The meaning of empowerment: the interdisciplinary etymology of a new management concept
By Alex Wayman
The Buddhist genesis story is very ancient, being found in the Pali scriptures besides the northern Buddhist accounts. It is mentioned in all three branches of Buddhist scriptures, Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma. A Sanskrit version entitled Rajavamsa (royal lineage) exists in the Maha- vastu. In the
Abhidharma literature the account is given in the description of vivaria (differentiation of the beings due to evolution of the inferior worlds) as contrasted with sarpvarla (consubstantiation of the beings due to dissolution of the inferior worlds). At least in later Buddhist accounts, the legend does
not have the importance that the Biblical Genesis has in the Judeo-Christian tradition. Our treatment suggests that in the earliest Buddhism it may well have had a much greater importance than it had later on.
In any case, Tsoh-kha-pa (1357—1419 A.D.), founder of the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism signals the importance of the legend in an elaborate discussion utilizing both non-Tantric and Tantric sources in the first part of his work Dpal gsah ba hdus pahi gnad kyi don gsal ba, "[[Elucidating the
meaning of the essential points of the Sri-guhyasamaja (Tantra)]]" (Lhasa ed„ collected works, Vol. Cha), which has the abbreviated reference Don gsal. Tson-kha-pa uses this legend as a rationale for the types of meditations found in the Anuttara-yoga-tantra, a literature which often mystifies and repels Western scholars because of its complicated ritualism and sexual symbolism. Here there is space for only the main ideas of Tson-kha-pas discussion. The non-Tantric Buddhist legend may be organized and summarized as follows:
There are three efficient causes of the periodical destruction of the world systems, viz., fire, water, and wind. According to the Abhidharma-kosa (III, 100 c—d, and commentary), fire brings an eon of evolution to an end by destroying all of the realm of desire (kama-dhalu) and the First Dhyana Heaven of the realm of form (rupa-dhatu). Water destroys all that as well as the Second Dhyana Heaven: and wind destroys all the latter as well as the Third Dhyana Heaven of the realm of form. Only the Fourth Dhyana of this realm remains intact. The First Dhyana is also referred to by its divine residents, such as the Brahma retinue deities, the Second Dhyana by its chief deities, the Abhasvaras, the Third Dhyana by the Subha deities.
I. In the next period of evolution, while the lower receptacle worlds are re-evolving, the sentient beings fall to lower planes in a process usually described as starting from the level of the Abhasvara deity class (after the destruction by fire). They fall from that divine world and come “here“, “Here" is explained as Jambudvipa (our world continent or specifically India). Buddhaghosa of the southern school and Vasubandhu of the northern school of
Buddhism agree that these men of the first eon' pass through each of the intermediate worlds by a type of birth called transformation' (upapaduka) after each successive death. The Abhidharma-kosa (II, 9 b—c) says that the beings with this type of birth are the hell-beings, the beings of the intermediate state, and the gods. Hence the 'men of the first eon' were in a condition rather comparable to the present (disembodied) inter¬mediate state
(antarabhava) between death and rebirth. Asanga explains that these 'men of the first eon' (pralhamakalpa) passed through these worlds with actions involved with desire (kamdvacara-karma) that are superior, chief, best (parama, agrya, sresfha), and whose fruitions are ex¬perienced immediately, not at another time. And these men have a beau¬tiful form (rupin) and are 'made of mind' (manomaya)1. In addition, the Mahavastu (1, 339) says that these men are self-luminous, feed on joy, and go where they wish.
II. Then, on the surface of the earth which at that time was in a fluidic state there appeared an earth essence’ which some being disposed to greediness tasted with his finger. It pleased him, he came to eat mouthfuls, and other beings followed suit. Thus these beings became dependent on morsel
food, still subtle. They lost their original qualities of feeding on joy, body made of mind, and so on, and their bodies became heavier and more substantial. The ones who least indulged, retained with pride their beautiful form. The sun, moon, and year became known. In the course of time this earth
essence disappeared and a honey-like excrescence appeared on the surface of the earth. Asanga explains that hell beings, beings in the embryonic states, and the gods involved with desire (kamavacara-deva) have just the subtle kind of food, which does not give rise to excrement or urine .
III. Then, in place of the honey-like earth excrescences, a rice-pap appeared and the beings subsisted on that coarse morsel food, described thus by the Mahavastu (I, 341—2): “rice, not discrete, without chaff, fragrant grain* (sali akarto atusah surabhitandulah). At that time, the distinguishing characteristics of male and female appeared, and the beings had mutual sexual desire with associated acts.
IV. The last phase of the legend shows the arising of the 'private property' idea with individual rice plots, then stealing with consequent violence. Those beings decided to select someone to judge the disputes He was called the great chosen one (mahasammata). and the beings each gave him one-sixth of the rice crop for his royal services to provide security. Mahasammata was the first king (cakravartin). According to the Buddhist sutra, he inaugurated the
lineage of the Sakya clan, in which Gautama Buddha was born. According to the latter s biography, Gautama was born with auspicious characteristics portending either a Cakravartin or a Buddha, In Hindu legend also, “People suffering from anarchy . . . first elected Manu, the Vaivasvata, to be their king-, and allotted one-sixth of the grains grown and one-tenth of merchandise as sovereign dues" .
The Tantric account presented by Tsoñ-kha-pa claims to have information about those beings beyond what non-Tantric Buddhism teaches. Thus he writes, “Moreover, the men of the first eon, i.e., the beings who have died and transferred from the Ábhásvara god class, and so on, down to their birth as men of
Jambudvipa, agree with the merits fgunu) of the [thirty-two] Characteristics and [eighty] Minor Marks, so they are adorned with the merits of a Buddha" “. Also, "The description adorned with the merits of a Buddha' does not occur in the Abhidharma or in the Vibhanga* But why did those beings become dominated
subsequently by delusion, lust, and hatred? He says, “Thus, they had obtained possession of the 'knowledge body' (jñána-deha) — the superior body like the body of a god of the 'realm of form', free from the coarse body which undergoes development; but then it was overcome by all the action (karma) and
corruption (klesa) arising from their own mind, and came into the power of those two"". He goes on to explain the reason as the propensities (T. bag chags, S. vfiscma) handed down from beginningless time, and continues, “Although they had a body comparable to the Illusory Body (maya-deha) they did not know the Illusory Samadhi mayopama-samadhi) through hearing (sruta) and 'pondering' (cinta), and could not comprehend it through 'creative contemplation’ (bhavand). Hence they wander in
phenomenal existence* In further additions to the standard account, Tsoñ-kha-pa calls the earth essence also 'ambrosia' (amrla)'0, and he calls the separation into male and female the division of means (upaya) and insight (prajñá), respectively .
The usual Buddhist formulations of the Path, such as the Eightford Noble Path, are not obviously applicable to the legend, as classically stated. They aim
to eliminate the domination of action and corruption. Why try to rebecome the first eon men? These men were pure only through lade of temptations, which had been removed by the dissolution of the inferior worlds and which would inevitably reappear with the new manifestation of those worlds. Yet even the old
non-Tantric Buddhism can be interpreted with steps that inversely match the successive periods of the legend, especially with Tson-kha-pas word 'amrta'. (1) A devotee renounces his property to become a monk, He reverses the last period, characterized by private ownership of rice plots. (2) The monk is
supposed to regulate his way of life, including moderation in food and adherence to celibacy (brahmacarya). He reverses the eon characterized by coarse morsel food and the division into sexes. Also, according to the Hindu epic Mahabharata, the god Brahma adopted the form of a swan and said: ”... I know that self-restraint is the door of immortality (amrta). I impart to you this hallowed (brahman) secret: there is no state superior to the human" .
(3) This man then practices yoga and various samádhis which develop certain inner resources and which are supposed to win a command over subtle elements . He reverses the second period, characterized by sub¬sistence on subtle morsel food, and comes to taste the 'primeval earth', the 'deathless' or 'ambrosia' (amrta) — while still a man of Jambudvipa.
(4) His mind separates from the deathless' and is freed or liberated. He feeds on joy, as did the men of the first eon, but he has arrived at this comparable stage together with a discipline that eliminates the pro¬pensities of hatred, lust, and delusion. This stage is called Nirvana by the Buddhists, Moksa by the Hindus.
However, Mahayana Buddhism claims to have a higher attainment than this liberation, the ideal of early Buddhism. Later the aim was to become a Complete Buddha, with the three bodies called the Dharmakaya, Sarpbho- gakaya. and Nirmánakáya, who is restricted neither to the quiescent realm nor to the phenomenal world. In accordance with a passage cited above from Tsoñ-kha-pa, one must reach by discipline a condition comparable to the first eon men and
have in addition the Illusory Samadhi. In Tsonkha-pa s view, one must purify birth, death, and the intermediate state by yogas concordant with the way the men of the first eon experienced those three phases during the interval between when they were still 'first eon men and when they had the ordinary bodies
of period no. 3. (Of course, in Indian belief the men of later periods are those very men.) He says, “Contemplation of the Dharmakaya is the purification of death, because, briefly speaking, the Dharmakaya is equivalent to the experience by the men of the first eon of the clear light of death" ”. Again, "contemplation of the Sambhogakaya is the purification of the intermediate state", and "contemplation of the Nirmánakáya is the purification of birth" ”,
Tsoñ-kha-pa writes, “Also, the Pañcakrama states, The Sambhogakaya as well as the illusion of conventional truth — that is the Gandharva-sattva', making the Sambhogakaya equivalent to the intermediate state (body): hence one should have no doubt that the generation of the Primeval Lord fadinalha) is an element equivalent to the intermediate state"11’. The Dhar¬makaya is also associated with death and with comparable states such as coitus [union of upaya
and prajña] in a passage of the Mukhágama quoted in Tsoñ-kha-pa's Snags rim chen mo . The Nirmánakáya is illustrated in some Tantric dgama by the Avatars of Visnu interpreted as intra-uterine stages . There are two phases of the Anuttara-yoga-tantra-the Steps of Pro¬duction (utpatti-krama) and the Steps of Completion sampanna-krama), respectively the
phase of the path /marga) and the phase of the fruit Iphala). Tsoñ-kha-pa says, "Therefore, it is a mistake not to finish during the phase of the first Steps (krama) the part consisting in the various elements concordant with the three things, birth, death, and the inter¬mediate state" . Hence, one must meditate consistently with the three bodies of the Buddha in the phase of the path; in the phase of the fruit one gains those bodies, called the three bodies of the fruit' .
it would be difficult, perhaps impossible, to determine how old such teachings are. However, the above should indicate the profundity of that old Buddhist legend.
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