,
Unravelling the
MAZE of the MANDALA
Dr UDAY DOKRAS-SRISHTI DOKRAS
1
Unravelling the
MAZE of the MANDALA
Dr UDAY DOKRAS-SRISHTI DOKRAS
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective/ Indo Nordic gem Research Institute
2
Unravelling the
MAZE of the MANDALA
Dr UDAY DOKRAS-SRISHTI DOKRAS
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective
Indo Nordic gem Research Institute
3
Unravelling the
MAZE of the MANDALA
Dr UDAY DOKRAS - SRISHTI DOKRAS
4
C O N T E N T S
Contents 5
PART I-The Quientessential Characteristics of the Mandala 6
Introduction 7
What is a mandala 7
CHAPTE R I -The Astrological Mandala 26
C H A P T E R – I-‘ H I N D U T E M P L E A N D T H E S T R U C T U R E O F H U M A N
BODY: COMPARISON 51
C H A P T E R II-Vastu Purusha Mandala Of Property
C H A P T E R III-Vastu Purusha Mandala Of Property 88
CHAPTER IV-Temples Vastu Shastra 117
C H A P T E R I V-The Ancient Indian Architectural text Mayamatam or Manasara of Vastu
Sastra 145
PART II -Examples of Hindu Temples as Mandalas 157
CHAPTER V-CAMBODIAN Temple designs- and Hindu Cosmology 158
CHAPTER VI-The Borobodur Temple as a MANDALA 168
CHAPTER VII-Angkor as a Mandala 182
CHAPTER VIII-Shiva - Durga temple called Prambanan in Indonesia 207
PART IV 227 Jain Mandala World
C H A P T E R- IX- Jain Cosmography 228
CHAPTER X-Jain Cosmology 247
CHAPTER XI-The concept of " Jambudeep” - In General 313
Part IV - Mandala Miscellaneous 338
CHAPTER XII Spiritual signification of Lotus flower in Chakras and Kundalini,339
CHAPTER XIII-LOTUS AS SYMBOLISM 349
C H A P T E R XIV- MARS HABITAT- ARCHITECTURE 382
CHAPTER XV HOW TO DRAW A MANDALA 408
About the Authors 429
5
PART I
The Quientessential Characteristics of the
Mandala
Pashupatinath Temple in Nepal
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CHAPTER I
What is Mandala?
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What is a Mandala? History, Symbolism, and Uses
Tibetan monk constructing a sand
mandala.
Mandalas are believed to represent different aspects of the universe and are used as instruments
of meditation and symbols of prayer most notably in China, Japan, and Tibet In their most basic
form, mandalas are circles contained within a square and arranged into sections that are all
organized around a single, central point. They’re typically produced on paper or cloth, drawn on
a surface with threads, fashioned in bronze, or built in stone. While extraordinary as a standalone
work of art, mandalas hold symbolic and meditative meaning beyond their vibrant appearance.
What is a Mandala?
A mandala is a spiritual and ritual symbol in Asian cultures. It can be understood in two different
ways: externally as a visual representation of the universe or internally as a guide for several
practices that take place in many Asian traditions, including meditation. In Hinduism and
Buddhism, the belief is that by entering the mandala and proceeding towards its center, you are
guided through the cosmic process of transforming the universe from one of suffering into one of
joy and happiness.
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Tibetan Mandala. Sold for €320,000 via Sotheby’s (December 2018).
A Brief History of Mandalas
Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born in the region now known as Nepal.
Though there is no confirmed date of his birth, historians believe it to be around 560 B.C. It is
understood that Gautama left his kingdom after becoming aware of human suffering, where he
sought to attain enlightenment through meditation and thoughtful action. He began to preach his
philosophy across parts of India, where he gained devout followers and eventually established
the first sangha, Buddhist community of monks.
As these Buddhist monks travelled the Silk Road, an ancient network of trade routes that
connected the East and West, they brought Buddhism to other lands. They carried mandalas with
them and brought the practice of painting these spiritual compositions to other parts of Asia,
appearing in regions such as Tibet, China, and Japan by the 4th century. Though rooted in
Buddhism, mandalas soon became present in Hinduism and other religious practices. Painters of
the spiritual craft were often pious laymen, who were commissioned by a patron. They worked
seated on the floor with a painting propped in their laps or in front of their crossed legs.
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Types of Mandalas
There are various types of mandalas found in different cultures and used for a multitude of
purposes, both artistically and spiritually. Below are three main types of mandalas and how they
are used.
1. Teaching Mandala
Teaching mandalas are symbolic, and each shape, line, and color represents a different aspect of
a philosophical or religious system. The student creates his or her own mandala based on
principles of design and construction, projecting a visual symbolization of everything they have
learned. Teaching mandalas serve as colorful, mental maps for their creators.
2. Healing Mandala
Healing mandalas are more intuitive than teaching mandalas, and they are made for the purpose
of meditation. Healing mandalas are intended to deliver wisdom, evoke feelings of calm, and
channel focus and concentration.
3. Sand Mandala
Buddhist monks and Navajo cultures have long used sand mandalas as a traditional, religious
element. These intricate designs use a variety of symbols made from colored sand that represent
the impermanence of human life.
Symbolism in Mandalas
Chakrasamvara mandala. Sold for $4,750 via Bonhams (June 2016).
Within their intricate circular patterns, you can find common symbols throughout mandalas.
Traditionally, they include the presence of Buddha’s mind in an abstract form, most commonly
represented as a wheel, tree, flower, or jewel. The center is a dot, which is a symbol considered
free of dimensions. It is interpreted as the starting point, the beginning of contemplation, and
devotion to the divine. From there, the dot is surrounded by lines and geometrical patterns that
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symbolize the universe, encompassed by the outer circle which represents the cyclical nature of
life. Some common symbols within the mandala include:
Wheel with eight spokes: The circular nature of a wheel works as an artistic
representation of a perfect universe. The eight spokes represent the Eightfold Path of
Buddhism, a summary of practices that lead to liberation and rebirth.
Bell: Bells represent an openness and emptying of the mind to allow the entrance of
wisdom and clarity.
Triangle: When facing upward, triangles represent action and energy, and when facing
downward, they represent creativity and the pursuit of knowledge.
Lotus flower: A sacred symbol in Buddhism, the symmetry of a lotus depicts balance. As
a lotus reaches up from underwater into the light, so too does a human reaching for
spiritual awakening and enlightenment.
Sun: A popular basis for modern mandala patterns, suns tend to represent the universe,
often carrying meanings related to life and energy.
Uses:
Mandalas are used for a variety of religious traditions, meditation, and modern contexts. The
traditional Tibetan mandala, found in Buddhism, depicts the enlightened state of Buddha through
sand art. Patterns are formed on the ground using metal and a small tube to create the exact
texture and organization of the grains. Creating this can take weeks, and shortly after it’s
complete, it is destroyed to align with the Buddhist belief that nothing is permanent.
Buddhist monk making a sand mandala.
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As it relates to modern context, mandalas are used in a variety of ways. In yoga, mandalas
represent the same ancient ideals; signifying a sacred space to shut away external influences.
Often, mandalas are positioned around the studio and sometimes even drawn during meditation
periods. Similarly, mandala art is used in healing circles, a practice that derives from Native
Americans. The circles are often associated with the restoration of the body, mind, and heart.
Mandalas have also been found in dream catchers as a means to protect the individual sleeping.
A popular item in Western cultures, you can easily identify the shape and patterns of a mandala
within most dream catchers.
A spiritual symbol in Asian art, mandalas have since become a popular, meditative element for a
variety of different cultures. In Hindu and Buddhist cultures in particular, mandalas
and thangkas serve as a representation of the universe and a guide on the path to enlightenment.
We’ve since seen the geometric design appear in yoga studios, dream catchers, healing circles,
and other meditative practices. The habit of creating and collecting mandalas is a transformative
practice that is intended to restore inner peace and wisdom within.
A mandala is then literally a "circle" - a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual
traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a
spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid
to meditation and trance induction. In the Eastern
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shintoism it is used as a map representing deities,
or specially in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines.
In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents
the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally
meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic
diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within
minds and bodies.
Mandala of Vishnu- Chinese on Left and Indian on Right
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Religious meaning
In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four gates
containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often
have radial balance. A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited
colour palette. It may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas,
puja or meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to
represent the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the
practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar,
"Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the
spiritual aspect of human experience"
Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not
representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:
Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists in
the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the microcosm),
every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and is associated
with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.
The term 'mandala' appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, and Vedic
rituals use mandalas such as the Navagraha mandala to this day.
History: The Rajamandala (or Raja-mandala; circle of states) was formulated by
the Indian author Kautilya in his work on politics, the Arthashastra (written between 4th century
BCE and 2nd century BCE). It describes circles of friendly and enemy states surrounding the
king's state.
In historical, social and political sense, the term "mandala" is also employed to denote
traditional Southeast Asian political formations (such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized
states). It was adopted by 20th century Western historians from ancient Indian political discourse
as a means of avoiding the term 'state' in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast Asian
polities not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially defined state with fixed
borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but they diverged considerably in the opposite direction:
the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of
numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration. Empires such
as Bagan, Ayutthaya, Champa, Khmer, Srivijaya and Majapahit are known as "mandala" in this
sense.
BUDDHISM: Painted 17th-century Tibetan 'Five Deity Mandala', in the centre is Rakta
Yamari (the Red Enemy of Death) embracing his consort Vajra Vetali, in the corners are the
Red, Green, White and Yellow Yamaris, Rubin Museum of Art
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Sandpainting showing Buddha mandala, which is made as part of the death rituals among
Buddhist Newars of Nepal
In Vajrayana Buddhism, mandalas have been developed also into sandpainting. They are also a
key part of Anuttarayoga Tantra meditation practices.
Visualisation of Vajrayana teachings
The mandala can be shown to represent in visual form the core essence of
the Vajrayana teachings. The mind is "a microcosm representing various divine powers at work
in the universe." The mandala represents the nature of the Pure Land, Enlightened mind.
An example of this type of mandala is Vajrabhairava mandala a silk tapestry woven with gilded
paper depicting lavish elements like crowns and jewelry, which gives a three-dimensional effect
to the piece.
Mount Meru
A mandala can also represent the entire universe, which is traditionally depicted with Mount
Meru as the axis mundi in the center, surrounded by the continents. One example is
the Cosmological Mandala with Mount Meru, a silk tapestry from the Yuan dynasty that serves
as a diagram of the Tibetan cosmology, which was given to China from Nepal and Tibet.
In astronomy, axis mundi is the Latin term for the axis of Earth between the celestial poles.
In a geocentric coordinate system, this is the axis of rotation of the celestial sphere.
Consequently, in ancient Greco-Roman astronomy, the axis mundi is the axis of rotation of
the planetary spheres of the classical geocentric model of the cosmos.
In 20th-century comparative mythology, the term axis mundi, also called the cosmic axis, world
axis, world pillar, center of the world, world tree) was greatly extended to refer to any
mythological concept representing "the connection between Heaven and Earth" or the "higher
and lower realms".[2] The concept was introduced by Mircea Eliade in the 1950s. It is closely
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related to the mythological concept of omphalos (navel) of the world or cosmos. Items adduced
as examples of the axis mundi by comparative mythologists include plants (notably a tree but
also other types of plants such as a vine or stalk), a mountain, a column of smoke or fire, or a
product of human manufacture (such as a staff, a tower, a ladder, a staircase, a maypole, a cross,
a steeple, a rope, a totem pole, a pillar, a spire). Its proximity to heaven may carry implications
that are chiefly religious (pagoda, temple mount, minaret, church) or secular
(obelisk, lighthouse, rocket, skyscraper). The image appears in religious and secular contexts.
The axis mundi symbol may be found in cultures utilizing shamanic practices or animist belief
systems, in major world religions, and in technologically advanced "urban centers". In Mircea
Eliade's opinion, "Every Microcosm, every inhabited region, has a Centre; that is to say, a place
that is sacred above all.
Mount Kailash (viewed from the south) is holy to Hinduism and several religions in Tibet.
There exist multiple interpretations as to the origin of the symbol. One psychological and
sociological interpretation suggests that the symbol originates in a natural and universal
psychological perception: that the particular spot in which one occupies stands at "the center of
the world". This space serves as a microcosm of order because it is known and settled. Outside
the boundaries of the microcosm lie foreign realms that, because they are unfamiliar or not
ordered, represent chaos, death or night from the center one may still venture in any of the four
cardinal directions, make discoveries, and establish new centers as new realms become known
and settled. The name of China, meaning "Middle Nation" (中国 pinyin: Zhōngguó), is often
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interpreted as an expression of an ancient perception that the Chinese polity (or group of polities)
occupied the center of the world, with other lands lying in various directions relative to it.
A second interpretation suggests that ancient symbols such as the axis mundi lie in a particular
philosophical or metaphysical representation of a common and culturally shared philosophical
concept, which is that of an natural reflection of the macrocosm, or existence at grand scale, in
the microcosm, which consists of either an individual, community, or local environment but
shares the same principles and structures as the macrocosm. In this metaphysical representation
of the universe, mankind is placed into an existence which serves as a microcosm of the universe
or the entire cosmic existence, and who in order to achieve higher states of existence or
liberation into the macrocosm must gain necessary insights into universal principles which can
be represented by his life or environment in the microcosm. In many religious and philosophical
traditions around the world, mankind is seen as a sort of bridge between either two worlds, the
earthly and the heavenly (as in Judeo-Christian, Hindu, and Taoist philosophical and theological
systems), or three worlds, namely the earthly, heavenly, and the "sub-earthly" or "infra-earthly"
(e.g. the underworld, as in the Ancient Greek, Incan, Mayan, and Ancient Egyptian religious
systems). Spanning these philosophical systems is the belief that through man traverses a sort of
axis, or path, which can lead from man's current central position in the intermediate realms into
heavenly or sub-earthly realms. Thus, in this view, symbolic representations of a vertical axis
represent a path of "ascent' or "descent" into other spiritual or material realms, and often capture
a philosophy which considers the human life to be a quest in which one develops insights or
perfections in order to move beyond this current microcosmic realm and to engage with the
grand macrocosmic order.
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In concepts of the axis mundi, certain geographic representations are used to capture this
symbolic connection between the heavenly and the earthly -- often a mountain or other elevated
place, a spot where earth and sky come closest, gains status as center of the center, the axis
mundi. High mountains are typically regarded as sacred by peoples living near them. Shrines are
often erected at the summit or base. Mount Kunlun fills a similar role in China. Mount Kailash is
holy to Hinduism and several religions in Tibet. The Pitjantjatjara people in central Australia
consider Uluru to be central to both their world and culture. In ancient Mesopotamia the cultures
of ancient Sumer and Babylon erected artificial mountains, or ziggurats, on the flat river plain.
These supported staircases leading to temples at the top. The Hindu temples in India are often
situated on high mountains. E.g. Amarnath, Tirupati, Vaishno Devi etc. The pre-Columbian
residents of Teotihuacán in Mexico erected huge pyramids featuring staircases leading to heaven.
These Amerindian temples were often placed on top of caves or subterranean springs, which
were thought to be openings to the underworld. Jacob's Ladder is an axis mundi image, as is
the Temple Mount. For Christians the Cross on Mount Calvary expresses the symbol.[15] The
Middle Kingdom, China, had a central mountain, Kunlun, known in Taoist literature as "the
mountain at the middle of the world." To "go into the mountains" meant to dedicate oneself to a
spiritual life.
Because the axis mundi is an idea that unites a number of concrete images, no contradiction
exists in regarding multiple spots as "the center of the world". The symbol can operate in a
number of locales at once. Mount Hermon was regarded as the axis mundi in Canaanite tradition,
from where the sons of God are introduced descending in 1 Enoch (1En6:6). The ancient
Armenians had a number of holy sites, the most important of which was Mount Ararat, which
was thought to be the home of the gods as well as the center of the Universe.[18] Likewise,
the ancient Greeks regarded several sites as places of earth's omphalos (navel) stone, notably the
oracle at Delphi, while still maintaining a belief in a cosmic world tree and in Mount Olympus as
the abode of the gods. Judaism has the Temple Mount, Christianity has the Mount of
Olives and Calvary, Islam has the Ka'aba, said to be the first building on earth, and the Temple
Mount (Dome of the Rock). In Hinduism, Mount Kailash is identified with the mythical Mount
Meru and regarded as the home of Shiva; in Vajrayana Buddhism, Mount Kailash is recognized
as the most sacred place where all the dragon currents converge and is regarded as the gateway
to Shambhala. In Shinto, the Ise Shrine is the omphalos.
Sacred places constitute world centers (omphalos) with the altar or place of prayer as the axis.
Altars, incense sticks, candles and torches form the axis by sending a column of smoke, and
prayer, toward heaven. The architecture of sacred places often reflects this role. "Every temple or
palace—and by extension, every sacred city or royal residence—is a Sacred Mountain, thus
becoming a Centre." The stupa of Hinduism, and later Buddhism, reflects Mount Meru.
Cathedrals are laid out in the form of a cross, with the vertical bar representing the union of earth
and heaven as the horizontal bars represent union of people to one another, with the altar at the
intersection. Pagoda structures in Asian temples take the form of a stairway linking earth and
heaven. A steeple in a church or a minaret in a mosque also serve as connections of earth and
heaven. Structures such as the maypole, derived from the Saxons' Irminsul, and the totem
pole among indigenous peoples of the Americas also represent world axes. The calumet, or
sacred pipe, represents a column of smoke (the soul) rising form a world
center.[20] A mandala creates a world center within the boundaries of its two-dimensional space
analogous to that created in three-dimensional space by a shrine.
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In the Classical elements and the Vedic Pancha Bhoota the axis mundi corresponds to Aether, the
quintessence.
Yggdrasil, the World Ash in Norse myths /Axis Mundi to right.
Plants
Plants often serve as images of the axis mundi. The image of the Cosmic Tree provides an axis
symbol that unites three planes: sky (branches), earth (trunk) and underworld (roots).[22] In
some Pacific island cultures the banyan tree, of which the Bodhi tree is of the Sacred Fig variety,
is the abode of ancestor spirits. In Hindu religion, the banyan tree is considered sacred and is
called ashwath vriksha ("I am banyan tree among trees" – Bhagavad Gita). It represents eternal
life because of its seemingly ever-expanding branches. The Bodhi tree is also the name given to
the tree under which Gautama Siddhartha, the historical Buddha, sat on the night he
attained enlightenment. The Mesoamerican world tree connects the planes of the Underworld
and the sky with that of the terrestrial realm. The Yggdrasil, or World Ash, functions in much the
same way in Norse mythology; it is the site where Odin found enlightenment. Other examples
include Jievaras in Lithuanian mythology and Thor's Oak in the myths of the preChristian Germanic peoples. The Tree of Life and the Tree of Knowledge of Good and
Evil in Genesis present two aspects of the same image. Each is said to stand at the center of
the Paradise garden from which four rivers flow to nourish the whole world. Each tree confers a
boon. Bamboo, the plant from which Asian calligraphy pens are made, represents knowledge and
is regularly found on Asian college campuses. The Christmas tree, which can be traced in its
origins back to pre-Christian European beliefs, represents an axis mundi.
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Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1492) Chrylasis Mandala(PLANT)
Human figure
The human body can express the symbol of world axis. Some of the more abstract Tree of Life
representations, such as the sefirot in Kabbalism and in the chakra system recognized by
Hinduism and Buddhism, merge with the concept of the human body as a pillar between heaven
and earth. Disciplines such as yoga and tai chi begin from the premise of the human body as axis
mundi. The Buddha represents a world centre in human form. Large statues of a meditating
figure unite the human figure with the symbolism of temple and tower. Astrology in all its forms
assumes a connection between human health and affairs and the orientation of these with
celestial bodies. World religions regard the body itself as a temple and prayer as a column
uniting earth to heaven. The ancient Colossus of Rhodes combined the role of human figure with
those of portal and skyscraper. The image of a human being suspended on a tree or a cross
locates the figure at the axis where heaven and earth meet. The Renaissance image known as
the Vitruvian Man represented a symbolic and mathematical exploration of the human form as
world axis.
Homes
Homes can represent world centers. The symbolism for their residents is the same as for
inhabitants of palaces and other sacred mountains. The hearth participates in the symbolism of
the altar and a central garden participates in the symbolism of primordial paradise. In some Asian
cultures houses were traditionally laid out in the form of a square oriented toward the four
compass directions. A traditional home was oriented toward the sky through feng shui, a system
of geomancy, just as a palace would be. Traditional Arab houses are also laid out as a square
surrounding a central fountain that evokes a primordial garden paradise. Mircea Eliade noted that
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"the symbolism of the pillar in [European] peasant houses likewise derives from the 'symbolic
field' of the axis mundi. In many archaic dwellings the central pillar does in fact serve as a means
of communication with the heavens, with the sky. The nomadic peoples of Mongolia and the
Americas more often lived in circular structures. The central pole of the tent still operated as an
axis but a fixed reference to the four compass points was avoided.
The caduceus
Shamanic function
A common shamanic concept, and a universally told story, is that of the healer traversing the axis
mundi to bring back knowledge from the other world. It may be seen in the stories
from Odin and the World Ash Tree to the Garden of Eden and Jacob's Ladder to Jack and the
Beanstalk and Rapunzel. It is the essence of the journey described in The Divine
Comedy by Dante Alighieri. The epic poem relates its hero's descent and ascent through a series
of spiral structures that take him from through the core of the earth, from the depths of Hell to
celestial Paradise. It is also a central tenet in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex.
Anyone or anything suspended on the axis between heaven and earth becomes a repository of
potential knowledge. A special status accrues to the thing suspended: a serpent, a victim of
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crucifixion or hanging, a rod, a fruit, mistletoe. Derivations of this idea find form in the Rod of
Asclepius, an emblem of the medical profession, and in the caduceus, an emblem of
correspondence and commercial professions. The staff in these emblems represents the axis
mundi while the serpents act as guardians of, or guides to, knowledge.
Wisdom and impermanence
In the mandala, the outer circle of fire usually symbolises wisdom. The ring of eight charnel
grounds[15] represents the Buddhist exhortation to be always mindful of death, and the
impermanence with which samsara is suffused: "such locations were utilized in order to confront
and to realize the transient nature of life".Described elsewhere: "within a flaming rainbow
nimbus and encircled by a black ring of dorjes, the major outer ring depicts the eight great
charnel grounds, to emphasize the dangerous nature of human life". Inside these rings lie the
walls of the mandala palace itself, specifically a place populated by deities and Buddhas.
Five Buddhas
One well-known type of mandala is the mandala of the "Five Buddhas", archetypal Buddha
forms embodying various aspects of enlightenment. Such Buddhas are depicted depending on the
school of Buddhism, and even the specific purpose of the mandala. A common mandala of this
type is that of the Five Wisdom Buddhas (a.k.a. Five Jinas), the
Buddhas Vairocana, Aksobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha and Amoghasiddhi. When paired
with another mandala depicting the Five Wisdom Kings, this forms the Mandala of the Two
Realms.
Tantric mandala of Vajrayogini
Mandalas are commonly used by tantric Buddhists as an aid to meditation.
The mandala is "a support for the meditating person",something to be repeatedly contemplated to
the point of saturation, such that the image of the mandala becomes fully internalised in even the
minutest detail and can then be summoned and contemplated at will as a clear and vivid
visualized image. With every mandala comes what Tucci calls "its associated liturgy ... contained
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in texts known as tantras",instructing practitioners on how the mandala should be drawn, built
and visualised, and indicating the mantras to be recited during its ritual use.
By visualizing "pure lands", one learns to understand experience itself as pure, and as the abode
of enlightenment. The protection that we need, in this view, is from our own minds, as much as
from external sources of confusion. In many tantric mandalas, this aspect of separation and
protection from the outer samsaric world is depicted by "the four outer circles: the purifying fire
of wisdom, the vajra circle, the circle with the eight tombs, the lotus circle". The ring
of vajras forms a connected fence-like arrangement running around the perimeter of the outer
mandala circle.
As a meditation on impermanence (a central teaching of Buddhism), after days or weeks of
creating the intricate pattern of a sand mandala, the sand is brushed together into a pile and
spilled into a body of running water to spread the blessings of the mandala.
Kværne in his extended discussion of sahaja, discusses the relationship of sadhana interiority
and exteriority in relation to mandala thus:
...external ritual and internal sadhana form an indistinguishable whole, and this unity finds its
most pregnant expression in the form of the mandala, the sacred enclosure consisting of
concentric squares and circles drawn on the ground and representing that adamant plane of being
on which the aspirant to Buddha hood wishes to establish himself. The unfolding of the tantric
ritual depends on the mandala; and where a material mandala is not employed, the adept
proceeds to construct one mentally in the course of his meditation."[22]
Nichiren Buddhism
The mandala in Nichiren Buddhism is a moji-mandala, which is a paper hanging scroll or
wooden tablet whose inscription consists of Chinese characters and medieval-Sanskrit
script representing elements of the Buddha's enlightenment, protective Buddhist deities, and
certain Buddhist concepts. Called the Gohonzon, it was originally inscribed by Nichiren, the
founder of this branch of Japanese Buddhism, during the late 13th Century. The Gohonzon is the
primary object of veneration in some Nichiren schools and the only one in others, which consider
it to be the supreme object of worship as the embodiment of the supreme Dharma and Nichiren's
inner enlightenment. The seven characters Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō, considered to be the name
of the supreme Dharma, as well as the invocation that believers chant, are written down the
center of all Nichiren-sect Gohonzons, whose appearance may otherwise vary depending on the
particular school and other factors.
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Nichiren( Left) The Aztec Sun Stone as an amate print./Pure Land Buddhism/
Mayan Tzolk'in wheel from 498 AD.
Mandalas have sometimes been used in Pure Land Buddhism to graphically represent Pure
Lands, based on descriptions found in the Larger Sutra and the Contemplation Sutra. The most
famous mandala in Japan is the Taima mandala, dated to about 763 CE. The Taima mandala is
based on the Contemplation Sutra, but other similar mandalas have been made subsequently.
Unlike mandalas used in Vajrayana Buddhism, it is not used as an object of meditation or for
esoteric ritual. Instead, it provides a visual representation of the Pure Land texts, and is used as a
teaching aid.. Also in Jodo Shinshu Buddhism, Shinran and his descendant, Rennyo, sought a
way to create easily accessible objects of reverence for the lower-classes of Japanese society.
Shinran designed a mandala using a hanging scroll, and the words of the nembutsu written
vertically. This style of mandala is still used by some Jodo Shinshu Buddhists in home altars,
or butsudan.
One of several parallels between Eastern and Mesoamerican cultures, the Mayan civilization
tended to present calendars in a form similar to a mandala. It is similar in form and function to
the Kalachakra (Wheel of Time) sand paintings of Tibetan Buddhists. The tzolk'in wheel has 260
segments, surprising because the Mayans recognized that the calendar year is 365 days long. The
inclusion of the specific number 260 could however relate to the 26,000 year cycle of the
precession of the equinoxes. If so, this would indicate a remarkable awareness of these great
cycles of time by this culture. Ultimately, the symbol was probably used for ritual purposes, and
to measure the interval of a number of 9-month intervals like pregnancy, the cultivation time of
some crops, and rituals that were performed at a 260-day spacing each year, for example, spring
and fall.
This Mayan symbology has even made its way into New Age symbolism as
the Dreamspell calendar, developed by José Argüelles. Sometimes described as an authentic
Mayan mandala, it is "inspired by" elements of the Tzolk'in wheel of time.
Aztec Sun Stone
22
The Sun Stone of the Aztec civilization was once believed to be their equivalent of a Tzolk'in
calendar, but is now thought to be a ceremonial representation of the entire universe as seen by
the Aztec religious class, in some ways resembling “mandala.”
The earliest interpretations of the stone relate to its use as a calendar. In 1792, two years after the
stone's unearthing, Mexican anthropologist Antonio de León y Gama wrote a treatise on the
Aztec calendar using the stone as its basis.[27] Some of the circles of glyphs are the glyphs for the
days of the month. The four symbols included in the Ollin glyph represent the four past suns that
the Mexica believed the earth had passed through.
Another aspect of the stone is its religious significance. One theory is that the face at the center
of the stone represents Tonatiuh, the Aztec deity of the sun. It is for this reason that the stone
became known as the "Sun Stone." Richard Townsend proposed a different theory, claiming that
the figure at the center of the stone represents Tlaltecuhtli, the Mexica earth deity who features in
Mexica creation myths.[28] Modern archaeologists, such as those at the National Anthropology
Museum in Mexico City, believe it is more likely to have been used primarily as a ceremonial
basin or ritual altar for gladiatorial sacrifices than as an astrological or astronomical reference.
Yet another characteristic of the stone is its possible geographic significance. The four points
may relate to the four corners of the earth or the cardinal points. The inner circles may express
space as well as time.
Lastly, there is the political aspect of the stone. It may have been intended to
show Tenochtitlan as the center of the world and therefore, as the center of authority. Townsend
argues for this idea, claiming that the small glyphs of additional dates amongst the four previous
suns—1 Flint (Tecpatl), 1 Rain (Atl), and 7 Monkey (Ozomahtli)—represent matters of historical
importance to the Mexica state. He posits, for example, that 7 Monkey represents the significant
day for the cult of a community within Tenochtitlan. His claim is further supported by the
presence of Mexica ruler Moctezuma II's name on the work. These elements ground the Stone's
iconography in history rather than myth and the legitimacy of the state in the cosmos.
The round window at the site of the Marsh Chapel Experiment supervised by Walter Pahnke
23
Christianity: Forms which are evocative of mandalas are prevalent in Christianity: the Celtic
cross; the rosary; the halo; the aureole; oculi; the Crown of Thorns; rose windows; the Rosy
Cross; and the dromenon on the floor of Chartres Cathedral. The dromenon represents a journey
from the outer world to the inner sacred centre where the Divine is found.
The Cosmati pavements, including that at Westminster Abbey, are geometric mandalalike mosaic designs from thirteenth century Italy. The Great Pavement at Westminster Abbey is
believed to embody divine and cosmic geometries as the seat of enthronement of the monarchs
of England.
Similarly, many of the Illuminations of Hildegard von Bingen can be used as mandalas, as well
as many of the images of esoteric Christianity, as in Christian Hermeticism, Christian Alchemy,
and Rosicrucianism.
Alchemist, mathematician and astrologer John Dee developed a geometric symbol which he
called the Sigillum Dei 'Seal of God' manifesting a universal geometric order which incorporated
the names of the archangels, derived from earlier forms of the clavicula salomonis or key of
Solomon.
The Seal of God; a mystic heptagram symbol composed by Dee// Borobodur is a Mandala
The Layer Monument, an early 17th-century marble mural funerary monument at the Church of
Saint John the Baptist, Maddermarket, Norwich, is a rare example of Christian iconography
absorbing alchemical symbolism to create a mandala in Western funerary art.
Architecture:
Buddhist architecture often applied mandala as the blueprint or plan to design Buddhist
structures, including temple complex and stupas. A notable example of mandala in architecture is
the 9th century Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia. It is built as a large stupa surrounded by
smaller ones arranged on terraces formed as a stepped pyramid, and when viewed from above,
takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist
cosmology and the nature of mind. Other temples from the same period that also have mandala
plans include Sewu, Plaosan and Prambanan. Similar mandala designs are also observable in
Cambodia, Thailand and Myanmar.
24
Science:
Phylogenetic tree of Hexapoda (insects and their six-legged relatives). Such trees have been
called phylogenetic mandalas.
Circular diagrams are often used in phylogenetics, especially for the graphical representation of
phylogenetic relationships. Evolutionary trees often encompass numerous species that are
conveniently shown on a circular tree, with images of the species shown on the periphery of a
tree. Such diagrams have been called phylogenetic mandalas.
Fashion designer Mandali Mendrilla designed an interactive art installation called Mandala of
Desires (Blue Lotus Wish Tree) made in peace silk and eco friendly textile ink, displayed at
the China Art Museum in Shanghai in November 2015. The pattern of the dress was based on the
Goloka Yantra mandala, shaped as a lotus with eight petals. Visitors were invited to place a wish
on the sculpture dress, which will be taken to India and offered to a genuine living Wish Tree.
Various Mandalas are present in popular culture. Many religions acknowledge the Mandala
synopsis of the creation of the Universe as well as the morphological disposition. Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism are the main temets that have a common link through the Mandala allegory.
Here in this Book we have discussed the A to Z of mandala. We go from what is a Mandala to
examples of mandala in Hindu temples in India, Hindu gtemples in Cambodia, Indonesia and
Buddhist Stupas of java. This way we hope a comprehensive treatment will be meted out to the
Mandala analogies. This Book is divided into 3 parts as you will see in the table of contents.
Each part is a bunch of our articles previously published on-line on academia.edu,
researchgate and scribd.
By special request we have asked out two good friends to contribute to this book.Ms. Kerry
Penny contemporary artist from UK has drawn beautiful oil and Gold canvases and Ms.
Mikaela Isgro, the Australian artist who draws wonderful Mandalas and runs an alternative
and Holistic health service writes about what it means to draw Mandalas and how they
transform our inner self.
Dear Reader and friend- Design your destiny with Mandalas. Read this book and change your life.
25
Introduction- Birth chart
At the moment we are born, we start the great journey to awakening of our soul. The birth
chart shows us a picture of energies we have to cope with and to use for our personal growth.
A birth chart (both for individuals and institutions) show the energies we have to take as a
starting point.
During our lives we become ourselves exposed to energies of the cyclic processes, related to
the movement of planets around the Sun and their mutual interactions in a never ending
variety of effects. These energies are at an arbitrary moment the almost the same for
everybody in a limited area. The difference in effect on individuals is related to the sequence,
moment and contents it affects elements in an individual birth chart and the way
psychological processes are influenced. In this way developments in the individual journey
of awakening can be foreseen, as the sequence and timeframe of these energies are fixed.
Astrological techniques can be used as an important help for explanation.
In this article I will explain the potential role of the astrological mandala in our journey of
awakening. How the message of the astrological mandala is of influence of all elements
within an institution is explained with the use of a birth chart of an institution.
The astrological mandala
26
The 360 degrees of the zodiac are grouped in 2 hemicycles of 180 degrees the process of
individualization (Aries 1 to Virgo 30) and the process of collectivization (Libra 1 to Pisces
30). The process of individualization should lead to the development of a well balanced self,
the process of collectivization focuses on the development of the individual in relation to the
environment.
Each hemicycle consists of 2 acts (differentiation: Aries 1 to Gemini 30, stabilization:
Cancer 1 to Virgo 30, group integration: Libra 1 to Sagittarius 30, capitalization: Capricorn
1 to Pisces 30).
Each act has 6 scenes (in total 24 for the complete zodiac). Each scene is subdivided in 3
levels (Actional – Emotional cultural – Individual mental – Group performance). Each level
has 5 phases.
Each degree of the zodiac is represented in an archetypical symbol, a keynote (a short first
psychological interpretation of the symbol) and a further explanation in relation to the cyclic
processes.
A symbol gives a representation of something rational and objective and shows the relation
between a specific human need and the capability to fulfill this need. The symbolized
archetypical picture leaves space for interpretation in different contexts.
The significance of the four angles in the horoscope
A horoscope shows on the one side the position of the astrological factors (Sun, Moon and
planets) at a certain moment, on the other side it gives a description of the potency of the
unique self. In a horoscope the angels (Ascendant, Descendant, Nadir and Mid Heaven) have
a special significance. For instance the assignment an individual or organism received at
creation can be clarified.
The degree of the ascendant (AC) shows the nature and the meaning, to WHAT it is leading.
The degree of the descendant (DC) shows the WHERETO, to what is it leading. The degree
of the nadir (IC) shows how the awareness of the own socio cultural environment best can be
used and integrated in the process of realization (HOW) and the degree of the Mid Heaven
(MC) indicates the ultimate meaning of this incarnation or creation and the ultimate
culmination the individual or organism can achieve as a result of the whole cycle of
proceedings (the WHY).
It seems a simple whole, however one can immediately object the zodiac has a limited
number of degrees of 360 and lots of people and institutions start with the same assignment,
indicating how the unique self can be fulfilled. However in reality it is much more complex
and this is elaborated in the following paragraph.
The cyclic character of human experience.
27
The archetypical meaning of the degrees of the zodiac represented in the angles of the
horoscope show the what, the Whereto, the how and the why of the assignment. angels show
The number of combinations of angels seems limited, however when we consider the how
we understand that the socio cultural context for every individual differs as well as for an
institution. As a result the influence on the process of life will differ accordingly.
A further refinement is caused by the position of Sun, Moon and planets. Every one of these
factors will contribute to the realisation of life’s assignment. The archetype for the degree of
the Sun in the zodiac, e.g. indicate the source of power to feed the individual in its
development, the degree of the Moon indicates the capability to adapt to the environment and
circumstances, and the ability to transfer the solar energy.
The degree for Mercury indicate the means and way of communicating, the degree for Venus
indicates the value of what should be achieved, the degree of Mars how the organism will
mobilize its energies, the degree of Jupiter indicates the capability to develop and the degree
of Saturn indicates the structure that should be maintained. This already appears more
complex and making unique, however there are more mechanism explaining the cyclic
process of the roadmap from birth (the WHAT) to fulfilment (the WHY). Examples of
representations of such cyclic processes are the lunar return and the solar return.
In a lunar return the horoscope is made at the moment the Moon returns to its birth position.
In a lunar return chart the emotional blueprint of the coming period of 29 days is depicted.
The position of angles in a lunar return give information about the way an individual will
adapt to its surroundings and will transfer solar energy in the coming period of 29 days.
In a solar return, the moment once a year when the Sun returns to its exact position in the
birth chart, in far most cases only the Sun is in its position as in the birth chart. The position
of the angles and planets in a solar return give information about the assignment for the
coming year for the individual within the context of the assignment of the birth chart and
especially how the source of life power can contribute to the awakening of the soul.
The indications from the birth chart can’t be realised in a straight way. Every time again the
individual should adapt to the challenges created in the cyclic processes and represented by
lunar return, solar return, transits and secondary progressions. This is true for every object or
subject these processes have influence on, whether this is an organic individual or a company
or another institution.
Jyotisha, often wrongly translated as astrology, is far more comprehensive than what its
English equivalent conveys. It is comprised of three sections, namely, Ganitha or mathematics
including Gola or spherical astronomy, Samhita or the study of connections between celestial
motions and terrestrial phenomena such as national and international developments, natural
calamities, weather and agriculture as also wars and migrations and the last branch being Hora or
predictive astrology related to individual births and which branch is an integral part of the social
28
life of our country. The last few decades have seen, thanks to the life-long efforts of the Father of
Modern Astrology Dr.B.V.Raman, a spurt in the field of literature on Jyotisha, but it has been
largely confined to the Hora branch or predictive astrology.
Ganita forms the basis of the other two branches of Jyotisha and requires a certain level of
proficiency in mathematics. It also calls for an in-depth study of several ancient works such as
the Vedas, the Rig Veda in particular, as also the Surya Siddhanta, the Panchasiddhantika,
Vedanga Jyotisha of Lagadha and other works of this genre as also of later astronomers such as
Aryabhata, Bhaskar I and II and other mathematicians. The author's present effort is therefore a
welcome initiative in the Ganita branch of Jyotisha dealing as it does with the Zodiac and the
Dasa systems as also the Nakshatras which form the matrix of both Samhita and Hora. He
appears to have made an extensive study of ancient astronomy works of the Hindus and the Jains
before coming up with this dissertation on the subject of the Bhachakra and the much discussed
and debated topic of Ayanamsa. In the process, he comes up with another value of Ayanamsa ,
Arastu Ayanamsa, which the research-minded can experiment with.
Balagangadhar Tilak with providing the list of the 27 Nakshatras for the first time instead of 24
as earlier thought. His views placed Vedanga Jyotisha between 100 A.D and 150 A.D. - that
clearly points to its date to a far far anterior period. Likewise, his attempts to explain the periods
allotted to each planet in the Vimshottari Dasa scheme though apparently logical may be open
for review.Coming now to understanding the basics of Jyotishya:
Jyotisha or Jyotishya (from Sanskrit jyotiṣa, from jyóti- "light, heavenly body") is the
traditional Hindu system of “astrology”, also known as Hindu astrology, Indian astrology and
more recently Vedic astrology. The term Hindu astrology has been in use as the English
equivalent of Jyotiṣa since the early 19th century, whereas Vedic astrology is a relatively recent
term, entering common usage in the 1970s with self-help publications on Āyurveda or yoga.
The horoscopic astrology practiced in the Indian subcontinent came from Hellenistic influences,
post-dating the Vedic period. and the Vedanga Jyotishya, one of the earliest texts about
astronomy within the Vedas, dates from the last centuries BCE.
Following a judgement of the Andhra Pradesh High Court in 2001 which favoured astrology,
some Indian universities now offer advanced degrees in Hindu astrology, despite protest from the
scientific community that astrology is a pseudoscience.
Jyotiṣa is one of the Vedāṅga, the six auxiliary disciplines used to support Vedic rituals. Early
jyotiṣa is concerned with the preparation of a calendar to determine dates for sacrificial rituals,
with nothing written regarding planets. There are mentions of eclipse-causing "demons" in
the Atharvaveda and Chāndogya Upaniṣad, the latter mentioning Rāhu (a shadow entity believed
responsible for eclipses and meteors). The term graha, which is now taken to mean planet,
originally meant demon.The Ṛigveda also mentions an eclipse-causing demon, Svarbhānu,
however the specific term graha was not applied to Svarbhānu until the
later Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa.
The foundation of Hindu astrology is the notion of bandhu of the Vedas (scriptures), which is the
connection between the microcosm and the macrocosm. Practice relies primarily on the sidereal
zodiac, which differs from the tropical zodiac used in Western (Hellenistic) astrology in that
an ayanāṁśa adjustment is made for the gradual precession of the vernal equinox. Hindu
29
astrology includes several nuanced sub-systems of interpretation and prediction with elements
not found in Hellenistic astrology, such as its system of lunar mansions (Nakṣatra). It was only
after the transmission of Hellenistic astrology that the order of planets in India was fixed in that
of the seven-day week. Hellenistic astrology and astronomy also transmitted the twelve zodiacal
signs beginning with Aries and the twelve astrological places beginning with the ascendant. The
first evidence of the introduction of Greek astrology to India is the Yavanajātaka which dates to
the early centuries CE.. The Yavanajātaka (lit. "Sayings of the Greeks") was translated from
Greek to Sanskrit by Yavaneśvara during the 2nd century CE, and is considered the first Indian
astrological treatise in the Sanskrit language. However the only version that survives is the verse
version of Sphujidhvaja which dates to AD 270. The first Indian astronomical text to define the
weekday was the Āryabhaṭīya of Āryabhaṭa (born AD 476).
According to Michio Yano, Indian astronomers must have been occupied with the task of
Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy during the 300 or so years between the
first Yavanajataka and the Āryabhaṭīya. Varāhamihira summarizes the five known Indian
astronomical schools of the sixth century. Indian astronomy preserved some of the older prePtolemaic elements of Greek astronomy
The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations,
notably the Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra, and Sārāvalī by Kalyāṇavarma. The Horāshastra is a
composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early
8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the later 8th century. The Sārāvalī likewise
dates to around 800 CE. English translations of these texts were published by N. N. Krishna Rau
and V. B. Choudhari in 1963 and 1961, respectively.
Astrology remains an important facet of folk belief in the contemporary lives of many Hindus.
In Hindu culture, newborns are traditionally named based on their jyotiṣa charts (Kundali), and
astrological concepts are pervasive in the organization of the calendar and holidays, and in
making major decisions such as those about marriage, opening a new business, or moving into a
new home. Many Hindus believe that heavenly bodies, including the planets, have an influence
throughout the life of a human being, and these planetary influences are the "fruit of karma".
The Navagraha, planetary deities, are considered subordinate to Ishvara (the Hindu concept of a
supreme being) in the administration of justice. Thus, it is believed that these planets can
influence earthly life.
Science & astrology
Astrology retains a position among the sciences in modern world countries
For instance, India's University Grants Commission and Ministry of Human Resource
Development decided to introduce "Jyotir Vigyan" (i.e. jyotir vijñāna) or "Vedic astrology" as a
discipline of study in Indian universities, stating that "vedic astrology is not only one of the main
subjects of our traditional and classical knowledge but this is the discipline, which lets us know
the events happening in human life and in universe on time scale."[18] The decision was backed
by a 2001 judgement of the Andhra Pradesh High Court, and some Indian universities offer
advanced degrees in astrology. This was met with widespread protests from the scientific
community in India and Indian scientists working abroad.[21] A petition sent to the Supreme
Court of India stated that the introduction of astrology to university curricula is "a giant leap
backwards, undermining whatever scientific credibility the country has achieved so far".
30
In 2004, the Supreme Court dismissed the petition. concluding that the teaching of astrology did
not qualify as the promotion of religion. In February 2011, the Bombay High Court referred to
the 2004 Supreme Court ruling when it dismissed a case which had challenged astrology's status
as a science. As of 2014, despite continuing complaints by scientists, astrology continues to be
taught at various universities in India. and there is a movement in progress to establish a national
Vedic University to teach astrology together with the study of tantra, mantra, and yoga.
Elements: There are sixteen Varga (Sanskrit: varga, 'part, division'), or divisional, charts used in
Hindu astrology:
Rāśi – zodiacal signs
The Nirayana, or sidereal zodiac, is an imaginary belt of 360 degrees, which, like the Sāyana,
or tropical zodiac, is divided into 12 equal parts. Each part (of 30 degrees) is called a sign
or rāśi (Sanskrit: 'part'). Vedic (Jyotiṣa) and Western zodiacs differ in the method of
measurement. While synchronically, the two systems are identical, Jyotiṣa primarily uses the
sidereal zodiac (in which stars are considered to be the fixed background against which the
motion of the planets is measured), whereas most Western astrology uses the tropical zodiac (the
motion of the planets is measured against the position of the Sun on the spring equinox). After
two millennia, as a result of the precession of the equinoxes, the origin of the ecliptic
longitude has shifted by about 22 degrees. As a result, the placement of planets in the Jyotiṣa
system is roughly aligned with the constellations, while tropical astrology is based on the
solstices and equinoxes.
No. Sanskrit
Transliteration Representation English
Element
Quality
Ruling
Astrological
Body
1
मेष
Meṣa
ram
Aries
Fire
Chara
(movable)
Mars
2
वृषभ
Vṛṣabha
bull
Taurus
Earth
Sthira (fixed)
Venus
3
मिथुन
Mithuna
twins
Gemini
Air
Dvisvabhava
(dual)
Mercury
4
कर्क
Karka
crab
Cancer
Water
Chara
(movable)
Moon
5
सिंह
Siṃha
lion
Leo
Fire
Sthira (fixed)
Sun
31
6
कन्या
Kanyā
virgin girl
Virgo
Earth
Dvisvabhava
(dual)
Mercury
7
तुला
Tulā
balance
Libra
Air
Chara
(movable)
Venus
8
वृश्चिक Vṛścika
scorpion
Scorpio
Water
Sthira (fixed)
Mars
9
धनुष
Dhanuṣa
bow
arrow
Sagittarius Fire
Dvisvabhava
(dual)
Jupiter
10
मकर
Makara
goat
Capricorn
Earth
Chara
(movable)
Saturn
11
कुम्भ
Kumbha
waterbearer
Aquarius
Air
Sthira (fixed)
Saturn
12
मीन
Mīna
fishes
Pisces
Water
Dvisvabhava
(dual)
Jupiter
and
Nakṣhatras – lunar mansions
The nakshatras or lunar mansions are 27 equal divisions of the night sky used in Hindu
astrology, each identified by its prominent star(s.
Historical (medieval) Hindu astrology enumerated either 27 or 28 nakṣatras. In modern
astrology, a rigid system of 27 nakṣatras is generally used, each covering 13° 20′ of the ecliptic.
The missing 28th nakshatra is Abhijeeta. Each nakṣatra is divided into equal quarters or padas of
3° 20′. Of greatest importance is the Abhiśeka Nakṣatra, which is held as king over the other
nakṣatras. Worshipping and gaining favour over this nakṣatra is said to give power to remedy all
the other nakṣatras, and is of concern in predictive astrology and mitigating Karma.
The 27 nakshatras are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ashvini
Bharni
Krittika
Rohini
32
5. Mrighashirsha
6. Ardra or Aarudhra
7. Punarvasu
8. Pushya
9. Aslesha
10.Magha
11.Purva Phalguni
12.Uttara Phalguni
13.Hasta
14.Chitra
15.Swati
16.Vishakha
17.Anuradha
18.Jyeshtha
19.Moola
20.Purvashada
21.Uttarashada
22.Shravana
23.Dhanishta
24.Shatabhishak
25.Purva Bhadra
26.Uttara Bhadra
27.Revati
Daśās – planetary periods
The word dasha (Devanāgarī: दशा, Sanskrit,daśā, 'planetary period') means 'state of being' and it
is believed that the daśā largely governs the state of being of a person. The Daśā system shows
which planets may be said to have become particularly active during the period of the Daśā. The
ruling planet (the Daśānātha or 'lord of the Daśā') eclipses the mind of the person, compelling
him or her to act per the nature of the planet.
There are several dasha systems, each with its own utility and area of application. There are
Daśās of grahas (planets) as well as Daśās of the Rāśis (zodiac signs). The primary system used
by astrologers is the Viṁśottarī Daśā system, which has been considered universally applicable
in the kaliyuga to all horoscopes.
33
The first Mahā-Daśā is determined by the position of the natal Moon in a given Nakṣatra. The
lord of the Nakṣatra governs the Daśā. Each Mahā-Dāśā is divided into sub-periods
called bhuktis, or antar-daśās, which are proportional divisions of the maha-dasa. Further
proportional sub-divisions can be made, but error margins based on accuracy of the birth time
grow exponentially. The next sub-division is called pratyantar-daśā, which can in turn be
divided into sookshma-antardasa, which can in turn be divided into praana-antardaśā, which
can be sub-divided into deha-antardaśā. Such sub-divisions also exist in all other Daśā systems.
There were 5 Parasaras at different points of time based on Slokas on the Ayanas drawn from
different works such as Rig Veda Mandala I, Suktas 65 to 73 (attributing them to Shaktiya
Parasara), Parasara Samhita, Vishnu Purana, a second Parashara Siddhanta contemperous with
Arya Siddhanta of Ayrabhata II and Brihat Parasara Hora Sastra respectively but which need to
be critically examined.
Grahas – planets
The Navagraha (nava; Devanāgarī:नव, Sanskrit: nava, "nine"; graha; Devanāgarī:
ग्रह, Sanskrit: graha, 'planet') describe nine celestial bodies used in Hindu astrology.
34
The Navagraha are said to be forces that capture or eclipse the mind and the decision making of
human beings, thus the term graha. When the grahas are active in their Daśās or periodicities
they are said to be particularly empowered to direct the affairs of people and events.
Rahu and Ketu correspond to the points where the moon crosses the ecliptic plane (known as the
ascending and descending nodes of the moon). Classically known in Indian and Western
astrology as the "head and tail of the dragon", these planets are represented as a serpent-bodied
demon beheaded by the Sudarshan Chakra of Vishnu after attempting to swallow the sun. They
are primarily used to calculate the dates of eclipses. They are described as "shadow planets"
because they are not visible in the night sky. They have an orbital cycle of 18 years and are
always 180 degrees from each other.
Gocharas – transits
A natal chart shows the position of the grahas at the moment of birth. Since that moment,
the grahas have continued to move around the zodiac, interacting with the natal chart grahas.
This period of interaction is called gochara (Sanskrit: gochara, 'transit').[31]:227
The study of transits is based on the transit of the Moon (Chandra), which spans roughly two
days, and also on the movement of Mercury (Budha) and Venus (Śukra) across the celestial
sphere, which is relatively fast as viewed from Earth. The movement of the slower planets –
Jupiter (Guru), Saturn (Śani) and Rāhu–Ketu — is always of considerable importance.
Astrologers study the transit of the Daśā lord from various reference points in the horoscope.
The transit phase alway makes an impact on the lives of humans on earth which can be positive
or negative however as per the astrologers the impact of transits can be nuetralised with
remedies.
Yogas – planetary combinations
In Hindu astronomy, yoga (Sanskrit: yoga, 'union') is a combination of planets placed in a
specific relationship to each other.
Rāja yogas are perceived as givers of fame, status and authority, and are typically formed by the
association of the Lord of Keṅdras ('quadrants'), when reckoned from the Lagna ('Ascendant'),
and the Lords of the Trikona ('trines', 120 degrees—first, fifth and ninth houses). The Rāja yogas
are culminations of the blessings of Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī. Some planets, such as Mars for Leo
Lagna, do not need another graha (or Navagraha, 'planet') to create Rājayoga, but are capable of
giving Rājayoga by themselves due to their own lordship of the 4th Bhāva ('astrological house')
and the 9th Bhāva from the Lagna, the two being a Keṅdra ('angular house'—first, fourth,
seventh and tenth houses) and Trikona Bhāva respectively.
Dhana Yogas are formed by the association of wealth-giving planets such as the Dhaneśa or the
2nd Lord and the Lābheśa or the 11th Lord from the Lagna. Dhana Yogas are also formed due to
the auspicious placement of the Dārāpada (from dara, 'spouse' and pada, 'foot'—one of the four
divisions—3 degrees and 20 minutes—of a Nakshatra in the 7th house), when reckoned from the
Ārūḍha Lagna (AL). The combination of the Lagneśa and the Bhāgyeśa also leads to wealth
through the Lakṣmī Yoga.
Sanyāsa Yogas are formed due to the placement of four or more grahas, excluding the Sun, in a
Keṅdra Bhāva from the Lagna.
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There are some overarching yogas in Jyotiṣa such as Amāvasyā Doṣa, Kāla Sarpa Yoga-Kāla
Amṛta Yoga and Graha Mālika Yoga that can take precedence over Yamaha yogar planetary
placements in the horoscope.
Bhāvas – houses
The Hindu Jātaka or Janam Kundali or birth chart, is the Bhāva Chakra (Sanskrit: 'division'
'wheel'), the complete 360° circle of life, divided into houses, and represents a way of enacting
the influences in the wheel. Each house has associated kāraka (Sanskrit: 'significator') planets
that can alter the interpretation of a particular house.[31]:93–167 Each Bhāva spans an arc of 30°
with twelve Bhāvas in any chart of the horoscope. These are a crucial part of any horoscopic
study since the Bhāvas, understood as 'state of being', personalize the Rāśis/ Rashis to the native
and each Rāśi/ Rashi apart from indicating its true nature reveals its impact on the person based
on the Bhāva occupied. The best way to study the various facets of Jyotiṣa is to see their role in
chart evaluation of actual persons and how these are construed.
Dṛṣṭis – aspects
Drishti (Sanskrit: Dṛṣṭi, 'sight') is an aspect to an entire house. Grahas cast only forward aspects,
with the furthest aspect being considered the strongest. For example, Mars aspects the 4th, 7th,
and 8th houses from its position, and its 8th house aspect is considered more powerful than its
7th aspect, which is in turn more powerful than its 4th aspect.
The principle of Dristi (aspect) was devised on the basis of the aspect of an army of planets as
deity and demon in a war field. Thus the Sun, a deity king with only one full aspect, is more
powerful than the demon king Saturn, which has three full aspects.
Aspects can be cast both by the planets (Graha Dṛṣṭi) and by the signs (Rāśi Dṛṣṭi). Planetary
aspects are a function of desire, while sign aspects are a function of awareness and cognizance.
There are some higher aspects of Graha Dṛṣṭi (planetary aspects) that are not limited to the
Viśeṣa Dṛṣṭi or the special aspects. Rāśi Dṛṣṭi works based on the following formulaic structure:
all movable signs aspect fixed signs except the one adjacent, and all dual and mutable signs
aspect each other without exception.
Astrology has been rejected by the scientific community as having no explanatory power for
describing the universe. Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has
been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions.
There is no mechanism proposed by astrologers through which the positions and motions of stars
and planets could affect people and events on Earth.
Astrologers in Indian astrology make grand claims without taking adequate controls into
consideration. Saturn was in Aries in 1909, 1939 and 1968, yet the astrologer Bangalore Venkata
Raman claimed that "when Saturn was in Aries in 1939 England had to declare war against
Germany", ignoring the two other dates. Astrologers regularly fail in attempts to predict election
results in India, and fail to predict major events such as the assassination of Indira Gandhi.
Predictions by the head of the Indian Astrologers Federation about war between India and
Pakistan in 1982 also failed.
In 2000, when several planets happened to be close to one another, astrologers predicted that
there would be catastrophes, volcanic eruptions and tidal waves. This caused an entire sea-side
36
village in the Indian state of Gujarat to panic and abandon their houses. The predicted events did
not occur and the vacant houses were burgled.
The Astrological Mandala. Many Western astrologers have expanded upon this since then: Tad
Mann, Kelly Hunter, Jodie Forest, to name a few. Mandalas are forms that by their very presence
in the world, remind the viewer of the sacred in the universe and in oneself. “Mandala” is a
Sanskrit word for circle or disk shaped object. The basic structure of a mandala is extremely
simple. It is a circle. This circle has special qualities, combining the ideas of circumference and
center at the same time. The word mandala signifies a sacred enclosure and is at times is
understood to mean a place created for the performance of a particular ritual or practice, or for
the use of a great teacher or mystic.
Whether in Western or Eastern astrology, a round chart, rectangular, or diamond shaped chart,
astrology has circularity created by its cyclicity. The circle and its divisions, the repeating circle
of the zodiac, are the crux of astrology. Astrology charts of all kinds share the circle of the
zodiac. As the center is prominent in all charts forms, they share the archetype of the center as
the center as well.
The circle itself has many symbolic meanings for humankind; more than anything, it is an idea,
since perfect circles seldom exist in nature. But it is an idea and a symbol we humans have
created from our observance of nature and development of science. In fact, the wheel, one of the
most important inventions of all time, comes from it. Like a wheel, circles can turn and so also
represents life and it’s ongoing cycles, from birth to death. That’s why the circle of the chart, and
the circle of the signs are such potent archetypes. Because it has no parts the circle is completely
self-contained, not needing anything from the outside. Based on this fact and that it has no
beginning or end, it represents oneness, the whole, and eternity.
Mandala Puja basics
The term Mandala in Hinduism corresponds to a 41-day long period. Often Mandala period is
prescribed for pujas, observances, rituals and intake of medicine in many cases. With regard to Mandala
Puja, the individual is expected to complete the full course of 41-day long period with all the austerities
and routines prescribed in the scriptures. The strict vrat that the individual observes during the Mandal
Puja helps cleanse his soul and enhance clarity of vision.The divine power propitiated through the
Mandala Puja blesses the devotee with incredible boons that would change his life forever. Usually,
Mandala Puja is done to please the favourite deity of the person, whichever form of god it might be. Even
women can undertake Mandala Puja with a break of five days during the menstrual period.
Mandala Puja Regulations
The devotee observing Mandala Puja needs to follow a set of procedures, routines and discipline during
the course of forty-one days. The Mandala Puja usually begins with the candidate receiving dhiksha from
an accomplished Guru who is a virtuous and pious person learned in the Vedas and Shastras and
committed to an austere life all through. The following are the dos and don’ts during Mandala Puja.
The devotee must take bath daily early in the morning, wear a special type of clothing and Tulsi Mala
with the pendent of the deity that the devotee wishes to propitiate. Usually, this Mala is blessed by the
Guru and given to the candidate on the start of the Mandala Puja.
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After the vow is taken to do Mandala Puja, the devotee does puja at home twice a day in morning and
evening and also visits the temple of his favourite deity. After the conclusion of the Mandala Puja, the
devotee makes a pilgrimage to the favourite deity’s temple.
Non-vegetarian food, sex, any kind of indulgence, entertainments, overeating, spicy food, wasteful talk,
falsehood, immoral acts, bad company, bad thoughts and inappropriate behaviour are all prohibited during
the Mandala Puja period.
Mandala Puja at Shabarimala
Shabarimala is a famed temple in Kerala dedicated to Lord Ayyappan. The Mandala Puja in
Shabarimala is done once a year starting from the first day of the Malayalam month of
Vrishchikam (November - December) and concludes on the eleventh day of the Dhanu month
(December – January). The concluding day is marked by elaborate rituals and special puja at the
temple.
Mandala Puja at Guruvayur
During the Mandala Puja period, there are special ceremonies and regular ceremonies organised
in the temple of Guruvayur around the same time of when it is performed in Shabarimala. On a
daily basis, the deity is given the holy bath with panchagavya a mixture of five products got from
cow namely milk, curd, ghee, urine and dung. This is a rare product that is believed to have a lot
of cleansing property. All through the period, the temple wears a festive look with multitudes
visiting the pilgrim site.
Mandala Puja: The Ultimate Prescription By Hinduism To Change Your Life For Better
Mandala Puja is one of the rarest rituals prescribed by Hinduism for deriving ultimate
benefits in a persona. Times of India 2017
The Vaastu Purusha Mandala is the basic form in architecture whether of property, ambiance or
human life- and all other figures are derived from this elementary design. We can understand
vaastupurush better with the following image which is energy grid of square.
It provides the method that determines the requirements of architecture in relation to its
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directions. Each direction is allotted a particular role by the Vastu Ratnakara. Every part of the
Vastu Purusha's body is sacred and contains energies that help us in living a contented and
peaceful.life.
Each work has its nature and features. Aforesaid knowledge gives us the appropriate direction
for a desired work such as where and how to construct a room, outer structure and interior
arrangement of rooms according to the nature of work so that we do our work without any
problem and handedness.This knowledge tells us about the nature and work of directions and
what kind of work is to be done in which direction. Vaastu knowledge advices what kind of work
is best in which directions at where it is medium, normal or average and which direction is
prohibited for concerned work.Vaastu Purusha is present in each and every plot whether it is big
or small. It has a fixed and peculiar body. Its head remains hanging down and its body is spread
all over the length and breadth of the ground. There is an interesting story in the MATSYA
PURANA in which the birth of the Vaastu Purusha is narrated. By reading that story, one knows
why the worship of the Vaastu Purusha is necessary before beginning the construction of any
house.
39
While fighting with the demon, Shiva was very much tired and began to sweat profusely.
A man was born from the drops of the sweat of Shiva. He looked very cruel. He was very
hungry. So he began to make penance to appease Lord Shiva and get a boon from Him.
Shiva was pleased with his penance and appeared before him. The devotee prayed to
Shiva, "Oh Lord! Please permit me to eat away all the three worlds." Shiva said, "Let it
be so." The joy of that devotee knew no bounds. He got possession on all the three worlds
and first he was ready to eat the terrestrial world. Then the celestial beings, Brahma,
Shiva and the demons (Rakshasas) also were terrified and caught hold of the devotee
encircling.him.
Forty-five celestial beings, out of whom 32 from without and 13 from within caught hold
of the devotee. The Thirty-two celestial beings areAll these 32 celestial beings are out of the limits of the devotee whereas the following 13
Beings are within his limits:These celestial Beings laid force on the different limbs of the devotee and sat on them as
shown below:
1. PRITHWI DHARA & ARYAM - Chest;
2. AVANTSA - heart;
3. DITI & INDRA - Shoulders;
4. SURYA & SOMA - Hands;
5. RUDRA & RAJAYAKSHMA - left arm;
6. SAVITRA & SAVITA - right arm;
7. VIVASWAN & MITRA - Stomach;
8. PUSHA & ARYAMA - Wrist;
9. ASUR & SESHA - left side;
10. VITATHA & GRAHAKSHAT - right side;
11. YAMA & VARUNA - Thighs;
12. GANDHARVA & PURAMADAN - on the knees;
13. SUGRIV & BHRISH - shanks;
14. DWARIKA & MRIGA - ankles;
15. JAYA & SHAKRA - on the hairs grown on the feet;
16. BRAHMA - on the heart.
17. ISH (AGNI) - head;
18. APA-Face;
Being bound like that, the devotee laid down there only. Since then, he has been lying there
surrounded by the celestial Beings and thus he is known as "the God of Vaastu or VAASTU
PURUSHA".
"You will be known as `VASTUPURUSHA'. You will tease the people who construct
buildings and temples, dig wells and tanks on the side towards which you see and in the
direction towards which you hold your feet, to your heart's content. You may trouble and
40
even devour those people who construct the aforesaid buildings and temples etc. in the
direction where you lay your head and back and those who lay foundation stone without
worshipping you or without satisfying you with `Homa' and the like. Then the Vaastu
Purusha was quite satisfied. Since then the worship of Vaastu-Purusha has been in vogue and
it has become compulsory for those who want to construct any kind of building. "
Vaastu Purusha, being arrested like this, said to the Gods, "Oh Celestial Beings! You have all
caught hold of me and tied me on all the sides. How long shall I be like this, in this position
hanging my head down like a prisoner? What shall I eat?" Listening to these words, the
celestial Beings said, "Today is Bhadrapada Shukla Triteeya Saturday and `Visakha Star'; So,
you lie down here on the ground changing your position once in three months, i.e. from
`Bhadrapada' to `Kartik' you lie down putting your head in the Eastern direction and your feet
towards the West. During the months of `Margashira', `Pushyam' and `Magha', you lie down
towards the South looking towards the West and put your feet towards the North. During the
months of `Phalgun', `Chaitra' and `Vaisakh', put your head towards the West and feet
towards the East looking towards the North. In the months of `Jyeshtha', `Ashadha' and
`Sravana', put your head towards the North and the feet towards the South and look towards
the East. Whatever side you may turn, you will have to lie down on the left side
only.The Vastu Purusha Mandala is an indispensable part of vastu shastra and constitutes
the mathematical and diagrammatic basis for generating design. It is the metaphysical plan of
a building that incorporates the coursly bodies and supernatural forces. Purusha refers to
energy, power, soul or cosmic man. Mandala is the generic name for any plan or chart which
symbolically represents the cosmos.
In Hindu cosmology or in Vedic Cosmology the surface of the earth is represented as a
sphere and not as a flat surface, "Cakracasah parinaham prthivya" It says "people who
reside on the surface of earth circumference" [Rig veda 1.33.8]. However in context of the
earth as a home or resident it is represented as four-cornered in reference to the horizon's
relationship with sunrise and sunset, the North and South direction. It is
called Chaturbhuji (four cornered) and represented in the form of the Prithvi Mandala.
The astrological charts or horoscopes also represent in a square plan the positions of the sun,
moon, planets and zodiac constellations with reference to a specific person's place and time
of birth.
The legend of the Vastu Purusha is related thus. Once a formless being blocked the heaven
from the earth and Brahma with many other gods trapped him to the ground. This incident is
depicted graphically in the Vastu Purusha Mandala with portions allocated hierarchically to
each deity based on their contributions and positions. Brahma occupied the central portion –
the Brahmasthana- and other gods were distributed around in a concentric pattern. There are
45 gods in all including 32 outer deities.
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Paper read at the International Astrological Conference on Indian Vedic Culture and Western
Astrology Claudia Bader
THE INNER LIFE OF THE ASTROLOGICAL MANDALA: Macrocosm and Microcosm
At the still point of the turning world. Neither flesh nor fleshless; Neither from nor towards;
at the still point, there the dance is, But neither arrest nor movement. And do not call it
fixity, Where past and future are gathered. Neither movement from nor towards, Neither
ascent nor decline. Except for the point, the still point, There would be no dance, and there is
only.the.dance.
–T.S. Eliot1
This excerpt from T.S. Eliot’s poem, Four Quartets, to me speaks the experience of the mandala. The
archetype of the mandala and the rich meanings connected to it encompass all of my themes today,
thus the title of this lecture: The Inner Life Of The Astrological Mandala. Using the archetype of the
mandala, I hope to speak to dimensions that unite us all as astrologers; a psycho-spiritual exploration
of the power of our art, our divine science. In particular, a non-verbal level of the power of astrology.
To do this I will be using a view of astrology informed by my other professions of psychoanalyst and
art therapist. In the psychoanalytic world, the lens comes from the psychoanalyst C.G. Jung (18751961), who used mandalas in his work and life, and the British psychoanalyst D.W. Winnicott (18961971). Winnicott stated: “This is the place I have set out to examine, the separation that is a not a
separation but a form of union.2”
Winnicott paid true and deep attention to the psychic space between mothers and babies, extending
this into cultural experience in adult life. He named this space the transitional space, and negotiating
this space in early life well is dependent upon “good enough” attunement by the “ordinary devoted
mother.”
Also from the psychoanalytic world, I will use a lens taken from neurobiological research on what it
is that allows us to feel known, and what heals. From art therapy, informed by psychoanalysis, I will
be using a lens honed by my 30 years of teaching art diagnosis to art therapists and other clinicians,
the art of interpreting symbolic meaning in art, and in particular, my work with mandalas3.
Are we looking at a cup, or are we looking at two faces facing each other? In this famous image from
Gestalt psychology, there is a foreground and a background. Our more conscious focus is what we
see in the foreground. Whichever you see first, I am identifying as our usual profound work with
astrology, research and interpretation of charts of all kinds… the rich and endless study of meaning
through astrology’s vivid symbolic language. However, when we use different eyes, the background
comes into focus and we see that there is something there of equal importance. It is non-verbal; it has
been less conscious, but nonetheless, always there in the background. The mandala of the chart itself
as a graphic image, and the mandala of the rhythm of the wheel of the zodiac and the solstices and
equinoxes; and these connect to aspects of our art that heal. This is the area of our connection to
astrology I will mine today.
Mandalas
In Western astrology Dane Rudyar was the first to call attention to the relationship between astrology
and mandalas in his book, The Astrological Mandala. Many Western astrologers have expanded upon
this since then: Tad Mann, Kelly Hunter, Jodie Forest, to name a few. Mandalas are forms that by
42
their very presence in the world, remind the viewer of the sacred in the universe and in oneself.
“Mandala” is a Sanskrit word for circle or disk shaped object. The basic structure of a mandala is
extremely simple. It is a circle. This circle has special qualities, combining the ideas of
circumference and center at the same time. The word mandala signifies a sacred enclosure and is at
times is understood to mean a place created for the performance of a particular ritual or practice, or
for the use of a great teacher or mystic.
A circle on a page creates an inner and an outer space; in art therapy this quality is used for reflection
on the self, for seeing the relationship between the inner world and the outer world, as well as the
centering and containing aspects of the form. It also resonates to the archetype of the center. A recent
replication study reaffirmed that coloring in mandalas reduces anxiety, more than coloring on a plaid
design (which is used because it is repetitive, and thought to be calming) or on a blank rectangular or
square format paper (van der Vennet and Serice, 2012).The coloring in the mandala circle need not
have any particular pattern or design; any kind of coloring within a circle, whether it is abstract or
realistic is more calming than coloring on a piece of paper without a circle drawn upon it. A study
published in 2017 on the perception of safety found that, when asked to draw what it feels like to be
safe, in the different imagery drawn, the mandala was significant, and the only abstract form used.
The rest of the images depicted were things like gardens, or a person at rest5.
Whether we use Western or Eastern astrology, a round chart, rectangular, or diamond shaped chart,
astrology has circularity created by its cyclicity. The circle and its divisions, the repeating circle of
the zodiac, are the crux of astrology. Astrology charts of all kinds share the circle of the zodiac. As
the center is prominent in all charts forms, they share the archetype of the center as the center as well.
The circle itself has many symbolic meanings for humankind; more than anything, it is an idea, since
perfect circles seldom exist in nature6. But it is an idea and a symbol we humans have created from
our observance of nature and development of science. In fact, the wheel, one of the most important
inventions of all time, comes from it. Like a wheel, circles can turn and so also represents life and it’s
ongoing cycles, from birth to death. That’s why the circle of the chart, and the circle of the signs are
such potent archetypes. Because it has no parts the circle is completely self-contained, not needing
anything from the outside. Based on this fact and that it has no beginning or end, it represents
oneness, the whole, and eternity.
Jung described it as
“the premontion of a centre of the personality, a kind of central point within the psyche, to which
everything is related, by which everything is arranged, and which is itself a source of energy. The
energy of the central point is manifested in the almost irresistible compulsion and urge to become
what one is, just as every organism is driven to assume the form that is characteristic of its nature, no
matter what the circumstances.”
He worked with mandalas in his private and professional life. Jung stated that the mandala is the
archetype of wholeness, relating it to his concept of the “Self.”
This sacred circle is everywhere, in the sun, the moon, a flower, a face, and eye. Mandala images
arise spontaneously in dreams and art as symbols of the center of the self, often occurring when
people are in the healing process. Creating mandalas has been found to help the physical healing
process as well when they are used in conjunction with meditation. In dreams, mandalas show up in
many ways in imagery that shares its geometry or meaning, such as a flower, a well, a square in the
middle of a village or town, a fountain. For instance, a dream may start: “I am in Grand Central
43
Station,” or “I am standing at a well in the middle of a grove in the forest.” A dream like this
establishes the dreamer firmly in the center of their psyche.
The circle is elaborated by making it concentric, or by combining it with a quadrated form, like
a cross or square.
The circle combined with quadrated form, whether inside or outside the circle, is the classic form of
the mandala. It sets up the relationship of opposites; the circle, beyond time and space in it’s never
ending wholeness, is fixed in time and space by the quadration. In terms of time, there are the
equinoxes and solstices, the four seasonal turning points in the year; in terms of space, the four
directions. The four directions of the cross fix the endless movement of the circle, which has no
beginning and no end. From this foundation, this sacred circle is then elaborated upon in multitudes
of ways creating meditative devices the world over.
The cycle of existence–day and night, and the regular returns of the seasons; fixes the circular motif
in our viscera. Juxtapose this with the linear experience of time and aging, or the quadrated
experience of the equinoxes and solstices, the turning points in the day of dawn, noon, sunset,
midnight as well as the four directions—and the circle with a cross becomes imbedded in our very
bones.
An example of the archetypal power of the classic mandala form can be seen in the work of John
Weir Perry, a Jungian analyst who worked with people suffering with schizophrenia. First, over a 12
year period, he worked with them in a hospital setting 3 times a week for 3 to 6 months with minimal
medication. He then created an experimental residence facility in San Francisco in the 1970s that did
not use medication. He found that as they reconstituted themselves an archetypal image sequence
occurred in their hallucinatory content as they healed. The final image was a quadrated world; when
presented in a visual format, it was a mandala8.
The profound organizing theme was renewal; the king is mythically sacrificed and then reborn in a
drama through which the whole cosmos participates in regeneration. As kings are rulers, the
archetype of the king can be understood as a metaphor for the ruler of the psyche. Initially the
hallucination presents a negative self-image which is then compensated for by an overblown selfimage often of mythological proportions. As the patient continues deconstructing themselves, he (or
she) establishes a location at the world center, or cosmic axis. At this point the patient may have a
feeling of participating in some form of drama or ritual. Themes of dismemberment or delusions of
having died and arrived at an afterlife are present. As the regression continues the patient may
experience being taken back to the beginning of time. A conflict arises between two opposite forces:
good versus evil, chaos versus order, which is often represented in terms of warring political parties
or world powers. The patient may experience a threat from the opposite sex or fear being turned into
the opposite sex. This conflict is eventually resolved and the patient experiences an apotheosis as
royalty or divinity, and enters a sacred marriage. A new birth of a superhuman child may take place.
The last stages often involved the patients planning a new society or cosmos with a fourfold
structure. When presented in visual imagery the fourfold world or cosmos would be in mandala form.
The classic mandala form is more obvious in the graphic of a Western chart, as our charts are round
wheels; however, the fact that the cyclic circle of the signs and houses are punctuated with the
quadration of the Kendra houses creates a similar effect. Bernadette Brady, in her chapter,
“Horoscope as Imago Mundi” in the book Astrologies discusses how profoundly chart space is
sacred space; as stated above, mandalas are sacred enclosures; thus, entering the space of the chart is
to enter a sacred space.
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The Western astrological chart is an obvious mandala.The foundation structure of the image is a
circle with a cross, as depicted above. The two main axes mentioned earlier, create the cross. On a
graphic level, the chart depicts how we come from one whole, symbolized by the endlessness of the
archetype of the circle, individualized – symbolized by the horizontal and vertical axes, and then the
elaboration of the houses. Thus, we inhabit a mandala of existence on earth, and to study an
astrological chart is to contemplate a mandala.
That is the macrocosmic geometric mandala of the astrology chart. There is a microcosmic mandalic
experience as well, which is the bulk of my original work. This level of the mandala is that of the
experience of the holding environment of our mother’s arms, the mirroring experience that occurs
when we feel the rightness of the description of ourselves through the mandala of the chart, and how
this resonates with the importance of the human face; in fact, I will show how the underlying
geometry of the Western chart shares the underlying geometry of the human face. All of these factors
contribute to the healing experience of working with astrology.
Dr. Allan Schore, a psychoanalytically oriented neurobiologist states that research shows that “ the
attunement to the patient in an empathically resonant field is what heals, not a specific technique
…(and that) …affective processes appear to lie at the core of the self.9” For him, it is a question of
being, a quality of the implicit self, rather than doing, which is the explicit self.” These define what
makes us human10. This is one of the gifts our work with astrology brings. I will now outline some
deep levels of how this is an aspect of our work with astrology.
The.Holding.Environment.And.Mirroring
The holding environment is a psychical and physical space within which the infant is protected
without knowing he is protected. Before we can crawl or walk, we are encircled in our mother’s
arms; and this extends to emotional space in the psyche. The term was created by the D.W.
Winnicott. According to Winnicott, a newborn child exists in a stream of unintegrated, comfortably
unconnected moments. This existence is pleasant and not terrifying for the child. It is a reverie. These
early experiences are crucial to a proper development of personhood. The person responsible for
providing this framework is the mother, and if this holding environment is not provided by her, the
deficiencies will manifest themselves later in the child’s life. This environment does not have to
perfect-it simply needs to be “good enough.11” “the ordinary devoted mother,”
Seeing and being seen is a face to face encounter. Much of our waking time in early life is spent
gazing into our mother’s face; especially when we are held in her arms. D.W. Winnicott was acutely
attuned to the importance of the face. Winnicott also recognized that there is mutual response
between mother and baby, with the face the crux of the communication. He made the point that when
the infant sees the mother’s face, what he sees is himself13. Beebe citing Bower, states “Research
using brain imaging suggests that faces enjoy special status in the brain…neural activity in the
temporal lobes …surges twice as much when adults watch faces vs. other objects.” She also makes
the point that “Facial communication operates… largely out of awareness. Dr. Allan Schore makes
the point that research shows the infant brain develops in critical periods from the last trimester of
pregnancy through the first year and half. Early experience is literally built into the brain15.
Newborns will immediately seek out the mother’s eyes and face, and when presented with different
images to look at, will fix on the picture of a human face16. The mystical psychoanalyst Michael
Eigen discusses the human face, talking about it as the most significant “organizing principle in the
field of meaning.17”
45
The earliest communications are experienced from facial expressions and body reactions; these
interactions, both good and bad (like love or disgust) are perceived in milliseconds, are “hidden,” in
the sense that they are below conscious awareness but deeply registered. Significantly, all of this
research completely supports the idea that there is an unconscious.
The.Face,The.Mandala,And.The.Charts
The importance of the human face has long been observed. Karen Machover, a pioneer in “draw a
person” projective tests, made a number of points about the significance of the face. Faces are the
most individually identifiable part of our physical being and the most constantly visible. She stated
that subjects, when asked to draw a person, no matter their age, often offer a face or head as the
completed drawing. Body parts, such as torsos, legs, or arms are never drawn on their own to
represent a person.
In early developmental art, the mandala form and the face are interconnected. Mandala forms emerge
very early on, in the scribbling stage which occurs from 18 months to 4 years old on average. These
forms are one of the graphic precursors to the first drawn faces, and these earliest faces have a
mandalic structure. Children start to draw around 18 months old. Before a child can draw a
recognizable face, his or her drawings go through several stages: random marks like squiggles and
scribbles.
Children practice combing shapes and squiggles; Rhoda Kellogg (1970) calls these combines. One of
the earliest combines has a mandaloid form.
The earliest images of humans usually have a mandala formation, with a huge head with markings at
the approximate place of the cross in a mandala (figure 5). They are also very cute.
Another aspect of the mandala’s power may be connected to the geometry of the face, for the face
has a mandalic structure. In learning to draw, artists are trained to see the underlying geometry in
physical form. To draw a face with accurate proportions, you learn that the space from the top of the
head to the eyes is approximately the same distance as the eyes to the chin. As far as a mandalic
structure is concerned, the horizontal axis is the eye line, and the vertical axis being the line created
by the nose. This is similar to the basic structure of the mandala.
Psycho-Spiritual Aspects Of The Astrological Mandala
The levels of psychological resonance of the mandala may be thought of in this way: the circle of the
mandala creates a symbolic holding environment like the circle of mother’s arms. The experience of
being held in a session and known through astrology taps into the recent neurobiological research
that has found that the attunement to the patient in an empathically resonant field is what heals, not a
specific.technique. To repeat “…affective processes appear to lie at the core of the self,” and these
define what makes us human. It is a question of being, a quality of the implicit self, rather than doing,
which is the explicit self.21”
The face has a loose circular form, and in the face are the eyes; concentric mandalic forms. Finally,
the core facial architecture is similar to that of a mandala, the circle with a quadrated form. The
mandala may evoke the face, our earliest mirror, the early holding environment of our mother’s arms,
as well as the experience throughout our lives of looking into faces, our most human aspect. The
circle of the mandala and the circle of the chart create a symbolic holding environment which
46
hearkens back to the experience of lying in the circle of the mothers’ arms and looking into her face.
Astrology charts are objects, an image on a computer screen or a piece of paper; an image then held
in the mind. They are literally images of an intersection of me and not-me.
In early childhood, the first not-me object Winnicott called the transitional object; an example of this
is a Teddy Bear. Winnicott felt that in adult life transitional phenomena extends into art, and culture.
Christopher Bollas, an American psychoanalyst who worked with Winnicott, theorized that the
transitional object evolves into the “transforming object.” He feels we search for transforming
objects throughout our life. When we are in the presence of a transforming object, he describes the
experience this way:
“Such moments feel familiar, uncanny, sacred, reverential, and outside cognitive coherence. They are
registered through an experience of being, rather than mind… and speaks that part of us where the
experience of rapport with the other was the essence of being..
Michael Eigen Says This:
“D.W. Winnicott writes of essential aloneness made possible by unknown support. An aloneness that
is supported by another one doesn’t know is there. A primary aloneness supported by an unknown
boundless other. To think that aloneness has in its very core a sense of an unknown infinite other
…The very quality of our aloneness depends on it…there is something sacred in this core… Our
lives tap into a sense of holiness connected with a background aura of infinite unknown support.23”
Again, to quote Winnicott, who inspired Bollas and Eigen:
“This is the place I have set out to examine, the separation that is a not a separation but a form
of union.”24
Astrology is just such a place and encounter; we experience it through charts. This is something all
astrologers share, no matter our orientation. The core architecture and sacred space of the mandala of
the astrological chart connect the microcosm of our early preverbal experience with the macrocosm
of how we are pieces of eternity manifesting in time and space.
Sections of the above article appeared in the Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion in the entries
“Mandalas and Faces,” and “Astrology and Mandalas.”
Bibliography
Bader, C. ( July 1993). The Astrological Chart as a Transitional Object. Journal of AstroPsychology, 1-7
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Bader, C. in Leeming, D(ed) (2010) Astrology and the Transitional Object. In The encyclopedia
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Bader, C. in Leeming, D(ed) (2010) Mandala and Faces. In The encyclopedia of psychology and
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Beebe, B. (2005). Faces in Relation: Forms of Intersubjectivity n an Adult Treatment of Early
Trauma. In B. K. Beebe, Forms of intersubjectivity in infant research and adult treatment (pp. 89143). New York, NY: Other Press.
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Brady, B (2011) The Horoscope as Imago Mundi: Rethinking the Nature of the Astrologer’s
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Kellogg, R. (1970). Analyzing children’s art. Mountain View, Ca.: Mayfield Publishing.
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Hillsdale, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates.
Machover, K. (1971). Personality projection in the human figure. Springfield, Il.: Charles C.
Thomas.
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Company.
van der Vennet, R. &. (2012). Can Coloring Mandalas Reduce Anxiety? A Replication
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Winnicott, D.(2002). Winnicott on the child. Cambridge, Ma: Perseus Publishing.
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C H A P T E R - II
‘HINDU TEMPLE AND THE STRUCTURE OF
HUMAN BODY: COMPARISON
“The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the
temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and
is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a
bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple
building.” (Stella Kramrisch,; The Hindu Temple,Vol. I)
“Everything is governed by one law. A human being is a microcosmos, i.e. the laws prevailing in
the cosmos also operate in the minutest space of the human being.”
The Agama shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two ways. It
can be viewed as nishkala, formless – absolute; or as sakala having specific aspects.
Nishkala is all-pervasive and is neither explicit nor is it visible. It is analogues, as the Agama
texts explain, to the oil in the sesame-seed, fire in the fuel, butter in milk, and scent in flower. It
is in human as antaryamin, the inner guide. It has no form and is not apprehended by sense
organs, which includes mind.
Sakala, on the other hand, is explicit energy like the fire that has emerged out of the fuel, oil
extracted out of the seed, butter that floated to the surface after churning milk or like the
fragrance that spreads and delights all. That energy can manifest itself in different forms and
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humans can approach those forms through appropriate means. The Agamas recognize that means
as the archa, the worship methods unique to each form of energy-manifestation or divinity.
The idea of multiple forms of divinity was in the Vedas. Rig Veda at many places talks in terms
of saguna, the supreme divinity with attributes. The aspects of the thirty-three divinities were
later condensed to three viz. Agni, the aspect of fire, energy and life on earth; Vayu, the aspect of
space, movement and air in the mid-region; and Surya the universal energy and life that sustains
and governs all existence, in the heavenly region, the space. This provided the basis for the
evolution of the classic Indian trinity, the Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.
A Temple’s Garba-griham (main sanctum) is equated with human head; antarala (vestibule) is
equated with human neck; ardha – mandapam (half-hall) is compared with human chest; maha –
mandapam (main hall) is equated with the stomach; flag-post is viewed along with human male
organ;and gopuram or temple gateway tower is viewed along with human feet.
The concept of polytheism gave tremendous impetus to all branches of Indian arts, literature and
iconography. The polytheism is, in fact, the lifeblood of iconography; for it is only through a
divinity with aspects one can represent and worship ones ideal with love, adoration and
earnestness. Making an image involves an understanding of its attributes, virtues, powers,
characteristics, symbols and its disposition. An image is the visual and concrete form of
idealism; the idioms of beauty grace and power nurtured and honed by generations after
generations. It is a representation of a community’s collective aspirations.
Since the very purpose of the temple structure is the image residing in it; and the temple is
regarded the virtual expansion of the image, let us talk for a while about temple iconography.
The word icon is derived from Greek eikon; and it stands for a sign or that which resembles the
god it represents. In the Indian tradition what is worshipped is Bimba, the reflection or Prathima,
the image of god, but not the god itself. Bimba means reflection, like the reflection of moon in a
tranquil pool. That reflection is not the moon but an image (prathima) of the moon. In other
words, what is worshipped in a temple is an idea, a conception or the mental image of god,
translated to a form in stone or metal or wood; but, it is not the god itself.
The structural harmony, the rhythm and a fine sense of proportion is the hall mark of Indian
temple architecture. It not merely resolves the contradictions but also expresses harmony by
encompassing all contradictions, transforming into pure and uncompromised details of structure.
The aim of a proportional system, meaning not merely symmetry, is to manifest a sense of
coherence and harmony among the elements of the temple and it’s whole.
The proportional harmonization of design, therefore, is of utmost importance in the construction
of a temple. It is believed that the power and purity of the structure radiates from its exact
proportions and measures as specified in the texts. It is also believed that a meticulously well
constructed temple radiates peace and joy; and ensures the welfare of the world and its people.
Without harmony, symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in the design of any
temple. This is analogues to the precise relation between the features and organs of a well
proportioned, good-looking person.The ancient texts, therefore, insist on a high degree of
precision in their measurements.
The standard text mentions “Only if the temple is constructed correctly according to a
mathematical system can it be expected to function in harmony with the universe. Only if the
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measurement of the temple is in every way perfect, there will be perfection in the universe as
well.”
The Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of visual aspects, and wherever one engages one of
them, entering a doorway, circumambulating or approaching the inner sanctuary or worshipping
there– one is accessing an aspect of the whole.
The rules of Vastu-shastra render beauty, structural stability and quality of spaces by virtue of
light, sound and volume management. They also evoke in the devotee an attuning of his person
to its structure and ambience.
Hindu Temples take their cue from the structure of Human body. The vast Hindu canonical
literature on Agamic texts, Devalaya Vastu (Temple Vastu astrology) and sacred geography
describe the temple as a cosmic man, the ‘Purusha’ (cosmic man). Before we proceed further, let
us briefly discuss the concept of the Vastu Purusha Mandala.
The faith that Earth is a living organism, throbbing with life and energy; is fundamental to the
Vastu Shastra. That living energy is symbolized as a person; he is the Vastu Purusha. The site for
the proposed construction is his field; Vastu Purusha Mandala. In fact the Vastu Purusha
Mandala, the site plan, is his body; and it is treated as such.
His height extends from the South West corner (pitrah) to the North East corner (Agni).The
Vastu Purusha Mandala also depicts the origin of the effects on the human body. All symbolisms
flow from these visualizations.
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Purusha means ‘person’ literally and refers to Universal Man. Purusha is the body of god
incarnated in the ground of existence, divided within the myriad forms. He is also that
fragmented body simultaneously sacrificed for the restoration of unity.
Vastu Purusha is associated with the Earth and its movable and immovable basic elements of
nature, such as the earth, water, fire, air and space; just as a human being does. The Vastu
purusha mandala is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala
having astronomical reference points Further, the Vastu Purusha Mandala is also the cosmos in
miniature; and the texts believe “what obtains in a microcosm, obtains in macrocosm too (yatha
pinde thatha brahmande).”
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The science of Vastu is believed as part of the Indian architecture. Vastu Shastra developed
during the period of 6000 BC and 3000 BC and the ancient Indian text Mayamatam represents
Vastu Purusha as the presiding deity for all land structure meant for temples or houses.
Vastu Purusha Mandala is the metaphysical plan of a temple incorporating course of the
heavenly bodies and supernatural forces. This Mandala square is divided into (8×8 =64) 64
metaphysical grids / modules or pada for temples. (For dwelling places 9×9=81 metaphysical
grids / modules or pada).
The Vastu Purusha is visualized as lying with his face and stomach touching the ground; to
suggest as if he is carrying the weight of the structure. His head is at North East (ishanya) and his
legs are at the South West corner (nairutya).
The South West corner (nairutya) where the Vastu Purusha has his legs corresponds to the
Muladhara chakra and denotes the earth principle.
Just as the legs support the weight of the body, the base (adhistana) for the muladhara should be
stable and strong. Accordingly, the South West portion of the building is the load bearing area;
and should be strong enough to support heavy weights. Just as the feet are warm, the South West
cell represents warmth and heat; even according to the atmospheric cycles the South West region
receives comparatively more heat.
Svadhistana chakra is in the lower stomach region near the kidneys. It is related to water
principle (apa).On the Vastu Purusha Mandala; it is to the South and to the West .Therefore the
wet areas like bathroom etc are recommended in the south or in the west portions of the building.
It is for sewerage (utsarjana).
Manipura Chakra is at the navel; and relates to energy or fire or tejas. While in the womb of the
mother, the fetus is fed with the essence of food and energy through the umbilical chord
connected with its navel. The Vastu Purusha Mandala shows Brahma at the navel of the Vastu
Purusha. Further, the lotus is the base (Adhistana) of Brahma.Thus navel connects Brahman with
Jiva or panda or life. It is left open and unoccupied. The central portion of the building is to be
kept open. It is believed that Vastu Purusha breaths through this open area.
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Anahata chakra is near the heart. It is related to vayu air regulated by lungs. The lung region of
the Vastu Purusha should be airy. Vishuddaha chakra is near the throat from where the sounds
come out and reverberate in space. This region represents Space (Akasha).The word OM is
uttered through throat. The echo of that sound vibrates in the hallow of the bone-box of the head
and in the space in brain. The head of Vastu Purusha is in the North East corner (Ishanya). The
ajna chakra is between the eyebrows. .This direction is related to open spaces (akasha).
Atmospherically, North East is cooler; and so should be ones head. The puja room Devagraha is
recommended in the North east portion of the house.
The limbs of Vastu Purusha, other than the above are also related to the construction of the
building. Liver (yakrt) is towards South East. The cooking area is recommended in South East,
because it is related to Agni. The rays of sun reach here first and cleanse the atmosphere.
The North West, vayuvya, is presided over by air vayu. The Organs like spleen, rectum of the
Vastu Purusha fall in this portion. The store room is recommended here; perhaps because the
spleen in the body does the work of storing and restoring blood.
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Directions in Hindu tradition are called as Disa, or Dik. There are four primary directions and a
total of 10 directions: East, South-East (Agneya), West, North-West (Vayavya), North, NorthEast (Isanya), South, South-West (Nauritya), Zenith (Urdhva), Nadir (Adho). There are
‘Guardians of the Directions’ (Dikpala or Dasa-dikpala) who rule the specific directions of
space.
1. North east Direction ruled by Ishanya Shiva (Load of Water) influences balanced thinking
2. East Direction ruled by Indra (Load of Solar) – influences long life
3. South east Direction ruled by Agneya or Agni (Load of Fire) (Energy Generating) influences
comfort, peace, prosperity and progeny.
4. South Direction ruled by Yama (Lord of Death or Lord of Death / Damage) yields nothing but
mourning, depression and pain. If this direction used properly safeguards from envy of others
and cast of all evils.
5.West Direction ruled by Varuna (Load of Water / Lord of Rain) (Neptune) influences
reputation, fame, prosperity and success.
6. South west Direction ruled by Nairitya – Deity Lord (Demon) Nairitya influences Protection,
strength and stability
7. North west Direction ruled by Vayu or Vayavya (Load of Wind) influences peace
8. North (Kuber) – Deity Lord Kuber or Lord of Wealth (Finance) and keeper of riches
influences good strength, better business sufficient in flow of money, education, industrial
growth etc.
9. Center ruled by Lord Brahma (Creator of Universe)
The ‘Aham Brahmasmi’ (“I am Brahman. I am part of the Universe.”) is the great sayings
(Mahavakya) mentioned in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10. of Yajur Veda. The meaning is
that ‘Whatever is in the Universe, is present in me’ (and ‘whatever is in me, is part of the
Universe’). Indian temples represents the macrocosm of the universe and the structure of the
human body represents the microcosm. Veda also says “Yatha Pinde tatha Brahmande”. It means
what is going on within human being is the same as what is going on in universe. According to
the Tamil Saint Tirumular “our body is a temple”. Here I would like to quote Stella Kramrisch:
“The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the
temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him,
and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being
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and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in
temple building.” (Stella Kramrisch,; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I)
The concept of chakra features in tantric and yogic traditions of Hinduism. In Yoga, Kundalini
Shakti means the ‘coiled power.’ It is compared to a serpent that lies coiled while resting or
sleeping.
Chakras are vital energy points (Kundalini energy) in the human anatomy, i.e. breath channels,
or nadis, and the winds (vayus), that are centres of life force (prana), or vital energy. They
include: 1. Muladhara, 2. Swadhisthana, 3. Manipura or manipuraka, 4. Anahata, Anahata-puri,
or padma-sundara, 5. Vishuddha or Vishuddhi, 6. Ajna and 7. Sahasrara.
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1. Muladhara or root chakra located at the base of the spine in the coccygeal region (governs
senses). According to Vastu Mandala South-West (Nauritya) – Deity Lord (Demon) Nauritya
influences protection, strength and stability.
2. Swadhisthana or Adhishthana at the lower stomach region or the sacrum of the human. Vastu
direction West (Varuna) – Lord Varuna (Neptune) Lord of Water or Rain. Formation of temple
tank or water bodies in South or West will influence reputation, fame, prosperity and success.
3. Manipura or Manipuraka at the digestive glands (governs digestion through pancreas and
adrenal glands) of the human. Digestion involves energy of fire. Female bears navel, womb and
umbilical chord. According to Vastu Mandala Lord Brahma or Lord of Creation seated on lotus
flower base (Adishtana) rules this point. Cosmic Brahma bridges the cosmic human navel or life.
If this point in temple should be left open, the vital energy flows and the wholeness resides with
blessings and protection.
4. Anahata, Anahata-puri, or Padma-sundara located at chest (governs lungs, immune system –
thymus of human being). As per Vastu Mandala Lord Vayu or Lord of Wind rules this point.
This grid relates to air and regulation of air. If this grid is allowed to flow air and the peace and
comfort resides.
5. Vishuddha or Vishuddhi located at the throat i.e., thyroid glands (governs sound, speech
communication and sence of security of human being). Mantras chanted by cosmic humanbeing
bridges with cosmic Ishanya. Comic Ishanya is represented in OM, a Pranava Mantra form.
According to Vastu Mandala Lord Shiva in Ishanya form rules this grid and represents the space
or Akasha. Mantras chanted here will reverberate in space. If left free from obstacles and less
occupation or weight, there will be balanced power.
6. Ajna or third eye located at pineal glands or between the eye brows; the two side nadis ‘Ida’
(yoga) and ‘Pingala’ are terminating and merge with the central channel ‘Sushumna’ (governs
higher and lower selves and trusting inner guidance of human being). As per Vastu Mandala this
direction is also related to open spaces (‘Akasha’) and to the North East corner (Ishanya). The
sanctum (Garbagriha or womb chamber) is recommended at this grid, the seat of the divinity.
7. Sahasrara or pure consciousness chakra located at the crown of the head – symbolized by a
lotus with one thousand multi-coloured petals. According to Vastu Mandala Anja is the sanctum.
The vimanam and shikara forms the space element and the currents of life ascends through the
‘Brahma-randra shila’ or stone slab placed at ‘griva’ (neck)of the vimana. The finial of the
shikara of the vimanam is the grid at which unseen sahasrara located.
The picture shown here is reproduced from Hindu Temple vol 1. by Stella Kramrisch demonstate
that how the temple structure can be compared with the human body. It is apt to quote the
Sanskrit sloga from “Viswakarmyam Vastu Shastra”:
“Garba Gruha Sirahapoktam antaraalam Galamthatha Ardha Mandapam Hridayasthanam
Kuchisthanam Mandapomahan Medhrasthaneshu Dwajasthambam Praakaram Janjuangeecha
Gopuram Paadayosketha Paadasya Angula Pokthaha Gopuram Sthupasthatha Yevam
Devaalayam angamuchyathe”
Meaning: Garba-griham (main sanctum) is equated with human head; antarala (vestibule) is
equated with human neck; ardha – mandapam (half-hall) is compared with human chest; maha –
mandapam (main hall) is equated with the stomach; flag-post is viewed along with human male
organ;and gopuram or temple gateway tower is viewed along with human feet.
Symbolism of the temple
A Temple is a huge symbolism; it involves a multiple sets of ideas and imagery.See opp. Page:
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The temple is seen as a link between man and god; and between the actual and the ideal. As such
it has got to be symbolic. A temple usually called Devalaya, the abode of God, is also referred to
as Prasada meaning a palace with very pleasing aspects. Vimana is another term that denotes
temple in general and the Sanctum and its dome, in particular. Thirtha, a place of pilgrimage is
it’s another name.
Source: Hindu Temple vol 1. by Stella Kramrisch
Temple Mandala
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The symbolisms of the temple are conceived in several layers. One; the temple complex, at large,
is compared to the human body in which the god resides. And, the other is the symbolisms
associated with Vimana the temple per se, which also is looked upon as the body of the deity.
And the other is its comparison to Sri Chakra.
Let’s start with the temple complex being looked upon as a representation of Sri Chakra.
At the centre of the temple is the image of divinity and its purity that generations after
generations have revered and venerated. That image residing at the heart of the temple is its life;
and is its reason. One can think of an icon without a temple; but it is impossible to think of a
temple without an icon of the divinity. The very purpose of a temple is its icon. And, therefore is
the most important structure of the temple is the Garbagriha where the icon resides.
In fact, the entire temple is conceived as the manifestation or the outgrowth of the icon. And,
very often, the ground-plan of a temple is a mandala. Just as the Sri Chakra is the unfolding of
the Bindu at its centre, the temple is the outpouring or the expansion of the deity residing in
Brahmasthana at the centre.
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The temple as also the Sri Chakra employs the imagery of an all – enveloping space and time
continuum issuing out of the womb. In the case of Sri Chakra the Bindu is the dimension-less
and therefore imperceptible source of energy. The idol, the Vigraha, in the Garbagriha represents
the manifestation of that imperceptible energy or principle; and it radiates that energy.
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The devotee- both at the temple and in Sri Chakra- moves from the gross to the subtle. In the
temple, the devotee proceeds from the outer structures towards the deity in the inner sanctum,
which compares to the Bindu in the Chakra. The Sri Chakra upasaka too proceeds from the outer
Avarana (enclosure) pass through circuitous routes and successive stages to reach the Bindu at
the centre of the Chakr, representing the sole creative principle. Similarly the devotee who enters
the temple through the gateway below the Gopura (feet of the Lord) passes through several gates,
courtyards and prakaras, and submits himself to the Lord residing in the serenity of garbhagrha,
the very hearts of the temple, the very representation of One cosmic Principle.
Temple Gopuram as Cosmos & spiritual light house
In early days, Temples served as the major landmarks of the land. A place was recognized either
using the palaces or temples. As the palaces were prone for being ruined due to assault, temples
served as the chief landmark for the passengers travelling on foot orcarriages from afar. It was a
beacon- a light house to guide the visitors.
ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLE TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
It was the later half of the 7th century that the Hindu temple structures of India began to acquire
a definite form with consolidation of design structures all over India.
Elements of Hindu temple:
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1. Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to the
mandapa. It unites the main sanctuaryand the pillared hall of the temple. ‘Antarala’
meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber.
2. ‘Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber. The shape and the size of the tower vary from
region to region. It is the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple which represents the
mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. 1. ‘Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the
spire. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and
symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess. There is an enclosed corridor carried
around the outside of garbhagriha called the Pradakshina patha’ meaning the ambulatory
passageway for circumambulation
Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber). the lower portion inside the Vimana is called
Shikhara and upper as the Vimana is called as the Sikhara . The visitors are not allowed
inside the The chamber is mostly square in plan and is entered by a doorway on its eastern
side. It is nucleus and the innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the
deity is placed.
3. ‘Gopurams’ meaning the monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the temple
complex, specially found in south India
4. ‘Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the
devotees. In some of the earlier temples the mandapa was an isolated and separate
structure from the sanctuary known as ‘Natamandira’ meaning temple hall of dancing,
where in olden days ritual of music and dance was performed. It is used by the devotees to
sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the priests performing the rituals.
5. The Amalaka the fluted disc like stone placed at the apex of the sikhara.
6. ‘Toranas’, the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in north Indian temple
7. ‘Pitha’ , the plinth or the platform of the temple
In order to make easy the roaming folk to recognize the locations easily, the Gopuram’s
of the temples had to be built elevated. That tiled way for the elevated Gopuram’s. By way
of seeing the Gopuram’s form expanse, passengers planned the approximate distance of
their target from their location. Gopuram’s were built extremely high to serve as
landmarks as well as for traveler distance’s.
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Additionally, temples served as the main protection for travelers. When people travel between
places, they stay at the temple building to take rest. Before they commence the new part of their
journey, they would respect God and begin.
Representatively, the Temple Gopuram or the access to the temple represents the feet of the
divinity. A devotee bows at the feet of the Lord at the entry as he steps into the temple and
proceed towards the chamber, leaving behind the world of contradiction. A Gopura is usually
constructed with an enormous stone base and a superstructure of brick and support. It is
rectangular in sketch and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of finials. When
viewed from apex, the Gopura too resembles a mandala; with sculptures and carvings of Yalis
and mythological animals to be found in the outer enclosed space. Humans and divine beings are
in the central enclosures. The crest of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is at the centre of the Mandala.T
hese sculptures follow a selection of themes resulting from the Hindu mythology, mainly those
associated with the presiding idol of the temple where the gopuram is positioned. Gopuras come
into view to have inclined revision in the temple plan and outline. The spaces just about the
shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the central shrine, the lesser was its
distinction. The farthest ring had buildings of a more practical or a secular nature – shops,
dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a merely place of worship
to the center of a vibrant alive city.
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A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डल, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a
geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed
for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing
a sacred space and as an aid to meditation and trance induction. In the Eastern
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shintoism it is used as a map representing deities,
or specially in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines.
In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents
the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally
meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic
diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within
minds and bodies.
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MANDALA:
Religious meaning
In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four gates
containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often
have radial balance.
A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It may
be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or meditative
rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent the abode of
the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through
the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar, "Yantras function as
revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the spiritual aspect of human
experience"
Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not
representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:
Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists in
the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the microcosm),
every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and is associated
with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.[6]
The term 'mandala' appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, and Vedic
rituals use mandalas such as the Navagraha mandala to this day.
main idol in the Garbha Griha. Firstly, the Juathaskambam acts like an antenna and receives the
cosmic force from the space and through a subversive channel it is linked to the main idol in the
Garbha-graha. The cosmic force continuously flows through the Jathuskambam to the statue and
energies it. Secondly, the celestial power fetched through the field gives the idol effulgence and
metaphysical powers. The cosmic-force is additionally maintained by noise waves (Vedic chants
– Read about the Significance of Chanting) and the pyramid like tomb. The pyramid like
construction helps to intensify and protect the cosmic force. These are the reasons for anybody
to feel a positive energy, goodness, serenity or divinity when we approach the interior sanctum.
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The copper plate has the propensity to suck part the Ether when that penetrates from the copper
and the Herbal resulting in powerful atomic force that penetrates through the skin to heal the
human, and that’s why the copper plate is put on the temple tower
The science behind these constructions is that, the temple architecture gives cosmic force to the
.
he idol is washed with various materials (milk, sandal paste, oil) to preserve the idols. The idol is
adorned with flowers and ornaments for mental and visual boost. But the diverse postures of the
idol (sitting/standing, number of hands, weapons they hold) do have meaning in emitting the
cosmic force.
Thus the temples serve up as the scientific room to receive the shower of cosmic force or God’s
blessing.
From my understanding Temple Gopurams are an important part of any Hindu temples and there
are specific reasons for their existence. They are:
1) Temple Gopurams are built to receive the positive energy from the universe. Cosmic rays will
be received by the Gopuram and it will be passed to the statue in the temple.
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2) Gopuram will also receive the energy from thunder/lightning and pass it to the ground. So it
acted as a layer of protection for the temple and the nearby areas.
3) Temple Gopuram were built largely to depict the culture and art of ancient people
4) It also used to act as a landmark in olden days to find out the cities, way to different places.
5) In olden days , kings built temples in order to give job to the people of the country and along
with that future generations will come to know the architectural talents that ancient people had.
6) The small carvings and statues in temple gopuram depict the story of the god and also will
show life lessons.
MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella
Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a
governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the
temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the 8 x 8 grid or the
Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be
noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the workability of the mandala
design throughout India. Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of
universal theories which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be
thought of as diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the
primary aim of the tradition. The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the
mandala were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion
between God and man. 1
The Vastu Purusha Mandala contains a minimum of nine sections signifying the directions north,
south, east, west, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest and the centre represented as square
grids. In the Vastu Purusha Mandala, the Purusha’s head is located in the northeast direction and
this is considered utmost sacred. In the southwest are his feet and his knees and elbows in the
northwest and southeast. Kept open and clear in the centre part of the diagram are his main
organs and his torso. Starting from a single undivided square of 1 x 1 there are grid patterns
ranging up to 32 x 32 thus making it 1024 sections. Architecturally, the adaptation of the Vastu
Purusha Mandala has been seen in the design of houses, palaces, temples and even cities.
Integrating it into the design brings a certain amount of order in the design. Here, the squares are
assumed as cubes of architectural spaces.
The five elements of earth, water, fire, air and space correspond with specific sections of the
Vastu Purusha Mandala. The south-west direction is associated with the element of
earth(Bhumi); south-east with the elements of fire (Agni); north-east with the element of water
(Jala); north-west with the element of air (Vayu) and the centre space with the element of space
(Akasha). 2
Indian temples are microcosm of Cosmos, acting as a connecting bridge between physical world
and divine world through their proportional arrangement. Mandapa, which were entrance
porches in the beginning became an integral part of the temple plan in providing additional
functions and in form providing an ex- pression of cosmos especially in elevation. Ashapuri
temples analyzed here, corresponds to Nagara temple proportions varying in proportionas they
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belong to two different styles of nagara Architec- ture. From the study of Adam Hardy it is said
that they possessed temples of different styles in Nagara other than these two. The site of
Ashapuri seems to be a place for the development of the Ngara school of archigtecture.
ANGKOR WAT
Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple
complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist
temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the
region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire.
The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In
addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept
is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from
India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted
through its great temple.
70
Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of
temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at
Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire.
In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics,
the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early
Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred
and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer
Empire.
Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol
and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire
from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern
Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region.
Mandala in Meenakshi temple Madurai with biggest GOPURAMs in the world
Temple Structure
The entire structure, when viewed from above, represents a mandala. A mandala is a
structure built according to the laws of symmetry and loci. There are various shrines built
within the temple complex.
The temple occupies a huge area in the heart of Madurai as it spreads over 14 acres. The
temple is enclosed with huge walls, which were built in response to the invasions. Apart
from the two main shrines, which are dedicated to Sundareswarar and Meenakshi, the temple
has shrines dedicated to various other deities like Ganesha and Murugan. The temple also
houses goddesses Lakshmi, Rukmini, and Saraswati.
The temple also has a consecrated pond named ‘Porthamarai Kulam.’ The term ‘Potramarai
Kulam’ is a literal translation of ‘pond with a golden lotus.’ The structure of a golden lotus
is placed at the center of the pond. It is said that Lord Shiva blessed this pond and declared
that no marine life would grow in it. In the Tamil folklore, the pond is believed to be an
evaluator for reviewing the worth of any new literature.
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The temple has four main towering gateways (gopurams) that look identical to each other.
Apart from the four ‘gopurams,’ the temple also houses many other ‘gopurams’ that serve as
gateways to a number of shrines. The temple has a total of 14 towering gateways. Each one
of them is a multi-storey structure and displays thousands of mythological stories and
several other sculptures. The major ‘gopurams’ of the temple are listed below:
Kadaka Gopuram – This towering gateway leads to the main shrine that houses
Goddess Meenakshi. The gateway was rebuilt by Tumpichi Nayakkar during the
mid-16th century. The ‘gopuram’ has five storeys.
Sundareswarar Shrine Gopuram – This is the oldest ‘gopuram’ of the temple and
was built by Kulasekara Pandya. The ‘gopuram’ serves as a gateway to the
Sundareswarar (Lord Shiva) shrine.
Chitra Gopuram – Built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II, the gopuram depicts
the religious and secular essence of Hinduism.
Nadukkattu Gopuram – Also called as the ‘Idaikattu Gopuram,’ this gateway leads
to the Ganesha shrine. The gateway is placed right in between the two main shrines.
Mottai Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ has fewer stucco images when compared to the
other gateways. Interestingly, ‘Mottai gopuram’ had no roof for nearly three
centuries.
Nayaka Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ was built by Visvappa Nayakkar around 1530.
The ‘gopuram’ is astonishingly similar to another gateway called ‘Palahai
Gopuram.’
The temple also has numerous pillared halls called ‘Mandapams.’ These halls were built by
various kings and emperors and they serve as resting places for pilgrims and devotees. Some
of the most important ‘mandapams’ are given below:
Ayirakkal Mandapam – It literally translates to ‘hall with thousand pillars.’ The
hall, which was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar, is a true spectacle as it is supported by
985 pillars. Each and every pillar is sculpted magnificently and has images of Yali, a
mythological creature.
Kilikoondu Mandapam – This ‘mandapam’ was originally built to house hundreds
of parrots. The parrots that were kept there in cages were trained to say ‘Meenakshi’.
The hall, which is next to the Meenakshi shrine, has sculptures of characters from
Mahabharata.
Ashta Shakthi Mandapam – This hall houses the sculptures of eight goddesses.
Built by two queens, the hall is placed in between the main ‘gopuram’ and the
gateway that leads to the Meenakshi shrine.
Nayaka Mandapam – ‘Nayaka Mandapam’ was built by Chinnappa Nayakkar. The
hall is supported by 100 pillars and houses a Nataraja statue.
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73
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ANGKOR WAT
Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple
complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist
temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the
region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire.
75
The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In
addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept
is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from
India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted
through its great temple.
Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of
temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at
Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire.
In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics,
the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early
Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred
and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer
Empire.
Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol
and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire
from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern
Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region.
Note how the architectural layout of the temple greatly resembles the symbol of
Mandala.For example, you can spot the building's centre point, as well as
the four gates on the outermost wall.
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Rough Layout of Angkor Wat
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The Third Tier GOPURAM
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79
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“The Vastu Purusha Mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which
the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from
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Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The Vastu Purusha Mandala is both the body of the
Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain
the best results in temple building.” – Stella Kramrisch ; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I
Vastu Purush Mandala has been in existence for thousands of years, will continue till
eternity. It is the fundamental principle which continues to create and run the whole universe
- both at the macro and the micro level If we can decode it's secret and follow its eternal
principles for construction, we can ensure a life full of health, wealth, peace and prosperity.
The Vastu Purush Mandala is a cosmic geometrical wonder used to design temples
amongst other structures. When we observe the energy fields that develop at different stages
of a building – starting from the stage of a vacant plot - to the digging of land - to the laying
of the foundation - to the completion of the building - and finally to the point when it is
inhabited by the people – we unravel the secrets of the Vastu Purusha Mandala.
Image of the Universe: The Vastu Mandala is the omnipresent, omnipotent soul of every
building. It is based on the principle that Man and Universe are analogous in their structure
and spirit. Vastu Purush Mandala is thus a Yantra or an image of the Universe .Hindus
believe that the body is the image of the entire Universe( See figure below). Vastu Purusha
Mandala is a combination of 45 Devtas and Asuras present in a geometrical figure. The
Devtas represent our consciousness and the Asuras our ignorance and fear. The war between
consciousness and ignorance goes on each moment within all of us. It is not just a Puranic
story, it’s the reality we live in each moment.
DECODING THE DEVTAS & ASURAS The 45 Energy Fields PADAVINAYASA
ModularGrid After Shilanyas and construction of foundation walls, this is the first energy
field to develop in the plot.
BRAHMA DEVTASvsASURAS THE ETERNAL WAR- Energy Fields Next to Brahma
ARYAMA The Power of Connections VIVASWAN The Power of Revolution or Change
MITRA The Power of Inspiration & Action BHUDHAR The Power of Manifestation DEVA
VITHI
The 8 Energy Fields in the Diagonal Directions NORTH EAST Apaha Apahavatsa
SOUTH WEST Indra Indrajaya SOUTH EAST Savita Savitur NORTH WEST Rudra
Rajyakshma MANUSHYA VITHI
1. NORTH EAST APAHA Igenerates the energies responsible for healing APAHAVATSA
Carries the healing powers to the occupants ww.anantvastu.com
2. SOUTH EAST SAVITA Energies that help to initiate any process or action SAVITUR
Energies that give capibilities to continue those actions and overcome all challenges
3. . SOUTH WEST INDRA Energies that establish stability and enhance growth
INDRAJAYA The tools and the channels through which one can achieve growth
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4. .NORTH WEST RUDRA Energies responsible for support and ensure flow of activities
and life RAJYAKSHMA Energies which uphold the support and stabilise the mind . The
32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery PAISHACHA VITHI . These are also the 32
Possible Entrance Locations . The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery ADITI Mother
of the Devtas, this energy field provides security and helps one connect with
himself/herself) DITI Mother of the Asuras, this energy field gives the powers of a wider
vision and to see the actual truth of life.SHIKHI Symbolic of a pointed flame, this field
gives the power of ideas and the ability to project one’s thoughts to the world
PARJANYA The giver of rains, this field has the powers to bless the occupants with
fertility and fulfilment of all their wishes NORTH EAST
5. SOUTH EAST BHRISHA The power of friction needed to initiate any action , thinking or
activity AAKASH The energy that provides the space for manifestation ANILA The
energy of air or vayu, it helps to uplift the fire or push further the actions initiated
PUSHAN The energy of nourishment, it blocks the path of enemies The 32 Energy Fields
of the Outer Periphery.
6. SOUTH WEST BHRINGRAJ The energy which extracts nutrients from the food and
removes the waste MRIGHA The energy that drives curiosity and imparts skills PITRA
The energy of the ancestors which provides all means of safety and happiness required for
existence DAUWARIK The safe keeper, represents lord Nandi-the trusted vehicle of lord
Shiva. The energy of being genius and highly knowledgeable The 32 Energy Fields of the
Outer Peripher
7. NORTH WEST SHOSHA The power of detoxification from negative emotions
PAPYAKSHMA The energy which gives addiction, diseases and the feeling of guilt
ROGA The energy which provides support in the hour of need NAGA The energy which
gives emotional enjoyments and cravings The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery
8. NORTH MUKHYA The chief architect or lord Vishwakarma, this energy field defines the
main purpose of the building & also helps in their manifestation BHALLAT The energy
field which grants colossal abundance, it magnifies the efforts and their results SOMA
The energy field of Kubera - the lord of all wealth and money. It ensures a smooth flow of
money and opportunities BHUJAG The the lord of hidden treasures, this energy field is
the preserver of medicines. It safeguards the health of the occupants The 32 Energy Fields
of the Outer Periphery
9. EAST JAYANT The energy which gives the sense of being victorious, it refreshes the
mind and body MAHENDRA The energy which grants the power of administration and
connectivity SURYA The core controller, this energy fields imparts health , fame and
farsightedness SATYA The energy which establishes goodwill, status, authenticity and
credibility The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery
10. SOUTH VITATHA The energy field of falsehood, pretension and the unreal
GRUHAKSHAT The power which binds the mind and defines its limits YAMA The
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power of expansion, this energy field binds the world in laws GANDHARVA The energy
of preservation of health & vitality. This energy also governs all kinds of arts and music
The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery
11. WEST SUGREEV The power which grants the ability to receive all knowledge
PUSHPADANT The power which grants blessings and fulfills all desires VARUN The
lord of the seas, this energy field observes and runs the whole world. It is the granter of
immortality ASURA The the energy field that releases the mind from temptations and
gives depth in spirituality The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery.
REFERENCES
1. Bindu and Mandala: Manifestations of Sacred Architecture,Conference: ICABE-2016
Kuala Lumpur Malaysia. Paper presented by Jaffer Adam,Deepika Varadarajan.
2. THE MANDALA AS A COSMIC MODEL USED TO SYSTEMATICALLY
STRUCTURE THE TIBETAN BUDDHIST LANDSCAPE,Ping Xu,Journal of
Architectural and Planning Research,Vol. 27, No. 3 (Autumn, 2010), pp. 181203,Published by: Locke Science Publishing Co.
3.
4. On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural
Tradition,Sonit Bafna,Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,Vol. 59, No. 1
(Mar., 2000), pp. 26-49,Published by: University of California Press on behalf of
the Society of Architectural Historians,https://www.jstor.org/stable/991561
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C H A P T E R III
Vastu Purusha Mandala Of Property
As per Vastushastra, the main deity of a building is its Vastu Purush. To quote the Rig Veda,
"TAVA TVAM VAASTUNYU IMASI GA MADHYE?YATR GAVAU BHURI SHRINGA
AVASAH,"
meaning Vastu has a very close relation with the ‘Grihadevata’ or the deity of the house. As per
my knowledge of the ancient scripture named Shatpath Brahmin, Vastu forms the ruling deity of
the animal stock and humans living within a structure.
The concept of Vastu Purusha
The Vastu Purusha Mandala is an indispensable part of vastu shastra and constitutes
the mathematical and diagrammatic basis for generating design. It is the metaphysical plan of a
building that incorporates the course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural
forces. Purusha refers to energy, power, soul or cosmic man.Mandala is the generic name for any
plan
or
chart
which
symbolically
represents
the
cosmos.
In Hindu cosmology the surface of the earth is represented as a square, the most fundamental of
all Hindu forms. The earth is represented as four-cornered in reference to the horizon's
relationship with sunrise and sunset, the North and South direction. It is called Chaturbhuji (four
cornered) and represented in the form of the Prithvi Mandala. The astrological charts or
horoscopes also represent in a square plan the positions of the sun, moon, planets and zodiac
constellations with reference to a specific person's place and time of birth.
The legend of the Vastu Purusha is related thus. Once a formless being blocked the heaven from
the earth and Brahma with many other gods trapped him to the ground. This incident is depicted
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graphically in the Vastu Purusha Mandala with portions allocated hierarchically to each deity
based on their contributions and positions. Brahma occupied the central portion the Brahmasthana- and other gods were distributed around in a concentric pattern. There are 45
gods in all including 32 outer deities.
North- Kubera- Ruled by lord of wealth (Finance)
South- Yama- Ruled by lord of death - Yama(Damaging)
East- Indra- Ruled by the solar deity- Aditya (Seeing the world)
West- Varuna- Ruled by lord of water (Physical)
Northeast {Eshanya} - Ruled by Shiva
Southeast- Agni- Ruled by the fire deity - Agni (Energy Generating)
Northwest- Vayu- ruled by the god of winds (Advertisement)
Southwest- Pitru/Nairutya, Niruthi- Ruled by ancestors (History)
Center- Brahma- Ruled by the creator of the universe (Desire)
Mandala types and properties
Mahapitha Mandala
The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana. Mandala "circle-circumference" or
"completion", is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both Buddhism
and Hinduism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala - inPitha (9)
and Upapitha (25) it occupies one square module, inMahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36)
and Manduka (64), four square modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine
square modules. The Pitha is an amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts, the
central space is occupied by earth. The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric manner.
The most important mandala are the Paramasaayika Mandala of 81 squares and especially the
Manduka/ Chandita Mandala of 64 squares. The normal position of the Vastu Purusha (head in
the northeast, legs in the southwest) is as depicted in the Paramasaayika Mandala. However, in
the Manduka Mandala the Vastu Purusha is depicted with the head facing east and the feet facing
west.
An important aspect of the mandala is that when divided into an odd number of squares,
or ayugma, its center is constituted by one module or pada and when divided into an even
number of squares or yugma, its center is constituted by a point formed by the intersection of the
two perpendicular central lines. In spatial terms, the former is sakala or manifest/ morphic and
the latter is nishkalaor unmanifest/ amorphous.
Mandala in siting
The mandala is put to use in site planning and architecture through a process called the Pada
Vinyasa. This is a method whereby any site can be divided into grids/ modules or pada.
Depending on the position of the gods occupying the various modules, the zoning of the site and
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disposition of functions in a building are arrived at.Mandala have certain points known
as marma which are vital energy spots on which nothing should be built. They are determined by
certain
proportional
relationships
of
the
squares
and
the
diagonals.
A site of any shape can be divided using the Pada Vinyasa. Sites are known by the number of
divisions on each side. the types of mandalas with the corresponding names of sites is given
below.
Sakala(1 square)corresponds to Eka-pada (single divided site)
Pechaka(4 squares) corresponds to Dwi-pada (two divided site)
Pitha(9 squares) corresponds to Tri-pada (three divided site)
Mahaapitha(16 squares) corresponds to Chatush-pada(four divided site)
Upapitha(25 squares) corresponds to Pancha-pada(five divided site)
Ugrapitha(36 squares) corresponds to Shashtha-pada(six divided site)
Sthandila(49 squares) corresponds to sapta-pada(seven divided site)
Manduka/ Chandita(64 square) corresponds to Ashta-pada (eight divided site)
Paramasaayika(81 squares) corresponds to Nava-pada(nine divided site)
Aasana(100 squares) corresponds to Dasa-pada (ten divided site)
Mandala in construction
The concept of sakala and nishkala are applied in buildings appropriately.
In temples, the concepts of sakala and nishkala are related to the two aspects of the Hindu idea of
worship - Sagunopaasana, the supreme as personal God with attributes and Nirgunopaasana, the
supreme as absolute spirit unconditioned by attributes. Correspondingly, the Sakala, complete in
itself, is used for shrines of gods with form (sakalamoorthy) and to perform yajna (fire rites).
However the Nishkala is used for installation of idols without form- nishkalamoorthy- and for
auspicious, pure performances. The amorphous center is considered beneficial to the
worshippers, being a source of great energy. This could also be used for settlements. In
commercial buildings, only odd numbers of modules are prescribed as the nishkala or amorphous
center would cause too high a concentration of energy for human occupants. Even here,
theBrahmasthana is left unbuilt with rooms organised around.
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House grid with sloping roof and open courtyard.
In accordance with the position occupied by the gods in themandala, guidelines are given for
zoning of site and distribution of rooms in a building. Some of these are:
North - treasury
Northeast - prayer room
East - bathroom
Southeast - kitchen
South - bedroom
Southwest - armoury
West - dining room
Northwest - cowshed
Vastu Purusha Mandala
Vastu Purusha Mandala is the metaphysical plan of a building that incorporates the coursly
bodies and supernatural forces. Purusha refers to an Energy, Soul or Universal Principle.
Mandala is the generic name for any plan or chart which symbolically represents the cosmos.
Vastu Purush is worshiped during the five stages of the construction i.e. Plot demarcation, Space
clearing (Bhoomi Shodhan), Door installation, Laying Stone for Foundation and on the day
of house warming.
On any plan Vastu purusha is placed with the head in the northeast and legs in the southwest. If
we see over here floor plan, it has been divided into various zones and there is a square grid
which is being followed and every square has a certain representation, it connotes to a certain
supernatural power and divine energy. When these grid is followed during the construction, it is
said that there would be a divine presence in the house that will breathe and live for long.
Very interestingly we see this principles of Vastu Shastra with square grid was followed in the
planning of city Jaipur.
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Vastu square grid
For the construction of town, village or fort, vastu purush is worshiped on 64 squares (pada) grid
For the construction of the house, 81 square (pada) grid of vastu purush is worshipped
For temple, 100 Square (pada) grid is worshipped
In Vastu purush mandala, the square grid (pada) are associated with certain deities
• North – Ruled by lord of wealth (Money)
• South – Ruled by lord of death (Death)
• East – Ruled by the solar deity- (Prosperity)
• West – Ruled by lord of water (Physical)
• North-East – Ruled by Shiva (Divine)
• South-East – Ruled by the fire deity (Energy)
• North-West -Ruled Lord of Air (Travelling)
• South-West – Ruled by Nairuti & ancestors (ancestors blessing)
• Center – Rules by the creator of the universe (balancing)
The Hindu Architecture
We often hear devout Hindus say, "Hinduism is more than just a religion; It is a way of life."
While members of other religions also like to say the same thing––few devoted people want to
think that their religion is not a way of life––there is actually some justification for the Hindu
statement. We can say this because Hindu culture has never fully separated its so-called “secular
side” from its religious side, something that has taken place in many other religions as a result of
the secularizing influence of modernity. We have noted this fact in reference to astrology.
Hinduism still includes, not only religion, but also astronomy, astrology, grammar, mathematics,
law, medicine, politics, diplomacy, war, love, architecture and many other branches of
knowledge. In this way, Hinduism is holistic. It is not just about theology.
Vaastu Shastra
It is popular in many Western countries to hear about the ancient Chinese system of Feng Shui,
which attempts to align the energies of the physical world with the life of man. The branch of
Hindu learning that includes these ideas is called Vaastu Shastra, Hindu Architecture. In Sanskrit
the word “vaastu” means a building or structure and so the expression “vaastu shastra” is the
science of structure. Like Vedic astrology, vaastu is a vast and highly developed branch of
learning and in this installment I can describe only the most basic principles of this subject.
There are, of course, whole books devoted to this wonderful subject and an interested reader is
encouraged to study these books, especially if one is planning to build or buy a home,
commercial building or land for construction.
Hindu Architecture addresses two kinds of buildings: religious structures––temples and shrines–
–and non-religious structures, civic buildings, business complexes and residential homes. In
Hindu culture, not only is the home and family all important, but so is the actual building where
the family lives. Consequently, how a physical building is designed and constructed is a matter
of deep concern. Hindu traditions tell us that there are forces, some subtle and others not so
subtle, some positive and some negative, around us at all times, and like the Chinese system of
Feng Shui, it is in man’s interest to arrange his life to take advantage of these positive forces and
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avoid the effects of the negative forces. It has been observed that through the proper orientation
of a building and other techniques, the positive forces can be focused in a way that will lead to an
increase in wealth, happiness, and harmony for the residents of such a building. Conversely, the
wrong orientation of a structure and other architectural failures can cause unhappiness, disease
and troubles for the inhabitants. The same can be said for other buildings including temples,
business and civic structures.
In our discussion on astrology, we pointed out some of the essential principles of Hindu theology
that affect not only astrology, but many other subjects of learning, including Hindu architecture.
The first is the idea that the world is a manifestation of the body of God or, more precisely, the
world is the body of God. A sacred structure such as a temple is designed to be not just the home
of God, but the actualbody of God. The building is sacred because it is the Deity directly. The
second principle concerns the relationship between the macrocosm and the microcosm. A tiny
structure like a temple or a home, compared to the large universe, is constructed as a miniature
version, a microcosm, of the greater universe, the macrocosm. And finally, the third principle
teaches that the part always contains within itself the whole. Design a building by aligning the
universe on the inside with the universe on the outside, knowing that the whole is within, and
you
control
the
forces
of
the
universe
within
that
building.
Hindu architecture always begins by laying the cosmic body of God (purusha) over every
building site (mandala). This is call the Mandala Purusha. The accompanying diagram illustrates
this and shows how this cosmic body is positioned in relation to the site. Notice that the head of
“God” lays in the northeast corner. The basis behind this orientation is the principle of
maximization of light that is described by the metaphor: the sun equals light, which equals
knowledge, which equals consciousness and ultimately spiritual enlightenment. The east is the
source of light and of all the points along this eastern axis the north-east point is the most
important because it is the point of maximization of light. On June 21st of every year the sun
rises in the north-east and this is the day when daylight is longest and darkness is shortest. There
is maximization of light at this point and so the north-east corner is called God’s corner (ishakona). The cosmic head, which is a symbol for enlightenment, is placed in the northeast. It is
perhaps a little crude to mention, but notice where the cosmic anus is located. Ancient Hindu
culture includes everything! This is the position reserved for the negative forces of the universe,
personified as demons. The south-west corner, which is the exact opposite of the north-east
corner is not considered an auspicious place and so when arranging a home one should avoid
placing the meditation, kitchen, or financial areas in this place.
In addition to the sun, there are, of course, many other powerful forces that affect the life of man,
and so these forces have also been considered in Hindu architecture and given their respective
places. One of the most common features of Hinduism is its tendency to personify all things and
so these forces are personified as Gods and given their proper “seats” in the various directions of
Hindu architecture according to how they are positioned in the macrocosm, the greater universe.
See the accompanying diagram that illustrates the sitting places of these powerful forces. Agni,
the god of fire, sits in the south-east corner and so this is the ideal direction for a kitchen.
Kuvera, the god of wealth sits in the north, so this is the best place for keeping financial matters.
In this way, knowing the places of these forces, the next illustration shows the basic arrangement
of how any building should be designed to create an alignment with the forces of the universe.
This is the basis of Hindu architecture. Beyond this there are, of course, a large number of
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details. Below I provide just a few details found in Vaastu Shastra along with my explanations
(in italics) to help the reader get an idea of how the system of vaastu works. Exactly how a
building is designed will vary greatly according to the site and the needs of the family in the case
of a house for example. There is a lot of flexibility built into this system of architecture.
*No garbage should be dumped in the north-east corner of the site or the building. The reason for
this is obvious: the northeast corner is God’s corner.
*Lawns and gardens with small plants should be grown in the northern and eastern side. Large
trees should only be planted in the south and western sides, never in the east and north-eastern
sides. The east is the source of spiritual power and so this energy should never be blocked or
obstructed. Blocking the southern direction blocks death. In addition, planting tree in the south
and west provides cooling shade against the hottest positions of the sun.
*Beds should be placed so that when one sleeps the head is directed towards the south, east, or
west, but never towards the north. A person’s body is a tiny magnet with a north and south pole.
One’s head is the north pole. The universe is also a magnet (a very big magnet!) with a north
and south pole. Polaris, the north star, is the north pole of the universe. Place two magnetic
poles together and there is a repulsion. So to sleep with one’s head in the directions of the
universe’s head is the same as placing two north poles together. There is repulsion. Therefore
sleep will be better when the head is placed towards the south or another direction other than
north.
*Main doors should open to the east, north or west, but never to the south.
The east is the source of divine light and therefore this is the preferred placement for the main
door of a house. The south is the direction of the God of death and so a main doorway should not
open to death.
*The site should be higher in the west than in the east. By sloping slightly to the east the site is
open to the east, the source of divine light. In addition, a slope provides for water drainage.
*The staircase should be located in the south, west or south-west corner. The stair or elevator
area is not considered useful living space so these things are relegated to less important areas of
the building.
*A Kitchen should be located in the south-east corner, but may also be in the north-west corner.
In either case the cooking area should allow facing east while cooking. The south-east the the
place given to the fire divinity, Agni. A kitchen involves fire, so the placement is obvious. The
cooking fire is a miniature sun and therefore light, so facing the cooking fire and facing east
while cooking is facing light.
*A Kitchen should never be in the south-west because it will endanger the health of
residents. Notice that the south-west is the the place of the cosmic anus, so placing the kitchen in
this location is not favorable for health. Instead the south-west is the proper place for toilets,
garbage and storage of things like tools.
*The site should be square or rectangular. Sites with triangles, round shapes, with five corners
or more, or having odd shapes should be avoided.Symmetry is the basis of Hindu aesthetics, Odd
shapes “confuse” or otherwise obstruct the flow of energy and create an imbalance of energy. A
shape such as a triangle does away with one whole flank of energy.
*The treasury should never be located in the west or south-west. The deity of wealth resides in
the north and so the financial part of a house should be in this position. As we have noted, the
south-west is the place of negative energy, so one should avoid subjecting wealth to negative
energy.
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*The meditation area ideally should be in the north-east, but should never be in the southwest. The north-east is God’s corner and the south-west is for less positive things. The placement
for meditation is obvious.
Finallly, here is a sample home design that conforms to the principle of Vaastu Shastra. I provide
this just to give a simple idea on how a building can be designed. There can be many many such
designs.
What I have described in this short discussion on Vaastu Shastra is only a basic outline of what is
a detailed and complicated subject. In spite of this, I have provided the essence of the subject
matter as far as residential homes are concerned. There can be endless designs and there are
many ways to adjust the designs and even design methods andpujas that can be performed to
settle or neutralize problems and defects in the site and even in existing homes.
Vaastu Shastra for Children Bedroom
Children are the most important part of the family.Parents, they live for them and they render
many services to their children just to make them versatile and to make theirfuture
bright. Parents, they also do many practices to provide the best to their children, but does
the childrenknow how to return back the favour given by their parents. Generally they doesn’t
know how to overcome with their studies and how to keep standing an elegant image and name
of their parents in the society. Sleep in well manner is basic necessity for all. This is the only
way to forget about allnegativity and awful experiences and come up with new ideas and to get
bliss in your life.children
Some vaastu tips for children bedroom:
For children bedroom west is the best direction. For girl's room north west is best,
whereas for boys it can be northern and eastern part of the house.
Entrance door of children bedroom should be in the north or east, and it should have one
shutter only.
The window should be opposite to the door & it should be small in west as compared to
the one in east or north direction.
Furniture should be few inches away from walls.
Bed should be placed at south direction and some space should be left around the bed. if
space cannot provide around the bed, then you can place the bed at south west corner or south or
west corner.
While sleeping children should place their head at east side and legs towards west side. It
Is very profound way for them to have high intelligence & knowledge. This position can raise
more memory power.
For almirahs and cabinet south or west direction is appropriate.
Computer and television should not be placed inchildren bedroom and if you wish to
place so the south east direction is suitable for television and can place computer in north
direction of the room.
LCD or the monitor at night reflects the bed, which behaves like a mirror & reflects bad
energy.
If you want to place study table in bedroom, then it should be in south direction that child
could face east, north and northeast while studying.
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In children room up-light at south-east corner, it is good for health and also tends to
generate positive energy too. Never use sharp lights and spot lights as it creates mental strain.
Color affects mood a lot and even every aspect of life. Basically green color is ideal
for children’s bedroom as it increases brain power and also provides the freshness and peace.
These few tips can be beneficial for the physical as well as mental development of your
child & will provide the happiness and allow him/her to excel in all fields…
Implement Vaastu Tips
A plot with all corners 90 degrees having two sides road front and back is a good plot.
2. The open space left in North and east should be more than South and West.
3. The maximum construction should be done in South, West and southwest portion of the plot.
4. A pond or a water body should be placed in Northeast corner of the house.
5. A house should be designed in such a way so that there is maximum entry of sunlight and
proper cross ventilation.
6. The entire opening should be made on the North and East Side of the house
7. Trees of any kind should not be grown in eastern or northern, northeast directions.
8. Only small plant can be grown in North, east, Northeast.
9. The hearth or oven must be arranged in eastern southeast direction of the entire house, in such
a way that the person cooking faces east.
10. The shadow of any tree should not fall on the house.
11. Pictures of any war scenes, demons, one in anger should not be placed in the house.
12. The slope of the property should be from West to east or South to north.
14.Allow a bright light on the main door.
15.It is best to leave only maximum 5 door open.
16.Avoid keeping a T.V. set in bed-room.
17.Avoid keeping any water feature or plants in the bed room.
18.Do not use seperate mattresses and bed-sheet.
19.Arrange the furniture to from a square or a circle or an octagon in.
20.Brighten the corners.
21.Place a picture of bright sunrise on southern wall in living room
22.The wind should come from south-west in the bed room.
23.Dining-room should not expose to the front door of your house.
24.Never put mirror in kitchen.
25.Keep the broom and mops out of the sight in kitchen.
26.Keep the bathroom and toilet door closed as much as possible.
27.Windows should open outward normally.
28.Do not keep prickly cactus, plants in the house.
29.Place an aquarium in the south-east corner in living room.
30.Place a happy family picture in living room.
31.Please cheque there aren`t grown very high trees like Bangan, Pipal, Thorny trees.
32. Please cheque the gate of the lift is not in front of the main gate of the house.
33.There should not be any room which has shape.
34.There should not be obstructive houses surrounding your plot.
35.The house should be fully airy and has enough water resource.
36.The seat in the latrin should be NORTH-SOUTH.
37.In the office, sit facing the door.
38.Hang a picture of mountains behind you in the office.
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39.Place the computer on your right side on the table.
40.A ladder to go up stair curved on the right side should be devided in to two parts.
It should be constructed leaving north-east or south-west direction. Ladders stepping down
towards north or west creates waste of Lakshmi.
41.One should never hoard stale food, withered flowers, torn clothes, waste paper , waste
materials, empty tins, old jars and useless things. These things prevent Lakshmi from entering
the house.
42.If there is marble flooring in the house you should see that the old leather shoes are not lying
here and there. Marble is considered to be holy stone. If possible avoid marble in bedroom,
bathroom, latrine.
43.In a place of worship in the house it is necessary to have open atmosphere. Use marble in the
worship room. Take care that there is enough light and air. Latrine should not be near worship
room. Keep cleanliness and always light incense sticks.
* Construct your house in such way it admits bright light into the main doorway
* It is really advisable to allow 5 doors of a maximum opening
* Setting television in the bedroom area is not recommended
* Keep the plants and water sport far from your bedroom
* Never split bed sheet and bed mattresses
* Set your house furniture in the form of circle, square or as octagon
* Keep the corners bright
* It is good to fix an image of bright sun in the southern wall of the living area
* Construct your bedroom, where wind must blow from south to west
* Your house dinning hall must never get exposed to the entrance door of the house
* Setting a mirror in the kitchen room is not recommended
* Do not place the mops and brooms in the kitchen. Keep it far aside
* It is good to keep the doors of your toilet and bathroom closed most the time
* It is good to set your windows opened towards out face
* Growing of pricking plants like cactus in your house is not advisable and recommended
* It is good to place the fish aquarium in the southeast corner in your living area
* It is good to stick a happy family photograph or picture inside your living room
* Growing of high trees such as Bangan, Thorny trees and Pipal is not good and recommended
* Ensure that the lift gate is not set in face of the entry main gate of your house
* Building your house rooms in shape of oval, or circle or triangle is strictly not advisable
* Your house should never be in disturbed by any obstructive buildings
* Ensure that your house is good with right air circulation and water source
* Your latrine seat must be kept facing towards northern south
* It is good to sit facing the doorway, while you sit in your office
* It is good to set a mountain wallpaper behind you in your office
* Never keep a ladder that faces towards west or north, as it makes waste of money
* Never wear torn clothing, withered flowers, as these will prevent the goddess Lakshmi entering
into the home
Vaastu Shanti tips for business and Office.
Money and valuables should be kept in an Almirah or safe facing north.
-If north is blocked it can be cured with the help of regulators.
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-A boring or tube well in south is very harmful for finance.
-A pit or under ground tank in south is also very harmful for finance.
-Certain pictures of god goddess and proper placement of mirrors brings financial gains in the
house.
-Water flowing from north to east is very good.
-A water fountain in the north east part of the house or factory is very good.
-An aquarium with 9 gold fish and one black fish, in the north east corner/portion of the house or
factory is very good.
-In the office, the temple should not be placed at the back of the owner’s seat.
-The owner seat must be facing east or north. West is also permissible but it must not face south.
- There must always be a solid wall behind the owner’s seat.
-The owner’s desk must always be rectangle.
-The central point of a factory, house and office should be empty.
-Vaastu Shanti Tips for Offices/Businesses.
-In the office, the temple should not be placed at the back of the owner’s seat.
-The owner seat must be facing east or north. West is also permissible but it must not face south.
-There must always be a solid wall behind the owner’s seat.
-The owner’s desk must always be rectangle.
-The central point of a factory, house and office should be empty.
* The place of seat arrangement for managers, executives and directors must be located in south,
west and southwestern direction of the office premises
* As per the Vastu principles it is really good to set the accounts department in southeast
direction.
* The appropriate place to set the reception is in the northeastern direction of the office.
* With respect to Vastu principles, it is good to seat the employees facing the north or eastern
direction
* The central portion of the office must be set empty
* As per the Vastu principles, it is good to place rectangular desk for the MD
* Placing bore-well or fixing tank in the direction of south is not really recommended. This will
affect the owner with less and insufficient cash flow.
* The best and right direction of keep the storeroom is on the northwest and southeast location.
* It is recommended to set the marketing department in the direction of northwest
* Fixing of some idols or images of god and goddess in the right location of mirrors will bring
you improved financial gains.
* Setting a water fountain in the location of northeast of the office premises is really good and
recommended.
* Placing an aquarium containing 1 black fish and 9 gold fish in the location of northeast of the
office premises is really good and advisable.
Vastu dosha remidies...
1) Ganesh pooja, Navagrah shanti & poojaof Vastu purush.
(2) Navachandi Yagya, Shantipath, agnihotra yagya.
(3) Vastu purush idol, Nag (snake) made of silver, copper wire, pearl and powla. All these items
to be put in a red cloth with red earth and keep that in East direction.
(4) Red sand Cashew Nut, Powla in red cloth - keep that in West direction on Tuesday and
worship that with seemed incense will bring peace in house.
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(5) Old buildings should be demolished after permission of Vaastu Purush by prayer.
(6) During demolition - The Earthen Pot, Water, or Seat etc should not be taken home.
(7) Daily worship the entrance step - worship with Swastik - Design of Earthenware Pot., ShubhLabh etc. with Rice and Kumkum. Do not enter the house putting your entrance step.
(8) Rakhshoghna Sukta jaap, Homa and anusthan should be done.
(9) Recite this mantra 12500 times - starting from Tuesday - minimum 108 times daily till 12500
are over "Om Namo Bhagvati Vaastu Devtay Namah" - Do Dasamsa Home in the end.
(10) Prayers to Vaastu Purush.
(11) If South-West is cut or there is uneasiness in the family, do Pitrushanti,Pindadan, Nagabali,
Narayan Bali etc.
(12) Do Rudri - Every Monday and Every Amavasyaday.
(13) Keep phot or idol of Ganpati in house.
(14) A pooja room in the house is must in every house.
(15) Do not enter house for residence doing Navagrah Shanti.
(16) The house which is vacant since some years should be taken in use after doing Vastu Shanti.
After doing Vaastu Shanti – do not keep that house empty for more than 3 months.
(17) Never keep underground cellar empty.
(18) Do not keep South-West room vacant nor give it on rent.
(19) In kitchen do not keep any Power - (Shakti)except fire & water.
(20) Light a lamp daily evening near waterpot in the house.
(21) Do Grah Shanti every year because we are doing many sinful things in our life.
(22) If some river or drain is flowing in a direction other than the north-east direction of the
house and has anti - clock movement, then place the statue of dancing Ganeshji facing the west
on the north-east corner of the house.
(23) If the boring has been done in the wrong direction in a house or a factory, then place the
picture of Panchmukhi Hanumanji, facing South-East to the boring.
(24) If a naked wall is seen while entering into a flat, then either a picture or a statue of Ganeshji
should be placed there or a Shree Yantra. The naked wall is the sign of loneliness.
(25) If high voltage overhead wires pass over a house, then a plastic pipe filled with lime should
be erected from one corner to the other of the affected area in such a manner that its both ends
should remain outside by at least three feet each. This will eliminate the evil effects of energy
being generated out of the overhead wire.
Vastu tips for peace and prosperity.
When sitting for worship, keep your face towards North-West and sit in that corner to intake air
from that direction.
-Cash boxes can be located in the room towards the North (treasury). But if the box is heavy
(such as a safe, heavy almirah) then it should be kept in the Southwest corner and the door of the
almirah should open towards the North.
-TVs and computers should ideally be placed in the Southeast corner of the living room or study
room. They should not be placed in the Northeast corner or Southwest corner.
- Telephones can be placed in the Southeast or Northwest corner but not in the Southwest or
Northeast.
-An aquarium with 9 gold fish and one black fish, in the north east corner/portion of the house or
factory is very good.
-If the north-east area is untidy or unshapely, the well being of male issues is found to be
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precarious.
-One should sleep with his head pointing towards the South.
-Students should be facing east while studying, for Academic Excellence.
-If the kitchen is off the proper place, some member or the other is always found to be suffering
from severe digestive disorder.
-Keep the Gas in the south east corner of the kitchen
-Person should face the east while cooking.
-Drinking water should be in the north east of the kitchen.
-While Taking meals the plate should be in South-East.
-The statue of Hanumanji should not be placed in South-East. It may create fire hazard.
-All the doors should open inside so that the energy may remain inside.
-The hinges of doors should be noiseless. If so. The hinges may be greased periodically.
-The doors should open towards right hand.
-Bed should not be put under a beam.
-There should not be five corners in the ceiling of a room.
-Efforts should be made a leave the rooms open on North-East side.
-While ascending the staircase, the face should be either towards the north or the east.
-The seat of the toilet should face North-South.
-No doors or windows should be provided on South-West side.
-Almirahs and beds should be set very close to the South - West wall and at a distance from the
north - east wall.
-A house should not have paintings, which depicts depressing scenes, i.e. like an old woman
crying, scenes of war or poverty. It should have picture of say, a sunrise, an ocean, mountains,
flowers or laughing children.
-Tall trees are nowhere recommended close to the main building. For trees the south in itself is
good and so is the west. No tree should be grown in the north and the east. The one at the northeast is the worst.
-Small decorative plants and shrubs may be grown in the north and the east. The height should
not exceed, say, half a meter at the north-east increasing gradually to not more than 1.5 meter as
one moves from the north-east to the north-west or to the south-east end.
-Except rose and a few medicinal ones, all thorny plants give rise to tensions in the environment.
Plants exuding white sap should also be kept off. Lime and karonda etc. are OK in an orchard but
not in residence or business premises.
-Amongst the beneficial plants, the best is Tulsi. It is commendable to keep at least one Tulsi
plant in the north-east area of the premises, but its height should not exceed 1.5 meter.
-Growing creepers/climbers with support on the compound wall or a house wall is best avoided.
-Cactus should not be planted or kept in the house.
-In the South-West Corner of the house one should sleep pointing his head towards south.
-If north of any house is blocked it blocks prosperity.
-Water flowing/water fountain from north to east is very good.
WHAT IS CHANDA IN VAASTU SHASTRA?
After the Selection of Site, by applying the Vastu principles to the design of the building, one
would be assured of a proportionate, aesthetic and beautiful building with the right
measurements. The Vastu principle ‘Chanda – aesthetics/form’ describes the different forms or
elevations of a building.
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Chanda means ‘Beauty’. So Chanda is the beauty aspect oraesthetics of buildings. Chanda in
Vaastu literally means, a view of the contour of a structure against the sky, i.e. its perspective
view. In ancient Indian architecture, the contours of buildings were different for buildings with
different functions. The forms of different classes of buildings varied to satisfy different
functions and they never were identical in appearance. According to Vaastu Shastra, adherence
to Chanda would ensure an aesthetic looking building that is pleasing to the eye. Also, it ensured
the easy identification of buildings (of different functions). For example, a temple can easily be
identified by it’s mountain like form.
AAYADI - DIMENSIONS:
In Vaastu Shastra, a set of six formulae called Aayadi are used to work out the Length, Breadth,
perimeter, area and the height of the building. According to Vaastu Shastra, it is necessary that
one follows the Aayadi formulae strictly in order to experience positive effects within the
building.
Aayadi constitutes six formulae Aaya, Vyaya, Yoni, Raksha, Vara and Tithi. The remainder
obtained by using these formulae, determines whether it is gain or loss. If it is a gain, then the
structure is proportionate and stable and the dimensions are right. However if it is a loss, then it
means the dimensions are not right and should be suitably corrected.
Aaya- is the remainder obtained when Length is multiplied by 8 and divided by 12
Raksha- is the remainder obtained when Length is multiplied by 8 and divided by 27
Vyaaya- is the remainder obtained when Breadth is multiplied by 9 and divided by 10
Yoni- is the remainder obtained when Breadth is multiplied by 3 and divided by 8
Vara- is the remainder obtained when Height is multiplied by 9 and divided by 7
Tithi- is the remainder obtained when Height is multiplied by 9 and divided by 30
FIXING LENGTH OF BUILDING/ROOMS:
Aaya and Raksha formuale are used to fix both the Length of the building and of the
rooms.
Aaya also known as 'aadhayam', means income and 'Vyaya' means loss or expenditure.
Therefore, the Aaya should always be greater than the Vyaya.
Using the Aayadi formulae it has been concluded that for the Aaya to be more than the
Vyaya the length of rooms/building should preferrably be 1.5 times the breadth or at least
1.375 times the width.
This is why we find that sites are generally not square but rectangular with a Length
1.375 - 1.5 times the Breadth. For example: Sites have dimensions of 40 x 60, 30 x 40, 30
x 45, and 50 x 80.
FIXING THE BREADTH OF BUILDING/ROOMS:
The Yoni and Vyaya formulae are used for fixing the breadth of the building.
If the Yoni obtained is an odd remainder, then it is good whereas if it is even, then it is
considered bad Yoni.
1, 3, 5 and 7 remainders are considered good Yoni and are associated with the directions
East, South, West and North, respectively.
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Therefore depending on the direction the building faces, the corresponding Yoni should
be used to fix the breadth of the building/rooms.
The Yoni of the first floor should be the same as the Yoni of the ground floor.
When an old house is being renovated, then a new Yoni different from the Yoni of the
old house should be used for the renovated house.
FIXING THE DIMENSIONS DEPENDING ON THE ORIENTATION:
The Yoni formula defining the breadth measurement is useful for buildings that are not
oriented to the cardinal directions.
Vastu Shastra clearly emphasizes the importance of orienting buildings towards the four
cardinal directions (North, East, South or West) so that they can withstand the impact of
monsoon winds and natural energies and also benefit from them.
As far as possible, buildings should not be oriented to the intermediate directions.
But in rare situations, if the site faces an intermediate direction, the Yoni formula should
be used so that the remainder is 1. This will ensure that the dimensions of the building are
such that it can withstand the forces of nature.
FIXING THE HEIGHT OF BUILDING:
The height of the building can be fixed using the Vara and Tithi formulae.
The height of the first floor should not be more than that of the Ground floor.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT IN VAASTU SHASTRA:
In the olden days the units of measurement were the Angula (3/4 of an inch) and Hasta ( 18
inches) so that 1 Hasta equals 24 Angulas. However the value of Hasta and Angula were
different in different regions. Therefore, by using the Aayadi formulae for fixing the dimensions
of a building, the risk of creating disproportionate spaces is eliminated.
This post was about the Vaastu Shastra principle | Aayadi, which is useful for fixing the
dimensions of a building. According to Vaastu Shastra, the shape/form of a building was related
to it's function.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT IN VAASTU SHASTRA:
In the olden days the units of measurement were the Angula (3/4 of an inch) and Hasta ( 18
inches) so that 1 Hasta equals 24 Angulas. However the value of Hasta and Angula were
different in different regions. Therefore, by using the Aayadi formulae for fixing the dimensions
of a building, the risk of creating disproportionate spaces is eliminated.
This post was about the Vaastu Shastra principle | Aayadi, which is useful for fixing the
dimensions of a building. According to Vaastu Shastra, the shape/form of a building was related
to it's function. To know more about the different shapes/forms of buildings, read the 'Vaastu
Shastra principle | Aesthetics'.
The Science Of Vastu Shastra – Way To Plan Your House
Vastu Shastra, the ancient Indian and medieval knack that deals with the subject of Vastu which
means Environment. One may also regard Vastu Shastra as good practice of designing buildings
and spaces that are free from metaphysical forces and conducts human life in harmony such that
they will bring health, wealth and serenity to the inhabitants.
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Vastu Shastra follows the Vastu Purusha Mandal. The mandala helps in deciding the
whereabouts of various activities in a building.
So here are a few Vastu tips classified on the basis of different spaces in a dwelling.
Vaastu Principles For Different Parts Of The House
1. Vaastu Tips For Plot
The selection of plot is very important since it represents the form location and orientation of the
house. These three factors further affect the radiation of positive as well as negative energies. So
for the selection of a plot, these few factors must be consideredRegularly shaped plots such as rectangular or square are the most auspicious ones according to
Vastu Shastra because these plot shapes help in financial growth, brings prosperity and happiness
in the house.
Shapes such as oval circular or semi-circular are not considered auspicious as this kind of plots
tend to restrict the growth of an individual and also causes various health problems losses and
lack of happiness in the house.
Plot with either pathway on all four sides or plots with roads in north or east direction is
considered the best options as they ensure good health, wealth and happiness for the residents.
As per the Vastu Shastra, all the directions are considered good. The plot can face in any of the
direction either on east west north or south. Each of the direction has its own advantages.
2. Vaastu Tips For Main Entrance Gate
Entrance it the gateway from which all the energies constantly enter or exit the house. Hence the
position of this gate must be decided with utmost care so as to abstain the house from further
problems.
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The best direction for the entrance gateway is north and east sides.
Make sure that the entrance is free from any sort of trash or clutter to make the surrounding
positive.
Avoid placing any underwater or septic tank under the entrance gateway.
The entrance should always be well lit as it invites positive energies.
3. Vaastu Tips Of Kitchen
Kitchen plays a vital role in maintaining the positive and negative energies in the house as it is
the hub where all the energies prevail. So few things that must be considered are as follows
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The best directions for the placement of kitchen are south-east or north-west. The south-east
direction is governed by the fire lord hence it must the first priority.
Water sink must be placed in the northeast direction.
There should be no toilets adjoining or above the kitchen.
The door of the kitchen should never face the toilet.
4. Vaastu Tips For Living Room / Drawing Room
It is that part of the house where the members of the family spend most of their time and are also
used to entertain guests as well as visitors. Hence this component of the house reveals whether
the house bodes well with the family members or not. So to ensure that we need to take an
account of the following considerations
Colour walls with lighter shades as they promote calmness and affection.
Make sure that the northeast corner of the living room/drawing room is clutter free.
Use of potted plants and paintings related to nature or scenery not only enhances the tranquillity
of the room but also generates positive energy.
Keeping artificial flowers or dried flowers are considered inauspicious and also attracts
misfortune.
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5. Vaastu Tips For Bedroom
The bedroom is as important as the other parts of the room. It is that place where we relax and
gather energy for the whole day. So, it is necessary to make sure that the room is in a favourable
concord.
The bedroom should not be in the south-east direction.
Mirrors should not be located inside the bedroom as they lead to frequent quarrels amongst the
members of the house.
The bed should be located such that your head is towards the south or east direction as these
directions bring good sleep and ensure long life.
6. Vaastu Tips For Puja Room
The pooja room must be situated in the northeast direction of the house.
Ideally there should be no idols in the pooja room. But if one wants to keep then the height of the
idol should be from 9 to 2 inches.
The worship rooms should have doors or windows on either north or east side.
The colour of the walls should be lighter in shade for eg: white, cream, yellow, light blue.
For the worshiping of fire lord the kund must be made in the southwest direction.
A pooja room should not be made in a bedroom or a wall or adjacent to a bathroom wall.
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8. Vaastu Tips For Bathroom
A bathroom must be placed in the eastern portion of the house.
A toiled should be constructed to the west of the building.
Shower taps must be attached on the northern wall.
If the toilet is attached along with the bathroom then the WC should be placed on the north-west
side of the space.
Overhead tank must be placed in the south west portion.
Ventilator should be placed in the east or north direction
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8. Vaastu Tips For Staircase
Most of the houses these days are multi storied so to bridge the gap between the two floors we
need to build a staircase. So for that we need to first consider vastu shastra which would help us
decide the shape size or direction of the stair.
A staircase must be placed in the southern or western part of the house.
External staircase can be placed in the southern direction facing the east direction of the house.
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A stair must not touch northern or eastern walls.
The first stair must commence from north direction and end in the south direction.
The number of stair should always be in odd digits.
Circular stairs are considered inauspicious according to vastu as they can cause bad health.
The space below the staircase can be used for storage but rooms such as bathroom, kitchen, or
pooja room should never be built.
9. Vaastu Tips For Choosing Colors For Your Home
The colours must be chosen aesthetically as they can either enhance your mood or doze you off.
Psychologists believe that the use of lighter colour can make us feel calm and relax whereas
brighter colours can trigger our anger and sometimes one may even feel suffocated.
Colours like red orange and yellow are considered as bright colours which depicts boldness
anger and warmth. Whereas blue, white, green, pastel and neutral colours are considered as light
colours which depict coolness, calmness, peace and compromise.
10. Vaastu Tips For Basement
According to vastu any vacant space beneath the house or a building is considered as
inauspicious but in case we want to have a basement then the following guidelines must be taken
in account:
Basement should be built in northern or eastern direction of the house.
The purpose of basement can be for anything accept for living purpose.
Basement must be of regular or geometrical shape. Irregular shaped basement can cause health
problems to the members of the house.
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About ¼ area of the basement must be above the ground level. As it allows space for better
ventilation.
Minimum height of the basement should be at least 2.5 meters.
Dark tints of colour must be avoided for basement as it can attract negative energy.
These were the few tips which would help in maintaining the tranquillity of the house and would
surely help in gaining better health wealth and prosperity along with maintaining proper
circulation and aesthetics of the house
The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala in Temple Architecture
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design of all Hindu religious structures is always in accordance to ancient Indian Temple
Vastushastra. All proportions, details and forms are derived from intensive study of aspects like
Nakshatras or constellations of stars, Disha or direction, Name of the deity and donor/ trustee.
Architectural priorities have been either designing and Execution of superior quality of Temple
complex and or dismantling, reassembling, Repairs, Renovation, Reconstruction and Proposed
projects. Other ancillary work like making of stone and cements-fine finished Vimanam,
Gopuram, Ornamental design work, Sudhai Vigrahams. Rough Dressing, Carving and finishing
of stone and idols and Wood carving.
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PROPOSAL
The proposal to take up combined projects of the above type or assist in the same in working
towards the objective was driven mostly by interest. In ancient Indian texts; a temple is a place
for Tirtha - pilgrimage. It is a sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically
condense the ideal tenets of Hindu way of life. All the cosmic elements that create and celebrate
life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple - from fire to water, from images of nature
to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from kama to artha, from the fleeting sounds and
incense smells to Purusha - the eternal nothingness; yet universality - is part of a Hindu temple
architecture.
The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and Vastu
Sastras. The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple builders, and its
architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative expression by adopting
other perfect geometries and mathematical principles in Mandir construction to express the
Hindu way of life.
Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the
belief that all things are one, everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through
mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display
and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life - the pursuit
of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (desire), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical
life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, selfKnowledge.)
Hindu temple sites cover a wide range. The most common sites are those near water bodies,
embedded in nature, such as the one at Badami, Karnataka. The Hindu temple architecture is
an open, symmetry driven structure, with many variations, on a square grid of padas, depicting
perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares.
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Shiva temple, the main shrine of Prambanan, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the largest Hindu
temple in Indonesia. Angkor Wat, a World Heritage Site and also one of the world's largest Hindu
temples in the world deploy the same circles and squares grid architecture as described above. At the
center of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity, is mere hollow space with
no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one
without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu
temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one’s mind, and trigger the process of
inner realization within the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee’s school of belief. The
primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.
The site
The appropriate site for a Mandir is a harmonious space near water and gardens, where lotus and
flowers bloom, birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm. While major
Hindu Mandirs are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and
seashore, Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural source
of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to
the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design,
water is symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also be
built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93 inside caves and carved stones, on hill
tops affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and
hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.
The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala1
The Vastu Purusha Mandala is an indispensable part of vastu shastra and constitutes the
mathematical and diagrammatic basis for generating design. It is the metaphysical plan of a
building that incorporates the course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural forces. The goal of
a temple's design is to bring about the descent or manifestation of the un-manifest and unseen.
The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a square. The square is considered to be a
fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and results from it. Expanding energy shapes the
circle from the center; it is established in the shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to
life in its growth and movement. The square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding
life, life's form and the perfection beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can
be derived: the triangle, hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastupurusha-mandala-vastu, the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala.
The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the
temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him,
and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being
and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in
temple building.
In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is first drafted on
planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The drawing of the
mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite. The rites and
execution of the vastu-purusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar to how the
physical foundation supports the weight of the building.
Based on astrological calculations the border of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into
thirty-two smaller squares called nakshatras. The number thirty-two geometrically results from a
repeated division of the border of the single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in
space: north, east, south, west, and their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two
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squares symbolizes the recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon.
Each of the nakshatras is ruled over by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala.
Outside the mandala lie the four directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and also
represent the ecliptic of the sun-east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern
hemispheres.
The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe.
Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who
assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha or
pure space. The vastu-purusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that constitute
the order of the universe and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the building site,
along with astrological calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple construction be
determined.
The layout As mentioned earlier a Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design
called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most
important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the
core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is
a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived
from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
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The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The
64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where
diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a
perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square
is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human
thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun,
horizon, water drop, and rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect
square grids. In large temples, this is often an 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple
superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is
symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction,
similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among
Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design
plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered
the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make
offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at
the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred
surrounded center, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple
vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred
geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various
ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in
the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the
Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.
In a Hindu temple’s structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has
significance. The outermost layers, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next
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inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify
aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. The devotees,
as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or
Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the
Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the
temple or just symbolically represented.
The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies
creative energy and serves as the location for temple’s primary idol for darsana. Finally at the
very center of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha (Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the center
of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and
everyone. The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India,
is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada (s).
A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core
of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical
precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires
is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows
from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.
Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all
connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha-griya
(literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without
ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti (idol).
This is the main deity idol, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a
local name, such as Visnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple,
Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It
is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision
.
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara in north India,
and Vimanain south India, that stretches towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the
dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical
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dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once
again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars suggest that this
shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods
according to Vedic mythology.
In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images
meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from
Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in
some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also
have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life - kama,artha,
dharma and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.
REFERENCES
1. http://architectureideas.info/2008/10/vastu-purusha-mandala/
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CHAPTER IV
Temples Vastu Shastra
Origin of Vastu Shastra
The origin of vaastushastra may have taken place well over thousands of years ago. The learned
men of those days may not have lived in houses themselves but they most definately dedicated
their lives to the developement of the science "vaastushastra" or "vaastu", as it is popularly
known today.
The principles of the science laid down during those days were based purely on the effect of
sunrays during different times of the day. The observations and corrections made were noted and
concluded only after indepth screening of the situation.
Vastu is a part of Vedas, which are believed to be four to five thousand years old. Through
penance and meditation yogis of that period acquired answers believed to have come from the
cosmic mind itself to their questions. Hence Vedas are heeded with divine knowledge. The art of
Vastu originates in the Stapatya Veda, a part of the Atharva Veda.
It used to be a purely technical subject and it was only confined to architects (Sthapatis) and
handed over to their heirs. The principles of construction, architecture, sculpture etc., as
enunciated in the epics and treatise on temple architecture, have been incorporated in the science
of vastu. Its description is there in epics like Mataysya Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana,
Garuda Purana, and Vishnu Purana. There are some other ancient shastras that pass over the
knowledge of vastu shastra to next generation, like Vishvakarma Prakash, Samraangan
Sutradhar, Kashyap Shilpshastra, Vrihad Sanhita, and Praman Manjaree.
Proofs of vaastushastra can be found during the time of Ramayan and Mahabharat. Even in the
cities of Mohanjodaro and Harappa the application of vaastushastra can be seen.
Since the science goes far back to the times of Lord Rama and Lord Krishna there are many
interesting mythological stories concering the origin of Vaastupurush (the deity).
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In the Mahabharata it is said a number of houses were built for the kings who were invited to the
city Indraprastha for the Rajasuya Yagna of King Yuddhistira. Sage Vyasa says that these houses
were as high as the peaks of Kailasa mountains, perhaps meaning that they stood tall and
majestic. The houses were free from obstructions, had compounds with high walls and their
doors were of uniform height and inlaid with numerous metal ornaments. It is said that the site
plan of Ayodhya, the city of Lord Rama was similar to the plan found in the great architectural
text Manasara. References are also to be found in Buddhist literature, of buildings constructed on
the basis of Vastu. They contain references to individual buildings. Lord Buddha is said to have
delivered discourses on architecture and even told his disciples that supervising the construction
of a building was one of the duties of the order. Mention is made of monasteries (Viharas) or
temples, buildings which are partly residential and partly religious (Ardhayogas), residential
storeyed buildings (Prasadas), multi-storeyed buildings (harmyas) and Guhas or residential
buildings for middle class people.
The Vastu, with word meaning 'dwelling', is believed to be the residing places of god and man.
According to its modern meaning it covers all buildings irrespective of their use like residences,
industries, business establishments, lodges, hotels etc. It is based on the five basic and essential
elements, such as Vayu (air), Agni (fire), Jal (water), Bhumi (earth) and Aakasha (space), which
are known as Panchabhutas. Everything on earth is built from these elements.
One such story :
Lord Shiva had killed a devil named Andhak after a long war which had continued for years. A
spirit originated out of the perspiration of Lord Shiva and consumed all the blood from the body
of the devil. His hunger was still not satisfied. He then undertook penance. Lord Shiva was
impressed and highly satisfied by his penance and offered him a boon. The spirit then went wild
and started eating men and animals. This terrified even the Gods in heaven. 81 Gods including
Lord Bramha laid the spirit face down and they then sat on different parts of its body. When the
spirit asked for forgiveness Lord Brahma offered him a boon: "After building any structure, the
people who offer you prayers and worship you as vaastudevta will be blessed with pleasures and
prosperity. However only those people, who do not offer you prayers shall be at your mercy and
you may trouble them in any way".
There is a possibility that these stories were added in the olden scripts only to scare people and
make them conscious about the subject.
The science of vaastushastra is however no mythological story and has stood the test of time for
thousands of years.
History of Vaastu
The science of Vastu is considered an integral part of the Indian architecture. According to
modern historians Ferguson, Havell and Cunningham, this science developed during the period
of 6000 BC and 3000 BC. Being a technical subject, it was confined only to the architects
(Sthapathis) and handed over verbally or in the form of hand-written monographs. The principles
of construction, architecture and sculpture, as enunciated in the treatises on temple architecture,
have been incorporated in the science of Vaastu.
From ancient literature, we gather that Vaastu was treated as the science of construction of
temples and royal palaces. Theories tracing links of the principles of composition in Vastu
Shastra and the Indus Valley Civilization have been made, but scholar Kapila Vatsyayan is
reluctant to speculate on such links given the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered.
According to Chakrabarti, Vastu Vidya is as old the Vedic period and linked to the ritual
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architecture According to Michael W. Meister, the Atharvaveda contains verses with mystic
cosmogony which provide a paradigm for cosmic planning, but they did not represent
architecture nor a developed practice. Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita dated to the sixth century
CE, states Meister, is the first known Indian text that describes "something like
a vastupurusamandala to plan cities and buildings".The emergence of Vastu vidya as a
specialised field of science is speculated to have occurred significantly before the 1st-century
CE.
In the Matsya Purana, seventeen preceptors of Vaastu have been mentioned. They are
Bhrugu, Atri, Vasista, Viswakarma, Maya, Narada, Nagnajit, Visalaksha, Purandara, Brahma,
Kumaraswamy, Nandisa, Sounaka, Bhargava, Vasudeva, Anirudha, Sukra and Bruhaspathi.
The first official treatise on Vaastu, the Kasyapa Silpa, has been attributed to Sage Kasyapa.
In the treatise Agama Shastra, which explains the science of temples, Vaastu is considered as the
basis for any type of construction. Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro also indicate the
influence of Vaastu on the Indus Valley Civilization.
Role of India
India is the mother of vastu as our saints formulate principles of vastu here. Vastu was written
down thousands of years ago where our sages kept in mind the effect of energies and sunlight
and balance all the five elements in a manner to have the maximum benefit out of it.
Vastu Shilpa Shastra, the ancient mystic science and the art of designing and constructing
buildings finds its origin in Stapatya Veda, which in turns is a part of Atharvana Veda, one of the
four Vedas. According to modern historians Ferguson, Havell and Cunningham, this science
developed during the period of 6000 BC and 3000 BC.
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Proofs of vaastu shastra can be found during the time of Ramayan and Mahabharat. In the cities
of Mohanjodaro and Harappa the application of vaastu shastra can be seen. In the Matsya
Purana, seventeen preceptors of Vaastu have been mentioned.
These principles, called Vastu Shastra, were evolved over thousands of years out of experience
and foresight of ancient Sages of India and are very valuable for the well being of mankind.
According to Shastras, if we worship, revere and respect the lords of these eight directions, they
will shower on us their blessings and benefits. Our saints have searched vastu shastra; we are
only Researching it.
Ayadi Calculations :
Ayadi calculation is one of the most important part in Sthapatya Veda, Ayadi Calculation is also
called as Ayadi Shadvarga or the Building formulae. The Scriptures as well as the ancient
architects (Sthapatis) considered the dwellings as a living organism, irrespective of temple,
residential homes, palaces etc.
The knowledge of Ayadi is used by the designer to determine the effects of the physical structure
on the individual. The homeowner is born under the influence of a particular birth star. The
building is considered to be a living being and also has a birth star. Ayadi calculations attempt to
harmonize the energies created by the influence of the birth star of the person and that of the
building. When these energies are harmonized the dweller experiences material prosperity and
spiritual well being. Ayadi is also said to be able to affect the fate of the individual.
Like human beings, Vastu also has a horoscope. The Ayadi Shadvargas denote the horoscope of
a Vaastu. It is the guiding formulae for the prosperity and well being of the inhabitants of the
house. Here a master designer can change the horoscope of the artifact he designs, by giving due
attention to the Ayadi Shadvarga formulae.
Vastu Shastra is the traditional way of enhancing your luck by integrating architecture with
Nature. Vastu is an important part as it attracts and allows positive energy to freely flow through
the place. Aaya Prakaran is one of the most important parts of Vastu Shastra. The word Aaya
means income. When you take up any land for construction “Aaya Prakaran” must be followed
to get benefits and to achieve good results.
Vastu shastra (vāstu śāstra - literally "science of architecture is a traditional Indian system
of architecture originating in India. Texts from the Indian subcontinent describe principles of
design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial
geometry Vastu Shastras incorporate traditional Hindu and (in some cases) Buddhist beliefs. The
designs aim to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the
structure, and ancient beliefs utilising geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry,
and directional alignments.
Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya - the broader knowledge about architecture and
design theories from ancient India. Vastu Vidya knowledge is a collection of ideas and concepts,
with or without the support of layout diagrams, that are not rigid. Rather, these ideas and
concepts are models for the organisation of space and form within a building or collection of
buildings, based on their functions in relation to each other, their usage and the overall fabric of
the Vastu. Ancient Vastu Shastra principles include those for the design of Mandir (Hindu
temples), and the principles for the design and layout of houses, towns, cities, gardens, roads,
water works, shops and other public areas.
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vāstu, takes the meaning of "the site or foundation of a house, site, ground, building or
dwelling-place, habitation, homestead, house". The underlying root is vas "to dwell, live, stay,
reside". The term shastra may loosely be translated as "doctrine, teaching".
Vāstu-Śastras (literally, science of dwelling) are ancient Sanskrit manuals of architecture. These
contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling.
Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals of architecture, called Vastu Sastra. Many of
these are about Hindu temple layout (above), design and construction, along with chapters on
design principles for houses, villages, towns. The architect and artists (Silpins) were given wide
latitude to experiment and express their creativity.
There exist many Vāstu-Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and cities. One
such Vāstu Śastra is by Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples should be built. By
6th century AD, Sanskrit manuals for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in India.
Vāstu-Śastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning,[ and how
efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them
to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple
and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented
in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals
of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.[
The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramachandra Bhattaraka Kaulachara sometime in
ninth or tenth century CE, is another Vāstu Śastra.[23] Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric
principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings
carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in
eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting
that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For
example, in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine
form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri compared to 16 types
described in Silpa Prakasa. Silpa Prakasa provides brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu
temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith[24] and
Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple
types.
Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern
region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (literally, manual for planning
and building a temple) with chapters on town building. Manasara shilpa and Mayamata, texts of
South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century AD, is a guidebook on
South Indian Vastu design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text
from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India. In north
India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th
century describing the design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples.These
ancient Vāstu Śastras, often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple design, but do
not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple.They describe the temple as a holistic part
of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home,
village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.
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The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Vastu Purusha Mandala layout for Hindu Temples. It is one of
32 Vastu Purusha Mandala grid patterns described in Vastu sastras. In this grid structure of
symmetry, each concentric layer has significance.
The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana. Mandala "circle-circumference" or
"completion", is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both Hinduism
and Buddhism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala – in Pitha (9)
and Upapitha (25) it occupies one square module, in Mahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36)
and Manduka (64), four square modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine
square modules.[33] The Pitha is an amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts,
the central space is occupied by earth. The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric manner.
The most important mandala is the Manduka/Chandita Mandala of 64 squares and the
Paramasaayika Mandala of 81 squares. The normal position of the Vastu Purusha (head in the
northeast, legs in the southwest) is as depicted in the Paramasaayika Mandala. However, in the
Manduka Mandala the Vastu Purusha is depicted with the head facing east and the feet facing
west.
vastu directional chakara
It is believed that every piece of a land or a building has a soul of its own and that soul is known
as Vastu Purusha.
A site of any shape can be divided using the Pada Vinyasa. Sites are known by the number of
squares. They range from 1x1 to 32x32 (1024) square sites. Examples of mandalas with the
corresponding names of sites include:
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Sakala (1 square) corresponds to Eka-pada (single divided site)
Pechaka (4 squares) corresponds to Dwi-pada (two divided site)
Pitha (9 squares) corresponds to Tri-pada (three divided site)
Mahaapitha (16 squares) corresponds to Chatush-pada (four divided site)
Upapitha (25 squares) corresponds to Pancha-pada (five divided site)
Ugrapitha (36 squares) corresponds to Shashtha-pada (six divided site)
Sthandila (49 squares) corresponds to Sapta-pada (seven divided site)
Manduka/ Chandita (64 square) corresponds to Ashta-pada (eight divided site)
Paramasaayika (81 squares) corresponds to Nava-pada (nine divided site)
Aasana (100 squares) corresponds to Dasa-pada (ten divided site)
Bhadrmahasan (196 squares) corresponds to Chodah-pada (14 divided sites)
Vāstu Śastra represents a body of ancient concepts and knowledge to many modern architects, a
guideline but not a rigid code. The square-grid mandala is viewed as a model of organisation, not
as a ground plan. The ancient Vāstu Śastra texts describe functional relations and adaptable
alternate layouts for various rooms or buildings and utilities, but do not mandate a set
compulsory architecture. Sachdev and Tillotson state that the mandala is a guideline, and
employing the mandala concept of Vāstu Śastra does not mean every room or building has to be
square. The basic theme is around core elements of central space, peripheral zones, direction
with respect to sunlight, and relative functions of the spaces.
The pink city Jaipur in Rajasthan was master planned by Rajput king Jai Singh and built by 1727
CE, in part around Vastu Shilpa Sastra principles. Similarly, modern era projects such as the
architect Charles Correa's designed Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya in Ahmedabad, Vidhan
Bhavan in Bhopal and Jawahar Kala Kendra in Jaipur, adapt and apply concepts from the Vastu
Shastra Vidya. In the design of Chandigarh city, Le Corbusier incorporated modern architecture
theories with those of Vastu Shastra.
During the colonial rule period of India, town planning officials of the British Raj did not
consider Vastu Vidya, but largely grafted Islamic Mughal era motifs and designs such as domes
and arches onto Victorian-era style buildings without overall relationship layout. This
movement, known as Indo-Saracenic architecture, is found in chaotically laid out, but externally
grand structures in the form of currently used major railway stations, harbours, tax collection
buildings, and other colonial offices in South Asia.
Vāstu Śastra Vidya was ignored, during colonial era construction, for several reasons. These
texts were viewed by 19th and early 20th century architects as archaic, the literature was
inaccessible being in an ancient language not spoken or read by the architects, and the ancient
texts assumed space to be readily available. In contrast, public projects in the colonial era were
forced into crowded spaces and local layout constraints, and the ancient Vastu sastra were
viewed with prejudice as superstitious and rigid about a square grid or traditional materials of
construction. Sachdev and Tillotson state that these prejudices were flawed, as a scholarly and
complete reading of the Vāstu Śastra literature amply suggests the architect is free to adapt the
ideas to new materials of construction, local layout constraints and into a non-square space. The
design and completion of a new city of Jaipur in early 1700s based on Vāstu Śastra texts, well
before any colonial era public projects, was one of many proofs. Other examples include modern
public projects designed by Charles Correa such as Jawahar Kala Kendra in Jaipur, and Gandhi
Ashram in Ahmedabad. Vastu Shastra remedies have also been applied by Khushdeep Bansal in
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1997 to the Parliament complex of India, when he contented that the library being built next to
the building is responsible for political instability in the country.
German architect Klaus-Peter Gast states that the principles of Vāstu Śastras is witnessing a
major revival and wide usage in the planning and design of individual homes, residential
complexes, commercial and industrial campuses, and major public projects in India, along with
the use of ancient iconography and mythological art work incorporated into the Vastu vidya
architectures.
Vastu and superstition
The use of Vastu shastra and Vastu consultants in modern home and public projects is
controversial. Some architects, particularly during India's colonial era, considered it arcane and
superstitious. Other architects state that critics have not read the texts and that most of the text is
about flexible design guidelines for space, sunlight, flow and function.
Vastu Shastra is considered as pseudoscience by rationalists like Narendra Nayak of Federation
of Indian Rationalist Associations. Scientist and astronomer Jayant Narlikar considers Vastu
Shastra as pseudoscience and writes that Vastu does not have any "logical connection" to the
environment.[2] One of the examples cited by Narlikar arguing the absence of logical connection
is the Vastu rule, "sites shaped like a triangle ... will lead to government harassment, ...
parallelogram can lead to quarrels in the family." Narlikar notes that sometimes the building
plans are changed and what has already been built is demolished to accommodate for Vastu
rules.[2] Regarding superstitious beliefs in Vastu, Science writer Meera Nanda cites the case of N.
T. Rama Rao, the ex-chief minister of Andhra Pradesh, who sought the help of Vastu consultants
for his political problems. Rama Rao was advised that his problems would be solved if he
entered his office from an east facing gate. Accordingly, a slum on the east facing side of his
office was ordered to be demolished, to make way for his car's entrance. The knowledge of Vastu
consultants is questioned by Pramod Kumar (citation required), "Ask the Vaastu folks if they
know civil engineering or architecture or the local government rules on construction or minimum
standards of construction to advise people on buildings. They will get into a barrage of "ancient"
texts and "science" that smack of the pseudo-science of astrology. Ask them where they were
before the construction boom and if they will go to slum tenements to advise people or advise on
low-cost community-housing—you draw a blank."
Architectural Tretises: Of the numerous Sanskrit treatises mentioned in ancient Indian literature,
some have been translated in English. Many Agamas, Puranas and Hindu scriptures include
chapters on architecture of temples, homes, villages, towns, fortifications, streets, shop layout,
public wells, public bathing, public halls, gardens, river fronts among other things.[5] In some
cases, the manuscripts are partially lost, some are available only in Tibetan, Nepalese or South
Indian languages, while in others original Sanskrit manuscripts are available in different parts of
India. Some treatises, or books with chapters on Vaastu Shastra include:
Manasara
Brhat samhita
Mayamata
Anka sastra
Aparajita Vāstu Śastra
Maha-agamas (28 books, each with 12 to 75 chapters)
Ayadi Lakshana
Aramadi Pratishtha Paddhati (includes garden design)
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Kasyapiya
Kupadi Jala Sthana Lakshana
Kshetra Nirmana Vidhi (preparation of land and foundation of buildings including temples)
Gargya samhita (pillars, doors, windows, wall design and architecture)
Griha Pithika (types of houses and their construction)
Ghattotsarga Suchanika (riverfront and steps architecture)
Chakra sastra
Jnana ratna kosha
Vastu sarani (measurement, ratio and design layouts of objects, particularly buildings)
Devalaya Lakshana (treatise on construction of temples)
Dhruvadi shodasa gehani (guidelines for arrangement of buildings with respect to each other
for harmony)
Nava sastra (36 books, most lost)
Agni Purana (Chapters 42 through 55, and 106 - Nagaradi Vastu)
Matsya Purana (Chapters 252 through 270)
Maya samgraha
Prasada kirtana
Prasada Lakshana
Tachchu sastra (primarily home design for families)
Manushyalaya Lakshana (primarily human dwelings)
Manushyalaya Chandrika
Mantra dipika
Mana kathana (measurement principles)
Manava vastu lakshana
Manasollasa (chapters on house layout, mostly ancient cooking recipes)
Raja griha nirmana (architecture and construction principles for royal palaces)
Rupa mandana
Vastu chakra
Vastu tattva
Vastu nirnaya
Vastu purusha lakshana
Vastu prakasa
Vastu pradipa
Vastu manjari
Vastu mandana
Vastu lakshana
Vastu vichara
Vastu Vidya
Vastu vidhi
Vastu samgraha
Vastu sarvasva
Vimana lakshana (tower design)
Visvakarma prakasa (home, roads, water tanks and public works architecture)
Vaikhanasa
Sastra jaladhi ratna
Silpa prakasa
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Silpakala Dipika
Silpartha Śastra
Sanatkumara Vāstu Śastra
Samarangana Sutrad
In Vastu Shastra, the formula of Aaya and Vargas need to be followed for scientific and accurate
construction. There are Nine Vargas also known as Navavargas and the importance of each
Varga is stated in the classical references such as Samarangana, Suthradhara, Mayamata,
Aparajita Prucha, Kalarnrutha, Viswakarma Prakasika, Vasthusara, etc.
The Vishwakarma Prakasika elaborates the Nine Vargas in detail. The name of Nine Vargas
being Ayam, Varam, Amsa, Dhana, Runa, Nakshatra, Tidhi, Yuti, Ayuvu.
There are also a variety of opinions and thus some classical texts state only about 6 Vargas being
Aaya, Dhana, Vyaya, Tidhi, Vara, Nakshatra.
There are eight types of Aaya’s representing each direction, namely:
Dhwaja - East
Dhumra - South East
Simha - South
Svana - South West
Gaja - North
Kaka - North East
Vrusha - West
Khara - North West
The Aayas are best suited for the position or direction of which they are native off. The Aaya
which is opposite to the native direction is always of the enemy character for the Native. The
construction of the house/office/temple can be done in any of the four directions i.e. North, East,
South, West but not in any corner.
Effects of Aayas
There are different effects of Aayas on different areas of life. Some of these effects are:
Dhwaja Aaya : Benefits related to money
Dhumra Aaya : Sorrows
Simha Aaya : Luxuries
Svana Aaya : Great Sins
Vrushbha Aaaya : Increase and accumulation of Wealth and gains
Gaja Aaya : Success in career prospects
Kaka Aaya : Death
The main doors should be made facing the native side of the Aaya for the best and favourable
results. For example, to attain favorable results from the Dhwaja Aaya the doors should not be
constructed in the Western sides as the Native side of Dhwaja Aaya is east and thus it will be
facing east.
The Aayas have their own Swarups and lordships cast too. Simha Aaya is of the lion, Vrushabha
Aaya is of bull, Gaja Aaya is of an elephant, Dhumra Aaya is a cat, Svana Aaya is a dog, Khara
Aaya is of a donkey and whereas the kaka is of crow.
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Most of these Aayas have Masculine features, Bullock like features, elevated neck, hands which
match human hands, features like bird feet and lion neck are also present, which are favourably
considered.
The Fifth Varga of the Native Varga should be avoided as it is considered as of enmity nature
and does no good to Native Varga. The best Varga is always the Swa Varga (which means the
Varga of its own) as it is favourable and always preferred.
The effects of different Vargas from the Native Vargas are:
Swavarga : Dhana Labha, Monetary benefits.
Second Varga : Fewer Profits
Third Varga : Auspicious
Fourth Varga : Diseases
Fifth Varga : Enemical
Sixth Varga : Quarrelsome
Seventh Varga : All kinds of benefits
Eighth Varga : Death
Amsa
There are only three “Amsas” in the Aaya Prakarana:
Indramsa - It will present the status and happiness of a person.
Yamamsa - It will lead to death, sorrow and many diseases.
Rajasamsa - It will improve wealth and gains.
The Mars and Sun of a house will result in threat from fire and the other houses will be
favourable.
Tithis : Among the Tithis, Rikta Tithi will cause poverty and Amavasya tithi will cause diseases
of worms.
Yogas : The bad Yogas of the 27 Yogas present will affect the owner with loss of wealth and
gains.
Ayuvu (Life Span) : When the lifespan of the house is based on arithematical calculations and
the result is more than 60, then it is considered to be lucky and auspicious and if the result is less
than 60, then it is considered to be inauspicious.
Dikpati (Lord of Directions) :
The remainder gives the following results as per the calculations :
Indra - Good for women
Agni - Threat from fire
Yama - Inauspicious
Nirti - Fear from enemies
Varuna - Increase cattle field
Vayu - Unsteadiness
Kubera - Increase of gains
Siva - Auspicious
Method for Calculating Nava Vargas
The first step for calculation of Nava Vargas is to know about the “Kshetripada”. This means the
area for construction and is calculated by multiplying the length and breadth of the same. By
multiplying and then dividing the Kshetripada, we get the Nava Vargas.
The texts of Viswakarma Prakasika state the method in the following way:
The Viswakarma Prakasika Method
Padam (length x width) x 9 (nava) /8 (naga) = Aaya
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Padam (length x width) x 9 (amka) /7 (adri) = Vara
Padam (length x width) x 6 (amga) / 9 (nava) = amsa
Padam (length x width) x 8 (gaja) /12 (surya) = Dravyam
Padam (length x width) x 3 (vahni) /8(asta) = Runa (Debts)
Padam (length x width) x 8 (naga) / 27 (bha) = Nakshatra
Padam (length x width) x 8(asta) / 30 (Tidhi) = Tithi
Padam (length x width) x 7 (sagara) / 27 (Ruksha) = Yuti / Yoga
Padam (length x width) x 8 (naga) / 120 (Khabham) = Ayu (Life Span)
The Kalamruta Method:
The Kalamruta Method is as follows:
Padam x 8 / 12 = Dhanam (Income)
Padam x 3 / 8 = Runam (Debts)
Padam x 9 / 7 = Vara (The Week)
Padam x 6 / 30 = Tithi
Padam x 8 / 27 = Nakshatra
Padam x 9 / 8 = Ayam
Padam x 9 / 120 = Ayu (Life Span)
Padam x 6 / 8 = Amsa
Padam x 9 / 8 = Dikruti
The Aaya (Income) should always be more than Vyaya (Expenditure). If Vyaya is more than
Aaya, then the residents will always have financial problems.
The Yoni Should always have a reminder in odd numbers i.e 1, 3, 5, 7. Refer the below Yoni
table for benefits.
Yoni Number Cardinal Direction Yoni
Result
1
East
Dhwaja (Flagstaff)
Auspicious
2
South-East
Dhooma (Smoke)
Inauspicious
3
South
Simha (Lion)
Auspicious
4
South-West
Svanam (Dog)
Inauspicious
5
West
Vrshaba (Bull)
Auspicious
6
North-West
Kharam (ass)
Inauspicious
7
North
Gaja (Elephant)
Auspicious
8
North-East
Kakam (Crow)
Inauspicious
Yoni calculation is an important aspect in Ayadi calculation, based on the Yoni the direction of
the plot & Building is decided. Dhwaja Yoni is considered the best Yoni in Sthapatya Veda.
Another important point to be observed is that all the auspicious Yonis are in line with Cardinal
direction of North, South, East & West. The Plot or the building with diagonal directions &
entrance from North-East, South-East, South-West, North-West is inauspicious & hence rejected.
Varam with 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 is auspicious
There are 27 Nakshatras in Vedic astrology, the nakshatras with 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 as remainders are
auspicious.
Amsam or Quality with the remainder 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 is considered auspicious.
The above calculations are performed by an expert Vaastu Sthapathis, before one starts
construction of any form of the building, it is recommended that You consult an expert to attain
both spiritual & material benefits.
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The construction of the house should be done with the help of Vastu Shastra and Aaya Prakaran
being the most important part of Vastu Shastra must be considered. Aaya Prakaran will not only
eliminate the negative energies but will also fill your house with positive vibrations and energy.
Indian temples should be adhered to Vastu because it is the place of peace and harmony
where people generally seek God’s grace to fulfill their wishes. There are many temples which
are constructed with Vastu non-adherence and even it has been observed that such temples never
prosper in terms of peace and other manner. Any improper orientation and construction of
temple or shrine could bring mishaps with adverse effects. Vastu provides some prominent
features that must be considered while constructing a temple.
Every shrine must be constructed facing East direction with entrance in the same.
East direction is sacred in Vastu because sun rises from here which the sole energy
giver and symbol of light. Therefore according to Vastu shrine should always be
constructed East facing and entrance while the idols of God facing the appropriate
direction as well.
Ensure that the plot of temple is regular shaped and avoid irregular shapes while
constructing a shrine because shapes like triangular, circle or oval are prohibited &
considered inauspicious.
Shoes keeping point in the temple should be best located in Southern side while
drinking or water resource can be arranged in Eastern side.
A temple can have four main gates out of which two are ideal towards East and two
in North. However if there is only one gate to the temple then best to have in East
direction.
Avoid entrance gate in the South direction and main door must be huge and stronger
than other gates of temple.
Provision for window should be made on Eastern side only.
Place for God’s idol must be higher than the ground and all the idols must placed in
such way facing East while only Lord Hanuman, Lord Dakhinamurti and Goddess
Kali can Face South.
Avoid building other residential o commercial places near or front of temple. The
shadow of temple should not fall on the places around the temple.
Water storage must be located in North-east corner if under ground and over-head
tank must be situated in South-west.
Kitchen in temple must be situated in South-east corner as this is the place for
element Fire.
Charity box must be kept in East or North direction.
Temple best on the site where there is hill, sea, mountain lies in East or North
direction.
Vastu Introduction
" VASTU SHASTRA " is a voluminous and scattered ancient indian literature dealing with
knowledge of architecture, iconography and art relating to structures and buildings. It comprise
of independent works which are classified under the general heading of vaastu shastra.
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We have to take care of the following points while studying about the vastu of the temples. Vastu
consultation of temple involves a thorough analysis.
The ideal place for the consecration of the temple.
The direction and placement of main entrance
The direction and placement of god's idol which is very
important
The direction and placement of the windows
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The direction and placement of the worshiping place
The direction and placement of place where the religious
activities will take place.
The Historical Background:
In the Vedic period, people built homes, temples and hermitages with a view to have a peaceful
and harmonious living. But, in the modern world people build concrete clusters, mainly for the
high rate of return.
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This race to make buildings not in line with the ancient bye laws of nature has led the world into
pollution, environment and ecological problems with no peace of mind under any kind of shelter.
Vastu Shilpa Shastra, the ancient mystic science and the art of designing and constructing
buildings finds its origin in Stapatya Veda, which in turns is a part of Atharvana Veda, one of the
four Vedas. Vedas are not new to the other parts of the world and there have been people of all
levels who have appreciated the depth, inspirations and insight of Vedic thoughts for many years.
Our saints knew various mysterious and mystics of this vast universe even before western
scientist could start finding them out. One of the systems discovered by them was VASTU
SHASTRA.
SHASTRENANEN SARVASYA LOKASYA PARAM SUKHAM
CHATURVERG PHALA PRAPTI SHLOKSHCH BHAVEDYUVAM
SHLIP SHASTRA PARIGYAN MRITYOAPI SUJETAAM VRAJET
PARMANAND JANAK DEVANAMI DIMIRITAM
SHILP VINA NAHI JAGTISHU LOKESHU VIDYATE
JAGAD VINA NA SHILPANCH VARTATE VASAU PRABHO
Meaning – Because of VASTU SHASTRA, the whole universe gets good health, happiness and
all round prosperity. Human beings attain divinity with this knowledge. Followers of VASTU
SHASTRA get not only worldly pleasure but also experience heavenly bliss. With the above
shloka, it is very much clear that VASTU SHASTRA is universal. It is not confined to any
particular group of people in the development of all human being irrespective of any caste, creed
or religion.
Every creature in this world tries to arrange for a place in which to live comfortably, enjoying all
the luxuries and happiness of this world getting maximum benefits of heavenly boons.
Every one is aspirant of having sound health, beautiful wife, healthy children, wealth, means of
earning through business, profession or state service, high reputation in society and over all
mental and spiritual peace. The sea animals and amphibians prepare a dwelling place on the sea
shore, the birds build nests in the trees, the insects make a hive, and human beings are ambitious
of making a house on the earth where all the liabilities towards this world and towards heaven
can be fulfilled without any disturbance and trouble.
Therefore, aware of the need of a house and in order to avoid troubles, man wants to construct a
house on such a ground where he can feel all sorts or happiness and can lead a peaceful life free
of troubles and enemies, thereby deriving spiritual peace.
With this aim in his mind he sets out in search of the learned wise persons who can guide him in
selection of a site (plot) of his choice, and also in construction of the house. He wants to know
the proper auspicious time, and principles (laws) of construction of the house.
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Also he has in mind the colony or city, neighborhood, sources of water, natural environment,
means of transport, etc. while selecting a plot for building a house, at the same time he thinks of
his own interests and profits. The external features of the plot can be known with the help of
persons living around or nearby the flat. But the quality and nature of the land can be judged
only by Shastra. Therefore the selection of a site and the plan of the building is materialised only
after consultation and seeking advice of expert astrologer and Vastu Specialist.
There are saying like
Nadi Shotriyo Raja Devagyo Na Chikitasak Tatra Vaso Na Kartavaya
A place where there is no river (Source of water - pond or well etc.), scholar, astrologer, ruler
and medical expert, should not be selected for living thereon, it should be rejected.
Dushta Bharya Shath Mitra Bhratiyaschottar Dayak;
Sasarpe Ch Grahey Vaso Mirturev Na Sanshaya.
If there is house in which lives an unfaithful wife, a foolish friend , an outspoken servant and a
snake, the owner of such a house may die any moment.
If such things are associated with the house constructed by some one, the life of the inmates
becomes troublesome and unhappy, and there is always a fear of death.
Therefore everyone is curious to know as to what is Vaastu Shastra, and what principles and
methods regarding construction of buildings have been given by the ancient saints and seers on
the basis of their experience and commands in the divine scriptures. With the help of Vaastu
Shastra and Shilpshastra, knowledge about the better and auspicious way of construction of a
house, the positions and direction of gates, doors and rooms etc. in it, is gained so that a house
may be built which will provide all round prosperity and happiness to the inmates. Thus Vastu
Shastra provides some principles and rules on the guidelines of which suitable and comfortable
buildings for residence, temples etc. are built and towns, colonies are planned.
Originators
The Ancient Science of Indian Architecture had become an unknown subject for the present day
generation. Although, it had been described in great details by past masters; the present
generation does not have even the basic knowledge about its fundamentals.
Few thumb rules have been in propogation casually here and there in their distorted versions and
are treated by common man as superstitions and are practised by the so-called faithhealers in the
name of vibrations out of the sixth sense and what more injustice can be there to such a great
science?
Roots of Indian Architecture :
Every living being in the Universe desires to get rid of the adversities and troubles and wants to
avail the various comforts and happiness of life. During that course every creature, right from the
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smallest insect upto the human being wants to have a comfortable dwelling place where it can
live happily.
Man, being the most advanced living being in nature, his dwelling place too should be the best
among all. This need of a comfortable dwelling place, known as "house", alongwith other
requirments of life was very well identified by our forefathers long back and India has the
honour of being the first country in the world to boast of the origin of this "Science of House
Building", known as Vaastu Shastra.
Shri Maithilisharan Gupta, a noted Hindi poet has written in Bharat - Bharati: When the entire
world was in its infancy! We, the Indians, were old enough in the knowledge of almost all the
subjects of life. When others were wandering in the forest without even clothes, we were living
in palatial houses seemingly touching the moon in the sky.
Whatever knowledge is spread in the world, we are major contributors to it. If our ancestors had
not laid down the tracks of growth with their knowledge, science would not have grown in the
world. The mysteries about which the rest of the world was ignorant, we had unfolded them all
in our country Hindustan.
Professor Max Mullar once quoted in his speech, "If somebody asks me that which is the country
where the man has answered the most complicated problems in various fields of life and science
with his mental ablities and growth, I will say that it is the country known as "INDIA".
Our Vedas are supposed to be the oldest available literature on the earth. Vedas contain the
descriptions of GRIH, GEH, HARMYA, SHAALA, BHAWAN, AAGAR, and SADAN, all
being synonymns of the word "House". It does mean that our ancestors used to live in well
developed houses even in the Vedic period to which belong the roots of Vastu Shastra.
Originators, Teachers And Preachers :
According to the ancient literature, there had been the following eighteen (18) originators,
teachers and preachers of Vaastu Shastra :
1. Brahma
2. Narada
3. Brihaspati
4. Bhrigu
5. Vashishtha
6. Vishwakarma
7. Maya
8. Atri
9. Garg
10. Kumar
11. Nandish
12. Nagnajita
13. Vishalaksha
14. Purandara
15. Shaunakh
16. Vasudev
17. Anirudh
18. Sukra
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Not only houses, but temples, palaces, forts, market places, army buildings, horse stables and
buildings for keeping different domestic animals were all used to be constructed on the principles
of Vaastu Shastra.
Everything in this world is made of five fundamental elements - Earth, Water, Fire, Wind and
Sky. Principles of Vaastu Shastra are mainly dependent on the arrangement of; five essential
elements of the world i.e. Earth, Water, Fire, Air; sky in their proper order and proportions to
have better living conditions in a building.
There is a correlation and a complex pattern relating to human behaviour and built environment
around him. Various unseen forces affect human body vertically, horizontally, diagonally and
perpendicularly. For example :
Sun Energy
Lunar Energy from the moon
Magnetic Energy
Gravitational Energy
Molecular Energy
Fire Energy
Wind Energy
Microwave Energy
Electrical Energy
Light Energy
Sound Energy
Vastu Purush Mandal :
The word " VAASTU " has been derived from ' VASTOSHPATI ' used in ' Rig Veda ' and is
meant to provide protection, hapiness and prosperity in this life as well as after death. Rig Veda
says :
VASTSHPART PRATI JATI HACHASMAN TVAVESHO ATBHIVO BHAVATAH |
YAT TVAMEH PRATI NATRO JUSHSVSHAN NO BHAV DVIPAD SHA
CHATUSHPADE ||
It is prayer to Vaastu purusha and means :
Oh God of structures and building, we are your devotees. Listen our prayer, make us free of
disease, give wealth and prosperity, help the well being of all persons and animals living in the
house.
Vastu Purusha is present in each and every plot whether it is big or small. He has a fixed and
peculiar body. His head remains hanging down and his body is spread all over the length and
breadth of the ground. There is an interesting story in the MATSYA PURANA in which the birth
of the Vastu Purusha is narrated. By reading that story one knows why the worship of the Vastu
Purusha is necessary before beginning constructing any house.
While fighting with the demon, Shiva was very much tired and began to sweat profusely. A man
was born of the drops of Shiva’s sweat. He looked very cruel. He was very hungry. So he began
to make penance to appease Lord Shiva and get a boon from Him.
Shiva was pleased with his penance and appeared before him. The devotee prayed to Shiva, “Oh
Lord! Please permit me to eat away all the three worlds.” Shiva said, “Let it be so.” The
devotee’s joy knew no bounds. He got possession on all the three worlds and first he was ready
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to eat the terrestrial world. Then the celestial beings, Brahma, Shiva and the demons (Rakshasas)
also were terrified and caught hold of the devotee encircling him.
Forty-five celestial beings, out of whom 32 from without and 13 from within caught hold of the
devotee. The Thirty-two celestial beings are :
(1) ISH/SIKHI (2) PARJANYA (3) JAYA/JAYANTA (4) INDRA (5) SURYA (6) SATYA (7)
BHRISHAM (8) AKASH (9) AGNI (10) PUSHA (11) VITATHA (12) GRIHAKSHAT (13)
YAMA (14) GANDHARVA (15) BRINGARAJA (16) MRIGA (17) PITRA (18) NANDI (19)
SUGRIVA (20) PUSHPADANTA (21) VARUNA (22) ASURA/DAITYA (23) SESHA (24)
YAKSHMA (25) ROGA (26) NAGA (27) MUKHYA (28) BHALLATA (29) SOMA/KUBER
(30) SAILA/BHUJANG/SARPA (31) ADITI and (32) DITI.
All these 32 celestial beings are out of the limits of the devotee whereas the following 13 Beings
are within his limits:
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(1) BRAHMA (2) RUDRA (3) INDRAJAYA (4) APAVATSA (5) MARICHI (6) SAVITRI (7)
VIVASWAN (8) VISHNU (9) MITRA (10) SAVITA (11) PRITHVIDHARA (12) RUDRA and
(13) APA.
These celestial Beings laid force on the different limbs of the devotee and sat on them as shown
below:
ISH (AGNI) – head; APA - face; PRITHWI DHARA; ARYAM - Chest; AVANTSA - heart;
DITI; INDRA - Shoulders; SURYA; SOMA - Hands; RUDRA; RAJAYAKSHMA - left arm;
SAVITRA; SAVITA - right arm; VIVASWAN; MITRA - Stomach; PUSHA; ARYAMA Wrist; ASUR; SESHA - left side; VITATHA; GRAHAKSHAT - right side; YAMA; VARUNA
- Thighs; GANDHARVA; PURAMADAN - on the knees; SUGRIV; BHRISH - shanks;
DWARIKA; MRIGA - ankles; JAYA; SHAKRA - on the hairs grown on the feet; BRAHMA on the heart.
Being bound like that, the devotee lay down there only. Since then, he has been lying there
surrounded by the celestial Beings and thus he was called “the God of Vastu or VASTU
PURUSHA”.
You will be known as ‘VASTUPURUSHA’. You will tease the people, to your heart’s content,
who construct buildings and temples, dig wells and tanks on the side towards which you see and
in the direction towards which you hold your feet. You may trouble and even devour those
people who construct the aforesaid buildings and temples etc.
In the direction where you lay your head and back and those who lay foundation stone without
worshipping you or without satisfying you with ‘Homa’ and the like. Then the Vastu Purusha
was quite satisfied. Since then the worship of Vastu-Purusha has been in vogue and it has
become compulsory for those who want to construct any kind of building.
Vastu Purusha, being arrested like this, said to the Gods, “Oh, Celestial Beings! you have all
caught hold of me and tied me on all the sides. How long shall I be like this, in this position
hanging my head down like a prisoner? What shall I eat?”
Listening to those words, the celestial Beings said, “Today is Bhadrapada Shukla Triteeya
Saturday and ‘Visakha Star’; So you lie down here on the ground changing your position once in
three months, i.e. from ‘Bhadrapada’ to ‘Kartik’ you lie down putting your head in the Eastern
direction and your feet towards the West.
During the months of ‘Margashira’, ‘Pushyam’ and ‘Magha’, you lie down towards the South
looking towards the West and put your feet towards the North; during the months of ‘Phalgun’,
‘Chaitra’ and ‘Vaisakh’ put your head towards the West and feet towards the East, looking
towards the North; in the months of ‘Jyeshtha’, ‘Ashadha’ and ‘Sravana’, put your head towards
the North and the feet towards the South and look towards the East. Whatever side you may turn,
you will have to lie down on the left side only.
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Results of Doors in 32 Padas
1. Ish / Shikhi (NE2) - Fear of fire
2. Parjanya (NE3) - More of a girl child.
3. Jayant (E1) - Good profit of money or wealth
4. Indra (E2) - Get royal pleasure or happiness
5. Surya (E3) - More increase anger
6. Satya (E4) - More telling lies
7. Bhrusha (E5) - More cruelty
8. Akash (SE1) - Fear of theft.
9. Anil (SE2) - Less children
10. Pusha (SE3) - Lead to servitude.
11. Vitatha (S1) - Lead to meanness
12. Gruhakshata (S2) - Money and prosperity
13. Yama (S3) - Increase in fear of death
14. Ghandharva (S4) - Causes poverty
15. Bhringraj (S5) - Government lead problems
16. Mrig (SW1) - Problems to children
17. Pitra (SW2) - Short life and poverty
18. Dauwarik (SW3) - More expenditures.
19. Sugreeva (W1) - Loss of money.
20. Pushpadant (W2) - Increase in money.
21. Varun (W3) - Increase in luck or happiness.
22. Asura (W4) - Fear of royalty.
23. Shosha (W5) - Increase in money and illness.
24. Paapyakshma (NW1) - Illness and accumulation of sin.
25. Rog (NW2) - Fear of fights and conflicts.
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26. Naag (NW3) - More enemies in relatives.
27. Mukhaya (N1) - Gain in male child and money.
28. Bhallat (N2) - Gain of wealth or prosperity.
29. Som (N3) - Male child and wealth.
30. Bhunjang(N4) - Enmity with the son.
31. Aditi (N5) - Wickedness in ladies.
32. Diti (NE1) - Becomes poor.
After Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation assured the court that it would take all necessary action
in this regard, the court disposed of the plea objecting to construction of the temple. However,
the court also directed AMC to grant an opportunity to the trust to present its case and take a
decision only after hearing the religious body.
Temple Vastu: vastu originated as architectural science in India, but nowadays the vastu SOPs
are being sold as troubleshooter remedies.
In my personal opinion I believe that all Indian predictive sciences /remedies are offshoots of
astrology.
Theory of Indian Temple Architecture & Hindu Vastushastra
A house is designed considering the requirements of the person staying in it. Similarly a temple
needs to be designed according to comfort of its resident, the main God, other Deities along with
him and devotees. Being the residence of almighty, a temple has deep-rooted religious feelings
attached to it; hence every corner has to be designed with extra care. The Hindu scripter, ancient
saints have deep study of the five main aspects (Abhutas) of the universe. They are 1) Sky
(Brahmand) 2) Fire (Agni, the Sun) 3) Air 4) The Earth (Prithvi) and 5) Water.
They had no binoculars, but they had detailed knowledge of the constellation of stars
(Nakshatras), Directions (Disha) and their effects on whole world and even on each human
being. These Saints have detailed guide lines for designing every corner of the temple along
with religious as well as scientific explanation for the same.
It starts with main deity for whom temple is made. The direction of where the main entrance
varies from deity to deity. East side direction entrance is best for most of the deities. Second
choice is west or north, but not south. Gods like Shree Kali Mata prefers south side entrance
only. Shree Hanuman, (a son of Air) has no problem with any direction. He will be more
powerful at facing south direction. Not even the entrance but the size of temple depends on
constellation of stars (Nakshatra) at particular direction. And depending on that, there is list of
permissible sizes of the temple specified by the Vastu Shastra. Every Nakshatra has different list
of sizes. The sizes are given in ancient units, which can be converted in to feet (British System)
easily. It can be converted again in meters (metric system). It also decides sizes of rooms of all
deities (Garbha Griha), heights / sizes of plinth, columns, slabs, Parikrama and even square area
of the temple. We still have our associate gurus (guides) who give us all the supporting
information and guidance.
It is always protected by all main four deities of the four directions as follows1) Shree Indra (king of Gods) at East,
2) Shree Varuna (God of rain, water) at west,
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3) Shree Kubera (God of wealth) at north
4) Shree Yama (God of death) at south.
Besides giving the temple a typical look, the style of providing offsets to walls and domes
(Shikhara) have structural advantage. It gives support to tall dome which can stand for long
period even during earth quake. The angles, sizes and proportions of these offsets are also
specified. There are many aspects like these in Temple Vastu Shastra which are written in
various ancient Granthas (Ancient holy books of Hindu religion) separately. We better follow
these aspects while designing a temple for every deity.
Vastu For Temples
The aim of human life is to wish for the welfare of all while carrying on the responsibilities of
worldly deeds. For all sorts of good deeds, towards the family and other people, for inspiration
and performances, all deeds are closely related to building a house. For benevolence point of
view every one should contribute and co-operate with the government bodies in the plans of
constructing and managing Dharam-shalas, well, pond temple, grains depot etc., and also such
deeds should be performed individually by everyone.
In olden times, rich and wealthy persons had been materialising such plans under the culture and
religious activities in our country. In modern period also educational institutions Dharamashala,
Rain Basera (overnight camp), water hut, temple, etc. are constructed and are managed for the
benefit of common people by donors and wealthy persons in the society. Welfare of all is
possible only when every one in this world bears the responsibility of carrying on the business of
the world by his good deeds thinking the supremacy of the creator of this world in himself.
Objective of the man in this life is not only the welfare of himself and the family, but also
everyone has to earn reward for good deeds (Punya) such as construction of temple etc. for
which he receives in return fame and growth of family; other people also get inspiration from
such noble deeds for benevolence.
There are so many ways of benevolent deeds. Construction of temple, well or ponds for drinking
water for the public, Dharamshala etc. are some important deeds. Vastu Shastra has described the
importance and types of such works.Those who get a temple constructed at a beautiful site,
where there are lush gardens and sufficient water in wells, ponds etc. for the sake of
enhancement of religion and fame, will definitely gain heavenly pleasure. The land of
construction of a temple should be tested; only such land is good and auspicious for construction
of a house; selection should therefore be made as per directives given for selection of site
elsewhere in this book.
For construction of temple, Vaastu-pad of sixty four squares should be made. Main gates
should be constructed in the centre of all the four sides, which is auspicious. Half of the breadth
should be kept for the Garbhgriha (Central room where idol is to be placed). All round the
Grabhagrih, on hath (cubit) wide path should be provided for circumambulation (Parikrama) and
then the wall be constructed around it. One fourth of the breadth of Garbhgrih should be the
width of the door. Height of the door should be twice the width of door. The temple or place of
worship should be in the north-east portion of the building. This is the best direction for worship
and prayers according to Vastu Shastra. Though all the directions are good and auspicious by the
grace and kindness of the supreme God, but self-satisfaction and spiritual peace is obtained only
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from prayers offered in the north-east direction.In south India even today we find the live proofs
of temples constructed as per principles of Vaastu Shastra. These are strictly in conformity with
the principles laid down in Indian culture and Vaastu Shastra. Buildings which have been
constructed after proper auspiciousness of the land etc. are famous and popular throughout the
world.
Takshshila University, Mohenjodaro, Taj Mahal, Several palaces and temples in India have a
prominent place in the art of Vaastu not only in India, but in the whole world.
In South the Tirupati Balaji temple, Rameshwaram temple, Meenakshi temple in Madurai,
Vivekanand memorial in Kanyakumari, Jagannath temple in Puri, Badrikasram in the north,
Kamakshyadevi temple in Assam, Vishwanath temple in Varanasi, are some such places where
people feel mental and spiritual peace as desired.
Whether it be a temple of a well, pond etc. or a house, it is the proper selection of land and
direction etc. and construction at proper and auspicious time (muhurt) according to the principles
of Vaastu Shastra, that it's fame spreads far and wide even after thousands of years have passed.
Those buildings which have become by Vaastu-Shanti and Vaastu Pooja. It is good and
auspicious to do so, as it will remove default regarding Vaastu if any from that building.
North-East direction is very important in the construction of a building. This direction should be
very well considered. No large and heavy rooms or materials should be kept in this portion. The
owners cannot progress if they do so, nor can the inmates develop and flourish. If this portion is
extended outwards and open, it provides all happiness, mental and spiritual peace prosperity and
progress.North-East direction is best for offering prayers to God, so temple or Pooja room should
be made in this direction and it is auspicious to offer prayers and worships sitting face towards
east or north.
Dakshinayan and Uttarayan must be considered for consecration of idols. It is auspicious to
establish and consecrating the idols of Shiva ling in the month of Shravan, of goddess Durga
(Bhagwati Jagadamba) in Ashwin, and lord Vishnu in Margshirsh. Gods having hot temper, such
as Bhairav, Narsingh, and Mahishasur Mardini Durga should be established and consecrated in
the period of Dakshinayan and those of calm noble temper in the period of Uttarayan. The day,
date (tithi), Paksh (fortnight), constellation, Lagna etc. should also be considered for the purpose.
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Actor Will Smith is a Hindu
Religious Vaastu - Temples
We find that in many ancient temples these rules are observed. That is why people have
faith in those places. They are considered potent by devotees and they make sacred vows
at these places and find that there vows are fulfilled. These effects are observed to a
lesser degree in some other temples.
The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the east and the north direction should be
in the north-east corner.
The priest should not live in any of the rooms in the temple complex. He should live
outside the temple premises otherwise, he will have to face a lot of difficulties.
The sanctuary, the height of the idol, kind of stone of which the idol is made and its
colour, the height of the lap from the ground on which the idol is placed, the height of the
pinnacle and the metal used for the pinnacle, the height of the discourse hall, number of
pillars used for this hall, their colours etc. should be carefully studied from the viewpoint
of Vastushastra.
The height of the discourse hall in from of the temples should be less than the height of
the main temple. The stage should be to the west of the hall.
Fountains or lotus ponds in front of the temple should be in the north-east direction.
Before entering the temple premises, on the south side, there should be an arrangement
for keeping shoes and to the east arrangements should be made for water to drink and to
wash the feet and hands etc. The bathrooms should be in the east. Toilets should be
outside the temple premises.
In front of the idol, outside the temple, on the left side the victory tower should be
situated. It should not be in the north-east direction. Deepstambha (pillar for light),
Agnikund (earthern pot in which the fire is built) and Homkund (Pit for sacred fire) etc.
should be in the south-east corner.
After the construction of the temple is completed with due regards to the favorable
constellations, time and day, the idol should be installed. The installation of the idol and
the raising of the pinnacle should be done simultaneously. The world famous, wealthy
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and a place of faith for infinite no of devotees, Tirupati Balaji temple is one of the finest
examples of Vastushastra. Different logical arguments and spiritual analysis are made
about the Balaji mandir. Tirupati Balaji is an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. There was a
clash between Lord Vishnu and Laxmi. As a result Lord Vishnu appeared in his new
incarnation as Tirupati Balaji at Tirumala Hills in Andhra Pradesh. Laxmi appeared at
Mahalaxmi in Kolhapur in Maharashtra. Balaji married with Goddess Padmavati. At this
time Varahswami was the Guru of Tirupati Balaji. The marriage of Tirupati Balaji was a
very expensive affair. At that time Balaji took a big loan from Kuber. For paying off this
debt, infinite number of devotees of Balaji are making their contribution in the pot placed
at Kubersthan in the northern direction of the temple in the form of cash, gold and other
valuables. Bajaj on his part for paying of the debt of these devotees helps them in the
prosperity of their business.
If the temple premises there are smaller temples of other Gods, only the temple of Lord
Hanuman & the Goddess Kali can have face towards the south.
No parking arrangement should be made in the temple premises. It should be out side the
temple in the east or the north side.
There should be no fan in the sanctuary of the idol. This spoils the magnetic environment.
For building religious Vastu temple, first of all, it is necessary to choose the proper site.
The plot of the temple should be square of rectangular in shape. The magnetic northsouth poles of the plot should be parallel. This means that the four major directions, the
east, the west, the north and the south should meet the plot parallely and not in the corner.
Compound wall around the temple in all the four directions is very essential. Entrance
gate on the east side of the compound wall is the best. Entrance gate on the north side is
tolerable. It is very auspicious to have four entrance gates to the main temple building. At
least one in the east and one in the north if there are two gates and if there is only one it
should be in the east. Only it should not be in the south direction. The main entrance gate
should be taller than other doors and should be decorated.
The sight of the principal idols stare in the temple should be trained on the seventh part of
the door if the door is divided into nine parts. No building, office, electric pole, tree, shed
etc. should come from the idol’s stare. There can be entrance gate or road in this
direction.
The orchestra should be in the north-west direction of the hall. The colour of the pillars
and the flooring of the hall should be white, yellow or light saffron.
There should be a window to the east of the sanctuary such that sunrays fall
unobtrusively on the idol from 6 a.m. to 9 a.m. There should be no room behind the
sanctuary. There should be arrangement for circumambulation around the temple and the
sanctuary.
There should be no place for breaking coconuts in the sanctuary. Water from the coconut
should not be sprinkled on the idol. The place for breaking the coconut should be outside
the temple in the east or the north leaving the north-east corner.
The sanctuary of the main God should be at a higher level from the ground. The devotees
should not touch the idol. No one except the Pujari (Worshipper of idol) should enter the
main octagonal part of the sanctuary.
If such places are situated on a tall hill or mountain, the population is thin. This helps in
maintaining the austerity of the God. The shadow of the temple should not fall on other
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buildings. In front of the temple there should be no building of any type. These objectives
are fulfilled on a hill or mountain.
Marriage ceremony and any other ceremony should not be performed in the temple
premises. If at all they are performed, it should be in the open space around the temple in
the west or in the south side.
By dividing this place into four equal parts the main structure of the temple with
Subhamandap (lecture-hall) should be in the south-west part. Godowns and shops should
be in the north-west part, Water storage tanks, wells etc. should be in the north-east part,
Kitchen, rest houses etc. should be in the south-east portion.
In the open space surrounding the temple Basil plant with raised bed should be in the
east, Jasmine, White Champak, Star Coral plants etc. should be in the north-west corner
or the east. Four approach roads are very useful. Charity boxes or pots in the temple
should be in the east or the north. The divine gift place should be in the east or the northeast.
The bell should not be in the sanctuary. It should be outside the sanctuary. There should
be no microphones, speakers or any other electrical equipment in the sanctuary. They can
be outside the sanctuary. Around the chief idol in the sanctuary there should be square,
rectangular octagonal or circular construction or pillars. The pillars or the construction
should not be hexagonal.
If there is a sea, river, tank, take etc. in the east or the north direction, such a plot is, the
best place. Because of this, there is natural slope in the east or the north directions.
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143
C H A P T E RV
The Ancient Indian Architectural text Mayamatam
or Manasara of Vastu Sastra
Throughout the 20th century a wide variety of essays had been written by numerous people.
Especially at the beginning of the 21st century these essays brought a new light on the
subject of Indian HINDU temple architecture. The idea for this essay is to connect the
different puzzle pieces and to give a short and clear introduction on the system that was used
to design a South Indian temple.
The Hindus were in the position of numerous treatises on architecture and sculpture. These
are collectively called the Silpa Sastra or Vastu Shastra. Only few traces of them remain.
How much theremay have been is not known. Some say, thirty-two, and others sixty-four.
However there are many works of acknowledged antiquity that talk about thirty-two principal
ones. The origins of the Silpa Sastra remain unknown. Some writers of these texts claim that
the origins were to be found in the Vedic literature.
Vāstu Śastra represents a body of ancient concepts and knowledge to many modern architects, a
guideline but not a rigid code. The square-grid mandala is viewed as a model of organisation, not
as a ground plan. The ancient Vāstu Śastra texts describe functional relations and adaptable
alternate layouts for various rooms or buildings and utilities, but do not mandate a set
compulsory architecture. Sachdev and Tillotson state that the mandala is a guideline, and
employing the mandala concept of Vāstu Śastra does not mean every room or building has to be
square. The basic theme is around core elements of central space, peripheral zones, direction
with respect to sunlight, and relative functions of the spaces.
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The pink city Jaipur in Rajasthan was master planned by Rajput king Jai Singh and built by 1727
CE, in part around Vastu Shilpa Sastra principles. Similarly, modern era projects such as the
architect Charles Correa's designed Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya in Ahmedabad, Vidhan
Bhavan in Bhopal, and Jawahar Kala Kendra in Jaipur, adapt and apply concepts from the Vastu
Shastra Vidya. In the design of Chandigarh city, Le Corbusier incorporated modern architecture
theories with those of Vastu Shastra.
During the colonial rule period of India, town planning officials of the British Raj did not
consider Vastu Vidya, but largely grafted Islamic Mughal era motifs and designs such as domes
and arches onto Victorian-era style buildings without overall relationship layout. This
movement, known as Indo-Saracenic architecture, is found in chaotically laid out, but externally
grand structures in the form of currently used major railway stations, harbours, tax collection
buildings, and other colonial offices in South Asia.
Vāstu Śastra Vidya was ignored, during colonial era construction, for several reasons. These
texts were viewed by 19th and early 20th century architects as archaic, the literature was
inaccessible being in an ancient language not spoken or read by the architects, and the ancient
texts assumed space to be readily available. In contrast, public projects in the colonial era were
forced into crowded spaces and local layout constraints, and the ancient Vastu sastra were
viewed with prejudice as superstitious and rigid about a square grid or traditional materials of
construction. German architect Klaus-Peter Gast states that the principles of Vāstu Śastras is
witnessing a major revival and wide usage in the planning and design of individual homes,
residential complexes, commercial and industrial campuses, and major public projects in India,
along with the use of ancient iconography and mythological art work incorporated into the Vastu
vidya architectures.
Vastu and superstition
The use of Vastu shastra and Vastu consultants in modern home and public projects is
controversial. Some architects, particularly during India's colonial era, considered it arcane and
superstitious. Other architects state that critics have not read the texts and that most of the text is
about flexible design guidelines for space, sunlight, flow and function.
Sanskrit treatises on Architecture; Of the numerous Sanskrit treatises mentioned in ancient
Indian literature, some have been translated in English. Many Agamas, Puranas and Hindu
scriptures include chapters on architecture of temples, homes, villages, towns, fortifications,
streets, shop layout, public wells, public bathing, public halls, gardens, river fronts among other
things. In some cases, the manuscripts are partially lost, some are available only in Tibetan,
Nepalese or South Indian languages, while in others original Sanskrit manuscripts are available
in different parts of India. Some treatises, or books with chapters on Vaastu Shastra include:
1. Manasara
2. Brhat samhita
3. Mayamata
4. Anka sastra
5. Aparajita Vāstu Śastra
6. Maha-agamas (28 books, each with 12 to 75 chapters)
7. Ayadi Lakshana
8. Aramadi Pratishtha Paddhati (includes garden design)
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9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
Kasyapiya
Kupadi Jala Sthana Lakshana
Kshetra Nirmana Vidhi (preparation of land and foundation of buildings including
temples)
Gargya samhita (pillars, doors, windows, wall design and architecture)
Griha Pithika (types of houses and their construction)
Ghattotsarga Suchanika (riverfront and steps architecture)
Chakra sastra
Jnana ratna kosha
Vastu sarani (measurement, ratio and design layouts of objects, particularly buildings)
Devalaya Lakshana (treatise on construction of temples)
Dhruvadi shodasa gehani (guidelines for arrangement of buildings with respect to each
other for harmony)
Nava sastra (36 books, most lost)
Agni Purana (Chapters 42 through 55, and 106 - Nagaradi Vastu)
Matsya Purana (Chapters 252 through 270)
Maya samgraha
Prasada kirtana
Prasada Lakshana
Tachchu sastra (primarily home design for families)
Manushyalaya Lakshana (primarily human dwelings)
Manushyalaya Chandrika
Mantra dipika
Mana kathana (measurement principles)
Manava vastu lakshana
Manasollasa (chapters on house layout, mostly ancient cooking recipes)
Raja griha nirmana (architecture and construction principles for royal palaces)
Rupa mandana
Vastu chakra
Vastu tattva
Vastu nirnaya
Vastu purusha lakshana
Vastu prakasa
Vastu pradipa
Vastu manjari
Vastu mandana
Vastu lakshana
Vastu vichara
Vastu Vidya
Vastu vidhi
Vastu samgraha
Vastu sarvasva
Vimana lakshana (tower design)
Visvakarma prakasa (home, roads, water tanks and public works architecture)
Vaikhanasa
Sastra jaladhi ratna
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53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
Silpa prakasa
Silpakala Dipika
Silpartha Śastra
Sanatkumara Vāstu Śastra
Samarangana Sutradhara
What is now generally accepted is that “In ancient India, all compositions, whether
religious, literary, or legal, were originally memorized and handed down orally from one
generation to another. A particular composition would thus be the intellectual property of
one group of followers of the composer and they preserved and guarded it to prevent its
appropriation by others. This monopoly over a composition gave them a special status in
society, in addition to brining them rich clients. By composing in Sanskrit, the language of
the Gods, the group gained an even higher, almost semi-divine status and were recognized
as ‘Brahmans’.” … “This spurred all other groups of composers and craftsmen who had
hitherto been using popular dialects, to also convert to Sanskrit.”
The intention of these texts was to show that they now had the status of learned Brahmans
and they not only wrote technical, but also gave esoteric, magical, mystical, and
astrological prescriptions to buildings. This included a whole set or rules of dimensions and
proportions that were considered to make a structure theologically and ritually sound6.
There is something curious about the Silpa Sastra. None of the temples researched so far
are built according to these Silpa inscriptions. The reason given why the temples didn’t fit
with the text is because the texts themselves were not meant for other people then their own
family. The number of Silpa texts has thus always been limited. The owner of a text would
certainly follow the inscriptions when he constructed a building for clients, but those
without these texts would copy these buildings but without the esoteric aspects whose very
presence was often unknown and invisible to others. It is thus not surprising that texts
generally do not match reality. In the real world of architectural construction, temples were
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built by imitation: one generation copying the predecessor or one rival architect, but always
with some minor modifications to keep client interest alive. That is why temples in each
region show so much a similarity to each other and yet do not match texts.
There are only a few old works treating the Silpa Sastra. Of which the work Mánasára is
the most perfect one, but also Mayamatam has a great value. These texts were probably
written around 450 till 550 AD. Not a lot of study has been done on these manuscripts or
Indian architecture in general. Till the 1990s only 17 works have been written on the
subject (See table 1). The task of this essay will be to combine the knowledge about Indian
architecture and make it more accessible.
The role of the architect
In the Mánasára it is explained where the architect comes from and what his tasks are. First
you have the architect of the universe. That is Visva-karman and he comes from Siva,
Brahma and Indra. Visva-karman has four faces. The eastern face is called Visva-bhu and
he is the progenitor of the universe. The southern face is called Visva-vit and he is the
knower of the universe. The northern face is called Visvastha and he is the resident of the
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universe. Finally, the western face is called Visva-srastar and he is the creator of the
universe.
From these four faces four children were born. From the eastern face Visva-karma was
born. From the southern face Maya was born, from the northern face Tvashtar was born.
And from the western face Manu was born. All these children then married. Visva-karma
to the daughter of Indra, Maya to the daughter of Surendra, Tvashtar married the daughter
of Vaisravana and Manu married the daughter of Nala.
Each of these couples got one son who is important for the role of the architect. The son of
Visva-karman is called sthapati or master-builder. The son of Maya is known as sutragrahin or draftsman. The son of Tvashtar is known as vardhaci or designer. The son of
Manu is called takshaka or carpenter.
Of these four architects the master builder (sthapati) is the most important one. He is the
guide or guru of the other three, but he also needs to have the best knowledge. He needs to
know all the branches of knowledge, knows the Vedas, is deeply learned in the science of
architecture and knows how to direct.
The draftsman (sutra-grahin) also knows the different branches of knowledge, knows the
Vedas and he is an expert in drawing.
The designer (vardhaki) knows the Vedas, has a capability of judging correctly in
architectural matters, and is an expert in the work of painting.
The carpenter (takshaka) knows carpentry well, is sociable, helpful to colleagues, faithful
to his friends and kind in nature. He should study the Vedas.
The Mánasára describes that building-work can nowhere in the world be done without the
help of these four people..
Vastupurusa
For the basis of Hindú architecture often reference is made to Vastupurusa or “the spirit of
the site”. One legend explains this as follows. There was an evil demigod (bhuta) who was
born during Siva’s fight with the Asur Andhaka. This bhuta possessed a terrifying
countenance and an insatiable hunger. The legend goes that having done great penance, the
bhuta won a boon from Siva that allowed him to swallow the three worlds that constitute
the Hindu cosmos. As this being stretched himself and began to occupy the heavens, he
fell flat on the earth. The various gods and demigods seized this opportunity and pinned
various parts of his body to the ground, rendering him helpless. This being came to be
called Vast (or Vastupurusa) because the gods and demigods managed to lodge themselves
on his body. Legends hold that the deities, in pinning him down, occupied different parts of
his body and continued to reside there (Figure1). In order to satisfy his hunger, Brahma
ordained that he receive offerings from people on building sites before construction.
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The ancient Indian text Mayamatam on Vastu Sastra, written thousands of years ago, explains
the legend of the Vastu Purusha. According to Hindu mythology, in the beginning Brahma the
creator of the Universe, experimented with a new creature. He created a large cosmic man, who
grew rapidly as he began to devour everything in his path to satisfy his insatiable hunger. When
he became unmanageably big so that his shadow fell on the Earth like a permanent eclipse, the
gods Shiva and Vishnu begged Brahma to do something before everything was destroyed by this
Creature. T Brahma realised his mistake and called the Astha Dikapalakas – the Gods of the
eight cardinal directions. Together, they overpowered the monster and held it flat against the
Earth while Brahma jumped on it’s middle. Then the Monster cried out to Brahma, “You created
me like this. So why am I being punished?” Brahma offered him a compromise and made the
Monster immortal with the boon that he would be worshiped by any mortal that builds a structure
on earth. He was named Vastu Purusha.
he body of the Vastupurusa is supposed to be sensitive at a number of points called
marmas. The well-being of the Vastupurusa assures the well-being of the building and, by
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implication, its owner. An important criterion for any building, therefore, is to avoid injury
to the marmas located on the body of the Vastupurusa. To ensure that this is achieved, texts
prohibit any direct construction upon the marmas themselves. The marmas are specifically
said to lie at the intersection of major diagonals, seen as the veins (siras or nadis) of the
purusa.
The system of measurement
In Indian architecture a different measurement system than in the west was used.
Name
Description of size
Paramánu
The particle perceptible only to the eyes of
the sages, or something like atoms.
8 paramánus = 1 ratharénu
Like the grain or dust raised up by the
wheels of carriages.
8 ratharénus = 1 valágra
Like the point of a hair
8 valágras = 1 louse
8 lice = grain of yava
3 or 3,5 or 4 yavas = 1 angula
Like the finger of the inferior, middle and
superior sorts respectively
12 angulas = 1 vitasti or span
2 vitastis = 1 hasta or cubit = 24 angulas
26 angulas = 1 dhanurgraha
Like the handle of a bow
4 hastas = 1 dhanus or danda
Like a bow or rod
8 dandas = 1 rajju
Like a rope
There are also some very broad descriptions for the dimensions of buildings. All the
buildings may be 24 angulas, but it is better to make them more specified.
Conveyances (yána) and couches (sayana) have to be 24 angulas
Temples (vimána) have to be 25 angulas
Building’s (vástu) in general have to be 26 angulas
Villages have to be 27 angulas
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Vastu Shastra gives the directive principles regarding construction of buildings so as not to
displease the Vastu Purusha. These principles are explained with the help of the diagram called
the Vastu Purusha Mandala.
Explained here is the Vastu Principle – Vastu Purusha Mandala. The Vastu principle – Vastu
Purusha Mandala is one of the five Vastu Principles which are used as a guide for designing and
planning proportionate, aesthetic and beautiful buildings with the right measurements. Since
Vastu is a science, it is based on logic and reasoning.
Vastu Purusha Mandala: Detailed Explanation
In the diagram we see Vastu Purusha pinned down facing earth with his head in the North-East
direction and leg towards South-West direction.
It was a collective effort of 45 Gods (including Brahma) to pin Vastu Purusha down.
Vastu Purusha Mandala is divided in to 9×9= 81 parts (as shown in the diagram), each part
names the God holding Vastu Purusha down in respective part.There are 32 Gods in outer part
and 13 Gods in inner part.This means that there is presence of different Gods in Vastu Purusha
Mandala and each of these Gods rule different parts of a human life as per their qualities.This is
the reason why while making rooms in a home, we make sure not to offend any deity of that
area.Vastu Shastra lays guidelines and principles to keep all deities happy at all times.
Hence as per vastu shastra if any building is constructed as per Vastu Purusha Mandala then
prosperity prevails in the building and inhabitants are always happy, healthy, wealthy and
satisfied.As humans, depending upon the time, we perform many functions throughout a day.For
example, we sleep at night, get-up in the morning, work in daytime and again go to sleep at
night.Also, we perform all these activities at different locations in a home or any other building,
such as office, workshop etc.We all know that we have 24 hours in a day due to rotation of earth
on its axis and the position of sunlight changes constantly during 24 hours due to this rotation.
Depending upon the position of Sun in relation to earth during a 24 hour period, our ancient
Sages structured various rooms of a home in such a way so that during anytime in a day,
depending upon the location of work, humans get the best rays of sun on them.
Let’s understand the importance of location of rooms based on direction:1. North-East: In morning, from 3:00 am to 6:00 am, Sun is in the North-East part of
house. This patch of time between 3:00 am to 6:00 am is called as Brahma Mahurat and
is best for meditation, yoga, exercise or study. Hence North-East part of a home is best
suited for a pooja/prayer room, living room or even study room.
2. East: The Sun remains from 6:00 am to 9:00 am in East portion of a home, this time is
best to get ready for the day ahead and hence East is best suitable for a bathroom (only
bathroom, not toilet). However, this portion can also be used for living room, unmarried
children’s bedroom, guest bedroom, dining room, pooja room and even study room.
3. South-East: 9:00 am to 12:00 noon is the time when Sun is in the South-East part of
home and this time is best for preparing food and going to job. Hence this location is best
suited to place a kitchen, office or unmarried son’s bedroom in a home.
4. South: The time between 12 noon and 3:00 pm is time to work, during this time the Sun
is in southern portion of a building and hence this location is good for office. In this
portion, the intensity of sunlight is very high and hence South can also be used as a store
room, staircase and even toilets.
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5. South-West: Post lunch is the time to rest i.e. from 3:00 pm to 6:00 pm. During this time
the sun is in South-West portion of a home and hence this location is best for master
bedroom. Also a staircase or strong room can be located here.
6. West: The time between 6:00 pm to 9:00 pm is best time to relax and dine. Thats why
this is the best location to have dining room in a home. One can also use this portion to
locate children’s bedroom, prayer room, study room or a staircase.
7. North-West: The time between 9:00 pm to 12:00 am is the time to relax and sleep.
Hence this location is best suited for a bedroom. However, this portion can also be used
as living room.
8. North: The time between 12:00 am and 3:00 am is the time of secrecy and darkness;
hence this portion of home is best suitable for cash room or strong room. However this
portion is also used as living room or dining room.
I know, it would be difficult for you to remember each direction along with favorable rooms, but
you can always look at the diagram (even print it) for a handy and detailed reference.
The diagram below helps you to identify the best location for different rooms in home as per
vastu shastra.
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Your next step in learning vastu shastra is understanding of vastu for each portion or room in a
home.
The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Vastu Purusha Mandala layout for Hindu Temples. It is one of 32
Vastu Purusha Mandala grid patterns described in Vastu sastras. In this grid structure of
symmetry, each concentric layer has significance. ABOVE
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The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana. Mandala "circle-circumference" or
"completion", is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both Hinduism
and Buddhism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala – in Pitha (9)
and Upapitha (25) it occupies one square module, in Mahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36)
and Manduka (64), four square modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine
square modules. The Pitha is an amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts, the
central space is occupied by earth. The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric manner.
The most important mandala is the Manduka/Chandita Mandala of 64 squares and the
Paramasaayika Mandala of 81 squares. The normal position of the Vastu Purusha (head in the
northeast, legs in the southwest) is as depicted in the Paramasaayika Mandala. However, in the
Manduka Mandala the Vastu Purusha is depicted with the head facing east and the feet facing
west.
It is believed that every piece of a land or a building has a soul of its own and that soul is known
as Vastu Purusha. A site of any shape can be divided using the Pada Vinyasa. Sites are known by
the number of squares. They range from 1x1 to 32x32 (1024) square sites. Examples of mandalas
with the corresponding names of sites include:
Sakala (1 square) corresponds to Eka-pada (single divided site)
Pechaka (4 squares) corresponds to Dwi-pada (two divided site)
Pitha (9 squares) corresponds to Tri-pada (three divided site)
Mahaapitha (16 squares) corresponds to Chatush-pada (four divided site)
Upapitha (25 squares) corresponds to Pancha-pada (five divided site)
Ugrapitha (36 squares) corresponds to Shashtha-pada (six divided site)
Sthandila (49 squares) corresponds to Sapta-pada (seven divided site)
Manduka/ Chandita (64 square) corresponds to Ashta-pada (eight divided site)
Paramasaayika (81 squares) corresponds to Nava-pada (nine divided site)
Aasana (100 squares) corresponds to Dasa-pada (ten divided site)
Bhadrmahasan (196 squares) corresponds to Chodah-pada (14 divided sites)
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PART II
Examples of Hindu Temples as Mandalas
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CHAPTER VI
CAMBODIAN Temple designs- and Hindu Cosmology-
Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. Its architecture is majestic and its representation
of form and movement from Indian mythology has astonishing grace and power.
Time, Space, and Astronomy in Angkor Wat-SubhashKakDepartment of Electrical & Computer
Engineering Louisiana State University
Introduction:
The Khmer,
officially
the Angkor
Empire,the predecessor
state to
modern Cambodia ("Kampuchea"), was a Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia. The empire, which grew
out of the former kingdoms of Funan and Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalised most of mainland
Southeast Asiaand parts of Southern China, stretching from the tip of the Indochinese Peninsula northward to
modern Yunnan province, China, and from Vietnam westward to Myanmar. The beginning of the era of the
Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802 CE when King Jayavarman II declared
himself chakravartin ("king of the world", or "king of kings") on Phnom Kulen. The empire ended with the fall
of Angkor in the 15th century.
Its greatest legacy is Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, which was the site of the capital city during the
empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and Bayon, bear testimony to the
Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture, architectural technique, aesthetics
achievements, and the variety of belief systems that it patronised over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that
Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to 13th centuries, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.
After the construction of many Hindu temples over several centuries and now perfecting the art of temple
building-art, design, architecture and construction methods, the flight of fancy of the Angkor kings took
off in successive generations. Khmer art and architecture can be said to have reached their aesthetic and
technical peak with the construction of the majestic temple Angkor Wat. Other temples are also
constructed in the Angkor region, such as Ta Phrom and Bayon. The construction of the temple
demonstrates the artistic and technical achievements of the Khmer Empire through its architectural
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mastery of stone masonry.The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design. According
to Maurice Glaize, 1a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by
the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its
proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style."
Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped
like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the
cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements
are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The
statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work.
Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time,
including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling
panels and doors.
Hindu Religious Architecture: In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on
religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the
period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious
buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not
survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which
are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one
another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the
period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source
Temple complexes
Although early temples in south India may have been made of disposable materials as early as the first
few centuries of the Common Era, permanent temple structures appear about the 3rd and 4th centuries, as
attested in early Tamil literature. From the Gupta period onward, Hindu temples became larger and more
prominent, and their architecture developed in distinctive regional styles.
The 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat is based on Dravidian architecture, it was designed as a pyramid
representing the structure of the universe: the highest level at the center of the temple represented Mount
Meru, the home of the Hindu gods, with the five towers on the highest level representing the five peaks of
the mountain. The broad moat around the complex represented the oceans that surround the world.
It is also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Buddhist,
Jain, and Hindu cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and
spiritual universes.Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built as
symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" xūmízuò style base is a common feature
of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof,
represents Mount Meru.
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South
Indian, and Indianised architecture of Cambodian, Annamese (Khmer) and Javanese temples (of
the Greater India. of evidence for dating the remains. Khmer architecture known also as Angkorian
architecture is the architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of the Khmer
Empire from approximately the latter half of the 8th century CE to the first half of the 15th century CE.
But is basically the same architecture as visualized by the designers of temples in the Chola and Gupta
dynasties. The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It was built by the
Khmer King Suryavarman II as a temple complex dedicated to Vishnu in the early 12th century
in Yaśodharapura present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual
mausoleum. Its architecture takes a break from the earlier Shaiva tradition of previous kings. As the bestpreserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its
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foundation. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's
prime attraction for visitors.
Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the
later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology:
within a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three
rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers.
Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the
significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its
extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls.Angkor Wat is said to be a
‘miniature replica of the universe in stone’ and represents an earthly model of the cosmic world.
Astronomical designs: Astronomical significance:
Astronomy and Hindu cosmology are inseparably entwined at Angkor Wat. Nowhere is this more evident
than in the interior colonnade, which is dedicated to a vast and glorious carved mural, a bas-relief
illustrating the gods as well as scenes from the Hindu epic the Mahabharata. Along the east wall is a 45meter (150-foot) scene illustrating the "churning of the sea of milk," a creation myth in which the gods
attempt to churn the elixir of immortality out of the milk of time. The north wall depicts the "day of the
gods," along the west wall is a great battle scene from the Mahabharata, and the south wall portrays the
kingdom of Yama, the god of death. It has been suggested that the choice and arrangement of these scenes
was intended to tie in with the seasons—the creation scene of the east wall is symbolic of the renewal of
spring, the "day of the gods" is summer, the great battle on the west wall may represent the decline of
autumn, and the portrayal of Yama might signify the dormancy, the lifeless time of winter.
The architecture of Angkor Wat also has numerous astronomical aspects beyond the basic mandala plan
that is common to other Hindu temples. As many as eighteen astronomical alignments have been
identified within its walls. To mention but three of them: when standing just inside the western entrance,
the Sun rises over the central tower on the spring (vernal) equinox; it rises over a distant temple at
PrasatKukBangro, 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles) away, on the winter solstice; and on the summer solstice it
rises over a prominent hill 17.5 kilometers (10.9 miles) away.
According to Graham Hancock, Angkor Wat and all the temples were conceived by its builders as a
symbolic diagram of the universe. The notion of a land that is the image of heaven on which are built
cosmic temples with halls that resemble the sky was an idea that took root in Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat
consists of a series of five inter nested rectangular enclosures. The short dimensions are aligned with high
precision to true north-south, showing no deviation whatever according to modern surveys. The long
dimensions are oriented, equally precisely, to an axis that has been deliberately diverted 0.75 degrees
south of east and north of west.
The first and outermost of the five rectangles that we find ourselves looking down on from the air is the
moat. Measured along its outer edge it runs 1300 meters north to south and 1500 meters from east to
west.Its ditch, (moat) 190 meters wide, has walls made from closely fitted blocks of red sandstone set out
with such precision that the accumulated surveying error around the entire 5.6 kilometers of the perimeter
amounts to barely a centimeter.
Angkor Wats principal entrance is on the west side where a megalithic causeway 347 meters long and 9.4
meters wide bears due east across the moat and then passes under a massive gate let into the walls of the
second of the five rectangles. This second enclosure measures 1025 x 800 meters. The causeway
continues eastward through it, past lawns and subsidiary structure and a large reflecting pool, until it rises
on to a cruciform terrace leading into the lowest gallery of the temple itself. This is the third of the five
inter nested rectangles visible from the air and precision engineering and surveying are again in evidence
with the northern and southern walls, for example, being of identical lengths, exactly 202.14 meters.
Ascending to the fourth rectangle, the fourth level of Angkor Wats gigantic central pyramid, the same
precision can be observed. The northern and southern walls measure respectively 114.24 and 114.22
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meters. At the fifth and last enclosure, the top level of the pyramid which reaches a height of 65 mts
above the entrance causeway the northern wall is 47.75 mts in length and the southern wall 47.79 mts.
According to a study published in the journal Science, these minute differences, less than 0.01 percent,
demonstrates an astounding degree of accuracy on the part of the ancient builders.
Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the basreliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka2argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace
under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the
sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and
corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the
heavens above. Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in
academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that
Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco.3Draco is a constellation in the far
northern sky. Its name is Latin for dragon. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century
astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. The north pole of
the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco is circumpolar (that is, never setting), and can be seen all year from
northern latitudes.The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of the Spring Equinox.
Angkor Wat as a Mandala.
Mandala: According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples
must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the temple
should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the recurrent time
sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should also be aligned with the
planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples become spiritual, political,
cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in other words, intended to represent
microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—diagrams of the universe.7
Concentric galleries: Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E, is a unique combination of
the temple mountain (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of
concentric galleries. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that there was a celestial significance
with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east-west orientation, and lines of
sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the sunrise
on a solstice. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the
central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize
the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively
more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level. Freeman and Jacques, however,
note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that
Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west.
Mount Meru: Mount Meru (Sanskrit: मेर)ु , also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is
the sacred five-peaked mountain Hindu cosmology and is considered to be the center of all
physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well
as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne"
style base is a common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a
Burmese-style multi-tiered roof, represents Mount Meru.
Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru to which is added the approbatory prefix su,
resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". Meru is also the name of the central bead
in a mālā. The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru, all references to it being as a part of the Cosmic
Ocean, with several statements that say, "The Sun along with all the planets circle the mountain," make
determining its location most difficult, according to most scholars. Some researchers identify Mount
Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs, northwest of Kashmir.
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There exist several versions of cosmology in existing Hindu texts. In one of them, cosmologically, the
Merumountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva
Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south. The concept of a holy
mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture
with a Shikhara , a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak". Early examples of this style can
be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath Temple of the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, western
India. This concept also continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers
of Hindu temples.4
Indigenous to the Cambodian architecture and not at all the Gupta or Chola forms the Angkor, and other
temples in Cambodia were built as a symbolic representation of Mount Meru. Mount Meru
of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high (about 1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would
be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun along with all the planets in the Solar System revolve around
Mt. Meru as one unit.
One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles) though its magnitude seems to differ over time
periods, e.g. the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Vārāhamihira and slightly less so in
the Āryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The MatsyaPurana and
the BhāgvataPurāna along with some other Hindu texts consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to
Mount Meru which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers. Mount Meru was said to be the
residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity.
According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash5is identified with Mount Meru. One description in
the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis
lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus.
The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to
"mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also
continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Merutowers.In Buddhist temples
the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is an earliest example of the 5th-6th century. Many other Buddhist
temples took on its form such as in Thailand the WatArun and in Myanmar the Hsinbyume Pagoda.4
The temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a passageway running along the length of the
temple) with a central sanctuary, marked by five stone towers.The five central towers of Angkor Wat
symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru, which according to Hindu mythology is the dwelling place
of the gods. The mountain is said to be surrounded by an ocean, and the complex's enormous
moat suggests the oceans at the edge of the world. 6.
The Khmer temples were a microcosmic expression of the Hindu cosmological universe. The daily
worship of Hindus and Buddhists requires pilgrimage to a temple culminating with praying and/or
meditating at the centre of the temple where the human soul experienced transcendence from the endless
suffering and repetition of birth and rebirth.
For example, if we study Angkor Wat’s foundational geometry- expresses Vedic ideas relating to not only
the microcosm and macrocosm but also to calendric time and cosmological concepts. Adhering to ancient
principles of sacred architecture temple designers took numbers from natural cycles and cosmological
ideas and converted them into lengths and building units, which were regarded as sacred measurements
and divine building modules, respectively. Angkor Wat’s sacred measurements were based on
multiplications and divisions of the Cambodian cubit or hat (0.43545 m).
Angkor Wat was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura, the
capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva
tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu.Originally built as a Hindu
temple dedicated to the god Vishnu, it was converted into a Buddhist temple in the 14th century, and
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statues of Buddha were added to its already rich artwork. Sometime later it was turned into a military
fortification. Today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that scientists are struggling to preserve.
Its 213-foot-tall (65 meters) central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers and a series of enclosure
walls, a layout that recreates the image ofMount Meru, a legendary place in Hindu mythology that issaid
to lie beyond the Himalayas and be the home of the gods
The city where the temple was built, Angkor, is located in modern-day Cambodia and was once the
capital of the Khmer Empire. This city contains hundreds of temples. The population may have been over
1 million people. It was easily the largest city in the world until the Industrial Revolution.
Angkor had an urban core that could easily have held 500,000 people and a vast hinterland that had many
more inhabitants airborne laser scanning (lidar) research has shown. Researchers have also identified a
“lost” city called Mahendraparvata, which is located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of Angkor Wat.
Cosmological Architecture
Angkor Wat itself is surrounded by a 650-foot-wide (200 m) moat that encompasses a perimeter of more
than 3 miles (5 km). This moat is 13 feet deep (4 m) and would have helped stabilize the temple’s
foundation, preventing groundwater from rising too high or falling too low.Angkor Wat’s main entrance
was to the west (a direction associated with Vishnu) across a stone causeway, with guardian lions
marking the way. Recently, archaeologists found the remains of eight towers made of sandstone and
laterite by the western gateway. These towers may be the remains of shrines that were in use before
Angkor Wat was fully constructed. To the east of the temple was a second, more modest, entrance.
The heart of the temple was the central tower, entered by way of a steep staircase, a statue of Vishnu at
top. This tower “was at once the symbolic center of the nation and the actual center where secular and
sacred power joined forces,” writes researcher Eleanor Mannikka in the book “Angkor: Celestial Temples
of the Khmer Empire”.2
Hidden paintings have been discovered in the central tower. One chamber in the tower has a scene
showing a traditional Khmer ensemble of musical instruments known as the pinpeat, which is made up of
different gongs, xylophones, wind instruments and other percussion instruments. In the same chamber,
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there’s also an intricate scene featuring people riding horses between two structures, which might be
temples. These two paintings are among 200 that have been discovered in Angkor Wat since 2010.
A mile long sand structure containing a variety of spiral designs was recently discovered beside Angkor
Wat by archaeologists using lidar. It would have existed for a brief period during the mid-to-late 12th
century. Archaeologists are not certain what it was used for, and it’s possible that the structure was never
completed.
The remains of homes and ponds used by workers who lived near Angkor Wat, and serviced the temple,
were also found recently during lidar research.
Legend Behind the Temple
The builder of Angkor Wat was a king named Suryavarman II. A usurper, he came to power in his
teenage years by killing his great uncle, Dharanindravarman I, while he was riding an elephant. An
inscription says that Suryavarman killed the man “as Garuda [a mythical bird] on a mountain ledge would
kill a serpent.”Suryavarman’s bloodlust would continue into his rule; he launched attacks into Vietnam in
an effort to gain control over the territory. He also made peaceful diplomatic advances, re-opening
relations with China.He venerated the god Vishnu, a deity often depicted as a protector, and installed a
statue of the god in Angkor Wat’s central tower. This devotion can also be seen in one of the most
remarkable reliefs at Angkor Wat, located in the southeast of the temple. The relief shows a chapter in the
Hindu story of creation known as the “churning of the sea of milk.”
As archaeologist Michael Coe writes, the relief “describes how the devas (gods) and the asuras (demons)
churned the ocean under the aegis of Vishnu, to produce the divine elixir of immortality.” Scholars
consider this relief to be one of the finest art pieces at Angkor Wat. Suryavarman’s devotion to Vishnu is
also shown in the posthumous name he was given, “Paramavishnuloka” which, according to researcher
Hélène Legendre-De Koninck, means “he who is in the supreme abode of Vishnu.”
Hinduism & Angkor Wat
Although Angkor Wat is dedicated to Vishnu, the full purpose of the temple is still debated. One question
is whether the ashes of Suryavarman II were interred in the monument, perhaps in the same chamber
where the deposits were found. If that were the case it would give the temple a funerary meaning.
Mannikka has noted that Angkor Wat is located at 13.41 degrees north in latitude and that the north-south
axis of the central tower’s chamber is 13.43 cubits long. This, Mannikka believes, is not an accident. “In
the central sanctuary, Vishnu is not only placed at the latitude of Angkor Wat, he is also placed along the
axis of the earth,” she writes, pointing out that the Khmer knew the Earth was round.In addition, in her
writing, Mannikka notes a dozen lunar alignments with Angkor Wat’s towers, suggesting that it served an
important astronomical role. “During the long and clear Cambodian nights, when the stars filled every
inch of the black sky, the astronomer-priests stood on the long western causeway … and recorded the
movements of the moon against the towers in the top two galleries of the temple.”– based on the
movement of the moon but synchronising with the solar year to avoid seasonal drift – which was
accomplished by adding an additional month or day to a particular year. The days in a solar year were
represented by lengths of 360, 365, or 366 units. Days in lunar months (naksatras) were lengths of 27,
28, 29 units and a lunar year was 354 days.2
Two good examples of lunar and solar day counts being converted into lengths and integrated into the
architecture of Angkor Wat are:
LUNAR GEOMETRY
The number of days in a lunar year was 354 and the distance between the Naga balustrade and the first
step at the end of the walkway, to the upper elevation, is 354 meters.
SOLAR GEOMETRY
Solar numbers are present in the external axial dimensions of the topmost elevation of the central tower,
which is 189.00 cubits east to west and 176.37 cubits north to south. Together they have a the sum
of 365.37 almost exactly the length of the solar year.
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Between 879 – 1191 AD the Khmer empire extended from what is now southern Vietnam to Yunan,
China and westward to the Bay of Bengal. The great Hindu temple complex of Angkor Wat in Cambodia
was built by Emperor Suryavarman II who reigned between AD 1113-50 on a scale repeated nowhere else
on the planet, making Angkor Wat the largest religious monument in the world, with the site measuring
162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m2; 402 acres).At that time London, England, housed around 18’000 people
while Angkor Wat was a grand social and administrative metropolis, the largest city in the world, with
over a million inhabitants. Angkor Wat can be conceptualised as a heavenly portal on earth. At the
very centre of the temple is the most sacred place in the complex, where humans and universal
polar opposites united as a perceived column of creation energy flowing from the heavens and
emanating from the temple outwards across the kingdom, thus effecting the fate of fields and
humans.
For a lengthy and comprehensive treatment to the Mount Meru concept in Hinduism please visit
http://www.iskcon-truth.com/bhu-mandala/jambudvipa-varshas.html
Origins:
The origins of the temple lie in what may be the world's oldest religious text, the Rigveda, one of the four
Veda Samhitas of Hindu literature. This text describes the gods of heaven and earth, including the earthly
god Vishnu, The Preserver. It is to Vishnu that Angkor Wat is consecrated, and with more than mere
symbolic intent. Hindu temples were built to be earthly abodes for the gods. The central sanctuary was the
most sacred place, directly in line with the vertical axis of the central spire that provided the connection
between the realms of heaven and Earth. The surrounding architecture of the temple would then mirror
Hindu cosmology, being essentially a mandala in stone a diagram of the cosmos itself. Furthermore, the
Khmer civilization had by the time of Angkor Wat's construction incorporated the idea that a king would,
after his death, be transmuted into one of the gods. Hence, it was at Angkor Wat that Suryavarman II,
after his death, was believed to reside as Vishnu.
The Draco-Angkor Correlation
The principal monuments of Angkor model the sinuous coils of the northern constellation of
Draco. There seems to be no doubt that a correlation exists: the correspondence between the
principal stars of Draco and at least fifteen of the main pyramid-temples of Angkor are too close
to be called anything else.Draco is a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name
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is Latin for dragon. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century
astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. The north pole of
the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco is circumpolar (that is, never setting), and can be seen all year
from northern latitudes.It is inferred that the existence of the constellation was known by the
Khmer people and that their study of astronomy was immaculate.
Cycles of the Ages
A detailed survey of Angkor Wat published in Science magazine in July 1976 revealed that even the
causeway incorporates cosmic symbolism and numbers encoding the cycles of time. After establishing the
basic unit of measure used in Angkor as the Khme hat (equivalent to 0.43434 meters) the authors of the
survey go on to demonstrate that axial lengths along the causeway appear to have been adjusted to
symbolize or represent the great world ages of Hindu cosmology.These periods begin with the
1. Krita Yuga or golden age of man- 1,728,000 years
2. Treta Yuga, 1,296,000 years
3. Dvarpara Yuga 864,000 years and
4. Kali Yuga, the last being the most decadent age of man- 432,000 years.
It therefore cannot be an accident that key sections of the causeway have axial lengths that approximate
extremely closely to 1,728 hat, 1,296 hat, 864 hat, and 432 hat the yuga lengths scaled down by 1000. We
propose, conclude the authors, that the passage of time is numerically expressed by the lengths
corresponding to yugas along the west-east axis. Angkor wats dominant feature is its long and massive
east-west axis which locks it uncompromisingly to sunrise and sunset on the equinoxes. In addition, the
temple is cleverly anchored to ground and sky by markers for other key astronomical moments of the
year. For example, reports Science:
It is interesting to note that there are two solstitial alignments from the western entrance gate of Angkor
Wat. These two alignments (added to the equinoctial alignment already established) mean that the entire
solar year was divided into four major sections by alignments from just inside the entrance of Angkor
Wat. From this western vantage point the sun rises over Phnom Bok (17.4 kilometers to the north-east) on
the day of the summer solstice. The western entrance gate of the temple also has a winter solstice
alignment with the temple of PrastKuk Bangro,5.5 kilometres of the south-east.
Finally, some researchers have claimed that the very dimensions of many of the structures at Angkor Wat
have astronomical associations. These associations emerge from consideration of the unit of length that
was in use at that time, a unit known as the hat or "Cambodian cubit." There is some question as to how
long a hat was, and indeed its definition may not have been uniformly applied; but a value of 43.45
centimeters (17.1 inches) for the length of a hat is suggested by the structures themselves.Using this
value, archaeologists discovered numerous dimensions of the temple that seem to have astronomical and
cosmological significance for example, the following:
1. The dimensions of the highest rectangular level of the temple are 189 hat in the east-west
direction and 176 hat in the north-south direction. Added together these give 365, the number of
days in one year.
2. In the central sanctuary, the distances between sets of steps is approximately 12 hat. There are
roughly 12 lunar cycles, or synodic months (from full Moon to full Moon, say the basis for our
modern month) in one year.The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91
hat. On average, there are 91 days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any equinox and
the next solstice.
3. Because of its orbit around the Earth, the Moon's apparent position in the sky relative to the
background stars will appear to shift from night to night. Since it takes the Moon just over 27
days to complete one orbit (known as its sidereal period), it will, during this time appear to move
through 27 successive regions of the sky. In Hindu cosmology, these regions were known as the
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naksatras, or lunar mansions. In some contexts there were 27 lunar mansions, while in other
contexts an additional naksatra containing the star Vega was included, giving 28 lunar mansions.
-
Quincunx A quincunx is a geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross, with four of
them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of five units in the
pattern corresponding to the five-spot on six-sided dice, playing cards, and dominoes. It is represented
in Unicode as U+2059 FIVE DOT PUNCTUATION or (for the die pattern) U+2684 ⚄ DIE FACE-5.
In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-in-square", is the plan of an edifice composed
of nine bays. The central and the four angular ones are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the
pattern of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are surmounted by barrel vaults. In Khmer
architecture, the towers of a temple, such as Angkor Wat, are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to
represent the five peaks of Mount Meru.This arrangement conveys a symbolic identification with the
sacred mountain. Mount Meru. A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements
placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five peaks of Mount Meru were
taken to exhibit this arrangement, and the five brick towers of the 10th-century temple known as East
Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in
designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean.Kbal Spean.8
REFERENCE
1. Angkor by Maurice Glaize – Goodreads, 1944
2. Angkor Wat: Time, Space, and Kingship, Eleanor Mannikka, Allen & Unwin, 1997
3."Angkor Vat, Description Graphique du Temple" by Guy Nafilyan, 1969, EcoleFrancaised'Extreme
Orient.
4. The HsinbyumePagoda,Burma, also known as Myatheindan is a large painted white and is modelled on
the physical description of the Buddhist sacred mountain, Mount Meru. The pagoda's design is a great
departure from Burmese pagoda design norms. It is based on descriptions of the mythical Sulamani
pagoda on Mount Meru, and the lower parts of the pagoda represent the mountain. Seven concentric
terraces represent the seven mountain ranges going up to the Mount Meru according to Buddhist
mythology.
5.A Mountain in Tibet: The Search for Mount Kailas and the Sources of the Great Rivers of India,
Charles Allen,kobo books,1982
6. Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd.11.
7. Angkor And The Khmer Civilization"
8. Angkor Wat, the Kundalini, and the Quinx: The Human Architecture of Divine
Renewal in the Quincunx." In Twentieth-century Epic Novels, Theodore Louis Steinberg
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CHAPTER VII
The Borobodur Temple as a MANDALA
Empires such as Bagan, Ayutthaya, Champa, Khmer, Srivijaya and Majapahit are known as "mandala" in
this sense. Our temple is the second largest Buddhist temple in the world after Angkor Wat. Constructors
erected this monument in the shape of a mandala and an opening Lotus flower on a square base (118 x
118 m) that smoothly turns into a circle.1
Borobudur has eight tiers: the five lower ones are square, whereas the three upper ones are round. The
shape of the building itself resembles a mandala and represents a scheme of the universe according to
Buddhist beliefs, where heaven and earth are united. On the upper tier there are 72 small stupas around a
big central stupa. Every stupa is bell-shaped. Inside the stupas, there are Buddha statues.
The temple complex contains 1,460 bas-reliefs with religious motifs. Relief panels describe the world of
passions and the world of human perceptional development. Gradually ascending the helical serpentine
road, a traveller perceives the world of matter and reaches the spiritual world.
The temple structure may be divided into three components:
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168
the temple base,
the temple summit.
the temple body,
The temple base is 118 x 118 m in width and 4 m in height. It is made of smooth plates with three tiers
and 20 corners. The temple body consists of five square platforms-tiers: the higher one ascends the
smaller every next tier is. The very first platform of the “monument body” is located 7 metres away from
the edge of the base. Every subsequent platform is shifted 2 metres relative to the previous platform. The
temple summit consists of three rounded platforms, on which 72 small stupas and the main stupa in the
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centre are installed. The central stupa is the highest point of the monument, towering 35 metres above the
temple foot. It represents a bell-shaped stupa, 7 metres in height, topping the huge pyramid.
1.The lowest level of the temple complex, called Kamadhatu, represents the world of passions. 160
images of sensory manifestations have not been preserved to nowadays – we know about the existence of
those from ancient manuscripts only.
2.The second level – the five tiers called Rupadhatu – symbolizes the real world and contains religious
themes. The entire history of Buddhism is reflected in sculptures and bas-reliefs. Here, there are 432
Buddha statues: 104 on the first and second terraces (each), 88 on the third terrace, 72 on the fourth, and
64 on the fifth.
3.The remarkable beauty is completed by the three upper rounded terraces. This is the Arupadhatu level.
There are 32 stupas on the lowest terrace, 24 on the middle, and 16 on the upper. A natural-sized statue of
Buddha is inside each of the stupas. The largest stupa – the symbol of eternity – finishes the building.
32+24+16 = 72: an interesting interpretation of the structure of the world.
10 th: The most interesting is the secret of the “tenth terrace”. It was discovered totally accidentally that
bas-reliefs are carved under the ground on Borobudur base walls, just like on the six lower terraces of the
stupa. About 1,500 square metres of valuable bas-reliefs have turned to be hidden under the ground. The
lower tier of the bas-relief describes the afterlife, and we can assume this was the reason why human eyes
were not supposed to see it. An enormous piece of work was deliberately concealed from people, since
only all-seeing deities could admire the bas-reliefs.
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171
There is an assumption that Borobudur was constructed in a shape of Buddha sitting on a Lotus flower. In
1949 geologists discovered deposits that were interpreted as the bottom of a lake. There is a probability
that the temple complex was located on a lake. By the constructors’ plan, the entire magnificence of the
temple was above the lake surface, and Buddha statue crowned the entire structure.
Buddhist monks who were building Borobudur implemented the idea of “a bible in stone”, having left the
knowledge to descendants for many centuries. Images on the walls told about Buddha’s life. Following
the way along the galleries, a person approached enlightenment. In order to read this textbook in stone,
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one needed to cover almost 5 km. Visitors covered the way to the very top of the temple, moving
clockwise through all the eight tiers. Every platform represents a stage of education on the way of
transition from the earthly plane to the heavenly plane.2
Biggest Mandala in the world
Borobudur is biggest Mandala in the world, when You see from sky You can see the Mandala, if You see
further, You can see 3 Temple in one straight line ( Mendut Temple, Pawon Temple and Borobudur
Temple ) betwen that, there is Elo river and Progo river and it was built at 8th century
Thus, most likely the architecture of the Borobudur is based on a Javanese variant of Buddhism, for if we
look at the decoration in greater detail we obviously can confirm that its origin is based on Indian
mythology and Buddhist iconography, however, we can also clearly see how these fundamental elements
have been strongly combined with local (that is, Javanese) influences. The style in which the characters
are depicted on the Borobudur differ greatly from the traditional Indian (Buddhist) iconography. The
statues are depicted in other bodily postures, and with less refined details as they have in India; the
Javanese obviously had a different idea of physical beauty and how this ought to be depicted, and that’s
why on the Borobudur the voluptuous curves of the body as familiar in Indian iconography are altered
according to local Javanese perception of beauty (by which the female body is dressed in more clothes,
and often can only be distinguished from the male body by the curves of their breasts).
If we consider the assumption of the Borobudur representing a maṇḍala, then the main stūpa signifies the
final destination of the spiritual path, which is situated in the center of the cosmos. At this point one
becomes united with the five transcendental Buddhas of the Formless Realm: Vairocana in the center,
Akṣobhya in the East, Ratnasambhāva in the South, Amitābha in the West, and Amoghasiddhi in the
North. This particular line-up corresponds with the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and the Garbhadhātu
Maṇḍala in Tibet and Nepal. One could gain access to the center of the cosmos by entering
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the maṇḍala from the outside, and gradually moving further inwards. In this context, a maṇḍala can be
interpreted as a palace with four entrance gates at the four cardinal points of the Universe, stretching the
entire cosmos. The palace is a metaphor for human manifestation in this world, which, by means of using
the maṇḍala as a meditation object, guides the practitioner to the ultimate (spiritual) goal in life.
Visualization techniques such as these are still being practised in Vajrayāna Buddhism today.
Though the assumption of the Borobudur as a maṇḍala seems possible, this view remains yet impossible
to prove. In spite of the previously mentioned similarities with the maṇḍalas, there are, however, also
many differences. Beside the five transcendental Buddhas many other deities – both male and female –
are often seen depicted in maṇḍalas. However, neither of these deities can be found on the Borobudur.
Instead we do find many other depicted Buddhas on the Borobudur, but these do not display any of the
features similar to other male or female deities. Thus, the other Buddhas do not function as a mere
substitution for the various other deities (like guards, gatekeepers, goddesses of worship or Taras)
commonly seen in maṇḍalas. Therefore, we may assume, that, as already had been suggested, the
Borobudur displays a variant of Buddhism in the way it manifested in Java at the time of the reign of the
Sailendra dynasty. This particular local variant of Buddhism was based on Indian influences and
Mahāyāna Buddhism, which came to Java from China during the heydays of the Tang dynasty (618-906).
The unique combination of these aspects would eventually become the Buddhism of Java. Then there also
was the Hindu dynasty of Sanjaya that ruled on Java during the same period of the Sailendra dynasty. The
fact that the Sanjaya shared their power with the Sailendra dynasty – for example, through donations for
the construction of the Kalasan temple – illustrates, that, apart from its religious function, the Borobudur
also formed an important expression of power.3
The role of royal patronage and religious institution4
The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound
usually containing holy relics), the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and
the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and the circle as
heaven). The style of Borobudur was influenced by Indian Gupta and post-Gupta art.In all the regions of
Southeast Asia, the arts flourished under the patronage of the kings. About the time of the birth of Christ,
tribal groups gradually organized themselves, after some years of settled life as rice cultivators, into citykingdoms, or conglomerations of villages. A king was thus little more than a paramount tribal chieftain.
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Since the tribes had been accustomed to worshiping local spirits, the kings sought a new spirit that would
be worshiped by the whole community.
One reason that the gods of Hinduism and Buddhism were so readily acceptable to Southeast Asia was
this need for new national gods. The propagation of the new religions was the task of the kings, and
consequently the period from the 1st to the 13th century was a great age of temple building all over
Southeast Asia.
Architecture, sculpture, and painting on the temple walls were the arts that flourished. In the ancient
empires of eastern Indochina and the islands, scholars of Sanskrit, the language of the sacred works of
Hinduism, became part of the king’s court, producing a local Sanskrit literature of their own. This literary
activity was confined to the hereditary nobility and never reached the people, except in stories from the
great Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. Because the Hindu religious writings in Sanskrit were
beyond the reach of the common people, Hinduism had to be explained to them by Hindu stories of gods
and demons and mighty men. On the other side of the peninsula, in the Pyu-Burmese empire of Prome,
which flourished before the 8th century, there was no such development—first, because Hinduism was
never widely accepted in Burma and, second, because the more open Burmese society developed neither
the institution of a god-king nor that of a hereditary nobility. Although Pali scholars surrounded the king
in later Pagan, Pali studies were pursued not at the court but at monasteries throughout the kingdom so
that even the humblest villager had some faint contact with Pali teachings. While the courts of the kings
in Cambodia and Java remained merely local centres of Sanskrit scholarship, Pagan became a centre of
Pali learning for Buddhist monks and scholars even from other lands. As in the case of stories from the
Indian epics, stories of the Jatakas (birth stories of the Buddha) were used to explain Buddhism to the
common people, who could not read the scriptures written in Pali. Just as scenes from the great epics in
carving or in fresco adorned the temples in Cambodia and Java, scenes from the Jatakas adorned the
Pagan temples.
.
The patronage of the king and the religious enthusiasm of the common people could not have produced
the great temples without the enormous wealth that suddenly became available in the region following the
commercial expansion. With the Khmer and Javanese empires, the wealth was produced by a feudalistic
society, and so the temples were built by the riches of the king and his nobles, combined with the
compulsory labour of their peasants and slaves, who probably derived some aesthetic pleasure from their
work because of their religious fervour. Nonetheless, their monuments, such as Borobudur, in Java,
and Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, had an atmosphere of massive, all-conquering power. At Pagan, where
wealth was shared by the king, the royal officials, and the common people, the temples and the
monasteries were built by all who had enough not only to pay the artisans their wages but also to
guarantee their good health, comfort, and safety during the actual construction. The temples were
dedicated for use by all monks and lay people as places of worship, meditation, and study, and the kings
of Pagan did not build a single tomb for themselves. The Khmer temple of Angkor Wat and the
Indonesian temple of Borobudur were tombs in that the ashes of the builders would be enshrined therein;
the kings left stone statues representing them as gods for posterity to worship, whereas at Pagan there was
only one statue of a king, and it depicted him on his knees with his hands raised in supplication to the
Buddha. Consequently, the atmosphere that pervaded the temples of Pagan was one of joy and
tranquillity.
The mandala is likened by some to a "floor plan of the universe." The type most familiar in the West is
an intricately patterned painting on cloth or paper that often takes the general form of a circle within a
square.
The word "mandala" comes from the Sanskrit verbal root "mand" (meaning to mark off, decorate, set off)
and the Sanskrit suffix "la" (meaning circle, essence, sacred center).
The mandala's symbolic power can be traced back to millennia-old roots in Indian temple architecture,
which created sacred spaces linking the worshiper to the larger cosmos. In these temples, time and space
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were represented in a vocabulary of circles and squares. Similarly, a mandala helps believers visualize the
universe and their place in it, often in relation to a specific deity found in the center of the image.
the evolution of the symbol has happened throughout Asia under the influence of various religious and
artistic traditions over a period of several thousand years-some complex; others quite simple offerering
proof of the continuing vitality of the mandala and its role in Buddhist devotions. The mandala is of
significant importance in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Both religions adopt the mandala as a peaceful
and creative symbol. Hence, the speculative project finds a balance to build a memorial, which will
signify peace and harmony of the Tamil community. The scale of the mandala here is monumental
imposing the idea of spirituality and peace. Contemplating the mandala does not only provide insight into
reality, the Cosmos but also communion with it.
Mandala is the mystery that pervades all existence. Mandala alleviates suffering individually as well as in
society. Contemplation can help overcome antagonism, conflict, stress and even war. Bindu as a
symbolism is the beginning of the process that culminates into a mandala.
In Buddhism, the mandala is a ritual instrument, much like a mantra, used to assist meditation and
concentration. Throughout history, these pictorial temples--intricate, two-dimensional, multi-colored
patterns
of concentric circles, squares, and other shapes--have signified the human need for wholeness, order, and
balance. But while many people of the West accept mandalas as representative of a cosmic force, few
understand they are meant to be blueprints as well. Indeed, a Tantric Buddhist meditator studies a twodimensional mandala like an architect, building up in his mind the image of a palace encompassing the
sacred principles of Buddhist philosophy.
MANDALA AND BUDDHIST TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
The mandala in Buddhism is a cosmic model depicting Buddha’s dwelling place as the center of the
universe. Like in the Hindu temples, the structuring of the Buddhist temples has also been predominantly
based on the spiritual model of the mandala. Illustrations can be seen both in the form of two-dimensional
mandalas as well as three-dimensional mandalas. The two-dimensional mandalas which are drawings
composed of squares and concentric circles could be temporarily painted on various material or drawn on
the ground or sand or other natural substances using coloured powder. Customs involving ceremonious
gatherings along with prayers and chantings while drawing the mandalas are believed to alleviate
difficulties and be of greater good to an individual or a community. These ceremonies could even last up
to a number of days.
Three-dimensionally, the mandala diagram becomes a visual model of the built environment. In the
Buddhist worship place, the central space is significant having a statue of the Buddha fronted by a
worshipping space surrounded by walls. This is encircled by a circumambulating space. The
circumambulation pathway is a space of psychological awakening before reaching the spiritual pinnacle
MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella
Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a governing
device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the temple, the Vastu
Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the 8 x 8 grid or the Manduka Vastu Mandala has
been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be noted that regional differences have played
a major influence on the workability of the mandala design throughout India.
Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of universal theories which help in
the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be thought of as diagrams that function as a
cue to reach a contemplational state which is the primary aim of the tradition. The form of the temples
that are based on the regulating lines of the mandala were meant to create spaces that bring about a
“physical and spatial” communion between God and man.
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A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डल, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a geometric
configuration of symbols with a very different application. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may
be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for
establishing a sacred space and as an aid to meditation and trance induction. It is used as a map (in
Shintoism)
in
the Indian
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or
Japanese
religion
of Shintoism representing deities, or in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines.
In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents
the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally meant to
represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic diagram that
shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within minds and bodies.
he basic form of hinduism mandalas is a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point and
it is called also a yantra. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often have radial balance.
A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It may be a twoor three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or meditative rituals, and may
incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent the abode of the deity. Each yantra is
unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric
designs. According to one scholar, "Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as
instructional charts of the spiritual aspect of human experience"[5]
Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not representations,
but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:
Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists in
the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the microcosm), every
symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and is associated with the subtle
body and aspects of human consciousness.
Political meaning
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The Rajamandala (or Raja-mandala; circle of states) was formulated by the Indian author Kautilya in his
work on politics, the Arthashastra (written between 4th century BCE and 2nd century BCE). It describes
circles of friendly and enemy states surrounding the king's state.
In historical, social and political sense, the term "mandala" is also employed to denote
traditional Southeast Asian political formations (such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized states). It
was adopted by 20th century Western historians from ancient Indian political discourse as a means of
avoiding the term 'state' in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast Asian polities not conform to
Chinese and European views of a territorially defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic
apparatus, but they diverged considerably in the opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre
rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without
undergoing administrative integration.
Mount Meru
A mandala can also represent the entire universe, which is traditionally depicted with Mount Meru as
the axis mundi in the center, surrounded by the continents.
Wisdom and impermanence
In the mandala, the outer circle of fire usually symbolises wisdom. The ring of eight charnel grounds
represents the Buddhist exhortation to be always mindful of death, and the impermanence with
which samsara is suffused: "such locations were utilized in order to confront and to realize the transient
nature of life". Described elsewhere: "within a flaming rainbow nimbus and encircled by a black ring
of dorjes, the major outer ring depicts the eight great charnel grounds, to emphasize the dangerous nature
of human life". Inside these rings lie the walls of the mandala palace itself, specifically a place populated
by deities and Buddhas.
Five Buddhas
One well-known type of mandala is the mandala of the "Five Buddhas", archetypal Buddha forms
embodying various aspects of enlightenment. Such Buddhas are depicted depending on the school
of Buddhism, and even the specific purpose of the mandala. A common mandala of this type is that of
the Five Wisdom Buddhas (a.k.a. Five Jinas), the
1. Buddhas Vairocana,
2. Aksobhya,
3. Ratnasambhava,
4. Amitabha and
5. Amoghasiddhi.
When paired with another mandala depicting the Five Wisdom Kings, this forms the Mandala of the Two
Realms.
Practice
Mandalas are commonly used by tantric Buddhists as an aid to meditation.
The mandala is "a support for the meditating person", something to be repeatedly contemplated to the
point of saturation, such that the image of the mandala becomes fully internalised in even the minutest
detail and can then be summoned and contemplated at will as a clear and vivid visualized image. With
every mandala comes what Tucci calls "its associated liturgy ... contained in texts known
as tantras" instructing practitioners on how the mandala should be drawn, built and visualised, and
indicating the mantras to be recited during its ritual use.
By visualizing "pure lands", one learns to understand experience itself as pure, and as the abode of
enlightenment. The protection that we need, in this view, is from our own minds, as much as from
external sources of confusion. In many tantric mandalas, this aspect of separation and protection from the
outer samsaric world is depicted by "the four outer circles: the purifying fire of wisdom, the vajra circle,
the circle with the eight tombs, the lotus circle". The ring of vajras forms a connected fence-like
arrangement running around the perimeter of the outer mandala circle.
As a meditation on impermanence (a central teaching of Buddhism), after days or weeks of creating the
intricate pattern of a sand mandala, the sand is brushed together into a pile and spilled into a body of
running water to spread the blessings of the mandala. External ritual and internal sadhana form an
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indistinguishable whole, and this unity finds its most pregnant expression in the form of the mandala, the
sacred enclosure consisting of concentric squares and circles drawn on the ground and representing that
adamant plane of being on which the aspirant to Buddha hood wishes to establish himself. The unfolding
of the tantric ritual depends on the mandala; and where a material mandala is not employed, the adept
proceeds to construct one mentally in the course of his meditation."
Conclusions:
1. Borobudur in its base is a regular square with 118-m sides.
2. Such layout is used in meditative practices of Hinduism and Buddhism to intensify processes of inner
concentration during meditation.
3. The numbers 7, 72. were applied in the temple design and construction, which evidences the
availability of relevant knowledge at that time.
4. No wonder, the temple complex is under UNESCO protection, i.e. it is not available for further
studies.
5. If we look at Borobudur from above, we can see it represents a complete mandala.
6. The temple has 8 tiers: 5 square and 3 round ones. On the upper tier, there is the large stupa – a bellshaped monument with a statue of Buddha inside.
7. Borobudur is situated approximately 2,439.85 km (1,516.05 miles) away from Angkor Wat.
8. If we look at mutual disposition of some ancient religious sites from the North Pole, interesting
correlations may be observed.
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9. At the upper tier there are 72 small bell-shaped, stupa-like towers located around the big central
tower.
10. Between Chandi Mendut and Borobudur there is the small Chandi Pavon – at a distance of
approximately 1,150 metres away from Mendut and 1,750 metres away from Borobudur. Disposition
of the structures complies with the golden ratio.
A mandala and a yantra
11. Mandala in the form of a circle with an indication of a square and a point in the centre, and a foursided pyramid with six steps and fourfold division;
12. Kali Yantra (translated from Sanskrit, “kala” means “time”; this word originates from the IndoEuropean root that means spinning; a word that is close in its meaning in Russian is “kolo”); in Hindu
mythology it means cyclical creations and destructions of the Universe, rotation of time in the concept of
rebirth of the Soul and of a subject of fate.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------REFERENCE
1.https://rgdn.info/en/borobodur._buddiyskaya_stupa
2. See Chapter 4
3https://www.indomagic.com/articles/art-material-culture/architecture/architecture-of-borobudur-temple/
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CHAPTER VIII
Angkor as a Mandala
The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara ( Śikhara ), a Sanskrit word translating
literally to "mountain peak".
Temple mountain
The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of
the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in
Hinduism. The style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented
the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple
itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the
elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple.
The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by King
Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as
temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong and
Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper
terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might served as the prototype of Bakong. There must
have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in
Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of
Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method.
Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker, the Phimeanakas,
and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor.
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According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence,
if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served as a templemausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to
the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor
Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and
the later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu
mythology: within a moat and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres long are three rectangular galleries,
each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most
Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the
significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its
extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls.
According to the ancient texts, Mount Meru (or Sumeru, or Shumisen) is a huge, sacred golden
mountain in the centre of our universe which supports the heavens and passes through the centre
of the Earth. Furthermore, the supreme gods Brahma, Siva, Vishnu and the Devas (Hindu demigods) reside on the top of this mountain.the mountain is supposed to tower at a height of more
than 1,000,000 km and is gold in colour—which of course is considered to be allegorical Many
temples and ancient places were model after their abode on Mount Meru, including Angkor Wat.
Different levels of ‘heavens’ correspond to different heights, and different deities are said to live
on the different levels. Similarly, the levels of mountain inside the Earth correspond to multiple
levels of Hell. Mount Meru is guarded at the four cardinal points by four celestial Guardians who
defend the world by keeping away the fallen gods (the Asuras)—similar to the fighting we see in
Greek mythology with the Titans and the Olympians—and in order for humans to approach the
mountain they would need to have permission from the mountain itself.
During the reign of King Suryavarman II, a legend combining ocean and mountain was believed
to be the foundational myth that inspired the building of Angkor Wat, as a temple to worship
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Lord Vishnu. Angkor Wat was a “temple mountain”, symbolic of the cosmic Mount Meru. This
five-tiered temple at the centre of the universe was said to be surrounded by a moat representing
cosmic oceans including the “ocean of milk”.
Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, is the axis of the world. It is the abode of gods, and its
foothills are the Himalayas, to the south of which extends Bhāratavarṣa (“Land of the Sons of
Bharata”), the ancient name for India. The roof tower crowning the shrine in a Hindu temple
represents Meru. As the world axis, Mount Meru reaches down below the ground, into the nether
regions, as far as it extends into the heavens. All of the principal deities have their own celestial
kingdoms on or near it, where their devotees reside with them after death, while awaiting their
next reincarnation.
.In the Buddhist mythology, Mount Meru exists at the same time in both the physical and the
spiritual plane, and the golden palace of the gods is located on top. It is surrounded by 7 rings of
golden mountains, each separated from each other by sea, and the mountain itself separates 4
main continents, one of which is inhabited by the mythical kingdom of Shambhala. It is
interesting to mention here that on the Mercator’s Map of the North Pole appear 4 continents
separated with water and with a mountain between them—which of course doesn’t rule out the
possibility that the region was mapped according to legends.
A few scholars have tried to locate the mountain as a physical mountain—probably a high one
judging from the fact that the ancient Greeks believed that the highest mountain of Greece
(Olympus) was where the Greek gods abide. One speculation points to Mount Pamirs in north
east of Kashmir. Other scholars base the location on the reference to the mountain being located
at the center of the earth and have speculated that Mt. Meru may exist at the North Pole.
Japanese Buddhist traditions also mention Mount Meru and provide a map from the 16th century
CE which locates the mountain somewhere in the Himalaya range of mountains.
A heavily guarded mountain with multidimensional existence, connections to the stars and to the
center of the earth, and the residence of the supreme gods—obviously such a mountain could not
exist in reality. Could it possibly be a real mountain just high enough to trigger people’s
imagination by exaggerating its height, or it can be a form of energy emanating from a place that
could extend throughout the heavens in a golden colour? The hypothesis of it being located at the
North Pole is certainly plausible, especially if we take into account the old maps. We also should
not forget the resemblance of Mount Meru with Mount Olympus.
Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic
representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne style base is a common feature of Chinese
pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof,
represents Mount Meru. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru),
to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or
"wonderful Meru,” Meru is also the name of the central bead in a mālā.
Architecture
The five central towers of Angkor Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru; Angkor, Cambodia.
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Hindus believe that Mount Meru, a golden mountain, is the center of the universe. Mount Meru
is the most sacred object in the universe because it supports the heavens and the gods.
Geographically, it is said to exist at the center the universe in the waters of life, surrounded by
seven concentric seas, each diminishing in size from the center. Jambudvipa, meaning the island
of Jambu (role-apple) trees, rests in one of those oceans. Technically, it is the entire landmass of
the earth, surrounded by mountains. The island, Jambudvipa, is divided into four parts. That part
of Jambudvipa, south of the Mount Meru, is called the land of the Bharatas (Bharatavarsha),
which roughly corresponds to the Indian subcontinent, where people worship gods such as
Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Indra, Agni and Soma. The gods reside in the heaven, on the top of the
mountain, surrounded by sages, gods, celestial beings, heavenly damsels (apsaras) and the like.
Mount Meru should not be mistaken as an ordinary mountain because it is so high that it reaches
heaven and the pole star (dhruva) shine directly above it. The celestial river Ganges (
representing both life-energy and supreme consciousness) descents upon Mount Meru and flows
in four different directions. Many stories are associated with the mountain.
In the Hindu Puranas, Meru is described as a deity himself. He is a friend of Vayu, the wind
god, since both are located in the mid-region (antariksha). There is a story which suggests due to
a conflict between Vayu and Meru, a portion of the mountain was blown off by Vayu and fell
into the ocean forming the small island south of Bharatavarsha, now known as Sri Lanka.
According to the Devi-bhagavatam, on the east of Meru is located the city of Indra, named
Devadhanicka, where the gods reside; on the south is the ciy of Yama, the lord of Death, named
Samyamani; on the west is the great city of Varuna, named Nimnochani, where the sun sets; and
on the north is the city of the Moon, named Vibhavari.
The sun goes around Meru and causes the worlds and beings to remain active. Each day he
travels several thousands of yojanas at the speed of 14,200,000 yojanas per second (muhurt).
Those who live upon the mountain always see the sun at the center. Earthly inhabitant see the
sun rising in the east and setting in the west, but those who live on the mountain see the sun
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always and know that it never rests.By going around Meru and travelling through the four cities
that exist on the four sides of Meru, the sun creates the illusion of time and becomes the
manifester of time.
The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally
to "mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and
Harshnath Temple of the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also
continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
In Buddhist temples the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is an earliest example of the 5th-6th
century. Many other Buddhist temples took on its form such as in Thailand the Wat Arun and in
Myanmar the Hsinbyume Pagoda.
Geographical
The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru, all references to it being as a part of the Cosmic
Ocean, with several statements that say, "The Sun along with all the planets circle the mountain",
make determining its location most difficult, according to most scholars.
The Suryasiddhanta- Sanskrit treatise in Indian astronomy, mentions that Mt. Meru lies in 'the
middle of the Earth' ("bhuva-madhya") in the land of the Jambunad (Jambudvip).
Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya, a ninth-century text, based on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal
Tantr, mentions "Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na tu" ('Su-meru is heard to be in
the middle of the Earth, but is not seen there'.)
There exist several versions of cosmology in existing Hindu texts. In one of them,
cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala
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Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and
Kailasa to the south.
In Hinduism
Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about 1,082,000 km
(672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun along with all the planets
in the Solar System revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit.
One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles) though its magnitude seems to differ
over time periods, e.g. the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Varahamihira and
slightly less so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The
Matsya Purana and the Bhagvata Purana along with some other Hindu texts consistently give the
height of 84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000
kilometers.
Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity.
According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru. One description in
the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and
lapis lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges
symbolizing a lotus.
Javanese legends
This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned in Tantu Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript
written in the Kawi language from the 15th century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes
the mythical origin of Java island, and the legend of the movement of portions of Mount Meru to
Java. The manuscript explained that Batara Guru (Shiva) ordered the god Brahma and Vishnu to
fill the Java island with human beings. However at that time Java island was floating freely on
the ocean, always tumbling and shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to nail
it to the Earth by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa (India) and attaching it to Java.[31]
The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain on Java.
Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the mount.
Along with the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, Central India, and the Taj Mahal in
northern India, the Cambodian Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the greatest
examples of religious architecture in the whole of Asia, comparable to the finest specimens of
Gothic architecture or Baroque architecture in Europe.
A temple with a lost name
Angkor Wat, translated from Khmer (the official language of Cambodia), literally means “City
Temple.” As far as names go this is as generic as it gets. Angkor Wat was not the original name
given to the temple when it was built in the twelfth century. We have little knowledge of how
this temple was referred to during the time of its use, as there are no extant texts or inscriptions
that mention the temple by name.
The temples of Angkor, built by the Khmer civilization between 802 and 1220 AD, represent one
of humankind’s most astonishing and enduring architectural achievements. From Angkor the
Khmer kings ruled over a vast domain that reached from Vietnam to China to the Bay of Bengal.
The structures one sees at Angkor today, more than 100 stone temples in all, are the surviving
remains of a grand religious, social and administrative metropolis whose other buildings –
palaces, public buildings, and houses – were built of wood and have long since decayed and
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disappeared.Built between roughly A.D. 1113 and 1150, and encompassing an area of about 500
acres (200 hectares), Angkor Wat is one of the largest religious monuments ever constructed.
A possible reason why the temple’s original name may have never been documented is that it
was such an important and famous monument that there was no need to refer to it by its name.
We have several references to the king who built the temple, King Suryavarman II (11131145/50 C.E.), and events that took place at the temple, but no mention of its name.
History of Angkor Wat
The construction of Angkor Wat likely began in the year 1116 C.E.—three years after King
Suryavarman II came to the throne—with construction ending in 1150, shortly after the king’s
death. Evidence for these dates comes in part from inscriptions, which are vague, but also from
the architectural design and artistic style of the temple and its associated sculptures.
Angkor wat was Originally built as a Hindu temple, as that was the religion of the region’s ruler
at the time, Suryavarman II. It was dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu who is one of the three
principal gods in the Hindu pantheon (Shiva and Brahma are the others). Among them he is
known as the “Protector.” In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II,
Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire
was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple
(Angkor Thom and the Bayon respectively) a few kilometres to the north.
Towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat gradually transformed from a Hindu centre of
worship to Buddhism and statues of Buddha were added to its already rich artwork.
Sacked by the Thais in 1431 and abandoned in 1432, Angkor was forgotten for a few centuries.
Wandering Buddhist monks, passing through the dense jungles, occasionally came upon the
awesome ruins. Recognizing the sacred nature of the temples but ignorant of their origins, they
invented fables about the mysterious sanctuaries, saying they had been built by the gods in a far
ancient time. Centuries passed, these fables became legends, and pilgrims from the distant
reaches of Asia sought out the mystic city of the gods.
Within the largest city in the world
The city where the temple was built, Angkor, is located in modern-day Cambodia and was once
the capital of the Khmer Empire. This city contains hundreds of temples. The population may
have been over 1 million people. It was easily the largest city in the world until the Industrial
Revolution. Angkor had an urban core that could easily have held 500,000 people and a vast
hinterland that had many more inhabitants airborne laser scanning (lidar) research has shown.
Researchers have also identified a “lost” city called Mahendraparvata, which is located about 25
miles (40 kilometers) north of Angkor Wat.
How was Angkor Wat built?
The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each of which has an
average weight of 1.5 tons. The city of Angkor required more stone than all the Egyptian
pyramids combined.
The sandstone blocks from which Angkor Wat was built were quarried from the holy mountain
of Phnom Kulen, more than 50km away, and floated down the Siem Reap River on rafts. Given
the additional complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor was designed
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and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia. According to inscriptions, the
construction of Angkor Wat involved 300,000 workers and 6000 elephants. Construction of the
site took over 30 years and was never completely finished.
To create the moat around the temple, 1.5 million cubic meters (53 million cubic feet) of sand
and silt were moved, a task that would have required thousands of people working at one time.
A 15-foot high wall, surrounded by a wide moat, protected the city, the temple and residents
from invasion, and much of that fortification is still standing. A sandstone causeway served as
the main access point for the temple.
Inside these walls, Angkor Wat stretches across more than 200 acres. It’s believed that this area
included the city, the temple structure and the emperor’s palace, which was just north of the
temple.
However, in keeping with tradition at the time, only the city’s outer walls and the temple were
made of sandstone, with the rest of the structures built from wood and other, less durable
materials. Hence, only portions of the temple and city wall remain.
Even so, the temple is still a majestic structure: At its highest point—the tower above the main
shrine—it reaches nearly 70 feet into the air.
Purpose of Angkor Wat Temple
Although Angkor Wat is dedicated to Vishnu, the full purpose of the temple is still debated.
The building of temples by Khmer kings was a means of legitimizing their claim to political
office and also to lay claim to the protection and powers of the gods. Hindu temples are not a
place for religious congregation; instead; they are homes of the god. In order for a king to lay
claim to his political office he had to prove that the gods did not support his predecessors or his
enemies. To this end, the king had to build the grandest temple/palace for the gods, one that
proved to be more lavish than any previous temples. In doing so, the king could make visible his
ability to harness the energy and resources to construct the temple, and assert that his temple was
the only place that a god would consider residing in on earth.
Mausoleum: Many scholars believe that Angkor Wat was not only a temple dedicated to Vishnu
but that it was also intended to serve as the king’s mausoleum in death. If that were the case it
would give the temple a funerary meaning.
Symbolically, west is the direction of death, which once led a large number of scholars to
conclude that Angkor Wat must have existed primarily as a tomb. This idea was supported by the
fact that the magnificent bas-reliefs of the temple were designed to be viewed in an
anticlockwise direction, a practice that has precedents in ancient Hindu funerary rites. Vishnu,
however, is also frequently associated with the west, and it is now commonly accepted that
Angkor Wat most likely served both as a temple and as a mausoleum for Suryavarman II.
Eleanor Mannikka explains in her book “Angkor: Celestial Temples of the Khmer Empire”
(Abbeville Press, 2002) that Angkor Wat is located at 13.41 degrees north in latitude and that the
north-south axis of the central tower’s chamber is 13.43 cubits long. This, Mannikka believes, is
not an accident. “In the central sanctuary, Vishnu is not only placed at the latitude of Angkor
Wat, he is also placed along the axis of the earth,” she writes, pointing out that the Khmer knew
the Earth was round.
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In addition, in her writing, Eleanor Mannikka also explains that the spatial dimensions of Angkor
Wat parallel the lengths of the four ages (Yuga) of classical Hindu thought. Thus the visitor to
Angkor Wat who walks the causeway to the main entrance and through the courtyards to the
final main tower, which once contained a statue of Vishnu, is metaphorically travelling back to
the first age of the creation of the universe. Its 213-foot-tall (65 meters) central tower is
surrounded by four smaller towers and a series of enclosure walls, a layout that recreates the
image of Mount Meru, a legendary place in Hindu mythology that is said to lie beyond the
Himalayas and be the home of the gods.
Angkor Wat itself is surrounded by a 650-foot-wide (200 m) moat that encompasses a perimeter
of more than 3 miles (5 km). This moat is 13 feet deep (4 m) and would have helped stabilize the
temple’s foundation, preventing groundwater from rising too high or falling too low. The
galleries and the empty spaces that they created between one another and the moat are
envisioned as the mountain ranges and oceans that surround Mt. Meru.
Mt. Meru is not only home to the gods, it is also considered an axis-mundi. An axis-mundi is a
cosmic or world axis that connects heaven and earth. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King
Suryavarman II and his architects intended for the temple to serve as the supreme abode for
Vishnu. Similarly, the symbolism of Angkor Wat serving as an axis mundi was intended to
demonstrate the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s central place in the universe.
In addition to envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the temple’s architects, of whom
we know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that embedded in the temple’s
construction is a map of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical record of the temple’s
patron.
Angkor Wat as a Mandala
According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples
must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the
temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the
recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should
also be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples
become spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in
other words, intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—
diagrams of the universe.
Carved Bas Reliefs of Hindu Narratives
Visitors to Angkor Wat are struck by its imposing grandeur and, at close quarters, its fascinating
decorative flourishes. There are 1,200 square meters of carved bas reliefs at Angkor Wat,
representing eight different Hindu stories.
Perhaps the most important narrative represented at Angkor Wat is the Churning of the Ocean of
Milk, which depicts a story about the beginning of time and the creation of the universe. It is also
a story about the victory of good over evil. In the story, Devas (gods) are fighting the Asuras
(demons) in order reclaim order and power for the gods who have lost it. In order to reclaim
peace and order, the elixir of life (amrita) needs to be released from the earth; however, the only
way for the elixir to be released is for the gods and demons to first work together. To this end,
both sides are aware that once the amrita is released there will be a battle to attain it.
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The relief depicts the moment when the two sides are churning the ocean of milk. In the detail
above you can see that the gods and demons are playing a sort of tug-of-war with the Naga or
serpent king as their divine rope. The Naga is being spun on Mt. Mandara represented by Vishnu
(in the center). Several things happen while the churning of milk takes place. One event is that
the foam from the churning produces apsarasor celestial maidens who are carved in relief
throughout Angkor Wat (we see them here on either side of Vishnu, above the gods and
demons). Once the elixir is released, Indra (the Vedic god who is considered the king of all the
gods) is seen descending from heaven to catch it and save the world from the destruction of the
demons.
Angkor Wat Today
The Angkor Wat is the heart and soul of Cambodia and a source of fierce national pride. It
continues to play an important role in Cambodia even though most of the population is now
Buddhist. Since the fifteenth century, Buddhists have used the temple and visitors today will see,
among the thousands of visitors, Buddhist monks and nuns who worship at the site.
Angkor Wat has also become an important symbol for the Cambodian nation. The Cambodian
flag has emblazoned on it the silhouette of Angkor Wat.
In 1992, it was named a UNESCO World Heritage site. Although visitors to Angkor Wat
numbered in just the few thousands at the time, the landmark now welcomes some 500,000
visitors each year—many of whom arrive early in the morning to capture images of the sunrise
over what still is a very magical, spiritual place.
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Kingdom od Shiva: Mt. Kailash considered as one of the ten most beautiful mountains in Nepal
and a divine mountain universally by people from all over the world. Its shape is like the
pyramids in Egypt with four nearly symmetrical sides. Its glistening snow-covered top makes it
the most eye-catching one. Around this sacred mountain, there are five temples in total. All the
temples shrouded by mystery and legends.
Mount Kailash surrounded by five monasteries. These are Nyari Monastery, Drirapuk
Monastery, Songchu Monastery, Gyangzha Monastery and Thailong Monastery. Nyari is the first
site on the Kailash Kora and the last two are located on the inner kora. Each monastery endowed
with different legendary stories and decorated by distinctive sculptures, statues, murals, thangkas
and other Tibetan cultural objects.
This is supremely sacred site of Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Ayyavazhi religions and billions of
people.
Hindus believe Mt. Kailash to be the abode of Lord Shiva, the destroyer of ignorance and
illusion, resides at the summit of this legendary mountain, where he sits in a state of perpetual
meditation along with his wife Parvati. They do regard that the peak Mt. Kailash as Shiva's
symbolic 'Lingam' and worship Mt Kailash, which is the Sanskrit name for the mountain.
Jains believe it to be the place where Rishaba, the first of the twenty-four Tirthankaras attained
liberation. They call this mountain as Meru Parvat or Sumeru or Astapada Tantric
Buddhists believe that Mount Kailash is the home of the Buddha Demchok, who represents
supreme bliss.
Bonpos believe the sacred mountain to be the place where the founder of the Bon religion landed
when he descended from the sky. The Bon a religion that predates Buddhism in Tibet, maintain
that the entire mystical region and the nine-story Swastika Mountain are the seat of all spiritual
power. Followers of Bon, Tibet's pre-Buddhist, shamanistic religion call the mountain Tise and
believe it to be the seat of the Sky Goddess Sipaimen. Additionally, Bon myths regard Tise as
the sight of a legendary 12th century battle of sorcery between the Buddhist sage Milarepa and
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the Bon shaman Naro Bon-chung. Milarepa's defeat of the shaman displaced Bon as the primary
religion of Tibet, firmly establishing Buddhism in its place. While the Buddha believed to have
magically visited Kailash in the 5th century BC, the religion of Buddhism only entered Tibet, via
Nepal and India, in the 7th century AD.
Tibetan Buddhists believe Kang Rinpoche, which means Precious Snow Mountain, is a natural
mandala representing the Buddhist cosmology on the earth and regard it as the dwelling place of
Demchog (also known as Chakrasamvara) and his consort, Dorje Phagmo. Three hills rising near
Kang Rimpoche believed to be the homes of the Bodhisatvas, Manjushri, Vajrapani, and
Avalokiteshvara.
Most pilgrims to Kailash will also take a short plunge in the nearby, highly sacred (and very
cold) Lake Manosaravar. The word 'manas' means mind or consciousness; the name
Manosaravar means Lake of Consciousness and Enlightenment. Adjacent to Manosaravar is
Rakas Tal or Rakshas, the Lake of Demons. Pilgrimage to this great sacred mountain and these
two magical lakes is a life changing experience and an opportunity to view some of the most
magical scenery on the entire planet. Pilgrims do focus to get in touch with nature and with the
silence in the mountain Kailash. After the difficult journey getting there, then confronted with
the equally arduous task of circumambulating the sacred peak. This walking around the mountain
clockwise for the Buddhists, counter-clockwise for Bon adherents is Kora, or Parikrama, and
normally takes three days. A few practicing secret breathing technique is Lung-gom. This will
power them around the mountain in only one day. Others will take two to three weeks for the
Kora by making full body prostrations the entire way. It believed that a pilgrim who completes
108 journeys around the mountain assured enlightenment.
For Tibetans, pilgrimage refers to the journey from ignorance to enlightenment, from selfcenteredness and materialistic preoccupations to a deep sense of the relativity and
interconnectedness of all life. The Tibetan word for pilgrimage is neykhor. This means "to circle
around a sacred place," for the goal of pilgrimage is less to reach a particular destination than to
transcend through inspired travel the attachments and habits of inattention that restrict awareness
of a larger reality........By travelling to sacred sites, Tibetans are brought into living contact with
the icons and energies of Tantric Buddhism. The neys or sacred sites themselves, through their
geological features and the narratives of transformation attached to them, continually remind
pilgrims of the liberating power of the Tantric Buddhist tradition.......Over time pilgrimage
guidebooks were written, giving instructions to pilgrims visiting the holy sites and accounts of
their history and significance. These guidebooks neyigs, empowered Tibet and its people with a
sacred geography, a narrated vision of the world ordered and transformed through Buddhist
magic and metaphysics.
From the 7th century, when Tibet began to emerge as a unified nation, the country enjoyed
relative autonomy. However, in 1950, Communist China invaded Tibet. The Tibetan
government, headed by the recently enthroned 14th Dalai Lama, forced to sign an agreement for
the “peaceful liberation” of Tibet or face further military action. In 1959, following a failed
Tibetan uprising, the Dalai Lama fled to India and established a government in exile. At that
time, the Hindu pilgrimage route to Kailash closed. China abolished the Tibetan government and
imposed societal changes based on Marxist principles. The situation worsened during China’s
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Cultural Revolution of 1966-1976, when religious practice was forbidden and Chinese forces set
about destroying Buddhist and Bon monasteries, including six at Mount Kailash. In the mid1970s, China began to soften its stance and by the '80s, Tibetans had regained some religious
freedom. Monasteries that destroyed began to reopen and confiscated religious artefacts returned.
Indian pilgrimages to Kailash resumed, and in 1984, the area around Kailash officially opened to
Western visitors.
Is Mount Kailash is the center of the world?
It has been universal interest on discovering the world hidden, mysterious and unknown wisdom
of Mount Kailash. Recent studies of Russians reveal that the Mt. Kailash could be a vast; it is
like a human-built pyramid, the centre of an entire complex of smaller pyramids, a hundred in
total. This complex, moreover, is the centre of a worldwide system connecting other monuments
or sites where paranormal phenomena observed. Goole Maps and NASA pictures reveal that the
Mount Kailash is the axis mundi, world axis, center of the world, and the navel of the world. A
glimpse at Mount Kailash reveals that it is the centre of the Earth.
Both geography and mythology play roles in the sacred significance of Mount Kailash.
This holy mountain rises to an altitude of 6714 meters. It cannot compete with peaks in the
nearby Himalayan range, which includes Mount Everest, and its grandeur lies not in height but in
its distinct shape – four sheer faces marking the cardinal points of the compass – and its solitary
location, free of neighbouring mountains that might dwarf or obscure it.
Vedas mentioned Mount Kailash as cosmic axis and world pillar, center of the world, and
world tree. It has other names...Meru, Sumeru, Sushumna, Hemadri, Deva Parvata, Gana
Parvata, Rajatadri, and Ratnasanu. Kang Tisé or Kang Rinpoche (the ‘Precious Jewel of Snow’
in Tibetan), Meru (or Sumeru), Swastika Mountain, Mt. Astapada, Mt. Kangrinboge (the Chinese
name) - all these names, real or legendary, belong to one of the holiest and most mysterious
mountains in the world – Mount Kailash. In religion or mythology, the world center or the
connection is between Heaven and Earth. As the celestial pole and geographic pole, it expresses
a point of connection between sky and earth where the four compass directions meet.
The idea of the pyramid in this region is not new. It goes back to the timeless Sanskrit
epic of the Ramayana. Since then, numerous travellers, especially in the beginning of the 20th
century, have expressed the view that Mt. Kailash is too perfect to be a totally natural
phenomenon, or at any rate give the appearance of human intervention.
The interest has been universal.
Is it the beauty of the mountains or the mysticism? The desire to find the remains of lost
civilizations or the desire to learn how to acquire extreme power so as to govern the world?
Legends of a mythic land spread throughout the centuries and became of interest to
philosophers, adventurers, theologists and even… political leaders! It received many names:
Shambhala, Shangri-La, etc., and many locations suggested the Tibet plateau, the Gobi desert,
the Altai, but the Mount Kailash range is most frequently named.
This adventure is one that tops many people’s bucket list. Those who want to climb to the
top of it, all of a sudden get set to go in the opposite direction. Those who walked up the
mountain, never returned. In fact, there have been no recorded attempts to climb Mount Kailash
due to its near perpendicular wall faces and death-defying weather. Its distinct shape of four
sheer faces marking the cardinal points of the compass. The peak is very pointed and looks like a
pyramid piercing the sky. It was found that it is an extremely difficult task since the mountain is
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difficult of access and dangerous. This geographic site is like energy vortices that can either
uplift physical and mental states or degenerate the clamber.
Tsar Nikolai Romanov had some connection with Tibet through the monk Badmaev, who
was himself closely associated with a highly placed Tibetan, the lama Agvan Dordzhiyev, tutor
and confidant of the 13th Dalai Lama. Dordzhiyev equated Russia with the coming Kingdom of
Shambhala anticipated in the Kalachakra texts of Tibetan Buddhism. The lama opened the first
Buddhist temple in Europe, in St. Petersburg, significantly dedicated to Kalachakra teaching.
One of the Russian artists who worked on the St.Petersburg temple was Nicholas Roerich, who
introduced by Dordzhiyev to the legend of Shambhala and to eastern thought. George Gurdjieff,
another mystic who had some impact on Western thought, knew Prince Ukhtomsky, Badmaev,
and Dordzhiyev. Gurdjieff accused by the British of being a Russian spy in Central Asia, a pupil
of the mysterious Tibetans. Even Marx had contacts with Tibetan lamas, as did Lenin who met
some of them in Switzerland.
What were these people interested in and what attracted them to Tibet?
Not only contacts with lamas, but even expeditions were organised in this area. What, for
example, brought about the odd juxtaposition of Tibetan lamas and German SS officers on the
eve of World War II? The search for lost remnants of an imagined Aryan race hidden somewhere
on the Tibetan plateau? Or some other reason? It is known that Nazi leaders such as Heinrich
Himmler believed that Tibet might harbour the last of the original Aryan tribes, the legendary
forefathers of what was considered the German race whose Aryan leaders were supposed to
possess supernatural powers that the Nazis thought they could use to conquer the world. Ideas
about an Aryan or master race began to appear in the popular media in the late nineteenth
century. In the 1890s, E. B. Lytton, a Rosicrucian, wrote a best-selling novel around the idea of a
cosmic energy (particularly strong in the female sex), which he called «Vril.» Later he wrote of a
Vril society, consisting of a race of super-beings that would emerge from their underground
hiding places to rule the world. The Vril Society claimed to have links to Tibetan masters,
apparently drawing on the ideas of Madame Blavatsky, the theosophist, who supported the
existence of super-beings in a mystic land which she described in such well-known works as
the Secret Doctrine. She claimed to be in telepathic contact with spiritual masters in Tibet and
confirmed that she was receiving this information from them. Nikolai Roerich went to the region
of Tibet where he spent several years. He may have been inspired by Kalachakra teaching and
legends of Shambhala while working at the painting of St.Petersburg temple, described above.
His painting “The Path to Kailash” can be seen in the New York museum dedicated to his work.
He devoted many years to the search for this mystic land.
Several intellectuals tried to discover the world hidden, mysterious and unknown wisdom
of Mount Kailash. Many researchers believe that the foot and at the middle level of the mountain
has voids. The researchers found the presence of cavities inside the sarcophagus, means "flesheating" that serves as a refuge in which a state of deep meditation. Many of these people were
ready to believe in the existence of the super-natural in whatever form – higher intelligence,
power, or energy. This interest remains strong to this day in many countries, to find this axis
mundi, the most powerful place, the highest power, or the hidden intelligence in whatever form it
exists, if indeed it does. In 2001, the Chinese gave permission for a Spanish team to climb the
peak, but in the face of international disapproval, the Chinese decided to ban all attempts to
climb the mountain.
What is the hidden mystery of Mount Kailash?
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To get authentic inform calls for a deep research. Several intellectuals tried to discover
the world hidden, mysterious and unknown wisdom of Kingdom of Shiva. Many researchers
believe that the foot and at the middle level of the mountain has voids. The researchers found the
presence of cavities inside the sarcophagus, means "flesh-eating" that serves as a refuge in which
a state of deep meditation. This adventure is one that tops many people’s bucket list. Those who
want to climb to the top of it, all of a sudden get set to go in the opposite direction. Those who
walked up the mountain never returned. In fact, there have been no recorded attempts to climb
Mount Kailash due to its near perpendicular wall faces and death-defying weather. Its distinct
shape of four sheer faces marking the cardinal points of the compass. The peak is very pointed
and looks like a pyramid piercing the sky. It is an extremely difficult task since the mountain is
difficult of access and dangerous. This geographic site is like energy vortices that can either
uplift physical and mental states or degenerate the clamber.
What does the literature say?
The literature gives specific and at times startling evidence of intimate knowledge of the
regions. In the Ramayana and Mahabharata, we find the older four-fold division of the earth
according to their orientation to Mt. Meru or to Bharata. In these epics, Mt. Meru is a
geographic reality located east of Jambudvipa (the Indian subcontinent). The Mahabharata states
that Sakadvipa, Svetadvipa and the Milky Ocean are located to the east of Meru. In the eastern
quarter found the location of Sakadvipa in the astrological text Brhat Parasara Horasastra. Mt.
Meru equated with the North Pole. All the Puranas that mention Sakadvipa agree that the Milky
Ocean surrounds the island/continent. The ethno- geographic and bio-geographic material,
largely agrees with the epics.
Rig Veda 3.23.4 states Mount Meru is the central region. The entire Cosmos divided into
seven concentric island continents surrounded by oceans. It comprise of Jambudvipa,
Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa, and Pushkaradvipa. They
separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the preceding one. These seven
intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice, wine, ghee, curd, milk, and water
respectively. Jambudvipa divided into four vast regions shaped like four petals of a lotus with
Mount Meru being located at the center like a pericarp. On the summit of Mount Meru or
Sumeru, is the vast city of Lord Brahma, known as Brahmapuri. Surrounding Brahmapuri are
eight cities - the one of Lord Indra and of seven other Devas. On the four sides of the great
Mount Meru are four mountains--Mandara, Merumandara, Suparsva, and Kumuda--which are
like its belts. The length and height of these mountains calculated to be 80,000 miles.
Rig Veda 3.23.4 also states that east of Sumeru (Mt. Meru) is the ocean of milk, in which
there is a white city on a white island where the Lord Shiva can be seen sitting with his consort
Parvati.
Rig Veda 9.63.5 mentioned Lord Shiva as Yogic Indra and father of Maruts is the
supreme deity, son of Aditi. His home situated on Mount Meru in the heaven. The area around
this great mountain is the source of four life-giving rivers; the Indus, Brahmaputra, Sutlej and
Karnali, which is a major tributary of India’s sacred Ganges, begin here. Four great rivers go
around the world. These are divisions of Ganges River. These are Alakananda its Sothern
branch, Sita to east, which identified with Yellow River of China, the Chakshu to the west,
identified with the Oxus River of Central Asia, and the Bhadra to north, identified with Ob River
of Siberia. These are main rivers of Tibetan plateau in four directions. The Meru region or
Ilavrita marked by four great lakes.
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To enhance the symbolic mysticism of the mountain as a sacred place, two lakes situated
at the base of the mountain. The higher lake Manasarovar (one of the highest freshwater lakes in
the world), is the sacred lake, and is round like the sun. It related to the lake Manas in the
Kashmir. The lower lake Rakhast Tal (one of the highest salt-water lakes) is the devil’s lake and
has the shape of the crescent moon. These two lakes represent solar and lunar forces, good and
negative energies respectively. Most importantly, the lake below Mount Kailash is the origin of
the Sutlej, which flow to the south and west and eventually into the Indus. It was the largest
tributary of the Vedic River Sarswati and its smaller branches rising from Ambala hills in north
India.
If we examine the region of Mount Kailash, we find that all the main rivers of north India
originated nearby. Indus is the main river of western India; the Brahmaputra is the main river of
east that starts to the west and east of Kailash less than hundred and fifty miles from each other.
They flow in the opposite directions and then south and enter at the Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal over fifteen hundred miles apart. The Ganges and Yamuna also arise from the mountains
south of Kailash. Ghaghara, which identified with Vedic Sarayu.
These Vedic Rivers are the primary rivers of Himalayas and cantered in the KailashManasarovar region. There is so much to learn from the Kingdom of Shiva.
Kailash is a rather small member of the Himalayas. The name of this stupendous range
stems from Himavat, the father of Lord Shiva's bride, Parvati.
Mt. Kailash is most bewitching! Its beauty is over powering and from a spiritual point of
view, it possesses a subtle magnetic vibration of a supremely high order. Mt. Kailash is the
abode of Shiva and Parvati, along with Devas, Ganas, Yakshas, Yogis, Siddha Purushas and
Gandharvas. Mention of the Mt. Kailash Yatra made in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Skanda
Purana etc…. Kalidasa has mentioned about this holy Yatra in his Meghaduta. In the book
‘Yoga, Enlightenment and Perfection’ describing the thrilling spiritual experiences of Jagadguru
Sri Abhinava Vidyatheertha Maha Swami - 35th Shankaracharya of Sri Sringeri Sharada
Peetham, the Swamiji himself has stated that the night he took Sanyasam at his thirteenth year,
he had a dream. “I found myself on the amazingly scenic summit of a tall, Ice clad Mountain...
Though the mountain was icy I felt no cold. In front of me, I saw a huge crystal Shiva Linga...
suddenly there was a great flash of light and from the Linga Lord Shiva manifested. The lord had
one face and two arms”. The hill referred in this dream is of course Kailash and the crystal Linga
refers to the crystal mount, which is again Mt. Kailash. He liberated while alive. Very few get to
even hear of such a state and after hearing about it a much smaller fraction can comprehend it.
To understand such a mindset requires a dimensional change in the manner of attitudes.
The kingdom of Shiva possesses a subtle magnetic vibration of a supremely high order. It
is a mountain of solid gold shining as brilliantly as fire. It is of 21,778 feet high. It is square with
four sides larger at the top than at the bottom. It surrounded by these eight mountains. On the
southern side of Mount Meru are two mountains named Kailash and Karavira, which extend east
and west for 144,000 miles, and on the northern side, extending for the same distance east and
west, are two mountains named Trisrnga and Makara. The width and height of all these
mountains is 16,000 miles. On the eastern side of Mount Meru are Jathara and Devacuta, which
extend to the north and south for 144,000 miles. Similarly, on the western side two mountains
are Pavana and Pariyatra, which also extend north and south for the same distance. Kila+ Asa is
Kailash. Kila is really and Asa is seat, hope, desire, space, and region. Kailash is a particular
form of temple, mountain peak in Himalaya. It also means “crystal,” the 'Treasure or Saint of
Snow Mountain' and is a “precious jewel of snows.” The kingdom of Shiva is an entire complex
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of smaller pyramids, a hundred in total. This world pillar is mysterious mountains in the world,
all earthly forces of power and greed forever sealed, and knowledge kept hidden. The universe is
made of many such worlds.
Its four sides are made of four different precious substances: the south of lapis-lazuli, the west of
ruby, the north of gold and the east of crystal and the southern side of Mount Meru is blue, this
explains why the seas around and the sky above us are blue. The shine of the blue lapis-lazuli
reflects on the marine waters in front. Each of Mount Kailash's faces reflects different moods.
The southern face fully covered with snow It reflects majesty or splendour. The shadow cast by
the rocky outcrops on it draws a huge swastika, the seat of all power.
An aura of compassion and benevolence is enveloping on the western face. The northern face is
stark, forbidding, and daunting, whiles the eastern, only visible from a long way off, and is
mysterious and distant. Upon hitting the surface, it reflects and appears in the space above. So
rather than there being something blue above us, the space appears blue because of the reflection
of the lapis-lazuli. Similarly, the oceans and the sky are respectively red, yellow, and white in the
West, North, and East directions of Mount Meru.At the foot of the mountain at about 15, 000
feet is Lake Manasarovar, a fifteen-mile-wide circle of deep blue, which is the feminine
complement to the male symbol that is the mountain. Kailash and Mansarovar Yatra by
Helicopter designed to all the pious pilgrims who cross-oceans and continents in order to have a
glimpse of the abode of Lord Shiva in a short time and a bit easy way. Yet, Kailash visited by no
more than a few thousand pilgrims each year. This curious fact explained by the mountain's
remote location in far western Tibet. No planes, trains or buses journey anywhere near the region
and even with rugged over-land vehicles the journey still requires weeks of difficult, often
dangerous travel. The weather, always cold, can be unexpectedly treacherous and pilgrims must
carry all the supplies they will need for the entire journey.
Only the enlightened mind, free from the passions can claim the Kailash as it is not possible with
physical body. The person who destroyed the ignorance and illusion can reach Kailash within the
mind, the Manas as the source of soul and takes a dip in the Manasarovar as the consciousness.
Just as the physical mountain, Kailash considered as the center of the known world, so Shiva is
the center of the Self. Reaching calls for complete surrender of all the mental passions. To
understand such a mindset requires a dimensional change in the manner of attitudes.
The kingdom of Shiva is the abode of Shiva and Parvati and their children and constant
companion of Nandiswara and Sevita Sivani along with Devas, Ganas, Yaksha, Yogis, Siddha
Purusha and Gandharvas.
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An aerial view of Angkor Wat demonstrates that the temple is made up of an expansive
enclosure wall, which separates the sacred temple grounds from the protective moat that
surrounds the entire complex (the moat is visible in the photograph at the top of the page). The
temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a passageway running along the length of the
temple) with a central sanctuary, marked by five stone towers.
The five stone towers are intended to mimic the five mountain ranges of Mt. Meru—the mythical
home of the gods, for both Hindus and Buddhists. The temple mountain as an architectural
design was invented in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian architects quite literally envisioned
temples dedicated to Hindu gods on earth as a representation of Mt. Meru. The galleries and the
empty spaces that they created between one another and the moat are envisioned as the mountain
ranges and oceans that surround Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is not only home to the gods, it is also
considered an axis-mundi. An axis-mundi is a cosmic or world axis that connects heaven and
earth. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King Suryavarman II and his architects intended for
the temple to serve as the supreme abode for Vishnu. Similarly, the symbolism of Angkor Wat
serving as an axis mundi was intended to demonstrate the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s
central place in the universe. In addition to envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the
temple’s architects, of whom we know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that
embedded in the temple’s construction is a map of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical
record of the temple’s patron.
Angkor Wat as a Mandala
According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples
must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the
temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the
recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should
also be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples
become spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in
other words, intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—
diagrams of the universe.
Angkor Wat Today
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Angkor Wat continues to play an important role in Cambodia even though most of the
population is now Buddhist. Since the 15th century, Buddhists have used the temple and visitors
today will see, among the thousands of visitors, Buddhist monks and nuns who worship at the
site. Angkor Wat has also become an important symbol for the Cambodian nation. Today, the
Cambodian flag has emblazoned on it the silhouette of Angkor Wat.
At the magnificent temple of Angkor Wat, World Monuments Fund is restoring the Churning of
the Sea of Milk Gallery. Rainwater and harmful salts have leaked through the roof of the gallery,
which forms the south half of Angkor Wat’s prominent east façade, damaging the fragile surface
of the frieze. Without treatment, the deterioration will increase at an alarming rate, risking the
eventual loss of what most historians regard as the most ambitious and finely produced stone
sculptures in Khmer art.
According to the Brahman idea, the world consisted of a central continent, with Meru, the
cosmic mountain, rising at its center. This continent was encircled by six concentric rings of
land, separated by seven oceans, the outer one of which was enclosed by a rock wall. It is
fascinating that the structure of Angkor Wat represented that cosmology. The central temple of
Angkor Wat represented Mount Meru (where Hindu Gods reside), the pivot of the world. Its five
towers symbolized Meru’s five peaks; the enclosing walls presented the mountains at the edge of
the world and the surrounding moat represented the cosmic green ocean beyond.
The Hindu concept of mandala was depicted in Angkor Wat. With the 4 gates of the mandala
resembling the gates at the Angkor Wat and the concentric squares ultimately leading one to the
centre (the central tower), this temple is a perfect physical depiction of the mandala and the
universe.In fact, it can even be interpreted that Angkor Wat was built to show a physical
evidence of a mandala, thus helping to ‘educate’ and confirm the Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and
ideologies to the people back then.
According to the Hindu myths, Brahma (God of Creator) placed a lion at the doorway of his
palace as its guardian. Therefore, when the people of Angkor built temples which symbolized
Mount Meru, the lion statues were placed so that they could guard the home of the Gods. Angkor
Wat also had a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of temples.
It is a characteristic of South Indian architecture and the fact that this structure was present at
Angkor Wat shows that Angkor Empire’s architecture was influenced by the Indian
architecture. However, in India, there are no temples that are pyramid shaped and topped with
five towers. This is a unique aspect of the Khmer architecture and is extraordinary as its
symbolism of the temple mountain portrays the Indian ideas better than other symbols used in
India itself. While Angkor Wat depicts the Hindu cosmology and influence from India, there are
indeed traits of distinctive Khmer architecture.
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Gopura at Angkor Wat
The Significance of 108
The story also contains significant numerological symbolism. The two teams consisted of 54
devas and 54 asuras. The number 108 is highly important in Hinduism. All Hindu eras, or yugas,
are comprised of large numbers divisible by 108, while mantras are often repeated 108 times.
The number is considered as a ‘building block’ of the universe.Thanks to modern-day science,
we know that the sun is 108 times the diameter of the Earth, while the moon’s diameter times
108 is the distance between the moon and the Earth. At Angkor, the early mountain temple of
Phnom Bakheng had its central sanctuary surrounded by 108 smaller ones.
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In Buddhism
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Mount Meru is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts. It forms part of the Buddhist universe
and is depicted in the Buddhist Mandalas as the center of the universe. It is also referred to as
Mount Sumeru. The Buddhist texts also mention its dimensions. It is said to be about 84,000
yojanas ( about 8500) miles in distance. Indra, the lord of the heavens lives on the top of the
mountains while four heavenly kings reside on four sides of the mountain. Sumeru, as such is
surrounded by seven concentric rings of mountains, each in turn separated from the next by
seven perfume laden oceans.According to Buddhist cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at
the centre of the world and Jambūdvīpa is south of it. It is 80,000 yojanas wide and 80,000
yojanas high according to the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam and 84,000 yojanas high according to
the Long Āgama Sutra. Trāyastriṃśa is on its peak, where Śakra resides. The Sun and the Moon
revolve around Mount Meru and as the Sun passes behind it, it becomes nighttime. The mountain
has four faces, each one made of a different material—the Northern face is made of gold, the
Eastern one is made of crystal, the Southern one is made of lapis lazuli, and the Western one is
made of ruby. In Vajrayāna, maṇḍala offerings often include Mount Meru, as they in part
represent the entire universe. It is also believed that Mount Meru is the home of the buddha
Cakrasaṃvara
Tibetan Cakrasaṃvara Maṇḍala with Mount Meru in the centre. A mural depicting Mt. Meru,
in Wat Sakhet, Bangkok, Thailand. Tibetan Buddhist embroidery representing Mount Sumeru.
Phnom Kulen also called Kulen Mountain – meaning Mountain of Lychees – is a sandstone
plateau located 40 km northeast of Angkor Site. The plateau extends over an area of 25 by 10
km,
with
an
altitude
ranging
from
300
to
487
m.
It is considered as a holy mountain in Cambodia. It has a religious significance for Hindu and
Buddhist people who make pilgrimages there. Its symbolic importance comes from the fact that
the mountain was the birthplace of the ancient Khmer Empire. Indeed, it is the place where King
Jayavarman II was crowned Devaraja (god-king) and where he proclaimed the independence
from Java in 802 AD.
On the top of the eastern plateau is a little pagoda that houses a Reclining Buddha, directly
carved in the sandstone. This Buddha lies on his left side, which is unusual in the traditional
iconography.
On the central part of the mountain are located the sites of the “river of a thousand lingas”
and Kbal Spean. The site also contains waterfalls in which swimming is allowed.
In many ancient civilizations, people worshipped many animals as a reincarnation of divinities.
Among them, the turtle is a common one, which is considered as a sacred reptile that represents
the universe in ancient Chinese and Indian cultures.
They symbolise longevity, power and fertility. The other Sanskrit term for turtle is Kashyapa,
which is the ancestor of all living creatures including plants.
The recent unearthed turtle stone statue at Srah Srang reservoir at Angkor, calls for a visit into
the mythology of this sacred reptile, in the context of Angkorian culture. Indeed the choice of the
turtle as an animal-icon by the ancients seems logical, because of the robustness of their thick
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carapace and longevity – as their lifespans can go beyond 100 years. Like the Chinese say: “The
white crane lives 1,000 years and the turtle 10,000 years”.
They are worshiped also because some believe that they symbolise wisdom and knowledge.
They embody the ocean, the moon, the earth, time, and immortality.
The ancients believe that the magical power of turtles was most likely associated with the
creation of the world,because of their power to bear the burden of the world, similar to Atlas in
Western mythology. Indeed the choice of the turtle as an animal-icon by the ancients seems
logical, because of the robustness of their thick carapace and longevity – as their lifespans can go
beyond 100 years. Like the Chinese say: “The white crane lives 1,000 years and the turtle 10,000
years”.
They are worshiped also because some believe that they symbolise wisdom and knowledge.
They embody the ocean, the moon, the earth, time, and immortality.
The ancients believe that the magical power of turtles was most likely associated with the
creation of the world,because of their power to bear the burden of the world, similar to Atlas in
Western mythology.
As such, sacred turtle representation is common at Angkor. They appear either as large carved
stone statues, like the one that was unearthed recently at Srah Srang, or small votive sculptures
when they are used as offering at the foundation of many temples. But the best representation
containing a sacred turtle is in the form of narrative bas-reliefs – carvings on the walls of Angkor
Wat that tell mythical stories.
As such, sacred turtle representation is common at Angkor. They appear either as large carved
stone statues, like the one that was unearthed recently at Srah Srang, or small votive sculptures
when they are used as offering at the foundation of many temples. But the best representation
containing a sacred turtle is in the form of narrative bas-reliefs – carvings on the walls of Angkor
Wat that tell mythical stories. “Churning of the ocean of milk” known in Sanskrit as the Samudra
Manthana, is narrated in various ancient Sanskrit sacred texts about Hindu mythology. They
explain the origin of the Amrita, the famous nectar of immortality. Texts such as the Ramayana,
Mahabharata and Vishnu Puranas were read by scholars of the royal court of ancient Angkor.
They are represented as bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat with the largest one (48.5 by 2.4 metres)
shown on the wall of the third enclosure of the temple. Smaller scenes are represented at the
Southwest corner pavilion and at the southern gateway of the cruciform pavilion.
The protagonists and elements of this legend include the Mount Mandara as the churning post,
four-armed Vishnu holding the Naga Vasuki playing the role as the rope around the post for the
churning, which is operated by the Devas and Asuras at opposite sides of the post. The Mount
Maranda is supported by Kurma Raja or Turtle King serving as a stabiliser, during the millennial
churning process to release the Amrita under the divine control of Lord Vishnu. In this sacred
endeavour, Turtle King as a powerful avatar of Vishnu, symbolises the sacred and creative power
ultimately needed to generate the Amrita. Beyond its roles on the sacred legends of Angkor,
turtles serve many other purposes in the belief system of modern Cambodia. Turtle release in
religious rituals to gain merits is still common and were conducted at the royal court and various
Buddhist temples of the Kingdom. Oddly paradoxical, in modern Cambodia and many other
Asian countries, turtles have lost their sacred status and have sadly turned into a mere meat
ingredient for soup, to boost longevity. The appetite for these shelled reptiles has fuelled an
intense illegal wildlife trade that threatens their survival. The recent unearthing of the sacred
turtle at the Srah Srang excavation site is a powerful reminder that Kurma Raja, our Turtle King,
was worshipped as a guarantor of the grandeur and immortality of our great Angkor civilization.
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This symbol of our glorious past may inspire a revival of spiritual respect towards Kurma Raja
by modern Cambodians and contribute to the protection of this endangered species.
REFERENCES
1. The myth of the Angkor sacred turtle,Chhem Rethy /
https://www.khmertimeskh.com/722450/the-myth-of-the-angkor-sacred-turtle/
Satellite image of
Angkor Wat – The temple (Mount Meru) is in the center
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CHAPTER IX
Roro Jonggrang-the Slim Girl.
Shiva - Durga temple called Prambanan in Indonesia
Candi Prambanan or Candi Rara Jonggrang is a 9 century Hindu temple compound
in Central Java, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimurti, the expression of God as the Creator
(Brahma), the Sustainer (Vishnu) and the Destroyer (Shiva). The temple compound is located
approximately 18 km east of Yogyakarta city on the boundary between Yogyakarta and Central
Java province. A statue of the Hindu goddess Durga from the Shiva temple at Prambanan, Java,
Indonesia, c. 750 - c. 950 CE. According to legend, the statue is a result of the transformation
into stone of a local princess. by her cruel husband. Rara Jonggrang means the Slim Girl. Know
you can see it as the Durga statue in the north hall of the Prambanan main temple. This grand
Hindu temple locally known in Javanese as Rara Jonggrang, is a temple complex dating from
the 9th century, it is notable for its shrines and statues of Hindu patheon and Ramayana bas
relief. Murtis or Hindu deity statues venerated in Prambanan complex including the main deity
Shiva Mahadeva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga Mahisasuramardini, Ganesha, Agastya, and Nandi
bull.
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Prambanan Temple Compounds is the World Heritage designation of a group of Hindu and
Buddhist temple compounds that lie on the border between Yogyakarta and Central
Java, Indonesia. It comprises Prambanan, Lumbung, Bubrah and Sewu temple compounds, all
are located within Prambanan Archaeological Park.
Prambanan Temple Compounds
Built in the 10th century, this is the largest temple compound dedicated to Shiva in Indonesia.
Rising above the centre of the last of these concentric squares are three temples decorated with
reliefs illustrating the epic of the Ramayana, dedicated to the three great Hindu divinities (Shiva,
Vishnu and Brahma) and three temples dedicated to the animals who serve them.
Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
Prambanan Temple Compounds consist of Prambanan Temple (also called Loro Jonggrang),
Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple and Lumbung Temple. Prambanan Temple itself is a complex
consisting of 240 temples. All the mentioned temples form the Prambanan Archaeological Park
and were built during the heyday of Sailendra’s powerful dynasty in Java in the 8th century AD.
These compounds are located on the border between the two provinces of Yogyakarta and
Central Java on Java Island.
While Loro Jonggrang, dating from the 9th century, is a brilliant example of Hindu religious basreliefs, Sewu, with its four pairs of Dwarapala giant statues, is Indonesia’s largest Buddhist
complex including the temples of Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu (Gana temple). The Hindu temples
are decorated with reliefs illustrating the Indonesian version of the Ramayana epic which are
masterpieces of stone carvings. These are surrounded by hundreds of shrines that have been
arranged in three parts showing high levels of stone building technology and architecture from
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the 8th century AD in Java. With over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents
not only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also a standing proof of past religious peaceful
cohabitation.
Criterion (i): Prambanan Temple Compounds presents the grandiose culture of Siva art as a
masterpiece of the classical period in Indonesia, and the region.
Criterion (iv): The property is an outstanding religious complex, characteristic of Siva
expression of the 10th century.
Integrity
Prambanan Temple Compounds comprises of two groups of buildings which includes Loro
Jonggrang, Sewu complexes, Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu (Gana). The 508 stone temples of
various shapes and sizes are either in a complete and preserved condition or have been retained
as ruins. This site includes all elements necessary to express its exceptional significance and is
well maintained. There are no threats of development or neglect; however the area is prone to
natural threats such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Yuri Hadi
Authenticity
Prambanan Temple Compounds contains the original structures that were built in the 9th century
AD. The temples collapsed due to earthquake, volcanic eruption and a shift of political power in
the early 11th century, and they were rediscovered in the 17th century. These compounds have
never been displaced or changed. Restoration works have been conducted since 1918, both in
original traditional method of interlocking stone and modern methods using concrete to
strengthen the temple structure. Even though extensive restoration works have been done in the
past and as recently as after the 2006 earthquake, great care has been taken to retain the
authenticity of the structures.
Protection and management requirements
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The property has been designated as a National Cultural Property in 1998 and the national law
issued in 2010 also supports the protection and conservation of the property. Management of
Prambanan Temple Compounds is accommodated in the Presidential Decree of 1992 that
established the 77 ha that encompasses the property under central government ownership. This
area is divided into two zones. The management of Zone 1 or the area within the boundary is
conducted by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism under two different regional offices, namely
the Archaeological Preservation Office of Yogyakarta and Central Java. The Borobudur,
Prambanan and Ratu Boko Tourism Park Ltd. are responsible for Zone 2 which comprises the
buffer zone. In order to implement standard operations for the safeguarding of the property, the
government has established a regulation concerning national vital object area. All regulations
have been well enforced and implemented.
In order to improve the management of the property, government issued the law in 2007 and
government regulation of 2008 concerning national spatial planning which means that spatial
planning in World Cultural Heritage area will be prioritized. Prambanan site has been established
as one of the strategic national area which consists of Prambanan temple Compounds and others
related temple remains. To ensure the long term safeguarding of the property, an integrated
management and regulation that support preservation is needed.
The Action Plan of 2007 has been implemented with the involvement of the local
community around the property. The welfare of the local community around the property that
was affected by the earthquake of 27 May 2006, is now improving with the recovery of the usual
economic activity and especially in the creative industry sector. The Siva temple has not been
rehabilitated but research activities or technical studies of the Siva temple have been carried out
in 2010 and 2011. The results have been discussed at national and international level with the
conclusion that it is still necessary to study and research to determine the method of handling
Siva Temple, including monitoring through seismograph study and crack meter periodically.
The Story of Roro Jonggrang.
(source : ^ Prambanan Temple Compounds – UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
https://denmasgundul.wordpress.com/2012/04/02/prambanan-temple-and-the-story-of-roro-jonggrang/
Once upon a time there is a King named Prabu Baka. He is the king of Baka Kingdom. To
expand his teritory, he planned to attack Pengging Kingdom. Prabu Damarmoyo the King of
Pengging sent his troops to prevent Prabu Baka expansion. During this war, so many people are
suffer. Beside that, many soldier from both of side was dead. Finnaly to defeat the mighty Prabu
Baka, Prabu Damarmoyo ordered his son, Prince Bandung Bandawasa to killed Prabu Baka.
Thanks to his power and skills, Prabu Baka was defeated and died in battle. Knowing his King
was dead, Baka general, Patih Gupala retreat back to his kingdom. And Bandung Bandawasa
pursue the general to his kingdom. When he arrives in Baka Kingdom he was surprised when he
met Rara Jonggrang, Prabu Baka’s daughter. He was fallin love with Rara Jonggrang because of
her beauty.
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Prambanan Temple (Sketch by Arkanhendra)
Finnaly, Prince Bandung Bandawasa wants Rara Jonggrang to married him. But Rara Jonggrang
said no. She doesnt want to marry a man who took his fathers life. But, that doesnt make Prince
Bandung Bandawasa give up. He persuade Rara Jonggrang firmly and patiently until Rara
Jonggrang said yes. In the end, Rara Jonggrang decided to approving Bandung Bandawasa
proposal in two condition. First, he must make a well for her, named Sumur Jalatunda (Jalatunda
Well). And then Bandung Bandawasa must built 1000 temples in one night for her. Then she will
marry him.
Bandung Bandawasa agreed with that. When he tries to make the well, Rara Jonggrang ordered
Patih Gupala to burry Bandung Bandawasa. But because his power he was saved. He was so mad
because of Rara Jonggrang deceived him. But with her beauty Rara Jonggrang success to prevent
Bandung Bandawasa for going rage. The first term was succeded. And now, Bandung
Bandawasa prepared to built 1000 temples for her.
He asked a help from the spirit creature with his power. From inside the earth, the jins, ghosts
and many spirit creatures comes to help him. When Rara Jonggrang heard it, that Bandung
bandawasa was almost done with his work, Rara Jonggrang feel worried about it. Then, she
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asked for her servant (dayang) and girls from villages to pound the rice and made a big fire
camp in the east side palace.
Hearing the sound of people pounding the rice and a light from the east side which is from the
fire camp, the spirit creature think that its already dawn yet. And they decided to run and hide.
After knowing that its all because of Rara Jonggrang tricks to ruin his plan to marry her, he can’t
be patient again. In rage he cursed Rara Jonggrang become a stone statue, the most beautiful one.
To fullfil his 999 temple that was finished. Rara Jonggrang means the Slim Girl. Know you can
see it as the Durga statue in the north hall of the Prambanan main temple.
These temples are known locally as candi in Indonesian and Javanese languages. The temple
compounds are located along Opak River valley within Prambanan Plain or Kewu Plain, an
archaeologically rich area dotted with numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples dated from the 8th and
9th centuries CE, historically linked with the Mataram kingdom.[2] The diversity and
sophistication of the temple compounds and archaeological sites in this area are comparable
to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia.
History:
Statue of Shiva in the ruin of Prambanan main temple in 1895
The temple compounds date from the 8th to 9th century CE, linked with historic Mataram
Kingdom that ruled Central Java during that period. Shailendras, the ruling family of the
kingdom were known as the avid temple builders. Indeed some temples in the area,
including Kalasan, Sari, and Sewu are credited to their second monarch King Panangkaran.
Among these temple compounds, Sewu is the oldest, completed in 792 according
to Manjusrigrha inscription. Lumbung and Bubrah also dated from around the same period or
slightly later. Prambanan however, was the latest addition in the complex, finished and
inaugurated in 856 during the reign of King Pikatan according to Shivagrha inscription.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken
by earthquakes. The temple collapsed in about 1600s due to a massive earthquake.[3]
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The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in early 19th century in the British
Java period. In 1918, the Dutch colonial government began the reconstruction of the compound,
and proper restoration took place in 1930 with modest result due to loss of the temple stones.
Only a number of the smaller pervara shrines of Prambanan and Sewu complex were
reconstructed during the Dutch East Indies period prior to the Pacific War.
After the World War II, the reconstruction efforts continues by implementing
the anastylosis method, which means the temple will be reconstructed if only at least 75 percent
of the original stones remains. The reconstruction of the main Shiva temple in Prambanan
complex was completed around 1953 and inaugurated by Indonesia's first president Sukarno.
Brahma temple reconstruction was finished in 1987, while Vishnu temple was completed in
1991, both were inaugurated by Suharto.
In 1991, the temple compounds gained UNESCO World Heritage Site status.[1] The temple
compounds are located within Prambanan Tourism Park (Indonesian: Taman Wisata Candi
Prambanan).[4] Sewu main temple was completed in 1993, while Bubrah restoration was
completed in 2017. Since the temple compound consists of hundreds of pervara temples or
complementary smaller shrines that most are still in ruins, restoration efforts still continue to this
day.
Temples and archaeological sites in Prambanan Plain
Prambanan Sewu are actually temple compounds arranged in the mandala layout, surrounded
with hundreds of pervara (guardian complementary) temples. Originally, Prambanan consists of
240 structures, Sewu consists of 249 structures, while Lumbung temple consists of 17 structures.
With combined numbers of over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not
only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also an example of religious harmony and
peaceful cohabitation between faiths in Indonesia's past.
Sewu
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Sewu or originally known as Manjusrigrha complex, with its four pairs of Dvarapala giant
statues, is the largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia, and the second largest Buddhist
temple after Borobudur. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple compound to
be Manjusrigrha,
which
means
"the
house
of Manjusri",
one
of
the
main boddhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism belief.
Bubrah
Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located between Lumbung in the south and Sewu in the
north. Experts believe that the temple was designed as a part of the greater Sewu temple
compound mandala.
Lumbung
Candi Lumbung a 9th-century Buddhist temple compound located within the complex
of Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, Central Java, Indonesia. The original name of this temple is
unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple "candi lumbung", which means "rice
barn temple" in Javanese language.
Prambanan temple compound
Sewu temple /Bubrah temple/ Buddhist siotes on the Kewu Plain/Lumbung temple
Outside of Prambanan Temple Tourism Park there are numerous temples and archaeological
sites located just a few kilometres away, they are:
Plaosan. Buddhist temple located a few kilometres east from Sewu temple compound. The
temple probably dated from 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his
Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Boddhisatva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone enclosure,
all located on top of the hill.
Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables from the Jatakas.
Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the slope
of the hill.
Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
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Kalasan. This 8th-century Buddhist temple is the oldest in the area. Built to house the image
of Boddhisattvadevi Tara by King Panangkaran, ornamented with finely carved reliefs.
Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist monks. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two
rooms beneath, each believed to be places for monks to meditate.
Sambisari. 9th-century Hindu temple discovered in 1966, once buried 6.5 metres under
volcanic ash. The main temple houses a linga and yoni, and the wall surround it displayed
the images of Agastya, Durga, and Ganesha.
Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4 metres deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated.
It is said that both Angkor and Prambanan were created by the same builders – who could be the
Hindus from India before and around 1st century to 5th century.; especially the skilled workers
By 3rd Century, Hinduism already established itself in Indochina regions, bring knowledge,
wisdom and science to the region which did not had such things before. One of the Science they
brought includes the Science of Water management and temple building.
You see, unlike those Egyptians who build “great monuments” by staking large granite boulders
like some ancient Tetris game, Hindus from India were experts in resource management. If one
were to study the ancient infrastructure of Mohendaro Harappa, you will know that ancient
Hindus were experts at “saving” natural resources for “rainy” days. And in those days, rainy
days comes only during certain season.
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Ancient Hindus were able to plan their cities in a way that they included artificial waterways,
canals and artificial lakes to catch and keep water during their dry seasons.
Siem Reap (Cambodia) where Angkor Wat exist had the exact opposite problem to Mohendaro
Harappa. It had too much water. It could have 6 months of dry season and another 6 months of
very wet season where flooding is common. So when the Hindus came to this region, they
decided to implement similar solutions as they did in India for generation before.
216
This picture shows the perfectly square canals in the picture above-they are NOT natural
formation. They are man-made canals, built in form of square, with Angkor Wat in the middle
like a giant Mandala (go search what a Mandala is).
217
But one does not see such features in Borodur or Pramban. Because:
1. The design was not an Hindu mandala type
2. The design came later on 5 th century and beyond
Prambanan as a Mandala: In the research paper Prambanan, a Hindu temple in Indonesiageneral architectural and morphological analysis,(academia.edu) myself and my co-author
Srishti Dokras have dealt with a initial introduction to this magnificent temple .
The architecture of the Prambanan temple follows the typical Hindu
architecture traditions
based
on Vastu
Shastra.
The
temple
design
incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires
of Hindu temples. Prambanan was originally named Shivagrha and dedicated to the
god Shiva. The temple was designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain, the abode of
Hindu gods, and the home of Shiva. The whole temple complex is a model of the Hindu
universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka. Hindu temple
architecture has many varieties of style, though the basic nature of the Hindu
temple ("mandir") remains the same, with the essential feature an inner sanctum,
the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary murti or the image of a deity is
housed in a simple bare cell. Around this chamber there are often other structures and
buildings, in the largest cases covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is
crowned by a tower-like shikhara, also called the vimana in the south. The shrine
building
often
includes
an
ambulatory
for parikrama (circumambulation),
a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch
between garbhagriha and mandapa. There may further mandapas or other buildings,
connected or detached, in large temples, together with other small temples in the
compound. There are examples of special dance pavilions (Nata Mandir), like in
the Konark Sun Temple. The pool, temple tank (Kunda) is also part of the temple for
ablutions.
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Part of Gopuram at Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore.
Gopurams
Essentially independent architectural structure is an element of the temple complex as gopuram,
viz., gatehouse towers, usually ornate, othen with colossal size, at the entrance of a Hindu temple
of Southern India.
Just like Borobudur, Prambanan also recognizes the hierarchy of the temple zones, spanned
from the less holy to the holiest realms. Each Hindu and Buddhist concept has its terms, but the
concepts are essentially identical. Hindu cosmology is the description of the universe and its
states of matter, cycles within time, physical structure, and effects on living entities according
to Hindu texts. Time is infinite with a cyclic universe, where the current universe was preceded
and will be followed by an infinite number of universes.
Each universe lasts for 4.32 billion years in a time period called a Kalpa or day of Brahma,
where the universe is created at the start and destroyed at the end, only to be recreated at the start
of the next Kalpa. A Kalpa is followed by an equal period of partial dissolution (Pralaya or night
of Brahma), when Brahma takes rest from his creative duties and the universe remains in an
unmanifest state. Further divisions of time are a Manvantara, each with Chatur
Yuga (a.k.a. Maha Yuga), each with four yugas: Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara
Yuga and Kali Yuga
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Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three
zones:
Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,
animals also demons. Where humans are still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of
life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temple has symbolized the realm
of bhurloka.
Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, occupied by rishis,
ascetics, and lesser gods. People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard
and the body of each temple symbolize the realm of bhuvarloka.
Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm, reserved for the gods.
Also known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temple symbolize the
realm of svarloka. The roof of Prambanan temples are adorned and crowned
with ratna (sanskrit: jewel), the shape of Prambanan Ratna took the altered form of vajra that
represent diamonds. In ancient Java temple architecture, Ratna is the Hindu counterpart of
the Buddhist stupa, and served as the temple's pinnacle.It also has more than 140 inner
temples, along with 30 main ones.
During the restoration, a well which contains a pripih (stone casket) was discovered under the
centre of the Shiva temple. The main temple has a well 5.75 m deep in which a stone casket was
found on top a pile of charcoal, earth, and remains of burned animal bones. Sheets of gold leaves
with the inscription Varuna (god of the sea) and Parvata (god of the mountains) were found here.
The stone casket contained sheets of copper, charcoal, ashes, earth, 20 coins, jewels, glass,
pieces of gold and silver leaves, seashells and 12 gold leaves (which were cut in the shapes of a
turtle, Nāga serpent, padma, altar, and an egg).
220
221
222
Prambanan Temple, Yogyakarta, Java
Prambanan Shiva Temple, Yogyakarta,
Dedicated to the Trimurti, the expression of God as the Creator (Brahma), the Preserver (Vishnu)
and the Destroyer (Shiva). Its original name was Shiva-grha (the House of Shiva) or Shivalaya (the Realm of Shiva) and its form was designed to symbolize Mt. Meru, the legendary holy
mountain and abode of Hindu gods. The ground plan of Prambanan follows the Hindu system
of Vastu Shastra, which literally translates as "science of architecture" and is laid out according
to a mandala, or geometric pattern that represents a microcosm of the universe.
The temple complex consists of three zones, each of which is surrounded by a wall: an inner and
most holy zone containing eight main temples and eight smaller shrines, each of which have
been reconstructed; a middle zone containing 224 small pervara temples of which only two have
been reconstructed; and an outer zone without temples, where the very large number of temple
authorities and priests would have lived. The most prominent temple, dedicated to Shiva, rises to
154 feet (47 meters) and has four chambers in the cardinal directions. The eastern chamber
contains a ten-foot statue of Shiva, the north chamber has a statue of Shiva's consort Durga
Mahisasuramardini depicting Durga as the slayer of the Bull demon, the west chamber houses a
statue of Shiva's son Ganesh, and the south is occupied by Shiva's teacher, the sage Agastya. The
temple is adorned with panels of bas-relief sculptures telling the story of the Hindu epic the
Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana.
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Ground plan of Prambanan Temple
The temple was first built around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded extensively by King
Lokapala of the Sanjaya Dynasty. Historians suggest that the construction of Prambanan was
probably meant to memorialize the return to power of the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty in Central Java
after almost a century of domination by the Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty. In the 930's, following
state political turmoil and the volcanic eruption of nearby Mt. Merapi, the royal court was
transferred to East Java by Mpu Sindok, who established the Isyana Dynasty. This marked the
beginning of the decline of Prambanan. It was later abandoned, scores of trees grew amidst its
soaring stone towers, and many temples collapsed during a major earthquake in the 16th century.
Although the temple ceased to be an important center of worship and pilgrimage, the ruins were
still recognizable and known to the local Javanese people.
Prambanan was rediscovered in 1733 by C.A. Lons, a Dutch explorer. The first efforts to reveal
the full extent of the temple complex were done in 1885 and 1918, though looting became
common with Dutch residents adorning their gardens with priceless statues and local people
taking foundation stones to use as construction material. Archaeological restorations were
conducted in 1937, 1978 and 1982, and continue to this day. Given the size of the temple
complex, the Indonesian government decided to rebuild shrines only if at least 75% of their
original masonry was available. Most of the smaller shrines are now visible only in their
foundations, with no plans for their reconstruction. In 1991, the entire site was designated as a
Unesco World Heritage Site. As of 2009, the interior of most of the temples remains off-limits
for safety reasons.
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Aerial view of Prambanan Temple complex
Ruins of Prambanan Temple with volcanic Mt. Merapi in the distance, 1852 Unreconstructed pervara temple with
Shiva temple
Martin Greyhttps://sacredsites.com/asia/indonesia/prambanan_temple_yogyakarta_java.html
225
]The Good Cow from Prambanan EDU PILLU
226
PART IV
Mandala Miscellaneous
227
C H A P T E R- X
Jain Cosmography
Jains cannot advance spiritually without understanding, meditating upon cosmological theories
so understanding them is crucial. A cosmograph is a graph which is used by a cosmographer to
map the general features of the universe. This representation of the heavens and earth tries to
explain the universe without crossing over into the science of astronomy or geography. So a
cosmograph is part of cosmography and what a cosmographer would use as part of his work.
Beyond cosmography, these types of graphs and charts can be used to frame input and output
models or organizations or geographical representations of points of data.1
Other Explanations of Cosmographs
Cosmographs are variations of pie charts. Like pie charts, cosmographs are types of graphs that
provide information about components, in relation to a whole. However, cosmographs are not as
numerical as pie charts. There are different uses for cosmographs. A cosmograph can also be
used to show a comparison between geographical regions. Publications frequently feature
cosmographs that use different colors to provide information about regions, in respect to a whole.
An example of this type of cosmograph is an illustration of the US map with each state in blue,
red, or purple, reflecting the dominant political party.The Mirriam Webster Dictionary describes
cosmography as:
1. noun
2. cos·mog·ra·phy | \ käz-ˈmä-grə-fē \
3. plural cosmographies
4. Definition of cosmography
5. 1 : a general description of the world or of the universe
6. 2 : the science that deals with the constitution of the whole order of nature
7. Other Words from cosmography Example Sentences Learn More about
cosmography
8. Other Words from cosmography
9. cosmographer \ käz-ˈmä-grə-fər \ noun
10. cosmographic \ ˌkäz-mə-ˈgra-fik \ or cosmographical \ ˌkäz-mə-ˈgra-fi-kəl \ adjective
Graphos: Well into the seventeenth century, geographical writing was profoundly influenced by
Greek and Latin classical writers, and a number of classical Greek words were used to define
aspects of the subject. Thus “geography” combines geo (the earth) with graphos (“drawing” and,
by extension, “description”). “Cosmography” involved the description of the universe (cosmos)
and included what later developed as biology, cartography, geography, geophysics, and also
anthropology. Chorography (choros = place) described places in general and larger areas,
whereas “topography” was concerned with primarily the physical features of particular places at
a smaller scale. Words ending in -logy incorporate the Greek word logos, which signifies a
rational principle or structure. (Logos is the “Word” which was “from the beginning” in the first
chapter of St. John's Gospel.) So logos implies explanation rather than the description implied by
graphos. “Chorology” suggests some explanation about places, just as “chronology” deals with
time and how historical events can be seen as logical outcomes of a course of previous events. In
analyses of the history of geography these concepts have been used and misused, often to
underpin a preferred contemporary paradigm for the discipline.1A
228
Cosmology is a related term of cosmography.
As nouns the difference between cosmology and cosmography is that cosmology is the study of
the physical universe, its structure, dynamics, origin and evolution, and fate
while cosmography is the creation of maps of the universe.
Areas of the Universe- Cosmography is the science that maps the general features of the
cosmos or universe, describing both heaven and Earth (but without encroaching on geography or
astronomy). The 14th-century work 'Aja'ib al-makhluqat wa-ghara'ib al-mawjudat by Persian
physician Zakariya al-Qazwini is considered to be an early work of cosmography.
Traditional Hindu, Buddhist and Jain cosmography schematize a universe centered on Mount
Meru surrounded by rivers, continents and seas. These cosmographies posit a universe being
repeatedly created and destroyed over time cycles of immense lengths.
Background to Jain Cosmology and cosmography:
If Cosmography is the science that maps the general features of the cosmos or universe,
describing both heaven and Earth (but without encroaching on geography or astronomy) then
what we attempt in caling the Jain dogma of the Universe or multiverse is not exactly
Cosmography because we take into account both the geography and the astronomy. Yet both
these elements are in reality fictional because there is no proof except for the beliefs of mankind
on the words of ancient sages belonging to the jain faith who promulgated these views.
The shape of the universe according to Jain cosmology is shown in Figure 1. The base of the
universe is 7 Rajju wide. It gradually tapers to 1 Rajju wide in the middle at the height of 7
Rajju. It then increases gradually to 5 Rajju and then tapers back to 1 Rajju at the top. Total
height of the universe is 14 Rajju. The depth of the universe is 7 Rajju in the Digambara tradition
and thus the volume of the universe in this tradition is 343 cubic Rajju. Depth of the universe
changes with height in the Śvetāmbara tradition and the volume of the universe in this tradition is
239 cubic Rajju. Rajju is a very large unit of length and is equal to the distance a deity traverses
in six months flying non-stop at the rate of 2,057,152 yojanas in an instant. A yojana is about
nine miles. The space inside the universe is called Lokākāśa and the space outside the universe is
called Alokākāśa.
Universe is divided in three main parts. Gods live in the upper half (Urdhva Loka or upper
world) and various types of hell are located in the lower half (Adho Loka or lower world). At the
very top of the universe is the abode of liberated beings. Humans and animals live in the middle
of the universe (Madhya Loka or middle world). At the centre of the middle world is the island
called Jambudwīpa and at its centre is a mountain called Meru. The diameter of Jambudwīpa is
100,000 yojana or about 900,000 miles. Jambudwīpa is surrounded by an annular ocean, which is
surrounded by an annular island. This island is surrounded by an ocean, which is again
surrounded by an island. The number of these concentric islands and oceans is extremely large.
The diameter of each successive continent or ocean is double that of previous one. The
estimation of the size of Rajju by calculating the diameters of the rings of oceans and continents
contained in the middle world led Jains to very large exponents with base 2.
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Figure 1: Shape of the universe in the Jain tradition
The universe has neither a beginning nor an end in time according to Jain cosmology. The Jain
time cycle consists of two halves, Utsarpiṇī and Avasarpiṇī. Each half is further subdivided in
six parts. Each part consists of a combination of Suṣamā and Duḥṣamā. Suṣamā denotes
happiness and Duḥṣamā denotes unhappiness. Suṣamā Suṣamā denotes extreme happiness, while
Duḥṣamā Duḥṣamā denotes extreme unhappiness. The Jain time cycle starts with a period of
extreme unhappiness and gradually moves to a period of extreme happiness in the first half. In
the second half, it starts with a period of extreme happiness and ends with a period of extreme
unhappiness. Jain time cycle was extremely vast and is shown in Table 1.
The Laghu-kṣetra-samāsa – Brief Summary of the Areas [of the World] – belongs to the tradition
of Śvetāmbara writings on the Jain universe. It was written in Prakrit verse in the 14th century by
the monk Ratnaśekhara-sūri. The title underlines the condensed nature of the work and indicates
that there are also expanded versions. The one in this manuscript has 265 stanzas.
The kṣetra-samāsa works are mainly geographical, describing all the areas – continents,
mountains, oceans and so on – that constitute the three worlds.
Teaching and learning cosmology are an important part of monastic education. Partly for this
reason, cosmological writings have generated numerous commentaries in Sanskrit or
the vernacular languages. Some manuscripts just have the Prakrit verses but this one also
contains a Gujarati commentary written by a famous monk. Pārśva-candra-sūri was the founder
of a gaccha that took his name, having separated from the Nāgapurīya-Tapāgaccha in 1572 of
the Vikrama era. He was also a prolific writer and commentator in Gujarati.
Pictorial Tradition: A pictorial tradition has also grown up round cosmological works, as
visualisation is part of the transmission of knowledge on the Jain universe and is helpful as a
means of understanding.
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Jain cosmology is complex. Human beings live in the Middle World, which is the smallest of
the three worlds that make up world space – loka-ākāśa. In world space all the souls live in the
different body-forms they take according to their rebirths, in the various worlds. Outside world
space is the non-world space – aloka-ākāśa – which is endless. However, the Middle World is the
most important area from the spiritual point of view because it is the only part where human
beings can live.
Jains cannot advance spiritually without understanding, meditating upon cosmological theories
so understanding them is crucial. Certain key religious concepts run through these theories.
These include the notion of a physical soul shedding karma by moving through the cycle of
rebirth to eventual omniscience and liberation, along with the cyclical nature of time, the
interconnectedness of the universe, and the importance of symmetry, repetition and balance.
According to Jain cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded
by Jambūdvīpa, in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans. There are two sets of
sun, moon and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests
behind Mount Meru.
The 24th and last Tirthankara, Lord Mahāvīra was taken to the summit of Meru by Indra shortly
after his birth, after putting his mother Queen Trishala into deep slumber. There he was bathed
and anointed with precious functions.
Let’s start with the middle world, the area where humans reside. Called Adhaidvipa (two and a
half continents), it constitutes 90 continents and oceans. The continents are shown as concentric
circles surrounded by ring-shaped oceans filled with swimmers and fish, complex networks of
rivers and lakes, and mountain ranges.
The first or the central continent is the Jambudvipa (rose-apple continent). It is encircled by a
blue ring that represents the Lavana Samudra (salt ocean). The next ring corresponds to the
continent Dhatakikanda bounded by Kalodadhi (black-water ocean). The outermost band
represents half of the third continent, Pushkaradvipa (lotus island). This final band is surrounded
by the multi-coloured peaks of the mountain range that delimits mortal space, while the pavilions
at the corners of the chart represent celestial guardians of the human world.
In the centre of Jambudvipa is Mount Meru, the cosmic axis or the centre of the universe. It has
three terraces, each smaller than the one below, each one dotted with parks and forests. A temple
dedicated to the Jinas (Tirthankaras) is at the top. Models of Mount Meru are often found in Jain
temples and are objects of worship. In the upper world reside the Gods, in various heavens. They
may be living a life of pleasure and are not free of worldly desires, thus not liberated. They are
organised in hierarchical ranks like traditional human society, from servants at the bottom to the
king or chief at the top.
1. The middle world (Madhya loka); This is also known a the animal world (tiryancha lok). It
lies on the circular upper surface in the center of Universe. It is one Rajju broad and long. The
other worlds, with their hells lie below it; and the heavenly world, the Dev Lokas, at the height of
100,000 Yojans above it.
Mount Meru is at the center of the middle world. The continent, known as Jambudwip, surrounds
it in the form of a circle and its diameter is 100,000 Yojans. A ring formed ocean surrounds the
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Jambudwip. It is an ocean of the salt (lavanoda) and in its diameter is 200,000 Yojans. The
continent called Ghatki Khand joins them, again in the form of a ring, and in diameter is 400,000
Yojans. Ghatki Khand is also bordered by a circular ocean. Thus, there are series of continents,
and countless oceans one after the other, finally up to Swayambhu Raman ocean which washes
around the whole middle world i.e. Madhya loka.
The names of the first eight of them are:
Continent
Ocean
1.
Jambudwip
Lavanoda (Salt-ocean)
2.
Ghatki Khand
Kaloda (Black sea)
3.
Puskarvar Dwip
Puskaroda (Lotus ocean)
4.
Varun Var Dwip
Varunoda (Varun ocean)
5.
Kshir Var Dwip
Kshiroda (Ocean of milk)
6.
Ghrut Var Dwip
Ghrutoda (Butter milk ocean)
7.
Ikshuvar Dwip
Iksuvaroda (Sugar ocean)
8. Nandishwar Dwip
Nandishwaroda
The continents have been given the names as per their characteristics marks; which are peculiar
to them. The oceans are given the name of such liquids, which resemble the water of ocean.
Of all the dwips (islands) Jambudwip is very significant because it is in the center of the whole
universe. Jains believe that our India and the present world as we see, exist in Jambudwip.
Jambudwip is surrounded by a very high and broad wall. The wall is supposed to be made from
precious gold, diamonds and such other jewels. Even the grill work is done by gold and
diamonds. There are four mighty gates, protected by deities.
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Jambudwip continent has six mighty mountains, dividing the continent into seven zones
(kshetra) The names of these zones and mountains are as under:
Zone
Mountain
1.
Bharat Kshetra
Himavan mountain.
2.
Haimava Kshetra
Maha-Himavan mountain
3.
Hari Kshetra
Nishadha mountain
4.
Videh Kshetra
Nila mountain
5.
Ramyak
Rukmi mountain
6.
Hairanyvat Kshetra
Shikhari mountain
These mountains consist of gold, silver and beryl. On the eastern summit of every mountain,
there are Jain temples embellished with jewels. There is a large lake on each mountain with lotus
flowers.
Fourteen rivers spring from these six mountain which flow into the salt ocean which again
frames the different zones of Jambudwip. The south most zone is Bharat Varsh. It is bordered by
Himavan mountain in the north. On another side, there is a salt ocean. We live on Bharat Varsh
(India) which is part of Jambudwip. Vaitadhya mountain running parallel to Himavan divides
Bharat Varsh into two parts - northern and southern half. The rivers Maha-Sindhu and MahaGanga flow down from Himavan into west and east respectively divide each one of these halves
into three parts. Thus whole Bharat Varsh is divided into six parts.
Bharat Varsh is a Karma Bhumi i.e. it is a land in which human beings have to work, and in
which all sorts of Karmas can be bound (by soul ) The periodical changes of six aras take place
in it.
The Himavart Varsh zone, in north of Himavart mountain is four times bigger than Bharat
Varsh. Shabdpati mountain lies in its center. Himvat Varsh is a Bhog Bhumi, i.e. a land in which
human beings live the life of pleasure almost like fruits of Kalpa Vriksha (the wonderful wishing
tree). Here prevails an age of only pleasure.
Harivarsh zone is on northern side of Himavan Varsha. It is four times broader than the former.
The conditions of life here are better than Himavart Varsh. Here prevails an ara (age) of Susma.
The Nisadha mountain separates Harivarsha from Videh Varsh. This is Maha Videh Kshetra[10].
It is largest of all the Kshetras. The mountain Meru (Mandar) lies in the middle of this kshetra.
Meru is, in a way, center or Naval of the whole Jambudwip. On all the summits, there are
beautiful lotus ponds, palaces, temples. Two big rivers Sita and Sitada flow at the foot of Meru.
Vakara mountain ranges start from Meru.
1. Saumanas mountain consisting Silver.
2. Vidhut Prabha mountain consisting Gold.
3. Gandh Madan mountain consisting Gold.
4. Malyavan mountain consisting Beryl.
Devkuru and Uttarkuru are two most fortunate of all Jambudwip region, because here is an era of
all Susma Susma. Thus here there is only happiness permanently. In Purva[16] Videh and Upper
Videh, there is the land of Karmas – Karma Bhumi, like Bharat Varsh. Ramyak Varsh zone is an
exact counter part of Hari Varsh while Harin Varat is exactly like Haimavata and Airavat Varsh
is like Bharat Varsh.
The whole Jambudwip is in a circular form. It is encompassed by a salt ocean. In its center, there
is a gigantic barrel like container (Patali Gods have their abode there. There are series of island
in Lavanda and fifty-six median islands.
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2. The Nether world
Seven subterranean regions lie story-like, thousand Yojans deep, under the earth of middle world.
Of these, only the upper ones serve as an abode for certain divine beings while the others shelter
the hells where the souls for their bad deeds have to undergo horrible tortures.
The uppermost subterranean region is Ratna Prabha, having divided into three stories under oneanother. Of these the third one of Ratna Prabha serves as a place of punishment for those who
are condemned.
Torture in Hells: Ratna prabha, Sharkara prabha and Valuka prabha.
Each region of the hells has several stories. There is a central hell in the center of every story.
Numerous row-hells spread from here into four directions. The number of hells decreases when
one moves downwards.
Ratna Prabha (Shine of Jewels) have thirteen stories and 30,00,000 hells. That is on the top. On
7th Mahatma-Prabha (Shine of great darkness) there is only one story and only 5 hells) from 1st
to 7th totally there are 49 stories and 84,00,000 hells. The inhabitants of hell, unlike human
beings on the earth, are born in super natural manner - by suddenly coming out of the hole in a
wall and falling down. Their complete evolution takes one muhurat (48 minutes). Their structure
is completely unsymmetrical. They have only first three kinds of knowledge and have
transcendent knowledge of material things. All these knowledge only add to their sufferings.
Self discipline is not possible here; therefore they cannot rise beyond 4th stage of Guna
Sthanakas. The deeper the hells, worse are their inhabitants, greater are their pains. Life span in
lowest stories is the highest.
The conditions are horrible in hells. The smell is pestilent, the air is sharp and pungent and there
is constant awful darkness. Walls and floors are covered with dirt and they are slippery
everywhere. All kinds of punishment and ill-treatment are provided. The torturing include
hacking to pieces, broken on a wheel, being roasted, skewered impaled, whipped cut with knives,
droned in water, boiled in cauldrons etc.
3. The world of Gods:
Gods live the life of happiness. They have magnificent palaces to stay where they enjoy all
pleasures of life. Their every wish is fulfilled. Here also self-discipline is impossible among
them. The Main types are Bhuvanvasi, Vyantar. Jyotiska and Vaimaniks. The minimum life span
is 10,000 years and maximum is 33 Sagarpoam. Their appearance is marvelous, youthful and
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radiant. They have no shadow. Their eyes do not twinkle and their hairs and nails do not grow.
Everything is illuminated with the glitter of precious stones and diamond.2
Sources
The world of humans (Manusya-loka)
The middle world (Madhya-loka) is the only one of the three worlds where it is possible for
humans to be born. Even there, rebirth and death are restricted to a relatively small area. It
comprises: Jambū-dvīpa and Lavana-samudra, the continent (Dvipa) of Dhātakīkhanda
surrounded by the 'Black-water ocean' (Kālodadhi), and the inner half of the third continent,
called 'Lotus-island' (Puskara-dvīpa), which lies on the inner side of the circular mountain
barrier called 'Beyond humankind' (Mānusottara) to signify that it serves as a limit to the normal
human domain.
The artists' fantasy is revealed in those spaces where they respect the essential points of reference
and most of the distinctive characteristics, while at the same time treating rather freely
proportions and various details. One can see, for example, how they reduce the distance which
separates the two shores of the oceans, which are theoretically twice as large as the continents
which they surround.
Jambūdvīpa, especially, is painted in great detail: long chains of mountains running from east to
west divide it into seven countries; great rivers flow from the peaks to the oceans; and the
division of the provinces can be seen in the large middle zone of Videha, to the east and west of
Mt. Meru, whose peak dominates Uttarakuru in the north, and Devakuru in the south, with their
respective trees, Jambūvrksa and Śālmall.
The Himavat mountains in the south, and usually their northern counterparts also, extend into the
Lavana ocean where there are always at least two of the vast receptacles (Pātālas) which cause
the tides. The islands attributed to the moons and the suns are usually depicted.
The disk of Jambū-dvipa is set within its rampart of diamonds, which is surrounded by a fence of
jewels crowned by a high garland of lotuses made from gems. It is washed by the Lavanasamudra where the tides which regulate its months rise, where the islands of its moons and suns
are situated, and into which some of its mountains project.
At the four cardinal points four 'triumphal' gates open on to the ocean. Through the east and west
of these, named Vijaya and Vijayanta, project the mouths of the two principal rivers of the
middle land.
Six main mountain ranges cross the continent from east to west, and thus divide it, from north to
south, into seven lands. The three to the north of the central area occupied by Mahāvideha
correspond symmetrically with the three to the south.
At the very south is the land of Bharata (in which will be recognised the name of India);
Airāvata, is an exact replica of this at the north. From Bharata to Mahāvideha, and similarly on to
Airāvata, the size of the countries and of the mountain chains between them increase by
geometrical progression, by a factor of two. So Videha is 64 times larger than the land of
Bharata.
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Jain cosmography Map of the ‘two and a half continents’ (Adhāī-dvīpa) which it occupies -Gouache on cloth, 16th century,
Gujurat
The map (below) shows especially the long mountain ranges by which the intermediate countries
are bounded. Their peaks are crowned with sanctuaries. Rising from huge lakes in the mountain
heights, long rivers flow down to where a peak impedes their course and turns them towards the
east and the west, until they finally flow into the Lavanasamudra.
The geography of Bharata (and Airāvata) follows the same pattern, but with more details.
Bounded at the north by the Himavat mountains, which project into the sea the double
promontories of the Damstrās, each carrying seven red spots which represent the Antaradvīpas,
Bharata[3] is cut again from east to west by the range of the Vaitādhya mountains, bristling with
nine peaks. From the central lake of the Himavat mountains the River Sindhu flows towards the
south-west, and the River Gangā towards the sourth-east. Their streams flow on either side of
Mt. Rsabhagiri - the dwelling place of the first prophet - and then penetrate the Vaitādhya
mountains. Re-emerging, they spread out in the plains where there are capital cities like
Ayodhyā, before emptying themselves, by means of vast mouths, into the Salt Sea.
Mahāvideha is even more complex. In the centre is Mt. Meru, to which are joined, to the north
and south, the two pairs of ranges of the 'Elephant-tusk' (Vaksārd) mountains, whose arcs
enclose the two Kurus, Devakuru (where the Śālmalī tree is found) to the south, and Uttarakuru[
(where the Jambū tree grows) to the north. The map shows the open spaces at the foot of Mt.
Meru towards the east and west, where the forests grow, to which correspond the woods
(unusually visible here) which lie on the shores of the ocean.
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Jambudwip framed by the Lavanoda (salt-ocean). Maha Videh (central area of Jambudwip) is accentuated in this
depiction. To right The Island of the Rose-apple tree (Gouache on cloth, 16th century, Gujarat
MahavidehKshetra
The Mahavideh Kshetra is located in the middle of Jambudwip. It is situated between two
mountain ranges: in the north Mahavideh Kshetra is bordered by Nishadh mountain range and in
the south by the Nilvant mountains. Additionally, it touches Lavan ocean on its both sides, East
and West. The size of Mahavide Kshetra is 1 lakh Yojans both East and West and North and
South. Its shape is like a cot. Its width is ca. 33684 Yojans.
Mahavideh Kshetra is divided into 4 section: East and West Mahavideh and South and North
Devkuru; in the middle lies the Meru mountain.
North and south area of Mahavideh
In the middle is Meru mountain occupying 10,000 Yojans.
In South there is Bhadrashal forest (250 Yojans).
Devkuru measures 11562 Yojans and 2 Kala.
In North there is Bhadra Shal Forest (250 Yojans).
Uttarkuru measures 11592 Yojans and 2 Kala
East and west area of Mahavideh :
East 23,000 Yojans; West 23,000 Yojans; East-West 46,000 Yojans area.
Jigtina (12 Yojans).
Sita Mukhvan (2410 Yojans).
Vakshaskar Mountain (2000 Yojans).
Inner river (375 Yojans)
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( 1 Yojan is equivalent to 7,68,000 utsedha-aṅgula or eight miles. Another view expressed in the book entitled
Our True Geography’, published by Jambūdvīpa Vijñāna Saṃśodhana Kendra, Palitana, holds it that the present
day equivalent of an utsedha-yojana, which equals four gāu or nine miles or 15 Km.)
The Vijays of Mahavideh
The River Sitoda originates in the Tigichdrah of Niksadh mountain. It flows in the middle of
western Mahavideh Kshetra and reaches finally to Lavan ocean. This divides western Mahavideh
Kshetra into two divisions. Likewise the river Sita originates in the Kesaridrah of Nilkanth
mountains and reaches Lavan ocean flowing in the middle of east MahavidehKshetra. Thus east
Mahavideh is also divided into two sections by this river. Thus, in 4 section there are 8 Vijayas;
and between each Vijay there is a river and a mountain.
Sketch of Mahavideh depicting mountains and rivers of the 32 Vijays.
After each Vijay, there is a big mountain, then there is a big river. Thus, there are totally 32
Vijays in Mahavideh Kshetra. In Jambudwip there are 34 Chakravarti Vijayas of which 32 from
Mahavideh and one each from Bharat and Airvat Kshetra.
Names of 32 Vijayas
North
South
South
North
1. Kutch
9.
Vatsa
17.
Padma
25.
Vapra
2. Sukatch
10.
Suvatsa
18.
Supadma
26.
Suvapra
3. Mahakach
11.
Mahavatsa
19.
Mahapadma
27.
Mahavapra
4. Machgavati
12.
Vatsagavati
20.
Padmagavati
28.
Vapravati
5. Awart
13.
Ramya
21.
Shankh
29.
Valgu
6. Manglavart
14.
Ramyak
22.
Kumud
30.
Suvalgu
7. Puskalavrat
15.
Ramanik
23.
Nalin
31.
Ganhit
8. Puskala Vati
16.
Mangalavati
24.
Nalinavati
32.
Gandhilavati
In 8th Puskalavati Vijay there lives Simandharswami, in 9th Vatsa Vijay there lives
Yugmandhaswami, in 24th Nalinavati Vijay there lives Shri Bahu Swamiand in 25th Vapra
Vijay There lives Shri Sabahu Swami.
In Bharat Kshetra between the time-space of 17th Tirthankara Shri Kunthunath and 18th
Tirthankaras Shri Arnath, in Mahavideh Kshetra of Adhai Dwip (two and a half continent), there
were 20 Tirthankaras.
Likewise, between the time space of 20th Munisuvrat Swami and 21st Tirthankara, Shri
Neminath, as many as 20 Tirthankar, renunciated the world in Mahavideh. They were monks for
one month and attained ultimate knowledge (kevalgyana) thereafter; in the next series of 24th
Tirthankaras all 20 Tirthankaras will attain moksha (ultimate liberation) between the time
space[18] of 7th and 8th Tirthankaras of the said next series of 24 Tirthankaras.
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These (existing as on today Viharman) 20 Tirthankaras of Mahavideh have a life span of 84
lakh purva. Of these, 83 lakh purvaperiod will be spent in the worldly life as householders. Then
they will be on a monk's life for a lakh purva period in mediation. Their body size is 500 arch
(dhanushya). They all will have 84 principle disiples (Gandhar ).
As shown above, there are 32 Vijays. There are two Vijaya in Bharat and Airvat Kshetra. Thus,
there could be 34 Tirthankaras (32+2 = 34) at the rate of one in each Vijaya. In this
Kshetra8human being have height of 500 arch (Shanush) and life span ranging from a very short
period to a very long period up to crores of Purva.
After living the life as attributed to each soul, they get birth according to their karmas[7] again
regaining from hell, animal, bird life, god in heaven or human beings. Some of them also attain
salvation - the ultimate liberation and get free from birth and re-birth cycle. They go then the
Siddh Lok.
The name “Mahavideh”
There are different opinions why this area is called Mahavideh Kshetra.
1. Because it is longer and wider in size as compared to all other Kshetras. Hence, it is
maha i.e. bigger in all respect then any other Kshetra
2. In this area the humans have bigger structure of bodies.
3. This Kshetra is governed by a God, named Mahavideh. So the Kshetra is probably
known as Mahavideh after his name.
At any rate, the name Mahavideh (for whatever reason) is universal, certain and permanent. It
was there in past, it is in present and it will remain in future too. The name is for ever.
Shri Astapadji Tirth
The first Tirthankara lord Rishabhdev died on this place. If one can visit this place of
pilgrimage once in a life, he gets ultimate salvation and liberation in that birth only. Such a very
significant place of Astapad is located in north of Himalya. It is 185,000 gau (one say 1 gau is
equal to 2 miles or 3-2 km) far from Shri Siddh Giri (Palitana It is located at the south gate of
Jambudwip in the middle of Vaitadhya and near the Ayodhya city of Bharat Kshetra It is a
mountain which is as wide as 526 yojans and 6 kala. Its height is 32 kosh (one kosh is equal to 4
gaus). It has eight steps (asta pad), one step is as high as one yojan.
239
Sketch of
Mahavide, depicting the structure of the 32 Vijays. The region around the Jambu tree (19th
century, Rajasthan
The city Ayodhya is near this tirth.. Its length is 12 yojans. Lord Rishabhdev son of king Nabhi,
along with 10,000 monks, died here on 12th dark day month of Magh in this Avasarpini period's
3rd ara when there were 84 lakh years were remaining for this ara 's completion. In his memory,
his son, Bharat Chakravati made the land surface flat on all its sides and installed 24 Tirthankras
idols made from diamond and pearls. Each idol has the size of the original size of all the
Tirthankaras as well as the same colour of they originally had. The signs of each Tirthankara
have been also established like original ones and they are attended by the Yakshas and Yakshinis
Chakrava Bharat also established the idols of Mother Maru Devi, 99 Brother Monks and the two
Sisters, Brahmi and Sundari. The temple has 84 Pandols and its name is Sinh-Nishadha. In the
Astapad tirth in the east of Meru mountain, there are idols of Lord Adishwar and Ajitnath. In the
south there are idols of Lord Sambhavnath, Abhinandan,, Sumtinath and Padmaprabhu. In the
west are the idols of Lord Suparshvanath, Chandraprabhu, Suvidhinath, Shitalnath,
Shreyansnath, Vasupujya, Vimalnath and Anantnath. In the north there are idols of Arnath,
Mallinath, Munisuvrat Swami, Naminath , Neminath, Parshvanath and MahavirSwami .Thus, in
all directions there are 2 + 4 + 8 + 10 = 24 idols.
On this holy place, the first Gandhar (principal disciple) of Lord Mahavir Swami, named
Gautam Swami had composed a Sutra named Jag Chintamani. Ravan and Mandodari
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performed excellent dance as devotion to the Tirthankara, and Ravan has been awarded the
reward of himself becoming a Tirthankara. In the next series of 24 Tirthankaras Shri Gautam
Swami, while returning from this tirth, has offered milk-sweet to 1503 Tapas with the power of
his 'Labdhi', a special power of unending prosperity. This resulted in ultimate knowledge of
these 1503 Tapas, thanks to Shri Gautam Swami's great grace. Today this tirth- a place of
pilgrimage is almost ruined. But if one offers total devotion to this tirthone surely gets ride of
troubles. 60,000 Sagar-sons sacrificed their own precious lives in efforts to protect this tirth
MeruMountain
The whole wide universe is seen by the knowledge of omni-knowledge. There is a Tircha Lok
within it. The road leading to it is both long and wide. The height is 1800 yojans, of which 900
yojans are on flat land, while the other 900 yojans are on height. In this 900 yojans the last 110
Yojans contain a jyotis circle, where the Jyotishi gods abode. The aircrafts of these gods move
around the Meru Mountain.
Meru Mountain is located exactly in the center of Jambudwip between East and West Mahavideh
. In the north is Devkuru situated and Uttarkuru in south. Meru mountain is like a pillar, which is
wider at base and gets narrower and narrower as it grows up. The height of Meru Mountain is
one lakh yojans, of which 1000 yojans are below earth and 99,000 yojans are above. The wide is
10090 yojans in the root within the earth whereas it is 10,000 yojans wide on the earth level.
Gradually the width becomes less and less as it grows up, and on the top peak it is 100 yojans
wide. Thus the Meru Mountain is very wide in its root, gets less wider in the middle and
becomes least wide at the top. The shape is similar to the tail of a cow. The whole mountain is
very clean, full of diamonds, lakes and forests. Above the peak is a chulika.
Meru Mountain is divided into three divisions (Chulika apart). These are called Kands:
1. First Kand is called Adhyostankand.
2. Second Kand is called Madhya (Middle) Kand.
3. Third Kand is called Uparitan Kand.
The lowest Kand has a height of 1000 yojans, that of Middle Kand is 63,000 yojans and that of
top Kand is 36,000 yojans.(See page 21 for the Pic)
There are four forests on Mountain Meru.
1. Bhadrasha Van: It is located at the foot hill of the mountain on flat land. It is surrounding
the Mountain Meru[6] on all four sides. Its North and south width is 250 yojans and its eastwest width is 22,000 yojans. The whole forest is divided into eight sections with four treeshape mountains, viz. Saumanas, Vidyut, Prabh, Gandhmadan and Malyavan and two
rivers, viz. Sita and Sitoda.
2. Nandan Van: It is 500 yojans higher than the Bhadrashal Van and 62,500 yojans below the
Somansvan. Its area is 500 yojans. In exact the middle of this section is Abhyantar Meru[6]
and in a distant of 50 Yojans are eight Kut of Dishakumaris. There are eight Palaces of
eight Dishakumaris of Urdhva loks; there is a Kut 500 yojans above it where a palace of the
goddess is situated. Thus, the goddess stays 1000 yojans above the flat earth. 900 yojans of
this section belong to Tirchha Lok while the 100 yojans above belong to Urdhva[12] Lok
(upper Lok); so the Goddess belongs to this upper Lok. Besides, in Nandanvan, there are
four temples (Chaitra) on four sides of it. In other directions are two palaces of Ishanendra.
3. Somvan: Somvan is situated 62,500 yojans above of Nandanvan. This is another series of
Meru Mountain which is 500 yojans wide.
4. Pandagvan: Pandagvan is 3600 yojans above Somvan. It is circularly 494 yojans wide.
There are rocks for celebration of Birth celebration of Lord Tirthankaras:
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Pandagvan
east
red
Raktakambla
west
white
Ati Pandukambla
south
red
Ati Raktakamblain
north
white
All these four rocks are used for celebrating the birth celebration of the Tirthankaras. The south
direction Rock is used for the birth celebration of Tirthankaras born in Bharat Kshetra. The
north direction Rock is used for birth celebration of Tirthankaras born in Airvat Kshetra. The
east direction Rock is used for birth celebration of Tirthankaras born in eight Vijayas of northern
bank of Sita Maha River of east Mahavideh Kshetra.On the west Rock there are two royal chairs.
On the royal chair situated in north direction, the birth celebration is done for the Tirthankaras
born in 8 Vijayas on north bank of the river Sitoda of west Mahavideh and on the royal chair in
south direction, the birth celebration is done for the Tirthankaras born in eight Vijayas of south
bank of river Sitoda.
In Jambudwip, over a period of time, not more than 2 or 4 Tirthankaras are born. In Bharat and
Airvat Kshetra when one Tirthankara is born, the birth celebration is done for two Tirthankaras
at a time, and when four Tirthankaras are born in Mahavideh Kshetra the birth celebration of
four Tirthankaras is celebrated. When the Tirthankara[10] is born in Mahavideh[5] there is no
birth of a Tirthankara in Bharat, Airvat and vice-versa. The reason is that the Jineshwar is
always born at mid-night, and there cannot be mid-night in both Bharat-Airvat and Mahavideh
simultaneously.
The Mahavideh Kshetra is in the middle of Jambu Dwip. It is located between two mountains in
the north of Nishadh and in the south of Nilvant mountain.it touches Lavan ocean on its both
sides- East and West. Its size is 1 lskh Yojans both East and West and North and South. Its
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shape is like a cot. Its width is 33684. 4/19 Yojans Mahavideh Kshetra is divided into 4 section
(1) and (2) East and West Mahavideh (3) and (4) South and North Devkuru in the middle lies
the Meru mountain.
North and South area of Mahavideh : In the middle is Meru mountain occupying 10,000 Yojans.
In South, there is Bhadrashal forest 250 Yojans. Devkuru – 11562 Yojans and 2 Kala In North,
Bhadra Shal Forest, 250 Yojans Uttarkuru – 11592 Yojans and 2 Kala East and West
Mahavideh: East 23,000 Yojans West 23,000 Yojans East-West 46,000 Yojans area. Jigtina
12 Yojans Sita Mukhvan 2410 Yojans Vakshaskar Mountain 2000 Yojans Inner river 375
Yojans Eight Vijayas 17,703 Yojans
23,000 Yojans Thus 23,000 Yojans East and 23,000
Yojans West One Vijay has east-west length 2212 7/8 Another Vijay has north-South length
16592 Yojans 2 Kala
Mount Meruwith forests (flowers) at the terraces (17th century, Rajasthan(left)
Mount meru with the forests at the foot and on the terraces (17th century, Gujarat
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How many Vijays in Mahavideh?
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The River Sitoda flows from Tigichhdrah of Niksadh mountain. It flows in the middle of west
Mahavideh Kshetra and reaches to Lavan ocean. This divides west Mahavideh Kshetra into two
divisions. Likewise the river Sita flows from Kesaridrah of Nilkanth mountains and reaches
Lavan ocean flowing in the middle of east Mahavideh Kshetra. Thus east Mahavideh is also
divided into two sections by this river thus, in 4 section there are 8 Vijayas; and between each
Vijay there is a river and a mountain. After each Vijay, there is a big mountain, then there is a
big river. Thus, there are totally 32 Vijays are in Mahavideh Kshetra. In Jambu Dwip there are
34 Chakravarti Vijayas of which 32 from Mahavideh and one each from Bharat and Airvat
Kshetra.
Names of 32 Vijayas North South South North 1 Kutchq 9 Vatsa 17 Padma 25 Vapra 2
Sukatch 10 Suvatsa 18 Supadma 26 Suvapra 3 MahaKachh 11 MahaVatsa 19 Maha padma 27
Maha vapra 4 Matchhgavati 12 Vatsagavati 20 Padmagavati 28 Vapravati 5 Awart 13 Ramya 21
Shankh 29 Valgu 6 Manglavart 14 Ramyak 22 Kumud 30 Suvalgu 7 Puskalavrat 15 Ramanik 23
Nalin 31 Ganhit 8 Puskala Vati 16 Mangalavati 24 Nalinavati 32 Gandhilavati
This is a list of 32 Vijayas in table above In 8th Puskalavati Vijay lives Simandharswami. In 9th
Vatsa Vijay lives Yugmandhaswami. In 24th Nalinavati Vijay lives Shri Bahu Swami. In 25th
Vapra Vijay There Shri Sabahu Swami. In Bharat Kshetra between the time-space of 17th
Tirthankara Shri Kunthunath and 18th Tirthankaras Shri Arnath, in Mahavideh Kshetra of 2½
Dwip, there were 20 Tirthankaras. Like- wise, between the time space of 20th Municuvrat
Swami and 21st Tirthankara, shri Neminath, as many as 20 Tirthankara, Shri Naminath, as many
as 20
Tirthankararenunciated the world in Mahavideh, they were monk for 1 month attained Ultimate
knowledge (Kevalgyana) thereafter and in the next series of 24th Tirthankaras, all 20
Tirthankaras will attain Moksha ( Ultimate liberation) between the time space of 7th and 8th
Tirthankaras of the said next series of 24 Tirthankaras. These (existing as on today Viharman)
20 Tirthankaras of Mahavideh, have a life span of 84 Lakh purva. Of these, 83 Lakh purva
period will be spent in the worldly life (Sansa) hoseholders life and will be on a monk’s life for a
lakh purva period 1 month in meditaion. Their body size is 500 arch (Dhanushya). They all will
have 84 Principle disiples (Gandhar) each 10 lakh kevli each and totally a family of 2 carores of
monks and nuns. As shown above, there are 32 Vijays. There are 2 (One/each) Vijaya in Bharat
and Airvat Kshetra. Thus, there could be 34 Tirthankaras (32+2 = 34) at the rate of one in each
Vijaya In this Kshetra human being have height of 500 arch (Shanush) and life span renging
froma very very short period to long long period up to crores of Purva. After living the life as
attributed to each soul, they get birth according to their Karmas again regaining from hell,
Animal, Bird life, god in heaven or human beings. Some of them also attain salvation- the
ultimate liberation and get free from birth and re-birth cycle. They go the Siddh Lok,
Why the name Mahavideh? 1. Because it is longer, wider in size as compared to all other
Kshetras. It is Maha i.e. Bigger in all respect then any other Kshetra. 2. Here, the humans have
bigger structure of bodies. They are very fall. 3. The Kshetra is governed by a God, named
Mahavideh. The Kshetra is known as Mahavideh after his name. At any rate, the name
Mahavideh (for whatever reason) is universal, certain, permanent. It was there in past, it is in
present and it will remain in future too. The name is for ever. 3
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REFERENCES
1. Cosmographers, Explorers, Cartographers, Chorographers: Defining, Inscribing and
Practicing Early Modern Geography, c.1450–1850,Robert J. Mayhew, John A.
Agnew,James S. Duncan, First published: 08 April 2011
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444395839.ch3. See also
EARLY MODERN COSMOGRAPHY,Proceedings of a Conference organized at the
Centre for History of Science,Ghent University,Edited by Sven Dupre and Fernand Hallyn
(f),Ghent and Louvain, 28-30 May
,2008https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/pdf/10.5555/J.ARIHS.6.760601090108060406070
20408090876
What do we know about cosmography, Ming-Jian Zhang,Hong Li,Jun-Qing Xia, European
Physical Journal , June
2017,https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318238311_What_do_we_know_about_cos
mography.
1A. Cosmography,February 2017: The International Encyclopedia of Geography,Arild HoltJensen, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314242998_Cosmography/comments
jainuniversity.org (revised and extended)
.https://valeriebarkowski.com/jain-world-map/
Final Word
It is a question of perception and belief. For those who believe, it is the truth.
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CHAPTER XI
Jain Cosmology
ABSTRACT
Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe (loka)
and its constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according
to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity that has
existed since infinity with neither beginning nor end. Jain texts describe the shape of
the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist.
This Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once
again becomes broad at the bottom.
COSMOS: Moral rewards and sufferings are not the work of a divine being, but a result of an
innate moral order in the cosmos; a self-regulating mechanism whereby the individual reaps the
fruits of his own actions through the workings of the karmas.
What is known and what is unknown: Saplabhangi : For instance, the word ‘unknowable’ is a
contradiction of its own sense. Herbert Spencer meant was that which could not be fully known,
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not that which was wholly unknowable; for the mere fact that we know that there is a thing,
however unknowable be its attributes, removes it from the category of the unknowable or
unknown and puts it in that of the known.
The Jaina method is calculated to overcame this difficulty. It maintains that full knowledge of a
thing is possible only when it has been looked at from all the different points of view which
exhaust the categories of knowledge. For instance, to know merely what a thing is, is not
enough; we ought also to know what it is not. But as we are not here concerned with the
Saplabhangi. It only remains to be added that the ‘Key of Knowledge' does not blindly follow the
teaching of any particular sect or creed, not even of Jainism to which sublime and noble faith the
author has the privilege of belonging by a happy incident of birth. The views set out herein are
based on a study of the nature of things, and the interpretation of the scriptures of some of the
prevailing religions has been undertaken only to show that the impartial conclusions of reason
are precisely those which have been set before men in the form of doctrines and myths.
In dealing with the basic principles of religion it was not found necessary to go into a minute
analysis of all the existing religions of the world, inasmuch as a survey of the principles
underlying those actually dealt with sufficiently disposes of them all. Besides, a thorough
treatment of each religion separately would have swelled the bulk of any book beyond all
proportion, voluminous as this paper already is.1
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Godlines
Jainism does not teach the dependency on any supreme being for enlightenment. The Tirthankara
is a guide and teacher who points the way to enlightenment, but the struggle for enlightenment is
one's own. In Jainism, godliness is said to be the inherent quality of every soul (or every living
organism) characterizing infinite bliss, infinite power, Kevala Jnana (pure infinite knowledge),[3]
infinite perception, and perfect manifestations of (countably) infinite other attributes. There are
two possible views after this point. One is to look at the soul from the perspective of the soul
itself. This entails explanations of the properties of the soul, its exact structure, composition and
nature, the nature of various states that arise from it and their source attributes as is done in the
deep and arcane texts of Samayasāra, Niyamasara and Pravachanasara. Another view is to
consider things apart from the soul and its relationships with the soul. According to this view, the
qualities of a soul are subdued due to karmas of the soul. Karmas are the fundamental particles
of nature in Jainism. One who achieves this state of soul through right belief, right knowledge
and right conduct can be termed a god. This perfection of soul is called Kevalin. A god thus
becomes a liberated soul – liberated of miseries, cycles of rebirth, world, karmas and finally
liberated of body as well. This is called nirvana or moksha.
Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one
must practice the ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action.
Such a practice through lifelong work towards oneself is regarded as observing the Mahavrata
("Great Vows").
Gods can be thus categorized into embodied gods also known as arihantas and non-embodied
formless gods who are called Siddhas. Jainism considers the devīs and devas to be souls who
dwell in heavens owing to meritorious deeds in their past lives. These souls are in heavens for a
fixed lifespan and even they have to undergo reincarnation as humans to achieve moksha.
Thus, there are infinite gods in Jainism, all equivalent, liberated, and infinite in the manifestation
of all attributes. The Self and karmas are separate substances in Jainism, the former living and
the latter non-living. The attainment of enlightenment and the one who exists in such a state, then
those who have achieved such a state can be termed gods. Therefore, beings (Arihant) who've
attained omniscience (kevala jnana) are worshipped as gods. The quality of godliness is one and
the same in all of them. Jainism is sometimes regarded as a transtheistic religion,[4] though it can
be atheistic or polytheistic based on the way one defines "God".
God in Jainism
In Jainism, godliness is said to be the inherent quality of every soul. This quality, however, is
subdued by the soul's association with karmic matter. All souls who have achieved the natural
state of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge (kevala jnana), infinite power and infinite perception
are regarded as God in Jainism. Jainism rejects the idea of a creator deity responsible for the
manifestation, creation, or maintenance of this universe. According to Jain doctrine, the universe
and its constituents (soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion) have always existed. All
the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws and perfect soul, an
immaterial entity cannot create or affect a material entity like the universe.
Definition
From the essential perspective, the soul of every living organism is perfect in every way, is
independent of any actions of the organism, and is considered God or to have godliness. But the
epithet of God is given to the soul in whom its properties manifest in accordance with its
inherent nature. There are countably infinite souls in the universe.
According to Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra (a major Jain text):
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आप्तेनो च्छिनदोषेण सर्वज्ञेनागमेशिना।
भवितव्यं नियोगेन नान्यथा ह्याप्तता भवेत्।।५।
In the nature of things the true God should be free from the faults and weaknesses of the
lower nature; [he should be] the knower of all things and the revealer of dharma; in no
other way can divinity be constituted.
क्षुत्पिपासाजराजरातक्ड जन्मान्तकभयस्मयाः।
न रागद्वेषमोहाश्च यस्याप्तः स प्रकीर्त्यते ।।६।।
He alone who is free from hunger, thirst, senility, disease, birth, death, fear, pride, attachment,
aversion, infatuation, worry, conceit, hatred, uneasiness, sweat, sleep and surprise is called a
God.
Five supreme beings-Pañca-Parameṣṭhi
The five supreme beings are:
1. Arihant: The awakened souls who have attained keval gyan are considered as Arihant. The
24 Tirthankaraas or Jinas, the legendary founding figures of Jainism in the present time cycle
are Arihants. All Tirthankaras are Arihants but not all Arihants are Thirthankars
2. Siddha (Ashiri): The souls which have been liberated from the birth and death cycle.
3. Acarya
4. Upadhyaya ("Preceptors")
5. Muni or Jain monks
6. The five initials, viz. A+A+A+U+M are taken as forming the Aum syllable.
7. Five supreme beings[edit]
8. Obeisance to Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (five supreme beings)
9. Dravyasaṃgraha, a major Jain text, succinctly characterizes the five Supreme Beings (PañcaParameṣṭhi.
10. Definition of the World Teacher (Arhat) - verse 50.
11. Definition of the liberated souls (Siddha) - verses 51
12. Definition of the Chief Preceptor (Acarya) - verse 52.
13. Definition of the Preceptor (Upadhyaya) - verse 53.
14. Definition of the Ascetic (Sadhu) - verse 54.
15. Meditate on, recite or chant the sacred mantras, consisting of thirty-five, sixteen, six, five,
four, two and one letter(s), pronouncing the virtues of the five supreme beings (PañcaParameṣṭhi). Besides, meditate on and chant other mantras as per the teachings of the
Preceptor (guru).
16. Arihant
Having destroyed the four inimical varieties of karmas (ghātiyā karmas), possessed of infinite
faith, happiness, knowledge and power, and housed in most auspicious body (paramaudārika
śarīra), that pure soul of the World Teacher (Arhat) should be meditated on.
— Dravyasaṃgraha depicting Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (five supreme beings) worthy of veneration as
per Jainism
In Jainism, the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (Sanskrit for "five supreme beings") are a fivefold hierarchy
of religious authorities worthy of veneration. The five supreme beings are:
1. Arihant
2. Siddha
3. Acharya (Head of the monastic order)
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4. Upadhyaya ("Preceptor of less advanced ascetics")
5. Muni or Jain monks
Arihant
A human being who conquers all inner passions and possesses infinite right knowledge (Kevala
Jnana) is revered as an arihant in Jainism.[5] They are also called Jinas (conquerors) or Kevalin
(omniscient beings). An arihant is a soul who has destroyed all passions, is totally unattached
and without any desire and hence is able to destroy the four ghātiyā karmas and attain kevala
jñāna, or omniscience. Such a soul still has a body and four aghātiyā karmas. Arihantas, at the
end of their human life-span, destroy all remaining aghātiyā karmas and attain Siddhahood.
There are two kinds of kevalin or arihant:
Sāmānya Kevalin–Ordinary victors, who are concerned with their own salvation.
Tirthankara Kevalin–Twenty-four human spiritual guides (teaching gods), who show the
true path to salvation.
The word Tīrthaṅkara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across a
sea. The Tirthankara show the "fordable path" across the sea of interminable births and deaths.
Jain philosophy divides the wheel of time in two halves, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and
avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle. Exactly 24 Tirthankara are said to grace each half of the
Tīrthaṅkara
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Image of Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara (Photo:Samanar Hills)
cosmic time cycle. Rishabhanatha was the first Tirthankara and Mahavira was the last
Tirthankara of avasarpiṇī.
Tirthankara revive the fourfold order of Shraman, Shramani, Śrāvaka, and Śrāvika called
sangha. Tirthankara can be called teaching gods who teach the Jain philosophy. However it
would be a mistake to regard the tirthankara as gods analogous to the gods of the Hindu
pantheon despite the superficial resemblances between Jain and Hindu ways of worship.
Tirthankara, being liberated, are beyond any kind of transactions with the rest of the universe.
They are not the beings who exercise any sort of creative activity or who have the capacity or
ability to intervene in answers to prayers.
Tirthamkara-nama-karma is a special type of karma, bondage of which raises a soul to the
supreme status of a tirthankara.
Below are the details of the present 24 Tirthankars in the Bharatkshetra of Jambudweep.
1. Shri Rishabdev (Adinath)
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Sarvarthasiddha
King Nabhi
Marudevi
Vinittanagari, Palitana
Golden
Ox / Bull
500 Dhanusha
8,400,000 Purva
Vata (Banyan)
Gomukha
Chakresvari
Ashtapad
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Jeth Vad 4
Fagan Vad 8
Fagan Vad 8
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Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Maha Vad 11
Posh Vad 13
Mystery behind the name
He had a sign of an ox on his thigh. The mother Marudeva saw 14 dreams, of which the first was
that of an ox. He started the religion after a time span of 18 koda Kodi Sagaropam (Sagaropam
itself is almost an innumerable number, therefore 18 KodaKodi sagaropam is a countless
number). Therefore, he was also known as Ādinath (The first one).
2. Shri Ajitnath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Vijayavimana
King Jitshatru
Vijaya Rani
Ayodhya, Shikharji
Golden
Elephant
450 Dhanusha
7,200,000 Purva
Sala (Shorea Robusta)
Mahayaksha
Ajitabala
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Vaisakh Sud 13
Maha Sud 8
Maha Sud 9
Posh Sud 11
Chaitra Sud 5
Mystery behind the name
The parents of Lord Ajit would always involve themselves in games and sports. Each time they
did so, the father invariably won the game against his mother. But after the conception of lord
Ajit his mother would always win the games. Thus she named him ‘Ajit’ or the unconquered
one.
3. Shri Sambhavnath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Uvarimagraiveka
Jitari
Senamata
Savathi, Sravasti
Golden
Horse
400 Dhanusha
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Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
6,000,000 Purva
Prayala
Trimukha
Prajnapti
Samet Shikhar
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Fagan Sud 8
Magsar Sud 14
Magasar Sud 15
Asho Vad 5
Chaitra Sud 5
Mystery behind the name
When the Lord Sambhav was conceived the production of grains increased and there was much
prosperity. There were no droughts or famine. Hence he was called Sambhav or possible.
4. Shri Abhinandan Swami
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Jayantavimana
Sambararaja
Siddhartha
Ayodhya, Shikharji
Golden
Ape
350 Dhanusha
5,000,000 Purva
Priyangu
Yakshesvara
Vajrasrinkhala
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Vaisakh Sud 4
Maha Sud 2
Maha Sud 12
Posh Sud 14
Vaisakh Sud 8
Mystery behind the name
After the conception of Lord Abhinandan, the Lord Indira would often come and greet the
unborn child and also praise Him. Also, people in the family and the state became happy and
they congratulated each other. So the child came to be known as Abhinandan.
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5. Shri Sumatinath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Jayantavimana
Megharaja
Mangala
Ayodhya, Shikharji
Golden
Red Goose
300 Dhanusha
4,000,000 Purva
Sala
Purushadatta
Tumburu and Mahakali
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Shravan Sud 2
Vaisakh Sud 8
Vaisakh Sud 9
Chaitra Sud 11
Chaitra Sud 9
Mystery behind the name
From the time the child was conceived by his mother she had a strange and astonishing
enlightenment of wisdom and knowledge. She then decided to call the child Sumati or the one
with good wisdom.
6. Shri Padmaprabhu
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Uvarimagraiveka
Sridhara
Susima
Kausambi, Samet Shikhar
Red
Lotus bud
250 Dhanusha
3,000,000 Purva
Chhatra
Manovega or Manogupti
Kusuma and Syama
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Posh Vad 6
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Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Asho Vad 12
Asho Vad 13
Chaitra Sud 11
Chaitra Sud 9
Mystery behind the name
When the Lord Padma was concieved by his mother, she had a desire to recline on the bed of the
Lotus flowers. One of the Gods, fulfilled her desire by creating a recliner made of lotus petals for
her. The child that was born also had the rosy complexion of a lotus flower. Hence he was called
Padma or the Lotus flower.
7. Shri Suparshvanath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Madhyamagraiveka
Pratishtharaja
Prithvi
Kausambi, Samet Shikhar
Emerald
Swastika
200 Dhanusha
2,000,000 Purva
Sirisha
Matanga and Santa
Varanandi and Kali
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Shravan Vad 8
Jeth Sud 12
Jeth Sud 13
Maha Vad 6
Maha Vad 7
Mystery behind the name
The mother had a disease on both the sides, but when the Lord Supashva was conceived , she
was totally cured and became glittering like Gold. Thus the name was kept as Suparshva.
8. Shri Chandraprabhu Swami
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Vijayanta
Mahasenaraja
Lakshmana
Chandrapura, Samet Shikhar
White
Moon
256
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
150 Dhanusha
1,000,000 Purva
Naga
Vijaya and Bhrikuti
Vijaya and Jvalamalini
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Fagan Vad 5
Magasar Vad 12
Magasar Vad 13
Maha Vad 7
Shravan Vad 7
Mystery behind the name
When the Lord Chandra was conceived, his mother felt a longing for the moon. Her complexion
glowed of happiness with radiance and the beauty of the moon. So the child that had brought that
glow to the mother came to be called Chandra or the Moon.
9. Shri Suvidhinath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Anatadevaloka
Sugrivaraja
Ramarani
Kanandinagari, Shikharji
White
Crab
100 Dhanusha
2,000,000 Purva
Sali
Ajita and Sutaraka
Mahakali
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Maha Vad 9
Kartak Vad 5
Kartak Vad 6
Kartak Sud 3
Bhadarva Sud 9
Mystery behind the name
257
The mother of Lord Suvidhi achieved success and prosperity in every endeavour she undertook,
so she called her child Suvidhi.
10. Shri Shitalnath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Achyutadevaloka
Dridharatha-raja
Nanda
Bhadrapura, Shikharji
Golden
Srivatsa
90 Dhanusha
100,000 Purva
Priyangu
Brahma and Asoka
Manavi
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Chaitra Vad 6
Posh Vad 12
Posh Vad 13
Magasar Vad 14
Chaitra Vad 2
Mystery behind the name
The father of Lord Sheetal was troubled with a malignant heat disease. The medications that he
was taking did not help him in any way. Since the conception of the child the father was instantly
relieved of his heat disease and hence they called the child Sheetal or the cool one.
11. Shri Shreyanshnath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Achyutadevaloka
Vishnuraja
Vishna
Simhapuri, Shikharji
Golden
Rhinocerous / Garuda
80 Dhanusha
8,400,000 common years
Tanduka
Yakshet
Manavi
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
258
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Vaisakh Vad 6
Maha Vad 12
Maha Vad 13
Posh Vad Amaas
Ashadh Vad 3
Mystery behind the name
The father of Lord Shreyans had a bed, which was the family heirloom that had been bestowed
by the gods. But whoever reclined on it would be greatly inconvenienced. When the child was
conceived the mother of the child had a great desire to recline on this bed and she did so. But the
gods did her no harm as they realized that she was bearing the Lord. The mother was saved due
to her being in family state. So she called her son Shreyans.
12. Shri Vasupujya Swami
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Pranatadevaloka
Vasupujya
Jaya
Champapuri, Shikharji
Ruddy
Female buffalo
70 Dhanusha
7,200,000 common years
Patala
Kumara
Chanda; or Gandhari
Samed Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Jeth Sud 9
Maha Vad 14
Maha Vad Amaas
Maha Sud 2
Asadh Sud 14
Mystery behind the name
When the Lord Vasupujya was conceived the god Indra started venerating the mother of the
unborn child. Also the Vaishram Gods started showering the kingdom with diamonds and
precious stones, so he came to be called Vasupujya.
13. Shri Vimalnath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Mahasaradevaloka
Kritavarmaraja
Syama
259
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Kampilyapura, Shikharji
Golden
Boar
60 Dhanusha
6,000,000 common years
Jambu
Shanmukha
Vidita
Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Vaisakh Sud 12
Maha Sud 3
Maha Sud 4
Posh Sud 6
Jeth Vad 7
Mystery behind the name
When he was in his mother’s womb, both body and mind became pure with his grace. The Lord,
destroyed the unclean karmās with purity of his mind. So he was known as Vimal or the relaxed
one.
14. Shri Ananthnath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Pranatadevaloka
Simhasena
Sujasa
Ayodhya, Shihkarji
Golden
Bear
50 Dhanusha
3,000,000 common years
Asoka
Patala
Ankusa; or Anantamati
Samet Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Asadh Vad 7
Chaitra Vad 13
Chaitra Vad 14
Chaitra Vad 14
Chaitra Sud 5
260
Mystery behind the name
When the Lord Anant was conceived, one day in her dream his mother saw an endless chain of
diamonds linked together. Hence, she called her son Anant or the endless one.
15. Shri Dharmanath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Vijayavimana
Bhanuraja
Suvrita
Ratnapuri, Palitana
Golden
Vajra
45 Dhanusha
1,000,000 common years
Dadhiparna
Kinnara
Manasi
Samet Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Vaisakh Sud 7
Maha Sud 3
Maha Sud 12
Posh sud 15
Jeth Sud 5
Mystery behind the name
The mother of the Lord became more religious and devout when he was in her womb. Also, the
lord himself was prone to religion by nature. Thus she resolved to call her son Dharma.
16. Shri Shantinath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Sarvarthasiddha
Visvasena
Achira
Vinittanagari, Palitana
Golden
Antelope
40 Dhanusha
100,000 common years
Nandi
Garuda
Nirvani
Hastinapuri
261
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Shravan Vad 7
Vaishakh Vad 13
Vaiskh Vad 14
Posh Sud 9
Vaisakh Vad 13
Mystery behind the name
When the Lord Shanti was conceived there was an uprising that had been peacefully settled.
Also, all the diseases which were prevailing in the kingdom disappeared. Since then he came to
be known as Shanti or peace.
17. Shri Kunthunath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Sarvarthasiddha
Suraraja
Srirani
Gajapura
Golden
Goat
35 Dhanusha
95,000 common years
Bhilaka
Gandharva
Bala; or Vijaya
Samet Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Asadh Vad 9
Chaitra Vad 14
Chaitra Vad 5
Chaitra Vad 5
Chaitra Vad 1
Mystery behind the name
The mother of Lord Kunthu, one day saw a dream in which on a beautiful and fertile wide
expanse of land there was a huge dome of diamonds and she thus awakened from her sleep. And
thus she called her son Kunthu.
18. Shri Aranath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Sarvarthasiddha
Sudarsana
Devirani
262
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Gajapura
Golden
Nandyavarta
30 Dhanusha
84,000 common years
Amba
Yaksheta
Dhana
Samet Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Fagan Sud 2
Magsar Sud 10
Magsar Sud 11
Kartik Sud 12
Magsar Sud 10
Mystery behind the name
When the Lord Aranath was conceived his mother in her dream saw a beautiful and huge chakra
with jewels which resulted in the growth of the dynasty. So his mother named him Aranath.
19. Shri Mallinath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Jayantadevaloka
Kumbharaja
Prabhavati
Mathura
Blue
Jar or Kalasa
25 Dhanusha
55,000 common years
Asoka
Kubera
Aparajita
Samet Shikhar
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Fagan Sud 4
Magsar Sud 11
Magsar Sud 11
Magsar Sud 11
Fagan Sud 12
263
Mystery behind the name
When the Lord Malli was conceived his mother had a strong inclination to sleep on a bed
bedecked with the fragrant flowers of all seasons. Hence she called her child Malli.
20. Shri Munisuvrat Swami
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Aparajita-devaloka
Sumitraraja
Padmawati
Rajgir
Black
Tortoise
20 Dhanusha
30,000 common years
Champaka
Varuna
Bahurupini
Samet Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Shravan Sud 15
Vaisakh Vad 8
Fagan Sud 12
Shravan Vad 12
Vaisakh Vad 9
Mystery behind the name
When the child Lord Munisuvrat was conceived, his mother was bound by a vow so the child
came to be known as Suvrat.
21. Shri Naminath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Pranatadevaloka
Vijayaraja
Viprarani
Mathura
Yellow or Emerald
Blue water-lily; or Asoka tree
15 Dhanusha
10,000 common years
Bakula
Bhrikuti
Gandhari
Samet Shikharji
264
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Asho Sud 15
Ashadh Vad 8
Jeth Vad 9
Magsar Sud 11
Chaitra Vad 10
Mystery behind the name
When the child was conceived the kingdom of Lord Nami was invaded by the enemy. His
mother felt a desire to go on to the roof of the house and look down upon the enemy and due to
this with the effect of the child in the womb, the enemy was defeated. The child was hence called
Nami..
22. Shri Neminath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Aparajita
Samudravijaya
Sivadevi
Ujjain
Black
Conch
10 Dhanusha
1,000 common years
Vetasa
Gomedha or Sarvahna
Ambika or Kushmandini
Girnarji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Asho Vad 12
Shravan Sud 5
Shravan Sud 6
Bhadarva Vad Amaas
Ashadh Sud 8
Mystery behind the name
When the child was conceived the mother in her dream saw a huge diamond studded wheel
spinning. They decided to call the child Arishtanemi (also known as Neminath).
23. Shri Parshvanath
Heaven before Birth :
Father :
Mother :
Birthplace :
Pranatadevaloka
Asvasenaraja
Vamadevi
Varanasi
265
Complexion :
Symbol :
Height :
Age :
Diksha Tree :
Yaksha :
Yakshini :
Place of Nirvana :
Black
Serpent or Snake
9 hands or cubits
100 common years
Dhataki
Dharanendra
Padmavati Mata
Samet Shikharji
Kalyanaks
Chyavan :
Janma :
Diksha :
Keval Gyan :
Moksha :
Fagan Vad 4
Magsar Vad 10
Magsar Vad 11
Fagan Vad 4
Shravan Sud 8
Mystery behind the name
When the Lord conceived in his mother’s womb, one day while his parents were asleep in pitch
darkness, the mother felt that there was a seven headed snake passing by the bedside where they
were asleep. Drawing her husband’s arm away from where the snake was passing she saved his
life. She said that she could see the snake even in pitch darkness. This showed the power of the
embryo. Hence they called their child Parshva.
24. Shri Mahavir Swami
Mahavir Swami is called the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. There is nothing new in his
teachings. In the four pledges of Parshvanath, he added a fifth vow and that was - to live a life of
purity. His disciples used to roam naked so he was called Nirgranth. Like Buddha, Mahavir
Swami considered the purity of body and mind, non-violence and salvation as the ultimate
purpose of life. But his salvation is different from Buddha's nirvana. In Jainism, the soul's union
with the divine is considered salvation. Whereas in Buddhism, liberation from rebirth is nirvana.
Mahavir Swami preached these same principles for almost 30 years and at the age of 72, he gave
up his body in a place called Pavapuri near Rajgir.
Mahavir's teachings
Mahavir used to say that whoever wants to attain Jain nirvana should purify their conduct,
knowledge, and belief and must follow the five vows. There is great glory of tenacity in Jainism.
Fasting has also been seen as austerity. No human can be pure from inside without meditating,
fasting and meditating. If he wants the salvation of his own soul, he has to meditate, fast and
meditates. Mahavir insisted on complete non-violence and since then "Ahimsa Paramo Dharma"
came to be considered as a cardinal principle in Jainism. Digambar and Shwetambar
Nearly 300 BC Jainism got divided into two sects - Digambara and Shvetambara. Digambar
worships the naked idol and Shwetambar dresses his idols in white. According to the 2011
census, there are 44 lakh 51 thousand followers of Jainism in India. They are counted among the
rich and affluent class. Most of the people of Jainism belong to the merchant class. Jainism was
not propagated among all people because its rules were tough. The kings adopted and propagated
266
Jainism. Most Vaishya classes adopted Jainism. The great scholars Mahatma have also joined the
followers of Jainism.
24. Mahaveer Swami
Other names Vīr, Ativīr, Vardhamāna, Sanmati, Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta
Venerated in Jainism
Predecessor Bhagwan Parshvanatha
Symbol
Lion
Height
7 cubits (10.5 feet)
Age
72 years
Tree
Shala
Complexion Golden
Personal Information
Born
6th century BCE (historical)
c. 599 BCE (traditional)
Kundalpur, Present-day Nalanda district, Bihar, India
Moksha
5th century BCE (historical)
c. 527 BCE (traditional)
Pawapuri, Present-day Bihar, India
Parents
Birthplace
Father
Mother
Caste (Varna)
Dynasty
Body Colour
Siddhartha (father)
Trishala (mother)
Kundalpur (Nalanda-Bihar)
King Siddharth
Queen Trishala
Kshatriya
Nath
Golden
267
Symbol
Age
Body Occupancy
Incarnation (in womb)
Birth
Initiation
Initiation
First Food
Special Food
Omniscience
Veershasan Jayanti
Salvation
Salvation Place
Chief Disciples
(Gandhars)
Saints (Munis)
Chief Aryika (Ganini)
Female saints (Aryikas)
Male Votaries
Female Votaries
Male Demigod
Female Demigod
Lion
72 Years
7 Hands
Asharh Shukla 6
Chaitra Shukla 13
Magsir Krishna 10
Omniscience Forest & Tree-Shand Forest & Sal (Shorea Robusta)
Tree
Given By King Vakul Of Kool Village (Kheer)
Given By Mahasati Chandna In Kaushambi (Kheer)
Vaishakh Shukla 10
Shravan Krishna 1 (Day of Lord's First Holy Preaching At Rajgrihi)
Kartik Krishna 15
Pavapuri
11 (Shri Indrabhuti etc.)
14 Thousand
Aryika Chandana
36 Thousand
1 Lacs
3 Lacs
Matang Dev
Siddhayini Devi
PANCH KALYANAKA of 24 TIRTHANKAR
Sr.
No:
Tirthankar
Chyavan
Janma
Diksha
Keval
Gyan
Moksha
1
Shri Aadinath
Jeth Vad
4
Fagan
Vad 8
Fagan
Vad 8
Maha Vad
11
Posh Vad
13
2
Shri Ajitnath
Vaisakh
Sud 13
Maha
Sud 8
Maha
Sud 9
Posh Sud
11
Chaitra
Sud 5
3
Shri
Sambhavnath
Fagan
Sud 8
Magsar
Sud 14
Magasar
Sud 15
Asho Vad
5
Chaitra
Sud 5
4
Shri
Abhinandan
Swami
Vaisakh
Sud 4
Maha
Sud 2
Maha
Sud 12
Posh Sud
14
Vaisakh
Sud 8
268
5
Shri
Sumatinath
Shravan
Sud 2
Vaisakh
Sud 8
Vaisakh
Sud 9
Chaitra
Sud 11
Chaitra
Sud 9
6
Shri Padma
Prabh Swami
Posh Vad
6
Asho Vad
12
Asho
Vad 13
Chaitra
Sud 11
Chaitra
Sud 9
7
Shri
Suparshvanath
Shravan
Vad 8
Jeth Sud
12
Jeth Sud
13
Maha Vad
6
Maha
Vad 7
8
Shri Chandra
Prabh Swami
Fagan
Vad 5
Magasar
Vad 12
Magasar
Vad 13
Maha Vad
7
Shravan
Vad 7
9
Shri Suvidhi
Nath
Maha
Vad 9
Kartak
Vad 5
Kartak
Vad 6
Kartak
Sud 3
Bhadarva
Sud 9
10
Shri Shitalnath
Chaitra
Vad 6
Posh Vad
12
Posh Vad
13
Magasar
Vad 14
Chaitra
Vad 2
11
Shri
Shreyansnath
Vaisakh
Vad 6
Maha
Vad 12
Maha
Vad 13
Posh Vad
Amaas
Ashadh
Vad 3
12
Shri Vasupujya
Swami
Jeth Sud
9
Maha
Vad 14
Maha
Vad
Amaas
Maha Sud
2
Asadh
Sud 14
13
Shri Vimalnath
Vaisakh
Sud 12
Maha
Sud 3
Maha
Sud 4
Posh Sud
6
Jeth Vad
7
14
Shri Anantnath
Asadh
Vad 7
Chaitra
Vad 13
Chaitra
Vad 14
Chaitra
Vad 14
Chaitra
Sud 5
15
Shri
Dharmanath
Vaisakh
Sud 7
Maha
Sud 3
Maha
Sud 12
Posh sud
15
Jeth Sud 5
16
Shri Shantinath
Shravan
Vad 7
Vaishakh
Vad 13
Vaiskh
Vad 14
Posh Sud
9
Vaisakh
Vad 13
17
Shri
Kunthunath
Asadh
Vad 9
Chaitra
Vad 14
Chaitra
Vad 5
Chaitra
Vad 5
Chaitra
Vad 1
18
Shri Arnath
Fagan
Sud 2
Magsar
Sud 10
Magsar
Sud 11
Kartik
Sud 12
Magsar
Sud 10
269
19
Shri Mallinath
Fagan
Sud 4
Magsar
Sud 11
Magsar
Sud 11
Magsar
Sud 11
Fagan
Sud 12
20
Shri Muni
Suvrat Swami
Shravan
Sud 15
Vaisakh
Vad 8
Fagan
Sud 12
Shravan
Vad 12
Vaisakh
Vad 9
21
Shri Naminath
Asho Sud
15
Ashadh
Vad 8
Jeth Vad
9
Magsar
Sud 11
Chaitra
Vad 10
22
Shri Neminath
Asho
Vad 12
Shravan
Sud 5
Shravan
Sud 6
Bhadarva
Vad
Amaas
Ashadh
Sud 8
23
Shri
Parsvanath
Fagan
Vad 4
Magsar
Vad 10
Magsar
Vad 11
Fagan
Vad 4
Shravan
Sud 8
24
Shri Mahavir
Swami
Asadh
Sud 6
Chaitra
Sud 13
Kartak
Vad 10
Vaisakh
Sud 10
Asho Vad
Amaas
Although the siddhas (the liberated beings) are formless and without a body, this is how the Jain temples often
depict them. Previous pic
Ultimately all arihantas become siddhas, or liberated souls, at the time of their nirvana. A
siddha is a soul who is permanently liberated from the transmigratory cycle of birth and death.
Such a soul, having realized its true self, is free from all the Karmas and embodiment. They are
formless and dwell in Siddhashila (the realm of the liberated beings) at the apex of the universe
in infinite bliss, infinite perception, infinite knowledge and infinite energy.
The Acharanga Sutra 1.197 describes siddhas in this way:
The liberated soul is not long nor small nor round nor triangular nor quadrangular nor circular; it
is not black nor blue nor red nor green nor white; neither of good nor bad smell; not bitter nor
pungent nor astringent nor sweet; neither rough nor soft; neither heavy nor light; neither cold nor
hot; neither harsh nor smooth; it is without body, without resurrection, without contact (of
270
matter), it is not feminine nor masculine nor neuter. The siddha perceives and knows all, yet is
beyond comparison. Its essence is without form; there is no condition of the unconditioned. It is
not sound, not colour, not smell, not taste, not touch or anything of that kind. As per the Jain
cosmology Siddhahood is the ultimate goal of all souls. There are infinite souls who have
become siddhas and infinite more who will attain this state of liberation. According to Jainism,
Godhood is not a monopoly of some omnipotent and powerful being(s). All souls, with right
perception, knowledge and conduct can achieve self-realisation and attain this state. Once
achieving this state of infinite bliss and having destroyed all desires, the soul is not concerned
with worldly matters and does not interfere in the working of the universe, as any activity or
desire to interfere will once again result in influx of karmas and thus loss of liberation.
Jains pray to these passionless Gods not for any favors or rewards but rather pray to the qualities
of the God with the objective of destroying the karmas and achieving the Godhood. This is best
understood by the term vandetadgunalabhdhaye – i.e. "we pray to the attributes of such Gods to
acquire such attributes"
According to Anne Vallely: 2
Jainism is not a religion of coming down. In Jainism it is we who must go up. We only have to
help ourselves. In Jainism we have to become God. That is the only thing.
Devas
Symbolic depiction of Saṃsāra( RIGHT)
Idol of Padmāvatī devī, śāsanadevī of Lord Parshvanatha at Walkeshwar Temple. She is one of
the most popular demi-goddess amongst the Jains. According to Digambar Terapanth, worship of
such deities is considered as mithyātva or wrong belief. However, in the Bispanthi Digambar
tradition and the Shwetambar tradition, Padmavati is a popular Jain goddess.
Jain cosmology offers an elaborate description of heavenly beings (devas), but these beings are
neither viewed as creators nor are they immortal; they are subject to suffering and change like all
other living beings, and must eventually die. In this way, they are similar to the devas of
Buddhism. English-language material tends to retain the term "deva" or describe these beings as
"deities", "gods" and "goddesses.”
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Jainism describes existence of śāsanadevatās and śāsanadevīs, the attendants of a Tirthankara,
who create the samavasarana or the divine preaching assembly of a Tirthankara. Such heavenly
beings are classified as: Bhavanapatis – Devas dwelling in abodes
Vyantaras – Intermediary devas
Jyotiṣkas – Luminaries
Vaimānikas – Astral devas
The souls on account of accumulation of meritorious karmas reincarnate in heavens as devas.
Although their life span is quite long, after their merit karmas are exhausted, they once again
have to reincarnate back into the realms of humans, animals or hells depending on their karmas.
As these devas themselves are not liberated, they have attachments and passions and hence not
worthy of worship.
Ācārya Hemachandra decries the worship of such devas:
These heavenly beings (devas above) tainted with attachment and passion; having women and
weapons by their side, favour some and disfavour some; Such heavenly beings (devas) should
not be worshipped by those who desire emancipation.
Worship of such devas is considered as mithyatva or wrong belief leading to bondage of karmas.
Jain opposition to creationism
Jain scriptures reject God as the creator of the universe. Further, it asserts that no God is
responsible or causal for actions in the life of any living organism. Ācārya Hemacandra in the
12th century put forth the Jain view of the universe in the Yogaśāstra:
This universe is not created nor sustained by anyone; It is self-sustaining, without any base or
support
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According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents—soul, matter, space, time, and
principles of motion—have always existed. Jainism does not support belief in a creator deity. All
the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws. It is not possible to create
matter out of nothing and hence the sum total of matter in the universe remains the same (similar
to law of conservation of mass). Jain text claims that the universe consists of jiva (life force or
273
Pic of Mahavir Swamy the 24 th Tirthankar from beginning of 1900
souls) and ajiva (lifeless objects). The soul of each living being is unique and uncreated and has
existed during beginningless time.
The Jain theory of causation holds that a cause and its effect are always identical in nature and
hence a conscious and immaterial entity like God cannot create a material entity like the
universe. Furthermore, according to the Jain concept of divinity, any soul who destroys its
karmas and desires achieves liberation (nirvana). A soul who destroys all its passions and desires
has no desire to interfere in the working of the universe. Moral rewards and sufferings are not the
work of a divine being, but a result of an innate moral order in the cosmos: a self-regulating
mechanism whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own actions through the workings of
the karmas.
Through the ages, Jain philosophers have rejected and opposed the concept of creator and
omnipotent God and this has resulted in Jainism being labeled as nastika darsana or atheist
philosophy by the rival religious philosophies. The theme of non-creationism and absence of
omnipotent God and divine grace runs strongly in all the philosophical dimensions of Jainism,
including its cosmology, karma, moksa and its moral code of conduct. Jainism asserts a religious
and virtuous life is possible without the idea of a creator god.
Besides scriptural authority, Jains also resorted to syllogism and deductive reasoning to refute
the creationist theories. Various views on divinity and the universe held by the Vedics,
samkhyas, mīmāṃsās, Buddhists and other schools of thought were analyzed, debated and
repudiated by various Jain Ācāryas. However, the most eloquent refutation of this view is
provided by Ācārya Jinasena in Mahāpurāna, which was quoted by Carl Sagan in his 1980 book
Cosmos.
1. Some foolish men declare that creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was
created is ill advised and should be rejected.
2. If God created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was
transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God have made
this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the
world, you are faced with an endless regression.
3. If you declare that this raw material arose naturally you fall into another fallacy, for the
whole universe might thus have been its own creator, and have arisen quite naturally.
4. If God created the world by an act of his own will, without any raw material, then it is
just his will and nothing else — and who will believe this silly nonsense?
5. If he is ever perfect and complete, how could the will to create have arisen in him? If, on
the other hand, he is not perfect, he could no more create the universe than a potter could.
6. If he is form-less, action-less and all-embracing, how could he have created the world?
Such a soul, devoid of all modality, would have no desire to create anything.
7. If he is perfect, he does not strive for the three aims of man, so what advantage would he
gain by creating the universe?
8. If you say that he created to no purpose because it was his nature to do so, then God is
pointless. If he created in some kind of sport, it was the sport of a foolish child, leading to
trouble.
9. If he created because of the karma of embodied beings (acquired in a previous creation),
then he is not the Almighty Lord, but subordinate to something else.
274
10. If out of love for living beings and need of them he made the world, why did he not make
creation wholly blissful free from misfortune?
11. If he were transcendent he would not create, for he would be free: Nor if involved in
transmigration, for then he would not be almighty. Thus the doctrine that the world was
created by God makes no sense at all.
12. And God commits great sin in slaying the children whom he himself created. If you say
that he slays only to destroy evil beings, why did he create such beings in the first place?
13. Good men should combat the believer in divine creation, maddened by an evil doctrine.
Know that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning or end, and is based
on the principles, life and rest. Uncreated and indestructible, it endures under the
compulsion of its own nature.
Saṃsāra (Jainism)
Saṃsāra (transmigration) in Jain philosophy, refers to the worldly life characterized by
continuous rebirths and reincarnations in various realms of existence. Saṃsāra is described as
mundane existence, full of suffering and misery and hence is considered undesirable and worth
renunciation. The Saṃsāra is without any beginning and the soul finds itself in bondage with its
karma since the beginning-less time. Moksha is the only way to be liberated from saṃsāra.
Influx of karmas (asrava
According to the Jain text, Tattvartha sutra:
(There are two kinds of influx, namely) that of persons with passions, which extends
transmigration, and that of persons free from passions, which prevents or shortens it.
— Tattvārthsūtra (6-4-81)[
Activities that lead to the influx of karmas (asrava) which extends transmigration are:[2]
Five senses
Four passions (kasāya)
o Anger
o Ego
o Deceit
o Greed
The non-observance of the five vows
Non-observance of the twenty-five activities like Righteousness
Saṃsāra bhavanā
Jain texts prescribe meditation on twelve forms of reflection (bhāvanā) for those who wish to
stop the above described asrava.[3] One such reflection is Saṃsāra bhavanā.
It has been described in one of the Jain text, Sarvārthasiddhi as:
Transmigration is the attainment of another birth by the self owing to the ripening of karmas.
The five kinds of whirling round have been described already. He, who wanders in the endless
cycle of births and deaths, undergoing millions of afflictions in innumerable wombs and
families, takes different relationships such as father, brother, son, grandson, etc, or mother, sister,
wife, daughter and so on, being propelled by the mechanism of karmas. The master becomes
servant and the servant master, just as an actor acts several parts on the stage. To be brief,
sometimes one becomes one’s own son. There is no end to the transformations undergone by the
self owing to the influence of karmas. Thus to reflect on the nature of mundane existence is
contemplation on worldly existence. He who contemplates thus is alarmed at the miseries of
transmigration and becomes disgusted with worldly existence. And he who is disgusted with it
endeavours to free himself from it.
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Champat Rai Jain, a 20th-century Jain writer in his book The Practical Dharma wrote:
Endless is the cycle of transmigration; painful is every form of life; there is no happiness in any
of the four conditions of existence; devas, human beings, animals and residents of hells are all
involved in pain and misery of some kind or other; moksha alone is blissful and free from pain;
the wise should, therefore, only aspire for moksha; all other conditions are temporary and
painful."
Kāla is a word used in Sanskrit to mean "time".It is also the name of a deity, in which sense it is
not always distinguishable from kāla, meaning "black". It is often used as one of the various
names or forms of Yama. But in Jainism, Kāla (काल) refers to a class of piśāca deities
according to both the Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions of Jainism. The piśācas refer to a
category of vyantaras gods which represents one of the four classes of celestial beings (devas).
The deities such as Kālas are defined in ancient Jain cosmological texts such as the
Saṃgrahaṇīratna in the Śvetāmbara tradition or the Tiloyapaṇṇati by Yativṛṣabha (5th century)
in the Digambara tradition. Kāla participated in the war between Rāma and Rāvaṇa, on the side
of the latter, as mentioned in Svayambhūdeva’s Paumacariu (Padmacarita, Paumacariya or
Rāmāyaṇapurāṇa) chapter 57ff. Svayambhū or Svayambhūdeva (8th or 9th century) was a Jain
householder who probably lived in Karnataka. His work recounts the popular Rāma story as
known from the older work Rāmāyaṇa (written by Vālmīki). Various chapters [mentioning Kāla]
are dedicated to the humongous battle whose armies (known as akṣauhiṇīs) consisted of millions
of soldiers, horses and elephants, etc.
What is the meaning of ‘continuity /time’ (kāla)? Duration of the existence of an entity is called
time.
According to Tattvārthasūtra 1.8, “the categories and their details are undefrstood in detail in
terms of existence, number (enumeration), place or abode, extent of space touched (pervasion),
continuity /time (kāla), interval of time, thought-activity, and reciprocal comparison”.Kāla refers
to one of the two Indras (lords) of the Piśāca class of “peripatetic celestial beings” (vyantara),
itself a main division of devas (celestial beings) according to the 2nd-century Tattvārthasūtra 4.6.
Kāla and Mahākāla are the two lords in the class ‘goblin’ peripatetic celestial beings.
According to the 2nd-century Tattvārthasūtra 5.21.—Now many types of time (kāla) are there?
There are two types of time, namely transcendental and practical time. What are the
characteristics of the transcendental and practical types of time? The characteristic of
transcendental time is vartanā. The characteristics of practical time are pariṇāma, kriyā, paratva
and aparatva. How many types of practical time are there? It is of three types namely past,
present and future.
According to, “time (kāla) also is a substance (dravya)”. What is duration of the substance time
(kāla)? It is of infinite period duration. Why is time also said to be substance? Time is called a
substance because all the characteristics of a substance are found in it. What is the peculiar
characteristic of time? Hour, minutes etc are the characteristics of practical time while its ability
to support change /transformation of all other substances is the characteristic from transcendental
viewpoint. What are the distinguishing and generic attributes of time? Ability to support change
/transformation of all other substances is its distinguishing attribute while absence of
consciousness, taste, touch etc are its generic attributes long with all the generic attributes of a
substance.
276
Jainism is an Indian religion of Dharma whose doctrine revolves around harmlessness (ahimsa)
towards every living being. The two major branches (Digambara and Svetambara) of Jainism
stimulate self-control (or, shramana, ‘self-reliance’) and spiritual development through a path of
peace for the soul to progess to the ultimate goal.
Etymology
Monier-Williams's widely used Sanskrit-English dictionary lists two distinct words with the form
kāla.
kāla 1 means "black, of a dark colour, dark-blue ..." and has a feminine form ending in ī –
kālī – as mentioned in Pāṇini 4–1, 42.
kālá 2 means "a fixed or right point of time, a space of time, time ... destiny, fate ...
death" and has a feminine form (found at the end of compounds) ending in ā, as
mentioned in the ṛgveda Prātiśākhya. As a traditional Hindu unit of time, one kālá
corresponds to 144 seconds.
According to Monier-Williams, kāla 2 is from the verbal root kal "to calculate", while the root of
kāla 1 is uncertain, though possibly the same.
As a deity
Head of Kala carved on top of Jabung temple niche, East Java, Indonesia.
As applied to gods and goddesses in works such as the Devī Māhātmya and the Skanda Purāṇa,
kāla 1 and kāla 2 are not readily distinguishable. Thus Wendy Doniger, translating a
conversation between Śiva and Pārvatī from the Skanda Purāṇa, says Mahākāla may mean " 'the
Great Death' ... or 'the Great Black One' ". And Swāmī Jagadīśvarānanda, a Hindu translator of
the Devī Māhātmya, renders the feminine compound kāla-rātri (where rātri means "night") as
"dark night of periodic dissolution". As Time personified, destroying all things, Kala is a god of
death sometimes identified with Yama.
In the epics and the Puranas
Kala appears as an impersonal deity within the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavata
Purana. In the Mahabharata, Krishna, one of the main characters, reveals his identity as Time
personified. He states to Arjuna that both sides on the battlefield of the Kurukshetra War have
already been annihilated. At the end of the epic, the entire Yadu dynasty (Krishna's family) is
277
similarly annihilated. The story ends with Yudhishthira, the last of the Pandava brothers, entering
Heaven in his human form, thereby closing the link. In Heaven, Yudi sees everyone within the
story, both people whom he hated, and people whom he loved, and is happy to see them all. He
then sees their transcendent cosmic forms, Krishna as Vishnu, Draupadi as uma, and realizes that
the participants in the play were merely gods in human form, engaging in pastimes and working
out their karma. Yudi then abandons his bitterness and spends the rest of eternity in Heaven, it is
a happy ending.
Kala appears in the Uttara Kanda of the Ramayana, as the messenger of Death (Yama). At the
end of the story, Time, in the form of inevitability or necessity, informs Rama that his reign on
Earth is now over. By a trick or dilemma, he forces the death of Lakshmana, and informs Rama
that he must return to the realm of the gods. Lakshmana willingly passes away with Rama's
blessing and Rama returns to Heaven.
Time appears in the Bhagavata Purana as the force that is responsible for the imperceptible and
inevitable change in the entire creation. According to the Purana, all created things are illusory,
and thereby subject to creation and annihilation, this imperceptible and inconceivable
impermanence is said to be due to the march of Time. Similarly, Time is considered to be the
unmanifest aspect of God that remains after the destruction of the entire world at the end of a
lifespan of Brahma.
In the Chaitanya Bhagavata, a Gaudiya Vaishnavist text and biography of Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu, it is said that the fire that emerges from the mouth of Sankarshana at the End of
Time is the Kālānala, or "fire of Time".[6] One of the names of Sankarshana is kālāgni, also "fire
of Time".
The Vishnu Purana also states that Time (kala) is one of the four primary forms of Vishnu, the
others being matter (Pradhana), visible substance (vyakta), and Spirit (Purusha).
In the Bhagavad Gita
At Bhagavad Gita 11.32, Krishna takes on the form of kāla, the destroyer, announcing to Arjuna
that all the warriors on both sides will be killed, apart from the Pandavas:
कालो ऽस्मि लोकक्षयकृत् प्रवृद्धो लोकान् समाहर्तुम् इह प्रवृत्तः ।
This verse means: "Time (kāla) I am, the great destroyer of the worlds, and I have come here to
destroy all people”. This phrase is famous for being quoted by J. Robert Oppenheimer as he
reflected on the Manhattan Project's explosion of the first nuclear bomb in 1945.
In other cultures
In Javanese mythology, Batara Kala is the god of destruction. It is a very huge mighty and
powerful god depicted as giant, born of the sperm of Shiva, the kings of gods.
In Borobudur, the gate to the stairs is adorned with a giant head, making the gate look like the
open mouth of the giant. Many other gates in Javanese traditional buildings have this kind of
ornament. Perhaps the most detailed Kala Face in Java is on the south side of Candi Kalasan.
As a Substance
278
Logarithmic scale of time used in Jain texts.
In Jainism, Kāla (Time) is infinite and is explained in two different ways:
The measure of duration, known in the form of hours, days, like that.
The cause of the continuity of function of things.
kalachakras in Jainism
However Jainism recognizes a very small measurement of time known as samaya which is an
infinitely small part of a second. There are cycles (kalachakras) in it. Each cycle having two eras
of equal duration described as the avasarpini and the utsarpini.
Surya Siddhanta
Surya Siddhanta is a Hindu text on astronomy. Above is verse 1.1, which pays homage to
Brahma.
The Surya Siddhanta is the name of a Sanskrit treatise in Indian astronomy. The text has been
updated several times in the past and the earliest update was found to be made in 8th millennium
BCE. Using computer simulation, a match for the Surya Siddhanta latitudinal data was obtained
in the time frame of 7300-7800 BCE.[2] The last update took place in the vicinity of 580 CE
when Nakshatra data appears to have been updated by adding a fixed precessional increment to
all longitudes. Narayanan (2011) showed that for determining the Sun’s longitude, the pulsating
Indian epicycle is far more accurate than the Greek eccentric-epicycle model and that the
pulsating Indian epicycle for the Sun becomes progressively more accurate as one goes back in
time. Peak accuracy, of about 1 minute of arc, is reached around 5200 BCE. This led him to the
timing of 5000-5500BCE when the current values of the Sūrya-siddhānta’s pulsating epicycle
parameters for the Sun appear to have been set. As per the second verse of the chapter 1 of
Surya Siddhanta, Maya Asura is the original author of the text. It has fourteen chapters.
279
The Surya Siddhanta describes rules to calculate the motions of various planets and the moon
relative to various constellations, diameters of various planets, and calculates the orbits of
various astronomical bodies. The text asserts, according to Markanday and Srivatsava, that the
earth is of a spherical shape.[5] It treats earth as stationary globe around which sun orbits, and
makes no mention of Uranus, Neptune or Pluto. It calculates the earth's diameter to be 8,000
miles (modern: 7,928 miles), diameter of moon as 2,400 miles (actual ~2,160) and the distance
between moon and earth to be 258,000 miles (actual ~238,000). The text is known for some of
earliest known discussion of sexagesimal fractions and trigonometric functions.
The Surya Siddhanta is one of the several astronomy-related Hindu texts. It represents a
functional system that made reasonably accurate predictions. The text was influential on the
solar year computations of the luni-solar Hindu calendar.
Textual history
In a work called the Pañca-siddhāntikā composed in the sixth century by Varāhamihira, five
astronomical treatises are named and summarised: Paulīśa-siddhānta, Romaka-siddhānta,
Vasiṣṭha-siddhānta, Sūrya-siddhānta, and Paitāmaha-siddhānta. The surviving version of the
text is dated to about the 6th-century BCE by Markandaya and Srivastava. Most scholars,
however, had placed the text variously from the 4th-century to 5th-century CE. But this was the
period when latest update to Surya Siddhanta was made with one of the earliest update being
made in 8th millennium BCE.
According to John Bowman, another version of the text existed wherein it referenced
sexagesimal fractions and trigonometric functions, but the text was a living document and
revised through about the 10th-century. One of the evidence for the Surya Siddhanta being a
living text is the work of Indian scholar Utpala, who cites and then quotes ten verses from a
version of Surya Siddhanta, but these ten verses are not found in any surviving manuscripts of
the text.[18] According to Kim Plofker, large portions of the more ancient Sūrya-siddhānta was
incorporated into the Panca siddhantika text.[19][10] Some scholars refer to Panca siddhantika as
the old Surya Siddhanta.
Vedic influence
The Surya Siddhanta is a text on astronomy and time keeping, an idea that appears much earlier
as the field of Jyotisha (Vedanga) of the Vedic period. The field of Jyotisha deals with
ascertaining time, particularly forecasting auspicious day and time for Vedic rituals.[21] Max
Muller, quoting passages by Garga and others, states that the ancient Vedic texts describe four
measures of time – savana, solar, lunar and sidereal, as well as twenty seven constellations using
Taras (stars). According to Pingree, the idea of twenty eight constellations and movement of
astronomical bodies already appears in the Hindu text Atharvaveda.
Similarities with Greek astronomy
It is hypothesized that there were cultural contacts between the Indian and Greek astronomers via
cultural contact with Hellenistic Greece, specifically regarding the work of Hipparchus (2ndcentury BCE). There were some similarities between Surya Siddhanta and Greek astronomy in
Hellenistic period. For example, Surya Siddhanta provides table of sines function which parallel
the Hipparchus table of chords, though the Indian calculations are more accurate and detailed.
According to Alan Cromer, the knowledge share with Greeks may have occurred by about 100
BCE.
Astronomical calculations: Estimated time per sidereal revolution.
Planet
Surya Siddhanta
Ptolemy
20th-century
Mangala
686 days, 23 hours, 56
686 days, 23 hours, 31
686 days, 23 hours, 30
280
(Mars)
Budha
(Mercury)
Bṛhaspati
(Jupiter)
mins, 23.5 secs
mins, 56.1 secs
mins, 41.4 secs
87 days, 23 hours, 16 mins, 87 days, 23 hours, 16
87 days, 23 hours, 15
22.3 secs
mins, 42.9 secs
mins, 43.9 secs
4,332 days, 7 hours, 41
4,332 days, 18 hours, 9
4,332 days, 14 hours, 2
mins, 44.4 secs
mins, 10.5 secs
mins, 8.6 secs
224 days, 16 hours, 45
224 days, 16 hours, 51
224 days, 16 hours, 49
Shukra (Venus)
mins, 56.2 secs
mins, 56.8 secs
mins, 8.0 secs
10,765 days, 18 hours, 33 10,758 days, 17 hours, 48 10,759 days, 5 hours, 16
Shani (Saturn)
mins, 13.6 secs
mins, 14.9 secs
mins, 32.2 secs
The influence of Greek ideas on early medieval era Indian astronomical theories, particularly
zodiac symbols (astrology), is broadly accepted by scholars.[23] According to Jayant Narlikar, the
Vedic literature lacks astrology, the idea of nine planets and any theory that stars or constellation
may affect an individual's destiny. One of the manuscripts of the Surya Siddhanta mentions deva
Surya telling asura Maya to go to Rome with this knowledge I give you in the form of Yavana
(Greek), states Narlikar.[26] The astrology field likely developed in the centuries after the arrival
of Greek astrology with Alexander the Great, their zodiac signs being nearly identical.[21]
According to Pingree, the 2nd-century CE cave inscriptions of Nasik mention sun, moon and five
planets in the same order as found in Babylon, but "there is no hint, however, that the Indian had
learned a method of computing planetary positions in this period".[30] In the 2nd-century CE, a
scholar named Yavanesvara translated a Greek astrological text, and another unknown individual
translated a second Greek text into Sanskrit. Thereafter started the diffusion of Greek and
Babylonian ideas on astronomy and astrology into India, states Pingree.[30] The other evidence of
European influential on the Indian thought is Romaka Siddhanta, a title of one of the Siddhanta
texts contemporary to Surya Siddhanta, a name that betrays its origin and probably was derived
from a translation of a European text by Indian scholars in Ujjain, then the capital of an
influential central Indian large kingdom.
According to John Roche – a professor of Mathematics with publications on the history of
measurement, the astronomical and mathematical methods developed by Greeks related arcs to
chords of spherical trigonometry. The Indian mathematical astronomers, in their texts such as
Surya Siddhanta developed other linear measures of angles, made their calculations differently,
"introduced the versine, which is the difference between the radius and cosine, and discovered
various trigonometrical identities. For instance, states Roche, "where the Greeks had adopted 60
relative units for the radius, and 360 for circumference", the Indians chose 3,438 units and
60x360 for the circumference thereby calculating the "ratio of circumference to diameter [pi, π]
of about 3.1414.
The tradition of Hellenistic astronomy ended in the West after Late Antiquity. According to
Cromer, the Surya Siddhanta and other Indian texts reflect the primitive state of Greek science,
nevertheless played an important part in the history of science, through its translation in Arabic
and stimulating the Arabic sciences. According to a study by Dennis Duke that compares Greek
models with Indian models based on the oldest Indian manuscripts such as the Surya Siddhanta
with fully described models, the Greek influence on Indian astronomy is strongly likely to be
pre-Ptolemaic.
The Surya Siddhanta was one of the two books in Sanskrit translated into Arabic in the later half
of the eighth century during the reign of Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur. According to Muzaffar
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Iqbal, this translation and that of Aryabhatta was of considerable influence on geographic,
astronomy and related Islamic scholarship.
Contents
The contents of the Surya Siddhanta is written in classical Indian poetry tradition, where
complex ideas are expressed lyrically with a rhyming meter in the form of a terse shloka .This
method of expressing and sharing knowledge made it easier to remember, recall, transmit and
preserve knowledge. However, this method also meant secondary rules of interpretation, because
numbers don't have rhyming synonyms. The creative approach adopted in the Surya Siddhanta
was to use symbolic language with double meanings. For example, instead of one, the text uses a
word that means moon because there is one moon. To the skilled reader, the word moon means
the number one. The entire table of trigonometric functions, sine tables, steps to calculate
complex orbits, predict eclipses and keep time are thus provided by the text in a poetic form.
This cryptic approach offers greater flexibility for poetic construction.
The Surya Siddhanta thus consists of cryptic rules in Sanskrit verse. It is a compendium of
astronomy that is easier to remember, transmit and use as reference or aid for the experienced,
but does not aim to offer commentary, explanation or proof. The text has 14 chapters and 500
shlokas. It is one of the eighteen astronomical siddhanta (treatises), but thirteen of the eighteen
are believed to be lost to history. The Surya Siddhanta text has survived since the ancient times,
has been the best known and the most referred astronomical text in the Indian tradition.
The fourteen chapters of the Surya Siddhanta are as follows, per the much cited Burgess
translation.
Chapters of Surya Siddhanta
Chapter
Title
Reference
#
[37]
1
Of the Mean Motions of the Planets
[38]
2
On the True Places of the Planets
[39]
3
Of Direction, Place and Time
[40]
4
Of Eclipses, and Especially of Lunar Eclipses
[41]
5
Of Parallax in a Solar Eclipse
[42]
6
The Projection of Eclipses
[43]
7
Of Planetary Conjunctions
[44]
8
Of the Asterisms
[45]
9
Of Heliacal (Sun) Risings and Settings
[46]
10
The Moon's Risings and Settings, Her Cusps
[47]
11
On Certain Malignant Aspects of the Sun and Moon
12
Cosmogony, Geography, and Dimensions of the Creation [48]
13
Of the Armillary Sphere and other Instruments
14
Of the Different Modes of Reckoning Time
The methods for computing time using the shadow cast by a gnomon are discussed in both
Chapters 3 and 13.
North pole star and South pole star
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One of the most interesting observation made in Surya Siddhanta is the observation of two pole
stars, one each at north and south celestial pole. Surya Siddhanta chapter 12 verse 42 description
is as following:
मेरोरुभयतो मध्ये ध्रुवतारे नभ:स्थिते।
निरक्षदेशसंस्थानामुभये क्षितिजाश्रिये॥१२:४३॥
This translates as "There are two pole stars, one each, near North celestial pole and South
celestial pole. From equatorial regions, these stars are seen along the horizon".Currently our
North Pole star is Polaris. It is subject to investigation to find out when this astronomical
phenomenon occurred in the past to date the addition of this particular update to Surya
Siddhanta.
Calculation of Earth's Obliquity
In Surya Siddhanta chapter 2 and verse 28, it calculated the obliquity of the Earth's axis. The
verse says "The sine of greatest declination(obliquity) is 1397.....", which means that R-sine is
1397 where R is 3438.To obtain the obliquity in the unit of degree, we have to take the inverse of
Sine of the ratio (1397/3438), which gives us 23.975182 degrees and this tilt indicates a period of
3000 BCE[53]. It can be noted that this update was made during 3000 BCE to the Surya
Siddhanta.
Planets and their characteristics
Earth is a sphere
Thus everywhere on [the surface of] the terrestrial globe,
people suppose their own place higher [than that of others],
yet this globe is in space where there is no above nor below.
—Surya Siddhanta, XII.53
Translator: Scott L. Montgomery, Alok Kumar
The text treats earth as a stationary globe around which sun, moon and five planets orbit. It
makes no mention of Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. It presents mathematical formulae to calculate
the orbits, diameters, predict their future locations and cautions that the minor corrections are
necessary over time to the formulae for the various astronomical bodies. However, unlike
modern heliocentric model for the solar system, the Surya Siddhanta relies on a geocentric point
of view.[55]
The text describes some of its formulae with the use of very large numbers for divya yuga,
stating that at the end of this yuga earth and all astronomical bodies return to the same starting
point and the cycle of existence repeats againThese very large numbers based on divya-yuga,
when divided and converted into decimal numbers for each planet give reasonably accurate
sidereal periods when compared to modern era western calculations.[56] For example, the Surya
Siddhanta states that the sidereal period of moon is 27.322 which compares to 27.32166 in
modern calculations. For Mercury it states the period to be 87.97 (modern W: 87.969), Venus
224.7 (W: 224.701), Mars as 687 (W: 686.98), Jupiter as 4,332.3 (W: 4,332.587) and Saturn to
be 10,765.77 days (W: 10,759.202).
Calendar
The solar part of the luni-solar Hindu calendar is based on the Surya Siddhanta. The various old
and new versions of Surya Siddhanta manuscripts yield the same solar calendar. According to J.
Gordon Melton, both the Hindu and Buddhist calendars in use in South and Southeast Asia are
rooted in this text, but the regional calendars adapted and modified them over time.
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The Surya Siddhanta calculates the solar year to be 365 days 6 hours 12 minutes and 36.56
seconds. On average, according to the text, the lunar month equals 27 days 7 hours 39 minutes
12.63 seconds. It states that the lunar month varies over time, and this needs to be factored in for
accurate time keeping.
According to Whitney, the Surya Siddhanta calculations were tolerably accurate and achieved
predictive usefulness. In Chapter 1 of Surya Siddhanta, states Whitney, "the Hindu year is too
long by nearly three minutes and a half; but the moon's revolution is right within a second; those
of Mercury, Venus and Mars within a few minutes; that of Jupiter within six or seven hours; that
of Saturn within six days and a half".
Chart showing the classification of dravya and astikaya
According to Jains, the Universe is made up of six simple and eternal substances
called dravya which are broadly categorized under Jiva (Living Substances) and Ajiva (Non
Living Substances) as follows:
Jīva (Living Substances)
Jīva i.e. Souls – Jīva exists as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses
it. It is characterised by chetana (consciousness) and upayoga (knowledge and perception).
Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created.
Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearing of
another state, these being merely the modes of the soul. Jiva are classified on bases of sense,
so there are of 5 types: 1) with one sense (sparshendriya) 2) 2 senses (1st included and
raasendriya) 3) 3 senses (1st 2 included and dharnendriya) 4) 4 senses (1st 3 included and
chkshuendriya) 5) 5 senses (1st 4 included and shrotendriya)
Ajīva (Non-Living Substances)
Pudgala (Matter) – Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic
materials and extra-fine matter i.e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the
basic building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and
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indestructible. Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the
same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed.
Dharmastikaay or Dharma-dravya (Principle of Motion) and Adharmastikaay or Adharmadravya (Principle of Rest) – Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to
Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade
the entire universe. Dharmastikaay and Adharmastikaay are by itself not motion or rest but
mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and
without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe.
Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the
principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of
infinite space-points.
Kāla (Time) – Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or
modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain
text, Dravyasaṃgraha:
Conventional time (vyavahāra kāla) is perceived by the senses through the transformations
and modifications of substances. Real time (niścaya kāla), however, is the cause of
imperceptible, minute changes (called vartanā) that go on incessantly in all substances.
— Dravyasaṃgraha (21)
Structure of the Universe: The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world
which works on universal natural laws. The existence of a creator deity is overwhelmingly
opposed in the Jain doctrine. Mahāpurāṇa, a Jain text authored by Ācārya Jinasena is famous for
this quote:
Some foolish men declare that a creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created
is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before the creation?
If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God
have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the
world, you are faced with an endless regression.
According to Jains, the universe has a firm and an unalterable shape, which is measured in the
Jain texts by means of a unit called Rajlok, which is supposed to be very large.
The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajloks high and extends
seven Rajloks from north to south. Its breadth is seven Rajloks long at the bottom and decreases
gradually towards the middle, where it is one Rajlok long. The width then increases gradually
until it is five Rajloks long and again decreases until it is one Rajlok long. The apex of the
universe is one Rajlok long, one Rajlok wide and eight Rajloks high. The total space of the world
is thus 343 cubic Rajloks. The Svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is a
constant increase and decrease in the breadth, and the space is 239 cubic Rajlok. Apart from the
apex, which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts. The world is
surrounded by three atmospheres: dense-water, dense-wind and thin-wind. It is then surrounded
by an infinitely large non-world which is completely empty.
The whole world is said to be filled with living beings. In all three parts, there is the existence of
very small living beings called nigoda. Nigoda are of two types: nitya-nigoda and Itara-nigoda.
Nitya-nigoda are those which will reincarnate as nigoda throughout eternity, where as Itaranigoda will be reborn as other beings. The mobile region of universe (Trasnaadi) is
one Rajlok wide, one Rajlok broad and fourteen Rajloks high. Within this region, there are
animals and plants everywhere, where as Human beings are restricted to 2 continents of the
middle world. The beings inhabiting the lower world are called Narak (Hellish beings). The
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Deva (roughly demi-gods) live in the whole of the top and middle worlds, and top three realms
of the lower world. Living beings are divided in fourteen classes (Jivasthana) : Fine beings with
one sense, crude beings with one sense, beings with two senses, beings with three senses, beings
with four senses, beings with five senses and no mind, and beings with five senses and a mind.
These can be under-developed or developed, a total or 14. Human beings can get any form of
existence, and are the only ones which can attain salvation.
Three lokas
Fourteen Rajlok or Triloka. Shape of Universe as per Jain cosmology in form of a cosmic man.
Miniature from 17th century, Saṁgrahaṇīratna by Śrīcandra, in Prakrit with a Gujarati
commentary. Jain Śvetāmbara cosmological text with commentary and illustrations.
The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe. They developed a detailed
hypothesis on the various aspects of astronomy and cosmology. According to the Jain texts, the
universe is divided into 3 parts.
Urdhva Loka – the realms of the gods or heavens
Madhya Loka – the realms of the humans, animals and plants
Adho Loka – the realms of the hellish beings or the infernal regions
The following Upanga āgamas describe the Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail:
1. Sūryaprajñapti – Treatise on Sun
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2. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti – Treatise on the island of Roseapple tree; it contains a description
of Jambūdvī and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata
3. Candraprajñapti – Treatise on moon
Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail:
1. Trilokasāra – Essence of the three worlds (heavens, middle level, hells)
2. Trilokaprajñapti – Treatise on the three worlds
3. Trilokadipikā – Illumination of the three worlds
4. Tattvārthasūtra – Description on nature of realities
5. Kṣetrasamasa – Summary of Jain geography
6. Bruhatsamgrahni – Treatise on Jain cosmology and geography
Urdhva Loka, the upper world
Upper World (Udharva loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly
beings (demi-gods) who are non-liberated souls.
Upper World is divided into sixteen Devalokas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudish and five Anuttar
abodes. Sixteen Devaloka abodes are Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma,
Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana
and Achyuta. Nine Graiveyak abodes are Sudarshan, Amogh, Suprabuddha, Yashodhar,
Subhadra, Suvishal, Sumanas, Saumanas and Pritikar. Nine Anudish are Aditya, Archi,
Archimalini, Vair, Vairochan, Saum, Saumrup, Ark and Sphatik. Five Anuttar are Vijaya,
Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddhi.
The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and the rest are called Kalpatit. Those
living in Kalpatit are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard
to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration,
capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the Heavenly beings residing in the higher
abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher
groups, dwelling in 9 Greveyak and 5 Anutar Viman. They are independent and dwelling in their
own vehicles. The anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups,
organized like earthly kingdoms—rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies
etc.
Above the Anutar vimans, at the apex of the universe is the realm of the liberated souls, the
perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains.
Madhya Loka, the middle world
map of Jambudvipa - Jain Cosmology/Early 19th-century painting depicting map of
2 1⁄2 continents
Structure of Universe according to the Jain scriptures.
287
Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, Hastinapur
Madhya Loka consists of 900 yojans above and 900 yojans below earth surface. It is inhabited
by:[7]
1. Jyotishka devas (luminous gods) – 790 to 900 yojans above earth
2. Humans,[8] Tiryanch (Animals, birds, plants) on the surface
3. Vyantar devas (Intermediary gods) – 100 yojan below the ground level
Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names
are:
Continent/ Island
Ocean
Jambūdvīpa
Lavanoda (Salt – ocean)
Ghatki Khand
Kaloda (Black sea)
Puskarvardvīpa
Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean)
Varunvardvīpa
Varunoda (Varun Ocean)
Kshirvardvīpa
Kshiroda (Ocean of milk)
Ghrutvardvīpa
Ghrutoda (Butter milk ocean)
Ikshuvardvīpa
Iksuvaroda (Sugar Ocean)
Nandishwardvīpa
Nandishwaroda
Mount Meru (also Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa,[8] in
form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans.[7] There are two sets of sun, moon and
stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the
Mount Meru.[9][10][11]
Work of Art showing maps and diagrams as per Jain Cosmography from 17th century CE
Manuscript of 12th century Jain text Sankhitta Sangheyan
Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mighty mountains, dividing the continent into 7 zones (Ksetra).
The names of these zones are:
1. Bharat Kshetra
2. Mahavideh Kshetra
3. Airavat Kshetra
4. Ramyak Kshetra
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5. Hiranya vant Kshetra
6. Hemvant Kshetra
7. Hari Varsh Kshetra
The three zones i.e. Bharat Kshetra, Mahavideh Kshetra and Airavat Kshetra are also known
as Karma bhoomi because practice of austerities and liberation is possible and the
Tirthankaras preach the Jain doctrine.[12] The other four zones, Ramyak, Hairanyvat Kshetra,
Haimava Kshetra and Hari Kshetra are known as akarmabhoomi or bhogbhumi as humans
live a sinless life of pleasure and no religion or liberation is possible.
Nandishvara Dvipa is not the edge of cosmos, but it is beyond the reach of
humans.[8] Humans can reside only on Jambudvipa, Dhatatikhanda Dvipa, and the inner half
of Pushkara Dvipa.[8]
Adho Loka, the lower world[edit]
Main article: Naraka (Jainism)
17th century cloth painting depicting seven levels of Jain hell and various tortures
suffered in them. Left panel depicts the demi-god and his animal vehicle presiding over
the each hell.
The lower world consists of seven hells, which are inhabited by Bhavanpati demigods and
the hellish beings. Hellish beings reside in the following hells:
1. Ratna prabha-dharma.
2. Sharkara prabha-vansha.
3. Valuka prabha-megha.
4. Pank prabha-anjana.
5. Dhum prabha-arista.
6. Tamah prabha-maghavi.
7. Mahatamah prabha-maadhavi
According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal.[13][14] The Kālacakra, the cosmic
wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two halfrotations, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and Avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle,
occurring continuously after each other.[15][16] Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity
and happiness where the time spans and ages are at an increasing scale, while Avsarpiṇī is a
period of increasing sorrow and immorality with decline in timespans of the epochs. Each of
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this half time cycle consisting of innumerable period of time (measured
in sagaropama and palyopama years)[note 1] is further sub-divided into six aras or epochs of
unequal periods. Currently, the time cycle is in avasarpiṇī or descending phase with the
following epochs.[17]
Maximum
Name of the Degree of
Maximum
Duration of Ara
lifespan of
Ara
happiness
height of people
people
Suṣamasuṣamā
Utmost happiness
and no sorrow
400 trillion
sāgaropamas
Six miles tall
Three Palyopam
years
Suṣamā
Moderate
happiness and no
sorrow
300 trillion
sāgaropamas
Four miles tall
Two Palyopam
Years
Suṣamaduḥṣamā
Happiness with
very little sorrow
200 trillion
sāgaropamas
Two miles tall
One Palyopam
Years
Duḥṣamasuṣamā
Happiness with
little sorrow
100 trillion
sāgaropamas
1500 meters
84 Lakh Purva
Duḥṣamā
Sorrow with very
little happiness
21,000 years
7 hatha
120 years
DuḥṣamaExtreme sorrow
21,000 years
1 hatha
20 years
duḥṣamā
and misery
In utsarpiṇī the order of the eras is reversed. Starting from duṣamā-duṣamā, it ends
with suṣamā-suṣamā and thus this never ending cycle continues.[18] Each of these aras
progress into the next phase seamlessly without any apocalyptic consequences. The increase
or decrease in the happiness, life spans and length of people and general moral conduct of
the society changes in a phased and graded manner as the time passes. No divine or
supernatural beings are credited or responsible with these spontaneous temporal changes,
either in a creative or overseeing role, rather human beings and creatures are born under the
impulse of their own karmas.[19]
Śalākāpuruṣas – The deeds of the 63 illustrious men[edit]
Main article: Salakapurusa
According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called śalākāpuruṣas, are born on this
earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara.[20] The Jain universal history is a compilation of the
deeds of these illustrious persons.[13] They comprise twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras,
twelve chakravartins, nine balabhadra, nine narayana, and nine pratinarayana.[21][22][note 2]
A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm.[20] Though he
possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the
cosmos. Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal monarchs). They are
golden in complexion.[23] One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata
Chakravartin. Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana state
that Indian subcontinent came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory.[24][25]
There are nine sets of balabhadra, narayana, and pratinarayana.
The balabhadra and narayana are brothers.[26] Balabhadra are nonviolent
heroes, narayana are violent heroes, and pratinarayana the villains. According to the
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legends, the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain
liberation and the last goes to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell because of their
violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness.[27]
Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts (avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī).
According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in the
human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine appropriate for that era.[28][29][30] The
word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which means a fordable passage across a
sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and
deaths.[31] Rishabhanatha is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle
(avasarpiṇī). Mahāvīra (6th century BC) is revered as the twenty
fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī.[32][33] Jain texts state that Jainism has always existed and
will always exist.[13]
During each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or 63 illustrious
men, consisting of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear.[34][16] The
Jain universal or legendary history is basically a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious
men. They are categorised as follows:[34][35]
24 Tīrthaṅkaras – The 24 Tīrthaṅkaras or the supreme ford makers appear in succession
to activate the true religion and establish the community of ascetics and laymen.
12 Chakravartins – The Chakravartīs are the universal monarchs who rule over the six
continents.
9 Balabhadras who lead an ideal Jain life.e.g. Lord Rama [36]
9 Narayana or Vasudev (heroes)
9 Prati-Naryana or Prati-Vasudev (anti-heroes) – They are anti-heroes who are
ultimately killed by the Narayana.
Balabhadra and Narayana are half brothers who jointly rule over three continents.
Besides these a few other important classes of 106 persons are recognized: 9 Naradas[34]
11 Rudras[34]
24 Kamdevas[34]
24 Fathers of the Tirthankaras.
24 Mothers of the Tirthankaras.
14 Kulakara (patriarchs)
See also
The Prakrit name Jambudīpasi (Sanskrit "Jambudvīpa") for "India" in the Sahasram Minor Rock
Edict of Ashoka, circa 250 BCE (Brahmi script).[1][2]
Jambudvīpa (Sanskrit: जम्बुद्वीप) is the dvīpa ("island" or "continent") of the terrestrial world,
as envisioned in the cosmologies of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, which is the realm where
ordinary human beings live.[citation needed]
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The word Jambudvīpa literally refers to "the land of Jambu trees" where jambu (also known as
jamun) is the Indian Blackberry (Syzygium cumini) and dvīpa has two meanings "island" or
"continent" and "planets" situated in the ocean of outer space.
"The planets are called dvīpas. Outer space is like an ocean of air. Just as there are islands in the
watery ocean, these planets in the ocean of space are called dvīpas, or islands in outer space"
(Chaitanya Caritamrita Madhya 20.218, Purport)
Puranic description as per Vedic cosmology
Map of Jambudvipa
According to Puranic cosmography, the world is divided into seven concentric island continents
(sapta-dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the
preceding one (going out from within). The seven continents of the Puranas are stated
as Jambudvipa, Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa,
and Pushkaradvipa. Seven intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice,
wine, ghee, yogurt, milk and water respectively.[3][4] The mountain range called Lokaloka,
meaning "world-no-world", stretches across this final sea, delineating the known world from the
dark void.
Continent Jambudvipa (Indian Blackberry Island), also known as Sudarshanadvipa, forms the
innermost concentric island in the above scheme. Its name is said to derive from a Jambu tree
(another name for the Indian Blackberry). The fruits of the Jambu tree are said, in
the Viṣṇupurāṇa (ch.2) to be as large as elephants and when they become rotten and fall upon the
crest of the mountains, a river of juice is formed from their expressed juice. The river so formed
is called Jambunadi (Jambu river) and flows through Jambudvipa, whose inhabitants drink its
waters. Insular continent Jambudvipa is said to comprise nine varshas (zones) and eight
significant parvatas (mountains).
Markandeya Purana portrays Jambudvipa as being depressed on its south and north and elevated
and broad in the middle. The elevated region forms the varsha named Ila-vrta or Meruvarsha. At
the center of Ila-vrta lies the golden Mount Meru, the king of mountains. On the summit of
Mount Meru, is the vast city of Lord Brahma, known as Brahmapuri. Surrounding Brahmapuri
are 8 cities - the one of Lord Indra and of seven other Devatas.
Markandeya Purana and Brahmanda Purana divide Jambudvipa into four vast regions shaped like
four petals of a lotus with Mount Meru being located at the center like a pericarp. The city
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of Brahmapuri is said to be enclosed by a river, known as Akash Ganga. Akash Ganga is said to
issue forth from the foot of Lord Vishnu and after washing the lunar region falls "through the
skies" and after encircling the Brahmapuri "splits up into four mighty streams", which are said to
flow in four opposite directions from the landscape of Mount Meru and irrigate the vast lands of
Jambudvipa.
The common names of the dvīpas, having their varṣas (9 for Jambu-dvīpa, 7 for the other dvīpas)
with a mountain and a river in each varṣa, is given in several Purāṇas.[7] There is a distinct set of
names provides, however, in other Purāṇas.[8] The most detailed geography is that described in
the Vāyu Purāṇa.
The Buddhist cosmology divides the bhūmaṇḍala (circle of the earth) into three separate
levels: Kāmadhātu (Desire realm), Rūpadhātu (Form realm), and Ārūpyadhātu (Formless
realm). In the Kāmadhātu is located Mount Sumeru which is said to be surrounded by four
island-continents. "The southernmost island is called Jambudvīpa". The other three continents of
Buddhist accounts around Sumeru are not accessible to humans from Jambudvīpa. Jambudvīpa is
shaped like a triangle with a blunted point facing south, somewhat like the Indian subcontinent.
In its center is a gigantic Jambu tree from which the continent takes its name, meaning "Jambu
Island".
Jambudipa, one of the four Mahādīpas, or great continents, which are included in the Cakkavāla
and are ruled by a Cakkavatti. They are grouped round MountSineru. In Jambudīpa is Himavā
with its eighty-four thousand peaks, its lakes, mountain ranges, etc.
This continent derives its name from the Jambu-tree (also called Naga) which grows there, its
trunk fifteen yojanas in girth, its outspreading branches fifty yojanas in length, its shade one
hundred yojanas in extent and its height one hundred yojanas (Vin.i.30; SNA.ii.443; Vsm.i.205f;
Sp.i.119, etc.) On account of this tree, Jambudīpa is also known as Jambusanda (SN.vs.552;
SNA.i.121). The continent is ten thousand yojanas in extent; of these ten thousand, four thousand
are covered by the ocean, three thousand by the Himālaya mountains, while three thousand are
inhabited by men (SNA.ii.437; UdA.300).
Jambudvīpa is the region where the humans live and is the only place where a being may become
enlightened by being born as a human being. It is in Jambudvīpa that one may receive the gift
of Dharma and come to understand the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and
ultimately realize the liberation from the cycle of life and death. Another reference is from the
Buddhist text Mahavamsa, where the emperor Ashoka's son Mahinda introduces himself to
the Sri Lankan king Devanampiyatissa as from Jambudvipa, referring to what is now the Indian
subcontinent. This is Based In the Kṣitigarbha Sūtra in the Mahayana.
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Image depicting map of Jambudvipa as per Jain Cosmology.. A carving depicting Jambūdvīpa " in Ranakpur
According to Jain cosmology, Jambūdvīpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part
of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti or the treatise on the island of
Roseapple tree contains a description of Jambūdvīpa and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King
Bharata. Trilokasāra (Essence of the three worlds), Trilokaprajñapti (Treatise on the three
worlds), Trilokadipikā (Illumination of the three worlds) and Kṣetrasamāsa (Summary of Jain
geography) are the other texts that provide the details of Jambūdvīpa and Jain cosmology.
Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names
are:
Continent/ Island Ocean
Jambūdvīpa
Lavanoda (Salt - ocean)
Dhatki Khand
Kaloda (Black sea)
Puskarvardvīpa
Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean)
Varunvardvīpa
Varunoda (Varun Ocean)
Kshirvardvīpa
Kshiroda (Ocean of milk)
Ghrutvardvīpa
Ghrutoda (Ghee ocean)
Ikshuvardvīpa
Iksuvaroda (Ocean of Sugarcane Juice)
Nandishwardvīpa
Nandishwaroda
Mount Meru is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa, in form of a circle
forming a diameter of 100,000 yojanas.[10]
Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mountains, dividing the continent into 9 zones (Kshetra). The
names of these zones are:
1. Bharat Kshetra
2. Mahavideha Kshetra
3. Airavat Kshetra
4. Ramyakwas
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Hariwas
Hairanyvat Kshetra
Haimavat Kshetra
Devkuru
Uttarkuru
Architecture
Jambudweep Jain tirtha in Hastinapur, constructed under supervision of Gyanmati Mataji, is
a depiction of Jambudvipa as per Jain cosmology.The term 'Jambudvipa is used by Ashoka
perhaps to represent his realm in 3rd century BC, same terminology is then repeated in
subsequent inscriptions for instance mysorean inscription from the tenth century AD which
also describes the region, presumably India, as 'Jambudvipa.
The Kuntala country (which included the north-western parts of Mysore and the southern
parts of the Bombay Presidency) was ruled by the nava-Nanda, Gupta-kula, Mauryya kings ;
then the Rattas ruled it : after whom were the Chalukyas; then the Kalachuryya family; and
after them the (Hoysala) Ballalas.'’ Another, at Kubatur, expressly states that Chandra
Gupta ruled the Naga-khanda in the south of the Bharata-kshetra of Jambu dvipa : this is the
Nagara-khanda Seventy of so many inscriptions, of which Bandanikke (Bandalike in
Shimoga) seems to have been the chief town. And fuidher, a record to be noticed below says
that the daughters of the Kadamba king were given in marriage to the Guptas.
— Annual Report Of Mysore 1886 To 1903
Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe (loka) and its
constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism. Jain
cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity that has existed since infinity with
neither beginning nor end.[1] Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man
standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is
broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom.[2]
Dravya (Jainism)
According to Jains, the Universe is made up of six simple and eternal substances
called dravya which are broadly categorized under Jiva (Living Substances) and Ajiva (Non
Living Substances) as follows:
Jīva (Living Substances)
Jīva i.e. Souls – Jīva exists as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses
it. It is characterised by chetana (consciousness) and upayoga (knowledge and
perception).[3] Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed
nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and
appearing of another state, these being merely the modes of the soul. Jiva are classified on
bases of sense, so there are of 5 types: 1) with one sense (sparshendriya) 2) 2 senses (1st
included and raasendriya) 3) 3 senses (1st 2 included and dharnendriya) 4) 4 senses (1st 3
included and chkshuendriya) 5) 5 senses (1st 4 included and shrotendriya) [4]
Ajīva (Non-Living Substances)
Pudgala (Matter) – Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic
materials and extra-fine matter i.e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the
basic building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and
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indestructible. Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the
same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed.
Dharmastikaay or Dharma-dravya (Principle of Motion) and Adharmastikaay or Adharmadravya (Principle of Rest) – Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to
Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade
the entire universe. Dharmastikaay and Adharmastikaay are by itself not motion or rest but
mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and
without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe.
Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the
principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of
infinite space-points.
Kāla (Time) – Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or
modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain
text, Dravyasaṃgraha:
Conventional time (vyavahāra kāla) is perceived by the senses through the transformations
and modifications of substances. Real time (niścaya kāla), however, is the cause of
imperceptible, minute changes (called vartanā) that go on incessantly in all substances.
— Dravyasaṃgraha (21
Six Dravyas
According to Jainsim this universe is composed of six fundamental verities; the Jain word for the
universe is "Loka" The co-existence of these six substances is called "Loka".
There are five Astikayas. (massed verities) among these six fundamental verities. Jiva, Padgala,
Dharma, Adharma Akasa and Kala - these are the six fundamental verities. Except Kala, the five
are Astikayas. These five Astikayas can be grouped under one name Ajiva.
The Jiva dravya has 563 divisions, while the Ajiva dravya has 560 divisions. Jiva and Ajiva are
included in the nine tattvas and the six dravyas.
The universe is made of Jiva and Ajiva. There are only two tattvas in the univese : (1) Sentient
(2) Non-sentient. Jiva is sentient, with a soul while Ajiva is non-sentient, without a soul.
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There are detailed and lucid discussions on the nature of Jiva and Ajiva in Jain literature. Ajiva
dravya plays a crucial role in the construction and management of the universe. A short
discussion follows :
Ajivatattva is not an agent nor an enjoyer nor a sufferer and it has no soul sentience or Jiva. Like
Jiva, the Ajiva tattva is beginningless, endless and eternal. There are two main types of Ajiva (1) formless and (2) with a form. Dharma, Adharma, Akasa and Kala are formless, while
Pudgala has a form.
Except Kala, the other five dravyas are called Astikayas. Astikaya means having a group of
Pradeshes. The constituent units every fundamental verity is called a Pradesha. The Kaya (mass)
of Pradeshas is Astikaya
"Astikaya is Pradesatmaka, i.e. occupies space; hence it is called an ‘expanded entity’. Kala
is not so called because it has astiva (existance) but not Kayatva (expansion in space)".
Dr. S.K. Belvelkar - Brahma - Sutrabhasya 2-2-33
Dharmastikaya and Adharmastikaya
The words - Dharma and Adharma are used here in a technical, special sense. They are not used
here in the traditional sense of good conduct and bad conduct. The peculiar meaning of these two
words in Jain religion is an original contribution of Jainism to the world.
The famous scientist Newton was the first to accept the Principle of motion. A fruit falls down
form a higher level. Words flow from a flute. There is some medium through which a substance
passes. Scientists give the name ‘ether’ to this medium. But Bhagavan Mahavira said ago 2500
years ago that all moving psychical states are only the subtlest vibrations. All these become
active through the help of ‘dharma’.
We are able to move through dharmastikaya; birds can fly and fish can swim. Thus, that which
helps motion is ‘Dharma’. It is a mass of pradeshas; hence it is called dharmastikaya.
Dharma helps motion, while adharma helps inertia.
The support of Jiva or Ajiva, which remains steady is a tattva which helps inertia. It is called
Adharmastikaya. It helps in keeping one steady.
Whatever is moving or steady in this world is due to these two astikayas. Only Jainism uses these
two words - Dharma and Adharma, in this peculiar sense.
Akasastikaya
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Akasa (space) means the place where Jiva and Ajiva are accommodated. It is formless and
supportless. All these six dravyas are accommodated by it.
Akasastikaya is the receptacle of all motion and inertia, Kala and Pudgalas - directions and
intermediate directions are its imaginary divisions. Pervasion is its property.
There are 2 types of Akasa. Lokakasa and Alokakasa. That area is called Lokakasa where
Dharma and Adharma, the two helping entities in motion and inertia, reach; while infinite space,
where there is no Jiva or Ajiva is called Alokakasa.
Pudgalastikaya
Only Jainism has discussed, in detail, the nature of Pudgala. The word ‘physical element’ is
current, while Jainism calls it ‘Pudgala’. The word Paramanu (atom) has become current
nowadays in science and technology. There is a well-known theory of ‘atomism’. Jainism has
discussed, the parmmanu for the first time. Pudgaladravya is divisible in small, big, minute and
coarse pieces. Jiva, Dharma, Adharma, and Akasa are non-divisible. There are no conjuctions
and disjuctions in them. Pudgala is not an impartite substance. It comes into existence, it is
destoryed. Permanent and regular change is its nature.
The smallest and minutest form of a Pudgala is a Paramanu. The Padgala, which cannot be cut,
pierced, grasped, burnt and divided is a Paramanu.
Eight types of touch, five types of taste, two types of smell, five types of colour - these twenty
are the qualities of a Pudgala.
Four types of Pudgala :
(1) Skandha - The impartite portion of a Paramanu
(2) Desa - Imaginary portion of a skandha
(3) Pradesa - an indivisible part, jointed with the skandha
(4) Parmanu - the minutest part, separate from a skandha.
There are 8 types of a Parmanu.
When a parmanu is changed into a skandha, it has ten forms such as word, sunshine, shade, light
etc.
Jain religion has, for the first time, called Shabda (word) a Pudgala and discussed it deeply and
fully. It has for the first time said that a word moves quickly, pervades the world, and remains
steady in the world. The concrete form of this thinking by Jainism is seen today in messages
through telegrams, phones, the radio, the T.V. etc.
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Kala (Time)
The word ‘Time’ explained in simple and easy way, is Kala, but this is only one type. There are
4 types of Kala.
1. Pramana Kala - An object is measured through kala hence it is called pramana kala.
2. Yathayu nivrti kala - life and death are relative. The various stages of life are therefore called
yathayu nivrtti kala.
3. Marana kala - The end of life is called marana kala.
4. Adda kala - The kala conected with the motion of the sun and the moon is called Adda Kala.
Adda Kala is the most important division. The other three are its special forms. Adda Kala is
used in practice and it is used in the human world. For example, day-night, past tense, present
tense, future tense, etc.
The minutest part of kala is called ‘Samaya’.
The calculation of time in Jainism is typical and distinct. It is as follows :
* Indivisible kala - one samaya
* Innumerable samayas - one avalika
* 256 Availikas - one ksullaka dhava
* 2223-1229/3773 avalikas - one breath
* One breath - one prana
* 7 prans - one lava
* 38 1/2 lavas - one ghadi (24 minutes)
* 77 lavas - one muhurta (48 minutes)
* 30 muhurtas - one whole day
* 15 days - one fortnight
* 2 fortnights - one month
* 2 months - one season
* 3 seasons - one half of the year
* 2 halves of the year (ayanas) - one year
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* 5 years - one yuga
* 70 Krodakroda 56 lakh kroda years - one purva
* Innumerable purvas - one palyopama
* 10 krodakroda palyopamas - one sagaropama
* 20 krodakroda sagaropamas - one kalacakra
* Infinite number of kalacakras - one pudgala paravartana
The briefest form of all these varieties of kala - today, yesterday and tomorrow.
Literature - Read ‘Navatattva,’ ‘Tattvayathasutra,’ and ‘Padarthasangraha,’ etc.
Eternity: The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on
universal natural laws. The existence of a creator deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain
doctrine. Mahāpurāṇa, a Jain text authored by Ācārya Jinasena is famous for this quote:
Some foolish men declare that a creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created
is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before the creation?
If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God
have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the
world, you are faced with an endless regression.
According to Jains, the universe has a firm and an unalterable shape, which is measured in the
Jain texts by means of a unit called Rajlok, which is supposed to be very large.
The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajloks high and extends
seven Rajloks from north to south. Its breadth is seven Rajloks long at the bottom and decreases
gradually towards the middle, where it is one Rajlok long. The width then increases gradually
until it is five Rajloks long and again decreases until it is one Rajlok long. The apex of the
universe is one Rajlok long, one Rajlok wide and eight Rajloks high. The total space of the world
is thus 343 cubic Rajloks. The Svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is a
constant increase and decrease in the breadth, and the space is 239 cubic Rajlok. Apart from the
apex, which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts. The world is
surrounded by three atmospheres: dense-water, dense-wind and thin-wind. It is then surrounded
by an infinitely large non-world which is completely empty.
The whole world is said to be filled with living beings. In all three parts, there is the existence of
very small living beings called nigoda. Nigoda are of two types: nitya-nigoda and Itara-nigoda.
Nitya-nigoda are those which will reincarnate as nigoda throughout eternity, where as Itaranigoda will be reborn as other beings. The mobile region of universe (Trasnaadi) is
one Rajlok wide, one Rajlok broad and fourteen Rajloks high. Within this region, there are
animals and plants everywhere, where as Human beings are restricted to 2 continents of the
middle world. The beings inhabiting the lower world are called Narak (Hellish beings). The
Deva (roughly demi-gods) live in the whole of the top and middle worlds, and top three realms
of the lower world. Living beings are divided in fourteen classes (Jivasthana) : Fine beings with
one sense, crude beings with one sense, beings with two senses, beings with three senses, beings
with four senses, beings with five senses and no mind, and beings with five senses and a mind.
These can be under-developed or developed, a total or 14. Human beings can get any form of
existence, and are the only ones which can attain salvation.
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Three lokas
Fourteen Rajlok or Triloka. Shape of Universe as per Jain cosmology in form of a cosmic man.
Miniature from 17th century, Saṁgrahaṇīratna by Śrīcandra, in Prakrit with a Gujarati
commentary. Jain Śvetāmbara cosmological text with commentary and illustrations.
The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe. They developed a detailed
hypothesis on the various aspects of astronomy and cosmology. According to the Jain texts, the
universe is divided into 3 parts:
Urdhva Loka – the realms of the gods or heavens
Madhya Loka – the realms of the humans, animals and plants
Adho Loka – the realms of the hellish beings or the infernal regions
The following Upanga āgamas describe the Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail
1. Sūryaprajñapti – Treatise on Sun
2. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti – Treatise on the island of Roseapple tree; it contains a description
of Jambūdvī and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata
3. Candraprajñapti – Treatise on moon
Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail:
1. Trilokasāra – Essence of the three worlds (heavens, middle level, hells)
2. Trilokaprajñapti – Treatise on the three worlds
3. Trilokadipikā – Illumination of the three worlds
4. Tattvārthasūtra – Description on nature of realities
5. Kṣetrasamasa – Summary of Jain geography
6. Bruhatsamgrahni – Treatise on Jain cosmology and geography
Urdhva Loka, the upper world
Upper World (Udharva loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly
beings (demi-gods) who are non-liberated souls.
Upper World is divided into sixteen Devalokas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudish and five Anuttar
abodes. Sixteen Devaloka abodes are Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma,
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Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana
and Achyuta. Nine Graiveyak abodes are Sudarshan, Amogh, Suprabuddha, Yashodhar,
Subhadra, Suvishal, Sumanas, Saumanas and Pritikar. Nine Anudish are Aditya, Archi,
Archimalini, Vair, Vairochan, Saum, Saumrup, Ark and Sphatik. Five Anuttar are Vijaya,
Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddhi.
The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and the rest are called Kalpatit. Those
living in Kalpatit are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard
to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration,
capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the Heavenly beings residing in the higher
abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher
groups, dwelling in 9 Greveyak and 5 Anutar Viman. They are independent and dwelling in their
own vehicles. The anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups,
organized like earthly kingdoms—rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies
etc.
Above the Anutar vimans, at the apex of the universe is the realm of the liberated souls, the
perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains.
Madhya Loka, the middle world
Image depicting map of Jambudvipa as per Jain Cosmology/Early 19th-century painting depicting map of
2 1⁄2 continents/Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, Hastinapur
Madhya Loka consists of 900 yojans above and 900 yojans below earth surface. It is inhabited
by
1. Jyotishka devas (luminous gods) – 790 to 900 yojans above earth
2. Humans,[8] Tiryanch (Animals, birds, plants) on the surface
3. Vyantar devas (Intermediary gods) – 100 yojan below the ground level
Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names
are:
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Work of Art showing maps and diagrams as per Jain
Cosmography from 17th century CE Manuscript of 12th century Jain text Sankhitta
Sangheyan
Continent/ Island Ocean
Jambūdvīpa
Lavanoda (Salt – ocean)
Ghatki Khand
Kaloda (Black sea)
Puskarvardvīpa
Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean)
Varunvardvīpa
Varunoda (Varun Ocean)
Kshirvardvīpa
Kshiroda (Ocean of milk)
Ghrutvardvīpa
Ghrutoda (Butter milk ocean)
Ikshuvardvīpa
Iksuvaroda (Sugar Ocean)
Nandishwardvīpa
Nandishwaroda
Mount Meru (also Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa in form
of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans.[7] There are two sets of sun, moon and stars
revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the Mount
Meru.
Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mighty mountains, dividing the continent into 7 zones (Ksetra).
The names of these zones are:
1. Bharat Kshetra
2. Mahavideh Kshetra
3. Airavat Kshetra
4. Ramyak Kshetra
5. Hiranya vant Kshetra
6. Hemvant Kshetra
7. Hari Varsh Kshetra
The three zones i.e. Bharat Kshetra, Mahavideh Kshetra and Airavat Kshetra are also known
as Karma bhoomi because practice of austerities and liberation is possible and the
Tirthankaras preach the Jain doctrine. The other four zones, Ramyak, Hairanyvat Kshetra,
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Haimava Kshetra and Hari Kshetra are known as akarmabhoomi or bhogbhumi as humans
live a sinless life of pleasure and no religion or liberation is possible.
Nandishvara Dvipa is not the edge of cosmos, but it is beyond the reach of
humans.[8] Humans can reside only on Jambudvipa, Dhatatikhanda Dvipa, and the inner half
of Pushkara Dvipa.
Adho Loka, the lower world
17th century cloth painting depicting seven levels of Jain hell and various tortures suffered in
them. Left panel depicts the demi-god and his animal vehicle presiding over the each hell.
The lower world consists of seven hells, which are inhabited by Bhavanpati demigods and
the hellish beings. Hellish beings reside in the following hells:
1. Ratna prabha-dharma.
2. Sharkara prabha-vansha.
3. Valuka prabha-megha.
4. Pank prabha-anjana.
5. Dhum prabha-arista.
6. Tamah prabha-maghavi.
7. Mahatamah prabha-maadhavi
Division of time as envisaged by Jains-Avasarpiṇī
According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal. The Kālacakra, the cosmic wheel of
time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-rotations, Utsarpiṇī or
ascending time cycle and Avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle, occurring continuously
after each otherUtsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity and happiness where the time
spans and ages are at an increasing scale, while Avsarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow
and immorality with decline in timespans of the epochs. Each of this half time cycle
consisting of innumerable period of time (measured in sagaropama and palyopama years) is
further sub-divided into six aras or epochs of unequal periods. Currently, the time cycle is
in avasarpiṇī or descending phase with the following epochs.
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Name of the
Ara
Degree of happiness
Duration of Ara
Maximum height
of people
Maximum lifespan
of people
Suṣamasuṣamā
Utmost happiness and
no sorrow
400 trillion
sāgaropamas
Six miles tall
Three Palyopam
years
Suṣamā
Moderate happiness
and no sorrow
300 trillion
sāgaropamas
Four miles tall
Two Palyopam
Years
Suṣamaduḥṣamā
Happiness with very
little sorrow
200 trillion
sāgaropamas
Two miles tall
One Palyopam
Years
Duḥṣamasuṣamā
Happiness with little
sorrow
100 trillion
sāgaropamas
1500 meters
84 Lakh Purva
Duḥṣamā
Sorrow with very
little happiness
21,000 years
7 hatha
120 years
DuḥṣamaExtreme sorrow and
duḥṣamā
misery
21,000 years
1 hatha
20 years
In utsarpiṇī the order of the eras is reversed. Starting from duṣamā-duṣamā, it ends with suṣamā-suṣamā and
thus this never ending cycle continues. Each of these aras progress into the next phase seamlessly without any
apocalyptic consequences. The increase or decrease in the happiness, life spans and length of people and
general moral conduct of the society changes in a phased and graded manner as the time passes. No divine or
supernatural beings are credited or responsible with these spontaneous temporal changes, either in a creative or
overseeing role, rather human beings and creatures are born under the impulse of their own karmas.
Śalākāpuruṣas – The deeds of the 63 illustrious men
According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called śalākāpuruṣas, are born on this
earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara. The Jain universal history is a compilation of the
deeds of these illustrious persons. They comprise twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras,
twelve chakravartins, nine balabhadra, nine narayana, and nine pratinarayana.
A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm.[20] Though he
possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the
cosmos. Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal monarchs). They are
golden in complexion. One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata
Chakravartin. Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana state
that Indian subcontinent came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory.
There
are
nine
sets
of balabhadra, narayana,
and pratinarayana.
The balabhadra and narayana are brothers. Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes, narayana are
violent heroes, and pratinarayana the villains. According to the legends,
the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain
liberation and the last goes to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell because of their
violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness.
Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts (avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī).
According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in the
human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine appropriate for that era. The
word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which means a fordable passage across a
sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and
deaths. Rishabhanatha is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle
(avasarpiṇī).
Mahāvīra
(6th
century
BC)
is
revered
as
the
twenty
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fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī. Jain texts state that Jainism has always existed and will
always exist.
During each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or 63 illustrious
men, consisting of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear. The Jain
universal or legendary history is basically a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious men.
They are categorised as follows:
24 Tīrthaṅkaras – The 24 Tīrthaṅkaras or the supreme ford makers appear in succession
to activate the true religion and establish the community of ascetics and laymen.
12 Chakravartins – The Chakravartīs are the universal monarchs who rule over the six
continents.
9 Balabhadras who lead an ideal Jain life.e.g. Lord Rama
9 Narayana or Vasudev (heroes)
9 Prati-Naryana or Prati-Vasudev (anti-heroes) – They are anti-heroes who are
ultimately killed by the Narayana.
Balabhadra and Narayana are half brothers who jointly rule over three continents.
Besides these a few other important classes of 106 persons are recognized:9 Naradas
11 Rudras
24 Kamdevas
24 Fathers of the Tirthankaras.
24 Mothers of the Tirthankaras.
14 Kulakara (patriarchs)
Jambudweep was founded by Gyanmati Mataji in 1972 and the model of Jambudvipa was
completed in 1985. For the tirtha, Nalini Balbir reported
The main attraction of this vast campus is the Jambudvipa. By its height, this original
construction dominates all other buildings. It is meant both for education of the believers,
since it shows them the Jaina representation of the universe, and for their entertainment. One
can climb to the top by an inner staircase, or go boating around the Lavanasamudra.
— Nalini Balbir
Jambudweep depicts the model Jain cosmology has been designed here under the supervision
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of Shri Gyanmati Mataji was in 1985. The premises has various Jain temples which includes
Sumeru Parvat, Lotus Temple, Teen Murti Mandir, Meditation Temple, Badi Murti, Teen
Lok Rachna and many other tourist attractions.
Unique circular structures of Jain Geography 'Jambudweep' has been constructed with
white & coloured marble stones in the diameter of 250 ft. with 101 ft. tall Mount Sumeru
Parvat is built by light pink marble situated in the center of Jambudweep Rachna.
In the story about Jambudweep, Gyanmati Mataji had a vision in 1965 while meditating. In
the vision, she saw the entire structure of universe. Discovering later that what she had seen
perfectly matched the cosmographical details described in Jain scriptures, she decided to create a
pilgrimage site with the aim of creating a model of Jambudvipa. A "Jambudweep Trilok Sodh
Sansthan" has been established at Jambudweep, Hastinapur to raise awareness regarding the Jain
Mythology and Jain Philosophy.
The term ‘Tirthankara’ is a portmanteau which is a combination of two words as under:
1. ‘Tiratha’ which means a ‘Ford - i.e. the portion of a river or a stream which is shallow,
and thus could be used to cross over to the other side.
2. ‘kara’ which means ‘maker’.
So collectively, the word Tirtha-n-kara means the maker of a ford that helps the seekers
crossover the ocean called Samsara and reach Nibana.
Thus, Tirthhankara or the ford makers are the ones who having experienced ultimate knowledge
(Keval-Gyan), creates a path (ford) following which humanity may crossover from the ocean
called ‘samsara’.
Tirthankara’s significance can be further understood by the below salient features of the same:
1. There are just 48 of these illustrious souls per Kala-Chakra (the cyclic wheel of time),
24 each in its increasing and decreasing phase on our planet. However, it does not
mean that there are just 48 per Kala-chakra across the universe as other planets, and
other parallel universes have more of these illustrious souls. As per Jain annals, one
such soul, the living Tirthankara currently present in a parallel universe called ‘MahaVidhe-Kshetra’ is Tirthankara Simandhar Swami - Wikipedia. He is not one of the 48
Tirthankara that our planet had experienced, but still a Tirthankara equally revered by
Jains.
2. A Church gets created around a Tirthankara. Unlike prophets or masters, they do not
go around asking people to join, declaring ‘If you have ears, hear’. There is no
canvassing of their religion on their part. Seekers gets attracted to them just the way
iron gets attracted to a magnet, and thus the ‘church’ around them gets created on its
own accord. This is one of the most significant features of a Tirthankara which
distinguishes them from other masters or prophets of our planet.
3. Tirthankaras are different from other illustrious souls that experiences Keval-Gyan or
ultimate knowledge by the fact that they are the only ones around whom the church
gets ‘automatically created’. Its on account of their exceptional good karma in past
lives and is the fact that distinguishes them form other Arihanta’s or other completely
enlightened beings.
4. Tirthankara does not have any master. They do not follow the church established by
the preceding Tirthankara even if its fully established and ripe. On the contrary, the
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church of the preceding Tirthankara comes and merges itself into the church that has
been created around Him. This is also one of the most unique features of a Tirthankara.
5. Tirthankara sets His own rules. Based on the situation of the times, He adds (or
subtracts) the rules the member of the church needs to follow. When the church of
preceding Tirthankara merges into the current, they follow the rules set by the current
Tirthankara.
6. Though a Tirthankara may add (or subtract) rules of His church, the message that
resonates through Him is always the same as the previous Tirthankara.
7. Next Tirthankara is set to appear on our planet only after 84000 years from the nibana
of Jina - The Mahavira. i.e. appx 81,400 years from he date I am writing this answer.
This will be when the current kala-Chakra would have taken a complete circle and the
2nd epoch of the ne Kala-Chakra would be about to end. This next Tirthankara will be
regarded as the 1st of the set of 48 illustrious souls that will enrich our planet in times
to come.
8.
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Lotus Temple: It is a small temple in the courtyard of Jambudweep. It is a House of Worship,
popularly known as the Lotus Temple, is a Jain House of Worship and also a prominent
attraction in Hastinapur. It was completed in 1989.
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REFERENCES
1. The Key of Knowledge,Champat Rai Jain, 1928 ,THE INDIAN PRESS, LTD.
2. Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community,ANNE
VALLELY,Series: Anthropological Horizons, Published by: University of Toronto
Press, 2002 ,
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CHAPTER XII
The concept of " Jambudeep” - In General
Jambudveepe Bharatha Varshe Bharata Khande
ABSTRACT
Jambudvīpa (Sanskrit: जम्बुद्वीप) is the dvīpa ("island" or "continent") of the terrestrial world,
as envisioned in the cosmologies of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, which is the realm where
ordinary human beings live.[
The word Jambudvīpa literally refers to "the land of Jambu trees" where jambu (also known as
jamun) is the Indian Blackberry (Syzygium cumini) and dvīpa has two meanings "island" or
"continent" and "planets" situated in the ocean of outer space.
"The planets are called dvīpas. Outer space is like an ocean of air. Just as there are islands in the
watery ocean, these planets in the ocean of space are called dvīpas, or islands in outer space"
(Chaitanya Caritamrita Madhya 20.218, Purport)
ambudveepa consisted of modern Asia, Europe, Africa and North America and not merely the
Indian subcontinent. The credits for this discovery go to the great soul Lokamanya
Balagangadhar Tilak in his book-The Arctic Home in the Vedas. See also my paper on Did the
Hindu Gods Live in Scandinavia,on academia.edu
All of us would have probably heard the words, ".....Jambudveepe Bharatha Varshe Bharata
Khande....." during the sankalpa mantram which forms an integral part of all Vedic rituals. What
exactly is this "Jambudwipa"?
Jambudveepa consisted of modern Asia, Europe, Africa and North America and not merely
the Indian subcontinent. The credits for this discovery go to the great soul Lokamanya
Balagangadhar Tilak in his book-The Arctic Home in the Vedas. See also my paper on Did the
Hindu Gods Live in Scandinavia,on academia.edu
This Jambudvipa was divided into nine varshas (geographical regions) of which one was
Bharatha Varsha. The other eight varshas were:
1. Ketumula Varsha
2.Hari Varsha
3.Ilavrita Varsha
4.Kuru Varsha
5.Hiranyaka Varsha
6.Ramyaka Varsha
7.Kimpurusha Varsha
8.Bhadrasva Varsha.
India which was then called Bharathavarsha extended in the west including the regions of
modern Egypt, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Iran, Sumeria upto Caspian Sea (which was called
Kashyapa Samudra in those days). Within this Bharata Varsha was located the Bharata Khanda
which was the heart of the Vedic civilization & the place where we Indians currently reside. This
is one of the innumerous proofs that the Indo-Aryan race theory is a conspiracy theory moulded
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by western countries to show us in poor light. All of the regions so mentioned in the race theory
are a part of Bharata Varsha & there was never a so called "invasion".
What is amazing is the fact that our ancestors had an excellent overview of the geography of the
world back then.
It can be observed that in those times, most of South American continent, southern half of
African Continent and entire Australia were submerged under water. On the other hand most of
modern day Atlantic ocean and Pacific ocean, and the entire Arctic ocean were above sea
level.Two words are used in this ancient shloks Khand which means a Continent and Varshe
which could point to a nation.'
Description of Jambu-dweep: Ancient texts describe 9 divisions of Jambu-dweep with precise
locations ascribed to each of them. Also, bang in the center of this global-landmass is an
enormous mountain called Meru.
On the basis of the last TWO posts, there are at least TWO things we can definitely state:
1.
One, BhArat Varsha refers to the Indian sub-continent;
2.
Second, Mount Meru and therefore its containing continent Ilavrit Varsha, is
situated around the North pole.
To me, the descriptions of Jambudvipa seem like a Polar projection i.e. a view of the Earth as
seen from above the North Pole. We will therefore try to extrapolate the continents based on
these three reference points.
Polar Projection of the present landmass
Arrangement: Broadly, the four landmasses of Bharat, Ketumal, Bhadrashva and Kuru are
placed in the four directions, like petals of a lotus flower around the central pericarp of
Meru (and Ilavrit Varsha). Let's see how it appears diagramatically.Central Meru with lotus like
arrangement of continents.Going Southwards from Meru, we first come across Kimpurushvarsha followed by Hari-varsha and finally Bharat-varsh which is the southernmost continent. In
the North, Ramyak is the first landmass followed by Hiranyamay and Uttarkuru divisions (As a
corollary, we get Kuru Varsha on the exact opposite side of India when mapped on the globe).
Towards the East is Bhadrashva which would today lie somewhere in the Pacific Ocean and
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towards the West is Ketumal which would probably be submerged under the Atlantic Ocean of
today. The image below has been taken from Hitxp forum and maps these descriptions onto the
current World Geography.
Sub-divisions of Jambudweep: We should understand that owing to different arrangement of
continents, most of Southern America, Afric and Australia were either located very different to
their current positions OR probably submerged under water! If this theory is correct, the
reference to this Super-continent points to existence of an extremely ancient civilization that
has retained the memories of a Global-Island or at the very least had the technical know-how to
find out this pre-historic description ages before modern science! Coming back to the mystery
of Jambudvipa, most geologists claim that this is a cyclical process and in about 250 Million
Years from now, all the continents would come together to form a super-continent called
the Pangea .( see end of Chapter or paper). Just as the Jambu-dweep has split over the eons, so
has the Human species and we are today divided into innumerable tribes, religions, races and
nations. Whatever shape the landmasses take, Jambu Dweep will always mean an Island
of Jambu trees ( Syzygium fruit or Java Plum). The fruit is called as Naval Pazlam in Tamil
and nerale hannu in Kannada.
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{Image courtesy Hitxp Forum}
In Ancient times this Globe was partioned into Saptha Dweepa (7 islands) namely.
o Jambu ( Java Plum) (Asia, Eurasia)
o Plaksha ( Ficus religiosa or sacred fig ) (South America )
o Saalmalli ( Bombax ceiba, cotton tree) ( Australia )
o Kusha ( Grass) (oceania)
o Krouncha ( Africa)
o Saaka ( Europe, Atlantis)
o Pushkara ( North America, Canada)
In these Dvipas, Jambu Dveep had a importance as many of the important events like Ramayana,
Mahabharat has taken place here.
It is believed that there was a Humongous Jambu tree near Meru Parvat, the tree was
so huge, so that if a Jambu fruit drops from that tree. the juice of that fruit will flow
like a river.
As this Jambu tree was the landmark of this Island, it was called as Jambu dveepa.
Jambu dvipa is further classified into Nava Varsha:
1. Bharat Kshetra ( Present India lies here)
2. Mahavideha Kshetra
3. Airavat Kshetra
4. Ramyakwas Kshetra
5. Hariwat Kshetra
6. Hairanyvat Kshetra
7. Haimavat Kshetra
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8. Devkuru Kshetra
9. Uttarkuru Kshetra
According to Puranic cosmography cosmography, the entire Cosmos is divided into seven
concentric island continents (sapta-dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans,
each double the size of the preceding one (going out from within). The seven continents of the
Puranas are stated jambudvipa Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa,
and Pushkaradvipa. Jambudweep-The first Geographical Creation of God.
Hastinapur is the historical Pilgrimage centre, where histories of many great persons like
Tirthankars etc.are connected. The first Jain Tirthankar Lord Rishabhdev had taken the first of
his meals, that is the first Ahar of sugarcane juice here, crores of years back. After a long span of
time, three Tirthankars were born here, as Lord Shantinath-the sixteenth Tirthankar, Lord
Kunthunath-the seventeenth Tirthankar and Lord Arahnath- the eighteenth Tirthankar.
The world famous war of Mahabharat, the history of Rakshabandhan and a number of other
histori. In ancient times, terrestrial part of earth is divided into 7 dweeps. Jambudeep is one of
them which is the center of northern hemisphere. It is further divided into 9 varsha are :
kuruvarsha, ramyaka varsha, hiranyaka varsha in the north to it. Bhadrasva varsha in the east.
Ketumala varsha in West and hari varsha, kimpurusha varsha and bharata varsha to south of it.
Ila varsha is present in the center of jambudeep. Jambudeep is ruled by agnidhara who is the
eldest son of priyavrata (son of manu). Bharat varsha is one of the varsha of jambudeep is ruled
by son of agnidhara whose name is nabhi
Location: Jambudvipa is an island, 800,000 miles in breadth and length, divided into 9 Varshas
or regions. Our known Earth area is on the southern coast of Jambudvipa and is 8,000 miles in
diameter. It is one of 9 islands that make up Bharata Varsha. India is just one continent on the
circle of Sudarshana Dvipa/Bharata Khanda (the name for our Earth circle). Formerly all of our
known earth circle was called Bharata Varsha, but now it has been mainly used to denote the
According to Wikipedia, Jambudvīpa (Sanskrit: जम्बुद्वीप) is the dvipa ("island" or "continent")
of the terrestrial world, as envisioned in the cosmologies of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism,
which is the realm where ordinary human beings live.
The word Jambudvipa literally refers to "the land of Jambu trees" where Jambu is the name of
the species (also called Jambul or Indian Blackberry) and dvipa means "island" or "continent".
Kindly refer wikipedia for more clarification.
It is not India that was called Jambudweep, the whole tectonic plate of India was called Bharata
Varsha. There were 9 Varshas on Jambudweep in ancient times. It comprises far more than
present day India which is a residue of Bharatha Khanda (Bharatha’s Piece of Arya Varsha
(laws) under Bharatha Varsha, and located to the South of the Meru Mountain). The term Jambu
Dweepa comes from Shroutha Smartha Ithihasa and is a reference to what is referred to as
“Gondwana Land” by Western theorists.Literal translations are 'island of jambu trees' (Indian
Blackberry) and 'island with huge expansion'.Well, from ancient literature it seems, it was not
just about present Indian territory or Indian subcontinent alone.
Carl Sagan the famous Physicist and Author says in his book the Earth - The Blue Planet..
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Home to every Hunter and Forager,
Every Hero and Coward,
Every Creator and Destroyer,
Every King and Peasant,
Every Inventor and Explorer,
Every Mother, Father and Child,
Every teacher of Morals,
Every Corrupt politician,
Every Superstar, Saint and Sinner,
Aggregate of our Joy and Suffering,
This tiny mote of dust,
Suspended in a sunbeam,
This is Home, This is Us!
(Our Home - The Blue Planet)
Descriptions in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain texts repeatedly throw up this well-defined yet not-sowell-recognized term.
Different scholars consider it variously as either the 'Indian sub-continent' or the 'Asian
continent'. However, as we shall see, none of them come even close to the TRUTH!! Let me
share some of the important scriptural references here with you:
Markandeya Puraan describes Jambu-dvip as being depressed above and below and broad
in the middle just like a Globe.
Srimad Bhagavatam points out that on Jambu-dvipa, night prevails diametrically opposite
to a point where it is day and Sun sets at a point opposite to where it rises.
Mahabharat describes the Universe as a series of shells divided in two by an earth plane
called the Bhu-mandala; Jambu-dwip is the central landmark on this plane.
Jain and Buddhist cosmologies indicate Jambū-dweep at the centre of Madhyaloka or the
middle part of the universe, the place where Human-beings reside.
And last but perhaps the most important for our current post, various assorted texts
describe Bharat Varsha or India as just ONE of the NINE divisions of Jambu-dweep.
Jambu-dvipa in the center of Bhu-mandala & Madhyaloka
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From the above descriptions, it would be clear that this landmass DOES NOT refer to India or
even Asia.. The references in fact indicate Jambudvipa to be NOT a small portion of our planet,
but the ENTIRE Planet itself!!
Jambudvipa in Jain Cosmology
Alongwith Jambu-dweep, the scriptures describe various other Islands which some scholars tend
to confuse with the different islands of our planet and hence get flabbergasted. Sitting at the
southernmost tip of the island of Lanka right now, I can understand this is definitely NOT the
case.
The staggering dimensions of these so called 'Islands' should be indication enough to negate that
possibility completely. Moreover, these Dvipas are located around the central landmass of
Jambudvipa in a concentric fashion which suggests each of them revolving in circular orbits.
Arrangement of Dvipas in a circular fashion
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The Dvipas refer to the different planetary systems of the Madhya Loka that are inhabited
by Humans and is perhaps the FIRST reference in World literature to Humanoid
races inhabiting MORE than ONE planet!! This interpretation seems to me most likely,
especially if the planets being talked about exist in Parallel dimensions.
Markandeya Puraan describes Jambu-dvip- as being depressed above and below and broad
in the middle just like a Globe.
Srimad Bhagavatam points out that on Jambu-dvipa, night prevails diametrically opposite
to a point where it is day and Sun sets at a point opposite to where it rises.
Mahabharat describes the Universe as a series of shells divided in two by an earth plane
called the Bhu-mandala; Jambu-dwip- is the central landmark on this plane.
Jain and Buddhist cos- mologies indicate Jambū-dweep at the centre of Madhyaloka or the
middle part of the universe, the place where Human-beings reside. Le
Because there is a general belief that this country was named "Bharatavarsha" in the name of
Bharata, the great son of King Dushyant and his wife Shakuntala in a Mahabharata Kuru
dynasty. But at the same time our Purana presents something different. Scientific theorey
believes that in ancient times, the terrain was divided into territories, that is, continents.But who
and why and when these seven continents were created No one ever said anything about it.
Or I can say in other words that the direction of research related to this was deliberately changed.
But our "" Jambudeep Naam "" in itself tells the whole story which means the whole island.
That is perhaps the explaination as to why our ancient religious texts and various incarnations
mention only "Jambudweep" because at that time there was only one island. At the same time,
our Vayu Purana presents before us the whole thing related to it and its evidence.
According to the Vayu Purana, about 22 million years ago, in the beginning of the Treta Yuga,
the grandson of Swayambhuva Manu and son of Priyabrata settled this Bharata Khanda.Since
Maharaj Priyabrata had no son, he adopted his daughter's son Agnindhra, whose boy was
Navel.The son born to Meru Devi, a wife of Navel, was named Rishabh and, the son of this same
Rishabh was Bharata and after this Bharata, this country was named "Bharatavarsha".At that
time, King Priyabrata appointed seven of the ten sons of his daughter as separate kings of the
seven continents of the whole earth.The meaning of the king was taken from the religion at
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thattime, and the founder of the just state.In this way King Priyavrat made Agnindhra the ruler of
the island of Jambu.After this, King Bharat gave his kingdom to his son and, it is called
"Bharatvarsha".Keep in mind that Bharatvarsha means the territory of King Bharata and the
name of the son of these king Bharata was Sumati
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Vayu Purana says about this topicSaptadwipikrantrantam Jambudeepam Nibodhat.
Agnidhran Jyeshthadayam Kanyaputram Mahabalam.
Priyavrato Abhyasinchantam Jambudvipeshwaram Nrupam.
Tasya son Bbhavvurhi PrajapatiSamaujas:.
Jyeshto Nabhriti Khyatastasya Kimpurushoanuj:
Nāvehi Sargān Vakshyāmī Himāhvā Tannibodhat. (Air 31-37, 38)
These words of resolution are worth noting because, in them, Jambudweep is used for presentday Eurasia.This Jambu island is located in the Bharat Khand i.e. the region of Bharat i.e.
Bharathavarsha which is called Aryavrata.With the small mantra of this resolution, we explain
the glorious history of our glorious past.But now a big question arises that when the truth is like
this then why is the name of this country associated with Shakuntala and Dushyant's son
Bharata?
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Instead of saying more in this regard, it would be appropriate to say that adding the case of the
origin of the name of this country to Shakuntala, Bharat, son of Dushyanta, may be the result of
similarity of names or, we Hindus in our religious texts This may have happened due to
indifference. The creation of the universe, that one billion 96 crore eight lakh fifty three thousand
one hundred thirteenth years are going on.
This verse of Vayu Purana is mentioned about our country Himalayan Dakshinam Bharata Nyaydayayat. Tasmattadbharatam year Tasya Namna
Bidurbudha:.
Here our Vayu Purana is clearly saying that the year of the south from Mountains of Himalayas
means that India is India.That is why we should have no hesitation in saying that by combining
the origin of the name of our country with Shakuntala and Dushyant's son Bharata, we have tried
to cover our history in the span of five thousand years from the point of view of Western
historians.
Jambudweep - the Global Island: On several occasions in the Puranas or Holy Hindu texts,
entire landmass of Jambu-dvipa is described as a continuous stretch of land subdivided into
different continents by means of various mountain ranges with each of these divisions
being governed by the 9 sons of Emperor Agnidhra, the grandson of Adam/Manu.
This, however, is clearly NOT the current state of affairs! The present landmasses on Earth are
quite spread out and no where are they close to forming a global island. Besides, instead of
Mountain ranges, it is the water bodies that separate them from each other.
Even preliminary research on this topic shows, that there indeed was a time in the history of our
planet when the ENTIRE land on Earth was joined to form a SINGLE landmass! In
Geology, such an entity is called a Super-continent and quite suitably, the Scientists have labeled
it as Pangea.( Shown below)
Super-continent Pangea
Could it be, that the scriptural reference of Jambudweep, actually originated in a time when
the Entire Earth was ONE whole Continent and not broken up into different landmasses!?!
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The descriptions in scriptures clearly define an island of gigantic proportions covering this entire
globe and it is more than likely that they refer to one of the super-continents that have existed in
our pre-history! See panagea end of the Paper.
Jambudvipa as a Super-continent : It is a scientifically documented fact
that Earth's Crust floats on the hot, molten layer called Magma. The solid crust not only moves
on top of the fluid layer but is also broken into separate pieces called Plates that move relative to
each other. This movement is referred to as Plate-tectonics.
The Tectonic Plates
Plate-tectonics can be used to explain the formation of many geological features on our planet
right from the highest mountain ranges of Himalayas (which came up when the Indian plate
collided with the Eurasian plate to the deepest ocean formations like the Marina trench.
Scientists have observed that the different plates are in motion with respect to each other, and
plotting their course in the past, they have realized that at some point of time, these plates were
all stuck giving rise to our Super-continents!!
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Observe changing positions with focus on the Indian plate
The presence of these super-continents has also been proved using Fossil studies which shows a
remarkable similarity amongst the distribution of wild-life in the southern continents.
Fossil co-relation found in Present Continent: The movement of these Plates has resulted in
formation and disintegration of Super-continents in the 4.5 Billion year old history of our Planet
The earliest known super-continent on our planet was formed 3.1 Billion Years Ago (!) and is
called the Vaalbara. Since its break-up, a series of global islands have taken shape and
disintegrated and the most important of these have been Kenorland, Columbia, Rodinia and the most recent one, the Pangaea.
Arrangement of current continents in past Super-continents- see pic below. Now, which of
these is the Earth-Island of our texts, would have to be ascertained through deeper study of the
scriptures, (or maybe even Time-Travel!!). For our current purpose, it should be sufficient to
understand that Jambudweep refers to one of these Global Islands, perhaps like the Pangea
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Current locations of Kaapvaal and Pilbara cratons
Vaalbara was an Archean supercontinent consisting of the Kaapvaal Craton (now in eastern
South Africa) and the Pilbara Craton (now in north-western Western Australia). E. S. Cheney
derived the name from the last four letters of each craton's name. The two cratons consist of crust
dating from 2.7 to 3.6 Gya, which would make Vaalbara one of Earth's earliest
supercontinents.[1]
There has been some debate as to when and even if Vaalbara existed.
An Archaean-Palaeoproterozoic (2.8–2.1 Gya) link between South Africa and Western Australia
was first proposed by A. Button in 1976. He found a wide range of similarities between the
Transvaal Basin in South Africa and the Hamersley Basin in Australia. Button, however, placed
Madagascar between Africa and Australia and concluded that Gondwana must have had a long
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stable tectonic history. Similarly, in the reconstruction of Rogers 1993, 1996 the oldest continent
is Ur. In Rogers' reconstructions, however, Kaapvaal and Pilbara are placed far apart already in
their Gondwana configuration, a reconstruction contradicted by later orogenic events and
incompatible with the Vaalbara hypothesis.
Cheney 1996, nevertheless, found a three-fold stratigraphic similarity and proposed that the two
cratons once formed a continent which he named Vaalbara. This model is supported by the
palaeomagnetic data of Zegers, de Wit & White 1998.[4] Reconstructions of the palaeolatitudes
of the two cratons at 2.78–2.77 Ga are ambiguous however. In the reconstruction of Wingate
1998 they fail to overlap, but they do in more recent reconstructions, for example Strik et al.
2003.
Other scientists dispute the existence of Vaalbara and explain similarities between the two
cratons as the product of global processes. They point to, for example, thick volcanic deposits on
other cratons such as Amazonia, São Francisco, and Karnataka. Zimgarn, another proposed
supercraton composed of the Zimbabwe and Yilgarn cratons at 2.41 Ga, is distinct from
Vaalbara. Zimgarn should have disintegrated around 2.1–2.0 Ga to reassemble as the Kalahari
and West Australian (Yilgarn and Pilbara) cratons around 1.95–1.8 Ga.
The Archaean-Palaeoproterozoic Grunehogna Craton in Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica,
formed the eastern part of the Kalahari Craton for at least a billion years. Grunehogna collided
with the rest of East Antarctica during the Mesoproterozoic assembly of the supercontinent
Rodinia and the Grenville orogeny. The Neoproterozoic Pan-African orogeny and the assembly
of Gondwana/Pannotia produced large shear zones between Grunehogna and Kalahari. During
the Jurassic break-up of Gondwana these shear zones finally separated Grunehogna and the rest
of Antarctica from Africa.[8] In the Annandags Peaks, the only exposed parts of Grunehogna,
detrital zircons from several crustal sources have been dated to 3.9–3.0 Ga suggesting
intracrustal recycling was an important part in the formation of the first cratons
The Kaapvaal craton is marked by dramatic events such as the intrusion of the Bushveld
Complex (2.045 Ga) and the Vredefort impact event (2.025 Ga), and no traces of these events
have been found in the Pilbara craton, clearly indicating that the two cratons were separated
before 2.05 Ga. Furthermore, geochronological and palaeomagnetic evidence show that the two
cratons had a rotational 30° latitudinal separation in the time period of 2.78–2.77 Ga, which
indicates they were no longer joined after c. 2.8 billion years ago.[11]
Vaalbara thus remained stable for 1–0.4 Ga and hence had a life span similar to that of later
supercontinents such as Gondwana and Rodinia. Some palaeomagnetic reconstructions suggest a
Palaeoarchaean Proto-Vaalbara is possible, although the existence of this 3.6–3.2 Ga continent
can't be unequivocally proven.
Evidence for Vaalbara
South Africa's Kaapvaal craton and Western Australia's Pilbara craton have similar early
Precambrian cover sequences. Kaapvaal's Barberton granite-greenstone terrane and Pilbara's
eastern block show evidence of four large meteorite impacts between 3.2 and 3.5 billion years
ago. (Similar greenstone belts are now found at the margins of the Superior craton of Canada.)
The high temperatures created by the impact's force fused sediments into small glassy spherules.
Spherules of 3.5 billion years old exist in South Africa and spherules of a similar age have been
found in Western Australia, they are the oldest-known terrestrial impact products. The spherules
resemble the glassy chondrules (rounded granules) in carbonaceous chondrites, which are found
in carbon-rich meteorites and lunar soils
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Remarkably similar lithostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic structural sequences between these
two cratons have been noted for the period between 3.5 and 2.7 billion years ago.[18]
Paleomagnetic data from two ultramafic complexes in the cratons showed that at 3,870 million
years the two cratons could have been part of the same supercontinent. Both the Pilbara and
Kaapvaal cratons show extensional faults which were active about 3,470 million years ago
during felsic volcanism and coeval with the impact layers.
Origin of life
The Pilbara and Kaapvaal cratons are some of the oldest rocks in the world and they contain
well-preserved Archaean microfossils. A series of international drilling projects has revealed
traces of microbial life and photosynthesis from the Archaean in both Africa and Australia. The
oldest widely accepted evidence of photosynthesis by early life forms is molecular fossils found
in 2.7 Ga-old shales in the Pilbara Craton. These fossils have been interpreted as traces of
eukaryotes and cyanobacteria, though some scientists argue that these biomarkers must have
entered these rocks later and date the fossils to 2.15–1.68 Ga. This later time span agrees with
estimates based on molecular clocks which dates the eukaryote last common ancestor at 1866–
1679 Ma. If the Pilbara fossils are traces of early eukaryotes, they could represent groups that
went extinct before modern groups emerged.
The Cosmic Turtle: It is interesting to note, that Hindu texts talk about the Earth (land) being
situated on the back of a Turtle which, to me, seems an allegorical representation of the slowly
sliding Earth plates, earth plate on the back of a Cosmic Turtle
Tortoise-like slow movement of Earth's Plates
Animation showing the slow movement of Earth plates
Shatapatha Brahman identifies Earth as the lower shell, the atmosphere as the body and the vault
of heaven as the upper shell of this Cosmic Turtle. Also, the serpent around the world is similar
to the one in Norse mythology that binds Midgard or middle-earth together. Similar concepts
can also be found in Chinese, as well as Native American mythology. In fact
the Mayan, Incan and Navajo descriptions of the Earth closely mirror the descriptions of Jambudvip from ancient Indian texts!
Numerous other scriptures also give matching descriptions which, due to lack of correct
understanding, were ridiculed by early European Historians. There's nothing ridiculous about the
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descriptions from ancient scriptures; we only need the right INSIGHT to decipher their profound
meaning! This might be a reflection of beliefs passed on by oral tradition remembering the
common origins of mankind or perhaps the wisdom passed on by Gods.
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Jambu-dvipa Map according to Native American and Indian textsand Harm
Pangaea
The supercontinent Pangaea in the early Mesozoic (at 200 Ma)
Pangaea or Pangea- supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic
eras. It assembled from earlier continental units approximately 335 million years ago, and it
began to break apart about 175 million years ago. In contrast to the present Earth and its
distribution of continental mass, Pangaea was centred on the Equator and surrounded by the
superocean Panthalassa. Pangaea is the most recent supercontinent to have existed and the first to
be reconstructed by geologists.
Origin of the concept
Alfred
Wegener c. 1924–1930/Appalachian orogeny/ World map of Pangaea created by Alfred Wegener according to his imagination
at that time
The name "Pangaea/Pangea" is derived from Ancient Greek pan (πᾶν, "all, entire, whole") and
Gaia (Γαῖα, "Mother Earth, land"). The concept that the continents once formed a contiguous
land mass was first proposed by Alfred Wegener, the originator of the scientific theory of
continental drift, in his 1912 publication The Origin of Continents (Die Entstehung der
Kontinente).[11] He expanded upon his hypothesis in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and
Oceans (Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane), in which he postulated that, before
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breaking up and drifting to their present locations, all the continents had formed a single
supercontinent that he called the "Urkontinent".
The name "Pangea" occurs in the 1920 edition of Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane,
but only once, when Wegener refers to the ancient supercontinent as "the Pangaea of the
Carboniferous" Wegener used the Germanized form "Pangäa", but the name entered German and
English scientific literature (in 1922 and 1926, respectively) in the Latinized form "Pangaea" (of
the Greek "Pangaia"), especially due to a symposium of the American Association of Petroleum
Geologists in November 1926.
Formation
The forming of supercontinents and their breaking up appears to have been cyclical through
Earth's history. There may have been several others before Pangaea. The fourth-last
supercontinent, called Columbia or Nuna, appears to have assembled in the period 2.0–1.8
Ga.[15][16] Columbia/Nuna broke up and the next supercontinent, Rodinia, formed from the
accretion and assembly of its fragments. Rodinia lasted from about 1.1 billion years ago (Ga)
until about 750 million years ago, but its exact configuration and geodynamic history are not
nearly as well understood as those of the later supercontinents, Pannotia and Pangaea.
When Rodinia broke up, it split into three pieces: the supercontinent of Proto-Laurasia, the
supercontinent of Proto-Gondwana, and the smaller Congo craton. Proto-Laurasia and ProtoGondwana were separated by the Proto-Tethys Ocean. Next Proto-Laurasia itself split apart to
form the continents of Laurentia, Siberia, and Baltica. Baltica moved to the east of Laurentia,
and Siberia moved northeast of Laurentia. The splitting also created two new oceans, the Iapetus
Ocean and Paleoasian Ocean. Most of the above masses coalesced again to form the relatively
short-lived supercontinent of Pannotia. This supercontinent included large amounts of land near
the poles and, near the equator, only a relatively small strip connecting the polar masses.
Pannotia lasted until 540 Ma, near the beginning of the Cambrian period and then broke up,
giving rise to the continents of Laurentia, Baltica, and the southern supercontinent of Gondwana.
In the Cambrian period, the continent of Laurentia, which would later become North America,
sat on the equator, with three bordering oceans: the Panthalassic Ocean to the north and west, the
Iapetus Ocean to the south, and the Khanty Ocean to the east. In the Earliest Ordovician, around
480 Ma, the microcontinent of Avalonia – a landmass incorporating fragments of what would
become eastern Newfoundland, the southern British Isles, and parts of Belgium, northern France,
Nova Scotia, New England, South Iberia, and northwest Africa – broke free from Gondwana and
began its journey to Laurentia. Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of
the Ordovician to form a minor supercontinent called Euramerica or Laurussia, closing the
Iapetus Ocean. The collision also resulted in the formation of the northern Appalachians. Siberia
sat near Euramerica, with the Khanty Ocean between the two continents. While all this was
happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the
formation of Pangaea.
The second step in the formation of Pangaea was the collision of Gondwana with Euramerica. By
the Silurian, 440 Ma, Baltica had already collided with Laurentia, forming Euramerica. Avalonia
had not yet collided with Laurentia, but as Avalonia inched towards Laurentia, the seaway
between them, a remnant of the Iapetus Ocean, was slowly shrinking. Meanwhile, southern
Europe broke off from Gondwana and began to move towards Euramerica across the newly
formed Rheic Ocean. It collided with southern Baltica in the Devonian, though this
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microcontinent was an underwater plate. The Iapetus Ocean's sister ocean, the Khanty Ocean,
shrank as an island arc from Siberia collided with eastern Baltica (now part of Euramerica).
Behind this island arc was a new ocean, the Ural Ocean.
By the late Silurian, North and South China split from Gondwana and started to head northward,
shrinking the Proto-Tethys Ocean in their path and opening the new Paleo-Tethys Ocean to their
south. In the Devonian Period, Gondwana itself headed towards Euramerica, causing the Rheic
Ocean to shrink. In the Early Carboniferous, northwest Africa had touched the southeastern coast
of Euramerica, creating the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, the Meseta
Mountains, and the Mauritanide Mountains. South America moved northward to southern
Euramerica, while the eastern portion of Gondwana (India, Antarctica, and Australia) headed
toward the South Pole from the equator. North and South China were on independent continents.
The Kazakhstania microcontinent had collided with Siberia. (Siberia had been a separate
continent for millions of years since the deformation of the supercontinent Pannotia in the
Middle Carboniferous.)
Western Kazakhstania collided with Baltica in the Late Carboniferous, closing the Ural Ocean
between them and the western Proto-Tethys in them (Uralian orogeny), causing the formation of
not only the Ural Mountains but also the supercontinent of Laurasia. This was the last step of the
formation of Pangaea. Meanwhile, South America had collided with southern Laurentia, closing
the Rheic Ocean and forming the southernmost part of the Appalachians and Ouachita
Mountains. By this time, Gondwana was positioned near the South Pole, and glaciers were
forming in Antarctica, India, Australia, southern Africa, and South America. The North China
block collided with Siberia by the Late Carboniferous, completely closing the Proto-Tethys
Ocean.
By the Early Permian, the Cimmerian plate split from Gondwana and headed towards Laurasia,
thus closing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, but forming a new ocean, the Tethys Ocean, in its southern
end. Most of the landmasses were all in one. By the Triassic Period, Pangaea rotated a little, and
the Cimmerian plate was still travelling across the shrinking Paleo-Tethys until the Middle
Jurassic. The Paleo-Tethys had closed from west to east, creating the Cimmerian Orogeny.
Pangaea, which looked like a C, with the new Tethys Ocean inside the C, had rifted by the
Middle Jurassic, and its deformation is explained below.
Evidence of existence
Fossil evidence for Pangaea includes the presence of similar and identical species on continents
that are now great distances apart. For example, fossils of the therapsid Lystrosaurus have been
found in South Africa, India and Antarctica, alongside members of the Glossopteris flora, whose
distribution would have ranged from the polar circle to the equator if the continents had been in
their present position; similarly, the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus has been found in only
localized regions of the coasts of Brazil and West Africa.
Additional evidence for Pangaea is found in the geology of adjacent continents, including
matching geological trends between the eastern coast of South America and the western coast of
Africa. The polar ice cap of the Carboniferous Period covered the southern end of Pangaea.
Glacial deposits, specifically till, of the same age and structure are found on many separate
continents that would have been together in the continent of Pangaea.
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Paleomagnetic study of apparent polar wandering paths also support the theory of a
supercontinent. Geologists can determine the movement of continental plates by examining the
orientation of magnetic minerals in rocks; when rocks are formed, they take on the magnetic
properties of the Earth and indicate in which direction the poles lie relative to the rock. Since the
magnetic poles drift about the rotational pole with a period of only a few thousand years,
measurements from numerous lavas spanning several thousand years are averaged to give an
apparent mean polar position. Samples of sedimentary rock and intrusive igneous rock have
magnetic orientations that are typically an average of the "secular variation" in the orientation of
magnetic north because their remanent magnetizations are not acquired instantaneously.
Magnetic differences between sample groups whose age varies by millions of years is due to a
combination of true polar wander and the drifting of continents. The true polar wander
component is identical for all samples, and can be removed, leaving geologists with the portion
of this motion that shows continental drift and can be used to help reconstruct earlier continental
positions.
The continuity of mountain chains provides further evidence for Pangaea. One example of this is
the Appalachian Mountains chain, which extends from the southeastern United States to the
Caledonides of Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia.
Rifting and break-up
The distribution of fossils across the continents is one line of evidence pointing to the existence
of Pangaea./Animation of the rifting of Pangaea
There have been three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first phase began in the
Early-Middle Jurassic (about 175 Ma), when Pangaea began to rift from the Tethys Ocean in the
east to the Pacific in the west. The rifting that took place between North America and Africa
produced multiple failed rifts. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.
The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the north-central Atlantic. The
South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous when Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and
moved northward with North America to the north, and Eurasia to the south. The clockwise
motion of Laurasia led much later to the closing of the Tethys Ocean and the widening of the
"Sinus Borealis", which later became the Arctic Ocean. Meanwhile, on the other side of Africa
and along the adjacent margins of east Africa, Antarctica and Madagascar, new rifts were
forming that would lead to the formation of the southwestern Indian Ocean that would open up in
the Cretaceous.
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The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Early Cretaceous (150–
140 Ma), when the minor supercontinent of Gondwana separated into multiple continents
(Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia). The subduction at Tethyan Trench
probably caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward, causing the opening of a "South
Indian Ocean". In the Early Cretaceous, Atlantica, today's South America and Africa, finally
separated from eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia). Then in the Middle
Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America
started to move westward away from Africa. The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly;
rather, it rifted from south to north.
Also, at the same time, Madagascar and India began to separate from Antarctica and moved
northward, opening up the Indian Ocean. Madagascar and India separated from each other 100–
90 Ma in the Late Cretaceous. India continued to move northward toward Eurasia at 15
centimeters (6 in) a year (a plate tectonic record), closing the eastern Tethys Ocean, while
Madagascar stopped and became locked to the African Plate. New Zealand, New Caledonia and
the rest of Zealandia began to separate from Australia, moving eastward toward the Pacific and
opening the Coral Sea and Tasman Sea.
The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic
(Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America/Greenland (also called Laurentia)
broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 Ma. The Atlantic and Indian
Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.
Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved quickly northward, just as India had done
more than 40 million years before. Australia is currently on a collision course with eastern Asia.
Both Australia and India are currently moving northeast at 5–6 centimeters (2–3 in) a year.
Antarctica has been near or at the South Pole since the formation of Pangaea about 280 Ma. India
started to collide with Asia beginning about 35 Ma, forming the Himalayan orogeny, and also
finally closing the Tethys Seaway; this collision continues today. The African Plate started to
change directions, from west to northwest toward Europe, and South America began to move in
a northward direction, separating it from Antarctica and allowing complete oceanic circulation
around Antarctica for the first time. This motion, together with decreasing atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentrations, caused a rapid cooling of Antarctica and allowed glaciers to form. This
glaciation eventually coalesced into the kilometers-thick ice sheets seen today.[23] Other major
events took place during the Cenozoic, including the opening of the Gulf of California, the uplift
of the Alps, and the opening of the Sea of Japan. The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the
Red Sea Rift and East African Rift.
Tectonic plate shift
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The breakup of Pangaea over time/An early Mesozoic ammonite from Pangaea
Pangaea's formation is now commonly explained in terms of plate tectonics. The involvement of
plate tectonics in Pangaea's separation helps to show how it did not separate all at once, but at
different times, in sequences. Additionally, after these separations, it has also been discovered
that the separated land masses may have also continued to break apart multiple times. The
formation of each environment and climate on Pangaea is due to plate tectonics, and thus, it is as
a result of these shifts and changes different climatic pressures were placed on the life on
Pangaea. Although plate tectonics was paramount in the formation of later land masses, it was
also essential in the placement, climate, environments, habitats, and overall structure of Pangaea.
What can also be observed in relation to tectonic plates and Pangaea, is the formations to such
plates. Mountains and valleys form due to tectonic collisions as well as earthquakes and chasms.
Consequentially, this shaped Pangaea and animal adaptations. Furthermore, plate tectonics can
contribute to volcanic activity,[25] which is responsible for extinctions and adaptations that have
evidently affected life over time, and without doubt on Pangaea.
Life
For the approximately 160 million years Pangaea existed, many species did well, whereas others
struggled. The Traversodonts were an example of such successful animals. Plants dependent on
spore reproduction were largely replaced by the gymnosperms, which reproduce through the use
of seeds. Later on, insects (including beetles and cicadas) also thrived, during the Permian period
299 to 252 million years ago. However, the Permian extinction at 252 Mya greatly impacted
these insects in mass extinction, being the only mass extinction to affect insects. When the
Triassic Period came, many reptiles were able to also thrive, including Archosaurs, which were
an ancestor to modern-day crocodiles and birds.
Little is known about marine life during the existence of Pangaea owing to the lack of substantial
evidence, e.g. fossilized remains. However, a few marine animals have been identified - the
Ammonites and Brachiopods. Additionally, evidence pointing towards massive reefs with varied
ecosystems, especially in the species of sponges and coral, have also been discovered.
Climate change after Pangaea
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The reconfiguration of continents and oceans after the breakup of Pangea changed the world's
climate. There is scientific evidence that this change was drastic. When the continents separated
and reformed themselves, it changed the flow of the oceanic currents and winds. The scientific
reasoning behind all of the changes is Continental Drift. The theory of Continental Drift, created
by Alfred Wegener, explained how the continents shifted Earth's surface and how that affected
many aspects such as climate, rock formations found on different continents and plant and
animal fossils.[29] Wegener studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic of Svalbard, Norway. He
determined that such plants were not adapted to a glacial climate. The fossils he found were from
tropical plants that were adapted to thrive in warmer and tropical climates.[30] Because he would
not assume that the plant fossils were capable of traveling to a different place, he suspected that
Svalbard had had a warmer, less frigid climate in the past.
When Pangaea separated, the reorganization of the continents changed the function of the oceans
and seaways. The restructuring of the continents, changed and altered the distribution of warmth
and coolness of the oceans. When North America and South America connected, it stopped
equatorial currents from passing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.[32] Researchers
have found evidence by using computer hydrological models to show that this strengthened the
Gulf Stream by diverting more warm currents towards Europe. Warm waters at high latitudes led
to an increased evaporation and eventually atmospheric moisture. Increased evaporation and
atmospheric moisture resulted in increased precipitation. Evidence of increased precipitation is
the development of snow and ice that covers Greenland, which led to an accumulation of the
icecap. Greenland's growing ice cap led to further global cooling. Scientists also found evidence
of global cooling through the separation of Australia and Antarctica and the formation of the
Antarctic Ocean. Ocean currents in the newly formed Antarctic or Southern Ocean created a
circumpolar current. The creation of the new ocean that caused a circumpolar current eventually
led to atmospheric currents that rotated from west to east. Atmospheric and oceanic currents
stopped the transfer of warm, tropical air and water to the higher latitudes. As a result of the
warm air and currents moving northward, Antarctica cooled down so much that it became frigid.
Although many of Alfred Wegener's theories and conclusions were valid, scientists are
constantly coming up with new innovative ideas or reasoning behind why certain things happen.
Wegener's theory of Continental Drift was later replaced by the theory of tectonic plates.
Implications of extinction
There is evidence to suggest that the deterioration of northern Pangaea contributed to the
Permian Extinction, one of Earth's five major mass extinction events, which resulted in the loss
of over 90% of marine and 70% of terrestrial species. There were three main sources of
environmental deterioration that are believed to have had a hand in the extinction event.
The first of these sources is a loss of oxygen concentration in the ocean, which caused deep
water regions called the lysocline to grow shallower. With the lysocline shrinking, there were
fewer places for calcite to dissolve in the ocean, considering calcite only dissolves at deep ocean
depths. This led to the extinction of carbonate producers such as brachiopods and corals that
relied on dissolved calcite to survive. The second source is the eruption of the Siberian Traps, a
large volcanic event that is argued to be the result of Pangaean tectonic movement.[34] This had
several negative repercussions on the environment, including metal loading and excess
atmospheric carbon. Metal loading, the release of toxic metals from volcanic eruptions into the
environment, led to acid rain and general stress on the environment. These toxic metals are
known to infringe on vascular plants’ ability to photosynthesize, which may have resulted in the
loss of Permian period flora. Excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is believed to be the main
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cause of the shrinking of lysocline areas.The third cause of this extinction event that can be
attributed to northern Pangaea is the beginnings of anoxic ocean environments, or oceans with
very low oxygen concentrations. The mix of anoxic oceans and ocean acidification due to metal
loading led to increasingly acidic oceans, which ultimately led to the extinction of benthic
species.
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PART IV
Mandala Miscellaneous
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C H A P T E R XIII
Spiritual signification of Lotus flower in Chakras and
Kundalini
In Yoga Sastras, Kundalini is the energy which resides in Mooladhara (Root) Chakra, in the form of
elephant which is sleeping with its trunk folded.This is where Ganesha resides in our body. When a yogi
manages to awaken kundalini, it travels up the spine through other chakras and reaches Sahasrara(crown
chakra).Lotus represents the highest level of consciousness, where enlightenment and purity dwels. In the
postures of hatha yoga, padmasana (the lotus position) is assumed by those determined to reach for the
highest level of consciousness, where crown chakra is activated and Lotus petals of that chakra open up.
Sahasrara chakra, the last in the Path of Activation of Spiritual Energy (Kundalini yoga) is also
called Sahasradal (1000 petaled Lotus).Just 20 out of 1000 petals, when activated in a human body, made
a man into Swami Vivekananda.Sapta Rishis like Vasishta have activated 100 petals out of 1000.
Spiritual experience arising from the lotus, that is from the energy of creation is called Brahma.
The lotus in Lord Vishnu’s hand symbolises that he can endow the highest spiritual experience from the
Path of Yoga.Vishnu offering 1000 lotus flowers to Lord Siva indicates that he crossed 1000 levels of
himself spiritually.
Hindu temple is not the abode of God but the form of God and since it was strictly suggested to be the
microcosm of cosmos, all Hindu temples have the common basic characteristics along with some unique
features. These unique features of Hindu temples, exhibited fractal properties and complex form, act as
the signature of Hindu art and architecture. Modern architecture lacks fractalness and complexity, and
carries the ‘‘simple and brute forms.’’ There has been a ‘paradigm shift’ in the contemporary architecture
where ‘‘fractals, wave forms and the structure of the cosmos is being resonated with the new buildings
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which indicates the replication of Hindu temples but in a different way. Hindu temples evidence the deep
relationship between the fractal geometry and the deepest truth, which is being rediscovered in the
contemporary architecture. Thus, the ‘past’ present in the future and ‘future’ contained in the ‘past’.
However, temple architecture was not strongly influenced by the modern architecture and continues its
strong and strict guidelines of design by reflecting traditional fractal properties. Perhaps, Lotus temple
(1986) in Delhi for the Baha’i communities is an exception that sheds a new light of the possibility of
using the fractal geometry wrapped by modern form, of course by achieving its religious, philosophical
and functional requirements. After coining the term ‘fractal’ and setting up some mathematical formulas,
now it has a great possibility to experiment about the refining of conventional temple-form or searching
for new form of complexity related with Hindu cosmology with the consideration of ritual guides. The
decline of using the fractal geometry in modern architecture became soon eradicated by the strong
affection towards the chaos and complexity in contemporary architecture. For searching the new,
complex, fractal and chaotic forms in the contemporary architecture, on the one hand, manual
experiments of architectural elements with the fractal geometry are extensively practiced. On the other
hand, by adopting the theories of folds, fractals, chaos, complexity and algorithms, ‘computer
architecture’ has been developed that translates the theories into the architecture [13]. 22 Accordingly, the
fractal geometry not only analyzes 1
Site 2
The appropriate site for a temple, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus
and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of
injury or harm. These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such
are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.
The gods always play where lakes are,
where the sun’s rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters,
and where clear waterpaths are made by swans
whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither,
where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard,
and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks.
The gods always play where rivers have for their braclets
the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech,
water as their garment, carps for their zone,
the flowering trees on their banks as earrings,
the confluence of rivers as their hips,
raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle.
The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure
gardens.
— Brhat Samhita 1.60.4-8, 6th Century AD
The Infinite Lotus
The Lotus is ubiquitous in the iconography and literature of India. Exploring the diverse contexts in
which it is used throws light on its very deep significance and convergence of meaning.
The Cosmic Wheel
These terms translate to “one who adores the lotus, one who holds the lotus in her hands, one with lotus
eyes, one who has the beauty of the lotus, one who is born from the lotus, one with the lotus face, one
who is beloved of the lotus-navelled one (Padmanābha or Vishṇu), one who wears a garland of lotuses,
one who is symbolic of the lotus, one who has the fragrance of the lotus”. This conveys not only the
immense delight of the poet in visualizing the goddess but also a remarkable conception of infinity.
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To understand this, we need to isolate the term “Padmōdbhavām” (the one who is born from the lotus). If
Lakshmi is born from the lotus, how is the same Lakshmi holding the lotus in her hands? This cannot be
reconciled until we realize that this image is a fractal, endlessly expanding with each reference to the
lotus. Central to this conception is the term Padmanābhapriyām, which invokes the dual image of
Lakshmi with Vishnu, both symbolized with the lotus. Vishṇu is termed Śrinivāsa or Lakshmī-nivāsa, i.e,
as the one who resides in Lakshmi. In turn, Lakshmi is referred to as Vishṇu-vaksha-sthala-sthitā, i.e as
the one who sits on the chest region of Vishṇu. The word Padmanābha itself has two meanings, as
explained by Ādi Shankarāchārya in his Bhāshya (commentary) on the Vishnu Sahasranāma :
sarva jagatkāraṇam padmam nābhau yasya saḥ
the one in whose navel is the lotus which is the origin of the universe
padmasya nābhau madhyē karṇikāyām sthitaḥ
the one who resides at the center of the navel, or the seed pod, of the lotus.
As invoked in the image of Ananta Padmanābha in the temple at Tiruvanathapuram, these two meanings
of Padmanābha encode the germination of Vishṇu and the lotus from each other, which
is Ananta (unending).
[The lotus ceiling of the Jain temple in Ranakpur. The lotus at the centre of the wheel depicts the infinite
potential of consciousness.]
Most people have a rather simple understanding of infinity, imagining it as a very big number, bigger than
anything one can think of. Jains termed this notion as asamkhyāta and called it still finite, and contrasted
it with the infinite termed as ananta. For a large part of human history, a thousand was such a number and
used as a practical placeholder to denote infinity. The Romans did not even have a symbol or word to
denote numbers higher than a thousand. The modern mathematical symbol for infinity, known as
the leminscate (∞ = CIƆ or CƆ) is a stylistic rendering of thousand in Roman numerals. Indeed, in a
similar manner, the word Sahasra (thousand) was also used in India. The Purusha Sūkta conveys the
infinite scope of the cosmic Purusha with the terms Sahasrāksha and Sahasrapāt (possessing a thousand
eyes and a thousand limbs). This understanding is elaborated by terms such as Padmāksha (possessing
lotus eyes), Padmahasta (possessing lotus hands) and Charaṇapadma (lotus feet). Why did the lotus
become the symbol of choice in India for infinity?
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[Adisēsha as Ouroboros: The snake is shown to support the turtle (Kūrma) who is nothing but Vishṇu,
who in turn supports the four elephants of the four directions, who in turn support the earth, at
the centre of which is the Mēru mountain, which represents a person’s consciousness.]
Indeed, Indians used many symbols to denote infinity: an endless knot (that appears in many variants
from Indus-Sarasvati civilization to the Rangavallikas that grace Indian homes today), an endless tree that
produces itself (Kalpavṛksha, Yddgrasil), an endless snake that supports the universe, sometimes depicted
as biting its own tail (Ādiśēsha, Jörmurgrandr, Ouroboros). Some of these symbols travelled across into
other cultures. The loop here pictorially represents a recurrence relation e.g, f(n) = f(n)+1, a definition
that endlessly betters itself, and thus apt for describing infinity. But not all loops are identical.
Differentiating between these loops is a computational problem, which is first recognized by the genius of
Pāṇini’s rules for Sanskrit grammar. In a most compact manner, these rules encode the infinite variations
of language. Similar to how any object placed in between two mirrors creates endless copies of itself, the
rules of Pāṇini reflect a given word into potentially endless variations.
The loop is also used as a narrative device in the Itihāsa literature of India. The epic Mahābhārata is
purportedly written by Vyāsa, who also plays a seminal role in the story, which endlessly repeats itself in
recursive story-telling that is embedded within. The Vishṇu Sahasranāma nods to this narrative device by
not only embedding itself inside the Mahābhārata (narrated by Bhīshma to Yudishṭara in the Mahābhārata
war), but also explicitly calling Vyāsa as Vishṇu-rūpāya (possessing the form of Vishṇu)
and Vishṇu as Vyāsa-rūpāya (vice-versa).
But despite these various mythical images, it is the lotus that is the symbol of choice for representing the
infinite. One of the earliest and most beautiful images is from the chant of Mantra Pushpam in Yajurvēda.
“Yōpām pushpam vēdā, pushpavān prajāvān pashuvān bhavati
Chandramāvā apām pushpam, pushpavān prajāvān pashuvān bhavati
Ya ēvam vēdā, Yōpām āyatanam vēdā, āyatanavān bhavati”
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The one who knows the lotus of water, will be the possessor of lotuses, progeny and cattle wealth. Moon
is the lotus of water. The one who knows this will be the possessor of lotuses, progeny and cattle. The one
who knows this, the one who knows the source of water, will get established in his inner self.
The word ‘Pushpa’ refers to a flower in Sanskrit, but if it is not additionally qualified, it generally refers
to the lotus. In the above verse, even this ambiguity is removed by terming it ‘Āpām pushpam’, the flower
of water. So what exactly is this lotus? And what exactly is the source of water?
This verse continues with a series of fractal-like images: Fire (Agni) is the source of the water, and water
is the source of fire. Wind (Vāyu) is the source of water, and water is the source of wind. Scorching sun
(Asauvai Tapaḥ) is the source of water, and water is the source of the scorching sun. Successively, it lists
the moon (Chandrama), the stars (Nakshatrāni), the cloud (Parjanya) and the year (Samvatsara) as the
source of water and water as their source. If one imagines these different elements at different corners of a
circle and water (Āpa) at the center, this verse creates several loops to different corners, ultimately
sketching a lotus. It is an infinity that covers all directions.
The Generative Lotus:
This conception of infinity is most elegantly expressed in the Īśāvāsya Upanishad, which uses the
term Pūrṇa (completeness).
Ōm pūrṇamadaḥ, pūrṇamidam, pūrṇāt pūrṇamudachyatē
Pūrṇasya pūrṇamādāya pūrṇamēva vasishyatē
Pūrṇa is over there. Pūrṇa is over here. From Pūrṇa is Pūrṇa is born. When Pūrṇa is subtracted
from Pūrṇa, only Pūrṇa remains. The first Pūrṇa refers to Prakṛti and the second Pūrṇa refers
to Puruṣa of the Sāmkhya philosophical system. Thereby, this verse encodes a deep Advaitic statement
that equates both Prakṛti and Purusha to the infinite Pūrṇa, without denying their difference.
This ideal of Pūrṇa (completeness) is the motivation behind building a comprehensive model of reality,
that is attempted by the Vyākaraṇa (grammatical) tradition of India. Pāṇini’s Ashṭādhyāyi arose in this
tradition and referred to many earlier grammars. But it is the most elegant treatise of generative grammar
for Sanskrit, and remains so for any language even today. Until recently, such generative grammars were
altogether absent in any other world culture, but they now form the basis for understanding not only
natural languages, but also computer languages. In Artificial intelligence, learning generative models
(such as generative adversarial networks) is at the cutting edge of research, although current algorithms
are not yet able to learn generative models so compact as Pāṇini’s grammar from data alone.
The Indian tradition values Sattva (wholesomeness and harmony) and is thus naturally driven to build a
comprehensive model of reality, and to identify epitomes across all variations and possibilities. Muscles
in the human body suffer atrophy if they don’t exercise the full range of movements. To compensate for
this, Yōgic Āsana postures span the diverse poses of human limbs. Similarly, the Sanskrit alphabet
consciously spans all the possibilities of vocal utterances. The hand Mudras in Indian dance span the
diverse poses of fingers. Indian cuisine spans all the Shaṭ Ruchis (six tastes). Āyurvēda attempts to restore
a balance between the 3 Dōshas, in all the possible physical and emotional states. Each of these systems is
understood as a lotus that blooms with petals in all directions.
When we talk of infinity as ‘completeness’, we mean something that encloses all other infinities, with
nothing beyond it. This raises a peculiar problem that is unique to Indian religions, which is about
unseemly things, how can they be part of the infinite?
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The Lakshmi Ashṭothram is addressed to “Aditim ca Ditim” (to the limitless one, as well as the limited
one), to “Prakṛtim Vikṛtim” (to the natural one, to the abnormal and unnatural one), to
“Prasannavadanām Karuṇām” (to the pleasant faced one and the compassionate one) as well as
“Kāmākshīm Krōdhasambhavām” (to the ones whose eyes are desire, and to the one who produces anger
caused by desire). It is in encapsulating these contradictory and unflattering terms that the lotus shines the
most as a symbol for infinity.
Perhaps, the most beautiful enunciation is given by Kālidāsa in the epic poem Kumārasambhava, where
he describes Pārvati performing austerities to meditate on Shiva.
Yathā prasddhair maduram śirōrūhair jaṭābhir apyēvam abhūt tadānanam
Na śaṭpadaśrēṇibhir ēva pañkajam saśaivalāsañgam api prakāśatē
Despite her hair hanging in dreadlocks, the face of Pārvati dazzled in beauty, just as the beauty of a lotus
derives as much from its beautiful petals as it does from the mud on which it stands.
This idealism is not merely romantic, but derives from a wholesome understanding of infinity, not shy of
the unseemly aspects of existence, but which still places beauty at the core of it. To understand this, we
need to prod the Kavi Hṛdaya (poet’s heart) of Kālidāsa, who uses the lotus as a metaphor for the beauty
of Sat, Chit and Ānanda across the three levels of reality: Bhūḥ, Bhuvaḥ and Suvaḥ.
The Lotus Heart:
In Ṛtusamhāra (interplay of seasons), Kālidāsa describes the Śarad Ṛtu (early autumnal season) with
many references to the lotus. After the monsoon rains subside, the skies are cleared off the clouds, but the
rivers overflow with excess water forming shallow puddles on the banks. The poet describes the sight as
follows.
Kāraṇḍavānanavighaṭṭitavīcimālāḥ
Kādambasārasacayākulatīradeśāḥ |
Kurvanti haṁsavirutaiḥ parito janasya
Prītim saroruharajo'ruṇitās taṭinyaḥ ||
The river banks pecked by the beaks of partridges, the shore lands which are dense with flocks of geese
and saurus cranes, the shallow waters deep red in color by the pollen of red lotuses – all of these delight
the hearts of people in autumn.
This is a sight that is unfortunately lost in time. The shorelines are no longer red with the pollen of
lotuses. Indeed, it is exceedingly hard in today’s India to find lotuses growing wild in natural water
bodies. Neither are the large flocks of migratory birds to be seen everywhere. But those were the sights of
Indian civilization. Even before the time of Kālidāsa, we may imagine the broad Saraswati river decked
with lotuses and water birds. These natural images gave birth to the mythical images of Saraswati, as well
as to the lofty ideals of Brahmāvarta. When people share a sight of beauty, they naturally share a part of
their consciousness in each other. Just as the rhythm of the heart draws blood from all organs of the body,
beauty is imagined by drawing experience from everyone.
Indian philosophers understood the heart to be the solution to the puzzle of aesthetic experience. How can
an artist convey an aesthetic experience to another person? How is it even possible that two people, in two
different bodies and with two different life experiences, share a common emotion? It is not possible
unless they are Sahṛdaya, or literally joint-hearted. Only a Sahṛdaya would understand the nuances of art,
music, or any cultural expression. Culture is essentially a tool for making people walk in step and
perceiving reality together. When this becomes entwined with Ṛta - the natural flow of seasons, there will
be no enmity between man and nature, or between man and man. The festivals of India are a means to
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celebrate the cosmic wheel of Ṛta, and realize the beauty which is the Hṛt-padma (lotus-heart) at the
centre of it.
When man is enamored of beauty, he calls it by many names. This is reflected in the many names for
lotus in Sanskrit literature. Born of water (āpa, vāri, nīra, uda, tōya, jala, saras), it is called abja, vārija,
nīraja, udaja, tōyaja, jalaja, sarōja, sarasija, sārasa, sarūdbhava and so on. As it is born in mud (pañka),
lotus is called pañkaja. As it grows (rōhanti) in water, it is called sarōrūha, nīrarūha or ambōrūha. There
are many other names for lotus including pushkara, aravinda, rājīva, kamala and pundarīka. The lotus
which only blooms at sunrise is called padma. Black lotus is called utpala and the blue variant is
called nīlōtpala. In describing the autumn season (most beloved of Saraswati), Kālidāsa uses the vast
palette of Sanskrit language: the beauty of a woman’s face is outdone by the white lotus, the sidelong
glances of her eyes by the swaying blue lotuses, and the heart-appeasing glow of her smile by the red
lotus. These are kavi-samaya i.e, a reality woven by the poet. If we are sahṛdaya and invoke this kavisamaya, we may perceive a beauty that is greater than either physical reality or the language it is
described in.
The Petals of Eight Directions:
Indian conception of Bhuvaḥ (heavens) is exactly identical to the reality of the mind, with the
same dēvas (deities) residing in the stars and in the mind. The Atharva Vēda says that both men and
the dēvas are placed as spokes to the wheel (of Ṛta), at the center of which the lotus (Pushpa) is placed.
The Maitri Upanishad says that this Hṛt-pushkara (lotus of the heart) is the same as Ākāśa (space): the
four quarters and four inter-quarters are its surrounding petals. These eight cardinal directions are
protected by the eight deities known as Ashṭa-Dikpālas, who comprehensively describe the reality of the
mind.
[The 8 cardinal directions have distinct meanings with respect to how a person faces them, which are
represented by deities. The deities of opposite polarities, like Agni and Vāyu, are invoked together to
realize the infinity of Pūrṇa.]
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The east-west axis is about conscious perception vs. rigid categories. In the east, the sun rises and
destroys the darkness (timira) with his rays of the dawn (ushas). In the west, the sunset opens up the night
sky, which enables one to observe the cosmic order in terms of the motion of stars and planets. This
contrast is brought out by the deities Indra and Varuṇa, who are invoked in the Vēdas to preside over
deeds in peace-time and pacts in war-time respectively. Daylight signifies consciousness when people are
aware of each other. Night-time signifies periods when this mutual awareness is non-existent, during
which people’s behavior needs to be governed according to a regimen of laws and moral
code. Varuṇa symbolizes an adherence to written law – the power of language. His weapon is the noose,
representing the power of words to capture a living concept, just as a noose captures a Paśu (animal). But
language is chaotic. Like how water flows (sarati), the meanings of words change with respect to their
context in space and time. Indra symbolizes conscious perception of reality using the 5 senses, that is
independent of this, and rooted in the current moment alone. His weapon is the Vajra (lightning) that
strikes
like
a
flash
of
insight. Varuṇa and Indra are
considered
epitomes
for Asuras and Dēvas respectively. Many hymns in the Vēdas jointly invoke Indra-Varuṇa (or MitraVaruṇa) to combine these two aspects of opposite polarities, in an attempt to capture the Pūrṇa aspect of
consciousness.
The north-south axis is about growth in time. The geography of India is situated in earth’s northern
hemisphere, where south-facing vegetation receives greater sunlight and thus greater growth. In Indian
philosophy, this growth is Karma or the entropy of one’s actions. In contrast, when one is faced
northwards, it signifies renunciation and a desire for Sattva (negative entropy). This positive meaning is
reflected in the journey of the sun in the northern direction (Uttarāyana) when the days get longer, starting
from the winter solstice. Sattva leads to sukha (holistic pleasure) which is the true wealth of this world.
This heaven of wealth is presided by Kubēra (also called Vaiśrāvaṇa) and his attendant deities
of Yakshas. In contrast, Karma is judged by Yama whether it is in accordance with Dharma (ethics), who
rules over the world of Pitṛs (fathers). When one’s karma becomes too large, it leads to the chaos of
entropy. The trash-bin (a storehouse of entropy) is considered a symbol of Yama. The Indian tradition
tries to strike a balance between the world of Dēvas and Pitṛs, between the polarities
of Nivṛtti and Pravṛtti – i.e, renouncing the world and engaging with the world.
The intermediate quarters are understood by interpolation of the qualities. The north-west is presided
by Vāyu (wind), who is as fickle as the flow of language but who does not stick to material objects. The
south-east is presided by Agni (fire), who burns things with his entropy, but who is rooted in the
conscious experience of light. The speech of Vēdas is supposed to be Agni, and it is nourished by the
breath of Vāyu. Rig Vēda states that Agni was born in the Pushkara (lotus), invoking the deeper
symbolism of lotus for Pūrṇa.
tvāmagne púṣkarād ádhy átharvā níramanthata (Rig Veda 6.16.13)
“Agni, Atharvan brought thee forth, by rubbing the lotus flower (Pushkara)”
The south-west quarter represents the most disagreeable aspect of existence. It combines the chaos of
entropy with the strict adherence to rigid conceptual categories in language. It is presided
by Nirṛti (rākshasi or demoness) who utterly destroys happiness. Nirṛti is represented as Dhūmavati (a
form of Kāli) in Tantric symbolism. In contrast, the north-east is presided by Īśāna (pure consciousness
devoid of bias from either language or karma – a form of Śiva). The union of these most severe polarities
is represented by the symbolism of Śakti and Śiva.
The deities of the eight directions comprehensively depict the diverse facets of mind. The eight petals
constitute the lotus, which spawns from the navel of Vishṇu, who represents the downward direction.
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Seated on top of the lotus is Brahma, who represents the upward direction. The equanimity of the middle
is described by the Mahādēva Śiva, in whom all the diverse polarities unite.
A finer division of mental states is possible by further interpolating between the eight petals. But all the
petals belong to the same lotus, which is Chitta. In Indian languages, chittam means paying attention –
paying attention to all aspects of one’s mind when attending to something. This consummate awareness
requires one to integrate the polarities of mind. This can happen in two manners that are beautifully
illustrated by the analogy of the lotus. When the sun shines, the lotus opens the petals in full bloom. At
night time when the moon rises, the lotus closes its petals together. While the lotus represents Prakṛti, the
sun and the moon describe the action of Purusha as Vishnu and Śiva respectively.
In Kumarasambhava, Kālidāsa describes the beauty of Pārvati as follows:
Chandram gatā padmāguṇān na bhuñktē padmāśritā chāndramasīm abhikhyām
Umāmukham tu pratipadya lōlā dvisamśrayām prītim avāpa lakshmīh
Lakshmi, who is the queen of beauty, is never stable (lōlā/chapalā). When the moon rises, she does not
possess the beauty of the lotus. When she is located in the lotus, she does not possess the beauty of
moonlight. But when she is located on the face of Umā (Pārvati), she possesses them both.
These are mystical truths stated as charming poetry. Kālidāsa excels himself in another verse where he
describes how Lakshmi holds an umbrella over the newly wed couple of Śiva and Pārvati.
Patrāntalagnair jalabindujālair ākṛṣṭamuktāphalajālaśōbham
Tyōr uparya āyatanāladarāḍam ādhatta lakshmīḥ kamalātapatram
Holding the green lotus reed as the staff, Lakshmi spreads the petals of the lotus as an umbrella over the
newly weds. A network of dew droplets on these petals glistens to the wonderful view below. This
network of dew droplets is the Indrajāla (Indra’s net) – an allegory to how reality is maintained by
multiple reflections into each other.
The Lotus of Deeper Reality
Chakra kē bichmē kambala ali phūliyā
Tāsukā koi santa jānai?
Tā madha adhara simhāsana gājai,
Puruṣa mahā tāha adhika virājai.
This verse of Kabīr says,
“At the centre of the wheel blooms a wonderful lotus. Is there any person pure enough in mind to know
its delights? In its middle, thunders the mighty lion’s throne, on which dazzles the great ineffable self
(Purusha).”
Hindu deities and myths are not simply ideas to be thought in the mind, but are rather rare experiences
that can be achieved by Sādhana (Yōgic practice). Like the proverbial whale, which is mistaken to be an
island by a sailor until it moves, the physical reality is misunderstood and misconceived by the mind until
a deeper revelation dawns by direct experience. It may not be possible to express this deeper reality using
the words and images of language, but an incomplete (nevertheless honest) projection may be made. The
mystics of India expressed this as the great lotus that is cosmic (viśwa) as well as minute and personal
(sūkshma). Just as one needs to be Sahṛdaya to appreciate the analogy of the lotus
in Bhūḥ and Bhuvaḥ (physical and mental universes), one needs to be Sahṛadaya in Suvaḥ (experienced
in one’s own self) to appreciate this image.
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In the Yōgic treatise of Ṣaṭ-chakra-nirūpaṇa, Kunḍalinī is mentioned to be like the fine strands of lotus
fibre that are coiled in the Mūlādhāra chakra below one’s spine. Like how the fibres of the lotus stem
draw waters from the mud below and transmit them to the flower above, Kundalinī is supposed to flow in
the Sushumna nerves in the spine and transmit the experience of Parā (ineffable self) to the brain. This
experience is described as the powerful uncoiling of a snake that may raise only partially, without
reaching the full potential. Various spots on the spinal cord and the brain, corresponding to different
endocrine glands, are described as Chakrās that bloom as lotuses as Kunḍalini flows upwards. But if the
attention is not centered on the self, the centrifugal force of the Chakra (wheel) would throw it off at that
stage. At certain higher states, a certain sensation in the ears should also be experienced (according to the
term kunḍala or ear-rings of Kunḍalinī / Aditi, which are also present for her children - the solar
deities Ādityās). The highest chakra is described as Sahsrāra Padma, lotus of thousand (or infinite)
petals. Reaching this state is considered the only possible means by which Infinity can be understood (and
realized) in human experience.
These Yōgic practices and experiences are depicted in ancient art, such as the Paśupati seal of MohenjoDāro (and on the Gundestrup Cauldron) as well as painted in allegories in the stories of
Vēdās, Purāṇas and Itihāsas of India. Kālidāsa describes the Veerāsana posture in Kumārasambhava as
follows:
Paryañkabandhasthirapūrvakāyam rṛjvāyatam saṃnamitōbhayāmsaṃ
Uttānapāriṇdvayasaṃnivēśāt praphullarājīvam ivāñkamadhyē
With his two legs bound in the Paryañka posture, his spine upright with a slight bend on the top, his
hands at the centre of the lap with the fingers in Mudra, Ṡiva in meditation resembled as if a lotus (rājīva)
is placed on his lap.
The different religious systems (Dharma) of India understand that the Yōgic experience described by
them is similar, expounding similar meditative practices and using a similar iconography of the lotus.
Buddhists chant “Ōm maṇi padmē hum” (the jewel at the center of the lotus). Like Brahma, Buddha is
seated on the lotus. Sikhs describe the Gurumukhi lotus that faces upwards to reach bliss and contrast it
with Manmukhi lotus that faces downwards to reach sensual pleasures. Jains use lotus iconography in
their temples as much as other sects of India. The use of a water tank as Pushkariṇi (literally, the one with
lotuses) for ceremonial purposes is a tradition that goes back to the Indus-Saraswati civilization. The
grand meeting of Yōgis of diverse sects happens at the Pushkar (lotus) festival by a river. It is to this
union of Yōgis that Kabīr made his inquiry, “Is there any saint who knows the delights of the lotus?”. As
stated by scholars such as Ānanda Coomaraswamy, this iconography derives from its earliest references
in the Vēdas. This lotus blooms on a perennial river.
REFERENCE
1. Md Rian I, et al. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya
Mahadev temple, Khajuraho. Building and Environment (2007),
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028 http://d-lab.kr/prof/2007_02.pdf
2. Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3
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CHAPTER XII
LOTUS AS SYMBOLISM
The Sri Chakra, frequently called the Sri Yantra, represents the goddess in her form of Shri Lalitha
or Tripura Sundari
Table of symbols
Hindu Gods, Deities, Mythological Figures and Their Associated Symbols
God or
deity
Associated symbols
Note
Adi
parashakti
Chariot of seven lions, Sri Chakra
Supreme Deity of Hindu mythology
Brahma
Lotus, swan (hamsa), Vedas, garland of
beads (akshamala)
Creator god
Vishnu
Shesha, shankha, chakra, gada, lotus, Ga
Preserver of creation
ruda, color blue
Shiva
Shiva Linga, Nandi, third
eye, trishula (trident), crescentoon, rudraksha, cobra, drum, tiger skin,
vibhuti
Saraswati
Goddess Sa
raswati depi White lotus, swan, peacock, veena,
cted
color white
playing the
veena
Destroyer, symbol of asceticism and
renunciation
Goddess of learning, music and art
Lakshmi
Red lotus, elephant, shower of
gold, kumbha, owl, peacock feather
Goddess of wealth and prosperity
Consort of Vishnu
Parvati
Lion, Nandi, trident, chakra, gada,
Goddess of courage, fertility, power, complete
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padam, couch, cross bow, khadag
incarnation of Supreme deity, Adi parashakti
Consort of Shiva
Indra
Thunderbolt (vajra), rainbow, clouds
God of War, rains, fertility and the night-time
sky
King of the heavens
Varuna
Noose (pasha)
God of duty and contracts
King of the waters
Yama
Noose (pasha), danda (rod), buffalo
God of justice and death
King of the dead
Surya
Chariot, sun-rays, the colour of gold
The Sun-God
Father of Yama
Kali
Garland of severed human
Symbol of Sanskrit alphabet, destroyer of evil
heads, scimitar, khanda, khapar, khadag,
Guardian of desert wastes, Goddess beyond time
trident
Rama
Bow and arrow, the colour blue, royal
panoply
Symbol of righteousness and good governance
Avatar of Vishnu
Krishna
The colour blue, cow, flute, Sudarshana
Chakra, milk, peacock feather
Protector of cattle
Avatar of Vishnu
Propounder of the Bhagavad Gita
Ganesha
Aṅkuśa, mouse, modak, Aum
God of foresight, wisdom and good fortune
Son of Parvati and Shiva
Murugan
Peacock, vel, rooster flag
God of war and commander-in-chief of the gods
Guardian of hills
Son of Siva and Parvati
Hanuman
gada
Symbol of devotion (bhakti) and strength
Devotee of Rama
Over the millennia of its development Hinduism has adopted several iconic symbols, forming part
of Hindu iconography, that are imbued with spiritual meaning based on either the scriptures or cultural
traditions. The exact significance accorded to any of the icons varies with region, period and
denomination of the followers. Over time some of the symbols, for instance the Swastika has come to
have wider association while others like Aum are recognized as unique representations of Hinduism.
Other aspects of Hindu iconography are covered by the terms murti, for icons and mudra for gestures and
positions of the hands and body.
Hindu sacraments are physical pieces of that help objects or markings that are considered sacred and
used as a sign of devotion by the followers of Sanathana dharma (Hinduism). These are often objects
associated with a puja (prayer) or religious ceremony.Goddess Durga and a pantheon of other gods and
goddesses being worshipped during Durga Puja Festival in Kolkata.
Tilaka
The tilaka (or tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead or other parts of the body as a sign of spiritual
devotion. Hindus may wear a tilaka regularly or especially on religious occasions. The shape of
the tilaka is often an indicator of devotion to a certain deity. For example, a 'U' shape tilaka usually
denotes devotion to Vishnu, while Shiva devotees often wear it in the form of three horizontal lines. It
may be made of saffron, vermilion, turmeric, clay or simply ash.
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To denote marriage and auspiciousness, married Hindu women commonly wear a decorative vermilion
dot or bindu, or bindī on the forehead. This is analogous to a wedding ring worn in western countries. In
southern India, the mark is called pottu (or bottu). The exact shape, size and location of the bindi or pottu
shows regional variation; for instance, in northern India the bindi is often worn just below the hairline,
while in southern India it is more common to wear it between the eyebrows. In east India, especially
in West Bengal, traditionally larger bindis are worn as mark of devotion towards Goddess Durga.
Vibhuti
Vibhuti is the holy ash obtained from sacred puja rites involving fire. Also a variant called Basma used as
Vibhuti is prepared from the purified ashes of cow dung. Ash as the product of fire is considered
intrinsically pure. It is used on the forehead, normally as three horizontal lines representing Shiva. Some
Hindus meld both the three horizontal vibhuti lines of Shiva and the 'U' shape thilaka of Vishnu in an
amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva). In addition, sacred ash signifies that the body's
origin is from dust and ash and to dust and ash it shall return. The ash is a marker of impermanence.
Everything in the interim is but an illusion (maya).
Vibhuti, when applied to the forehead, also symbolizes the willingness to destroy negative thoughts and
qualities (jealousy, envy, anger, greed, etc.), as these negative qualities, if not destroyed, will bring all
kinds of pains in life.
Rudraksha
Rudraksha mala
Rudraksha are seeds of the rudraksha tree that, in Hinduism, represent the tears of Lord Shiva (also
known as, Rudra). They are often threaded into a necklace and used as a rosary to accompany prayer and
meditation.
Universal Symbols: Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are a quintessential part of its
culture, and are most representative of its general ethos:
Om (pronounced Aum)
Om (ॐ) is the sacred sound symbol that represents Universe; the ultimate reality (Brahman). It is
prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Vedic mantras and prayers. Aum is often said to represent God in
the three aspects of Brahman (A), Vishnu (U) and Shiva (M). As the Divine primordial vibration, it
represents the one ultimate reality , underlying and encompassing all of nature and all of existence. The
written syllable ॐ called omkara serves as a deeply significant and distinctly recognizable symbol for
Hindu dharma. The pronunciation of Aum moves through all possible human linguistic vowel sounds and
is different from the pronunciation of Om. Both are often symbolically equated, although they
are sonically distinct
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Swastika
Swastika is a symbol connoting general auspiciousness. It may represent purity of soul, truth, and stability
or, alternatively, Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but
primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. Its use in Hinduism
dates back to ancient times.
Sri Chakra Yantra
Sri Chakra Yantra of Tripura Sundari (commonly referred to as Sri Yantra) is a mandala formed by nine
interlocking triangles. Four of these triangles are oriented upright, representing Shiva or the Masculine.
Five of these triangles are inverted triangles representing Shakti, or the Feminine. Together, the nine
triangles form a web symbolic of the entire cosmos, a womb symbolic of creation, and together
express Advaita Vedanta or non-duality. All other yantras are derivatives of this supreme yantra.
Om (Aum)
Swastik (Swastika)
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Sri Chakra Yantra
Symbols associated with deities: Several symbols (animals, flora, instruments, weapons, or
even color) in Hindu iconography are associated with particular devas, and vice versa. In certain
cases
the
deities
themselves
are
personifications
of
natural
forces,
for
instance Agni (fire), Vayu (wind), Surya (Sun) and Prithvi (Earth). In other instances, the
associations arise from specific incidents or characteristics related in Hindu theology. The
iconography serve to identify the particular deity in their pictorial or sculptural representations.
The symbolism also often links the deities with a particular natural or human attribute, or
profession.
It is important to understand the symbolism, in order to appreciate the allegorical references in
not only Hindu scriptures (for instance, Puranic tales), but also in both ancient and modern
secular works of authors from the Indian subcontinent. The art and science of designing temples
includes the study of sculpture and the ornamentation of religious significance as described
in sacred texts (shilpa shaastra aagamas). In Ancient India twelve years of theoretical and
practical training used to be given to the student by an able experienced teacher.
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Shiva Lingam
The Shiva Lingam represents the divine being Shiva, and is used as a symbol of the power of
fertility and strength. Shivalinga (Sivalinga) is the most important and a popular symbolic
representation of Lord Shiva (Siva) in Hinduism. It represents God Himself in His all the three
aspects – Creator, Sustainer or Protector and Destroyer (Dissolutor).
Meaning
The word ‘Shivalinga’ is a combination of the words ‘Shiva’ (auspiciousness) and linga (sign or
symbol). Thus ‘Shivalinga’ is a representation of God in His all-auspicious aspect. Again ‘Shiva’
also means ‘One in Whom all creation sleeps after dissolution’. ‘Linga’ also means the place of
dissolution of the disintegrated universe.[2] The Shiva linga represents the supreme creator, the
cause behind the creation, protection, and destruction of everything visible and invisible and the
god shiva.
Types
Based on the mobility of the object of worship, Shivalingas are broadly divided into two
categories – ‘Cala’ and ‘Acala’
1. Cala Shivalingas
These are made of stone, crystal, metals, clay, rice, dough, etc. These can be moved from one
place to another.
2. Acala Shivalingas
The sacred texts describe many types of shiva linga based on variations in the proportions. The
following is the description of sarvatobhadra shiva lingam preferably constructed in black
spotless hard stone which can be worshiped by every living being. These Shivlingas are installed
in temples and are fixed to ground or a base. They are usually made of stones or metals. The
sacred texts suggest that the shiva linga must have three parts. A bottom most 1/3rd part that is in
the earth - Brahma bhaagam (represents Brahma, the Creator of the World) it is rectangular in
cross section. A middle 1/3rd part is called Vishnu Bhaagam or Vishnu Bhaga (it represents
Vishnu, the Protector and sustainer of the world ); it is octagonal in cross section. Both the
Brahma bhaagam and Vishnu Bhaagam are embedded in peetham (the ornamental pedestal). A
visible 1/3rd Shiva Pooja bhaagam or Pooja bhaga( also known as Rudra bhaagam or Rudra
bhaga) which is top most part which is worshiped. It is circular in cross section and cylindrical in
shape. It represents Rudra (Shiva), the Dissoluter or Destroyer of the World. It is known as Pooja
bhaagam because this part is worshipped Brahmasutras: These are certain essential lines present
on the Rudra bhaagam (Rudra bhaga). Without them a Shivlinga is unfit to be worshipped. The
Shiva linga is at the level of ground and easily accessible to the worshipers irrespective of their
caste, social or economic status.
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Veena
The musical instrument Veena is associated with the Hindu goddess Saraswati and the
sage Narada. It represents arts and learning.
Conch
A Hindu pundit (priest) blowing the conch during puja.
The conch shell is a major Hindu article of prayer, used as a trumpeting announcement of all
sorts. The God of Preservation, Vishnu, is said to hold a special conch, Panchajanya, that
represents life as it has come out of life-giving waters. In the story of Dhruva the divine conch
plays a special part. The warriors of ancient India would blow conch shells to announce battle,
such as is famously represented in the beginning of the war of Kurukshetra in the Mahabharata, a
famous Hindu epic. The conch shell is also a deep part of Hindu symbolic and religious tradition.
Today most Hindus use the conch as a part of their religious practices, blowing it during worship
at specific points, accompanied by ceremonial bells. Shankha also symbolizes the sound that
created the universe and stands for knowledge.
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Chakra
The Chakra or disc-like weapon of Vishnu is often found mounted on the top
of Vaishnava temples or incorporated into architectural designs. Images depicting Vishnu's fourarmed Narayana form almost always include the Chakra in one of his hands. It is a general
symbol for protection. Chakra is also known to symbolize the need to follow dharma and to
condemn adharma.
Multiple heads and arms
In Indian dance, the idea of multiple arms is often shown by several dancers standing behind
each other with their arms in different positions.
An array of Hindu, Buddhist, and some Jain deities are often depicted with multiple heads, arms,
and other body parts, creating what one author refers to as a "multiplicity convention" in
religious
iconography.[6] Such
multiple
body
parts
represent
the
divine omnipresence and immanence (ability to be in many places at once and
simultaneously. The specific meanings attributed to the multiple body parts of an image are
symbolic, not literal in context.
Vāhana
Vāhana or vehicle, sometimes called a mount, is an animal or mythical entity closely associated
with a particular deity in Hindu theology. Sometimes the deity is iconographically depicted
riding and/or mounted on the vahana; other times, the vahana is depicted at the deity's side or
symbolically represented as a divine attribute.
Vishnu
Vishnu is the Protector-God. Of the three gods of the Hindu Triad, Vishnu, being the Preserver,
appears most human. The Rig Vedic Vishnu is conceived as the sun in three stages - rising,
zenith and setting. The Vedic Vishnu strides through the heavens in three steps. This is Vishnu's
great deed and constitutes his great glory. With these three steps Vishnu, a solar deity, courses
through the three divisions of the universe, "the god being manifest in a threefold form, as Agni
on earth, Indra or Vayu in the atmosphere and Surya in the sky". He is said to have taken these
three steps for the preservation and benefit of mortals. The zenith is appropriately called Vishnu's
place. His third step cannot be seen with human eyes. It is here that Indra dwells.
The Secret Meaning of the Lotus Flower
Lotus and Water Associations:
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Nothing is more spiritual than the lotus—it experiences immaculate conception every single day.
Whether bat, bee, bear or berry, it’s important to consider environment when mining symbolic
meaning. The lotus is also known as the water lily. That means these blooming beauties thrive in
water. So what’s so significant about that? Plenty. Water is symbolic. It’s such an overlooked
element, but it has powerful influence on our minds, souls and bodies. Water is a symbol of the
fluid goodness in our life. Stuff like emotions, intuition and dreams.By association, lotus flower
meanings will hold the same import. In other words, lotus is symbolic of the ephemeral realms of
dreamy-dreams, and feely-feelings. Lotus can offer great progress in developing our
intuition too. If you’re intent on developing your psychic prowess, consider incorporating lotus
in your practices. Next time you sit to meditate, consider a bright white lotus gently gracing the
surface of a still pond. This will invoke feelings of purity. It will be a cleansing meditation.
Think on it, water is all about being clean. Without it, we’d all be stinky trolls. Don’t be a troll.
Invoke the power of water and the lotus to get your intuition and energy squeaky clean. A
prominent figure in Buddhist and Egyptian culture, and native flower for both India and
Vietnam, the lotus holds enormous symbolic weight. It spans various thousand-year-old Eastern
cultures and yet, is still considered one of the most sacred flowers today. So what is it about this
mysterious blossom that people find so enrapturing? Its colorful bloom is an obvious suspect, but
the lotus also has a life cycle unlike any other. With its roots based in mud, it submerges every
night into murky river water, and—undeterred by its dirty environment—it miraculously reblooms the next morning without residue on its petals.
Although cultures have their own interpretations of this daily process, there is a general
consensus among ancient texts that it symbolizes spiritual enlightenment and rebirth. The lotus
stunned people with its ability to dip into the grime and revive itself unscathed—an incredible
daily cycle of life, death, and a sudden immaculate rebirth that can only be described as spiritual.
It is no wonder the lotus is associated with such celestial symbolism—the flower simply defies
logic.
The lotus represented something unearthly and enlightening for Eastern cultures, which is why
the flower is often seen alongside divine figures. In Buddhist and Egyptian culture, the flower
represented the universe. In Hindu culture, it is said that gods and goddesses sat on lotus thrones.
And according to Buddhist myth, the Buddha appeared atop a floating lotus, and his first
footsteps on Earth left lotus blossoms. As divine as the Gods, the flower of rebirth was thought
to contain magical properties as well. The ancient Egyptians believed lotuses had the ability to
resurrect the deceased, as seen in Book of the Dead transformation spells.
“The lotus flower blooms most beautifully from the deepest and thickest mud.”
Each flower color also has its own symbolism. For Buddhist practitioners, a white lotus
symbolizes purity, whereas a yellow lotus is associated with spiritual ascension. However, the
real question remains: how has the flower acquired such all-encompassing spiritual significance?
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A sea of lotus flowers in Italy.
The lotus flower's daily resurrection is certainly interesting, and surely symbolic of revival. (This
makes it the perfect gift for anyone recovering from injury or a traumatic experience.) But the
flower also has a fascinating will to live. A lotus seed can withstand thousands of years without
water, able to germinate over two centuries later.
Living with other beings in an aquatic environment
The Lotus grows in a aquatic environment, sinking its tough, tuberous roots into the mud. The
plants and flowers seem to prefer the full sun, but the plants at Terra Flora also had some
dappled shade cover and were flourishing. All the Lotuses I observed enjoyed the company of
water lilies. The Lotuses were able to take advantage of their upward orientation even if
surrounded by water lilies crowding the surface of the water.
The Lotuses were surrounded by living creatures. The insects I observed were the dragonflies
and mosquitoes, the latter especially this year in Illinois. In my home observations, I noticed
many birds in my yard. The sparrows and smaller birds like finches perched on the edge of the
tub my Lotus was growing in when I removed it to build the larger water garden. The birds drank
from the water and cautiously bathed in it for the few days the Lotus was “dry-docked”.
Lotuses prefer the still water of lakes and ponds. They seem to need the mud to get a strong foot
hold. The Midwest is full of dense clay and tenacious mud. I’m not sure how these plants would
do in sandy soil.
The four elements as they appear in the Lotus
The Lotus embodies all four elements. The plant springs from the mud (Earth) and must be
firmly rooted there. Water is necessary to sustain the plant and the stalks are hollow and filled
with milky sap when growing. The leaves and flowers rise from the depths and are held above
the water’s surface, representing Air. Also, the orientation of the leaves and flowers until they
dry is upward, reaching into the air. The air spaces within the stems maintain buoyancy. The
flowers and leaves unfurl, representing transformation or Fire. The pink Lotuses I observed held
within the blossom’s center the bright yellow cupule or urn with yellow, fibrous sepals.
Surrounded by bright pink petals, this gesture was reminiscent of a ring of fire. The Lotus
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flowers are sun-lovers and are generally intolerant of the colder weather. The petals of the Lotus
flower close to control the plant’s inner circulation of water, so it is not less affected by weather.
Lotuses do not bloom during the cold of winter. Summer, or the season of Fire, is when the
Lotus blossoms. In spring, and through the summer, the plant is vigorously growing, enjoying
the warmth and humidity. The flowers open in response to sunlight, usually opening in the
morning and closing in the afternoon. (This is not a direct observation; I did not see many
flowers over the course of a full day). In fall, the Lotus leaves wither, the seeds within the pods
ripen and eventually bend down to release the seeds. During winter, the plant sleeps beneath the
water’s surface with dormant roots.
The plant has different degrees of hardiness, depending on the species and cultivar
The flower also blooms in the most unlikely of places such as the mud of murky river water in
Australia or Southern Asia. Not only does it find sanctuary in the muck, but due to the waxy
protection layer on its petals, its beauty is blithely unaffected when it re-blooms each morning. It
continues to resurrect itself, coming back just as beautiful as it was last seen. With such refusal
to accept defeat, it’s almost impossible not to associate this flower with unwavering faith.
Although cultures have largely dubbed the lotus as a spiritual figurehead, it is most emblematic
of the faith within ourselves. It is particularly what the Buddhist proverb, aims to edify; living
life with unwavering faith, as the lotus does, ensures the most beautiful revivals.
Points on Lotus Flower Meanings
We know, everything in Nature is profoundly symbolic. But there are some symbolic
personalities on this earth that have really captured the human imagination and heart. This is
clear when it comes to lotus flower meanings. This bright blossom shares a wealth of symbolic
portent. It does this most intensely in the East. China, Japan and Egypt all hold the lotus in high
reverence. In fact, Ted Andrews 1wrote: “The lotus is to the East, as the rose is to the West.”
So what’s the big deal about the lotus? I think the most interesting symbolic aspect of this plant
is how it comes to life. This is major symbolism folks. It is the metaphor for life as we know
it.We can make the best of our crummy environment and rise above. Lotus flower meanings
are all about aspiring to express, to live, to share beauty. Humans often thrive when faced
with brutal circumstances. This perplexes me. I often wonder why are the bad
times more giving of lessons and change than the good times? Why can’t we learn
from joy? I suppose it’s because we need to squat in the crud for awhile so we can
be motivated to get out of the bog. I mean, we can’t really know good until we
know bad, right? I think that’s a prime message the lotus provides. Lotus proves
we don’t need everything all joy-joy, happy-happy, clean and tidy in order to meet
our goals or succeed. Nope. Lotus unfolds her exquisite beauty from the boggiest
of bogs. Lotus makes the very best of a grimy situation. Lotus refuses to be put
down. Lotus insists on growing, and growing with class. We can do this too. Lotus
is proof.
Lotus offers a mind-spinning array of meanings, so let’s start with the keyword highlights…
Keywords for Lotus Flower Meanings
Life
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Grace
Purity
Beauty
Clarity
Victory
Promise
Passion
Strength
Ascension
Spirituality
Lotus flower meanings also deals with style. This flower is super stylish with how it navigates
through life. Lotus moves through the quagmires with elegance and delicate grace. That’s
another great lotus lesson. We don’t have to Hulk-smash our way to a better life. We don’t have
to crash and bash our way out of a bad situation. Lotus shows us we can make progress with
dignity and calm assurance. Isn’t that lovely!? Do you feel like you have to wield anger and
force to move out of a bad place? Take a page from the lotus’ book. Observe the ease in which
this flower emerges. Consider the tenderness and peacefulness the lotus expresses when moving
through the muck of her surroundings.
Cultural Significance of Lotus Flower Meanings
Ancient Egyptians were crazy over the lotus. In fact, it was sacred to Osiris. In truth, it was the
water lily they adored. The terms are synonymous. Egyptians believed the lotus was the very
first flower to show up on the earth. From primordial nothingness, the lotus makes her debut. As
a result from that kind of mentality, the Egyptians held the lotus as a symbol of life. They also
regarded the lotus as a symbol of fertility, creation, and the cycle of birth and rebirth.
Buddhist iconography places the lotus in the realm of spirituality. In fact, chakras are an artistic
adaptation to the lotus flower. Not sure about chakras? That’s okay, check out my page
about chakra meanings to see the lotus design in each energy center. This is very cool. The lotus
is a template for visual chakra design. That means big energy, and big potential. The lotus can
help us align our chakras…align our energy. Lotus is particularly helpful in harmonizing the
crown and third-eye chakra. These chakras deal with intuition, spirituality and higher knowing.
Conjure an image of a delicately unfolding lotus as you work with your energy. See the lotus
caressing your spirit, and energizing you.
The Buddha is often pictured with the lotus flower. In fact, a profound Hindu chant is this: Mani
padme. This means “Jewel in the Lotus”. This concept deals with coming into the center of
beauty, peace and harmony. Buddha was thought to be unsoiled and untouched by toxins. The
lotus is a purifying agent for the Buddha and the Buddhist belief system. You don’t have to
subscribe to these beliefs to utilize the lotus. Simply embrace the lotus and engage in its power to
purify, harmonize and stabilize your energy.
Closing Thoughts on Lotus Flower Meanings
Are you enchanted? Are you spiritually charged? That’s what the lotus wants you to be. I hope I
conveyed that kind of essence the lotus embodies. Lotus is a giver of lessons, joy and
beauty. All it takes is our awareness to appreciate the gifts lotus gives.
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You know, it doesn’t matter if you live in the desert or the city. What I mean is, maybe you don’t
have access to an actual lotus flower. No problem. Pictures are a replication of lotus energy.
What’s even more powerful is conjuring the image of the lotus in our minds. Visualize a
blossoming lotus buoyed upon still waters. Just sit with that image for awhile. I feel certain you
will experience a revelation and renewal.
As always, thanks so much for reading this. If you liked this article, you might like my piece
on Lotus Flower Meanings for Tattoos. I’ve known a few awesome folks who have gotten lotus
tattoos. They all aspire to live purely, cleanly, spiritually. That’s what their lotus tattoos inspire
them to do every day. May all your lotus insights be bright and beautiful.
The lotus flower represents long life, health, honor and good luck.This has been repeated may
times in this book just as it has been elsewhere.
Talking of symbolism, lotus (Sanskrit and Tibetan padma) is one of the Eight Auspicious
Symbols and one of the most poignant representations of Buddhist teaching.Itsroots are in the
mud, the stem grows up through the water, and the heavily scented flower lies pristinely above
the water, basking in the sunlight. This pattern of growth signifies the progress of the soul from
the primeval mud of materialism, through the waters of experience, and into the bright sunshine
of enlightenment.
Though there are other water plants that bloom above the water, it is only the lotus which, owing
to the strength of its stem, regularly rises eight to twelve inches above the surface.According to
the Lalitavistara, “the spirit of the best of men is spotless, like the lotus in the muddy water
which does not adhere to it.”
According to another scholar, “in esoteric Buddhism, the heart of the beings is like an unopened
lotus: when the virtues of the Buddha develop therein, the lotus blossoms; that is why the
Buddha sits on a lotus bloom.”The lotus is one of Buddhism’s best recognized motifs and
appears in all kinds of Buddhist art across all Buddhist cultures. Scrolling lotuses often embellish
Buddhist textiles, ceramics and architecture.Every important Buddhist deity is associated in
some manner with the lotus, either being seated upon a lotus in full bloom or holding one in their
hands. In some images of standing Buddhas, each foot rests on a separate lotus.
Tibetan Lotus:The lotus does not grow in Tibet and so Tibetan art has only stylized versions of
it, yet it appears frequently with Tibetan deities and among the Eight Auspicious Symbols.White
Lotus (Skt. pundarika; Tib. pad ma dkar po): This represents the state of spiritual perfection and
total mental purity (bodhi). It is associated with the White Tara and proclaims her perfect nature,
a quality which is reinforced by the color of her body.
Pink Lotus (Skt. padma; Tib. pad ma dmar po): This the supreme lotus, generally reserved for
the highest deity. Thus naturally it is associated with the Great Buddha himself.
Red Lotus (Skt. kamala; Tib: pad ma chu skyes): This signifies the original nature and purity of
the heart (hrdya). It is the lotus of love, compassion, passion and all other qualities of the heart. It
is the flower of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion.
Blue Lotus (Skt. utpala; Tib. ut pa la): This is a symbol of the victory of the spirit over the
senses, and signifies the wisdom of knowledge. Not surprisingly, it is the preferred flower of
Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom.
The lotus flower appeared in legends originating from ancient Egypt. It played an important part
in ancient Egyptian religion. The pure white lotus flower, the only plant to fruit and flower
simultaneously, emerges from the depths of the muddy swamp. Growing from the mud at the
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bottom of ponds and streams, the exquisite Lotus flower rises above the water and is usually
white or pink with 15 or more oval, spreading petals, and a peculiar, flat seedcase at its center.
Sesen A Lotus Flower. This is a symbol of the sun, of creation and rebirth. Because at night the
flower closes and sinks underwater, at dawn it rises and opens again. According to one creation
myth it was a giant lotus which first rose out of the watery chaos at the beginning of time. From
this giant lotus the sun itself rose on the first day. A symbol of Upper Egypt .The lotus flower
played a prominent role in the version of the creation story that originated in Heliopolis. Before
the universe came into being, there was an infinite ocean of inert water which constituted the
primeval being named Nun. Out of Nun emerged a lotus flower, together with a single mound of
dry land. The lotus blossoms opened, and out stepped the self-created sun god, Atum, as a child.
A slightly different version of the creation story originated in Hermopolis. In that version, the
sun god who formed himself from the chaos of Nun emerged from the lotus petals as Ra. The
lotus is a flower which opens and closes each day. His history went on to say that the petals of
the lotus blossom enfolded him when he returned to it each night.
The lotus flower has been featured extensively throughout the art of ancient Egypt. In various
works of art, you may see it held in the hand of a god or human, serving as a border to outline a
section of the artwork, unfolding to reveal various gods or humans, and many other depictions.
The ancient Egyptians from the 4th dynasty greatly valued the sacred lotus, in religious
ceremonies and funerals. The ancient Egyptians developed the art of counting to a high degree,
but their system of numeration was very crude. For example, the number 1,000 was symbolized
by a picture of a lotus flower, and the number 2,000 was symbolized by a picture of two lotus
flowers growing out of a bush.
Lotuses are 5 species of water lilies, three in the genus Nymphaea and two in Nelumbo; both
genera are members of the water-lily family, Nymphaea lotus, the Egyptian white lotus, is
believed to be the original sacred lotus of ancient Egypt. It and the Egyptian blue lotus, N.
caerulea, were often pictured in ancient Egyptian art.The common Egyptian “lotus” is actually
correctly called a water lily: the white lotus opens at dusk, the blue water lilly opens in the
morning.The white lotus is a shallow-water, night-blooming plant with a creeping rootstock
(rhizome) that sends up long-stalked, nearly circular, dark green leathery leaves, which float on
the surface. The flowers, up to 25 cm (10 in) across, remain open until midday. The blue lotus is
a smaller, less showy day-blooming plant.The Lotus flower has for thousands of years
symbolized spiritual enlightenment. Indeed, this flower essence’s purpose is to accelerate
spiritual evolvement and enhance healing on every level within the system.
The blue lotus was native to the Nile and used to be abundant. Its narrow, pointed petals and
round, spotted leaves appear as the more common lotus in every conceivable opportunity for
Egyptian artistic imagery. Often the leaf spots are not shown, or even the leaf. The white lotus’
rounded petals appear with round, scalloped edge leaves. The red lotus was introduced to Egypt
from Persia in later dynasties.
Because lotuses grow out of the mud pure and clean, like morning dew from Heaven or water in
springtime from a flower creek, lotus decorations and designs are everywhere the eye turns.
Chinese poets also use lotus flowers to inspire people to continue striving through difficulties
and to show their best part to the outside world, no matter how bad the circumstances may be.
This is understood as being just like the lotus flower, bringing beauty and light from the murky
darkness at the bottom of the pond.
Another symbolic characteristic of the lotus flower leads from the observation that the
plant’s stalk is easy to bend in two, but is very hard to break because of its many strong
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sinuous fibres. Poets use this to represent a close unbreakable relationship between two lovers or
the members within a family, showing that no matter how far away they might live nothing can
really separate them in heart.
In Buddhism the lotus flower symbolizes faithfulness. The golden lotus that is mentioned in
Buddhist sutras has two meanings, one is the symbol for the achievement of enlightenment and
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the other points towards a real flower which is beyond our normal perception.The influence of a
lotus flower painting is to open us up to beauty and light. A good lotus flower painting can act as
a reminder of the miracle of beauty, light and life. This reminder, communicated on an emotional
level, is said to aid both spiritual and practical understanding of Tao, the world and our place in
it.
Chinese poets also use lotus flowers to inspire people to continue striving through difficulties
and to show their best part to the outside world, no matter how bad the circumstances may be.
This is understood as being just like the lotus flower, bringing beauty and light from the murky
darkness at the bottom of the pond.Lotuses are perhaps the most spectacular plants in aquatic
environments. The Chinese say that, once having seen the growing lotus, you never forget it. The
lotus flowers have color from red, pink, pale yellow to creamy white. A separate, long, tubular
stalk supports each flower and each large round leaf.The sacred Lotus, Nelumbo nucifera, is an
extreme important spiritual symbol in Eastern religions. It represents purity, divine wisdom, and
the individual’s progress from the lowest to the highest state of consciousness.
Seeded in muddy waters, the lotus rises above the mud and produces beautiful and fragrant
flowers. The big showy bloom may be 8-12 inches (20-30 cm) in diameter. The flowers open for
just three days. Then each petal falls silently into the water, one by one, at a short period. The
large green seed head or pod remains on the top of the stalk for a long time, and gradually
turning to dark color and ripe. The seeds impeded in the cone-shape pod with flat surface at the
top. The pod then reverts to the water, where it floats face down, allowing seeds to take hold in
the mud. The seeds then germinate in the following Spring and give rise to new lotus plants.All
parts of lotus are edible. The immature seeds can be eaten raw or cooked, they have chestnut like
flavor. Ripe seeds are roasted and ground into flour, or boiled to extract oil. Lotus roots produce
starchy tubers and have the flavor of sweet potato. The young, unrolled leaves are cooked as a
vegetable.Lotus seeds have very hard, impermeable seed coats, and can remain viable for very
long time. Sacred Lotus seeds, the most long-lived of all angiosperm seeds, have been known to
germinate after more than 400 years! American Lotus (Nelumbo lutea) can germinate after a
dormancy of 200 years, and recently, lotus seeds of 1,200 years from China had been
germinated! What’s an incredible plant!
“Purity, trustworthiness, the Buddha, the virtuous man: these are what the lotus signifies,”
writes Huang Yung-chuan, assistant director of the National Museum of History, in his book
Chinese Flower Arranging. Buddhism came to China in the Wei and Jin dynasties, at which time
the lotus, which had been simply a source of food, became a symbol for purity and the subject of
many poems.“Bathing in the clear water of the spiritual pond, the lotus’ roots dig deep into the
soil.” For the literati, the lotus represented distancing oneself from vulgarity. It was a metaphor
that related to contemporary utopian notions, but was surely connected as well to the Buddhist
ideal of “keeping apart from the world, like the lotus.”
Chinese literati believe that a lotus is a pure world unto itself in which both body and soul are
clean. According to the book Jian Nan Shi Gao, when the Song dynasty poet Lu Yu was 78 years
old, he once dreamt that an ancient spoke to him: “I am the lotus scholar and responsible for the
mirror lake,” he said. “But now I am leaving, and I was wondering if you could take my place
minding the moonlight, wind and dew and protecting the lotuses? “My Love for the Lotus” by
the Song scholar Zhou Dun-yi has exerted an influence on the Chinese down to the present. In
this essay, the lotus is compared to a man of great virtue for being able to live in muck without
being tainted by it. Qian Zhong-shu, a Republican-era writer, wrote that Zhou’s “inspirations”
stemmed from Buddhist ideas.
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Buddhism explores how to transcend the troubles of human existence, to leave behind the sea of
pain, the house of fire that is human existence. Becoming Buddha-like is the
highest ideal. Out of the muck the lotus springs forth beautiful blooms, much as
Buddhas free themselves from worldly worries. In the Middle Works of Hinayana
Sutra, the Buddha says, “In this way the human heart doesn’t give rise to evil
desires or evil thoughts. It’s like the blue, red and white lotuses that grow in the water but
bear no water.”Every month you will receive 1000 jugs of wine in payment.” Afterwards Lu
couldn’t forget this beautiful dream. A few years later, when he was very ill, he had another
dream in which he walked amid 10,000 acres of lotus flowers. Lu’s dreams can be said to
combine Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist elements.
In comparison to the literati’s notions about not getting tainted by the mud, the Buddhist
description of the lotus leaving the muck has even broader meaning. Mahayana Buddhism
stresses finding a release from worldly affairs while in the world, taking the path of a bodhisattva
amid the five filths of the world. The bodhisattvas take the human masses as their “field of
blessing”-the muck is luck, evil is good, pollution is purity and no clear dichotomies can be
made. Hence, Mahayana Buddhism stresses the idea that “this flower doesn’t grow in the
highlands but rather it blooms in the vile swamps.” The root and flower merge into one, in which
there is no distinction between pollution and purity.Apart from pursuing inner cultivation,
meditation and deep thought, experiencing muck is also a form of cultivation, for it tests one’s
ability to endure misfortune and to sacrifice. Only by going to hell and being tempered by fire
there, can one rise to religious exaltation and radiate the brightest and most beautiful light.
Collectively, the numerous different descriptions of the lotus are fitting, in that each lotus bloom
is a magnificent world in itself. It is quite natural that images of the lotus are everywhere to be
found in Buddhist lands.
In one of the Dunhuang Caves, Gansu, China you can find yourself surrounded on four sides by
the petals of a giant lotus decoration, in which one peaceful Buddha after another sits in front of
its own huge lotus petal. Since lotus petals and leaves have unusual shapes, you can always tell
when a lotus flower is being depicted no matter if it has been stretched long, pressed flat, or
molded into a square. Apart from actual representations of lotus flowers, petals and leaves, the
ways gourds, dahlias, pomegranates and a variety of other fruits were depicted “were all
adaptations and extensions of lotus designs,” notes Lu.
When Chan (Zen) Buddhism bloomed in China, the lotus did not lose stature, but Buddhist art
became more subdued, and the use of color in depictions of the lotus declined. After the Song
dynasty, folk culture grabbed hold of the lotus with gusto, giving it symbolic meaning that was
no longer purely religious.
In mass-produced art works, fat babies danced while holding lotus leaves or lotus flowers. These
were used in the hope that people would give birth to several boys in succession (a Chinese
character meaning “one after another” is a homonym for the character meaning lotus). And the
lotus leaves provide protection for goldfish under them, which to the Chinese symbolize
abundance year after year. In the folk uses of lotus flowers it is often hard to discern whether
there is any connection to religious belief. For instance, in the Tang dynasty one Buddhist deity
was depicted as a baby holding a lotus flower and laughing. On a festival for unmarried women
on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, children would come out onto the city streets and
imitate him. Is this deity somehow connected to the idea that lotuses would help mothers produce
boys?“Chinese flower arranging also has roots in the Northern Dynasties’ Buddhist ‘flower
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offering’ ceremony,” writes Huang Yung-chun, assistant director of the National Museum of
History.
Down to the present, even if Chinese don’t understand the Lotus Sutra or lotus-related Zen
esoterica, they will surely know that you light lotus lanterns on the Ghost Festival and that
Songzi Niangniang allowed the Gold Boy and Jade Girl to get on a lotus and float to the world of
men. In which case it’s not hard to imagine that a small lotus pedestal can remove bad karma,
direct souls of the deceased to proceed with reincarnation, and help cultivate one’s inner spirit.
Nitpicking botanists might note that a lot of the explanations Buddhists have for the lotus are
now far removed from the realities of the living ecology. When the lotus flowers, its ovule,
cupule and shape are beginning to form but are not fully mature. This entomophilous flower
requires insects to gather pollen in order for its fruit to ripen, and thus to say that it flowers while
bearing fruit is not strictly accurate. Yang Yuan-po, who has researched water plants, says that
the unusual platform-like cupule is shaped the way it is to attract bugs to its pollen, rather than to
get human beings to imagine what it would be like to sit on it.
As for the way the lotus and the water lily close up, nimosa grass does the same thing. Chen
Chin-yuan, a graduate student in the department of horticulture at National Taiwan University,
says that flowers close up to make it easier for the plants to control their inner circulation of
water, so as to avoid being affected by the weather, the humidity or even being touched by
people.The Diamond Sutra urges people to “cultivate the heart of a Buddha, by living nowhere.”
Hence, don’t clutch tight to phenomena of this world and to things you are not supposed to
desire.Letting go of the lotus pedestal to find enlightenment is similar to the idea that you can
only get to land by leaving your boat!
The Lotus Effect (the lotus flower’s physical properties).
Its name is actually shared by a number of different plants with blossoms of various colors, but
the most celebrated in art and literature is the sacred white lotus of the Hindus: Nelumbo
nucifera. Its huge, almond-shaped petals form a shallow bowl around a seedpod that is vaguely
reminiscent of the nozzle of a sprinkling can. This magnificent blossom, rising on a tall stalk
from a flat base of large, round leaves, is endowed with an exotic aura. In Buddhist tradition,
lotus blossoms mark each of the seven steps in ten directions taken, paradoxically, by the
newborn Buddha. But without a doubt the color of the lotus–or, more properly, its utter absence
of color–a blinding whiteness that speaks of unblemished purity, underlies its magical allure.
The lotus was an important icon in ancient Egypt, the inspiration for the Phoenician capitals that
preceded the Ionic order of design, the sacred flower of Hindu religions and the object of the
principal mantra of Tibetan Buddhism: om mani padme hum, which means “Hail, jewel in the
lotus.” Given the mechanical efficiency of prayer wheels that symbolically repeat those words
without pause, the lotus may be the most frequently invoked plant in the world. In various parts
of the world it has been a symbol of fertility, birth, beauty, sunlight, transcendence, sexuality and
the resurrection of the dead. A twelfth-century Sanskrit poem extols Brahma, “the lotus of whose
navel forms thus our universe.” But above all, the lotus represents purity.
What an enchanting paradox, then, that the lotus grows in muddy waters, emerging from them
unblemished and untouched by pollution.The white lotus, born in the water and grown in the
water, rises beyond the water and remains unsoiled by the water.Thus, monks, the [Buddha],
born in the world, grown up in the world, after having conquered the world, remains unsoiled by
the world.The surface of the lotus leaf is covered with a dense layer of pointy little moguls. The
botanists had stumbled upon the secret of the lotus. To celebrate their discovery, Barthlott coined
the term lotus effect.
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To demonstrate the phenomenon dramatically, Barthlott likes to squeeze a droplet of watersoluble liquid glue onto a lotus leaf. He smears the droplet a little with his finger, then steps back
to watch.The glue quickly pulls itself back together, reforming the droplet, and the droplet rolls
off the leaf at a stately pace. Not even glue can stick to an area as small as the tip of a
microscopic mogul. Just as impressive is Barthlott’s demonstration of the cleaning power of
water: when a lotus leaf is covered with a dusting of fine powdered clay, and a drop of water is
added, the water rolls downhill, gathering dust as it moves. In its wake is a long, clean path, like
the shiny trail of a snail.of the sacred lotus: its purity derives from its nubbly surface. Is that all?
Does the solution to this little mystery of nature somehow diminish the spiritual value of the
sacred lotus?For me, the opposite is true. When I see a lotus blossom now, or, what is more
likely, the leaf of a cauliflower or tulip, I marvel at the ingenuity of nature in bringing forth, after
a hundred million years of evolution, such pristine beauty through such an exquisite design. My
awareness enhances my appreciation.
Etymology of PADMA or LOTUS. The rose by any name is just as sweet in smell is a famous
saying.Lotus is even deeper in meaning.
1. Padma means something in Buddhism, Pali, Hinduism, Sanskrit, Jainism, Prakrit, the history of
ancient India, Marathi.
Shilpashastra (iconography)
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Padma ( refers to members of the moulding of a pedestal (pīṭha), used in the construction
of liṅgas. The word liṅga refers to a symbol used in the worship of Śiva and is used thoughout
Śaiva literature, such as the sacred Āgamas.
Padma ( ‘lotus’) is a weapon (āyudha or bādhra) according to the Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad.
By reproducing from its own matrix rather than the soil the lotus is a symbol of spontaneous
generation (Svāyambhu). It grows in mud but rises in immaculate purity to the surface and opens
to the sun—the evolution begins in the mire of Samsāra but rises to full enlightenment and
purity. The lotus is the quintessential symbol of purity and enlightenment. The closed lotus is a
symbol of potential and the open the symbol of actualization.
Lakṣmī is usually depicted seated upon a lotus—representing the enlightened and pure mind. Her
two lower hands are held in the gesture of fearlessness (Abhayā) granting freedom for fear and
suffering to all beings, and the gesture of generosity (Varadā).
The lotus (Padma) in Viṣṇu’s lower right hand represents the manifested universe, the flower
that unfolds in all its glory from the formless and infinite waters of causality. It also represents
purity on mind, body and speech.
1) Padma ( “lotus”).—The pure and unsullied lotus arising from the depth of the waters and far
from the banks of the lake is associated with the idea of purity which arises from the law-ofconduct (dharma) and wisdom (jñāna). The Lotus is also symbolic of the enlightened mind. It
rises in the mud of material existence gradually growing through the waters until it reaches the
surface and then opens up to the sun in all its glory. Water splashed upon a lotus leaf never
remains but immediately slips off. In the same way the dirt of worldliness never stains the
enlightened being.
2) Padma (Lotus) - By reproducing from its own matrix rather than the soil the lotus is a symbol
of spontaneous generation (Svāyambhu). It grows in mud but rises in immaculate purity to the
surface and opens to the sun - the evolution begins in the mire of Samsāra but rises to full
enlightenment and purity. The closed lotus symbolizes potential and the open lotus —
actualization.
Padma (“lotus”) refers to one of the
various accessories under the broad heading
of āyudha or karuvi (implement), including even flowers, animals, and musical instruments.
Flowers, such as the padma, (lotus), and the nīlotpala, (the blue lily) are to be generally seen in
the hands of the images of goddesses especially in the hands of goddesses Lakṣmī and
Bhūmīdevī.
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Shilpashastra- śilpaśāstra represents the ancient Indian science (shastra) of creative arts (shilpa)
such as sculpture, iconography and painting. Closely related to Vastushastra (architecture), they
often share the same literature.
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India
Pancaratra (worship of Nārāyaṇa)
Padmaor Padmamudrā is the name of a mudrā described in the Īśvarasaṃhitā 24.30.—
Accordingly, “the two thumbs are to be closely joined with the other fingers remaining apart.
This is pādmī (padma) mudrā offering nourishment and prosperity”. Mūdra (eg., Padma-mudrā)
is so called as it gives joy to the tattvas in the form of karman for those who offer spotless
worship, drive out the defects which move about within and without and sealing up of what is
done.
Padma and Śaṅkha are the two treasures (nidhis) which dharma bears. These are intended to
help those people who pursue the right course conduct in order that the pursuits (kāma and artha)
would have been fruitfully taken up by them. Kāma means desires in life. Artha means wealth or
economic condition. Money is required to pursue these. The two measures Śaṅkha and Padma
are thus helpful for them in pursuing these goals. The Viṣvaksena-aṃhitā (XX 87-88) mentions
conch, discus and yellow cloth while describing dharma.
The Lotus (Padma):—The lotus represents the manifested universe, the flower that unfolds in all
its glory from the formless and infinite waters of causality. The pure and unsullied lotus arising
from the depth of the waters and far from the shore is associated with the idea of purity and with
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sattva which arises from the law-of-conduct (dharma) and knowledge (jñāna). The Lotus is also
symbolic of the enlightened mind. It rises in the mud of material existence gradually growing
through the waters until it reaches the surface and then opens up to the sun in all its glory. Water
splashed upon a lotus leaf never remains but immediately slips off. In the same way the dirt of
worldliness ne ver stain the enlightened being.
Padma or Padmasaṃhitā is the name of a Vaiṣṇava Āgama scripture, classified as a sāttvika type
of the Muniprokta group of Pāñcarātra Āgamas. The vaiṣṇavāgamas represent one of the three
classes of āgamas (traditionally communicated wisdom).—Texts of the Pāñcara Āgamas are
divided in to two sects. It is believed that Lord Vāsudeva revealed the first group of texts which
are called Divya and the next group is called Muniprokta which are further divided in to three
viz. a. Sāttvika (eg., Padma-saṃhitā). b. Rājasa. c. Tāmasa.
Padma of Padmanabhaswamy Temple
Pancaratra , pāñcarātra represents a tradition of Hinduism where Narayana is revered and
worshipped. Closeley related to Vaishnavism, the Pancaratra literature includes various Agamas
and tantras incorporating many Vaishnava philosophies.
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India
Shaktism (Shakta philosophy)
1) Padmā- Lotus”:—One of the female offspring from Mahālakṣmī (rajas-form of Mahādevī).
Mahālakṣmī is one of the three primary forms of Devī, the other two being Mahākālī and
Mahāsarasvatī. Not to be confused with Lakṣmī, she is a more powerful cosmic aspect (vyaṣṭi) of
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Devi and represents the guṇa (universal energy) named rajas. Also see the Devī Māhātmya, a
Sanskrit work from the 5th century, incorporated into the Mārkaṇḍeya-Purāṇa.
2) Padma Lotus”.—One of the symbols that Lakṣmī is depicted as sitting upon. It represents
spontaneous generation (svāyambhu), but also symbolizes purity and enlightenment. Lakṣmī is
the Hindu Goddess of fortune.
Shakta ( śākta) or Shaktism (śāktism) represents a tradition of Hinduism where the Goddess
(Devi) red and worshipped. Shakta literature includes a range of scriptures, including various
Agamas and Tantras, although its roots may be traced back to the Vedas.
Ayurveda (science of life)
Padma ( is a Sanskrit word referring to Nelumbo nucifera, a species of aquatic plant from the
Nelumbonaceae (lotus) family of flowering plants. Common English names include “Indian
lotus”, “sacred lotus”, “bean of India” or simply “Lotus”. Certain plant parts of Plakṣa are eaten
as a vegetable (śāka), according to Caraka in his Carakasaṃhitā sūtrasthāna (chapter 27), a
classical Ayurvedic work. The plant is therefore part of the Śākavarga group of medicinal plants,
referring to the “group of vegetables/pot-herbs”. Caraka defined such groups (vargas) based on
the dietic value of the plant. It is a large aquatic plant with large round leaves up to 90cm in
diameter. The flowers are large and fragrant with a pink or reddish colour. Its grows all over
India in ponds up to 1800m elevation.
According to the Mādhavacikitsā (7th-century Ayurvedic work), this plant (Padma) is also as a
medicine used for the treatment of all major fevers (jvara), as described in the Jvaracikitsā (or
“the treatment of fever”) chapter. In this work, the plant is referred to as Mṛṇālīn.
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2) Padmā is another name for Bhāraṅgī, which is a Sanskrit word referring to Clerodendrum
serratum (beetle killer). It is classified as a medicinal plant in the system of Āyurveda (science of
Indian medicine) and is used throughout literature such as the Suśrutasaṃhita and
the Carakasaṃhitā. The synonym was identified in the Rājanighaṇṭu (verses 5.149-150), which
is a 13th-century medicinal thesaurus.
Padma (पद्म) refers to one of the eight primordial snakes, according to the 20th
century Prayogasamuccaya (one of the most popular and widely practised book in toxicology in
Malayalam).—The work classifies viṣa into two groups, viz. sthāvara and jaṅgama (animate and
inanimate). This is followed by a brief description of the origin of snakes. A mythological story
is narrated in this context. It is said that in the beginning, there were only 8 snakes, Ananta,
Gulika, Vāsuki, Śaṅkhapālaka, Takṣaka, Mahāpadma, Padma and Karkoṭaka and that all other
snakes originated from these.
Āyurveda (, ayurveda) is a branch of Indian science dealing with medicine, herbalism, taxology,
anatomy, surgery, alchemy and related topics. Traditional practice of Āyurveda in ancient India
dates back to at least the first millenium BC. Literature is commonly written in Sanskrit using
various poetic metres.
Yoga (school of philosophy)
This is a classical plant amongst the Hindus and the Egyptians. The world at its creation is likened to a
Lotus flower floating on water. Om! mani padme. Om! The pearl of creation is in Lotus. It is emblematic
of the heavens, Brahma is supposed to reside on a Lotus flower in a sea of milk, and to sleep six months
of the year, and watch the other six months; an allusion to the seasons in which Brahma represents the
Sun.
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Yoga is originally considered a branch of Hindu philosophy (astika), but both ancient and modern Yoga
combine the physical, mental and spiritual. Yoga teaches various physical techniques also known as
āsanas (postures), used for various purposes (eg., meditation, contemplation, relaxation).
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Vastushastra (architecture)
Padma (पद्म) refers to a type of temple (prāsāda) classified under the group named Kailāśa, according
to Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra chapter 49. The Kailāśa group contains ten out of a sixty-four
total prāsādas (temples) classified under five prime vimānas (aerial car/palace), which were created by
Brahmā for as many gods (including himself). This group represents temples (eg. Padma) that are to be
globular shaped. The prāsādas, or ‘temples’, represent the dwelling place of God and are to be built in
towns. The Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra is an 11th-century encyclopedia dealing with various topics from the
Vāstuśāstra.Padma is mentioned in another list from the Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra chapter 56, being part
of the group named Lalita, containing 25 unique temple varieties.Padma is mentioned in another list of 40
temples, in the Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra, chapter 57, where it is mentioned as one of the five temples
being a favorite of Brahmā. Padma is also mentioned as a classification of ‘temple’ in the Matsyapurāṇa
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and the Viśvakarmaprakāśa, both featuring a list of 20 temple types. In the Viśvakarmaprakāśa, the name
for this temple category is Padmaka. This list represents the classification of temples in South-India.
Padma is also listed in the Agnipurāṇa which features a list of 45 temple types. It is listed under the group
named Kailāśa, featuring circular-shaped temples. This list represents a classification of temples in NortIndia.
Vastushastra (वास्तुशास्त्र, vāstuśāstra) refers to the ancient Indian science (shastra) of architecture
(vastu), dealing with topics such architecture, sculpture, town-building, fort building and various other
constructions. Vastu also deals with the philosophy of the architectural relation with the cosmic universe.
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Purana and Itihasa (epic history)
1) Padma (पद्म).—A serpent born to sage Kaśyapa of his wife Kadrū. (Śloka 10, Chapter 35, Ādi Parva).
2) Padma (पद्म).—A King. This King shines in the court of Yama. (Śloka 39, Chapter 10, Sabhā Parva).
3) Padma (पद्म).—A soldier of Subrahmaṇya. (Chapter 45, Śalya Parva).
4) Padma (पद्म).—A nidhi (treasure). This nidhi belongs to Kubera. (Śloka 39, Chapter 10, Sabhā Parva).
Śaṅkhanidhi, Padmanidhi and a Puṣpakavimāna were presented to Kubera by Brahmā. (Uttara
Rāmāyaṇa).
Source: archive.org: Nilamata Purana: a cultural and literary study
Padma (पद्म) refers to the lotus and represents flowers (puṣpa) once commonly used in ancient Kashmir
(Kaśmīra) as mentioned in the Nīlamatapurāṇa. The lotus is also called by the names Kamala, Jalaja
(verse 45), Nīlanalina and Nīlotpala (verse 62 and 339), Jātī (verse 429), Irā (verse 673-675ff.) and Kunda
(verse 495).
Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: The Purana Index
1a) Padma (पद्म).—A Yakṣa; a son of Puṇyajanī and Maṇibhadra.*
1b) The name of the 7th kalpa.*
1c) A son of Bhadra; gave birth to eight kinds of elephants;1 vehicle of Ailavila.2
1d) The forest of Padma between the Lauhitya and the Sindhu.*
1e) A Nāga (serpent) chief.*
1f) Brahmā; a thousand leafed lotus came out of the navel of the Lord on the eve of the creation of the
universe; it resembled the earth in form; in it were found all the countries, mountains, peoples, etc.*
1g) 1000 billions; ten times the śanku.*
1h) One of the eight nidhis of Kubera.*
2a) Padmā (पद्मा).—A name of Śrī.*
2b) One of the ten pīṭhas for images; with sixteen corners, a little short at the bottom; gives one good luck
(saubhāgya).*
3a) Pādma (पाद्म).—A name of Brahmā.*
3b) A mahākalpa.*
1. Padma (पद्म) is a name mentioned in the Mahābhārata (cf. I.35.10, II.9.8, V.101.13/V.103,
IX.44.52) and represents one of the many proper names used for people and places. Note:
The Mahābhārata (mentioning Padma) is a Sanskrit epic poem consisting of
100,000 ślokas (metrical verses) and is over 2000 years old.
2.The Purana (पुराण, purāṇas) refers to Sanskrit literature preserving ancient India’s vast cultural
history, including historical legends, religious ceremonies, various arts and sciences. The
eighteen mahapuranas total over 400,000 shlokas (metrical couplets) and date to at least several
centuries BCE.
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Kavya (poetry)
3. Padma (पद्म) or Padmaka refers to 1) a “lotus”, 2) “red dots on the face or trunk of an elephant”,
and is mentioned in the Naiṣadha-carita 2.9.
4. Padma (पद्म).—One of the eight kulas (‘families’) of nāgas mentioned by Soḍḍhala in his
Udayasundarīkathā. Padma, and other nāgas, reside in pātāla (the nether world) and can assume
different forms at will. Their movement is unobstructed in the all the worlds and they appear
beautiful, divine and strong.
5. The Udayasundarīkathā is a Sanskrit work in the campū style, narrating the story of the Nāga
princess Udayasundarī and Malayavāhana, king of Pratiṣṭhāna. Soḍḍhala is a descendant of
Kalāditya (Śilāditya’s brother) whom he praises as an incarnation of a gaṇa (an attendant of
Śiva).
6. context information
7. Kavya (काव्य, kavya) refers to Sanskrit poetry, a popular ancient Indian tradition of literature.
There have been many Sanskrit poets over the ages, hailing from ancient India and beyond. This
topic includes mahakavya, or ‘epic poetry’ and natya, or ‘dramatic poetry’.
Natyashastra (theatrics and dramaturgy)
1. Padma (पद्म, “lotus”) refers to a derivative color, composed of the white (sita) and the red
(rakta) colors, according to Nāṭyaśāstra chapter 23. According to the science
of āhāryābhinaya (extraneous representation), there are four main colors (varṇa) from which
various derivative and minor colors (upavarṇa) are derived. Colors are used
in aṅgaracanā (painting the limbs), which forms a section of nepathya (costumes and make-up).
2. Natyashastra (नाट्यशास्त्र, nāṭyaśāstra) refers to both the ancient Indian tradition (śāstra) of
performing arts, (nāṭya, e.g., theatrics, drama, dance, music), as well as the name of a Sanskrit
work dealing with these subjects. It also teaches the rules for composing dramatic plays (nataka)
and poetic works (kavya).
Vaishnavism (Vaishava dharma)
Padmā (पद्मा) refers to the twentieth of twenty-six ekādaśīs according to the Garga-saṃhitā 4.8.9.
Accordingly, “to attain Lord Kṛṣṇa’s mercy you should follow the vow of fasting on ekādaśī. In that way
You will make Lord Kṛṣṇa into your submissive servant. Of this there is no doubt”. A person who chants
the names of these twenty-six ekādaśīs (eg., Padmā) attains the result of following ekādaśī for one year.
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Vaishnava (वैष्णव, vaiṣṇava) or vaishnavism (vaiṣṇavism) represents a tradition of Hinduism
worshipping Vishnu as the supreme Lord. Similar to the Shaktism and Shaivism traditions, Vaishnavism
also developed as an individual movement, famous for its exposition of the dashavatara (‘ten avatars of
Vishnu’).
Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy)
Source: Shodhganga: Iconographical representations of Śiva
Padma (पद्म) or Padmāgama refers to one of upāgamas (supplementary scriptures) of
the Svāyambhuvāgama which is one of the twenty-eight Siddhāntāgama: a classification of the Śaiva
division of Śaivāgamas. The Śaivāgamas represent the wisdom that has come down from lord Śiva,
received by Pārvatī and accepted by Viṣṇu. The purpose of revealing upāgamas (eg., Padma Āgama) is to
explain more elaborately than that of mūlāgamas (eg., Svāyambhuva-āgama) and to include any new idea
if not dealt in mūlāgamas.
Padma (पद्म) refers to one of the various Devatā weapons and represents a type of “temple implement
(instrument)” as described in the Karaṇalakṣaṇavidhi-paṭala section of the Uttara-Kāmikāgama.—The
instruments should be according to the particular śāstra followed at the temple. Some of the instruments
mentioned are weapons of all Devatās including [viz., padma].
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tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva as the supreme being. Closely related to Shaktism, Shaiva
literature includes a range of scriptures, including Tantras, while the root of this tradition may be traced
back to the ancient Vedas.
Discover the meaning of padma in the context of Shaivism from relevant books on Exotic India
General definition (in Hinduism)
The lotus flower, and the word itself are considered to have a special meaning in Tantras. In India the
lotus flower has a symbolic meaning, representing two main aspectrs, exoteric and esoteric. The first is
creation itself. The Madhya, or center of the lotus, represents the Knower, the Self. When
the yogin merges his senses and thought in the center of the ineer space of the lotus of the heart, he is
pacified since he has broken his links to the external world. In the bhāvopahāra of Cakrapāṇinātha,
a śaiva hymn is written by a Trika author of the 12th cent. A.D., the lotus is identified with the supreme
Consciousness itself, with Śiva.
Mahayana (major branch of Buddhism)
1) Padma (पद्म, “lotuses”) are of three kinds according to the 2nd century Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra
(chapter XV). Accordingly, “there are three kinds of lotuses (padma), human lotuses, divine lotuses and
Bodhisattva lotuses. The human lotus is a big lotus with ten petals (pattra), the divine lotus has a hundred
and the Bodhisattva lotus has a thousand”.
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2) Padma (पद्म) is the name of the universe of the nadir (adhas) according to the 2nd
century Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra (chapter XV). Accordingly, “In the region of the nadir (adhas), beyond
universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges and at the extreme limit of these universes, there is the
universe called Houa (Padma); its Buddha is called Houa tö (Padmaśrī) and its Bodhisattva Houa
chang (Padmottara)”.
Note: This universe is called Chan “Good” in the Chinese text, but Padmā “Lotus” (Chin. Houa) in the
original Sanskrit of the Pañcaviṃśati. This last reading is the proper one (note that the names of all the
universes are feminine; this is why Padmā ends with ‘ā’).
3) Padma (पद्म) refers to one of the “eight hells of cold water” forming part of the
sixteen utsadas (secondary hells) sitauted outside of the eight great hells, according to the “world of
transmigration” section in the 2nd century Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra (chapter XXVII).—Accordingly,
“the shape of the Padma hell is like a red lotus”.
Note: According to the Kośa, III, p. 154, Utpala and Padma indicate the shape taken by the damned: they
are like a blue or red lotus. According to the Chinese sources studied by Beal, Catena, p. 63, the inmates
of Utpala and Padma are covered with spots resembling blue and red lotuses respectively.
Mahayana (महायान, mahāyāna) is a major branch of Buddhism focusing on the path of a Bodhisattva
(spiritual aspirants/ enlightened beings). Extant literature is vast and primarely composed in the Sanskrit
language. There are many sūtras of which some of the earliest are the various Prajñāpāramitā sūtras.
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Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana or tantric Buddhism)
Padma (पद्म).—Serpent deity (nāga) of the southern cremation ground.—The Śmaśānavidhi 11 states
that Padma is white and has on his hood speckles of sea-water. He supplicates his teacher in the usual
manner with the añjali.
Source: Wisdomlib Libary: Vajrayogini
Padma (पद्म) is the name of a serpent (nāga) associated with Subhīṣaṇa: the southern cremation ground
(śmaśāna) according to the Vajravārāhī-sādhana by Umāpatideva as found in te 12th century
Guhyasamayasādhanamālā. As a part of this sādhana, the practicioner is to visualize a suitable dwelling
place for the goddess inside the circle of protection which takes the form of eight cremation grounds.
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These nāga-kings (eg., Padma) are variously known as nāgarāja, nāgeśa, nāgendra and bhujageśa and
are depicted as wearing white ornaments according to Lūyīpāda’s Śmaśānavidhi. They have human tosos
above their coiled snaketails and raised hoods above their heads. They each have their own color assigned
and they bear a mark upon their raised hoods. They all make obeisance to the dikpati (protector) who is
before them and are seated beneath the tree (vṛkṣa).
Source: academia.edu: The Structure and Meanings of the Heruka Maṇḍala
Padma (पद्म) refers to one of the eight serpent king (nāgendra) of the Guṇacakra, according to the 10th
century Ḍākārṇava chapter 15. Accordingly, the guṇacakra refers to one of the four divisions of
the sahaja-puṭa (‘innate layer’), situated within the padma (lotus) in the middle of the Herukamaṇḍala.
Padma is associated with the charnel grounds (śmaśāna) named Vibhīṣaṇa; with the tree (vṛkṣa) named
Cūta; with the direction-guardians (dikpāla) named Yama and with the cloud king (meghendra) named
Āvarta.
Padmasambhava
Tibetan Buddhism in the West. The Kadam Tradition of Atisha (Dipamkarashrijnanna)
Tibetan Buddhism includes schools such as Nyingma, Kadampa, Kagyu and Gelug. Their primary canon
of literature is divided in two broad categories: The Kangyur, which consists of Buddha’s words, and the
Tengyur, which includes commentaries from various sources. Esotericism and tantra techniques
(vajrayāna) are collected indepently.
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Gautama Buddha Buddhism Kadam Buddhahood
General definition (in Buddhism)
Padma (पद्म) refers to the “red-lotus hell” and represents one of the “eight cold hells” (śīta-naraka) as
defined in the Dharma-saṃgraha (section 122). The Dharma-samgraha (Dharmasangraha) is an extensive
glossary of Buddhist technical terms in Sanskrit (eg., padma). The work is attributed to Nagarjuna who
lived around the 2nd century A.D.
Source: WikiPedia: Buddhism
One of the Eight Auspicious Symbols
The lotus flower (Sanskrit: Padma), representing primordial purity (Tibetan: ka dag) of body, speech, and
mind, floating above the muddy waters of attachment and desire; represents the full blossoming of
wholesome deeds in blissful liberation.
General definition (in Jainism)
1) Padmā (पद्मा) is the mother of Munisuvratanātha, the twentieth of twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras in
Janism, according to the Ācāradinakara (14th century work on Jain conduct written by Vardhamāna Sūri).
A Tīrthaṅkara is an enlightened being who has conquered saṃsāra (cycle of birth and death), leaving
behind him a path for others to follow. She is also known as Padmāvatī.
The husband of Padmā is Sumitra. It is an ancient Jain practice to worship the Tīrthaṅkara’s parents in
various rites, such as the pratiṣṭhāvidhi.
2) Padmā (पद्मा).—Name of a lake situated on top of the Haimavat mountain range. There are seven such
mountain ranges (or, varṣadharaparvatas) located in Jambūdvīpa according to Jaina cosmology. Padma
has at its centre a large padmahrada (lotus-island), which is home to the Goddess Śrī. Jambūdvīpa sits at
the centre of madhyaloka (‘middle world’) and is the most important of all continents and it is here where
human beings reside.
3) Padma (पद्म) is the name of the eighth Baladeva according to Śvetāmbara, while the Digambara
tradition mentions him as the ninth Baladeva. Jain legends describe nine such Baladevas (“gentle
heroes”) usually appearing together with their “violent” twin-brothers known as the Vāsudevas. The
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legends of these twin-heroes usually involve their antagonistic counterpart known as the Prativāsudevas
(anti-heroes).
The mother of Padma is known by the name Aparājitā according to the Samavāyāṅga-sūtra, and their
stories are related in texts such as the Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita (“the lives of the sixty-three illustrious
persons”), a twelfth-century Śvetāmbara work by Hemacandra.
The nine Baladevas (such as Padma) are also known as Balabhadra and are further described in various
Jain sources, such as the Bhagavatīsūtra and Jambūdvīpaprajñapti in Śvetāmbara, or the Tiloyapaṇṇatti
and Ādipurāṇa in the Digambara tradition. The appearance of a Baladeva is described as follows: their
body is of a white complexion, they wear a blue-black robe, and the mark of the palm-tree (tāla) is seen
on their banners.
Padma (पद्म) refers to the “lotus”: a type of flower (puṣpa) commonly used in for personal and
commercial purposes in ancient India. People were fond of flowers. The groves and gardens were
maintained for recreational purpose. The Jain canonical texts frequently mention different horticulture
products viz. fruits, vegetables and flowers which depict that horticulture was a popular pursuit of the
people at that time. Gardens and parks (ārāma, ujjāṇa or nijjaṇa) were full of fruits and flowers of
various kinds which besides yielding their products provided a calm andquiet place where people could
enjoy the natural surroundings.
The flowers (eg., Padma) fulfilled the aesthetic needs of the people. At the same time they had an
economic importance in as much as some people depended on its trade. It is mentioned that people of
Koṅkaṇa maintained themselves by selling fruits and flowers. (see Bṛhatkalpasūtra) Flower garlands and
bouquet of various designs were prepared and sold. Saffron (kuṃkuma or kesara) was an important flower
product. It yielded a good income to the producers. The flower attracted the bees who yielded honey
(mahu, sanskrit: madhu) of different varieties, e. g. macchiya, kuṭṭiya, bhāmara, etc.
Source: Encyclopedia of Jainism: Tattvartha Sutra 3: The Lower and middle worlds
Padma (पद्म) is a lake lying on top of mount Himavat (Himavān), situated in Jambūdvīpa: the first
continent of the Madhya-loka (middle-word), according to the 2nd-century Tattvārthasūtra 3.10. There is
a giant lotus (puṣkara) in the centre of the lakes (eg., Padma). In these lotuses live the nymphs (eg., Śrī,
‘fortune’ for the Padma lake), whose lifetime is one pit-measured period (playa) and who live with
Sāmānikas (co-chiefs) and Pāriṣadas (counsellors). A sāmānika is a deity who is equal to Indra in lifespan, power and enjoyment but lack grandeur. The pāriṣadas (counsellors) are friendly deities who are
members of Indra’s council.
Jambūdvīpa (where lies the Padma lake) is in the centre of all continents and oceans; all continents and
oceans are concentric circles with Jambūdvīpa in the centre. Like the navel is in the centre of the body,
Jambūdvīpa is in the centre of all continents and oceans. Sumeru Mount is in the centre of Jambūdvīpa. It
is also called Mount Sudarśana.
Jainism is an Indian religion of Dharma whose doctrine revolves around harmlessness (ahimsa) towards
every living being. The two major branches (Digambara and Svetambara) of Jainism stimulate selfcontrol (or, shramana, ‘self-reliance’) and spiritual development through a path of peace for the soul to
progess to the ultimate goal.
History: Padmā (पद्मा) is the name of a river mentioned in the Gupta inscription No. 16. The Gupta
empire (r. 3rd-century CE), founded by Śrī Gupta, covered much of ancient India and embraced the
Dharmic religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The Gaṅgā is also known as Padmā or
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Paddā. The community of the brāhmaṇas mentioned in the inscription might have lived by the side of the
river.
The history of India traces the identification of countries, villages, towns and other regions of India, as
well as royal dynasties, rulers, tribes, local festivities and traditions and regional languages. Ancient India
enjoyed religious freedom and encourages the path of Dharma, a concept common to Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Jainism.
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Pali-English dictionary
padma : (nt.) a lotus; name of purgatory and that of an enormous number.
Pali is the language of the Tipiṭaka, which is the sacred canon of Theravāda Buddhism and contains much
of the Buddha’s speech. Closeley related to Sanskrit, both languages are used interchangeably between
religions.
Marathi-English dictionary
1. padma (पद्म).—n (S) A lotus, Nelumbium speciosum or nymphæa nelumbo. 2 Ten billions, ten
thousand lakhs. 3 The figure of ten fancied in the form of the hood of snakes. 4 An auspicious
mark of the horse. See śubhalakṣaṇa.
2. padma (पद्म).—n A lotus. Ten billions, ten thousand lakhs.
3. Marathi is an Indo-European language having over 70 million native speakers people in
(predominantly) Maharashtra India. Marathi, like many other Indo-Aryan languages, evolved
from early forms of Prakrit, which itself is a subset of Sanskrit, one of the most ancient languages
of the world.
Sanskrit-English dictionary
4. Padma (पद्म).—a. [pad-man] Lotus-hued.
5. -dmam 1 A lotus (m. also in this sense); Nelumbium Speciosum (variety red); पद्मपत्रस्थितं तोयं
धत्ते मुक्ताफलश्रियम् (padmapatrasthitaṃ toyaṃ dhatte muktāphalaśriyam).
2) A lotus-like ornament.
3) The form or figure of a lotus.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
4) The root of a lotus.
5) The coloured marks on the trunk and face of an elephant; (kālaḥ kirātaḥ sphuṭapadmakasya
vadhaṃ vyadhā- dyasya dinadvipasya) N.22.9;
6) An army arrayed in the form of a lotus; (padmena caiva vyūhena niviśeta sadā svayam) Ms.7.
188.
7) A particular high number (one thousand billions).
8) Lead.
9) N. given by the Tāntrikas to the six divisions of the upper part of the body called Chakras.
1) A mark or mole on the human body.
A spot.
Name of a particular part of a column.
-dmaḥ A kind of temple.
Name of a quarter-elephant. padmakalpairapi ca dvipendraiḥ) Bu. Ch.2.3.
A species of serpent.
An epithet of Rāma.
One of the nine treasures of Kubera; see नवनिधि (navanidhi).
A kind of coitus or mode of sexual enjoyment.
A particular posture of the body in religious meditation.
One of the eight treasures connected with the magical art called पद्मिनी (padminī).
Pa-dmā 1 Name of Lakṣmī, the goddess of fortune, and wife of Viṣṇu; (taṃ) पद्मा पद्मातपत्रेण
भेजे साम्राज्य- दीक्षितम् (padmā padmātapatreṇa bheje sāmrājya- dīkṣitam) R.4.5.
13. Cloves.
--- OR --14. Pādma (पाद्म).—Name of Brahmā; इति तस्य वचः पाद्मो भगवान् परिपालयन् (iti tasya vacaḥ
pādmo bhagavān paripālayan) Bhāg.3.12.9.
15. Derivable forms: pādmaḥ (पाद्मः).
16. Padma (पद्म).—(paduma) , m. or nt., (1) n. of a kind of brahmanical sacrifice: Mv ii.237.20
(prose) padumaṃ puṇḍarīkaṃ (this occurs in Sanskrit in this sense) ca, in a list of sacrifices, see
nirargaḍa; (2) m. (paduma), n. of one of the 4 ‘great treasures’ (compare Pali puṇḍarīka;
see s.v. elapatra): Mv iii.383.19 (known in Sanskrit as n. of a nāga); (3) n. of a former Buddha
(Paduma): Mv iii.233.7 f.; (4) n. of the world-age (paduma kalpa) in which 62 Buddhas named
Śikhin succeeded each other: Mv iii.235.6; (5) nt., also m., n. of a hell (= Pali Paduma; compare
Mahāpadma): Divy 67.23; 138.8; Av i.4.9 etc.; it is cold acc. to Mvy 4935; Dharmas 122, but hot
(at least sufferers are boiled there) in Śikṣ 75.8, where (and in 10) the spelling is Padumo, n. sg.,
tho in prose!; (6) nt., n. of a cetika (caitya) in the south: LV 389.10; in the parallel Mv iii.307.17
Abhipaśya; Pali has Paduma as n. of a cetiya (DPPN s.v. 8), but it is not clear whether it is the
same.
--- OR --17. Padmā (पद्मा).—(1) n. of a brahman woman who entertained the Bodhisattva: LV 238.7; (2) n. of
a lokadhātu: ŚsP 50.6; (3) (Padumā) n. of a rākṣasī: Māy 243.9 (prose).
Padma (पद्म).—mn.
18. (-dmaḥ-dmaṃ) 1. A lotus, (Nelumbium speciosum;) it is often confounded with the water lily,
(Nymphæa.) 2. A form of arraying army resembling to that of a lotus. 3. One of Kuvera'S
treasures or gems. 4. A large number, ten billions. 5. Coloured marks on the face and trunk of an
elephant. 6. A drug, also termed Padmakast'ha. 7. Lead. 8. A name given to the six Chakras of the
body, or to the mystical faculties present in them. 9. The root of a lotus. m.
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19. (-dmaḥ) 1. A Naga or serpent of the lower regions. 2. One of the twelve Chakravartis or
paramount princes of the Jainas. 3. One of the persons termed Sukla Balas by the Jains. 4. A
name of Rama. 5. The personified treasurs of Kuvera, as worshipped by the Tantrikas. 6. A
particular mode of sexual enjoyment. The posture is thus described on Vachaspatya:—
hastābhyāñca samāliṅgya nārīpadmāsanopari . ramedgāḍhaṃ samākṛṣya bandho'yaṃ
padmasaṃjñakaḥ .. f.
20. (-dmā) 1. A name of Lakshmi. 2. A plant, (Hibiscus mutabilis.) 3. A shrub, (Siphonanthus
Indica.) 4. A female serpent or Naga, the goddess Manasa, and wife to the sage Jaratkaru. 5. The
mother of the twentieth Jina or Jaina saint. 6. The flower of the Carthamus or safflower. E. pad to
go, (on the water, &c.) Unadi aff. man.
21. Padma (पद्म).— (curtailed pad + mant), I. m. and n. 1. A lotus flower, Mahābhārata 1, 5412. 2.
Ornament, [Rāmāyaṇa] 6, 10, 19. 3. Moles or marks on the body, 5, 32, 11. 4. A spot, 3, 48, 12. 5.
Coloured marks on the face and trunk of an elephant. 6. A lotus-like form of array,
[Mānavadharmaśāstra] 7, 188. 7. A particular sitting posture when absorbed in meditation,
[Vedāntasāra, (in my Chrestomathy.)] in Chr. 217, 17. 8. One of Kuvera's treasures, Mahābhārata
2, 418. 9. A large number, 1000 billions, 2, 2143. 10. A certain fragrant plant. Ii. m. 1. A kind of
snake, [Suśruta] 2, 265, 8. 2. The name of a Nāga. 3. A proper name. Iii. f. mā, 1. A name of Śrī,
[Mānavadharmaśāstra] 7, 11. 2. The name of two plants, Clerodendrum siphonanthus, and
Hibiscus mutabilis. 3. A proper name.
--- OR --22. Pādma (पाद्म).—i. e. padma + a, adj. Referring to, treating of, the lotus, [Bhāgavata-Purāṇa, (ed.
Burnouf.)] 2, 10, 47.
1) Pādma (पाद्म) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—i. e. Padmapurāṇa.
2) Pādma (पाद्म):—kriyāpāda. Oppert. Ii, 4053.
—[commentary] Ii, 4054. Caryapāda. Oppert. 294.
REFERENCE
1.Animal Speak: The Spiritual & Magical Powers of Creatures Great & Small. Ted Andrews,Kindle ed.
2004
See also The Quantum and the Lotus-A Journey to the Frontiers Where Science and Buddhism
Meet, Matthieu Ricard, Trinh Xuan Thuan, Three River Ptress, NY, Random House,2000
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C H A P T E R XIV
MARS HABITAT- ARCHITECTURE
Introduction: WHAT ARE PLANET MANDALAS?
Planet mandalas are representations of the orbital motions of planets. All of us are familiar
with the image of our solar system with the Sun in the middle and the elliptical orbits of the
planets shown as ellipses of various sizes and proportions with Mercury closest to the Sun,
followed by Venus, and so on. In a planet mandala one or more adjustments are made to the
representation of the elliptical orbit.
One of these adjustments is that the orbits may be drawn from the point of view of another
planet, such as the Earth. Imagine, for example, the path of Mars from our point of view. When
Mars is geocentrically opposite the Sun, it is relatively very close to us on Earth. When Mars is
geocentrically in the same direction as the Sun, it is relatively very far from us. We can draw the
apparent path of Mars from the geocentric point of view, i.e. how Mars appears to be moving if
the Earth was stationary. In fact, as discussed in a bit more detail below, this is exactly what
Kepler did in working out the path of the orbit of Mars en route to his discovery of the 3
fundamental laws of planetary motion. These changes in distance from the Earth result in
intriguing shapes which tend to have some symmetry and have roughly a circular boundary and
therefore have been given the name “planet mandalas” by the early pioneers in the computer
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programming of planet mandalas, Neil Michelsen and Mark Pottenger. Om Bhaum Bhaumaye
Namah Om
Mars is a planet that is associated with masculinity, anger and war. It’s also a planet related to
instability such as of fire. The reds and triangles are also related to fire energy and the
Recognition area of the feng shui bagua map. The central upward pointed triangle represents
growth, as do the more dominant red interior triangles. This suggests that an excess of fire may
be transformed into a more positive and productive direction.
As one of our closest and most familiar neighbors, the Red Planet has served as the source of
legends since the first storytellers slept under the stars. With its 24.6-hour day and snowy polar
caps, Mars is really the only place that looks promising for life — whether alien or an outpost for
humans. In modern times, that makes it a perfect slate for allegories about human behavior, from
the sci-fi author and space visionary Ray Bradbury's critiques of American culture to Edgar
Rice Burrough’s sci-fi book Princess of Mars -now made into the most expensive Hollowood
film titled. “JOHN CARTER-MARS;” for scientists, dreams of life on Mars persist inspite of
the fact that the Curiosity rover landed on Sunday, Aug. 5, at 10:30 p.m. PDT (1:30 a.m. EDT,
0530 GMT), 2012, determined that there wasn’t any.
.Figuring out how we could we be comfortable living on the red planet is a challenge but with
increasing discussion about how to send people to Mars with the ultimate aim of colonising the
planet, how to replace the sensation of the sunshine on your face or the grass beneath your feet.
But There’s no life on Mars – yet. Yes yet. We could be the next life on the red planet The
prospect of humans going to the Red Planet could finally be leaving the realms of sciencefiction:
1. NASA plans a manned Mars mission by the mid-2030s;
2. Elon Musk’s Space X aims to get there in 2024.
Climate: Mars is not just about the journey, though. Given the challenging travel windows
(Earth and Mars align once every two years; a one-way trip takes six to nine months), any visitor
to Mars is going to be staying there for some time. Conditions are hardly hospitable, either.
Mars’ gravity is 38 per cent that of Earth’s, there is virtually no atmosphere, so air pressure is
negligible, solar radiation levels are dangerously high, and the daily temperature fluctuation can
be as high as 150 degrees centigrade. Meteor impacts are also common.
Habitat Architecture to suit Mars: These radically different parameters are generating radical
new kinds of architecture and design. ‘Moving To Mars’, a new exhibition at London’s Design
Museum this October, promises to be a major showcase for these new Martian arts; while US
firm AI Spacefactory is creating a 3D printed experience of Mars life in the woods of upstate
New York, completing this autumn to launch to the public in March 2020.
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Work by- Galina Balashova,Soviet space architect
It is not just a design challenge; building on Mars is also a construction challenge. Transporting
building materials 56 million km is out of the question. There is little choice but to work with the
material available: Martian rock, known as regolith. The current thinking is to send autonomous
robots in advance to process this regolith into a material suitable for 3D printing, then to
construct habitats remotely, ready for the first human arrivals. Again, this is no longer as sci-fi as
it sounds.
For the past three years NASA has been running a 3D Printed Habitat Challenge, testing
competing designs and materials, and moving the technology forwards – to the extent that new
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‘interplanetary’ architecture practices are emerging, combining old-school design skills and
space-tech expertise. A panel of specialists worked alongside a visualization team to predict how
future Martian homes are likely to look, with interior and exterior images released for a variety
of futuristic residential builds.
Dwelling Designs: The team produced particulars for three distinct dwellings; an apartment
aimed at young professionals, a family home and a luxury mansion.
Key considerations include light and how to protect the living area of homes from cosmic rays
and hazardous levels of radiation, as well as insulation from the cold and protection from severe
dust storms.
(Image: National Geographic / SWNS.com)
The drawings have been produced after research revealed one in ten Brits would move to Mars
tomorrow, with a sense of adventure, enjoying more space and escaping human dangers on earth
among the top reasons for swapping planets.
Stephen Petranek, author of the book How We’ll Live on Mars, which the National Geographic
series MARS is based on, said: “It’s exciting to think that humans will be living on Mars far
sooner than most people think.The second series of MARS considers how a community might be
built and sustained on the Red Planet in the 2040s, and what the challenges will be both from a
practical and a human standpoint.”
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(Image: National Geographic / SWNS.com)
“For this forward-thinking project, we’ve predicted what different homes on Mars might actually
look like, with options to suit a range of budgets.“There are plenty of elements to consider, from
ensuring an adequate shield to the harsh radiation Mars endures because its atmosphere is so
thin, to the need for homely touches reminiscent of Earth.“Ultimately, living on Mars must seem
more appealing and psychologically inviting than living on Earth or not enough people will want
to make a new life there.
“As we make these predictions now, we can only wonder what designs we will actually adopt as
hundreds of thousands of people eventually move to the Red Planet.”
The Mars apartment block features a number of living pods aimed at individuals and couples,
with tunnels leading to a central shared garden and work spaces.
It is protected from the sun’s rays by tinted glazing featuring coating technology developed to
filter out the radiation and rammed earth walls, designed to protect from the cold as well as
cosmic rays.
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(Image: National Geographic / SWNS.com)
The family home is built within a protective cave, with a driveway leading to an inbuilt garage as
well as a conservatory-style veranda made from protective glass that offers a small indoor garden
area. The kind of natural light we would usually get from our windows on Earth is simulated via
LEDs and camera systems that can show the outside landscape in real-time to mimic windows,
and could even be programmed to provide other vistas.
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(Image: National Geographic / SWNS.com)
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(Image: National Geographic / SWNS.com)
For example parks, forests, rivers - familiar sights from Earth that our Martian residents might be
missing.The mansion is part of a crater community, offering show stopping vistas across the
cavity from three levels.
It boasts a huge living space with private indoor garden and multi-gym that allows for ‘outdoor’
activities such as sports to take place in an artificially-oxygenated environment as well as a car
port that can hold multiple vehicles.
According to the National Geographic research a fifth of Brits predict that it will be possible
to move to Mars within their lifetime, and there is a significant appetite to make an interplanetary
move. One in six revealed that with people struggling to get on the housing ladder on Earth,
buying property on Mars is looking like a more attractive prospect.
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NASA subjects the Marsha model to a crushing test to assess its durability.Courtesy AI
Spacefactory
(Image: National Geographic / SWNS.com)
Brits revealed that the opportunity to enjoy a better quality of life, the desire to seek new
adventure and the need to flee human dangers on Earth such as war would be the most likely
factors to precipitate a move to Mars.
However, almost nine in ten predicted they would miss some aspects about life on Earth,
including their pets and even the British weather.
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The epic action-adventure film “John Carter,” based on Edgar Rice Burroughs’ classic, “A
Princess of Mars,” the first novel in Burroughs’ Barsoom series. In scoop for METALOCUS
readers bring the designs of the main architectural stages of the film. This year, 2012, marks the
100th anniversary of Burroughs’ character John Carter, the original hero featured in the series,
who has thrilled generations with his adventures on Mars.
Over generations, John Carter has become a heroic paradigm across all forms of pop culture.
From novels to comic books, artwork to animation, TV and now cinema, the character has
inspired some of the most creative minds of the last century.
"From Academy Award®–winning filmmaker Andrew Stanton comes “John Carter”—a
sweeping action-adventure set on the mysterious and exotic planet of Barsoom (Mars). “John
Carter” is based on a classic novel by Edgar Rice Burroughs, whose highly imaginative
adventures served as inspiration for many filmmakers, both past and present.
The film tells the story of war-weary, former military captain John Carter (Taylor Kitsch), who is
inexplicably transported to Mars where he becomes reluctantly embroiled in a conflict of epic
proportions amongst the inhabitants of the planet, including Tars Tarkas (Willem Dafoe) and the
captivating Princess Dejah Thoris (Lynn Collins). In a world on the brink of collapse, Carter
rediscovers his humanity when he realizes that the survival of Barsoom and its people rests in his
hands."
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The Moving to Mars exhibition, which opened on 18 th Octiber 2019 at London's Design
Museum, explores putting humans on the red planet as the final frontier for design"Surviving on
Mars could teach us how to live more sustainably on earth", says Design Museum's Moving
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to Mars curator. Even though the show was structured into five parts: Imagining Mars, The
Voyage, Survival, Mars Futures and Down to Earth and explored themes including the role that
design plays in keeping astronauts safe during the voyage to Mars, and what working with its
limited resources could teach us about designing more sustainably on Earth it did not answer all
the questions.
Prompting the curator to state that "We don't advocate for Mars as a Planet B," "But we pose the
question of whether the rigours required in such an inhospitable environment – where we'll have
to recycle our oxygen, recycle our water and reuse our waste to survive – might force us to solve
those problems on Earth," he continued.
"Here, despite everything, we can all still get up and go through our day and not change
anything. You cannot do that if you're sending someone to Mars because they wouldn't last one
minute."
And from the time NASA's Curiosity Rover landed on Mars in August 2012, how survival
on Mars might become possible is explored through more than 200 exhibits which consist of a
combination of original artefacts from the likes of NASA and Elon Musk's SpaceX, alongside
new commissions and immersive installations by Konstantin Grcic and Alexandra Daisy
Ginsberg.
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The MARSHA Habitat by multidisciplinary design agency AI Spacefactory is one of several
speculative habitats featured in the exhibition. The show's first section, Imagining Mars, charts
our fascination with the red planet throughout history and culture, and how our understanding of
it has been shaped through scientific advancements. Covering everything from the first real
maps of Mars, created by Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli in the 1870s, to a prototype of
the Rosalind Franklin ExoMars Rover which will be sent to the planet in 2020.
Named after the scientist whose x-ray images let to the discovery of DNA, this mobile laboratory
created by the European Space Agency (ESA) and its Russian counterpart Roscosmos, will drill
two metres into the planet's surface to look for evidence of past or present life.
The Rosalind Franklin rover is the largest of a number of different ESA prototypes and models featured in Moving to
Mars
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First map of mars, 1877
-
GIOVANNI VIRGINIO SCHIAPARELLI 1835 - 1910
This is followed by On
Mars Today, a multi-sensory installation meant to help visitors imagine the current conditions on
the planet, from the radiation to the freezing temperatures, the lack of oxygen and the frequent
dust storms.
It visualises these conditions through a slowly panning panorama of the Martian environment,
accompanied by an audio track of otherworldly sounds and a scent created especially for the
exhibition by perfumery Firmenich. On Mars Today offers a multi-sensory experience of
conditions on the red planet
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Part two of the exhibition takes a closer look at how we would actually get to Mars, starting from
the first iterations of space travel and going on to explore how it might be adapted for the journey
to Mars.
"It took us three days to get to the moon, so how can we stay safe and sane on a seven- to ninemonth journey to Mars?" asked McGuirk. "Add to that the time needed for the scientific study of
the planet and it's a completely different prospect."
"It's not just about making sure that people can be kept healthy and fed. It's also about making it
tolerable," he continued.
Sokol spacesuits were worn by those onboard the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft
This shift to a more human-centred approach is explored through seminal interior designs created
for both NASA and the Soviet space programme.
Sketches by American designer Raymond Loewy illustrate his introduction of windows, which
had previously been considered a structural weakness, as well as a dining table to facilitate
communal eating.
Galina Balashova, :Alongside this designs from Russian architect Galina Balashova, who first
introduced the colour coding of floors and ceilings to help astronauts maintain a sense of
orientation. Moving to Mars explores design as a crucial factor in keeping astronauts safe and
sane during their journey to the planet
This part of the exhibition also considers the constraints of zero gravity, which require
everything from basic equipment to furniture to be re-designed.
A new commission by German industrial designer Konstantin Grcic simplifies the highly
engineered and complex tables present in spacecrafts and on space stations today as a circular
rail. Astronauts' feet are hooked into floor-mounted straps to anchor them.
Designer Anna Talvi, meanwhile, has contributed a series of lightweight, flexible garments,
which act as a sort of "wearable gym" working out the wearer's muscles to prevent them from
atrophying in low gravity. The NDX-1 spacesuit is more flexible than the suits used for the moon
landing to allow for planetary exploration. On display for the first time as part of the exhibition is
NDX-1, the first prototype spacesuit designed specifically for use on Mars. It was created by the
University of North Dakota to withstand the planet's gruelling conditions, while soft fabric-joints
improve mobility when compared to the suits used on the moon. The outer shell of Foster +
Partners' Mars habitat would be built by semi-autonomous robots. In part three, designers turn to
the matter of survival – namely where we will live, what we will wear and eat.
Here, a large space is designated to different miniature models of what a future habitat could
look like, including a 3D-printed habitat designed by Foster + Partners, as well as a full-sized,
walk-in model made by architecture firm Hassell.Both make use of Mars' loose, sandy topsoil,
called regolith, to form a protective outer shell, while inflatable pods are used to form the
interior.Raeburn's collection of clothes repurposes materials such as parachutes, which would
deployed in the process of landing on Mars
.
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Malaysian designers propose building Mars colony from locally grown bamboo. Warith
Zaki and Amir Amzar have envisioned using bamboo grown and harvested on Mars to build the
first colony on the red planet.
Named Seed of Life, the conceptual colony design comprises a series of structures woven from
bamboo by autonomous robots.
Malaysian designers Zaki and Amzar designed the proposal to demonstrate that there may be
alternative ways of building on Mars that do not rely on shipping material from earth or 3D
printing. "After doing a lot of research on Mars colonisation, we realised that half of the ideas
would go about deploying fully synthetic materials made on earth to build shelters, while the
other half is about using the locally available regolith," Zaki and Amzar told Dezeen.
"We tried to find something in between, a balance of natural material from earth and advanced
technology." To create the buildings, Zaki and Amzar envision farming bamboo on Mars and
using the material the build the structures.
"Human civilisation has yet to build anything on any other planet outside of Earth. That fact
alone opens up infinite possibilities of what could or should be used," explained the designers.
"Sure, 3D printing seems to be a viable proposition, but with thousands of years worth of
experience and techniques in shelter construction, why shouldn’t we tap on other alternatives
too?"
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“A rendering of Marsha, one of the options NASA collaborators have come up with for housing on the
Red Planet. The tall, slender shape maximizes interior space and lends itself to printing.Courtesy AI
Spacefactory
Architect Jeffery Montes and his colleagues at architecture firm AI SpaceFactory are in a cavernous hall near Peoria, Illinois, to show NASA how astronauts could use 3D printing and
Martian materials to make houses on the Red Planet. After spending the better part of 30 hours
watching their custom-built printer squirt out a chocolate-colored domicile called “Marsha,” they
have just minutes before the agency calls time in its 3D-Printed Habitat Challenge. The company’s only competition for the $500,000 prize, a team from Penn State University, finished
its gray concrete double igloo a few minutes before.
3D Printing: Think of housing on Mars, and that’s the kind of shape that might come to mind.
But Montes, an architect who spent 17 months designing Marsha (for Mars habitat) and the
equipment to print it, sees something that looks more like a jar. Or an urn. Or an egg. “It even
has this hermaphroditic quality where on the outside it’s kind of phallic, and on the inside it’s…”
Montes envisions several floors where residents of the Red Planet will live and work and play,
and a skylight under which they will gaze at a starry sky or bask in sunlight refracted through the
thin Martian atmosphere. But that means securing the round window atop a 15-foot structure
that’s still squishy. The mixture sets quickly, but not quickly enough to meet NASA’s looming
deadline. As the printer nozzle climbs higher, Marsha’s upper layers slump ever so slightly.
The robot finishes with three minutes to spare, then inches the polycarbonate skylight into
position. With seconds remaining and dozens of people—including a film crew from NASA—
watching, Montes gives the order to release it. Everyone holds their breath, hoping Marsha
doesn’t cave in.
People settling on Mars will to some degree have to live off the land. At its closest, our
neighboring planet lies 35 million miles away. Transporting supplies there will cost roughly
$5,000 per pound and take at least six months using current technology. Better to enlist the
natural resources of their new home when possible, an approach called in situ resource
utilization. "It totally changes the logistics of a mission," says Advenit Makaya, a materials
engineer who develops processes like 3D printing at the European Space Agency. "You don't
have to bring everything with you."
Humans on the Red Planet might draw power from the sun, mine water from buried ice, and
harvest oxygen from the atmosphere. With NASA’s encouragement, architects, engineers, and
scientists are exploring how early residents might use recycled waste and the planet’s loose rock
and dust, called regolith, to craft tools, erect homes, pave launchpads and roads, and more.
Rovers and probes have revealed enough about Martian geology for us to start figuring out how
that might work. The surface contains an abundance of iron, magnesium, aluminum, and other
useful metals found here at home. Scientists also believe the crust consists largely of volcanic
basalt much like the dried lava fields of Hawaii.
Here on Earth, researchers often employ crushed basalt as an analog for Martian regolith. They
can heat and compress the sandy material, a process called sintering, to create paving tiles.
NASA and aerospace agency Pacific International Space Center for Exploration Systems did
exactly that in 2015, then had a robotic rover called Helelani use the pavers to build a launchpad
66 feet in diameter. Compacted regolith might even hold together without heat, according to a
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team led by Yu Qiao of the University of California at San Diego. Their 2017 study posits that
iron oxide, which gives Mars its rusty tint, could serve as a binding agent.
If humans want to create a
lasting presence on the Red Planet, they’ll have to live off the dirt beneath their feet.
They turned to a relatively simple method of pottery-making called slip casting. It calls for
pouring a soupy mixture of clay and water, called slip, into a plaster mold and allowing it to set.
Then you dump out the excess material and remove the object for firing in a kiln. Instead of
using clay, Karl and Gurlo tried it with a simulated regolith called JSC-Mars-1A, which NASA
developed in 1998, and a rotund mold from the Royal Porcelain Factory in Berlin. The smooth,
squat vases they created resemble terra cotta, and wouldn’t look out of place filled with flowers.
Karl envisions greens sprouting from vessels like them in hydroponic gardens on another world.
He also thinks refining the process could allow astronauts to slip-cast Red Planet mud into morecomplex shapes with the help of a 3D printer. Mars inhabitants might craft everyday objects, but
NASA wants architects and engineers to consider where those pioneers might live. Four years
ago, the agency invited them to enter the 3D-Printed Habitat Challenge.
Contestants navigated three escalating phases of competition. The first, completed in 2015,
called on teams to create architectural renderings of their habitats. Two years later, entrants had
to develop the tools needed to 3D-print dwellings, and create the beams, domes, and other
structural elements needed to erect them. Teams came and went as the contest progressed, until
just two entered the final, and hardest, event this year.
The rules, which ran 76 pages, required each group to print a one-third scale model of a fourperson habitat with at least three openings within 30 hours. Judges awarded points for using
materials like simulated regolith, and, because the competition emphasized automated
construction, deducted points for intervening to, say, fuss with printer software or clear a clogged
nozzle.
NASA likes the idea of robot construction crews because the habitats could be ready before
humans arrive.
Habitat construction got off to a rough start the first day of the May 2019 competitions. The
teams worked in an enormous exhibition hall owned by heavy-equipment manufacturer
Caterpillar, which typically uses the space to demonstrate earth-movers and other big machines.
The arena briefly lost power, causing hiccups in the teams' printer programs, and wonky
extrusions required occasional troubleshooting. Judges discreetly warned NASA's Monsi Roman,
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who oversaw each of the phases leading up to the final event, to prepare for disappointment. But
within a day, both teams found their momentum, and the mesmerizing whir of the printers drew
company employees and field-tripping students to watch the structures rise in fits and starts.
Some wondered if the tumble doomed AI SpaceFactory’s chance of winning, even though the
team had earned high scores in several categories and intervened in its automated print less often
than the Penn State crew. After letting the habitats cure overnight, the judges spent a few hours
beating them mercilessly to ensure they were airtight, check their impact resistance, and assess
their strength. Dairy Queen proved remarkably robust during a simulated meteorite strike,
enduring a barrage of increasingly heavy balls until the last one, a 26-pounder, removed a small
chunk of the roof. More impressive, the structure resisted the crushing vertical assault of a 96-ton
excavator—at least for a couple of minutes, before collapsing with the percussive crack of a
bowler throwing a strike.
Strictly speaking, Marsha was incomplete because it lacked a roof. It clearly wasn’t airtight: The
habitat emitted great plumes of colorful smoke when a contest official tossed a test flare into it.
The judges saw no point to dropping fake meteorites on it either. The model, however,
surrendered just a few small pieces to the excavator, which placed its bucket on Marsha’s rim
and pushed down with enough force to raise the front of the rumbling machine’s treads off the
ground.
After spending a few hours reviewing notes and tallying points, the judges named AI
SpaceFactory the winner. Montes, grinning with teammates as they held an oversize check for
$500,000, seemed almost as pleased as NASA’s Roman, who considered the build a great
success. Despite their scars, the habitats provided perhaps the most tangible evidence yet of what
homes on another world could look like. “They’re not perfect,” she said, “but they’re beautiful.”
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3D printed Habitat
Balashova was born in Kolomna and was educated at the Moscow Architectural Institute.
Balashova began her career in 1955 at the GiproAviaProm design institute in Kuibyshev. Her
work at this time involved removing decorative elements, considered "decadent", from
residential buildings. In 1957, she became senior architect at OKB-1, which was responsible for
design during the early days of the Soviet space program. She began by designing residences for
employees but later contributed to the interior design of the Soyuz spacecraft and
the Salyut and Mir space stations. Balashova also worked as a consultant for the Buran
programme. She retired in 1991 upon the collapse of the Soviet Union, making her work no
longer a State secret and available to the public.
Her work with the space program included the design of interior spaces, furniture, control panels,
decorative logos and murals for interior walls. Balashova designed for a’ 0’ gravity environment,
using contrasting colors for floor and ceiling so that astronauts would not become disoriented.
Her color schemes come from her experience doing watercolors as a child, where she began her
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artistic education. Balashova also used the color green in her designs so the televisions at the
time would produce the color truthfully.
In 2018 in the United States for the first time Galina Balashova's remarkable life and
professional accomplishments have been uncovered and emphasized in talks presented at
international conferences organized by two leading American universities.
Her design for lapel pins used at the Aérosalons exhibition in France in 1973 later became
official emblem for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project. Balashova was denied approval to attach her
name to her own drawing under the "pretext of safety," losing the opportunity to spread her name
among 100,000 distributed pins at the exhibition.[2] Press coverage increased in the Soviet Union
and the United States but Balashova still failed to receive any credit for her designs. When the
lapel pins began production in a factory in Mytishchi, certificates for Balashova's design were
created by the factory's artistic committee without approval of the government.[2] Balashova's
superiors became enraged that she held not only the copyright, but also she was officially
registered as the creator; her superiors considered themselves to be the creators of the emblem,
and that the workers were only following their direction. Bobkov, one of her superiors,
threatened to place Balashova in jail for 8 years "for the betrayal of State secrets." Balashova was
only able to save herself by claiming it was not her, but the factory who submitted the certificate,
and that she was forced to sign a declaration of renunciation and restrict any future royalty
payments for the emblem. For comparison, a male in the department found the emblem and
reproduced it with a hexagonal profile and reportedly received tens of thousands of dollars for
his design, which was simply a replica of Balashova's design.
Galina Balashova's pioneering achievements are illuminated in major planned volumes on
women's contribution to architecture but her contributions to zero gravity designs are rarely
recognized today beyond a few minor exhibitions and these volumes.
Space station MIR
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Galina on Right
“Design for the Soviet Space Programme – Galina Balashova, Architect” © Uwe Dettmar
REFERENCES
Inside NASA's plan to use Martian dirt to build houses on Mars
If humans want to create a lasting presence on the Red Planet, they’ll have to learn to live off the
land. Megan Gannon, October 14, 2019
https://www.popsci.com/making-houses-on-mars/
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From Architectural reviews
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“
how a house on Mars might look. Photograph: HASSELL + Eckersley
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CHAPTERXV
How to Draw a Mandala
Art is an expression of joy and awe. It is not an attempt to share one's virtues and
accomplishments with the audience, but an act of selfless spirit. Our effect is not for us to know.
It is not in our control. Only our intention is under our control.
Drawing a mandala (or what is widely considered as a mandala in Western civilization) can seem
very strenuous and difficult at first, but it's actually the opposite. The intricate look of a mandala
comes from following a rhythm, which turns a little effort into a stunning result. Doing the same
thing over and over, and advancing despite it, is very relaxing and lets you stay in the moment.
You can read more about drawing as a therapy in this introduction to the series:
You can follow my steps directly, use the same techniques for your own mandala, or simply read
the whole thing just to learn about drawing mandalas.
What You Will Need
As with most personal art therapy activities, you don't need any professional art supplies. You
can get these tools even in supermarkets!
sheet of paper (even copy paper will do)
pencil
drawing compass
ruler
protractor
fineliner/thin marker/pigment ink pen (any color you like)
(optionally) thicker marker
You can draw a mandala with a pencil only, if you want, but dark markers make the pattern
cleaner and more definite. A pencil has some uncertainty in it; you never know when the line is
done. With a marker pen, you have a sense of stability, and the lines seem more real.
There's one more thing you need to draw a mandala: a proper mindset. Sure, you can treat it as a
normal drawing, with a certain goal in mind, but you can gain more than just the satisfaction of a
pretty artwork if you do it properly. Treat it as a meditation session. Sit comfortably, in quiet or
with some pleasant music, and focus on this one activity.
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Don't think about how it's going to look when you finish, or how people will react when they see
it. Don't make it about yourself, and don't treat it as a test of your drawing skill or self-worth. Let
the rhythm take you around each circle, and let the mandala become your whole world for now.
There's no good or bad—just the rhythm, lines, and contrast.
Don't scold yourself for mistakes; it's natural that they happen. Ignore them or make them a part
of the rhythm, so they stop being a mistake and become a part of the pattern you could never
imagine before. This is your mandala—nobody should care what it looks like, and nor should
you care about them.
Let yourself be creative. Don't restrain yourself from drawing something experimental, just
because there's a risk it will not look good in the end. There should be no shame in drawing a
mandala. No matter how you do it, no matter how it looks, it's good, because you have created it.
A pretty mandala won't change the world for the better, neither will an "ugly" one make your life
worse.
So sit down, and take a breath. Smile and draw your soul out. Make this mandala yours, without
any attachment to the outer world, and see how much joy you can take from this simple activity.
What is a mandala?
A mandala is a complex abstract design that is usually circular in form. In fact, "mandala"
is a Sanskrit word that means "circle". Mandalas generally have one identifiable center
point, from which emanates an array of symbols, shapes and forms.
Mandalas can contain both geometric and organic forms. They can also contain
recognizable images that carry meaning for the person who is creating it.
In essence, mandalas represent the connection between our inner worlds and outer reality.
Designing your own mandalas can be both inspirational and therapeutic.It need not be
circular-could be a Matrix
Botanic
matrix
Create your own mandala
When you create your own mandala, think of it as an echo of your soul. Drawing and
coloring a mandala can be a highly enriching personal experience in which you look inside
yourself and find the shapes, colors and patterns to represent anything from your current
state of mind to your most deeply-desired wish for yourself, for a loved one, or for
humanity.
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You can design a mandala to symbolize a state of mind that you would like to achieve.
Mandalas are great tools for meditation and increasing self-awareness. Many different
cultures around the world use mandalas in their spiritual practices.
The best thing about designing your own mandals is that you have the freedom to choose
whatever shapes and colors that you feel express your sense of self and your view of
reality. Your mandala is yours, and you have the freedom to use your creativity to create a
mandala drawing that is uniquely you.
Once you know the basic steps of how to draw a mandala, you can try now new designs
and new colors each time you draw a new mandala.
Materials needed:
You don't need many materials to learn how to draw a mandala. All you need is: paper, a
pencil, a ruler, and an eraser.
To color in your mandala: your choice of colored pencils, watercolors, crayons, or any
other type of art material for coloring. You can also use a compass if you like - this will be
covered in the steps below.
Let's get started!
The first step in how to draw a mandala is to measure out your paper into a square shape.
The square can be as big or as small as you like. The bigger the square, the more room you
will have for putting in lots of detail and color. I made my square 8" x 8".
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Next, use your ruler and a pencil to draw a dot in the very center of the square, as shown
above.
The next step in how to draw a mandala is to draw a series of circles around this dot. Once
you've drawn the dot in the center of your square, one easy way to draw circles is to use a
compass. If you don't have a compass, don't worry - drawing circles is easy if you follow
these steps:
Using your ruler, measure out 1/2" (or more or less - depending on your preference) from
the center dot. Make a mark 1/2" above, below, to the left and to the right of the center dot,
as shown above.
Next, measure out another distance from the center dot. I chose 1.5" from the center dot.
Using the same process as before, make a mark at this same distance on top, below, to the
left and to the right of the center dot.
You can continue making as many rows of these dots as you like. I chose to make 3 rows of
dots, as you can see above.
The important thing is to make sure that the dots you make are all equidistant from the
center dot.
Now that you've drawn your dots, it's time to connect them. Draw a straight vertical line
connecting the dots that go up and down, and a straight horizontal line connecting the dots
that go one either side. See above for an example of this step in how to draw a mandala.
Next, draw another series of dots at the same distances from the center as your first series
of dots. See the example above. The yellow arrows point to where the new row of dots will
be located. Try to make them at a 45 degree angle to the perpendicular lines.
Draw four rows of dots, making a large x shape. See the example above.
Next, use your ruler to connect the dots you just made. Now your picture should look like
the picture above.
Now you'll want to connect the dots into circles. To do this, start at one dot, and draw a
curved line to the next dot, and so on.
Don't worry about making the circles "perfect". We're not worried about perfection here!
Just take it one step at a time, going from dot to dot.
It's okay if you make mistakes. In the example above, you can see 2 instances in the
outermost circle where I made a mistake the first time around. If this is your first time
learning how to draw a mandala, trust me - it will be even easier the next time you do it.
Just make sure you draw lightly enough that you can easily erase any mistakes.
Tip: If you don't want to take the time to sketch out your own circular grid, you can
download and print your own polar graph paper. This is great for sketching, but if you use
this graph paper to create a finished piece, remember that you'll still have those little blue
lines underneath your mandala. When you draw your own grid, you can erase the lines!
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Now that you've drawn the basic outline for your mandala, you can begin drawing designs
in your mandala!
You can use a pencil, colored pencils, ink, crayons, or whatever you choose.
I chose to use two different colors of colored pencil to draw in my design.
You can start from the center, or you can start from anywhere where you feel inspired to
make some marks.
Using the lines and circles you drew as guidelines, you can draw shapes like circles,
triangles, raindrops, loops, etc.
The important this is to repeat your pattern. For example, if you draw a circle on one of the
lines, be sure to draw it in the same spot on the other lines.
This creates repetition, which is a key element in creating a mandala.
As you draw more and more designs, your mandala will start to look more complex.
The key is to take it slowly, drawing one shape at a time and going around the whole circle
drawing that one shape in the right place.
Then you build on that shape by drawing other shapes around the circle in the same
manner.
Here is how the mandala looks with all the designs drawn in. Pretty cool!
You can leave your mandala just like this, or you can choose to color it in.
I decided to color my mandala with watercolors...
Voila! Here is my finished mandala.
Using watercolors, I colored in the design using colors that were soft, introspective, and
uplifting.
Now you know how to draw a mandala!
How to Plan a Mandala
https://design.tutsplus.com/tutorials/art-therapy-how-to-draw-a-mandala--cms-29570
Step 1
It's possible to draw a mandala without any plan, but it has two disadvantages:
You have to switch from pen to compass all the time, which breaks focus.
The risk of losing the rhythm is high.
If you draw a plan for the mandala first, later you can focus on drawing without worrying about
keeping the rhythm. You just follow it and see the pattern emerge as if by some kind of magic!
Take the compass and stick it in the center of the sheet. Draw a small circle, then a bigger one,
and another, using various distances between them. Making the circles concentric is the only rule
here.
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Step 2
Take the ruler and draw a horizontal line across the center (tip: place the ruler slightly lower to
make space for the pencil).
Step 3
Take the protractor and place it along the line, pointing directly at the center. Draw a mark every
30 degrees: at 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150. This will give us 12 sections. You can use fewer or
more, if you want—there's no rule for this!
Step 4
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Take the ruler again and draw a line between the center and every mark, across the whole plan.
Again, be careful to save some space for the line over the ruler.
2. How to Draw the Center of the Mandala
Step 1
Start right from the center. Fill that smallest circle with some kind of repetitive pattern. What can
be easy to repeat, in this small space and with the guide lines you have there? I decided to draw a
little flower petal filling the whole section.
Step 2
Replicate the element until you fill the whole circle. Be slow and methodical—there's no hurry!
Focus on the movement of your hand, on the noise made by your tool, and think only about what
you're drawing at the moment. Leave the future for later!
Step 3
Darken the circle to enclose the pattern within clear boundaries.
Step 4-Let's go to another circle. To continue with this flowery theme, we can draw more
interesting petals. Draw one side of it...... and copy it all around the circle.
Step 5
Now draw another side of the petal.
Step 6
You can create another clean boundary of this circle before going to the next one. Here let's try
another trick: you don't need to follow strictly the guide lines of the plan—you can add more!
For example, you can cut every section in half to create another rhythm.
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Step 7
Step 8
Not every circle must be enclosed with a dark outline. You can freely go straight to another one
and derive your new pattern from the previous row.
Step 9
Too simple? Fill the shapes with more shapes!
Step 10
Dark circles can beautifully fill the space and add some appealing contrast.
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Step 11
Still too empty? You can add something else. No matter how simple and weird it looks in one
section, it will be turned into a beautiful pattern by the rhythm. So don't be afraid to experiment!
Step 12
A boundary between one row and another doesn't need to be dark and boring. You can make it
more detailed, if there's enough space.
Step 13
If the new pattern becomes very detailed, the earlier one may appear empty in comparison, but
nothing stops you from going back to it and adding more detail!
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3. How to Draw the Outer Part of a Mandala
Step 1
There's no requirement for the size of the mandala—you can go as far as you like! However, the
further from the center, the bigger each section. So it can be a good idea to divide each one into
more sections, for example thirds—whatever is easy enough for you to measure.
Step 2
You can create interesting patterns by using contrast. If you have a thicker pen, this is where it
can be useful, but filling a small section with a thin pen can be quite relaxing as well—unless
you hurry!
Step 3
Let's fill the empty space with some lines.
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Step 4
Let's try a different shape this time. You can borrow the guide lines straight from the previous
row.
Step 5-More triangles!
Step 6
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When you draw a big circular boundary, it's easy to make a mistake. Small mistakes are not so
visible in the complexity of a mandala, but if you want, you can always fix such a thing with a
thicker line.
Step 7
Let's add more contrast.
Step 8
There's a lot of space her
e that's waiting to be filled!.
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Step 9
Prepare another row.
Step 10
What else can we draw, that we haven't drawn before?
Step 11
The contrast with the rows below suggests we add more darkness here as well.
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4. How to Finish a Mandala
Step 1
A mandala ends when you want it to end, but it's good to finish it in a special way. Let's go back
to the big sections now and recreate the petals from the very beginning.
Step 2
To make them a part of the pattern instead of just a boundary of a huge empty space, give these
petals a thick frame. A thicker pen can be useful here.
Step 3
One more line will make the space less empty.
Step 4
Maybe it's time for some dots? We haven't added any for a while.
Step 5
I looked at the row below and it looks quite empty, almost merging with the upper row. Let's fix
it.
Step 6
More petals! To make them very big, I crossed two rows at once.
Step 7
Let's give them a clean frame this time.
Step 8
Add a simple pattern to fill up the empty space:
Step 9
To make the mandala more open, we can add some elements outside. For example, attach a
circle to each petal.
Step 10
Fill it for a better contrast.
Step 11
Each circle can be extended into more circles, to bring attention to the outside, as a balance for
the strikingly detailed inside.
Step 12
Not every boundary must be a closing line. To keep it open, make it with circles.
Step 13
Finally, take a look at the mandala as a whole and see if you want to add anything.
Look at your mandala once again. Try to see it for what it is, not for what it isn't. Don't
compare it to something in your mind, some vision of what it was "supposed to" look like. After
all, if your goal was to draw a mandala, and you did it, then you succeeded!
There's a tradition in Tibetan Buddhism of creating sand mandalas that are ceremoniously
destroyed after they're finished. It symbolizes the fleeting nature of our life—no matter how
much effort we put in, no matter what we achieve, it will end the same way for everyone. You
can recreate this practice by destroying your mandala, to remind yourself that it's really the
process that's important, not the end result. That it's the journey that matters, not the destination.
And having that in mind, it's easier to enjoy the process of creation without worrying about the
end result.
And if drawing a mandala has put you into a mood for more drawing, you may like these simple
tutorials:
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COMPLEX ARTISTIC MANDALAS
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Kerry Penny Creative Artist
from UK whose Art is displayed above
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Mandala Jewellery by Kerry Penny. Buy from
Whitehartmoon on Instagram
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LOVING NEEDLES by MANRAJ (on Instagram)
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crochet
how to crochet- https://www.wikihow.life/Crochet
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR- S
RISHTIDOKRAS
An Architect by choice and design, she completed a BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE Degree
from the now famous Institute of Design Education and Architectural Studies, Nagpur,India.
Her distinguished design and architectural experience has taken her to Mumbai, Pondicherry and
Hyderabad. She has also visited Dubai, Australia and Seattle, USA as a visiting architect. Srishti
has worked for Vivek Varma Architects , Mumbai ,Uday Dighe and Associates , Mumbai, Ashok
Mokha Architects Nagpur ,and Shama Dalvi in Auroville.Currently working in the REVIT
domain in BASE 4 corporation at Nagpur, the main work center of Base4,USA. She has been a
part of the design map of the Nagpur Metro; Google corporate office Hyderabad, residential
houses in the city of Pondicherry –AUROVILLE, India and Nagpur, India. Restaurant Designs
for Kettle and Brew Beverages Pvt Ltd, PUNE,India
She has attended the bamboo and earth construction workshop , Auroville • Attended
construction workshop organizedby Indian Institute of Engineers • Participated in N.A.S.A. 2015
• Held 1st position in Product Design/Competition “ Light em up ” at Regional Level •
Shortlisted for S.A. Deshpande Trophy/organized by Indian Institute of Architects , Nagpur
Visiting Architectural scholar at Melbourne, Sydney , Australia and Seattle, Deira Dubai and
New Jersey USA
Srishti has published 46 research and allied papers and 5 books on CREATIVITY &
ARCHITECTURE. She also contributed a chapter on REVIT software for the book Human
Resources in Project Management. Her particular area of interest is INTERIORS DESIGN.
Some of the Collected works of Srishti: 1. The GREAT WALL of CHINA an Architectural
Foray 2. Architecture of Hotels 3. The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala in Temple Architecture 4.
Prambanan, a Hindu temple in Indonesia-general architectural and morphological analysis 5.
HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE of BHARAT-SOME MUSINGS 6. Autodesk Revit for
Project Management 7. VERTICAL GARDENS - an Architectural Perspective.pdf 8. Theme
Park and Architecture 9. Philosophy and Architecture 10. AYODHYA in ITS ARCHITECTURE
Myth and Reality 11. The Nagara Architecture of Khajuraho 12. Hotel Design- Architectural
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Breviary 13. Hindu Temple Architecture 14. Lanka 15. Cambodia and Angkor Vat 16. reativity and
Architecture
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS
About the Author
The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.
In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi
millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done
his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.
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Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”
BOOKS written by Dr Uday
1. Act on Co-determination at work-an efficacy study - 1990
Doctoral thesis published by Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm,Sweden
This is a first of a kind empirical study of both employees and business owners reactions
of how efficiently a labour law was functioning in a country(Sweden).Adorns Stanford
and Harvard University Libraries and granted Copyright by the Library of Congress,USA
in 1990.
2. Health Human Resource Management- 2006
A to Z of the Management of health workers starting from recruitment to training,
development and enhancing their efficacy. Good book for all health care institutions as
well as medical and nursing staff and students.
3. Theme Park Human Resource Engineering- 2007
How the workers in theme parks deal with a complex environment and need to be
managed in order to being out superior delivery of customer focused services helping in
more footfalls at the same time not compromising on safety.
4. Project Human Resource Management- 2008
Projects are cumbersome and their success rests not on the material but on the men who
move it. Book deals with management ideas to spur project workers and staff to greater
delivery parameters.
5. Creativity and Architecture -2009
Co-authored with Srishti Dokras, examines the parameters of creativity and how it will
raise design quotients.
6. Diffusion – Management and Design- 2009
Co-authored with Karan Dokras deals with a new and little known subject of Diffusion
or how predator ideas enhance own value in a market where dominant players call the
shots.
7. Hindu Temples of Bharat,Cambodia and Bali- 2020
Enigmatic designs, huge structures, massive projects all done before the invention of
cranes or bulldozers- the how and why of temples in Bharat,Nagpur,and the Far East.
Biggest and most comprehensive book on the subject -452 pages.
8. Win Diet 2020
Diets and fads come and go but not this one-A diet and exercise plan that will help you to
win over obesity,unhealthy lifestyles and make a dynamic YOU .Written by a 68 year old
who has been diagnosed with a 26 year old’s heart.
9. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple of Java- 2020
This amazing biggest in the world Buddhist temple was built with technology and ideas
from India 1500 years ago using fractal geometry, Algorithms, Hindu temple technology
and archeoastronomy. Read HOW it was done.
10. LOTUS the Celestial Flower
11.Light house at Alexandria
12. Lighthouses in words and Pictures
13.Vayu- Man’s taming of the Winds
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14. My Best Foot Forward- story of the Footware Industry in India
15.16,17… DEVARAJA- TRILOGY. The Celestial King and the Mysteries of South
Asian Hindu Temples -3 Volumes 1200 pages
18. VARDHAMAN- Jainism- for not the layman
19. ATIVIR- The saga of Vardhaman the Prince and Mahavir the Saint.
20. Hindu Temple Architecture-Panorama being the consolidated papers written by
the author and published on line in academia.edu & researchgete.net.
21.Tamil Mercantile Traders of ancient times
22.Randevous with Ram
23. T2- Temple Tech
24. Vedic Gods of Scandinavia
25. Design your Destiny
26. Chidambaram Temple
RESEARCH PAPERS-220 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd
Followers(readers) 65,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2020.
Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India
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Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and
failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project
marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN
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From
24, 2018
the Newspaper Times of India March
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Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in
which is about Dr Uday Dokras
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Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA
releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA
gimes( May 2010)
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Pre Publication-R E V I E WS
This collection of essays and articles are in fact semi classical”papers” that have been published
before ( most of them) and this compilation does justice to the originals as they have been reedited and spruced up- so to say. The articles are not homogenous and take us to various
geographies to describe the creations there. In fact, creativity is the forte of these places and
Srishti describes the wonderous creations as well as underlines the creative element. Today’s
architecture are racially, ethnically, and economically diverse, with as many creative superlatives
as the ancient ones.
The history of Hindu Temples spans centuries and centuries. How they spread to all corners of
the world is a mystery the authors choose to unravel. Today’s architecture is fertile ground for
utopian planning, communal living, socially-conscious design, and integrated housing. And yet
we have forgotten that our ancestors built “suburbs” like the Ajanta and Ellora or that the design
of Rama’s AYODHYA inspired creation of cities in Cambodia and Indonesia. Yes that far away.
Makes you think!
See Angkor Vat and you will see Rama in his Ayodhya or Ravana in his Lanka. That is motive
behind this effort and even though it is distilled clrarly, the creations stand out in the writings and
Hindu Temple Architecture gets illuminated with creativity.
Ann Järvinen-Head Librarian
STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY,STOCKHOLM,-SWEDEN
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Some of my books
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Unravelling the
MAZE of the MANDALA
Dr Uday Dokras-Srishti Dokras
Kerry Penny- Mikaela Isgro
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective
Indo Nordic Gem research Institute
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Maze of Mandala
Dr Uday Dokras and 3 others
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