction (Ghosh 1950). In this posture, Yamāntaka bends his right foot and
leg and leans the body diagonally towards the right, and the left leg extended in the opposite direction. In the centre of the composition, riding on a water buffalo as a celestial vehicle, Yamāntaka stands on a corpse, laid impotent
in the core of a lotus flower. Scholars have discussed lengthily the symbolic
meaning of the corpse, which is generally interpreted as a personification of
ignorance, the core obstacle to enlightenment. We argue that standing on a
corpse may be related with the śāva sadhana tantric spiritual practice which
required the practitioner to sit on a corpse for meditation (McDaniel 2004).
This ritual aimed to achieve detachment from the physical world towards
the absolute, resulting in liberation from samsāra. In this context, Mañjuśrī’s
wrathful manifestation as Yamāntaka standing on a corpse means his heroic
victory over Yama, the god of death, through the obliteration of ignorance,
attachment, and hatred, the roots of samsāric existence.
In this thangka, Yamāntaka is represented with the head of a water buffalo, three eyes, hair standing upwards, carrying weapons, and a skull tiara, surrounded by a mass of flames, corresponding in details to the above textual description given in the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa. With the head of a water buffalo and
the bodyweight diagonally towards the right, Yamāntaka stands as a protective
120
121
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
deity against outer defilements: greed (rāga); hate (dvesa); delusion (moha);
vanity (māna); and wrong views (drsti). These images are believed to help to
clear the “obscuration of conflicting emotions” (kleśa-avarana).
Yamāntaka is also represented with a demoniac and fearful face of a rāksasa (Fig. 4). Rāksasas are anthropomorphic creatures (ogre or goblin) originated in Vedic, and Purana literature described as an insatiable flesh-eating
demon, with fangs protruding from the top of the mouth, flaming red eyes and
drinking blood from skull cups. Despite their Vedic origin, rāksasas were later
adopted in Buddhism in both male and female form, known as rāksasadeva. In
the Buddhist pantheon, rāksasadeva is also called Nirrti and understood as a
protector of Buddhism and destroyer of afflictions (kleśa) (Bushwell and Lopez
1976). The term probably derives from the term raksā frequently occurring in
the Vedic texts meaning to protect, to preserve, to avoid or be aware of evil
spirits and evil tendencies that continuously afflict sentient beings. In Tantric
Buddhism, the term is used in ritual practices intended to remove all inner and
outer obstacles and evils during the construction of mandalas, known as raksācakra (wheel of protection) (Bushwell and Lopez 1976).
Our interpretation demonstrates that when is represented with a demoniac raksā face and the same pratyālīdha body posture but leaning diagonally to
the left, Yamāntaka protects against inner afflictions: doubt (vicikitsā); dullness
of mind (thīna); relentlessness (auddhatya); shamelessness (āhrīkya); and recklessness (anapatrapya). These images are believed to help to clear the “obscurations concerning the knowable”.
Occasionally, there are thangkas intended to protect against inner and
outer obstacles to attain liberation from samsāra (Fig. 5). These paintings typically represent Yamāntaka (outer) with the head of buffalo in the centre of
the composition, sometimes accompanied by his consort Cāmundā, wearing
a buffalo hide and a garland of bones, who offers him a skull cup filled with
blood. In the bottom section of the painting, Yamāntaka (inner) is presented
with the demoniac raksā face performing his wrathful dance. Yamāntaka is
surrounded by four smaller Yamāntaka bull-headed figures, mounted on a
buffalo, each in different colour: white, yellow, red and dark blue. These four
figures represent the four tantric activities or mundane attainments (siddhi) of
Yamāntaka’s destructive power (peaceful, increasing, powerful, and wrathful)
that the tantric practitioner is expected to attain through the propitiation of
Yamāntaka (Zopa Rinpoche 2009). In his explanation of the Ngöndro meditation practice, Thinley Norbu describes the four general or mundane siddhi: peaceful (pacifying and purifying obscurations by peaceful activities);
increasing (life, merit, intellect growth by increasing activity); powerful (all
phenomena are brought under our control by potent activity); and wrathful
(all evil forces are subdued out of compassion by wrathful activities) (Norbu
1993). Through the embodiment of these spiritual attainments, one renounces the momentary existence in samsāra and enables access to Buddhahood.
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
Facing impermanence: skull and bones ritual implements
In Tantric Buddhism iconography, the representation of skulls and human
bone ritual implements are essential elements associated with the magical
powers of wrathful deities. As a result, the use of skulls and implements made
of human bones became a quintessential component in religious ceremonies and rituals (Laufer 1923; Gray 2006). Skull cups were traditionally made
of human cranium often lavishly mounted and decorated with semi-precious
stones, gilded copper and silver inlays and surmounted by a lid with a knob
in the shape of a vajra. Occasionally, these cups were mounted on a triangular brass or silver base ornamented with flames pattern and skeleton figurines (Fig. 6). The use of skull cups is widespread in Buddhist Tantric rituals,
from libations placed in altars dedicated to wrathful deities, containing wine
along with dough cakes in the shape of eyes, ears, and tongues. These offers
symbolised the blood and flesh offered to win the favour of these deities and
to embody their ability to clear the obstacles toward enlightenment. Wrathful deities typically hold the skull cup in the left hand, representing wisdom,
while in the right hand they hold the curved knife or the vajra (weapon), representing the method to destroy obstacles. Through immersive meditation
and the rituals of visualisation, the wine and the dough cakes will be transformed into the nectar of immortality (amrta), to be then taken as a sacramental drink (Beer 2003).
The use of skull cups in Tantric rituals and meditation practice became
popular in the early times of Vajrayana Buddhism, especially among the Indian eccentric yogis known as mahāsiddha, so revered in the Tibetan Vajrayana
tradition. Mahāsiddha were ascetic yogis who became well-known for attaining spiritual powers (siddhi) through spiritual exercises (sādhanā), which ultimately lead to the removal of obscurations of samsāra. They were known for
their esoteric rituals and methods of mediation in cremation grounds, among
burnt corpses and utilising human bones implements until they attained a
state beyond life and death.
Virūpa was one of the eighty-four revered mahāsiddha, especially important to the Sakya school. His legend is one of the predominant themes in Himalayan art (Fig. 7). While studying at Nalanda monastery, Virūpa became discouraged with his unsuccessful meditation on Cakrasamvara Tantra. Later, in a
dream, he received instruction on Hevajra Tantra and finally attained enlightenment. He gave up his monastic life and lived as a wanderer. One day he was interruptedly drinking beer in a tavern, and the maid started to worry if he would
be able to pay. He then said that he would stop drinking at noon. Moments
later, he raised his hand and stopped the sun in his path. After he was drinking for three days, the local king restored cosmic order, paid Virūpa’s bill, and
Virūpa surrendered his conduct. This legend represents Virūpa’s transcendent
wisdom and his power to control time, and, therefore, the stream of existence.
Virūpa is conventionally represented sitting in the sattva posture (relaxed with
122
Ephemeral reconstruction: sand mandalas and the kālacakra
(wheel of time) practice
In Tibetan Buddhism, sand mandalas involve the idea of simulating the
process of creation and destruction and are often interpreted as a profound
practice to attain detachment and meditate on human impermanence and
the transient nature of samsāric existence.
The tradition of sand mandala remains one of the most secret, intricate,
and sacred ritual practices in Tibetan Buddhism, involving the chanting of
mantras, music, dance, and numerous monks take several days to complete
the ritual. The combination of these distinctive ritual arts is an integral component of the kālacakra (wheel of time) tantric ritual. Mandalas are always a
123
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
one leg extended) with his arm raised in the air to stop the Sun, accompanied
by a maid or female attendant carrying a skull cup, a traditional drinking vessel
of the mahāsiddha (Figs. 8 and 9) (Linrothe 1999).
Other influential Tantric Buddhist gurus were also represented using
skull cups. Padmasambhava (Lotus-Born) was a revered as the leading propagator of tantric Buddhism in Tibet. He is believed to have gone to Tibet at
the invitation of King Trisong Detsen and there founded the Nyingma Order
of Tibetan Buddhism. Popularly known as Guru Rinpoche, he is traditionally
represented in a yogic posture, holding a vajra, symbol the clarity of pure
Buddhist thought, and a skull cup, representing detachment, transcendence,
and triumph over death (Fig. 10).
Skulls and human bones were used in several other ritual implements
such as aprons and other ceremonial garments and musical instruments.
The damaru is a doubled-sided hand-drum made of two attached craniums,
ideally of a boy and a girl that have had a sky burial (no cremation). The union of male and female is a critical symbolic factor in tantric Buddhism and
represent compassion and wisdom. The central waist of the drum is usually
decorated with a brocade, leather or metal band, sometimes ornamented
with beads, from which the handle hangs. On either side of the central band
hangs the two padded striking pellets. The strikers were also usually made of
human bones to empower the ritualistic effect. The damaru is mainly used in
the chöd practice of the Nyingma and Kagyu schools of Tibetan Buddhism,
a ritual known as “cutting practice” in which the drum sets the rhythm of impermanence to a “dance” of obliteration of the self. This practice seeks to cut
the attachments of egotism and self through the visualisation of one’s own
dismembered body being offered to the spirits and ghosts to clear karmic
actions (Beer 2003).
As in many other cultures, the skull is a symbol of impermanence and
awareness of one’s momentary condition. Through the awareness of humans’ temporal existence, one is anticipated to develop detachment from
the worldly things: material and emotional desires.
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
Fig. 7
Construction and dissolution of a sand
mandala consecrated by the Dalai Lama
in July 2015 at the University
of California, Irvine.
124
visual representation of a tantra picturing a deity
in union with his consort in his palace, which is
also a representation of his state of mind. As an illustration of a sacred text, every iconographic element is meant to be “read”, and memorized for
visualisation during meditation. During the ritual, the practitioner is initiated by a ritual master
who has received permission by his own teacher through an oral transmission that has been
passed in an unbroken lineage traceable to the
origin of this teaching (Bryant 2003). The practitioner, and those who partake the ritual, are expected to “enter into the mandala”, embodying
the deity state of mind in which the deity dwells.
Time is an essential element in the performance
of the kālacakra tantra ritual. Before the student
begins receiving the teaching, the master takes
six days to initiate the ritual with purification and
consecration, one day for the apprentice preparation and two days for ritual initiation. Finally,
upon completion, the existence of the mandala itself is temporary. The mandala is swept and
Conclusion
The problem of time and our existence within the duality of temporality
and eternity is a quintessential concept in Buddhist philosophy. Buddhism
presents a system of precepts rediscovered by the historical Buddha to help
humankind to overcome a cycle of transient existence in which we experience
suffering, pain, ageing, and death. To achieve liberation from this illusory existence, one needs to undertake spiritual exercises to annihilate any form of
attachment to this cyclical existence. In the context of spiritual exercises and
Buddhist meditation practice, visualisation helps to activate the mind, the
spirit, and the body into a state of momentary transcendence. Visualisation
is, in fact, a form of meditation practice allowing the practitioner to grasp and
embody the symbolic aspects of the enlightened Buddha and, consequently,
imitate his ability to protect the mind from attachment, anger, and ignorance.
As a result, the use of images and ritual implements is an integral component
125
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
dismantled. The grains of sand will return to the bottom of a water stream as
a simulation of our transient nature and endless cycle of existence.
The kālacakra tradition delves with the Buddhist concepts of time and
cycles of existence, representing the flow of time (kāla) — past, present, and
future events — and the omniscience of the deity, which transcends measurable time. The combination of the kālacakra deity with his consort represents
the unity of male and female (yab-yum) — the duality of temporality and atemporality. As mentioned above, the wheel (cakra) not only evokes the idea
of cycle and flow of time but also represents the great bliss of enlightenment
that is replicated in the wheel of dharma, the symbol of Buddha teachings,
through which one can attain enlightenment.
Mandalas are traditionally made in two-dimensional representation in
which the design is made in the floor, and then the monks use dyed rice or
sand applied with tubes, funnels, and scrapers, called chak-pur to overtop
the design pattern (Fig. 12). When the mandala is finished, a monk divides
the mandala into eight parts with the vajra (Fig. 13). The mandala is then dismantled or swiped, conserved in a jar wrapped in a piece of silk and poured
into a river or a water stream, returning to its original place so one day that
grains of sand can be used again in a mandala (Fig. 14 and Fig. 15).
Although in western culture sand mandalas, and many other tantric Buddhist visual culture, is generally perceived as an artistic expression requiring
intricate creative and technical skills, these are ritual implements intrinsic to
the performance of visualisation during meditation. The design of the mandala is not an act of creation, but rather a reconstruction of a transcendent
realm that exists beyond our notion of time and space. Ultimately, the dissolution of the mandala is the enclosure of an entrance to a transcendent atemporal realm in which the monks who partake the ritual experience Buddha
nature and a momentary suspension of time.
CO N VO CA RT E N . º 8 — A RT E E T E M P O : T E M P O, C U LT U R A E C R I AÇÃO A RT Í ST I CA
in Buddhist visualisation meditation practice, especially in the Vajrayana tradition. The representation of cosmological charts based on the descriptions in
sacred texts allows one to “see” things the way they are in reality, assisting one
to penetrate and mentally eliminate delusions and conceptual fabrications of
this cyclical existence. Buddhist visual culture is an immersive visual metaphor
conducive to inner development and transcendence over momentary existence. As a result, unlike Christian art, which is mostly devotional, Buddhist art is
necessarily ritualistic, sacred, mystic and esoteric, involving many tantric practices that are often confined within the walls of the Tibetan monasteries. Correspondently, Tibetan Buddhist paintings should also be categorised as ritual
implements, likewise skull cups, bells, ritual weapons, and the vajra. Buddhist
tangkas and mural paintings are prescriptive and didactic images specifically
designed for individual tantric ritual practices and progressive stages. These
images and ceremonial objects hold a mnemonic function being utilised as
a reminder of humankind transient condition, using representations of death,
suffering, metaphorical destruction, material detachment and emptiness. Often, the concepts of impermanence and detachment are also reflected in the
ephemeral and cyclical existence of Buddhist material culture in which the
creation and destruction of sand mandalas and the fabrication of ritual implements using human bones emulate the constant flux of all conditioned things.
Notes
Early Buddhist scriptures were
traditionally written in Pāli and Sanskrit.
While Pāli is the scriptural language
of Theravāda Buddhism, Sanskrit was
traditionally and widely used in the
Mahāyāna tradition. Following the
common practice of academic scholars
on Buddhist studies, this paper adopted
Sanskrit transliteration for Buddhist
terminology.
1
The doctrine of the Theravādin non-self
(anātman) is related with the Mahāyāna
concept of emptiness (śūnyatā) and the
non-substantiality of everything.
2
“Adittapariyaya Sutta: The Fire Sermon”
(SN 35.28), translated from the Pali
by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight
3
126
(BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013,
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/
sn35/sn35.028.than.html [accessed on 26
August 2019].
“Nibbedhika Sutta: Penetrative”
(AN 6.63), translated from the Pali by
Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight
(BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://
www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/
an06/an06.063.than.html [accessed on 26
august 2019].
4
“Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta:
Analysis of Dependent Co-arising”
(SN 12.2), translated from the Pali by
Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight
(BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://
www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/
sn12/sn12.002.than.html . [accessed on 7
September 2019].
5
Reference list
Bareau, André. 1957. “The Notion of Time
in Early Buddhism.” East and West 7 (4):
353–64.
Beer, Robert. 2003. The Handbook of
Tibetan Buddhist Symbols. Boston:
Shambhala.
Bryant, Barry. 2003. The Wheel of Time
Sand Mandala: Visual Scripture of Tibetan
Buddhism. Boulder: Snow Lion.
Craig, Edward. 1998. Routledge
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London:
Routledge.
Duckworth, Douglas S. 2019. Tibetan
Buddhist Philosophy of Mind and Nature.
Oxford / New York: Oxford University Press.
Eliade, Mircea. 1961. Images and Symbols.
Studies in Religious Symbolism. New York:
Sheed & Ward.
Fremantle, Francesca. 2001. Luminous
Emptiness: Understanding the Tibetan
Book of the Dead. Boston & London:
Shambhala.
Ghosh, Manomohan. 1950. The
Nāțyaśāstra. A Treatise on Hindu
Dramaturgy and Histrionics Ascribed to
Bharata Muni. Calcutta: The Royal Asiatic
Society of Bengal.
Gombrich, Richard F. 1996. How Buddhism
Began. The Conditioned Genesis of the
Early Teachings. London / New York:
Routledge.
Gray, David B. 2006. “Skull Imagery and
Skull Magic in the Yoginī Tantras.” Pacific
World 8: 21–39.
Gupta, Rita. 1980. “The Buddhist Doctrine
of Momentariness and Its Presuppositions.”
Journal of Indian Philosophy 8: 47–68.
Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang. 1984. Buddhism
in the Tibetan Tradition: A Guide. London:
Routledge.
Haldar, Asit K. 1950. “Symbolism in Indian
Art and Religion.” The Journal of Aesthetics
and Art Criticism 9 (2): 124–27.
Harvey, Peter. 2013. An Introduction to
Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices.
Cambridge / London: Cambridge
University Press.
Inada, Kenneth K. 1974. “Time and
Temporality: A Buddhist Approach.” PhEast
and WestEast and West 24 (2): 171–79.
Jung, C. G. 1969. Archetypes and the
Collective Unconscious. New York:
Princeton University Press.
Kalupahana, David J. 1974. “The Buddhist
Conception of Time and Temporality.”
Philosophy East and West 24 (2): 181–91.
Kossak, Steven M., Jane Casey Singer,
and Robert Bruce-Gardner. 1999. Sacred
Visions. Early Paintings from Central Tibet.
New York: The Metropolitan Museum
of Art.
Lancaster, Lewis R. 1974. “Discussion of
Time in Mahayana Texts.” Philosophy East
and West 24 (2): 209–14.
Laufer, Berthold. 1923. “Use of Human
Skulls and Bones in Tibet.” Leaflet 10 (10):
1–16.
Linrothe, Rob. 1999. Ruthless Compassion.
Wrathful Deities in Early Indo-Tibetan
Esoteric Buddhist Art. Boston: Shambhala
Publications.
McDaniel, June. 2004. Offering Flowers,
Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship
in West Bengal. Oxford / New York: Oxford
University Press.
Miyamoto, Shoson. 1959. “Time and
Eternity in Buddhism.” Journal of Bible
and Religion 27 (2): 118–26.
Norbu, Thinley. 1993. The Small Golden
Key to the Treasure of the Various Essential
Necessities of General and Extraordinary
Buddhist Dharma. Boston & London:
Shambhala Publications.
Padmasambhava. 1987. The Tibetan Book
of the Dead. The Great Liberation through
Hearing in the Bardo. Edited by Francesca
Fremantle and Chogyam Trungpa. Boston
& London: Shambhala Publications.
127
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
Bushwell, Robert E., and Donald S.
Lopez. 1976. The Princeton Dictionary of
Buddhism. Princeton / Oxford: Princeton
University Press.
Hartmann, Gerda. 1940. “Symbols of the
Nidānas in Tibetan Drawings of the ‘Wheel
of Life.’” Journal of the American Oriental
Society 60 (3): 356–60.
Prasad, Shankar Hari. 1988. “The Concept
of Time in Pali Buddhism.” East and West
38 (1): 107–36.
Roberts, Shinshu. 2018. Being-Time: A
Practioner’s Guide to Dōgen’s Shōbōgenzō
Uji. Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications.
THE “TRANSIENCE OF THINGS” IN VAJRAYANA BUDDHIST VISUAL CULTURE | RUI OLIVEIRA LOPES
Schmid, David Neil. 2008. “Revisioning
the Buddhist Cosmos: Shifting Paths of
Rebirth in Medieval Chinese Buddhist Art.”
Cachiers d’Extreme-Asie 17: 293–325.
Snellgrove, David L., ed. 1959. The Hevajra
Tantra. A Critical Study. London / Toronto:
Oxford University Press.
Stambaugh, Joan. 1990. Impermanence Is
Buddha-Nature. Dogen ’ s Understanding
of Temporality. Honolulu: University
of Hawai’i Press.
Talim, Meena. 2006. “The Wheel of ‘Law
of Causation’ in Ajanta Paintings.” Bulletin
of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and
Research Institute 66/67: 245–58.
128
Teiser, Stephen F. 2004. “The Local and the
Canonical: Pictures of the Wheel of Rebirth
in Gansu and Sichuan.” Asia Major 17 (1):
73–122.
———. 2008. “The Wheel of Rebirth in
Buddhist Temples.” Arts Asiatiques 63:
139–53.
Thrangu, Khenchen. 2006. On Buddha
Essence. A Commentary on Ranjung
Dorge’s Treatise. Boston & London:
Shambhala Publications.
Zopa Rinpoche, Lama. 2009. The Heart of
the Path: Seeing the Guru as Buddha. Lama
Yeshe Wisdom Archive.