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ya in the Late Silla Dynasty
Vairocana, Image of Dharmaka
Kang Heejung
Sogang University
Introduction
Sculptures of Vairocana, which in Korea were most
widely produced during the late Silla period (新羅, 57
BCE–935 CE ), represent the embodiment in physical Buddha form of the truth realized by all Buddhas. Vairocana is the personification of the abstract
concept of truth as depicted through the likeness of
a Buddha. Unlike a– kyamuni, Vairocana is not an
actual historical figure: He is the manifestation of
the body of the dharma, and is also known as the
dharmaka–ya, or the truth body of the Buddha. As an
expression of truth itself, Vairocana neither expands
nor contracts, increases nor decreases; he undergoes
no change and does not preach.
The Korean name for “Vairocana” is “Birojana”
(毘盧遮那). It is a transliteration of the original Sanskrit, which means “infinite light.” This indicates
that Vairocana is the Buddha who, like the sun, constantly emits the light of the ultimate truth realized
by a–kyamuni onto the world of sentient beings and
guides them into the world of light. With the development of Buddhism and the consequent appearance
of numerous Buddhas, a need arose to organize the
doctrine of the bodies of the Buddha. In the process
of establishing the trika– ya, or the three bodies of
the Buddha—i.e., the dharma body (法身, Sk. dharmaka–ya), the reward body (報身, Sk. sambhogaka–ya),
and the response body (應身, Sk. nirma– n aka– ya),
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Fig. 5. Gilt-bronze Vairocana. Silla, 9th century. Birojeon Hall at Bulguksa Temple, Gyeongju (Kwak Dongseok 2000, Fig. 64)
Vairocana as the dharma body was designated as the
lord of the universe and a key figure of Buddhism.
Vairocana is the principal Buddha of the Avatamsaka
Su– tra (華嚴經, Flower Garland Su– tra), the Maha– vairocana Abhisambodhi Su– tra (大日經, Great Illuminator
Su– tra), and the Vajra ekhara Su– tra (金剛頂經, Diamond Crown Su– tra), and occupies the central position
of the Buddhist hierarchy.
While Vairocana sculptures were also created in
China and India, they do not always demonstrate the
bodhasri mudra– (智拳印, wisdom-fist mudra– ) as do
the Silla examples. What does this indicate about the
significance of Silla Vairocana images? While it is
known that the Hwaeom (華嚴, Ch. Huayan) school
of Buddhism based on the Avatamsaka Su– tra contributed to strengthening the absolute monarchy during
the mid-Silla period, only a single Vairocana statue
remains from this era. If the Hwaeom tradition did
indeed play a supporting role for the Silla monarchy, numerous images of Vairocana, the principal
Buddha of the Avatamsaka Su– tra, would likely have
been produced, which is not the case. Moreover, the
Avatamsaka Su– tra makes no mention of the wisdomfist mudra– , which is the typical mudra– of late Silla
images of Vairocana. Bearing in mind the wisdomfist mudra–’s origin in the Esoteric su– tras, this essay
explores the influence on late Silla Buddhism of the
Esoteric tradition and the role of the Hwaeom school.
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The Ideology of Vairocana and
Its Place in Late Silla Buddhism
Vairocana as the God of Light
In ancient Indian texts, such as the Rigveda and
the Vedic Upanishads, Vairocana is identified as an
Asura (Kanaoka Shuyu 1969: 191). In other sources,
Vairocana is said to have originated in the Hindu god
Vishnu, the creator of heaven and earth. There is no
definitive evidence supporting either case, but it does
appear that Vairocana, whose prime characteristic is
light, was simply linked with Vedic deities related to
light. In this sense, the name “Vairocana” came to be
translated in Chinese as “Bianzhao” (遍照, universal
light) or “Guangming Bianzhao” (光明遍照, bright
universal light). But Vairocana was more often called
“Locana” (盧 舎 那, K. Nosana) or “Cana” ( 舎 那, K.
Sana), which are shortened Chinese transliteration of
the Sanskrit name. These names reflect the nature of
Vairocana as a being who resembles the sun shining
the light of truth over the world, brightening the entire world and allowing all things to grow. The name
and characteristics of Vairocana equate the Buddha
with the sun, the origin of all life, and contain the
authority to unite the world of the “truth” with the
world of the “light.”
The first su– tra to mention Vairocana was the Sa–
myukta Agama (雑阿含経), which was translated into
Chinese in the fifth century. Vairocana also appears
in the Brahmaja– la Su– tra, or Brhama’s Net Su– tra (梵網
経), among others, but does not appear as a leading
figure until the Avatamsaka Su– tra. Of the three translations of this su– tra, in the earliest 60-fascicle version
the Buddha is named Locana rather than Vairocana.
Locana can be considered a concept that precedes
the establishment of Vairocana as a key figure in the
Buddhist cosmology. It is not until the 80-fascicle
version translated in the late seventh century that
Vairocana appears as the dharma body representing
the highest truth. Although Locana and Vairocana
both signify the same Buddha with the same meaning, the two began to differ with the development in
the doctrine of the dharma body of the Buddha.
The characteristics of Vairocana were further
expanded in late Esoteric su– tras in which the Buddha is named Maha– vairocana. “Maha– ” means “big”
or “great,” so “Maha–vairocana” indicates “great Vairocana.” With the characteristics of Vairocana thus
further emphasized, Maha–vairocana’s name has been
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freely translated into “Dari Rulai” (大日如来, K. Daeil
Yeorae), literally meaning “Great Sun Buddha” (Kang
Heejung 1990, 26) because he is greater than any
sun in the physical world and possesses exceptional
powers. Locana, Vairocana, and Dari Rulai all mean
“the sun” and bear the nature of the dharma body,
which represents the world of truth. Such transformations in the name of Vairocana are the outcome of
the intensification and amplification of the characteristics of the Buddha in line with the development of
Maha–ya–na Buddhism.
Vairocana was imbued with the property of light in
order to guide unenlightened sentient beings to the
land of Buddha’s truth. In a world divided between
darkness and light, ignorance and knowledge, the
practice of asceticism, accumulation of good karma,
and attainment of Buddhahood can all be perceived
as progress toward the world of light. This is most
clearly symbolized in the wisdom-fist mudra– seen
in late Silla sculptures of Vairocana. As the root of
all Buddhas and embodiment of the dharma, Vairocana incorporates all Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and
all Buddhas and bodhisattvas are thus derived from
Vairocana. The Brhamaja– la Su– tra states that countless Buddhas evolve out of even a single strand of
hair from Vairocana, who sits on a lotus pedestal.
Since the 100 billion Buddhas sitting on the lotus
pedestal emerge from Vairocana, Vairocana is the
primordial Buddha and origin of all Buddhas.
The Late Silla Vairocana:
Analogy for Absolute Monarchy
Records of Vairocana first appeared in the eighth
century, but their amount from the late Silla period
is limited. The considerable number of extant Vairocana sculptures, however, indicates that the cult
of Vairocana was thriving in that period. Underlying
the rapid diffusion of the Vairocana cult at the time
was the policy of strengthening the authority of the
throne. Since the reign of King Muyeol (武烈王, r.
654–661), Silla kings had established a more absolute monarchy. With the progress of the centralization of bureaucratic power, the authority of the monarch grew stronger and the position of the aristocrats
weakened. However, in the aftermath of the struggles
over the throne that occurred in the late Silla period,
there was a need to seek avenues to bulwark the authority of the king, which lost much of its legitimacy.
Philosophical support for a stronger absolute
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Vairocana, Image of Dharmakaya in the Late Silla Dynasty
monarchy was found in the Avatamsaka Su– tra (Kim
Sanghyun 1984, 59-91). In the Hwaeom theory of
interdependent origination (緣起, Skr. prat tyasamutpa– da), “one” can become “two” and “two” can
double into “four” according to the chain of cause
and effect through which all things in the universe
are created. From the opposite perspective, all things
in the universe, which are derived from the “one,”
are nothing but false forms. For this reason, everything in the universe ultimately returns to the “one.”
This process is called “nature arising” or “nature
origination” (性起). According to the Hwaeom philosophy, everything in the universe derives from the
same fundamental origin to assume false forms, so
the plentitude evolves out of the one and those countless things all eventually return to the one. That is,
the world is explained through the principle of “one
is many, and many are one” (一卽多, 多卽一) (Kamata
Shigeo 1988, 238-279). However, various monks
adhering to the Hwaeom philosophy emphasized
different elements. Some stressed the idea of many
things emerging out of one and their interdependent
origination, while others focused on the idea of the
many returning to one and nature origination. For
instance, the Chinese monk Fazang (法藏, 643–712)
supported the former concept of interdependent origination, while the Silla monk Uisang (義湘, 625–702)
backed the latter concept, nature origination. Under
the influence of Uisang, the absolute monarchy of
Silla adopted the Hwaeom tradition (Kim Doojin
1994, 1-29). In Uisang’s Hwaeom theory, the countless components of the universe were compared to
the populace of a kingdom, while the fundamental
element serving as the basis of all was thought to
be the king. It seems that the Hwaeom philosophy,
which placed the Silla king at the center of the world,
was favored as a religious teaching that was useful
for the imposition of a centralized absolute monarchy.
The main figure in the Avatamsaka Su– tra is Vairocana, the dharma body. As lord of the universe
and the transformation body (化身) of absolute truth,
Vairocana was the most fitting being for utilization
by Silla kings to emphasize their status in the world.
However, the fact that only a single Vairocana sculpture from the mid-Silla period remains, found at the
ancient site of Seongnamsa Temple (石南寺), brings
this interpretation into question. It is noteworthy that
a large number of Vairocana images were in fact cre4
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ated during the late Silla period when battles raged
over occupancy of the throne. It can be supposed that
many of these ninth-century Vairocana images were
fashioned based on the Hwaeom theory in order to
support the authority and legitimacy of the monarch
(Moon Myungdae 1982, 55-89), and that some time
was needed for the ripening of conditions for the production of Vairocana images. This idea is reinforced
by the fact that temples of the Hwaeom and Seon (禪,
Ch. Chan) schools dedicated to Vairocana received
support from the royal court.
Production of Vairocana Images
in the Ninth Century
Influence of Esoteric Buddhism and Vairocana
Images in Buddha Form with the Wisdom-fist Mudra–
In principle, Vairocana has no physical form. Neither the Brahmaja– la Su– tra nor the Avatamsaka Su– tra
mentions how images of Vairocana should be fashioned. The great Buddha made between 672 and
675 at Fengxian Temple (奉先寺) in Longmen, China
shows iconography consistent with contemporaneous a–kyamuni images (Fig. 1). Due to the transformation Buddhas depicted on the lotus pedestal, however, we can know that the great Buddha at Fengxian
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Fig. 1. Locana, Tang dynasty, 675. Fengxian Temple, Longmen, China
(Author’s photograph)
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Temple was created based on the Brhamaja– la Su– tra
(Sasaki Aobamura 1914, 202-203). As perceptions of
Vairocana refined and the study of the doctrine of the
bodies of the Buddha began, Esoteric Buddhism began to provide references as well. The central figure
in the Garbha–dhatu Mandala (服藏界曼茶羅, Womb
Realm Mandala) and the Vajradha–tu Mandala (金剛
界曼陀羅, Diamond Realm Mandala) is Maha– vairocana. The Vajradha– tu Mandala, in particular, depicts
Maha–vairocana making the wisdom-fist mudra– with
both hands. Therefore, while the characteristics and
nature of Vairocana had already been established in
the Avatamsaka Su– tra, the iconography of the images
of this Buddha followed the Esoteric tradition.
All Silla sculptures of Vairocana show the wisdom-fist mudra–. This mudra– is known to be unique
to Vairocana, resulting in all images exhibiting this
hand gesture to be identified as Vairocana. The earliest depiction of the wisdom-fist mudra– appears in
Esoteric scriptures such as the Vajra ekhara Su– tra,
which was translated into Chinese in the eighth century. Described in the Vajra ekhara Su– tra and related
texts as “the shape of the hands of wisdom guiding
the way to enlightenment” and “the shape of the
hands eradicating darkness among sentient beings,”
it became known as the mudra– of Vairocana with the
development of Esoteric Buddhism. In that case, how
can Vairocana (毘盧遮那) of the Avatamsaka Su– tra be
distinguished from Maha–vairocana (大日如來) of Esoteric Buddhism? In the Esoteric su– tras, all Buddhas
are lavishly decorated and assume the appearances of
bodhisattvas. The Ritual Procedure of Attaining Buddhahood through the Recitation of the Vajra ekhara
(金剛頂念誦成佛儀軌) clearly states that “Vairocana
is round like the moon and his body is decorated.
He wears a diamond crown on his head and jewels
decorating his body, with hands making the wisdomfist mudra– as he sits on a lion pedestal.” One illuminating example is a statue of Maha– vairocana from
Indonesia (Fig. 2). Dating to the mid-eighth century,
the hands are clearly making the wisdom-fist mudra–
and the entire body is ornamented. There are also ornaments in the jata-mukhuta (髮警冠), a high crown
of knotted hair, and the body is decorated with lavish
necklaces, bracelets, and beads. The style resembles
that of Bengali sculpture from India or Javanese
sculpture from central Indonesia. In India, a Pala
period sculpture of a bodhisattva with hands making
the wisdom-fist mudra– , dating to around the tenth
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tained Nirva– n a, should not be ornamented in any
fashion. However, in the Esoteric tradition Buddhas
are depicted in bodhisattva form and thus can be
freely decorated. Vairocana as depicted in the Avatam saka Su– tra takes Buddha form and bears no
decoration, while Maha–vairocana in the Vajra ekhara
Su– tra assumes the form of a richly ornamented bodhisattva. A Silla Buddhist image believed to represent
Maha– vairocana from the Vajra ekhara Su– tra was
found on a ar ra case dating to 863. This gilt-bronze
ar ra case discovered inside a three-story stone pagoda at Donghwasa Temple (桐華寺) in Daegu, South
Korea features an engraving of Maha–vairocana wear4
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Vairocana, Image of Dharmakaya in the Late Silla Dynasty
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ing a crown and making the wisdom-fist mudra– (Fig.
3). The four gilt-bronze plates that make up the outer
ar ra casket indicate that the Esoteric concept of
the Buddhas of the five directions had already been
introduced to Silla. However, all other Silla images
of Vairocana take the form of Buddhas rather than
bodhisattvas since they are rooted in the Avatamsaka Su– tra in principle, and feature the wisdom-fist
mudra– . The borrowing of the wisdom-fist mudra– ,
which is not mentioned in the su– tra is an indication
of creative license being exercised by the Silla people.
The Seongnamsa Temple Vairocana, currently
preserved at Naewonsa Temple (內院寺) in Yangsan,
Fig. 2. Maha– vairocana. Indonesia, 8th century. Private Collection (National
Palace Museum 1987, p. 137)
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century, remains. As there are no earlier examples,
the Indonesian statue is considered the oldest Maha–
vairocana sculpture with the wisdom-fist mudra–
made outside of Korea. This Indonesian image of
Maha–vairocana likely bears some connection to the
fact that the Indian monk Vajrabodhi (669–741),
who is known as Jingangzhi (金剛智) in China and
translated the Vajra ekhara Su– tra into Chinese, traveled to southern India and then on to the rivijaya
Kingdom (present-day Sumatra in Indonesia) where
he resided for some time. In China today, no sculpture showing an unmistakable wisdom-fist mudra–
remains, suggesting that Esoteric Buddhism was
transmitted via maritime routes by Vajrabodhi or by
the Tang (唐, 618–907) dynasty monk Yijing (義淨,
635–713), who wrote a travelogue Nanhai jigui neifa
zhuan (南海寄歸內法傳, Accounts of the Inner Law
Sent Home from the South Sea) while he stayed in the
rivijaya Kingdom on his way back to his home in
Tang China from India.
In principle, Buddhas, as beings who have atFig. 3. Gilt-bronze plate inscribed with the name of Maha– vairocana, part of the ar ra casket of King Minae. Silla, 863. 14.2 x 15.3 cm. Daegu National Museum.
(Author’s photograph)
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Vairocana, Image of Dharmakaya in the Late Silla Dynasty
Gyeongsangnam-do Province, is the earliest Buddhist sculpture to feature the wisdom-fist mudra– ,
not just in Korea, but worldwide (Fig. 4). Although
the sculpture itself bears no inscription, the ar ra
reliquary found inside its pedestal is inscribed with
“the second year of the Yongtai era” (永泰二年) (766),
which is considered to be the year the sculpture was
made (Park Gyeongwon and Jeong Wongyeong 1983,
45-63). The ar ra reliquary also carries an inscription
regarding its manufacture, comprised of 136 Chinese
characters in 15 lines along the side, and 21 Chinese
characters in four lines on the bottom. Based on the
contents, it appears that two monks named Beopseung (法勝, dates unknown) and Beopyeon (法緣,
dates unknown) commissioned the sculpture for a
hwarang (花郞, young Silla warrior) named Duonae
(豆溫哀, dates unknown) in the second year of the
Yongtai era (永泰, 756-766) during the reign of Emperor Daizong (代宗, r. 762–779) of Tang China. The
inscription further identifies the sculpture as Vairocana, meaning that it is definitely Vairocana, not Maha–
vairocana of the Esoteric tradition. To date, no known
sculpture of Vairocana with the wisdom-fist mudra–
predating 766 has been found, making the Seongnamsa sculpture the oldest such image of Vairocana.
No sculptures of Vairocana in Buddha form with the
wisdom-fist mudra– dating to this period have been
found in India or China.
Confirmation that the iconography of Vairocana
making the wisdom-fist mudra– entered Silla prior
to 766 is provided by the Avatamsaka Su– tra Illustration dating to 754–755 in the collection of Leeum,
Samsung Museum of Art. Although the central portion of the work has been damaged, the Buddha can
be seen with two hands raised in front of the chest,
apparently making the wisdom-fist mudra– . Here
Vairocana is depicted in an ornamental bodhisattva
form in the manner of Esoteric Buddhism, making
this illustration the earliest example of adaptation of
Esoteric Maha– vairocana iconography in a depiction
of Vairocana. Hence, the Seongnamsa Vairocana was
modeled on this su– tra illustration featuring Maha–vairocana.
Esoteric scriptures which describe the wisdom-fist
mudra–, such as the Vajra ekhara Su– tra, entered Tang
dynasty China in the 730s. The appearance of the
wisdom-fist mudra– in the Avatamsaka Su– tra Illustration of 754 indicates that it did not take long for the
latest Buddhist trends and information to be trans4
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Fig. 4. Stone Vairocana from Seongnamsa Temple. Silla, 766. Naewonsa Temple, Yangsan (Photograph by Lim Youngae)
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mitted from China to Unified Silla. The Tang monk
Chengguan (澄観, 738–839), a major figure in the
Chinese Huayan school of Buddhism, played a key
role in laying a philosophical basis for the adoption
of Esoteric Maha–vairocana iconography in the depiction of Vairocana, originally based on the Avatamsaka Su– tra. While translating the su– tras into Chinese
with the Esoteric monk Bukong (不空, 705–774; Skr.
Amoghavajra) from Sri Lanka, he came to accept
much of the Esoteric tradition and fused it into the
Huayan tradition. His annotations to the 80-fascicle
translation of the Avatam saka Su– tra were eagerly
welcomed in Silla as well (An Gyehyeon 1982, 83).
Under the influence of this scripture, Silla adopted
the iconography of Maha–vairocana from the Vajradhatu tradition in the creation of images of the Buddha Vairocana. This idea is supported by the fact that
the Esoteric Buddhist su– tras translated by Bukong
entered Silla in the latter half of the eighth century
and that Hwaeom-faith societies known as Hwaeom
gyeolsa (華嚴結社) were formed fusing the Hwaeom
and Esoteric traditions.
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Production of Ninth-Century Images of
Vairocana and Related Background
Esoteric Buddhism and Maha– vairocana iconography had been transmitted to Silla by the mid-eighth
century at the latest, and Korean-style Vairocana images were created on this basis. It remains unclear,
however, whether wisdom-fist mudra– Vairocana
sculptures continued to be produced after the Seongnamsa sculpture, since no Vairocana image that can
be precisely dated emerges until the mid-ninth century. It is assumed that some time was required for
the newly introduced wisdom-fist mudra– to spread
and be adopted into the creation of Vairocana sculptures. In the 150-year period from the latter half of
the eighth century and through the tenth, some 40
known sculptures of Vairocana were produced. Most
of these were made between the mid-ninth and early
tenth century, hinting that the cult of Vairocana was
at its strongest in the latter half of the ninth century.
The gilt-bronze seated Vairocana enshrined in
the Birojeon (毘盧殿, Hall of Vairocana) at Bulguksa
Temple (佛國寺) in Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbuk-do
Province features imposing size and stable proportions and is clearly the product of outstanding
sculptural skill. Along with the gilt-bronze seated
Amita–bha at Bulguksa Temple and Bronze Standing
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Vairocana, Image of Dharmakaya in the Late Silla Dynasty
Bhais ajyaguru at Baengnyulsa Temple (栢栗寺) in
Gyeongju, it is considered one of the three finest giltbronze Buddhist sculptures of the Silla period (Fig. 5).
However, compared to the principal icon in Seokguram Grotto at Bulguksa, it offers a diminished sense
of volume and motion, the midriff is longer, and the
folds of the robes are rendered in a somewhat flatter manner, all of which combined seem to counterindicate any dating of the sculpture to the mid-eighth
century. While it is known that Bulguksa was erected
in 754 under a commission from Kim Daeseong (金
大城, c. 700–774), a high-ranking official of Silla, the
Vairocana sculpture was not necessarily produced
at the same time. A stylistic comparison with the
Seongnamsa Vairocana, dated to 766, also supports
the idea that the Bulguksa Vairocana was created
some time after the construction of the temple.
Stone sculptures of Vairocana are much more
common than gilt-bronze examples. Production of
gilt-bronze sculpture required considerable time
and money, complex processes, highly skilled craftsmen, and appropriate facilities. The stone Vairocana
at Cheongamsa Temple’s Sudoam Hermitage (靑巖
寺 修道庵) in Gimcheon, Gyeongsangbuk-do Province was made prior to the mid-ninth century, which
makes it an early Vairocana sculpture (Fig. 6) (Lee
Hongjik 1964, 104). Unlike the stone Vairocana
sculptures from the latter half of the century, the full,
smooth face, striking volume of the body, and authoritative air generated by its imposing size indicate
that it has inherited the sculptural tradition of the
mid-Silla period. This sculpture must consequently
have been completed by the early ninth century at the
latest.
There are four Vairocana sculptures with inscriptions dating them to the mid-ninth century. The iron
Vairocana at Borimsa Temple (寶林寺) in Jangheung,
Jeollanam-do Province is one of the earliest examples
(Fig. 7). The eight-line inscription (Fig. 8) on the back
of the left arm relates that with the permission of the
king the sculpture was commissioned by a military
official named Kim Sujong (金遂宗, dates unknown)
from Jangsa-hyeon Prefecture (today’s Jangheung)
in 858, the third year of the reign of King Heonan
(憲安王, r. 857–860). This indicates that with the
consent of the king, a regional official was permitted
to commission Buddhist works using private funds,
without having to rely on central government support. Borimsa Temple was established by the Gajisan
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Fig. 6 Stone Vairocana, Silla, first half 9th century. Sudoam at Cheongamsa Temple, Gimcheon (Choe Songeun 2004, Fig. 83)
Fig. 7. Iron Vairocana. Silla, 858. Borimsa Temple, Jangheung (Kwak Dongseok
2000, Fig. 93)
Fig. 8. Inscription on the iron Vairocana at Borimsa Temple (Kwak Dongseok
2000, p. 264)
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school (迦智山派), one of the “nine mountain Seon
schools” (九山禪門) of Korea. The Gajisan school was
founded by the Seon master Chejing (體澄, 804–
880), a disciple of Doui (道義, dates unknown), who
studied the southern sect of Chan Buddhism in Tang
China between 784 and 821. Borimsa is therefore a
Seon temple, and at the same time the first temple in
Korea to be dedicated to Vairocana. The inscription
on Stele for Changseong Pagoda of Master Bojo (普照禪
師彰聖塔碑), built in 858 in honor of Chejing, relates,
“Only when you understand that all sentient beings
and Vairocana are essentially one can you attain the
realization that the mind itself is the Buddha.”
The Chinese Chan schools demonstrated great
interest in the rites and incantations of Esoteric
Buddhism. Yixing (一行, 673–727), a monk of the
northern Chan school, participated actively in the
translation of Esoteric scriptures, including the Maha–
vairocana Abhisambodhi Su– tra, assisting the Indian
Buddhist monk ubhakarasimha (637–735), known
as Shanwuwei (善無畏) in China. He also compiled
scriptures on Esoteric Buddhist rites. Among the
Dunhuang manuscripts, a commentary on the Siddham Chapter of the Lan ka– vata– ra Su– tra (楞伽經禪
門悉談章, T. 85, no. 2279) provides evidence that
northern Chan doctrines and incantations were used
in combination. Based on Chapter Thirty-five on
Transmission of the Dharma (付法蔵品三十五, P. 3913,
2791, 3212), monks of the Baotang sect (保唐宗) of
the southern Chan school linked the southern Chan
doctrines with the tradition of reciting incantations
(Sørensen 2011, 294-303). The Silla monk Hyeso (慧
昭, 774–850) studied in Tang and practiced Esoteric
Buddhism according to the doctrines of ubhakarasimha. Upon his return to Korea in 830, he founded
Okcheonsa Temple (玉泉寺), which is dedicated to
Huineng (慧能, 638–713), the sixth patriarch of the
southern Chan school (Yi Neunghwa 1918, 426-451).
By the time he studied under Yunxiu (雲秀, d. 844),
a disciple of Mazu Daoyi (馬祖 道一, 709–788) and
founder of the Hongzhou school (洪州宗) of Chan
Buddhism, Hyeso would have already mastered both
southern Chan and Esoteric practices. Hence, in light
of the cooperation between Chan and Esoteric monks
and the fusion of incantations with doctrines, the
philosophical basis for enshrining Vairocana as the
principal icon in Silla Seon temples seems to have
been established in China and transmitted to Silla by
Korean monks who studied in Tang China.
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4
4
The usn sa of the Borimsa Vairocana sculpture has
been repaired by adding curls made of an earthen
material, which makes it unusually large and high.
The face with its flat nose and pronounced philtrum
has a hard look and bears no traces of the suppleness seen in earlier representations. The shoulders
are narrow and the chest flat, so the figure presents
little sense of volume despite the natural flow of the
folds of the robes. Iron, being a hard material, is difficult to work and traces of the removal of the outer
mold remain on the surface of the body. In Silla, iron
was not used to cast Buddhist sculptures prior to the
ninth century since the necessary technology had yet
to be developed. Iron has a high melting point and
requires a smelting furnace and proper handling
techniques. The iron Buddhas from late Silla are all
large works, unlike gilt-bronze images, which are
generally small in size. Among them, many were images of Vairocana and were distributed throughout
the provinces. It is interesting to note that at this
time a number of large iron and stone Vairocana
sculptures with strong regional characteristics were
produced.
The iron Vairocana Buddha from Dopiansa Temple (到彼岸寺) in Cheorwon, Gangwon-do Province,
which carries an inscription stating that it was sponsored by 1,500 believers, is the only Buddhist sculpture from the Unified Silla period to be made entirely
of iron, including its pedestal (Fig. 9). On the back
is an inscription comprised of some 100 characters
that states that in the fifth year of King Gyeongmun,
believers in Cheorwon formed a Buddhist society
in order to raise funds for the sculpture. While the
Borimsa iron Buddha was commissioned by a single
individual named Kim Sujong, the Dopiansa iron
Buddha was created through the combined efforts of
1,500 people, indicating that the sculpture required
a huge outlay of money and that Buddhism had become widespread to the point that such sculptures
could be commissioned by a group of believers. The
Buddha’s face is thin, and the usn sa is low. It is a
realistic figure with narrowed eyes, a low nose, thick
philtrum and lips rendered flatly, while the body is
also flat with a minimal sense of volume. The folds
are stylized and depicted in even intervals.
The stone Vairocana sculpture from Donghwasa
Temple in Daegu is an important work in the history of Korean sculpture: It was created under the
patronage of the Silla royal court and not only is the
4 4
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Vairocana, Image of Dharmakaya in the Late Silla Dynasty
19
date of production clear, the sculpture is also complete with a pedestal and aureole (Fig. 10). A stone
ar ra reliquary found within the three-story stone
pagoda at the temple bears the inscription “record
of the stone pagoda of King Minae” (敏哀大王石塔
記) which hints at the date of the sculpture and the
circumstances under which it was made. It states
that in 863 King Gyeongmun (景文王, r. 861–875)
built a shrine and erected a pagoda and sculpture as
a memorial to King Minae (閔哀王, r. 838–839), who
had been treacherously killed in a power struggle. Although Donghwasa is located in Daegu, far from the
Silla capital of Gyeongju, it reflects the style of the
capital since it was built under royal patronage. The
Vairocana sculpture presents a round face and cleancut features; it creates the look of a typical Korean
quietly lost in meditation. It has rounded shoulders
and a full chest, with arms stuck close to the body.
The knees are thick but narrow, creating a sense of
instability, diverging from sculptures of the mid-Silla
period. Engraved on the aureole are a Buddha triad
and eight individual tranformation Buddhas, which
are considered to be elements of Esoteric iconography (Seo Jimin 2010, 53-69). Sculptures of Vairocana
similar to the Donghwasa Vairocana in terms of facial appearance, bodily proportions, and treatment of
the robes are found around the Gyeongsang region.
They include the stone Vairocana at Birosa Temple (毘
盧寺) in Yeongju, Gyeongsangbuk-do Province and
the stone Vairocana at Seonghyeolam Hermitage (聖
穴庵), also in Yeongju (Fig. 12).
In the case of the stone Vairocana at Chukseosa
Temple (鷲棲寺) in Bonghwa, Gyeongsangbuk-do
Province, it was produced slightly later, in 867, as
revealed by an inscription found on a stone ar ra
reliquary (Fig. 13). The 16-line “stone pagoda construction record” (石塔造成記) found on the ar ra
reliquary states that in 867, the eighth year of the Xi-
Fig. 9. Iron Vairocana. Silla, 865. Dopiansa Temple, Cheorwon (Photograph by
Lim Youngae)
Fig. 10. Stone Vairocana. Silla, 863. Donghwasa Temple, Daegu (Choe
Songeun 2004, Fig. 65)
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J O UR NA L O F K O R E A N A RT & A R C H A E O LO G Y
–
Vairocana, Image of Dharmakaya in the Late Silla Dynasty
antong era (咸通, 860–874), Myeongdan (明端, dates
unknown), the youngest sister of the monk Eonjeon
(彦伝, dates unknown), built the pagoda in honor of
their parents. It relates that their parents were Kim
Yangjong (金亮宗, dates unknown) who served as
an Ichan (伊湌, a second-rank official), and his wife,
and that under the advice of the monk Hyeongeo (賢
炬) at Hwangnyonsa Temple (皇龍寺) ten ar ra and
a copy of the Pure Light Dha– ran Su– tra (無垢淨光大
陀羅尼經) were enshrined inside the pagoda. The
ar ra reliquary is similar in shape and size to the one
found at Donghwasa, and the same method was used
to carve the inscription. The inscription includes the
character “考” (deceased) in reference to the late father Kim Yangjong, and the term “mother” (母親) for
his wife. According to the inscription, Myeongdan’s
family was an aristocratic family of the “true bone”
(眞骨) rank living in Gyeongju. A record for the
second year of the reign of King Heondeok (憲徳王,
r. 809–826) in the Samguk sagi (三國史記, History
of the Three Kingdoms), volume 10, tells that while
serving as Panjinchan (波珍飡, fourth-rank official)
Kim Yangjong was appointed as Sijung (侍中, highranking official of Silla) but retired from the post in
811 due to illness. As there is a discrepancy of some
50 years between this date and the production date
of the Chukseosa Vairocana sculpture, as well as a
difference in the official titles mentioned, it cannot
be decisively concluded that the Kim Yangjong in the
inscription and in the Samguk sagi are one and the
same person; however, this is not unlikely to be the
case. It is clear that Kim Yangjong was a high-ranking
official of aristocratic origin and it appears that his
youngest daughter built a shrine for her parents in
Bonghwa, where they may have owned lands granted
by the state or had some other connection. Although
the Vairocana sculpture was commissioned by an
aristocratic family from the capital, it shows clear
stylistic differences to its counterpart at Donghwasa,
which was commissioned by the royal court in a similar period. Compared to the Donghwasa sculpture,
the Chukseosa Vairocana sculpture has a thin and angular face and a body that is less full, with little sense
of volume. The smile has disappeared from the face,
leaving it with a solemn countenance, and the elongated torso appears flat. Thin robes cling to the body,
revealing the outline of the chest and arms, while the
folds fall in parallel lines at regular intervals and are
treated in a stylized manner. Although the robes are
4
Fig. 11. Stone ar ra reliquary for King Minae. Silla, 863. Height: 8.3 cm. Dongguk University Museum (Author’s photograph)
Fig. 12. Stone Vairocana. Silla, latter half 9th century. Seonghyeolam Hermitage, Yeongju (Photograph by Kim Taehyeong)
Fig. 13. Stone Vairocana. Silla, 867. Chukseosa Temple, Bonghwa (Choe
Songeun 2004, Fig. 67)
21
worn in essentially the same way in both sculptures,
in the Chukseosa sculpture they are simplified and
more decorative and show a floral pattern at the hem.
The knot at the waist is depicted as a ring.
The last major Vairocana sculpture of the late
Silla period to be discussed here is the one found at
Haeinsa Temple (海印寺) in Hapcheon, Gyeongsangnam-do Province (Fig. 14). Enshrined in the temple’
s Beopbojeon (法寶殿, Hall of the Dharma Jewel), it
is believed to be the oldest wooden Buddhist sculpture extant in Korea based upon an ink inscription
that gives its production date as 883, the third year
of the Zhonghe era (中和, 881–885) of Tang Emperor Xizong (僖宗, r. 873–888). Although scholars
are divided as to whether 883 refers to the year in
which it was first made or to a year it underwent
major repairs, it is certainly the latest clear date for
any Vairocana sculpture from the Silla period. The
inscription states that this life-size Buddha was made
for a Gakgan (角干, official of the first rank) and his
wife, which has been interpreted to refer to Queen
Jinseong (眞聖王, r. 887–897) and a Gakgan official
named Wihong (魏弘, dates unknown) who was purportedly her lover, although nothing is known for certain. There is no doubt, however, that the sculpture
was commissioned by the royal court and that it was
created by the most skilled craftsmen of the day. In
this regard, it has been pointed out that from the last
quarter of the ninth century, the Hwaeom-faith societies were closely linked with the court (Choi Wonsik
1985, 17-23). Apart from the manner in which the
robes are draped to bare the right shoulder, it shows
highly similar characteristics to the stone Vairocana
at Donghwasa Temple. Both sculptures were commissioned under the patronage of the royal court and
are important for their demonstration of the common style of the mid- to late ninth century.
Examining the patrons of Silla Vairocana sculptures, the Seongnamsa sculpture was commissioned
by a Buddhist monk; the Bulguksa, Borimsa, and
Chukseosa sculptures by regional or central government officials or aristocratic families; and the Donghwasa and Haeinsa sculptures by the royal court.
Aside from the Cheongamsa Vairocana, which lacks
an inscription, and the Dopiansa Vairocana, which
was commissioned by a society of believers, all the
other sculptures were products of patronage from the
royal family, aristocrats, or high officials. While court
of the mid-Silla period was closely connected with the
22
J O UR NA L O F K O R E A N A RT & A R C H A E O LO G Y
–
Vairocana, Image of Dharmakaya in the Late Silla Dynasty
the royal authority was stronger, that intensive efforts were made to display the authority of the throne
through the dissemination of Vairocana statues.
Conclusion
Fig. 14. Wooden Vairocana. Silla, 833. Beopbojeon Hall at Haeinsa Temple, Hapcheon (Photograph by Joo Kyeongmi)
Hwaeom school of Buddhism and pursued a policy
of strengthening autocracy by alluding to Vairocana,
the dharma body and the Buddha of all Buddhas, in
actuality Vairocana sculptures were not produced in
great numbers at the time. The likely interpretation
for this is that following the introduction of Esoteric
Buddhism, which provided the background for the
wisdom-fist mudra–, a period of time had to pass before people began to fully understand it.
The abovementioned Vairocana images lead us
to reconsider the argument that Buddhist sculptures
with strong regional features were created in the
late Silla period, influenced by struggles over the
throne and the emergence of powerful local gentry
in the provinces known as hojok (豪族). In stylistic
terms it is true that Buddhist sculptures from this
period show some regional character, but the stone
Vairocana at Donghwasa and the wooden Vairocana
at Haeinsa share notable common features. Considering that both were commissioned by the court
and that stone Variocana sculptures with similar
stylistic features were found nationwide, it is diffi-
cult to argue for regional distinction when it comes
to Vairocana images. Apparently, in the late Silla
period many Vairocana sculptures were also made
in close association with the royal family. The special relationship between King Gyeongmun and the
Seon monk Sucheol (秀澈和尙, d. 893) and records
indicating that a burst of Vairocana or Locana statues were produced by both the Seon and Hwaeom
schools show that Buddhism in Korea was just as
reliant on Hwaeom thought in the late Silla period as
it had been in the mid-Silla period. In terms of form,
Vairocana was sometimes depicted as a Buddha making the wisdom-fist mudra– , under the influence of
Esoteric Buddhism, but other times as Locana in the
form of a– kyamuni. Whatever the case, both sides
actively championed Vairocana, the dharma body, alluding to Hwaeom thought in pursuit of an absolute
monarchy. Such efforts to strengthen the throne were
expressed in sculpture not simply in the mid-Silla
period, when the monarchy was indeed powerful,
but in the late Silla period as well. It was in the late
Silla period, rather than in the mid-Silla period when
The intensive production of Vairocana sculptures in
the late Silla period, particularly from the mid-ninth
century, was the natural outcome of changes in society and Buddhism at the time. In terms of Buddhist
doctrine, the creation of Vairocana images was driven
by the fusion of the Hwaeom, Seon, and Esoteric
schools of Buddhism under Vairocana as the principal Buddha of the Hwaeom school. It is generally
understood that Seon Buddhism provided philosophical grounds for the belief among members of the
yukdupum class (六頭品, literally “six head rank,” the
next-highest class of Silla society after the aristocracy)
that they could rise to enter the ruling class. It is supposed that Vairocana also appealed to Seon believers
and regional powers for this same reason. However,
actual inscriptions on Vairocana sculptures or related
records indicate instead a stronger connection to the
royal family and officials of the central government,
and the fact that Vairocana sculptures were more
widely produced in late Silla compared to mid-Silla
indicates a need for further research.
Monarchs of the late Silla period such as King
Gyeongmun, who rose to the throne in the midst of
significant political turmoil, strove to stabilize the
court in their own individual ways and justify the
legitimacy of their hard-earned authority. They made
offerings at temples around the country and commissioned pagodas and sculptures, or invited monks to
the court to lecture on or recite the su– tras. Pagodas
were built to enshrine ar ra, miniature pagodas, and
dha– ran , and Vairocana statues were created in line
with the content of the Pure Light Dha– ran Su– tra. The
Esoteric rite of erecting pagodas and creating sculpture and enshrining dha– ran , which is based on the
aforementioned su– tra, had already spread throughout
Silla from the mid-eighth century. At the time, awareness of Esoteric Buddhism was widespread and a
foundation had been laid for adoption of the wisdomfist mudra– in Vairocana sculptures.
The ninth-century trend of producing sculptures
of Vairocana with the wisdom-fist mudra– is fundamentally grounded in Hwaeom philosophy, but ulti4
4
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23
mately it is the result of the adoption by the Esoteric,
Hwaeom, and Seon schools of Buddhism of the common doctrine of Vairocana as the principal Buddha.
Although there is a tendency to explain such wisdomfist Vairocana sculptures as a reflection of the preferences of local gentry, the mid-Silla manner of associating Vairocana with absolute royal authority found a
more concrete expression in the late period through
the production of Vairocana sculptures. While the inscriptions on some Vairocana sculptures clearly state
that they were produced under the patronage of the
royal family or high government officials in the capital, this fact alone does not prove that such sculptures
were created as a means to reinforce royal authority.
However, there is a lack of evidence to support the
notion that the production of Vairocana sculptures
reflects collusion between Buddhist temples and the
local gentry, while scholars may have considered a
focus on regional characteristics to be necessary in
order to stress the political chaos of the time. The
production of Vairocana sculptures was undertaken
neither for the benefit of powerful local gentry nor as
a way to strengthen absolute royal authority; it was
an effort to make apparent the power of the throne
through allusion to Vairocana, the dharma body.
Translated by Cho Yoonjung
This paper is an abridged and revised English version of "The
Context and Meaning of the Vairocana Image in the 9th Century"
(9세기 비로자나불 조성의 배경과 의미), previously published in
2013 in Journal of the Society for the Study of Early Korean History
(한국고대사탐구) 13.
24
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