COSMOLOGY 1 COSMOLOGY Dr UDAY DOKRAS Architect Srishti Dokras Indo Nordic Author’s Collective 2 SAILING TO JAMBŪDVĪPA 3 Contents 4 Introduction 5 CHAPTER 1 Cosmology?? 11 CHAPTER 2-Philosophy of Cosmology Part I 28 CHAPTER 3-COSMOLOGY: HINDU COSMOLOGY 54 CHAPTER 4 Multiverse( Multiple Universes) 96 CHAPTER 5 Islamic Cosmology 115 CHAPTER 6 Beyond Borders Angkor Wat 129 CHAPTER7-Religious cosmology 134/ CHAPTER 8-Buddhist Cosmology-Dr. C. George Boeree159 CHAPTER 9-Cosmology, Astronomy and Astrology-Vesna Wallace 163 CHAPTER 10 Tantric Buddhism at Angkor Thom 167 CHAPTER 11 Hindu Cosmology Part II CHAPTER 11-Multiverse and the Lotus 193 CHAPTER 12-THE COSMOLOGY OF ANGKOR 204 CHAPTER 13-Jain Cosmology 233 CHAPTER 13-Jain Temple Cosmology 301 CHAPTER 15-THE PERFECT EXAMPLE OF A HINDU TEMPLE AS A COSMIC MANDALA AT ANGKOR WAT 319 CHAPTER 16-The origin of Jambudweepa and Bhartavarsha 357 CHAPTER-Tibetan Cosmological Models 360 About the authors 366 4 INTRODUCTION THE ANCIENT COSMOS-Laura Maguire-2016 A Philosophical Guide to the Cosmos. Cosmology—the study of the universe, how it was formed, and what laws govern its evolution— has exploded in the last few decades. But it’s not a new area of human inquiry. In fact, theories about the origin, nature, and structure of the cosmos go back thousands of years. That’s not to say that ancient cosmologies were anything like our modern scientific theories of the cosmos. Many were more like creation myths or legends. However, in ancient Greece, thinkers like Anaximander, Aristotle, and Ptolemy, to name just a few, developed fairly sophisticated theories about the cosmos based on empirical observations. They looked up to the heavens, saw how the stars moved across the sky, how the sun rose and fell each day, and they developed rational explanations for what they observed. We ultimately ended up rejecting most of these explanations, but not for a very long time. The cosmological picture inherited from Aristotle and Ptolemy was the dominant one in the west till the seventeenth century. This was the picture that placed an unmoving Earth at the center of a finite universe, with the sun and the other planets revolving around it in concentric circles called “celestial spheres.” Enclosing our universe was the sphere of "fixed stars," also called the "firmament." This marked the divide between the earthly and the heavenly realms. Indeed, the ancients had no sense of solar systems beyond our own, nor of the incredible number of galaxies stretching out into the vastness of space. 5 Despite inaccuracies in their theories, the Greeks were able to make many accurate astronomical predictions. For example, they could predict eclipses. They also figured out that the Earth was spherical. Considering the tools they had at their disposal, this is very impressive. But do these ancient theories deserve to be called ‘scientific’? The fact that we have rejected most of them should not persuade us to answer this question in the negative. After all, the history of science is full of wrong ideas. It is only by rejecting bad ideas, and proposing new and improved theories that we make progress in science. The theories we accept now are the best we have, given the cognitive and technological tools currently at our disposal, but they are not immune to revision. This is what separates science from dogma. Unfortunately, though, that ended up being the fate of ancient cosmology—it became dogma, once the Roman Church got its hands on it. No doubt, that is a big part of the story of why it remained the dominant view of the cosmos for so long. The Aristotelian geocentric model placed humanity at the center of the universe. Everything literally revolved around us, which supported the idea that we were God’s highest creation, that this was all made for us. Besides, the Bible said that the Earth didn't move, and that was the ultimate authority on God's universe. For these reasons, this picture of the cosmos was conferred the status of immune to revision. It was not to be questioned. Anyone who dared to raise doubts about it did so at great risk of punishment, even death. Bruno, an Italian cosmologist who followed Copernicus, was tried for heresy and burned at the stake in 1600 for proposing an alternative picture of the cosmos—an infinite universe lacking any center. A few decades later, Galileo was spared that fate, though he was placed under indefinite house arrest for his heretical Copernican views. There’s a story we hear about the Scientific Revolution. It ushered in the demarcation of the disciplines. Whereas before there was no clear distinction between science, philosophy, theology, and so on, the Scientific Revolution marks a major shift where science and religion come apart and forever stay apart. No doubt, there is truth to this, but it glosses over some important facts. Take Newton, the Scientific Revolution’s brightest star, if you’ll pardon the pun. Read his most important writings and you might be surprised to see how the scientific and the theological are completely integrated. For example, he claims that the “Supreme Being” is necessary for the motion of the planets, that without God, nothing in the natural world could account for their movement. Newton’s talk of a “Supreme Being” is not worlds apart from Aristotle’s talk of an eternal “unmoved mover,” the ultimate cause of all motion in his geocentric universe, though Newton’s language has stronger religious connotations than Aristotle’s. It could be argued that Newton’s appeal to a supreme being was motivated by his religious beliefs in a way that simply is not true for Aristotle, who was, after all, a polytheist. The point is that, while it’s the case that no selfrespecting scientist today would ever attribute anything to a “Supreme Being” as part of their cosmology, the separation between science and religion happened incrementally, and not overnight, as the term "revolution" suggests; and the revolution's heroes were sometimes more religious than their ancient predecessors. The glossy story about the Scientific Revolution also does not give enough credit to ancient cosmologists as true scientists. Of course, their theories later became church dogma, but they are 6 not at fault for that. What is important to note is that their methods—observing natural phenomena and using mathematics and logic to offer reasonable explanations—and the results they achieved—being able to make reliable predictions—go to the very heart of science. Did they get it right? No. But do we have it all right now? That’s highly unlikely. Only time will tell. Actually, all the atoms in the universe gathered together would be a black hole (not a whole!) and not a place you would want your atoms to be. A few simple observations of the sun (its declination at noon) made on the same day in different latitudes can easily prove earth a globe, as was done over two thousand years ago. But you could also just jog up a mountain (if you've got the stamina for it) and watch the horizon 'rise' to meet you, and as you can see 'over' it. About black holes. their gravity is not infinite, as is wrongly portrayed in the Star Trek movie (in which the planet Vulcan is destroyed by "red matter"). But its spin is infinite, because there is no dimension to it. Instantly upon the appearance of any dimension its centrieital force would explode it. So, why don't they blow up all over the cosmos? What keeps dimensionality out? Remember, dimensionality in this sense is the best refutation of divine influence. Luckily, these days, if you have a dumb idea, the only one you can censor is yourself! Salt lake? Isn't that where they keep the "Book" of Moron I? Maybe you should try going where there is some dimensionality. What makes science science is the willingness to answer critics without retrenchment (a form of censorship). Pillar of Cosmology: ‘Elegant’ Solution Reveals How the Universe Got Its Structure By CARNEGIE INSTITUTION FOR SCIENCE APRIL 28, 2020 7 The universe’s first structure originated when some of the material flung outward by the Big Bang overcame its trajectory and collapsed on itself, forming clumps. A team of Carnegie researchers showed that denser clumps of matter grew faster, and less-dense clumps grew more slowly. The group’s data revealed the distribution of density in the universe over the last 9 billion years. (On the illustration, violet represents low-density regions and red represents highdensity regions.) Working backward in time, their findings reveal the density fluctuations (far right, in purple and blue) that created the universe’s earliest structure. This aligns with what we know about the ancient universe from the afterglow of the Big Bang, called the Cosmic Microwave Background (far right in yellow and green). The researchers achieved their results by surveying the distances and masses of nearly 100,000 galaxies, going back to a time when the universe was only 4.5 billion years old. About 35,000 of the galaxies studied by the CarnegieSpitzer-IMACS Redshift Survey are represented here as small spheres. Credit: The illustration is courtesy of Daniel Kelson. CMB data is based on observations obtained with Planck, an ESA science mission with instruments and contributions directly funded by ESA Member States, NASA, and Canada. A direct, observation-based test of one of the pillars of cosmology. The universe is full of billions of galaxies — but their distribution across space is far from uniform. Why do we see so much structure in the universe today and how did it all form and grow? A 10-year survey of tens of thousands of galaxies made using the Magellan Baade Telescope at Carnegie’s Las Campanas Observatory in Chile provided a new approach to answering this fundamental mystery. The results, led by Carnegie’s Daniel Kelson, are published in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.Gravity drove the growth of structure from the universe’s earliest times which is a direct, observation-based test of one of the pillars of cosmology. The Magellan telescopes at Carnegie’s Las Campanas Observatory in Chile, which were crucial to the ability to conduct this survey. Credit: Photograph by Yuri Beletsky, courtesy of the Carnegie Institution for Science The Carnegie-Spitzer-IMACS Redshift Survey was designed to study the relationship between galaxy growth and the surrounding environment over the last 9 billion years, when modern galaxies’ appearances were defined. The first galaxies were formed a few hundred million years after the Big Bang, which started the universe as a hot, murky soup of extremely energetic particles. As this material expanded outward from the initial explosion, it cooled, and the particles coalesced into neutral hydrogen gas. Some patches were denser than others and, eventually, their gravity overcame the universe’s outward trajectory and the material collapsed inward, forming the first clumps of structure in the cosmos. 8 The density differences that allowed for structures both large and small to form in some places and not in others have been a longstanding topic of fascination. But until now, astronomers’ abilities to model how structure grew in the universe over the last 13 billion years faced mathematical limitations. “The gravitational interactions occurring between all the particles in the universe are too complex to explain with simple mathematics,” Benson said. So, astronomers either used mathematical approximations — which compromised the accuracy of their models — or large computer simulations that numerically model all the interactions between galaxies, but not all the interactions occurring between all of the particles, which was considered too complicated. “A key goal of our survey was to count up the mass present in stars found in an enormous selection of distant galaxies and then use this information to formulate a new approach to understanding how structure formed in the universe,” Kelson explained. 9 The research team — which also included Carnegie’s Louis Abramson, Shannon Patel, Stephen Shectman, Alan Dressler, Patrick McCarthy, and John S. Mulchaey, as well as Rik Williams, now of Uber Technologies — demonstrated for the first time that the growth of individual protostructures can be calculated and then averaged over all of space. Doing this revealed that denser clumps grew faster, and less-dense clumps grew more slowly. And it’s just so simple, with a real elegance to it.” — Daniel Kelson They were then able to work backward and determine the original distributions and growth rates of the fluctuations in density, which would eventually become the large-scale structures that determined the distributions of galaxies we see today. In essence, their work provided a simple, yet accurate, description of why and how density fluctuations grow the way they do in the real universe, as well as in the computational-based work that underpins our understanding of the universe’s infancy. “And it’s just so simple, with a real elegance to it,” added Kelson. The findings would not have been possible without the allocation of an extraordinary number of observing nights at Las Campanas. “Many institutions wouldn’t have had the capacity to take on a project of this scope on their own,” said Observatories Director John Mulchaey. “But thanks to our Magellan Telescopes, we were able to execute this survey and create this novel approach to answering a classic question.” “While there’s no doubt that this project required the resources of an institution like Carnegie, our work also could not have happened without the tremendous number of additional infrared images that we were able to obtain at Kit Peak and Cerro Tololo, which are both part of the NSF’s National Optical-Infrared Astronomy Research Laboratory,” Kelson added. 10 CHAPTER I Cosmology (from Greek κόσμος, kosmos "world" and -λογία, -logia "study of") is a branch of astronomy concerned with the studies of the origin and evolution of the universe, from the Big Bang to today and on into the future. It is the scientific study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. Physical cosmology is the scientific study of the universe's origin, its large-scale structures and dynamics, and its ultimate fate, as well as the laws of science that govern these areas. The term cosmology was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's Glossographia, and in 1731 taken up in Latin by German philosopher Christian Wolff, in Cosmologia Generalis. Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature and traditions of creation myths and eschatology. Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as astronomers and physicists, as well as philosophers, such as metaphysicians, philosophers of physics, and philosophers of space and time. Because of this shared scope with philosophy, theories in physical cosmology may include both scientific and non-scientific propositions, and may depend upon assumptions that cannot be tested. Cosmology differs from astronomy in that the former is concerned with the Universe as a whole while the latter deals with individual celestial objects. Modern physical cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which attempts to bring together observational astronomy and particle physics; more specifically, a standard parameterization of the Big Bang with dark matter and dark energy, known as the Lambda-CDM model. Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described cosmology as a "historical science" because "when we look out in space, we look back in time" due to the finite nature of the speed of light. Physics and astrophysics have played a central role in shaping the understanding of the universe through scientific observation and experiment. Physical cosmology was shaped through both mathematics and observation in an analysis of the whole universe. The universe is generally understood to have begun with the Big Bang, followed almost instantaneously by cosmic inflation; an expansion of space from which the universe is thought to have emerged 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago. Cosmogony studies the origin of the Universe, and cosmography maps the features of the Universe. In Diderot's Encyclopédie, cosmology is broken down into uranology (the science of the heavens), aerology (the science of the air), geology (the science of the continents), and hydrology (the science of waters). Metaphysical cosmology has also been described as the placing of humans in the universe in relationship to all other entities. This is exemplified by Marcus Aurelius's observation that a man's place in that relationship: "He who does not know what the world is does not know where he is, and he who does not know for what purpose the world exists, does not know who he is, nor what the world is." List of discoveries in astronomy and cosmology Physical cosmology Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics that deals with the study of the physical origins and evolution of the Universe. It also includes the study of the nature of the 11 Universe on a large scale. In its earliest form, it was what is now known as "celestial mechanics", the study of the heavens. Greek philosophers Aristarchus of Samos, Aristotle, and Ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories. The geocentric Ptolemaic system was the prevailing theory until the 16th century when Nicolaus Copernicus, and subsequently Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, proposed a heliocentric system. This is one of the most famous examples of epistemological rupture in physical cosmology. Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, was the first description of the law of universal gravitation. It provided a physical mechanism for Kepler's laws and also allowed the anomalies in previous systems, caused by gravitational interaction between the planets, to be resolved. A fundamental difference between Newton's cosmology and those preceding it was the Copernican principle—that the bodies on earth obey the same physical laws as all the celestial bodies. This was a crucial philosophical advance in physical cosmology. Modern scientific cosmology is usually considered to have begun in 1917 with Albert Einstein's publication of his final modification of general relativity in the paper "Cosmological Considerations of the General Theory of Relativity" (although this paper was not widely available outside of Germany until the end of World War I). General relativity prompted cosmogonists such as Willem de Sitter, Karl Schwarzschild, and Arthur Eddington to explore its astronomical ramifications, which enhanced the ability of astronomers to study very distant objects. Physicists began changing the assumption that the Universe was static and unchanging. In 1922 Alexander Friedmann introduced the idea of an expanding universe that contained moving matter. Around the same time (1917 to 1922) the Great Debate took place, with early cosmologists such as Heber Curtis and Ernst Öpik determining that some nebulae seen in telescopes were separate galaxies far distant from our own. In parallel to this dynamic approach to cosmology, one long-standing debate about the structure of the cosmos was coming to a climax. Mount Wilson astronomer Harlow Shapley championed the model of a cosmos made up of the Milky Way star system only; while Heber D. Curtis argued for the idea that spiral nebulae were star systems in their own right as island universes. This difference of ideas came to a climax with the organization of the Great Debate on 26 April 1920 at the meeting of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in Washington, D.C. The debate was resolved when Edwin Hubble detected Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1923 and 1924. Their distance established spiral nebulae well beyond the edge of the Milky Way.. Subsequent modelling of the universe explored the possibility that the cosmological constant, introduced by Einstein in his 1917 paper, may result in an expanding universe, depending on its value. Thus the Big Bang model was proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lemaître in 1927[14] which was subsequently corroborated by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929[15] and later by the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. These findings were a first step to rule out some of many alternative cosmologies. Since around 1990, several dramatic advances in observational cosmology have transformed cosmology from a largely speculative science into a predictive science with precise agreement between theory and observation. These advances include observations of the microwave background from the COBE, WMAP and Planck satellites, large new galaxy redshift surveys including 2dfGRS and SDSS, and.observations.of distant supernovae and gravitational 12 lensing. These observations matched the predictions of the cosmic inflation theory, a modified Big Bang theory, and the specific version known as the Lambda-CDM model. This has led many to refer to modern times as the "golden age of cosmology". On 17 March 2014, astronomers at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics announced the detection of gravitational waves, providing strong evidence for inflation and the Big Bang.However, on 19 June 2014, lowered confidence in confirming the cosmic inflation findings was reported. On 1 December 2014, at the Planck 2014 meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% atomic matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy. Religious or mythological cosmology Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature and traditions of creation and eschatology. Philosophical cosmology Representation of the observable universe on a logarithmic scale. Philosophy Cosmology Cosmology deals with the world as the totality of space, time and all phenomena. Historically, it has had quite a broad scope, and in many cases was founded in religion.[30] In modern use metaphysical cosmology addresses questions about the Universe which are beyond the scope of science. It is distinguished from religious cosmology in that it approaches these questions using philosophical methods like dialectics. Modern metaphysical cosmology tries to address questions such as:[23][31]   What is the origin of the Universe? What is its first cause? Is its existence necessary? (see monism, pantheism, emanationism and creationism) What are the ultimate material components of the Universe? (see mechanism, dynamism, hylomorphism, atomism) 13   What is the ultimate reason for the existence of the Universe? Does the cosmos have a purpose? (see teleology) Does the existence of consciousness have a purpose? How do we know what we know about the totality of the cosmos? Does cosmological reasoning reveal metaphysical truths? (see epistemology) Cosmogony Cosmogony is any model concerning the origin of either the cosmos or the universe. Scientific theories The Big Bang theory, which states that the universe originally expanded from high or infinite density, is widely accepted by physicists. In astronomy, cosmogony refers to the study of the origin of particular astrophysical objects or systems, and is most commonly used in reference to the origin of the universe, the Solar System, or the Earth–Moon system. The prevalent cosmological model of the early development of the universe is the Big Bang theory. Sean M. Carroll, who specializes in theoretical cosmology and field theory, explains two competing explanations for the origins of the singularity, which is the center of a space in which a characteristic is limitless. (One example of a singularity is the singularity of a black hole, where gravity becomes infinite.) It is generally accepted that the universe began at a point of singularity. When the singularity of the universe started to expand, the Big Bang occurred, which evidently began the universe. The other explanation, held by proponents such as Stephen Hawking, asserts that time did not exist when it emerged along with the universe. This assertion implies that the universe does not have a 14 beginning, as time did not exist "prior" to the universe. Hence, it is unclear whether properties such as space or time emerged with the singularity and the known universe. Despite the research, there is currently no theoretical model that explains the earliest moments of the universe's existence (during the Planck epoch) due to a lack of a testable theory of quantum gravity. Nevertheless, researchers of string theory, its extensions (such as M theory), and of loop quantum cosmology, like Barton Zwiebach and Washington Taylor, have proposed solutions to assist in the explanation of the universe's earliest moments.[7] Cosmogonists have only tentative theories for the early stages of the universe and its beginning. The proposed theoretical scenarios include string theory, M-theory, the Hartle—Hawking initial state, string landscape, cosmic inflation, the Big Bang, and the ekpyrotic universe. Some of these proposed scenarios, like the string theory, are compatible, whereas others are not. Mythology-Creation myth The Sumerian tablet cotaining parts of the Eridu Genesis. In mythology, creation or cosmogonic myths are narratives describing the beginning of the universe or cosmos. Some methods of the creation of the universe in mythology include:      the will or action of a supreme being or beings, the process of metamorphosis, the copulation of female and male deities, from chaos, or via a cosmic egg Creation myths may be etiological, attempting to provide explanations for the origin of the universe. For instance, Eridu Genesis, the oldest known creation myth, contains an account of the creation of the world in which the universe was created out of a primeval sea (Abzu). Creation 15 myths vary, but they may share similar deities or symbols. For instance, the ruler of the gods in Greek mythology, Zeus, is similar to the ruler of the gods in Roman mythology, Jupiter. Another example is the ruler of the gods in Tagalog mythology, Bathala, who is similar to various rulers of certain pantheons within Philippine mythology such as the Bisaya's Kaptan. Comparison with Cosmology: In the humanities, the distinction between cosmogony and cosmology is blurred. For example, in theology, the cosmological argument for the existence of God is an appeal to ideas concerning the origin of the universe and is thus cosmogonical. However, in astronomy, cosmogony can be distinguished from cosmology, which studies the universe and its existence, but does not necessarily inquire into its origins. There is therefore a scientific distinction between cosmological and cosmogonical ideas. Physical cosmology is the science that attempts to explain all observations relevant to the development and characteristics of the universe on its largest scale. Some questions regarding the behaviour of the universe have been described by some physicists and cosmologists as being extra-scientific or metaphysical. Attempted solutions to such questions may include the extrapolation of scientific theories to untested regimes (such as the Planck epoch), or the inclusion of philosophical or religious ideas Timeline of cosmological theories and Nicolaus Copernicus § Copernican system Name Author and date Classification Remarks Hindu cosmology Rigveda (c. 1100 BC) Cyclical oscillating, in time Primal matter remains manifest for 311.04 trillion years and unmanifest for an equal length. The universe remains manifest for 4.32 or billion Infinite years and unmanifest for an equal length. Innumerable universes exist simultaneously. These cycles have and will last forever, driven by desires. Jain cosmology Jain Agamas (written around 500 AD as Cyclical per the teachings oscillating, of Mahavira 599–527 and finite BC) Jain cosmology considers the loka, or universe, as an or uncreated entity, existing eternal since infinity, the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This 1700– 16 Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. Babylonian cosmology Eleatic cosmology Biblical cosmology The Earth and the Heavens form a unit Flat earth floating in within infinite "waters of 3000 infinite "waters of chaos"; the earth is flat and chaos" circular, and a solid dome (the "firmament") keeps out the outer "chaos"-ocean. Babylonian literature (c. BC) Parmenides (c. BC) Genesis narrative The Universe is unchanging, uniform, perfect, necessary, timeless, and neither generated nor perishable. Void is impossible. Plurality 515 Finite and spherical and change are products of in extent epistemic ignorance derived from sense experience. Temporal and spatial limits are arbitrary and relative to the Parmenidean whole. The Earth and Earth floating in the Heavens form a unit creation infinite "waters of within infinite "waters of chaos" chaos"; the "firmament" keeps out the outer "chaos"-ocean. Anaxagoras (500– Atomist universe 428 BC) & Infinite in extent later Epicurus 17 The universe contains only two things: an infinite number of tiny seeds (atoms) and the void of infinite extent. All atoms are made of the same substance, but differ in size and shape. Objects are formed from atom aggregations and decay back into atoms. Incorporates Leucippus' principle of causality: "nothing happens at random; everything happens out of reason and necessity". The universe was not ruled by gods.[citation needed] Pythagorean universe At the center of the Universe is a central fire, around which the Earth, Sun, Moon and planets revolve uniformly. The Sun revolves Existence of a around the central fire once a "Central Fire" at the Philolaus (d. 390 BC) year, the stars are immobile. center of the The earth in its motion Universe. maintains the same hidden face towards the central fire, hence it is never seen. First known non-geocentric model of the Universe.[32] De Mundo The Universe then is a system made up of Pseudo-Aristotle (d. heaven and earth and 250 BC or between the elements which 350 and 200 BC) are contained in them. Stoic universe Stoics (300 BC – Island universe 18 There are "five elements, situated in spheres in five regions, the less being in each case surrounded by the greater – namely, earth surrounded by water, water by air, air by fire, and fire by ether – make up the whole Universe." The cosmos is finite and 200 AD) Aristotelian universe Aristarchean universe Ptolemaic model Aristotle (384– 322 BC) surrounded by an infinite void. It is in a state of flux, and pulsates in size and undergoes periodic upheavals and conflagrations. Spherical earth is surrounded by concentric celestial spheres. Universe exists Geocentric, static, unchanged throughout steady state, finite eternity. Contains a fifth extent, infinite time element, called aether, that was added to the four classical elements. Earth rotates daily on its axis and revolves annually about the sun in a circular orbit. Sphere of fixed stars is centered about the sun. Aristarchus (circa 28 0 BC) Heliocentric Ptolemy (2nd century AD) Universe orbits around a stationary Earth. Planets move in circular epicycles, each having a center that moved in a larger circular orbit (called an eccentric or a deferent) Geocentric (based on around a center-point near Earth. The use Aristotelian of equants added another level universe) of complexity and allowed astronomers to predict the positions of the planets. The most successful universe model of all time, using the criterion of longevity. Almagest (the 19 Great System). Aryabhatan model Aryabhata (499) Geocentric Heliocentric The Earth rotates and the planets move in elliptical orbits around either the Earth or or Sun; uncertain whether the model is geocentric or heliocentric due to planetary orbits given with respect to both the Earth and Sun. A universe that is finite in time and has a beginning is proposed by the Christian philosopher John Philoponus, who argues against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. Logical arguments supporting a finite universe are developed by the early Muslim philosopher Alkindus, the Jewish philosopher Saadia Gaon, and the Muslim theologian Algazel. Medieval universe Medieval philosophers (500– 1200) Multiversal cosmology There exists an infinite outer space beyond the known Fakhr al-Din al- Multiverse, multiple world, and God has the power Razi (1149–1209) worlds and universes to fill the vacuum with an infinite number of universes. Maragha models Maragha school (1259–1528) Finite in time Geocentric 20 Various modifications to Ptolemaic model and Aristotelian universe, including rejection of equant and eccentrics at M aragheh observatory, and introduction of Tusicouple by Al-Tusi. Alternative models later proposed, including the first accurate lunar model by Ibn al-Shatir, a model rejecting stationary Earth in favour of Earth's rotation by Ali Kuşçu, and planetary model incorporating "circular inertia" by AlBirjandi. A universe in which the and planets orbit the Sun, which orbits the Earth; similar to the later Tychonic system Nilakanthan model Nilakantha Somayaji (1444– 1544) Geocentric heliocentric Copernican universe Nicolaus Copernicus (1473– 1543) Heliocentric with First described circular planetary revolutionibus orbits coelestium. Tychonic system Bruno's cosmology Tycho Brahe (1546– Geocentric 1601) Heliocentric Giordano Bruno (1548–1600) A universe in which the planets orbit the Sun and the and Sun orbits the Earth, similar to the earlier Nilakanthan model. Infinite extent, infinite time, homogeneous, isotropic, nonhierarchical 21 in De orbium Rejects the idea of a hierarchical universe. Earth and Sun have no special properties in comparison with the other heavenly bodies. The void between the stars is filled with aether, and matter is composed of the same four elements (water, earth, fire, and air), and is atomistic, animistic and intelligent. Keplerian Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Kepler's discoveries, marrying mathematics and physics, Heliocentric with provided the foundation for elliptical planetary our present conception of the orbits Solar system, but distant stars were still seen as objects in a thin, fixed celestial sphere. Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle. Matter on the large scale is uniformly distributed. Gravitationally balanced but unstable. Static Newtonian Isaac Newton (1642– Static (evolving), 1727) steady state, infinite Cartesian Vortex universe System of huge swirling whirlpools of aethereal or fine matter produces what we René Descartes, 17th Static (evolving), would call gravitational century steady state, infinite effects. But his vacuum was not empty; all space was filled with matter. Hierarchical universe Immanuel Kant, Johann Lambert, century Matter is clustered on ever Static (evolving), larger scales of hierarchy. 18th steady state, infinite Matter is endlessly recycled. Einstein Albert Einstein, 1917 Universe with a Static 22 (nominally). "Matter without motion". Contains uniformly cosmological constant De universe Bounded (finite) Sitter Willem 1917 de Expanding flat Sitter, space. Steady state. Λ > 0 MacMillan universe William Duncan Static MacMillan 1920s state and distributed matter. Uniformly curved spherical space; based on Riemann's hypersphere. Curvature is set equal to Λ. In effect Λ is equivalent to a repulsive force which counteracts gravity. Unstable. "Motion without matter." Only apparently static. Based on Einstein's general relativity. Space expands with constant acceleration. Scale factor increases exponentially (constant inflation). New matter is created steady from radiation; starlight perpetually recycled into new matter particles. Positive curvature. Curvature Spherical expanding constant k = +1 space. Friedmann universe, spherical space Alexander Friedmann 1922 Friedmann universe, hyperbolic space Alexander Friedmann, 1924 Hyperbolic expandin Negative curvature. Said to be g space. infinite (but ambiguous). Unbounded. Expands forever. k = −1 ; no Λ Dirac large numbers Paul Dirac 1930s hypothesis Demands a large variation in G, which decreases with time. Gravity weakens as universe evolves. k = +1 ; no Λ Friedmann zero- Einstein and curvature Sitter, 1932 Expanding Expands then recollapses. Spa tially closed (finite). Curvature constant k = 0. Said Expanding flat space to be infinite (but ambiguous). De cosmos of k = 0 ; Λ = 0 Critical "Unbounded limited extent". Expands density forever. "Simplest" of all 23 known universes. Named after but not considered by Friedmann. Has a deceleration term q = 1/2, which means that its expansion rate slows down. The original Big Georges Bang (Friedmann Lemaître 1927–29 -Lemaître) Λ is positive and has a magnitude greater than gravity. Universe has initial high-density state ("primeval Expansion atom"). Followed by a twostage expansion. Λ is used to Λ > 0 ; Λ > |Gravity| destabilize the universe. (Lemaître is considered the father of the Big Bang model.) Oscillating Favored universe (Friedm by Friedmann, 1920s ann-Einstein) Time is endless and beginningless; thus avoids the beginning-of-time paradox. Expanding and Perpetual cycles of Big Bang contracting in cycles followed by Big Crunch. (Einstein's first choice after he rejected his 1917 model.) First static expands Static Einstein 1917 universe with its instability disturbed then into expansion mode; with relentless matter dilution becomes a De Sitter universe. Λ dominates gravity. Eddington universe Arthur Eddington 1930 Milne universe of kinematic relativity Rejects general relativity and the expanding space Edward Milne, 1933, Kinematic expansion paradigm. Gravity not 1935; without space included as initial assumption. William H. McCrea, expansion Obeys cosmological principle 1930s and special relativity; consists of a finite spherical cloud of 24 particles (or galaxies) that expands within an infinite and otherwise empty flat space. It has a center and a cosmic edge (surface of the particle cloud) that expands at light speed. Explanation of gravity was elaborate and unconvincing. Friedmann– Lemaître– Robertson– Walker class models Howard Robertson, Arthur of Walker, 1935 Uniformly expanding Class of universes that are homogeneous and isotropic. Spacetime separates into uniformly curved space and cosmic time common to all co-moving observers. The formulation system is now known as the FLRW or Robertson–Walker metrics of cosmic time and curved space. Steady-state Matter creation rate maintains constant density. Continuous Hermann Expanding, steady creation out of nothing from Bondi, Thomas Gold, nowhere. Exponential state, infinite 1948 expansion. Deceleration term q = −1. Steady-state Fred Hoyle 1948 Matter creation rate maintains constant density. But since Expanding, steady matter creation rate must be state; but unstable exactly balanced with the space expansion rate the system is unstable. Ambiplasma Hannes Alfvén 1965 Oskar Klein Based on the concept Cellular universe, of plasma cosmology. The expanding by means universe is viewed as "metaof matter–antimatter galaxies" divided by double 25 annihilation Brans–Dicke theory Cosmic inflation Carl H. Brans, Robert Expanding H. Dicke Alan Guth 1980 Eternal inflation (a Andreï Linde, 1983 multiple universe model) Cyclic model layers and thus a bubble-like nature. Other universes are formed from other bubbles. Ongoing cosmic matterantimatter annihilations keep the bubbles separated and moving apart preventing them from interacting. Based on Mach's principle. G varies with time as universe expands. "But nobody is quite sure what Mach's principle actually means."[citation needed] Based on the concept of hot inflation. The universe is viewed as a multiple quantum Big Bang modified flux – hence its bubble-like to nature. Other universes are solve horizon and fla formed from other bubbles. tness problems Ongoing cosmic expansion kept the bubbles separated and moving apart. Multiverse based on the concept of cold inflation, in which inflationary events occur at random each with Big Bang independent initial conditions; with cosmic inflation some expand into bubble universes supposedly like our entire cosmos. Bubbles nucleate in a spacetime foam. Expanding and Two parallel orbifold planes Paul Steinhardt; Neil contracting in or M-branes collide Turok 2002 periodically in a highercycles; M-theory. dimensional space. 26 With quintessence or dark energy. Cyclic model Phantom dark energy fragments universe into large number of Lauris Baum; Paul Solution of Tolman's disconnected patches. Our Frampton 2007 entropy problem patch contracts containing only dark energy with zero entropy. Table notes: the term "static" simply means not expanding and not contracting. Symbol G represents Newton's gravitational constant; Λ (Lambda) is the cosmological constant. 27 CHAPTER II Philosophy of Cosmology Cosmology (the study of the physical universe) is a science that, due to both theoretical and observational developments, has made enormous strides in the past 100 years. It began as a branch of theoretical physics through Einstein’s 1917 static model of the universe (Einstein 1917) and was developed in its early days particularly through the work of Lemaître (1927).[1] As recently as 1960, cosmology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. It has transitioned to an extremely active area of mainstream physics and astronomy, particularly due to the application to the early universe of atomic and nuclear physics, on the one hand, and to a flood of data coming in from telescopes operating across the entire electromagnetic spectrum on the other. However, there are two main issues that make the philosophy of cosmology unlike that of any other science. The first is, The uniqueness of the Universe: there exists only one universe, so there is nothing else similar to compare it with, and the idea of “Laws of the universe” hardly makes sense. This means it is the historical science par excellence: it deals with only one unique object that is the only member of its class that exists physically; indeed there is no non-trivial class of such objects (except in theoreticians’ minds) precisely for this reason. This issue will recur throughout this discussion. The second is Cosmology deals with the physical situation that is the context in the large for human existence: the universe has such a nature that our life is possible. This means that although it is a physical science, it is of particular importance in terms of its implications for human life. This leads to important issues about the explanatory scope of cosmology, which we return to at the end.     1. Cosmology’s Standard Model o 1.1 Spacetime Geometry o 1.2 Observations o 1.3 Historical Epochs o 1.4 Status of the Standard Model o 1.5 Local vs. Global Interplay in Cosmology 2. Underdetermination o 2.1 Underdetermination in Cosmology o 2.2 Global Structure o 2.3 Establishing FLRW Geometry? o 2.4 Physics Horizon o 2.5 Cosmic Variance 3. Origins of the Universe o 3.1 The Initial State o 3.2 Singularity Theorems o 3.3 Puzzling Features of the Initial State o 3.4 Theories of the Initial State o 3.5 The Limits of Science 4. Anthropic Reasoning and Multiverse o 4.1 Anthropic Reasoning 28 4.2 Fine-Tuning 4.3 Multiverse 5. Testing models o 5.1 Criteria o 5.2 Scope of Cosmological Theories and Data Bibliography Academic Tools Other Internet Resources Related Entries o o      1. Cosmology’s Standard Model Physical cosmology has achieved a consensus Standard Model (SM), based on extending the local physics governing gravity and the other forces to describe the overall structure of the universe and its evolution. According to the SM, the universe has evolved from an extremely high temperature early state, by expanding, cooling, and developing structures at various scales, such as galaxies and stars. This model is based on bold extrapolations of existing theories— applying general relativity, for example, at length scales 14 orders of magnitude larger than the those at which it has been tested—and requires several novel ingredients, such as dark matter and dark energy. The last few decades have been a golden age of physical cosmology, as the SM has been developed in rich detail and substantiated by compatibility with a growing body of observations. Here we will briefly introduce some of the central concepts of the SM to provide the minimal background needed for the ensuing discussion. 1.1 Spacetime Geometry Gravity is the dominant interaction at large length scales. General relativity introduced a new way of representing gravity: rather than describing gravity as a force deflecting bodies from inertial motion, bodies free from non-gravitational forces move along the analog of straight lines, called geodesics, through a curved spacetime geometry. The spacetime curvature is related to the distribution of energy and matter through GR’s fundamental equations (Einstein’s field equations, EFE). The dynamics of the theory are non-linear: matter curves spacetime, and the curvature of spacetime determines how matter moves; and gravitational waves interact with each other gravitationally, and act as gravitational sources. The theory also replaces the single gravitational potential, and associated field equation, of Newton’s theory, with a set of 10 coupled, non-linear equations for ten independent potentials.This complexity is an obstacle to understanding the general features of solutions to EFE, and to finding exact solutions to describe specific physical situations. Most exact solutions have been found based on strong idealizations, introduced to simplify the mathematics. Remarkably, much of cosmology is based on an extremely simple set of solutions found within a decade of Einstein’s discovery of GR. These Friedman-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) solutions have, in a precise sense, the most symmetry possible. The spacetime geometry is constrained to be uniform, so that there are no preferred locations or directions.[5] They have a simple geometric structure, consisting of a “stack” of three-dimensional spatial surfaces Σ(t)Σ(t) labeled by values of the cosmic time tt (topologically, Σ×RΣ×R). The surfaces Σ(t)Σ(t) are three-dimensional spaces (Riemannian manifolds) of constant curvature, with three possibilities: (1) spherical space, for the case of positive curvature; (2) Euclidean space, for zero curvature; and (3) hyperbolic space, for negative curvature. 29 These models describe an expanding universe, characterized fully by the behavior of the scale factor R(t)R(t). The worldlines of “fundamental observers”, defined as at rest with respect to matter, are orthogonal to these surfaces, and the cosmic time corresponds to the proper time measured by the fundamental observers. The scale factor R(t)R(t) represents the spatial distance in ΣΣ between nearby fundamental observers as a function of cosmic time. The evolution of these models is described by a simple set of equations governing R(t)R(t), implied by Einstein’s field equations (EFE): the Friedmann equation. (R˙R)2=8πGρ3−kR2+Λ3,(1)(1)(R˙R)2=8πGρ3−kR2+Λ3, and the isotropic form of the Raychaudhuri equation: 3R¨R=−4πG(ρ+3p)+Λ.(2)(2)3R¨R=−4πG(ρ+3p)+Λ. The curvature of surfaces Σ(t)Σ(t) of constant cosmic time is given by kR2(t)kR2(t), where k={−1,0,1}k={−1,0,1} for negative, flat, and positive curvature (respectively). The assumed symmetries force the matter to be described as a perfect fluid[8] with energy density ρρ and pressure pp, which obey the energy conservation equation ρ˙+(ρ+p)3R˙R=0.(3)(3)ρ˙+(ρ+p)3R˙R=0. The unrelenting symmetry of the FLRW models makes them quite simple geometrically and dynamically. Rather than a set of coupled partial differential equations, which generically follow from EFE, in the FLRW models one only has to deal with 2 ordinary differential equations (only two of (1)(1)–(3)(3) are independent) which are determinate once an equation of state p=p(ρ)p=p(ρ) is given. These equations reveal three basic features of these models. First, these are dynamical models: it is hard to arrange an unchanging universe, with R˙(t)=0R˙(t)=0. “Ordinary” matter has positive total stress-energy density, in the sense that ρgrav:=ρ+3p>0ρgrav:=ρ+3p>0. From (22), the effect of such ordinary matter is to decelerate cosmic expansion, R¨<0R¨<0—gravity is a force of attraction. This is only so for ordinary matter: a positive cosmological constant, or matter with negative gravitational-energy density ρgravρgrav leads, conversely, to accelerating expansion, R¨>0R¨>0. Einstein was only able to construct a static model by delicately balancing the attraction of ordinary matter with a precisely chosen value of ΛΛ; he unfortunately failed to notice that the solution was unstable, and overlooked the dynamical implications of his own theory. Second, the expansion rate varies as different types of matter come to dominate the dynamics. As shown by (33), the energy density for different types of matter and radiation dilutes at different rates: for example, pressureless dust (p=0p=0) dilutes as ∝R−3∝R−3, radiation (p=ρ/3p=ρ/3) as ∝R−4∝R−4, and the cosmological constant (p=−ρp=−ρ) remains (as the name suggests) constant. The SM describes the early universe as having a much higher energy density in radiation than matter. This radiation-dominated phase eventually transitions to a matterdominated phase as radiation dilutes more rapidly, followed eventually, if Λ>0Λ>0, by a transition to a ΛΛ-dominated phase; if k≠0k≠0 there may also be a curvature dominated phase. Third, FLRW models with ordinary matter have a singularity at a finite time in the past. Extrapolating back in time, given that the universe is currently expanding, eqn. (22) implies that the expansion began at some finite time in the past. The current rate of expansion is given by the 30 Hubble parameter, H0=(R˙R)0H0=(R˙R)0. Simply extrapolating this expansion rate backward, from eqn. (22) the expansion rate must increase at earlier times, so R(t)→0R(t)→0 at a time less than the Hubble time Hubble time H−10H0−1 before now, if ρgrav≥0ρgrav≥0. As this “big bang” is approached, the energy density and curvature increase without bound provided ρinert:=(ρ+p)>0ρinert:=(ρ+p)>0 (which condition guarantees that ρ→∞ρ→∞ as R→0R→0). This reflects gravitational instability: as R(t)R(t) decreases, the energy density and pressure both increase, and they both appear with the same sign on the right hand side of eqn. (22), hence pressure p>0p>0 does not help avoid the singularity. Work in the 1960s, discussed below in §4.1, established that the existence of a singularity holds in more realistic models, and is not an artifact of the symmetries of the FLRW models. The SM adds small departures from strict uniformity in order to account for the formation and evolution of structure. Due to gravitational instability, such perturbations are enhanced dynamically—the density contrast of an initial region that differs from the average density grows with time. Sufficiently small fluctuations can be treated as linear perturbations to a background cosmological model, governed by an evolution equation that follows from EFE. Yet as the fluctuations grow larger, linearized perturbation theory no longer applies. According to the SM, structure grows hierarchically with smaller length scales going non-linear first, and larger structures forming via later mergers. Models of evolution of structures at smaller length scales (e.g., the length scales of galaxies) include physics other than gravity, such as gas dynamics, to describe the collapsing clumps of matter. Cold dark matter (CDM) also plays a crucial role in the SM’s account of structure formation: it clumps first, providing scaffolding for clumping of baryonic matter. A full account of structure formation requires integrating physics over an enormous range of dynamical scales and including a cosmological constant as well as baryonic matter, radiation, and dark matter. This is an active area of research, primarily pursued using sophisticated NNbody computer simulations to study features of the galaxy distribution produced by the SM, given various assumptions. 1.2 Observations There are two main ways in which cosmological observations support perturbed FLRW models. First, cosmologists use matter and radiation in the universe to probe the background spacetime geometry and its evolution. The universe appears to be isotropic at sufficiently large scales, as indicated by background radiation (most notably the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB), discussed below) and discrete sources (e.g., galaxies). Isotropy observed along a single worldline is, however, not sufficient to establish the universe is well described by an FLRW geometry. A further assumption that our worldline is not the only vantage point from which the universe appears isotropic, often called the Copernican principle, is needed. Granting this principle, there are theorems establishing that observations of almost isotropic background radiation implies that the spacetime geometry is almost FLRW. The principle itself cannot be established directly via observations (see §2). Given that we live in an almost FLRW models, we need to determine its parameters such as the Hubble constant H0H0 and the deceleration parameter q0:=−R¨/(RH20)q0:=−R¨/(RH02), which measures how the rate of expansion is changing, and the normalized density parameters Ωm:=ρm/(3H20)Ωm:=ρm/(3H02) for each matter or energy density component mm. There are a variety of ways to determine the accuracy of the background evolution described by the FLRW models, which depends on these 31 parameters. For this purpose, cosmologists seek effective standard candles and standard rulers— objects with a known intrinsic luminosity and length, respectively, which can then be used to measure the expansion history of the universe. The second main avenue of testing focuses on the SM’s account of structure formation, which describes the evolution of small perturbations away from the background FLRW geometry in terms of a small number of parameters such as the tilt nsns and the scalar to tensor ratio rr. Observations from different epochs, such as temperature anisotropies in the CMB and the matter power spectrum based on galaxy surveys, can be used as independent constraints on these parameters as well as on the background parameters (indeed such observations turn out to give the best constraints on the background model parameters). These two routes to testing almost FLRW spacetime geometry are closely linked because the background model provides the context for the evolution of perturbations under the dynamics described by general relativity. The remarkable success of perturbed FLRW models in describing the observed universe has led many cosmologists to focus almost exclusively on them, yet there are drawbacks to such a myopic approach. For example, the observations at best establish that the observed universe can be well-approximated by an almost FLRW model within some (large) domain. But they are not the only models that fit the data: there are other cosmological models that mimic FLRW models in the relevant domain, yet differ dramatically elsewhere (and elsewhen). Specifically, on the one hand there are a class of spatially homogeneous and anisotropic models (Bianchi models) that exhibit “intermediate isotropization”: namely, they have physical properties that are arbitrarily close to (isotropic) FLRW models over some time scale TT. Agreement over the time interval TT does not imply global agreement, however, as these models have large anisotropies at other times. Relying on the FLRW models in making extrapolations to the early or late universe requires some justification for ignoring models, such as these Bianchi models, that mimic their behavior for a finite time interval. On the other hand there are inhomogeneous spherically symmetric models that can reproduce exactly the background model observations (number counts versus redshifts and angular diameter distance versus redshift, for example) with or without a cosmological constant (Mustapha et al. 1997). These can be excluded by direct observations with good enough standard candles (Clarkson et al. 2008) or by observations of structure formation features in such universes (Clarkson & Maartens 2010); but that exclusion cannot take place unless one indeed examines such models and their observational consequences. Lack of knowledge of the full space of solutions to EFE makes it difficult to assess the fragility of various inferences cosmologists make based on perturbed FLRW models. A fragile inference depends on the properties of the model holding exactly, contrasted with robust inferences that hold even if the models are good approximations (up to some tolerable error) that will hold even if the model is perturbed. The singularity theorems (Hawking & Ellis 1973), for example, establish that the existence of an initial singularity is robust: rather than being features specific to the FLRW models, or other highly symmetric models, singularities are generic in models satisfying physically plausible assumptions. The status of various other inferences cosmologists make is less clear. For example, how sensitively does the observational case in favor of dark energy, which contributes roughly 70% of the total energy density of the universe in the SM, depend upon treating the universe as having almost-FLRW spacetime geometry? As mentioned 32 above, recent work has pursued the possibility of accounting for the same observations based upon large-scale inhomogeneities or local back-reaction, without recourse to dark energy. Studies along these lines are needed to evaluate the possibility that subtle dynamical effects, absent in the FLRW models, provide alternative explanations of observed phenomena. The deduction also depends on the assumption that the EFE hold at cosmological scales - which may not be true: maybe for example some form of scalar-tensor theory should be used. More generally, an assessment of the reliability of a variety of cosmological inferences requires detailed study of a larger space of cosmological models. 1.3 Historical Epochs The SM’s account of the evolution of the matter and radiation in the universe reflects the dynamical effect of expansion. Consider a cube of spacetime in the early universe, filled with matter and radiation. The dynamical effects of the universe’s expansion are locally the same as slowly stretching the cube. For some stages of evolution the contents of the cube interact sufficiently quickly that they reach and stay in local thermal equilibrium as the cube changes volume. (Because of isotropy, equal amounts of matter and radiation enter and leave the cube from neighboring cubes.) But when the interactions are too slow compared to the rate of expansion, the cube changes volume too rapidly for equilibrium to be maintained. As a result, particle species “freeze out” and decouple, and entropy increases. Without a series of departures from equilibrium, cosmology would be boring—the system would remain in equilibrium with a state determined solely by the temperature, without a trace of things past. The rate of expansion of the cube varies with cosmic time. Because radiation, matter, and a cosmological constant term (or dark energy) dilute with expansion at different rates, an expanding universe naturally falls into separate epochs, characterized by different expansion rates. There are several distinctive epochs in the history of the universe, according to the SM, including the following:  Quantum gravity: Classical general relativity is expected to fail at early times, when quantum effects will be crucial in describing the gravitational degrees of freedom. There is considerable uncertainty regarding physics at this scale.  Inflation: A period of exponential, quasi-De Sitter expansion driven by an “inflaton” field (or fields), leading to a uniform, almost flat universe with Gaussian linear nearly scale invariant density perturbations. During inflation pre-existing matter and radiation are rapidly diluted; the universe is repopulated with matter and energy by the decay of the inflaton field into other fields at the end of inflation (“re-heating”).  Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: At t≈1t≈1 second, the constituents of the universe include neutrons, protons, electrons, photons, and neutrinos, tightly coupled and in local thermal equilibrium. Synthesis of light elements occurs during a burst of nuclear interactions that transpire as the universe falls from a temperature of roughly 109109 K to 108108 K after neutrinos fall out of equilibrium and consequent onset of neutron decay. The predicted light-element abundances depend on physical features of the universe at this time, such as the total density of baryonic matter and the baryon to photon ratio. Agreement between theory and observation for a specific baryon to photon ratio (Steigman 2007) is a great success of the SM. 33   Decoupling: As the temperature drops below ≈4,000K≈4,000K, electrons become bound in stable atoms, and photons decouple from the matter with a black-body spectrum. With the expansion of the universe, the photons cool adiabatically but retain a black-body spectrum with a temperature T∝1/RT∝1/R. This “cosmic background radiation” (CBR) has been aptly called the cosmic Rosetta stone because it carries so much information about the state of the universe at decoupling (Ade et al. 2016). Dark Ages: After decoupling, baryonic matter consists almost entirely of neutral hydrogen and helium. Once the first generation of stars form, the dark ages come to an end with light from the stars, which re-ionizes the universe.  Structure Formation: Cold dark matter dominates the early stages of the formation of structure. Dark matter halos provide the scaffolding for hierarchical structure formation. The first generation of stars aggregate into galaxies, and galaxies into clusters. Massive stars end their lives in supernova explosions and spread through space heavy elements that have been created in their interiors, enabling formation of second generation stars surrounded by planets.  Dark Energy Domination: Dark energy (or a non-zero cosmological constant) eventually comes to dominate the expansion of the universe, leading to accelerated expansion.[13] This expansion will be never-ending if the dark energy is in fact a cosmological constant. 1.4 Status of the Standard Model The development of a precise cosmological model compatible with the rich set of cosmological data currently available is an impressive achievement. Cosmology clearly relies very heavily on theory; the cosmological parameters that have been the target of observational campaigns are only defined given a background model. The strongest case for accepting the SM rests on the evidence in favor of the underlying physics, in concert with the overdetermination of cosmological parameters. The SM includes several free parameters, such as the density parameters characterizing the abundance of different types of matter, each of which can be measured several ways.[14] These methods have distinctive theoretical assumptions and sources of error. For example, the abundance of deuterium produced during big bang nucleosynthesis depends sensitively on the baryon density. Nucleosynthesis is described using well-tested nuclear physics, and the light element abundances are frozen in within the “first three minutes”. The amplitudes of the acoustic peaks in the CMB angular power spectrum depend on the baryon density at the time of decoupling. Current measurements fix the baryon density to an accuracy of one percent, and the values determined by these two methods agree within observational error. This agreement is one of many consistency checks for the SM.[15] There are important discrepancies, such as that between local versus global measurements of the Hubble parameter H0H0 (Luković et al. 2016; Bernal et al. 2016). The significance and further implications of these discrepancies is not clear. The SM from nucleosynthesis on can be regarded as well supported by many lines of evidence. The independence and diversity of the measurements provides some assurance that the SM will not be undermined by isolated theoretical mistakes or undetected sources of systematic error. But the SM is far from complete, and there are three different types of significant open issues. 34 First, we do not understand three crucial components of the SM that require new physics. We do not have a full account of the nature, or underlying dynamics, of dark matter (Bertone et al. 2005), dark energy (Peebles & Ratra 2003), or the inflaton field (Lyth & Riotto 1999; Martin et al. 2014). These are well-recognized problems that have inspired active theoretical and observational work, although as we note below in §2.4 they will be challenging to resolve due to inaccessibility of physics at the appropriate scale. The second set of open questions regards structure formation. While the account of structure formation matches several significant observed features, such as the correlations among galaxies in large scale surveys, there are a number of open questions about how galaxies form (Silk 2017). Many of these, such as the cusp-core problem (Weinberg et al. 2015), and the dark halos problem (a great many more small dark halos are predicted around galaxies than observed) regard features of galaxies on relatively small scales, which require detailed modeling of a variety of astrophysical processes over an enormous dynamical range. This is also a very active area of research, driven in particular by a variety of new lines of observational research and large-scale numerical simulations. The third and final set of open issues regards possible observations that would show that the SM is substantially wrong. Any scientific theory should be incompatible with at least some observations, and that is the case for the SM. In the early days of relativistic cosmology, the universe was judged to be younger than some stars or globular clusters. This conflict arose due to a mistaken value of the Hubble constant. There is currently no such age problem for the SM, but obviously discovering an object older than 13.7 Gyr would force a major re-evaluation of current cosmological models. Another example would be if there was not a dipole in matter number counts that agrees with the CMB dipole (Ellis & Baldwin 1984). 1.5 Local vs. Global Interplay in Cosmology Although cosmology is generally seen as fitting into the general physics paradigm of everything being determined in a bottom up manner, as in the discussion above, there is another tradition that sees the effect of the global on the local in cosmology. The traditional issues of this kind (Bondi 1960; Ellis & Sciama 1972; Ellis 2002) are    Mach’s Principle: the idea that the origin of inertia is due to the very distant matter in the universe (Barbour & Pfister 1995), nowadays understood as being due to the fact that the vorticity ωω of the universe is very low at present (it could have been otherwise); Olber’s Paradox: the issue of why the sky is dark at night (Harrison 1984), resolved by evolution of the universe together with the redshift factor of about 1000 since the surface of last scattering (which determines that the temperature of the night sky is the 2.73K of the CMB everywhere except for the small fraction of the sky covered by stars and galaxies) The Arrow of Time: where does the arrow of time come from, if the underlying physics is time symmetric? This has to be due to special initial conditions at the start of the universe (Ellis 2007). This is related to the Sommerfeld outgoing radiation condition and Penrose’s Weyl curvature hypothesis (Penrose 2016). In each case, global boundary conditions have an important effect on local physics. More recent ones relate to 35    Nucleosynthesis, where the course of nuclear reactions is determined by the T(t)T(t) relation that is controlled by cosmological evolution (Steigman 2007) (the temperature TT being a coarse grained variable with evolution determined by the average density ρρ of matter in the universe through the Friedmann equation) Structure formation due to gravitational instability (Mukhanov et al. 1992), which is affected crucially by the expansion of the universe, which turns what would have been an exponential growth of inhomogeneity(in a static universe) to a power law growth. It is because of this effect that studies of structure such as the BAO and CMB anisotropies give us strong limits on the parameters of the background model (Ade et al. 2016). The Anthropic Principle, discussed below (§4.1), whereby large-scale conditions in the universe (such as the value of the cosmological constant and the initial amplitude of inhomogeneities in the early universe) provide local conditions suitable for life to come into being. Relevant to all this is the idea of an “effective horizon”: the domain that has direct impact on structures existing on the Earth, roughly 1 Mpc co-moving sphere, see Ellis & Stoeger 2009. This is the part of the universe that actually has a significant effect on our history. 2. Underdetermination Many philosophers hold that evidence is not sufficient to determine which scientific theory we should choose. Scientific theories make claims about the natural world that extend far beyond what can be directly established through observations or experiments. Rival theories may fare equally well with regard to some body of data, yet give quite different accounts of the world. Philosophers often treat the existence of such rivals as inevitable: for a given theory, it is always possible to construct rival theories that have “equally good fit” with available data. Duhem (1914 [1954]) gave an influential characterization of the difficulty in establishing physical theories conclusively, followed a half century later by Quine’s arguments for a strikingly general version of underdetermination (e.g., Quine 1970). The nature of this proposed underdetermination of theory by evidence, and appropriate responses to it, have been central topics in philosophy of science. Although philosophers have identified a variety of distinct senses of underdetermination, they have generally agreed that underdetermination poses a challenge to justifying scientific theories. There is a striking contrast with discussions of underdetermination among scientists, who often emphasize instead the enormous difficulty in constructing compelling rival theories.[16] This contrast reflects a disagreement regarding how to characterize the empirical content of theories. Suppose that the empirical content of theory consists of a set of observational claims implied by the theory. Philosophers then take the existence of rival theories to be straightforward. Van Fraassen (1980), for example, defines a theory as “empirically adequate” if what it says about observable phenomena is true, and argues that for any successful theory there are rival theories that disagree about theoretical claims. If we demand more of theories than empirical adequacy in this sense, it is possible to draw distinctions among theories that philosophers would regard as underdetermined. Furthermore, even when scientists do face a choice among competing theories, they are almost never rivals in the philosopher’s sense. Instead, they differ in various ways: intended domain of applicability, explanatory scope, importance attributed to particular problems, and so on. 36 The scientists’ relatively dismissive attitude towards alleged underdetermination threats may be based on a more demanding conception of empirical success.[17] Scientists demand much more of their theories than mere compatibility with some set of observational claims: they must fit into a larger explanatory scheme, and be compatible with other successful theories. Given a more stringent account of empirical success it is much more challenging to find rival theories. (We return to this issue in §5 below.) One aspect of underdetermination (emphasized by Stanford 2006) is of more direct relevance to scientific debates: current theories may be indistinguishable, within a restricted domain, from a successor theory, even though the successor theory makes different predictions for other domains. This raises the question of how far we can rely on extrapolating a theory to a new domain. For example, despite its success in describing objects moving with low relative velocities in a weak gravitational field, where it is nearly indistinguishable from general relativity, Newtonian gravity does not apply to other regimes. How far, then, can we rely on a theory to extend our reach? The obstacles to making such reliable inferences reflect the specific details of particular domains of inquiry. Below we will focus on the obstacles to answering theoretical questions in cosmology due to the structure of the universe and our limited access to phenomena. 2.1 Underdetermination in Cosmology Given the grand scope of cosmology, one might expect that many questions must remain unresolved. Basic features of the SM impose two fundamental limits to the ambitions of cosmological theorizing. First, the finitude of the speed of light ensures that we have a limited observational window on the universe due to existence of the visual horizon, representing the most distant matter from which we can receive and information by electromagnetic radiation, and the particle horizon, representing the most distant matter with which we can have had any causal interaction (matter up to that distance can influence what we see at the visual horizon). Recent work has precisely characterized what can be established via idealized astronomical observations, regarding spacetime geometry within, or outside, our past light cone (the observationally accessible region). Second, in addition to enormous extrapolations of well-tested physics in the SM, cosmologists have explored speculative ideas in physics that can only be tested through their implications for cosmology; the energies involved are too high to be tested by any accelerator on Earth. Ellis (2007) has characterized these speculative aspects of cosmology as falling on the far side of a “physics horizon”. We will briefly discuss how this second type of horizon poses limits for cosmological theorizing. In both cases, the type of underdetermination that arises differs from that discussed in the philosophical literature. 2.2 Global Structure To what extent can observations determine the spacetime geometry of the universe directly? The question can be posed more precisely in terms of the region that is, in principle, accessible to an observer at a location in spacetime pp—the causal past, J−(p)J−(p), of that point. This set includes all regions of spacetime from which signals traveling at or below the speed of light can reach pp. What can observations confined to J−(p)J−(p), assuming that GR is valid, reveal about the spacetime geometry of J−(p)J−(p) itself, and the rest of spacetime? 37 The observational cosmology program (Kristian & Sachs 1966; Ellis et al. 1985) clarifies the extent to which a set of ideal observations can determine the spacetime geometry directly with minimal cosmological assumptions. (By contrast, the standard approach starts by assuming a background cosmological model and then finding an optimal parameter fit.) Roughly put, the ideal data set consists of a set of astrophysical objects that can be used as standard candles and standard rulers. If the intrinsic properties and evolution of a variety of sources are given, observations can directly determine the area (or luminosity) distance of the sources, and the distortion of distant images determines lensing effects. These observations thus directly constrain the spacetime geometry of the past light cone C−(p)C−(p). Number counts of discrete sources (such as galaxies or clusters) can be used to infer the total amount of baryonic matter, again granting various assumptions. Ellis et al. (1985) proved the remarkable result that an appropriate idealized data set of this kind is sufficient, if we grant that EFE hold, to fully fix the spacetime geometry and distribution of matter on the past light cone C−(p)C−(p), and from that, in the causal past J−(p)J−(p) of the observation point pp. Observers do not have access to anything like the ideal data set, obviously, and in practice cosmologists face challenges in understanding the nature of sources and their evolution with sufficient clarity that they can be used to determine spacetime geometry, so this is the ideal situation. What does J−(p)J−(p) reveal about the rest of spacetime? In classical GR, we would not expect the physical state on J−(p)J−(p) to determine that of other regions of spacetime—even the causal past of a point just to the future of pp. There are some models in which J−(p)J−(p) does reveal more: “small universe” models are closed models with a finite maximum length in all directions that is smaller than the visual horizon (Ellis & Schreiber 1986). Observers in such a model would be able to “see around the universe” in all directions, and establish some global properties via direct observation because they would be able to see all matter that exists. Unless this is the case, the causal past for a single observer, and even a collection of causal pasts, place very weak constraints on the global properties of spacetime. The global properties of a spacetime characterize its causal structure, such as the presence or absence of singularities. General relativity tolerates a wide variety of global properties, since EFE impose only a local constraint on the spacetime geometry. One way to make this question precise is to consider whether there are any global properties shared by spacetimes that are constructed as follows. For a given spacetime, construct an indistinguishable counterpart that includes the collection of causal pasts {J−(p)}{J−(p)} for all points in the original spacetime. The constructed spacetime is indistinguishable from the first, because for any observer in the first spacetime there is a “copy” of their causal past in the counterpart. It is possible, however, to construct counterparts that do not have the same global properties as the original spacetime. The property of having a Cauchy surface, for example, need not be shared by an indistinguishable counterpart. More generally, the only properties that are guaranteed to hold for an indistinguishable counterpart are those that can be established based on the causal past of a single point. This line of work establishes that (some) global properties cannot be established observationally, and raises the question of whether there are alternative justifications. 2.3 Establishing FLRW Geometry? The case of global spacetime geometry is not a typical instance of underdetermination of theory by evidence, as discussed by philosophers, for two reasons (see Manchak 2009, Norton 2011, 38 Butterfield 2014). First, this whole discussion assumes that classical GR holds; the question regards discriminating among models of a given theory, rather than a choice among competing theories. Second, these results establish that all observations available to us that are compatible with a given spacetime, with some appealing global property, are equally compatible with its indistinguishable counterparts. But as is familiar from more prosaic examples of the problem of induction, evidence of past events is compatible, in a similar sense, with many possible futures. Standard accounts of inductive inference aim to justify some expectations about the future as more reasonable, e.g., those based on extending past uniformities. The challenge in this case is to articulate an account of inductive inferences that justifies accepting one spacetime over its indistinguishable counterparts. As a specific instance of this challenge, consider the status of the cosmological principle, the global symmetry assumed in the derivation of the FLRW models. The results above show that all evidence available to us is equally compatible with models in which the cosmological principle does or does not hold. One might take the principle as holding a priori, or as a pre-condition for cosmological theorizing (Beisbart 2009). A recent line of work aims to justify the FLRW models by appealing to a weaker general principle in conjunction with theorems relating homogeneity and isotropy. Global isotropy around every point implies global homogeneity, and it is natural to seek a similar theorem with a weaker antecedent formulated in terms of observable quantities. The Ehlers-Geren-Sachs theorem (Ehlers et al. 1968) shows that if all geodesic fundamental observers in an expanding model find that freely propagating background radiation is exactly isotropic, then their spacetime is an FLRW model. If our causal past is “typical”, observations along our worldline will constrain what other observers should see. This is often called the Copernican principle—namely, no point pp is distinguished from other points qq by any spacetime symmetries or lack thereof (there are no “special locations”). There are indirect ways of testing this principle empirically: the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect can be used to indirectly measure the isotropy of the CBR as observed from distant points. Other tests are direct tests with a good enough set of standard candles, and an indirect test based on the time drift of cosmological redshift. This line of work provides an empirical argument that the observed universe is well-approximated by an FLRW model, thus changing that assumption from a philosophically based starting point to an observationally tested foundation. 2.4 Physics Horizon The Standard Model of particle physics and classical GR provide the structure and framework for the SM. But cosmologists have pursued a variety of questions that extend beyond these core theories. In these domains, cosmologists face a form of underdetermination: should a phenomena be accounted for by extending the core theories, or by changing physical or astrophysical assumptions? The Soviet physicist Yakov Zel’dovich memorably called the early universe the “poor man’s accelerator”, because relatively inexpensive observations of the early universe may reveal features of high-energy physics well beyond the reach of even the most lavishly funded earthbound accelerators. For many aspects of fundamental physics, including quantum gravity in particular, cosmology provides the only feasible way to assess competing ideas. This ambitious conception of cosmology as the sole testing ground for new physics extends beyond the standard model of particle physics (which is generally thought to be incomplete, even though there are no observations that contradict it). Big bang nucleosynthesis, for example, is an application of well39 tested nuclear physics to the early universe, with scattering cross-sections and other relevant features of the physics fixed by terrestrial experiments. While working out how nuclear physics applied in detail required substantial effort, there was little uncertainty regarding the underlying physics. By contrast, in some domains cosmologists now aim to explain the universe’s history while at the same time evaluating new physics used in constructing it. This contrast can be clarified in terms of the “physics horizon” (Ellis 2007), which delimits the physical regime accessible to terrestrial experiments and observations, roughly in terms of energy scales associated with different interactions. The horizon can be characterized more precisely for a chosen theory, by specifying the regions of parameter space that can be directly tested by experiments and observations. Aspects of cosmological theories that extend past the physics horizon cannot be independently tested through non-cosmological experiments or observations; the only empirical route to evaluating these ideas is through their implications for cosmology. (This is not to deny that there may be strong theoretical grounds to favor particular proposals, as extensions of the core theories.) Cosmological physics extending beyond the physics horizon faces an underdetermination threat due to the lack of independent lines of relevant evidence. The case of dark matter illustrates the value of such independent evidence. Dark matter was first proposed to account for the dynamical behavior of galaxy clusters and galaxies, which could not be explained using Newtonian gravitational theory with only the luminous matter observed. Dark matter also plays a crucial role in accounts of structure formation, as it provides the scaffolding necessary for baryonic matter to clump, without conflicting with the uniformity of the CMB.[24] Both inferences to the existence of dark matter rely on gravitational physics, raising the question of whether we should take these phenomena as evidence that our gravitational theory fails, rather than as evidence for a new type of matter. There is an active research program (MOND, for Modified Newtonian Dynamics) devoted to accounting for the relevant phenomena by modifying gravity. Regardless of one’s stance on the relative merits of MOND vs. dark matter (obviously MOND needs to be extended to a relativistic theory), direct evidence of existence of dark matter, or indirect evidence via decay products, would certainly reshape the debate. Efforts have been underway for some time to find dark matter particles through direct interactions with a detector, mediated by the weak force. A positive outcome of these experiments would provide evidence of the existence of dark matter that does not depend upon gravitational theory. Such independent evidence is not available for two prominent examples of new physics motivated by discoveries in cosmology. “Dark energy” was introduced in studies of structure formation, which employed a non-zero cosmological constant to fit observational constraints (the ΛΛCDM models). Subsequent observations of the redshift-distance relation, using supernovae (type Ia) as a standard candle, led to the discovery that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.[26] (For R¨>0R¨>0 in an FLRW model, there must be a contribution that appears in eqn. (22) like a positive ΛΛ term.) Rather than treating these observations as simply determining the value of a parameter in the SM, many cosmologists have developed phenomenological models of “dark energy” that leads to an effective ΛΛ. Unlike dark matter, however, the properties of dark energy insure that any attempt at non-cosmological detection would be futile: the energy density is so small, and uniform, that any local experimental study of its properties is practically impossible. Furthermore these models are not based in well-motivated physics: they have the nature of ‘saving the phenomena’ in that they are tailored to fitting the cosmological observations by curve fitting. 40 Inflationary cosmology originally promised a powerful unification of particle physics and cosmology. The earliest inflationary models explored the consequences of specific scalar fields introduced in particle physics (the then supposed Higgs field for the strong interactions). Yet theory soon shifted to treating the scalar field responsible for inflation as the “inflaton” field, leaving its relationship to particle physics unresolved, and the promise of unification unfulfilled. If the properties of the inflaton field are unconstrained, inflationary cosmology is extremely flexible; it is possible to construct an inflationary model that matches any chosen evolutionary history of the early universe. Specific models of inflation, insofar as they specify the features of the field or fields driving inflation and its initial state, do have predictive content. In principle, cosmological observations could determine some of the properties of the inflaton field and so select among them (Martin et al. 2014). This could in principle then have implications for a variety of other experiments or observations; yet in practice the features of the inflaton field in most viable models of inflation guarantee that it cannot be detected in other regimes. The one exception to this is if the inflaton were the electroweak Higgs particle detected at the LHC (Ellis & Uzan 2014). This remains a viable inflaton candidate, so testing if it is indeed the inflaton is an important task (Bezrukov & Gorbunov 2012). The physics horizon poses a challenge because one particularly powerful type of evidence— direct experimental detection or observation, with no dependence on cosmological assumptions—is unavailable for the physics relevant at earliest times (before inflation, and indeed even for baryosynthesis after inflation). Yet this does not imply that competing theories, such as dark matter vs. modified gravity, should be given equal credence. The case in favor of dark matter draws on diverse phenomena, and it has been difficult to produce a compelling modified theory of gravity, consistent with GR, that captures the full range of phenomena as an alternative to dark matter. Cosmology typically demands a more intricate assessment of background assumptions, and the degree of independence of different tests, in evaluating proposed extensions of the core theories. Yet this evidence may still be sufficiently strong, in the sense discussed more fully in §5 below, to justify new physics. 2.5 Cosmic Variance There is a distinctive form of underdetermination regarding the use of statistics in cosmology, due to the uniqueness of the universe. To compare the universe with the statistical predictions of the SM, we conceptualize it as one realization of a family of possible universes, and compare what we actually measure with what is predicted to occur in the ensemble of hypothetical models. When they are significantly different, the key issue is: Are these just statistical fluctuations we can ignore? Or are they serious anomalies that need an explanation? This question arises in several concrete cases:  Existence of low CMB anisotropy power at high and angular scales relative to that predicted by the SM (Schwarz et al. 2016; Knight & Knox 2017)  Existence of a CMB cold spot of substantial size (Zhang & Huterer 2010; Schwarz et al. 2016).  Disagreement about the value of the Hubble parameter as measured directly in the local region on the one hand, and as deduced from CMB anisotropies on the other (Luković et al. 2016; Bernal et al. 2016). 41 How do we decide? This will depend on the particular measurement (see e.g., Kamionkowski & Loeb 1997; Marra et al. 2013), but in general because of the uniqueness of the universe, we don’t know if these potential anomalies are real, pointing to serious problems with the models, or not real—just statistical flukes in the way the family of models differs from the one instance that we have at hand, the unique universe that actually exists. In all the physical sciences, this is a unique problem of cosmology. 3. Origins of the Universe Cosmology confronts a distinctive challenge in accounting for the origin of the universe. In most other branches of physics the initial or boundary conditions of a system do not call out for theoretical explanation. They may reflect, for example, the impact of the environment, or an arbitrary choice regarding when to cut off the description of a subsystem of interest. But in cosmology there are heated debates regarding what form a “theory of the initial state” should take, and what it should contribute to our understanding of the universe. This basic question regarding the nature of aims of a theory of origins has significant ramifications for various lines of research in cosmology. 3.1 The Initial State Contemporary cosmology at least has a clear target for a theory of origins: the SM describes the universe as having expanded and evolved over 13.7 billion years from an initial state where many physical quantities diverged. In the FLRW models, the cosmic time tt can be measured by the total proper time elapsed along the worldline of a fundamental observer, from the “origin” of the universe until the present epoch. Extrapolating backwards from the present, various quantities diverge as the cosmic time t→0t→0—for example, R(t)→0R(t)→0 and the matter density goes to infinity. The worldlines of observers cannot be extended arbitrarily far into the past. Although there is no “first moment” of time, because the very concept of time breaks down as t→0t→0, the age of the universe is the maximum length of these worldlines. 3.2 Singularity Theorems The singularity theorems proved in the 60s (see, in particular, Hawking & Ellis 1973) show that the universe is finite to the past in a broad class of cosmological models. Past singularities, signaled by the existence of inextendible geodesics with bounded length, must be present in models with a number of plausible features. (Geodesics are the curves of extreme length through curved spacetime, and freely falling bodies follow timelike geodesics.) Intuitively, extrapolating backwards from the present, an inextendible geodesic reaches, within finite distance, an “edge” beyond which it cannot be extended. There is not a uniquely defined “cosmic time”, in general, but the maximum length of these curves reflects the finite age of the universe. The singularity theorems plausibly apply to the observed universe, within the domain of applicability of general relativity. There are various related theorems differing in detail, but one common ingredient is an assumption that there is sufficient matter and energy present to guarantee that our past light cone refocuses.[31] The energy density of the CMB alone is sufficient to justify this assumption. The theorems also require an energy condition: a restriction on the types of matter present in the model, guaranteeing that gravity leads to focusing of nearby geodesics. (In eqn. (22) above, this is the case if ρgrav>0ρgrav>0 and Λ=0Λ=0; it is possible to avoid a singularity with a non-zero cosmological constant, for example, since it appears with the opposite sign as ordinary matter, counteracting this focusing effect.) 42 The prediction of singularities is usually taken to be a deep flaw of GR.[32] One potential problem with singularities is that they may lead to failures of determinism, because the laws “break down” in some sense. This concern only applies to some kinds of singularities, however. Relativistic spacetimes that are globally hyperbolic have Cauchy surfaces, and appropriate initial data posed on such surfaces fix a unique solution throughout the spacetime. Global hyperbolicity does not rule out the existence of singularities, and in particular the FLRW models are globally hyperbolic in spite of the existence of an initial singularity. The threat to determinism is thus more qualified: the laws do not apply “at the singularity itself” even though the subsequent evolution is fully deterministic, and there are some types of singularities that pose more serious threats to determinism. Another common claim is that the presence of singularities establish that GR is incomplete, since it fails to describe physics “at the singularity”. This is difficult to spell out fully without a local analysis of singularities, which would give precise meaning to talk of “approaching” or being “near” the singularity. In any case, it is clear that the presence of a singularity in a cosmological model indicates that spacetime, as described by GR, comes to an end: there is no way of extending the spacetime through the singularity, without violating mathematical conditions needed to insure that the field equations are well-defined. Any description of physical conditions “before the big bang” must be based on a theory that supersedes GR, and allows for an extension through the singularity. There are two limitations regarding what we can learn about the origins of the universe based on the singularity theorems. First, although these results establish the existence of an initial singularity, they do not provide much guidance regarding its structure. The spacetime structure near a “generic” initial singularity has not yet been fully characterized. Partial results have been established for restricted classes of solutions; for example, numerical simulations and a number of theorems support the BKL conjecture, which holds that isotropic, inhomogeneous models exhibit a complicated form of chaotic, oscillatory behavior. The resulting picture of the approach to the initial singularity contrasts sharply with that in FLRW models. It is also possible to have non-scalar singularities (Ellis & King 1974). Second, classical general relativity does not include quantum effects, which are expected to be relevant as the singularity is approached. Crucial assumptions of the singularity theorems may not hold once quantum effects are taken into account. The standard energy conditions do not hold for quantum fields, which can have negative energy densities. This opens up the possibility that a model including quantum fields may exhibit a “bounce” rather than collapse to a singularity. More fundamentally, GR’s classical spacetime description may fail to approximate the description provided by a full theory of quantum gravity. According to recent work applying loop quantum gravity to cosmology, spacetime collapses to a minimum finite size rather than reaching a true singularity (Ashtekar & Singh 2011; Bojowald 2011). On this account, GR fails to provide a good approximation in the region of the bounce, and the apparent singularity is an artifact. Classical spacetime “emerges” from a state to which familiar spacetime concepts do not apply. There are several accounts of the early universe, motivated by string theory and other approaches, that similarly avoid the initial singularity due to quantum gravity effects. 3.3 Puzzling Features of the Initial State 43 In practice, cosmologists often take the physical state at the expected boundary of the domain of applicability of GR as the “initial state”. (For example, this might be taken as the state specified on a spatial hypersurface at a very early cosmic time. However, the domain of applicability of GR is not well understood, given uncertainty about quantum gravity.) Projecting observed features of the universe backwards leads to an initial state with three puzzling features:  Uniformity: The FLRW models have a finite particle horizon distance, much smaller than the scales at which we observe the CMB. Yet the isotropy of the CMB, among other observations, indicate that distant regions of the universe have uniform physical properties.  Flatness: An FLRW model close to the “flat” model, with nearly critical density at some specified early time is driven rapidly away from critical density under FLRW dynamics if Λ=0Λ=0 and ρ+3p>0ρ+3p>0. Given later observations, the initial state has to be very close to the flat model (or, equivalently, very close to critical density, Ω=1Ω=1) at very early times. Perturbations: The SM includes density perturbations that are coherent on large scales and have a specific amplitude, constrained by observations. It is challenging to explain both properties dynamically. In the standard FLRW models, the perturbations have to be coherent on scales much larger than the Hubble radius at early times.  On a more phenomenological approach, the gravitational degrees of freedom of the initial state could simply be chosen to fit with later observations, but many proposed “theories of initial conditions” aim to account for these features based on new physical principles. The theory of inflation discussed below aims to explain these issues. 3.4 Theories of the Initial State There are three main approaches to theories of the initial state, all of which have been pursued by cosmologists since the late 60s in different forms. Expectations for what a theory of initial conditions should achieve have been shaped, in particular, by inflationary cosmology. Inflation provided a natural account of the three otherwise puzzling features of the initial state emphasized in the previous section. Prior to inflation, these features were regarded as “enigmas” (Dicke & Peebles 1979), but after inflation, accounting for these features has served as an eligibility requirement for any proposed theory of the early universe. The first approach aims to reduce dependence on special initial conditions by introducing a phase of attractor dynamics. This phase of dynamical evolution “washes away” the traces of earlier states, in the sense that a probability distribution assigned over initial states converges towards an equilibrium distribution. Misner (1968) introduced a version of this approach (his “chaotic cosmology program”), proposing that free-streaming neutrinos could isotropize an initially anisotropic state. Inflationary cosmology was initially motivated by a similar idea: a “generic” or “random” initial state at the Planck time would be expected to be “chaotic”, far from a flat FLRW model. During an inflationary stage, arbitrary initial states are claimed to converge towards a state with the three features described above. The second approach regards the initial state as extremely special rather than generic. Penrose, in particular, has argued that the initial state must be very special to explain time’s arrow; the usual approaches fail to take seriously the fact that gravitational degrees of freedom are not excited in the early universe like the Penrose (1979) treats the second law as arising from a law-like 44 constraint on the initial state of the universe, requiring that it has low entropy. Rather than introducing a subsequent stage of dynamical evolution that erases the imprint of the initial state, we should aim to formulate a “theory of initial conditions” that accounts for its special features. Penrose’s conjecture is that the Weyl curvature tensor approaches zero as the initial singularity is approached; his hypothesis is explicitly time asymmetric, and implies that the early universe approaches an FLRW solution. (It does not account for the observed perturbations, however.) Later he proposed the idea of Conformal Cyclic Cosmology, where such a special initial state at the start of one expansion epoch is the result of expansion in a previous epoch that wiped out almost all earlier traces of matter and radiation. A third approach rejects the framework accepted by the other two proposals, and regards the “initial state” as a misnomer: it should instead by regarded as a “branch point” where our pocket universe separated off from a larger multiverse. (There are still, of course, questions regarding the initial state of the multiverse ensemble, if one exists.) We will return to this approach in §5 below. A dynamical approach, even if it is successful in describing a phase of the universe’s evolution, arguably does not offer a complete solution to the problem of initial conditions: it collapses into one of the other two approaches. For example, an inflationary stage can only begin in a region of spacetime if the inflaton field and the geometry are uniform over a sufficiently large region, such that the stress-energy tensor is dominated by the potential term (implying that the derivative terms are small) and the gravitational entropy is small. There are other model-dependent constraints on the initial state of the inflaton field. One way to respond is to adopt Penrose’s point of view, namely that this reflects the need to choose a special initial state, or to derive one from a previous expansion phase. The majority of those working in inflationary cosmology instead appeal to the third approach: rather than treating inflation as an addition to standard bigbang evolution in a single universe, we should treat the observed universe as part of a multiverse, discussed below. But even this must have a theory of initial conditions. 3.5 The Limits of Science Cosmology provokes questions about the limits of scientific explanation because it lacks many of the features that are present in other areas of physics. Physical laws are usually regarded as capturing the features of a type of system that remain invariant under some changes, and explanations often work by placing a particular event in larger context. Theories of the initial state cannot appeal to either idea: we have access to only one universe, and there is no larger context to appeal to in explaining its properties. This contrast between the types of explanation available in cosmology and other areas of physics has often led to dissatisfaction (see, e.g., Unger & Smolin 2014). At the very least, cosmology forces us to reconsider basic questions about modalities, and what constitutes scientific explanation. One challenge to establishing theories of the initial state is entirely epistemic. As emphasized in §2.4, we lack independent experimental probes of physics at the relevant scales, so the extensions of core theories described above are only tested indirectly through their implications for cosmology. This limitation reflects contingent facts about the universe, namely the contrast between the energy scales of the early universe and those accessible to us, and does not follow from the uniqueness of the universe per se. Yet this limitation does not imply that it would be impossible to establish laws. There are cases in the history of physics, such as celestial 45 mechanics, where confidence in a theory’s laws is based primarily on successful application under continually improving standards of precision. A further conceptual challenge regards whether it even makes sense to seek “laws” in cosmology. Laws are usually taken to cover multiple instances of some type of phenomena, or family of objects. What can we mean by “laws” for a unique object (the universe as a whole) or a unique event (its origin)? Competing philosophical analyses of laws of nature render different verdicts on the possibility of cosmological laws. Cosmological laws, if possible, differ from local physical laws in a variety of ways—they do not apply to subsystems of the universe, they lack multiple instances, and etc. Philosophical accounts of laws take different features to be essential to law-hood. For example, the influential Mill-Ramsey-Lewis account takes the laws to be axioms of the deductive system capturing some body of physical knowledge that optimally balances strength (the scope of derived claims) and simplicity (the number of axioms) (see, e.g., Loewer 1996). It is quite plausible that a constraint on the initial state, such as Penrose’s Weyl curvature hypothesis, would count as a law on this account. By contrast, accounts that take other features, such as governing evolution, as essential, reach the opposite verdict. Finally, there are a number of conceptual pitfalls regarding what would count as an adequate “explanation” of the origins of the universe. What is the target of such explanations, and what can be used in providing an explanation? The target might be the state defined at the earliest time when extrapolations based on the SM can be trusted. The challenge is that this state then needs to be explained in terms of a physical theory, quantum gravity, whose basic concepts are still obscure to us. This is a familiar challenge in physics, where substantial work is often required to clarify how central concepts (such as space and time) are modified by a new theory. An explanation of origins in this first sense would explain how it is that classical spacetime emerges from a quantum gravity regime. While any such proposals remain quite speculative, the form of the explanation is similar to other cases in physics: what is explained is the applicability of an older, less fundamental theory within some domain. Such an explanation does not address ultimate questions regarding why the universe exists—instead, such questions are pushed back one step, into the quantum gravity regime. Many discussions of origins pursue a more ambitious target: they aim to explain the creation of the universe “from nothing”. The target is the true initial state, not just the boundary of applicability of the SM. The origins are supposedly then explained without positing an earlier phase of evolution; supposedly this can be achieved, for example, by treating the origin of the universe as a fluctuation away from a vacuum state. Yet obviously a vacuum state is not nothing: it exists in a spacetime, and has a variety of non-trivial properties. It is a mistake to take this explanation as somehow directly addressing the metaphysical question of why there is something rather than nothing. 4. Anthropic Reasoning and Multiverse 4.1 Anthropic Reasoning The physical conditions necessary for our existence impose a selection effect on what we observe. The significance of this point for cosmological theorizing is exemplified by Dicke’s criticism of Dirac’s speculative “large number hypothesis”. Dirac (1937) noted the age of the universe expressed in terms of fundamental constants in atomic physics is an extremely large 46 number (roughly 10391039), which coincides with other large, dimensionless numbers defined in terms of fundamental constants. Inspired by this coincidence, he proposed that the large numbers vary to maintain this order of magnitude agreement, implying (for example) that the gravitational “constant” GG is a function of cosmic time. Dicke (1961) noted that creatures like us, made of carbon produced in an earlier generation of red giants and sustained by the light and heat of a main sequence star, can only exist within a restricted interval of cosmic times, and that Dirac’s coincidence holds for observations made within this interval. Establishing that the coincidence holds at a randomly chosen tt would support Dirac’s hypothesis, however slightly, but Dicke’s argument shows that our evidence does not do so. Dicke’s reasoning illustrates how taking selection effects into account can mitigate surprise, and undermine the apparent implications of facts like those noted by Dirac (see Roush 2003). These facts reflect biases in the evidence available to us, rather than supporting his hypothesis. It is also clear that Dicke’s argument is “anthropic” in only a very limited sense: his argument does not depend on a detailed characterization of human observers. All that matters is that we can exist at a cosmic time constrained by the time scales of stellar evolution. How to account for selection effects, within a particular approach to confirmation theory, is one central issue in discussions of anthropic reasoning. This question is intertwined with other issues that are more muddled and contentious. Debates among cosmologists regarding “anthropic principles” ignited in the 70s, prompted by the suggestion that finely-tuned features of the universe—such as the universe’s isotropy (Collins & Hawking 1973)—can be explained as necessary conditions for the existence of observers. More recently, a number of cosmologists have argued that cosmological theories should be evaluated based on predictions for what a “typical” observer should expect to see. These ideas have dovetailed with work in formal epistemology. A number of philosophers have developed extensions of Bayesianism to account for “self-locating” evidence, for example. This kind of evidence includes indexical information characterizing an agent’s beliefs about their identity and location. At present work in this area has not reached a consensus, and we will present a brief overview of some of the considerations that have motivated different positions in these debates. In cosmology the most famous example of an “anthropic prediction” is Weinberg (1987)’s prediction for ΛΛ.[43] One part of Weinberg’s argument is similar to Dicke’s: he argued that there are anthropic bounds on ΛΛ, due to its impact on structure formation. The existence of large, gravitationally bound structures such as galaxies is only possible if ΛΛ falls within certain bounds. Weinberg went a step further than Dicke, and considered what value of ΛΛ a “typical observer” should see. He assumed that observers occupy different locations within a multiverse, and that the value of ΛΛ varies across different regions. Weinberg further argues that the prior probability assigned to different values of ΛΛ should be uniform within the anthropic bounds. Typical observers should expect to see a value close to the mean of the anthropic bounds, leading to Weinberg’s prediction for ΛΛ.Essential to Weinberg’s argument is an appeal to the principle of indifference, applied to a class of observers. We should calculate what we expect to observe, that is, as if we are a “random choice” among all possible observers.[45] Bostrom (2002) argues that indifference-style reasoning is necessary to respond to the problem of “freak observers”. As Bostrom formulates it, the problem is that in an infinite universe, any observation OO is true for some observer (even if only for an observer who has fluctuated into existence from the vacuum). His response is that we should evaluate theories based not on the claim that some 47 observer sees OO, but on an indexical claim: that is, we make the observation OO. He assumes that we are a “random” choice among the class of possible observers. (How to justify such a strong claim is a major challenge for this line of thought.) If we grant the assumption, then we can assign low probability to the observations of the “freak” observers, and recover the evidential value of OO. There are three immediate questions regarding this proposal. The first is called the “reference class” problem. The assignments of probabilities to events requires specifying how they are grouped together.[46] Obviously, what is typical with respect to one reference class will not be typical with respect to another (compare, for example, “conscious observers” with “carbon-based life”). Second, the principle of indifference has been thoroughly criticized as a justification for probability in other contexts; what justifies the use of indifference in this case? Why should we take ourselves as “randomly chosen” among an appropriate reference class? The third problem reflects the intended application of these ideas: Bostrom and other authors in this line of work are particularly concerned with observes that may occupy an infinite universe. There is no proof that the universe is in fact infinite. These are all pressing problems for those who hold that the principle of indifference is essential to making cosmological predictions. Furthermore, one way of implementing this approach leads to absurd consequences. The Doomsday Argument, for example, claims to reach a striking conclusion about the future of the human species without any empirical input (see, e.g., Leslie 1992; Gott 1993; Bostrom 2002). Suppose that we are “typical” humans, in the sense of having a birth rank that is randomly selected among the collection of all humans that have ever lived. We should then expect that there are nearly as many humans before and after us in overall birth rank. For this to be true, given current rates of population growth, there must be a catastrophic drop in the human population (“Doomsday”) in the near future. The challenge to advocates of indifference applied to observers is to articulate principles that avoid such consequences, while still solving (alleged) problems such as that of freak observers. In sum, one approach to anthropic reasoning aims to clarify the rules of reasoning applicable to predictions made by observers in a large or infinite universe. This line of work is motivated by the idea that without such principles we face a severe skeptical predicament, as observations would not have any bearing on the theory. Yet there is still not general agreement on the new principles required to handle these cases, which are of course not scientifically testable principles: they are philosophically based proposals. According to an alternative approach, selection effects can and should be treated within the context of a Bayesian approach to inductive inference (see Neal 2006; Trotta 2008). On this line of thought, “predictions” like those that Bostrom and others hope to analyze play no direct role in the evaluation of cosmological theories, so further principles governing anthropic reasoning are simply not necessary. There is much further work to be done in clarifying and assessing these (and other) approaches to anthropic reasoning. 4.2 Fine-Tuning Fine-tuning arguments start from a conflict between two different perspectives on certain features of cosmology (or other physical theories). On the first perspective, the existence of creatures like us seems to be sensitive to a wide variety of aspects of cosmology and physics. To be more specific, the prospects for life depend sensitively on the values of the various 48 fundamental constants that appear in these theories. The SM includes about 10 constants, and the particle physics standard model includes about 20 more.[48] Tweaking the SM, or the standard model of particle physics, by changing the values of these constants seems to lead to a barren cosmos.[49] Focusing on the existence of “life” runs the risk of being too provincial; we don’t have a good general account of what physical systems can support intelligent life. Yet it does seem plausible that intelligence requires an organism with complex structural features, living in a sufficiently stable environment. At a bare minimum, the existence of life seems to require the existence of complex structures at a variety of scales, ranging from galaxies to planetary systems to macro-molecules. Such complexity is extremely sensitive to the values of the fundamental constants of nature. From this perspective, the existence of life in the universe is fragile in the sense that it depends sensitively on these aspects of the underlying theory. This view contrasts sharply with the status of the constants from the perspective of fundamental physics. Particle physicists typically regard their theories as effective field theories, which suffice for describing interactions at some specified energy scale. These theories include various constants, characterizing the relative strength of the interactions they describe, that cannot be further explained by the effective field theory. The constants can be fixed by experimental results, but are not derivable from fundamental physical principles. (If the effective field theory can be derived from a more fundamental theory, the value of the constants can in principle be determined by integrating out higher-energy degrees of freedom. But this merely pushes the question back one step: the constants appearing in the more fundamental theory are determined experimentally.) Similarly, the constants appearing in the SM are treated as contingent features of the universe. There is no underlying physical principle that sets, for example, the cosmological densities of different kinds of matter, or the value of the Hubble constant. So features of our theories that appear entirely contingent, from the point of view of physics, are necessary to account for the complexity of the observed universe and the very possibility of life. The fine-tuning argument starts from a sense of unease about this situation: shouldn’t something as fundamental as the complexity of the universe be explained by the laws or basic principles of the theory, and not left to brute facts regarding the values of various constants? The unease develops into serious discomfort if the specific values of the constants are taken to be extremely unlikely: how could the values of all these constants be just right, by sheer coincidence? In many familiar cases, our past experience is a good guide to when an apparent coincidence calls for further explanation. As Hume emphasized, however, intuitive assessments from everyday life of whether a given event is likely, or requires a further explanation, do not extend to cosmology. Recent formulations of fine-tuning arguments often introduce probabilistic considerations. The constants are “fine-tuned”, meaning that the observed values are “improbable” in some sense. Introducing a well-defined probability over the constants would provide a response to Hume: rather than extrapolating our intuitions, we would be drawing on the formal machinery of our physical theories to identify fine-tuning. Promising though this line of argument may be, there is not an obvious way to define physical probabilities over the values of different constants, or over other features of the laws. There is nothing like the structure used to justify physical probabilities in other contexts, such as equilibrium statistical mechanics.[50] There are four main responses to fine-tuning: 49  Empiricist Denial: This response follows Hume in denying that a clear problem has even been identified. One form of this response challenges appeals to probability, undermining the claim that there are unexplained coincidences. Alternatively, fine-tuning is taken to reveal that the laws alone are not sufficient to account for some features of nature; these features are properly explained by the laws in conjunction with various contingent facts.  Designer: Newton famously argued, for example, that the stability of the solar system provides evidence of providential design. For the hypothesized Designer to be supported by fine-tuning evidence, we require some way of specifying what kind of universe the Designer is likely to create; only such a specific Design hypothesis, based in some theory of the nature of the Designer, can offer an explanation of fine-tuning.  New Physics: The fine-tuning can be eliminated by modifying physical theory in a variety of ways: altering the dynamical laws, introducing new constraints on the space of physical possibilities (or possible values of the constants of nature), etc.  Multiverse: Fine-tuning is explained as a result of selection, from among a large space of possible universes (or multiverse). In the next section we discuss the last response in more detail; see §3 for further discussion of the third response. 4.3 Multiverse The multiverse response replaces a single, apparently finely-tuned universe within an ensemble of universes, combined with an appeal to anthropic selection. Suppose that all possible values of the fundamental constants are realized in individual elements of the ensemble. Many of these universes will be inhospitable to life. In calculating the probabilities that we observe specific values of the fundamental constants, we need only consider the subset of universe compatible with the existence of complexity (or some more specific feature associated with life). If we have some way of assigning probabilities over the ensemble, we could then calculate the probability associated with our measured values. These calculations will resolve the fine-tuning puzzles if they show that we observe typical values for a complex (or life-permitting) universe. Many cosmologists have argued in favor of a specific version of the multiverse called eternal inflation (EI). On this view, the rapid expansion hypothesized by inflationary cosmology continues until arbitrarily late times in some regions, and comes to an end (with a transition to slower expansion) in others. This leads to a global structure of “pocket” universes embedded within a larger multiverse. On this line of thought, the multiverse should be accepted for the same reason we accept many claims about what we cannot directly observe—namely, as an inevitable consequence of an established physical theory. It is not clear, however, that EI is inevitable, as not all inflationary models, arguably including those favored by CMB observations, have the kind of potential that leads to EI.[52] Accounts of how inflation leads to EI rely on speculative physics.[53] Furthermore, if inflation does lead to EI, that threatens to undermine the original reasons for accepting inflation (Smeenk 2014): rather than the predictions regarding the state produced at the end of inflation taken to provide evidence for inflation, EI seems to imply that, as Guth (2007) put it, in EI “anything that can happen will happen; in fact, it will happen an infinite number of times”. 50 There have been two distinct approaches to recovering some empirical content in this situation. First, there may be traces of the early formation of the pocket universes, the remnants of collisions between neighboring “bubbles”, left on the CMB sky (Aguirre & Johnson 2011). Detection of a distinctive signature that cannot be explained by other means would provide evidence for the multiverse. However, there is no expectation that a multiverse theory would generically predict such traces; for example, if the collision occurs too early the imprint is erased by subsequent inflationary expansion. The other approach regards predictions for the fundamental constants, such as Weinberg’s prediction of ΛΛ discussed above. The process of forming the pocket universes is assumed to yield variation in the local, low-energy physics in each pocket. Predictions for the values of the fundamental constants follow from two things: (1) a specification of the probabilities for different values of the constant over the ensemble, and (2) a treatment of the selection effect imposed by restricting consideration to pocket universes with observers and then choosing a “typical” observer. The aim is to obtain probabilistic predictions for what a typical observer should see in the EI multiverse. Yet there are several challenges to overcome, alongside those mentioned above related to anthropics. The assumption that the formation of pocket universes leads to variation in constants is just an assumption, which is not yet justified by a plausible, well-tested dynamical theory. The most widely discussed challenge in the physics literature is the “measure problem”: roughly, how to assign “size” to different regions of the multiverse, as a first step towards assigning probabilities. It is difficult to define a measure because the EI multiverse is usually taken to be an infinite ensemble, lacking in the kinds of structure used in constructing a measure. On our view, these unmet challenges undercut the hope that the EI multiverse yields probabilistic predictions. And without such an account, the multiverse proposal does not have any testable consequences. If everything happens somewhere in the ensemble, then any potential observation is compatible with the theory. Supposing that we grant a successful resolution of all these challenges, the merits of a multiverse solution of fine-tuning problems could then be evaluated by comparison with competing ideas. The most widely cited evidence in favor of a multiverse is Weinberg’s prediction for the value of ΛΛ, discussed above. There are other proposals to explain the observed value of ΛΛ; Wang, Zhu, and Unruh (2017), for example, treat the quantum vacuum as extremely inhomogeneous, and argue that resonance among the vacuum fluctuations leads to a small ΛΛ. The unease many have about multiverse proposals are only reinforced by the liberal appeals to “infinities” in discussion of the idea.[55] Many have argued, for example, that we must formulate an account of anthropic reasoning that applies to a truly infinite, rather than merely very large, universe. Claims that we occupy one of infinitely many possible pocket universes, filled with an infinity of other observers, rest on an enormous and speculative extrapolation. Such claims fail to take seriously the concept of infinity, which is not merely a large number. Hilbert (1925 [1983]) emphasized that while infinity is required to complete mathematics, it does not occur anywhere in the accessible physical universe. One response is to require that infinities in cosmology should have a restricted use. It may be useful to introduce infinity as part of an explanatory account of some aspect of cosmology, as is common practice in mathematical models that introduce various idealizations. Yet this infinity should be eliminable, such that the explanation of the phenomena remains valid when the idealization is removed.[56] Even for those who regard this demand as too 51 stringent, there certainly needs to be more care in clarifying and justifying claims regarding infinities. In sum, interest in the multiverse stems primarily from speculations about the consequences of inflation for the global structure of the universe. The main points of debate regard whether EI is a disaster for inflation, undermining the possibility of testing inflation at all, and how much predictions such as that for ΛΛ lend credence to these speculations.[57] Resolution of these questions is needed to decide whether the multiverse can be tested in a stronger sense, going beyond the special cases (such as bubble collisions) that may provide more direct evidence. 5. Testing models As mentioned at the start, the uniqueness of the universe raises specific problems as regards cosmology as a science. First we consider issues to do with verification of cosmological models, and then make a comment as regards interpreting the human implications of cosmology 5.1 Criteria The basic challenge in cosmology regards how to test and evaluate cosmological models, given our limited access to the unique universe. As discussed above, current cosmological models rely in part on extrapolations of well-tested local physics along with novel proposals, such as the inflaton field. The challenge is particularly pressing in evaluating novel claims that only have cosmological implications, due to the physics horizon (§2.4). Distinctions that are routinely employed in other areas of physics, such as that between laws and initial conditions, or chance and necessity, are not directly applicable, due to the uniqueness of the universe. Recent debates regarding the legitimacy of different lines of research in cosmology reflect different responses to this challenge. One response is to retreat to hypothetico-deductivism (HD): a hypothesis receives an incremental boost in confidence when one of its consequences is verified (and a decrease if it is falsified).[58] Proponents of inflation argue, for example, that inflation should be accepted based on its successful prediction of a flat universe with a specific spectrum of density perturbations. Some advocates of the multiverse take its successful prediction of the value of ΛΛ as the most compelling evidence in its favor. Despite its appeal, there are well-known problems with taking HD as a sufficient account of how evidence supports theories (this is often called “naïve HD”). In particular, the naïve view lacks the resources to draw distinctions among underdetermined rival theories that make the same predictions (see Crupi 2013 [2016]). We take it as given that scientists do draw distinctions among theories that naïve HD would treat as on par, as is reflected in judgments regarding how much a given body of evidence supports a particular theory. Scientists routinely distinguish among, for example, theories that may merely “fit the data” as opposed to those that accurately capture laws governing a particular domain, and evaluate some successful predictions as being far more revealing than others. A second response is that the challenge requires a more sophisticated methodology. This may take the form of acknowledging explicitly the criteria that scientists use to assess desirability of scientific theories (Ellis 2007), which include considerations of explanatory power, consistency with other theories, and other factors, in addition to compatibility with the evidence. These come into conflict in unexpected ways in cosmology, and these different factors should be clearly articulated and weighed against one another. Alternatively, one might try to show that some of these desirable features, such as the ability to unify diverse phenomena, should be taken as part 52 of what constitutes empirical success. This leads to a more demanding conception of empirical success, exemplified by historical cases such as Perrin’s argument in favor of the atomic constitution of matter. 5.2 Scope of Cosmological Theories and Data Finally, a key issue is what scope do we expect our theories to have. Ellis (2017) makes a distinction between Cosmology, which is the physically based subject dealt with in the textbooks listed in this article, dealing with the expansion of the universe, galaxies, number counts, background radiation, and so on, and Cosmologia, where one takes all that as given but adds in consideration about the meaning this all has for life. Clearly the anthropic discussions mentioned above are a middle ground. However a number of popular science books by major scientists are appearing that make major claims about Cosmologia, based purely in arguments from fundamental physics together with astronomical observations. We will make just one remark about this here. If one is going to consider Cosmologia seriously, it is incumbent on one to take seriously the full range of data appropriate to that enterprise. That is, the data needed for the attempted scope of such a theory must include data to do with the meaning of life as well as data derived from telescopes, laboratory experiments, and particle colliders. It must thus include data about good and evil, life and death, fear and hope, love and pain, writings from the great philosophers and writers and artists who have lived in human history and pondered the meaning of life on the basis of their life experiences. This is all of great meaning to those who live on Earth (and hence in the Universe). To produce books saying that science proves there is no purpose in the universe is pure myopia. It just means that one has shut ones eyes to all the data that relates to purpose and meaning; and that one supposes that the only science is physics (for psychology and biology are full of purpose). https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmology/ 53 CHAPTER III COSMOLOGY: HINDU COSMOLOGY Hindu tradition possesses one of the richest and most continually evolving cosmologies in the global culture. From the most ancient Indian religious compositions, the Vedas, to contemporary twenty-first-century Indian theories combining science and religion, time and space have been lavishly narrated and meticulously calculated. Moreover moral, social, and philosophical meanings underlie these cosmologies in compelling ways. This article will focus on six major frames for Hindu cosmology: the Vedic, Upaniṣadic, epic, Purāṇic, non-Sanskritic, and contemporary scientific-philosophical. Although through the millennia Hindu thinkers have dramatically redrawn notions of time, space, and person, they also share a wealth of common imagery: the reciprocal effects between natural and human affairs, the central idea of a cycle, and the divisions of space into particular realms and spheres. Each new cosmology does not completely replace the old but stands alongside of it as yet another cosmological option. Vedic Cosmology The Vedas and Brāhmaṇas are texts that existed before the idea of "Hinduism" per se emerged as a world religion. Present scholarly consensus puts the earliest date of the Vedas at 1500 bce, but there remains debate on the topic that might place the Vedas earlier. The Brāhmaṇas are placed around 900 bce. These texts were almost entirely oral, guarded by the priestly Brahmanic tradition as the basic supporting texts of the sacrifice. The cosmology of the Vedas speaks of the cosmos as Father Sky (Dyaus Pitṛ) and Earth (Pṛthivī). In other texts the cosmos is divided into three realms: bhūr (earth), bhuvaḥ (air), and svaḥ (heaven). The sacrifice and not the gods is considered the source of time, space, and all things that make up the universe. The Agnicayana, or the building of the fire altar, as well as many other forms of sacrifice are viewed in the Brāhmaṇa texts as symbolic reconstructions of the cosmos. Moreover the right placement of sacrificial implements and correct chanting of mantras allows the unimpeded turning of the year, the months, and the seasons as well as the correct placement of the three realms. At times cosmological thinking is so present and deeply assumed in Vedic texts that the "earthly realm" (as opposed to the other realms) is simply referred to as iha, "here." Vedic Space Following from above, the basic form of cosmological space is the sacrificial arena. However, many of the Vedic gods, such as Agni, the fire god, have three different forms corresponding to the three Vedic realms. These "realms" are not only spatial but can also be described as mental states of mind: loka, or world, in its earliest meanings, can mean the "freedom to exist unimpeded" or "expansiveness" as much as it can mean a physical location. Yet these three realms are not the only form of imagined space: at death, the Vedic funeral hymns assert, the various elements within a person are scattered to various parts of the natural world. Alternatively the person can go to the realm of Yama, the overlord of the dead. Sponsored by Yahoo FeelGood 54 Looking for Good News? SEE MORE Vedic Time The sacrificial world understood time as a kind of simple cycle in which the year, the months, and the day are products of the work of the sacrifice. The passing of time is also homologized with death, and in later periods both death and the year were created by Prajāpati, the "Lord of Creatures," who also gave instructions about the correct procedures of the sacrifice. If one sacrificed well and long enough, one attained status oneself as an ancestor deity to be propitiated by other living sacrificers on earth. Therefore once one attained this status, the Vedic texts express a wish to avoid a "re-death." In addition Vedic texts show a high awareness of the motion and rhythm of the sun, moon, and stars and imagine them in a variety of colorful ways: the sun as a horse crossing the sky in a chariot, night and the dawn as rivalrous sisters, and so on. There is evidence that astronomical knowledge, such as the marking of the lunar asterisms, might well have been fairly advanced, even at this early stage of known religious history. Vedic Person and Morality In one famous Vedic hymn (Ṛgveda 10:90), which proved to be influential in a number of later Hindu schools of thought, the universe itself is understood as a cosmic person (Puruṣa). This Puruṣa is sacrificed in a primordial ritual procedure, and from parts of his body emerge the various creatures of the earth, elements of time and space, elements of the sacrifice, and most importantly categories of the social world, called varṇa. These four varṇa s (brahmin priest; kṣatriya warrior; vaiśya agriculturalist or trader; and śūdra servant) become the basis of social organization expressed in later legal and religious texts. The model earthly Vedic person is one who studies the Vedas, sacrifices, and tends to the sacrificial fires and therefore becomes ritually and morally responsible for the cosmos. And yet such a person is also a seeker. Ṛgveda 10:90 ends with a philosophical paradox: "with the sacrifice the gods sacrificed to the sacrifice." This enigma also sets the tone for much of Vedic cosmology: acceptance of multiple versions of creation; Vedic cosmology is questioning and searching, not doctrinal or creedal in nature. One of the most famous cosmological hymns, the Nasadīya hymn (Ṛgveda 10:129), speaks of the world beginning from nothingness, where "the One breathed, windless," and then coming into existence through the power of heat. Desire is the primal seed, and the sages create by stretching a cord across the void. Yet even this spare, poetic cosmology ends with a query: Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of the universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? … perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not—the one who looks down on it, in the highest heaven, only he knows perhaps he does not know. (O'Flaherty, 1981, pp. 25–26) UpaniṢadic Cosmology While the activity of sacrifice is still presumed in the period of composition of the Upaniṣadic texts, the object of sacrificial knowledge is no longer the actual procedures of the sacrifice or the 55 gods per se but a new force called brahman. Brahman is thought of as the power behind the sacrifice, and as the Upaniṣadic thought developed, it was described as the power behind every living thing and every element in the universe. Brahman is "the Whole" (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2:5) and transcends even the gods. It also exists beyond all known things in this world, and yet is also present within them as well. It is set apart from beings and yet dwelling within beings at the same time. This basic identification between the selves of beings and brahman leads to the famous Upaniṣadic equation that the self (ātman) is the same as the power behind the universe (brahman). As the sage Yājn̄avalkya puts it, "The self within all is this self of yours." The larger brahman is also spoken of as the ātman or "self" of the universe, thus giving rise to the poetic nineteenth-century translation "the World-Soul." The earliest Upaniṣads probably originated around 600 to 500 bce and were composed in prose. They shared a common focus on many topics, such as the nature of brahman, the nature of sacrificial speech and the verses, the various forms of breath, and the homologization of parts of the body to the powers in the universe. The teaching of the five fires as the essence of the major parts of the cosmos (e.g., fire as man, woman, and the three worlds) is especially distinctive in these early prose compositions. The later Upaniṣads are composed in verse and develop the theme of brahman into a theistic rather than monistic conception. They also focus on the idea of liberation through meditation. Both are themes common in later Purāṇic cosmologies. UpaniṢadic Space Many of the Upaniṣads continue the idea of the three worlds in the Vedas but add to this cosmology an inner, more existential meaning. When the student Aśvala asks how many oblations there will be, the sage Yājn̄avalkya responds that each oblation has its own modality and is therefore connected to the specific world that shares that modality. The oblations that flare will win the world of the gods, for the world shines that way. The oblations that overflow (atinedante) will go to the world of the ancestors, for that world is "over above" (ati). The oblations that lie down (adhiśerate) will go to this human world, for that world is here below (adha). This imagery continues a basic cosmology that one sees in earlier Vedic texts of the worlds of the gods, the fathers, and the ancestors. However, it attributes, through etymologies, different modes of being to each of the offerings and each of worlds. In other passages the three-fold world is described in a progression of size from one to sixty-four, a numerology that is recurrent in many later cosmological texts. Finally, in other passages the three levels (bhūr, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ) of the Vedic world are expanded into seven realms, many of the additional realms again connoting "modes of being": mahas, janas, tapas (meditative heat), and satyam (truth). The second kind of Upaniṣadic space is the body itself. Each of the basic sacrificial procedures, present from the earliest Vedic ritual texts, becomes homologized with the individual breathing body as well as the world itself. In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka and other Upaniṣads the sacrificial fires are seen as part of the inner workings of the body; the role of the Adhvaryu priest is identified with their eyes and the process of sight itself, and this sight can see the nature of the whole world (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3:1:5). In other passages it is not only the cosmology of the sacrifice that is given to the body but also the cosmology of the entire world and its topography. For instance, rivers of the world are identified as the rivers contained within the body 56 (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1:1:1; Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 1:4:5), the eye of the world is also the sight of the body (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 1:7:4), and so on. The third kind of Upaniṣadic space is that of brahman itself. Brahman is also spoken of as a formulation of truth—a truth that is to be attained by wise men and women who have practiced meditation and focused on the forest teachings for a long time. Brahman is the highest object of the teachings on hidden connections—an object rooted in austerity and the knowledge of the self (Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 1:9). The imagery here is not simply that of a truth to be attained but of an abode in its own right, where the sun never sets nor rises (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 3:11). Similarly other Upaniṣads also describe brahman as a stainless realm (Praśna Upaniṣad 1.16) in its own right—a world of unending peace, an ancient formulation that is heard in the heavenly abodes. UpaniṢadic Time: The Cycle of Birth and Death One sees emerging in the Upaniṣads a theory of death and birth that is strikingly different than the Vedic sacrificial fear of "re-death" (punarmṛtyu). The Upaniṣads contain the earliest records of what has been called saṃsāra, or the endless cycle of birth and death, as well as mokṣa, or the path that leads away from saṃsāra. The story of Jabālā is instructive on this point (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 3:4:1–4). Jabālā is ashamed that his native learning, gleaned at his father's knee, is not sufficient in the court to which he travels. He must learn an entirely new set of metaphors, in which each aspect of life (man, woman, semen, food) is said to be identical with the sacrificial fire. While such matters are not unusual for many sections of the Upaniṣads, the subsequent section is startlingly new. Those whose conduct is good but who choose to offer sacrifices in the village will go on the path of the moon and be reborn accordingly. Those who choose the path of the forest and the knowledge of brahman will go on the path of the sun and leave this life altogether. And those whose conduct is reprehensible will be reborn into a lesser, probably repugnant womb. In other accounts the two paths are described as the path of the gods (devayāna) and the path of the father (pitṛyāna). UpaniṢadic Person and Morality Despite their variations, the Upaniṣads all share the concept of a cycle of infinitely recurring births and deaths in which the nature of a rebirth depends upon a person's actions in life. The only way to escape this cycle of time is through knowledge of brahman, the infinite, which can be gained through slow and painstaking mastery of meditation under the guidance of a teacher. Each Upaniṣad had a different method for teaching this knowledge, but all used the basic imageries of the sacrifice to show the ways in which bodily processes and processes of awareness allowed the student to conceive of the sacrifice as going on inside his body. In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3:1:8–10, Aśvala the hotṛ (a priest trained in sacrifice and sacrificial recitation), asks Yājn̄avalkya the teacher about how many deities will be used by the Brāhmaṇ priest to protect the sacrifice that day. He answers, "One, the mind." Yajn̄avalkya argues that this is possible because the mind is without limit, the all-gods are without limit, and the world one gains by it is also limitless. Thus the deities become identified with mind itself— and by implication the Brāhmaṇ priest, the controller of the sacrifice, can earn his authority through the machinations of his own mind. Finally, in discussing the hymns that are used in the sacrifice, Aśvala asks what these hymns are with respect to the "self-body" (ātman). Yājn̄avalkya 57 replies that the hymn recited before the sacrifice is the out-breath, the hymn that accompanies the sacrifice the in-breath, and the hymn of praise the inter-breath. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad puts the relationship between self, body, and cosmos eloquently: "This self is the honey of all beings, and all beings are the honey of this self. The radiant and immortal person in the self and the radiant and immortal person connected with the body [here, also referred to as ātman ]—they are both one's self. It is the immortal; it is Brahman, it is the Whole" (2:5:9). Epic Cosmology The two great Indian epics, the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata, were probably composed between 200 bce and 200 ce. Both of these narratives act as a kind of bridge between the worlds of the Vedas and the Upaniṣads and that of classical, Purāṇic Hinduism. This same period saw the development of the early Śāstras or legal texts, which also contain cosmological information. The cosmology of the epics and the early Śāstras incorporates an increasing systematization of the idea of samsaric time for the individual and expands the idea of the universe into one that dissolves and regenerates. Epic cosmology also incorporates the ideas of Sāṃkhya and Yoga philosophy, such as the "qualities," or guṇa s, that are inherent in all beings and elements in the universe. Such a cosmology involves an entirely new pantheon of gods, the triad of Viṣṇu, Śiva, and Brahmā, and the Devī, or goddess. These gods were probably part of the popular religious worlds of North India, even during the period of Vedic sacrificial practice. However, as sacrificial practice waned and the patronage of temples increased, these gods emerged as the larger, cosmological deities in their own right. Devotion (bhakti) toward these deities is also an emerging theme in the epics, in which the deity is seen as the creator and sustainer of the universe. The body of the deity is the frame of the cosmos, and time (also an agent of the deity) moves beings toward their final state. SEE MORE At the basis of these ideas is an early Hindu philosophy called Sāṃkhya, which means "counting." In the sense that its aim is to enumerate everything in the universe, it could also be called a cosmology. According to Sāṃkhya, the universe evolves from a feminine "natural matter" and becomes entangled with the masculine puruṣa, which is an individual soul (and not to be confused with the earlier "cosmic person"). Thus in these entanglements twenty-four "evolutes" emerge, including the senses and the elements. Sāṃkhya is the basis of the practice of Yoga, whereby the yogin gradually extricates the soul from the evolutes of prakṛti. After eight stages, the soul realizes its eternal nature and is no longer subject to the laws of action (karma) or transmigration (saṃsāra). Time, however, is not an agent in itself. Sāṃkhya's ordering of the universe of prakṛti is generally not hierarchical, although one text—the Yoga Bhāṣya —sees the lower evolutes of prakṛti as the hells and the higher ones as the heavens. The extrication of the soul from prakṛti in the practice of Yoga is seen as the soul's movement toward the higher realms, and when it leaves the world altogether, it also dissolves it. On a smaller cosmological scale, Sāṃkhya Yoga philosophy contributes the basic idea that there are universal qualities or "guṇas" inherent in every element on earth. These guṇas are sattva (truth, light); rajas (passion, force) and tamas (weight, darkness) are inherent in every particle of the universe. 58 Epic Space The epics and Dharmaśāstras and related texts of this period give an idea of how those heavens and netherworlds might be inhabited. In the Mahābhārata, Arjuna visits Śiva and obtains a weapon from him in one of his heavenly abodes; so too the gods dwelling in heaven remind Rāma of his duty toward his wife at the end of the Rāmāyaṇa. The great Mahābhārata heroes, the Paṇḍava brothers, also make ascents and descents to heaven and hell at the end of the great battle. Most importantly it is during this transitional period that one sees the intimation that the land of Bhārata is to be identified with Indian civilization and the entirety of the earth. Epic Time The Bhiṣmaparvan of the Mahābhārata (4–12) contains an entire depiction of the cosmos, which involves the beginnings of the devotional, or bhakti, tradition. So too the Śantiparvan introduces the idea of the division of time into kalpas and yugas, as does the Manu Smṛti, one of the more well-known legal Dharmaśāstric texts developed during this time. The epic texts also introduce explicit teachings on the doctrine of the avatāras, or "descents" of god. These avatāras appear at various points when time has lost its power to fight the demons and to restore the dharma, or moral order, of the universe. As early as the great Bhagavadgītā, or "Song of the Lord," contained in the Mahābhārata, Kṛṣṇa apparently refers to the notion of time and to the integration of the idea of the avatāra with that of the descending ages, or yugas. As Kṛṣṇa puts it: Son of Bhārata, whenever there is a decline in dharma, and the absence of dharma increases, I create Myself. I come into being from age to age with the purpose of fixing dharma —as a refuge for those who do good and as a doom for those who do wrong. (4:7–8; in Patton, 2005) Epic Person and Morality Kṛṣṇa's words lead directly to a new understanding of the relationship between cosmology and the morality of the human world. That relationship is conceived of in terms of dharma (sacred role or duty). Kṛṣṇa is beyond time and space and yet at the same time incarnates himself in order to make sure that dharma is in the correct order and format. The cosmos is perceived as directly responsive to any change in the correct pattern of dharma. So too the reverse is the case: as one of the Dharmaśāstras argues, if one follows the dharma of hospitality toward a brahmin guest, one can gain various heavens depending upon the number of days the guest stays in one's home. Entertaining a brahmin guest forever allows one to attain svargaloka. PurĀṆic Cosmology The medieval Hindu texts called Purāṇas ("of the ancient times") contain Hindu cosmology at its most exuberant and efflorescent. Emerging during the early first millennium ce as a genre in their own right, Purāṇas were sponsored by each temple or kingdom and usually focused on a particular deity, which gave its own account of the world and its destruction. In the Purāṇas, the basic themes introduced in the epics and the Śāstras are elaborated upon imagistically, poetically, and mathematically. Moreover the theme of bhakti, or devotion, which was dramatically introduced in the epics and Yoga texts, becomes paramount. PurĀṆic Space 59 Many Purāṇas, including the relatively early Viṣṇu Purāṇa, describe a flat disk of earth, which is itself composed of a series of circles. These are in fact seven concentric islands that keep doubling in size as one moves outward. (The first is an actual circle, and the concentric islands are ring-shaped.) The islands are separated from each other by a series of oceans, each of which has the width of the island it encircles. The center-most island is the most well known and is called Jambudvīpa (Rose Apple Island). And at the center of the world, the golden mountain called Meru anchors the entire arrangement. Meru is unusual in that it is an inversion of the usual mountains and points downward. Jambudvīpa is further divided into nine varṣa s, or regions, that consist of mountain ranges. The lines are latitudinal, running from east to west. The region of Jambudvīpa that is the farthest north is called Uttarakuru and may well be Kurukṣetra, where the central battle of the Mahābhārata took place. Moving southward, one encounters the other varṣas: Hiranmaya, Ramyaka, Ketumāla, Ilavṛta, Bhadrāśya, Harivarṣa, Kiṃpuruṣa, and Bhārata. The final region, Bhārata, is assumed by many scholars to be India, as this is the same name for India in the twenty-first century. In the Purāṇic cosmograph, however, it is a karmabhūmi, or realm where the laws of karma apply. As such one can only attain mokṣa, or liberation from these laws, in this region. Bhārata is also the only place on earth where rain falls. Bhārata itself is divided into nine sections. Moreover the celestial river Ganges also divides into seven branches—the traditional seven rivers found in ancient Vedic texts. The full series of seven islands then begins with Jambudvīpa, whose diameter is 100,000 yojana s. Jambudvīpa forms an actual circle with a radius of fifty thousand yojana s. (A yojana is a word that occurs as early as the Ṛgveda; it has been variously measured as two, four, five, or nine English miles, although it also has an etymological link to Yoga and yuga that makes its connotations metaphysical.) The rest of the ring-shaped islands are named as follows: Plakṣadvīpa, Sālmaladvīpa, Kuśadvīpa, Krauṇcadvīpa, Śākadvīpa, and Puṣkaradvīpa. All the islands are named after some species of the trees and plants that grow on them. Each concentric ring island is double the width of the previous one, so that the outermost, Puṣkaradvīpa, ends up with a width of 6.4 million yojana s. Finally, just as Jambudvīpa is divided into nine varṣa s, or regions, of mountain ranges, so too each of the five inner ring-shaped islands also is divided into seven mountain-range varṣa s. The outer most island, Puṣkaradvīpa, is delineated by a ring of mountains called Mānassottara. The oceans that separate the ring islands from one another have the same width as the diameter they surround, with the same expansion of measurement up to 6.4 million for the last ocean. Their names are drawn from the substance of the oceans themselves: Lavaṇoda (Salt Ocean), Ikṣura (Molasses Ocean), Suroda (Wine Ocean), Ghṛtoda (Ghee Ocean), Dadhyoda (Curd Ocean), Kṣīroda (Milk Ocean), and Svādūdaka (Freshwater Ocean). The Freshwater Ocean flows beyond the last ring island, Puṣkaradvīpa, and separates it from the end of the universe (lokasaṃsthiti). The realm at the end of the universe is a golden realm that divides the world from the nonworld, similarly to the way in which being and nonbeing are distinguished even in the earliest Vedic cosmologies. The golden realm also has a mountain, Lokakāloka (World and non-World). After this mountain is a region of perpetual darkness, where, the texts seem to suggest, only the elements of earth, wind, air, and fire exist. After that realm is the shell of the egg of Brahmā, which envelopes the universe in its entirety. The entire diameter of this universe is said to be 500 million yojana s. 60 What of the stars and other heavenly bodies? The stars move around Mount Meru in a circular direction, with the North Star (dhruva) as their pivot. Below them lies the flat disk of the earth. The sun, moon, and planets move about in chariots drawn by horses, as was the case even in the earliest Vedic texts. They are attached to the North Star by bands of air that allow them to travel in their proper orbits. The Hindu cosmograph, with its conical center, Mount Meru, and the chariot of the sun and disk of stars circulating above the disk of concentric islands and oceans may be based on a projection of the celestial sphere onto a flat surface. In such an analysis the circle of the sun is the mythographic expression of the circle of the ecliptic. Mount Meru represents the projection of the celestial Tropic of Cancer, while the Mānassottara Mountain represents the projection of the Tropic of Capricorn. The prominence of the North Star, the conspicuous absence of the south polar star, and the stories about the exile of Agastya (Canopus) to the Southern Hemisphere to preserve the cosmograph all support the idea that the Hindu cosmograph is a northern, planispheric projection of the sort used to construct such instruments as the astrolabe. As for a vertical cosmology, there are seven worlds with the same names as those of the Upaniṣads, although the Purāṇas make considerable elaboration on these. The bhūrloka contains the cosmograph of the seven islands outlined above, with Bhārata as the only land where the law of karma applies and liberation is possible. Most significantly, there are seven Pātalas, or netherworlds: Atala, Vitala, Nitala, Gabhastimat, Mahātala, Sutala, and Pātala. Below these are twenty-eight hell realms. The bhuvaṣḥ, or intermediate realm, is the realm of the sun, which moves through its annual course in its chariot. Above this is the svarloka, which contains, in ascending order, the moon; its twenty-seven or twenty-eight Nakṣatras, or houses of the moon; Mercury (Buddha); Venus (Śukra); Mars (Angārika); Jupiter (Bṛhaspati); Saturn (Śani); and the Seven Ṛṣis (the Great Bear) and Dhruva (the North star, mentioned above). The three basic realms of bhur, bhuvaḥ, and svaḥ are described as kṛtika —meaning they are "created" worlds and therefore transitory. They are the regions where consequences are experienced and renewed with every kalpa. In these three realms the fruits of karma that are acquired in Bhārata manifest themselves, and souls are reborn to enjoy these fruits. These are the enjoyment realms (bhogabhūmi) as opposed to the karmabhūmi of Bhārata. Above the svarloka is the realm of mahas, which is considered a mixed realm because it is a deserted by beings at the end of kalpa but is not destroyed. Finally, the three highest realms—janas, tapas, and satyam —are described as akṛittika: that which is uncreated. They perish only at the end of the life of Brahmā. PurĀṆic Time The Purāṇas divide time into such components as yugas, as four age cycles, and kalpa s, which are a day and a night of Brahmā. The Purāṇas provide a very thorough analysis of these components. Together with doctrines concerning the various destructions (pralayas), they are the glue that holds this cosmology together and provides it with a coherent drama of salvation. Indeed Viṣṇu Purāṇa asserts it is not space but time that constitutes the body of the deity. 61 Hindu divisions of time are as follows. Fifteen "twinklings of the eye" make a kāṣṭhās, or one kalā; and thirty kalās equal one muhūrtta. Thirty muhūrttas constitute a day and a night of mortals; thirty such days make a month, which is divided into two halves (waxing and waning). Six months form an ayana, and two ayanas compose a year. The southern ayana is a night and the northern a day of the gods. Twelve thousand divine years, each comprising 360 such days, constitute the period of the yugas (caturyuga). The kṛtayuga consists of four thousand divine years, the tretāyuga of three thousand, the dvāparayuga of two thousand, and the kaliyuga of one thousand. The period that precedes a yuga is called a sandhyā; it lasts for as many hundred years as there are thousands in the yuga. The sandhyānsa, at the end of the yuga, is of similar duration. Together the four yugas constitute a kalpa. A thousand kalpas is a day of Brahmā, and fourteen Manus, or descendants of man, reign during that time period, which is known as Manvantara. At the end of a day of Brahmā, the universe is consumed by fire, and its dissolution occurs. Brahmā then sleeps for a night of equal duration. Three hundred and sixty such days and nights constitute a year of Brahmā, and one hundred such years equal his entire life (mahākalpa). One parārddha, or half his life, has expired. The various pralayas epitomize the agency of time by moving the soul—and the universe—from its current state to its eventual salvation. The Purāṇas distinguish four types of dissolution, or pralaya, each reversing the process of creation at different levels. These include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Nitya pralaya, or physical death of the individual caught in the cycle of transmigration; Ātyantika pralaya, or spiritual liberation (mokṣa) ; Prākṛta pralaya, or dissolution of the elements at the end of the life of Brahmā; Naimittika pralaya, or occasional dissolution associated with the cycles of yugas and descents of avatāras. Yet calculations of time also had a meditative quality: the contemplation of infinity, or the largest number next to infinity, was meant to be close to a vision of God. The Brahmavaivarta Purāṇa tells the well-known story of the dialogue between Viṣṇu and Indra. In the form of a young boy, Viṣṇu tells Indra that a parade of ants crawling on the earth have all had lives as Indras—each ruling over their own solar systems in different ages. PurĀṆic Person and Morality In the Purāṇic texts, the four yugas progress as a kind of inevitable decay in the moral quality of the universe. The Kūrma Purāṇa (1:27, 16–57; 28:1–7) states it elaborately. The text describes the meditational bliss, lack of self interest, and natural habitat of human beings in the first yuga, kṛtayuga; the arising of pleasure and greed in the tretāyuga; the lack of firm resolve and the introduction of war, death, and suffering in the dvāparayuga; and the rampant hunger, fear, and inversion of social order in the final present age of the kaliyuga. Happiness, beauty, homes in the forest, and food dropping from trees gradually give way to the moral decay of the world and then to the development of practices aimed at liberation from such decay. The kaliyuga is considered the worst of the four yugas —the moment right before the final destruction and renewal of the universe. The Purāṇas and many contemporary Hindu thinkers 62 understand the present to be the kaliyuga. The decadence, greed, and confusion of social categories is both inevitable and part of the turning of the cycles of time, and yet the Purāṇas and other Hindu texts exhort each individual to be the moral exception in this period of decay. Non-Sanskritic Cosmologies It is important to note, however, that the extended discussion of cosmology above is based mainly on the Sanskrit textual tradition and that there are many important cosmologies within Hinduism that may depart from these basic ideas in significant ways. In South India, for example, Tamil, Telugu, and Karnatak traditions have developed complex and sophisticated classical cosmologies of their own. Such texts focus on the meaning of the temple and the city surrounding it as a center and origin of the world and on a regional deity as its creator. The temple spires and surrounding tanks frequently function in ways similar to, and are sometimes even compared with, Mount Meru and its surrounding islands in the Sanskrit texts. So too South Indian texts describe deities like Murukaṉ (Murugan) residing in these temples as if they were a kind of paradise created at the beginning of the world. At a village level, guardian deities of ponds, wells, and the intersections of roads are also credited with cosmological powers and roles in creation. Finally, the ādivasis, or "tribal" communities of India, such as the Muṇḍa, Santal, and others, also possess unique cosmologies, some of which incorporate Hindu deities such as Rāma, others of which involve completely separate deities who have created and preside over the natural world and look after the welfare of human beings. Many tribal cosmologies incorporate narratives of the victory of good over evil. The Muṇḍa, for example, tell the story of Singbonga, who tried to stop the iron smelters from working as it was causing pollution in the universe. When they refused, he had to destroy them in order to keep the world safe. So too the Kokna, Bhil, and Varli peoples understand that before humans the world was filled with rakṣasas, or demons; Rāma and Sītā then passed through the area, killed the demons, and gave birth to humans. Science and Cosmology Any discussion of Hindu cosmology would be empty without a discussion of astronomy and related sciences. As mentioned previously, the astronomical sciences appear as early as the Vedic period in the form of Jyotiṣḥśāstra, or "the science of light." Though there is considerable debate as to the range and nature of astronomical knowledge, it is known that the lunar mansions are mentioned in the Brāhmaṇas and that the Hindu science of calculation began with the cosmological Vedic altars and developed into the elaborate calculations of the yugas, kalpas, and mahākalpas in the Purāṇas. Jyotiṣḥśāstra encouraged thinkers to assign dates to the grand conjunctions of the middle planets at Aries, and the date February 18 (or 19) of 3101 (or 3102) bce is frequently cited as marking the beginning of the kaliyuga. One astronomical text, in the Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa (2:166–174), is the earliest of this genre and is the basis of the Brahmāpakṣa. Together with the Aryapakṣa and the Ardharatrikapakṣa, these three texts form the canonical schools of Hindu astronomy. The great astronomer-sage Āryabhaṭa (fifth–sixth centuries ce) calculated the rotations of the earth and the sun in terms of the yugas. His treatises (siddhantas) sketch his mathematical, 63 planetary, and cosmic theories and include a sine table, astronomical computations, divisions of time, and rules for computation for eclipses as well as the longitude of planets. Among the other theorists, Varāhamihira (sixth century ce), Brahmagupta (seventh century ce), Bhāskara (twelfth century ce), and Mādhava (fourteenth century ce) all gave calculational and astronomical theories that contributed to overall ideas about the universe, such as the rotational powers of the planets and the centrality of the sun. Indeed by the time of Bhāskara (c. twelfth century ce) the old Purāṇic cosmology was being questioned with the construction of a different model of the solar system. In the debates one can detect a conflict between the Purāṇic cosmology and the cosmology of the Jyotiṣas. There are some discussions that remind one of the contemporary cosmological debate between creationism and the Big Bang. For instance, the astronomical writers asked: If, as some of the Purāṇas state, a tortoise is holding up the earth, then what being or substance might be supporting that tortoise? Or if one is assuming the gigantic height of Mount Meru and a flat, disk-like earth, then would not one be able to see Mount Meru from every point on the disk of the earth? Around 1200 ce al-Bīrūnī, an Arab astronomer and translator, noted the debates and problems of Purāṇic cosmology that were present in the discussions of Indian astronomers. Relatedly it is clear that there was a great deal of scientific collaboration between Hindus and Muslims in Mughal India, especially in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Jaipur, where the appropriate description of the cosmos was argued out at great length. Finally, in the contemporary period various more and less controversial attempts have been made to correlate scientific advances with Hindu cosmology. In the more controversial cases textual exegetes argue about whether it is appropriate to view certain descriptions of "vehicles" in the epics as referring to space travelers or whether the ancient word yojana, mentioned above, refers to the speed of light. In a more speculative and less controversial vein Yoga theorists draw parallels between the theory of the three guṇas and James C. Maxwell's theories of electromagnetism; between the relation of space and time in Sāṃkhya theory and the theory of relativity; between the idea of the cosmic egg and the theory of curved space in the general theory of relativity; and so on. Many contemporary philosophers and historians, such as S. Radhakrishnan, B. K. Motilal, A. N. Balslev, and W. R. Kloetzli, have written of the parallels (not equivalencies) between scientific and Hindu philosophical thinking. The Hindu philosophical school of Nyāya Vaiśeṣika and its views on the atom's role in the universe is one particularly salient example. Finally, the cosmological writings of astrophysicist Jayant Viṣṇu Narlikar land more squarely in the world of physical science and cosmology. Considered a leading expert and defender of the steady state cosmology against the more popular Big Bang cosmology, Narlikar has also drawn some intriguing parallels with Hindu mythology—not in order to "prove" the existence of scientific knowledge in ancient texts but rather to show the power of the cosmological imagination in both science and mythology. Many of the cosmological myths referred to above, involving expansion and contraction, the in-breathing and out-breathing of Brahmā, and so on, seem to involve metaphors of a "steady state" similar to Narlikar's physical and mathematical arguments in scientific cosmology. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacstranscripts-and-maps/cosmology-hindu-cosmology 64 For a general overview of cosmology, the best resources are of course the original texts themselves. In translation, Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty's Rig Veda (Harmondsworth, U.K., 1981) and Walter Maurer's Pinnacles of India's Past: Selections from the Rgveda (Amsterdam and Philadelphia, 1986) both have good discussions of cosmogonic themes; Patrick Olivelle's introduction to his Upanisads (Oxford and New York, 1995) also has a good discussion. The classic treatment of Purāṇic cosmology remains Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. Van Buitenen's Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Purānas, rev. ed. (Philadelphia, 1995), which devotes entire sections to space and to time. The Bhagavadgītā is also an excellent resource for Hindu cosmological thinking, especially chapters 10 and 11. See Laurie Patton's translation of The Bhagavad Gita (Harmondsworth, U.K., 2005). For treatment of the themes of the cycle of time, the end of the world, and the renewal of the world, one might consult three works: Horst Bürkle's "Geschichtliche Einmaligkeit und zyklische Wiederkehr," Internationale katholische Zeitschrift "Communio" 17, no. 4 (1988): 327–336; Michel Hulin's "Décadence et renouvellement: La doctrine des âge du monde dans l'hindouisme," in Der geheime Strom des Geschehens, edited by Rudolf Ritsema (Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 1987), pp. 177–208; and Vasudha Narayanan's "Y51k and Still Counting: Some Hindu Views of Time," Hindu-Christian Studies Bulletin 12 (1999): 15–21. Mariasusai Dhavamony's "Hindu Eschatology," Studia Missionalia 32 (1983): 143–180, has a rather more Christian view. A little more updated in is theoretical perspective on "end of time" scenarios is Tom Forsthoefel's "Uses and Abuses of Apocalypticism in South Asia: A Creative Human Device," Journal of Dharma 26, no. 3 (2001): 417–430. For an integration of basic ritual themes and cosmological ideas, see Samarendra Saraf's "Hindu Ritual Idiom: Cosmic Perspective and Basic Orientations," in The Realm of the Extra-Human: Ideas and Actions, edited by Agehananda Bharati (The Hague, 1976), pp. 151–163. The locus classicus for the relationship between theodicy, or justice, and Hindu cosmology remains Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty's The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology (Berkeley, Calif., 1976). There is also a series of more comparative treatments of Hindu cosmology that take on the themes of "worldview" and "nature." Neither term is indigenous to the Hindu texts, but nonetheless they are excellent starting points for the comparativist. One could begin with Heinrich von Stietencron's "Welt und Gottheit: Konzeptionen der Hindus," in Christentum und Weltreligionen, edited by Hans Küng, Josef Van Ess, and Heinrich von Stietencron (Munich, 1984), pp. 271–310. A. Syrkin's two-part series in Numen gives a nice discussion of the avatar in Hindu cosmology; see "The Salutary Descent," Numen 35, no. 1 (1988): 1–23 and no. 2 (1988): 213–237. Non-Western scholars have also contributed to efforts to think about cosmology comparatively and to engage Hindu themes—see, for example, G. P. Pokhariyal's "The Hindu View of God, Humanity, and Mother Nature," in God, Humanity, and Mother Nature, edited by Gilbert E. M. Ogutu (Nairobi, Kenya, 1992), pp. 165–171; and Tadakazu Yamada, James Dator, and Russell Schweickart's Cosmos, Life, Religion: Beyond Humanism (Tenri, Japan, 1988.) Relatedly contemporary writing on the environment and Hindu cosmology blossomed in the last decade of the twentieth century. One of the most central authors, O. P. Dwivedi, began with his "Environmental Stewardship: Our Spiritual Heritage for Sustainable Development," Journal of Developing Societies 12, no. 2 (1996): 217–231. David R. Kinsley's "Reflections on Ecological Themes in Hinduism," Journal of Dharma 16, no. 3 (1991): 229–245, is also important. Following Dwivedi's initiative are Augustine Thottakara, ed., Eco-Dynamics of Religion: Thoughts for the Third Millennium (Bangalore, India, 2000); Christopher Key Chapple and Mary 65 Evelyn Tucker, eds., Hinduism and Ecology: The Intersection of Earth, Sky, and Water (Cambridge, Mass., 2000); and Lance E. Nelson, ed., Purifying the Earthly Body of God: Religion and Ecology in Hindu India (Albany, N.Y., 1999). There is also a long tradition of scholarship that, while not specifically environmentalist, addresses the idea of the Hindu cosmos as the body of God. Many such works are comparative in nature, beginning with Ninian Smart's "God's Body," Union Seminary Quarterly Review 37 (1981): 51–59; Alex Wayman's "The Human Body as Microcosm in India, Greek Cosmology, and Sixteenth-Century Europe," History of Religions 22, N (1982): 172–190; Julius J. Lipner's "The World as God's 'Body': In Pursuit of Dialogue with Rāmānuja," Religious Studies 20 (1984): 145–161; and George A. Chalmers's "Rāmānuja and Alexander: The Concept of the Universe as the Body of God," Scottish Journal of Religious Studies 6, no. 1 (1985): 26–33. More recent work has connected the bodies of gods and goddesses with politics; see, for example, Konrad Meisig's "'Mutter Indien' (Bhāratamātā): Zur Personifizierung kosmologischer Vorstellungen im politischen Hinduismus," in Religion im Wandel der Kosmologien, edited by Dieter Zeller, pp. 281–285 (Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and New York, 1999). Kapila Vatsyayan's book series, "Prakriti" (Indira Gandhi National Center for the Arts) contains a number of excellent collections of essays on cosmology by Indian and Western authors alike. Finally, George Michell, The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meanings and Forms (London, 1977) and Hindu Art and Architecture (New York, 2000), and Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple (Delhi, 1976), remain the loci classici among examinations of the relationship between architecture and cosmology. However, more specific, local treatments with important theoretical implications include Anthony Good's "The Burning Question: Sacred and Profane Space in a South Indian Temple Town," Anthropos 94, nos. 1–3 (1999): 69–84; Adam Hardy's "The Hindu Temple: A Dynamic Microcosm," in Sacred Architecture in the Traditions of India, China, Judaism, and Islam, edited by Emily Lyle (Edinburgh, 1992), pp. 41–57; and K. R. Van Kooij's "The Concept of Cosmic Totality in the Ancient Art of India," in Approaches to Iconology, edited by Hans G. Kippenberg, L. P. van den Bosch, and L. Leertouwer (Leiden, 1986), pp. 37–49. Most compelling is Michael W. Meister's "Symbology and Architectural Practice in India," in Sacred Architecture in the Traditions of India, China, Judaism, and Islam, edited by Emily Lyle (Edinburgh, 1992). Vedic and Upaniṣadic Cosmologies Two early works by Sadashiv Ambadas Dange and Richard F. Gombrich, respectively, remain excellent resources for Vedic ritual cosmology. See Dange's "Cosmo-Sexualism in the Vedic Ritual," in Charudeva Shastri Felicitation Volume, edited by Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Triloki Nath, Satya Vrat, and Dharmendra Kumar Gupta (Delhi, 1974), pp. 23–44; and Gombrich's "Ancient Indian Cosmology," in Ancient Cosmologies, edited by Carmen Blacker and Michael Loewe (London, 1975), pp. 110–142. M. A. Mehendale's short "Sapta Devalokāh," in Charudeva Shastri Felicitation Volume, edited by Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Triloki Nath, Satya Vrat, and Dharmendra Kumar Gupta (Delhi, 1974), also gives a good basic introduction to the idea of the seven worlds. For more detailed, thematic studies of Vedic cosmology, see Marius Schneider's "Das Schöpfungswort in der vedischen Kosmologie," in Musicae Scientiae Collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum 70. Geburtstag, edited by Heinrich Hüschen (Cologne, Germany, 1973), pp. 523–526, and his "Die Grundlagen der Kultsprache in der vedischen 66 Kosmologie," in Sprache und Sprachverständnis in religiöser Rede: Zum Verhältnis von Theologie und Linguistik, edited by Thomas Michels and Ansgar Paus (Salzburg, Austria, 1973), pp. 13–60. Albrecht Wezler's "Thin, Thinner, Thinnest: Some Remarks on Jaiminīya Brāhmana 1:144," in India and Beyond: Aspects of Literature, Meaning, Ritual, and Thought: Essays in Honour of Frits Staal, edited by Dick Van Der Meij (Leiden, 1997), pp. 636–650, engages the important question of worldview in the Brāhmaṇa literature. Henk W. Bodewitz gives a good sense of how early Vedic themes might give rise to later Purāṇic ones in "Pits, Pitfalls, and the Underworld in the Veda," Indo-Iranian Journal 42, no. 3 (July 1999): 211–226. Moving forward to the Upaniṣads, Joel P. Brereton's excellent "Cosmographic Images in the Brhadāranyaka Upaniṣad," Indo-Iranian Journal 34 (1991): 1–17, gives a good specific case study of a single Upaniṣad that can be used as a launching point for the study of other Upaniṣads. For another integrative view of earlier and later texts, see Petteri Koskikallio's "When Time Turns: Yugas, Ideologies, Sacrifices," in Studia Orientalia 73, edited by Palva Heikki, Tapani Harviainen, Asko Parpola, and Harry Halén (Helsinki, Finland, 1994), pp. 253–271. Epic and Purāṇic Cosmologies John E. Michiner's Traditions of the Seven Ṛṣis (Delhi, 1981) gives an excellent overview of the various cycles of time in the Vedas, the epics, and the Purāṇas, especially the Ages of Manu and the role of the Vedic sages in creating and maintaining the cosmos. Also addressing both epic and Purāṇic understandings of time is R. K. Dwivedi's "A Critical Study of the Changing Social Order at Yuganta; or, the End of the Kali Age," in D. D. Kosambi Commemoration Volume, edited by Lallanji Gopal, Jai Prakash Singh, and Nisar Ahmad (Varanasi, India, 1977), pp. 276– 297. Wendell C. Beane's "Cosmological Structure of Mythical Time: Kālī-Sakti," History of Religions 13 (1973): 54–83, connects these time cycles with the goddess concept of shakti. Tracy Pintchman builds on these insights in "Gender Complementarity and Gender Hierarchy in Purānic Accounts of Creation," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 66 (1998): 257– 282. For conceptions of place, Ian W. Mabbett's "The Symbolism of Mount Meru," History of Religions 23 (1983): 64–83, is a good introduction to the issues at stake, as is Adalbert J. Gail's "Die neun Abschnitte Bhāratavarsas: Eine textgeschichtliche Untersuchung," Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde südasiens und Archiv für indische Philosophie 17 (1973): 5–20. To see all of these cosmological traditions tied together into a philosophical point of view, one might read Alfred Collins's "From Brahma to a Blade of Grass: Towards an Indian Self Psychology," Journal of Indian Philosophy 19 (1991): 143–189. For more local Purāṇas and their cosmologies, see Don Handelman's "Myths of Murugan: Asymmetry and Hierarchy in a South Indian Puranic Cosmology," History of Religions 27 (1987): 133–170; William L. Smith's "The Celestial Village: The Divine Order in Bengali Myth," Temenos 18 (1982): 69–81; and David C. Scott's "Radha in the Erotic Play of the Universe," Asia Journal of Theology 12, no. 2 (1998): 338–357. No discussion of Purāṇic cosmology would be complete without a discussion of the related medieval tradition of Tantric cosmology. Most scholarly works concentrate on Śaivite (Shaivite) traditions, as do S. Arulsamy's "Spiritual Journey in Shaiva Siddhanta," Journal of Dharma 11, no. 1 (1986): 37–61; Gavin D. Flood's "Shared Realities and Symbolic Forms in Kashmir Shaivism," Numen 36 (1989): 225–247; and Paul E. Muller-Ortega's "Aspects of Jīvanmukti in the Tantric Shaivism of Kashmir," in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought, edited by Andrew O. Fort and Patricia Y. Mumme (Albany, N.Y., 1996), pp. 187–217. Glen Alexander Hayes turns to 67 cosmological Tantra in Bengal in his "Cosmic Substance in the Vaisnava Sahajiyā Traditions of Medieval Bengal," Journal of Vaisnava Studies 5 (1996): 183–196. Non-Classical Cosmologies The field of "folk" cosmology in Hindu traditions is just beginning to emerge. Earlier works include Stuart H. Blackburn's "Domesticating the Cosmos: History and Structure in a Folktale from India," Journal of Asian Studies 45, no. 3 (1986): 527–543; and Dieter B. Kapp's "The Concept of Yama in the Religion of a South Indian Tribe," Journal of the American Oriental Society 102, no. 3 (1982): 517–521. The familiar theme of body and cosmos comes up in Lise F. Vail's "Founders, Swamis, and Devotees: Becoming Divine in North Karnataka," in Gods of Flesh, Gods of Stone: The Embodiment of Divinity in India, edited by Norman Cutler, Vasudha Narayanan, and Joanne Punzo Waghorne (Chambersburg, Pa., 1985), pp. 123–140; this is also one of the concerns in Hilde Link's "Das Unbegreifbare begreifbar machen: Südindische Baumeister gestalten einen sakralen Platz," Anthropos 88, nos. 1–3 (1993): 194–201. Science and Cosmology For more general treatments of science and cosmology, see Anindita Niyogi Balsley's "Cosmology and Hindu Thought," Zygon 25, no. 1 (1990): 47–58. For specific connections between Purāṇic and medieval scientific discourse there are two excellent resources: W. Randolph Kloetzli's "Maps of Time—Mythologies of Descent: Scientific Instruments and the Puranic Cosmograph," History of Religions 25 (1985): 116–147; and David Pingree's "The Purāṇas and Jyotihshāstra: Astronomy," Journal of the American Oriental Society 110 (1990): 274–280. Rory Fonseca's "Constructive Geometry and the Shrī-Cakra Diagram," Religion 16, no. 1 (1986): 33–49, is helpful with mathematical treatments of the cosmos. Also see Chris Minkowski's recent "Astronomers and their Reasons: Working Paper on Jyotishastra," Journal of Indian Philosophy 30, no. 5 (2002): 495–514; and his "The Pandit as Public Intellectual: The Controversy of Virodha or Inconsistency in the Astronomical Sciences," in Axel Michaels, ed., The Pandit: Proceedings of the Conference in Honour of Dr. K. P. Aithal. Heidelberg, 2001, pp. 79-96. For more contemporary philosophical treatments, see Anindita Niyogi Balsley's "Cosmos and Consciousness: Indian Perspectives," in Science and Religion in Search of Cosmic Purpose, edited by John F. Haught (Washington, D.C., 2000), pp. 58–68; and Karl E. Peters's "Cosmology and the Meaning of Human Existence: Options from Contemporary Physics and Eastern Religions," Zygon 25, no. 1 (1990): 7–122. Jayant Viṣṇu Narlikar's basic scientific writings include The Primeval Universe (Oxford, 1988) and Seven Wonders of the Cosmos (Cambridge, U.K., 1999). 68 The seven islands of Bhū-maṇḍala 1. Definition of Bhū-maṇḍala and its seven islands [dvīpas] 2. Defining Jambūdvīpa the center island of Bhū-maṇḍala 3. Division of Jambūdvīpa into Nine Varṣas or Regions 4. Definition of Bhārata-varṣa as one of the nine regions of Jambūdvīpa 5. The Nine Varṣas, different parts of Jambūdvīpa 6. The Math & Dimensions of Jambūdvīpa 7. New Puranic Maps of Jambūdvīpa 1. Defining Bhū-maṇḍala and its seven islands or dvīpas The definition of Bhū-maṇḍala and its center island Jambūdvīpa has been given in the ŚrīmadBhāgavatam as follows: The planetary system known as Bhū-maṇḍala resembles a lotus flower, and its seven islands resemble the whorl of that flower. The length and breadth of the island known as Jambūdvīpa, which is situated in the middle of the whorl, are one million yojanas [eight million miles]. Jambūdvīpa is round like the leaf of a lotus flower. (sb/5/16/5) 69 This earth planet [Bhū-maṇḍala] is divided into seven dvīpas by seven oceans, and the central dvīpa, called Jambūdvīpa, is divided into nine varṣas, or parts, by eight huge mountains. (SB 1.16.12, Purport) According to Purāṇic cosmography, the world (Bhū-maṇḍala) is divided into seven concentric island continents (sapta-dvipa) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the preceding one (going out from within). The seven intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice, wine, ghee, yogurt, milk and water respectively. 70 The seven islands (dvīpas) [of Bhū-maṇḍala] are known as (1) Jambu, (2) Śāka, (3) Śālmalī, (4) Kuśa, (5) Krauñca, (6) Gomeda, or Plakṣa, and (7) Puṣkara. The planets are called dvīpa. Outer space is like an ocean of air. Just as there are islands in the watery ocean, these planets in the ocean of space are called dvīpas, or islands in outer space. The continent of Jambūdvīpa forms the innermost concentric island in the above scheme. Its name is said to derive from a huge Jambū tree. It is to be understood that all the dvīpas, or islands, are surrounded by different types of oceans, and it is said herein that the breadth of each ocean is the same as that of the island it surrounds. The length of the oceans, however, cannot equal the length of the islands. According to Vīrarāghava Ācārya, the breadth of the first island is 100,000 yojanas. One yojana equals eight 71 miles, and therefore the breadth of the first island is calculated to be 800,000 miles. The water surrounding it must have the same breadth, but its length must be different. (sb/5/1/33) 72 MAP OF JAMBŪDVĪPA 2. Defining Jambūdvīpa the center island of Bhū-maṇḍala 73 In Jambūdvīpa there are nine khaṇḍas [varṣas or regions], known as (1) Bhārata, (2) Kinnara or Kimpuruṣa, (3) Hari, (4) Kuru, (5) Hiraṇmaya, (6) Ramyaka, (7) Ilāvṛta, (8) Bhadrāśva and (9) Ketumāla. These are different parts of the Jambūdvīpa. A valley between two mountains is called a khaṇḍa or varṣa. (cc/madhya/20/218) Jambūdvīpa (Sanskrit: जम्बूद्वीप) is the dvīpa (island, region or continent) of the terrestrial world, as envisioned in vedic cosmology, which is the realm where ordinary human beings live. The other worlds (varṣas, islands, dvipas) are inaccessible for human beings. 3. Division of Jambūdvīpa into Nine Varṣas or Regions In Jambūdvīpa there are nine divisions of land, each with a length of 9,000 yojanas [72,000 miles]. There are eight mountains that mark the boundaries of these divisions and separate them nicely. (sb/5/16/6) 74 MAP OF JAMBŪDVĪPA 4. Definition of Bhārata-varṣa as one of the nine regions of Jambūdvīpa Bhārata-varṣa: This part of the world is also one of the nine varṣas of the Jambūdvīpa. A description of Bhārata-varṣa is given in the Mahābhārata (Bhīṣma-parva, Chapters 9 and 10). In the center of Jambūdvīpa is Ilāvṛta-varṣa, and south of Ilāvṛta-varṣa is Hari-varṣa. The description of these varṣas is given in the Mahābhārata (Sabhā-parva 28.7-8) as follows: It is mentioned here that the women in both these varṣas are beautiful, and some of them are equal to the Apsarās, or heavenly women. (sb/1/16/12) The tract of land known as Bhārata-varṣa is the field of activities, and the other eight varṣas are for persons who are meant to enjoy heavenly comfort. In each of these eight beautiful provinces, the celestial denizens enjoy various standards of material comfort and pleasure. A different incarnation of the Supreme Personality of Godhead distributes His mercy in each of the nine varṣas of Jambūdvīpa. (sb/5/17/17_summary) Description of Jambūdvīpa from Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam In Jambūdvīpa there are nine divisions of land, each with a length of 9,000 yojanas [72,000 miles]. There are eight mountains that mark the boundaries of these divisions and separate them nicely. (sb/5/16/6-29) 75 76 77 5. THE NINE VARṢAS, DIFFERENT PARTS OF JAMBŪDVĪPA (1) Bhārata-varṣa (2) Kinnara-varṣa (3) Hari-varṣa (4) Kuru-varṣa (5) Hiraṇmaya-varṣa (6) Ramyaka-varṣa (7) Ilāvṛta-varṣa (8) Bhadrāśva-varṣa (9) Ketumāla-varṣa EIGHT [Kimpuruṣa] • Himālaya DIVIDING • • • • • • • MOUNTAINS Śṛṅgavān Śveta Nīla Mālyavān Gandhamādana Niṣadha Hemakūṭa This earth planet is divided into seven parts, and according to others it is divided into nine parts. This earth is called Jambūdvīpa and is divided into nine varṣas. Bhārata-varṣa is one of the above mentioned nine varṣas. Such varṣas are known as continents in the modern geographical context. (sb/1/16/12) A description of Bhārata-varṣa is given in the Mahābhārata (Bhīṣma Parva, Chapters 9-10). When MahārājaYudhiṣṭhira performed a horse sacrifice, the inhabitants of these countries were also present to take part in the festival, and they paid tributes to the Emperor. This part of the world is called Kimpuruṣa-varṣa, or sometimes the Himalayan provinces (Himavatī). It is said that Śukadeva Gosvāmī was born in these Himalayan provinces, and he came to Bhāratavarṣa after crossing the Himalayan countries. In other words, Mahārāja Parīkṣit conquered all the world, namely all the continents adjoining all the seas and oceans in all directions, namely the eastern, western, northern and southern parts of the world. (sb/1/16/12) Mahārāja Parīkṣit then conquered all parts of the earthly planet—Bhadrāśva, Ketumāla, Bhārata, the northern Kuru, Kimpuruṣa, etc.—and exacted tributes from their respective rulers. (sb/1/16/12) ILĀVṚTA-VARṢA - THE CENTER ISLAND OF JAMBŪDVĪPA 78 79 DESCRIPTION OF ILAVRITA-VARSA AND THE REGION SURROUNDING MOUNT MERU: O Mahārāja Parīkṣit, best of the Bharata dynasty, between these four mountains are four huge lakes. The water of the first tastes just like milk; the water of the second, like honey; and that of the third, like sugarcane juice. The fourth lake is filled with pure water. The celestial beings such as the Siddhas, Cāraṇas and Gandharvas, who are also known as demigods, enjoy the facilities of those four lakes. Consequently they have the natural perfections of mystic yoga, such as the power to become smaller than the smallest or greater than the greatest. There are also four celestial gardens named Nandana, Caitraratha, Vaibhrājaka and Sarvatobhadra. (sb/5/16/13-14) Śukadeva Gosvāmī said: In the tract of land known as Ilāvṛta-varṣa, the only male person is Lord Śiva, the most powerful demigod. Goddess Durgā, the wife of Lord Śiva, does not like any man to enter that land. If any foolish man dares to do so, she immediately turns him into a woman. I shall explain this later [in the Ninth Canto of Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam]. (sb/5/17/15) In Ilāvṛta-varṣa, Lord Śiva is always encircled by ten billion maidservants of goddess Durgā, who minister to him. The quadruple expansion of the Supreme Lord is composed of Vāsudeva, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Saṅkarṣaṇa. Saṅkarṣaṇa, the fourth expansion, is certainly transcendental, but because his activities of destruction in the material world are in the mode of ignorance, He is known as tāmasī, the Lord’s form in the mode of ignorance. Lord Śiva 80 knows that Saṅkarṣaṇa is the original cause of his own existence, and thus he always meditates upon Him in trance by chanting the following mantra. (5/17/16) śrī-bhagavān oṁ namo bhagavate sarva-guṇa-saṅkhyānāyānantāyāvyaktāya nama iti. uvāca mahā-puruṣāya The most powerful Lord Śiva says: O Supreme Personality of Godhead, I offer my respectful obeisances unto You in Your expansion as Lord Saṅkarṣaṇa. You are the reservoir of all transcendental qualities. Although You are unlimited, You remain unmanifest to the nondevotees. (sb/5/17/17) LEFT IMAGE: Wooden model of Meru made in Orissa, India, 19th century. The view is straight down on Mt. Meru, which is circled by mountain ranges (three ranges on two of the continents, one on the other two continents); four rivers flow from Mt. Meru to the four points of the compass down the middle of island-continents and flow towards the ocean THE EIGHT GREAT MOUNTAINS DIVIDING JAMBŪDVĪPA Jambūdvīpa continent has 8 great mountains. Six horizontal and two vertical mountain chains divide Jambūdvīpa into nine regions, or varṣas. The southernmost region is called Bhāratavarṣa. The names of these 8 great mountains are: 1. Śṛṅgavān, 2. Śveta, 3. Nīla, 5. Gandhamādana, 6. Niṣadha, 7. Hemakūṭa, 8. Himālaya 81 4. Mālyavān, SUMERU AND ITS ADJOINING MOUNTAINS Just north of Ilāvṛta-varṣa—and going further northward, one after another—are three mountains named Nīla, Śveta and Śṛṅgavān. These mark the borders of the three varṣas named Ramyaka, Hiraṇmaya and Kuru and separate them from one another. The width of these mountains is 2,000 yojanas [16,000 miles]. Lengthwise, they extend east and west to the beaches of the ocean of salt water. Going from south to north, the length of each mountain is one tenth that of the previous mountain, but the height of them all is the same. In the same way, west and east of Ilāvṛta-varṣa are two great mountains named Mālyavān and Gandhamādana respectively. These two mountains, which are 2,000 yojanas [16,000 miles] high, extend as far as Nīla Mountain in the north and Niṣadha in the south. They indicate the borders of Ilāvṛta-varṣa and also the varṣas known as Ketumāla and Bhadrāśva. On the four sides of the great mountain known as Sumeru are four mountains— Mandara, Merumandara, Supārśva and Kumuda—which are like its belts. The length and height of these mountains are calculated to be 10,000 yojanas [80,000 miles]. (sb/5/16/11) There are other mountains beautifully arranged around the foot of Mount Meru like the filaments around the whorl of a lotus flower. Surrounding Sumeru Mountain like filaments of the whorl of a lotus are twenty mountain ranges such as Kuraṅga, Kurara, Kusumbha, Vaikaṅka and Trikūṭa. To the east of Sumeru are the mountains Jaṭharaand Devakūṭa, to the west are Pavana and Pāriyātra, to the south are Kailāsa and Karavīra, and to the north are Triśṛṅga and 82 Makara. These eight mountains are about 18,000 yojanas long, 2,000 yojanas wide and 2,000 yojanas high. 83 BUDDHIST – CHINESE – MOUNT SUMERU SUMERU OR MOUNT MERU Amidst these divisions, or varṣas, is the varṣa named Ilāvṛta, which is situated in the middle of the whorl of the lotus. Within Ilāvṛta-varṣa is Sumeru Mountain, which is made of gold. Sumeru Mountain is like the pericarp of the lotuslike Bhū-maṇḍala planetary system. 84 Sumeru Mountain is like the pericarp of the lotuslike Bhū-maṇḍala planetary system. 85 The mountain’s height is the same as the width of Jambūdvīpa—or, in other words, 100,000 yojanas [800,000 miles]. Of that, 16,000 yojanas [128,000 miles] are within the earth, and therefore the mountain’s height above the earth is 84,000 yojanas [672,000 miles]. The mountain’s width is 32,000 yojanas [256,000 miles] at its summit and 16,000 yojanas at its base. (sb/5/16/7) MOUNT SUMERU – CENTER OF JAMBŪDVĪPA 86 87 TOP IMAGE: Buddhist Meru Mandala with Sumeru mountain in the center 88 In the middle of the summit of Meru is the township of Lord Brahmā. Each of its four sides is calculated to extend for ten million yojanas [eighty million miles]. It is made entirely of gold, and therefore learned scholars and sages call it Śātakaumbhī. (SB 5.16.29) MANOVATĪ - THE TOWNSHIP OF LORD BRAHMĀ [Śātakaumbhī] Surrounding Brahmā-purī in all directions are the residences of the eight principal governors of the planetary systems, beginning with King Indra. These abodes are similar to Brahmapurī but are one fourth the size. Śrīla Viśvanātha Cakravartī Ṭhākura confirms that the townships of Lord Brahmā and the eight subordinate governors of the planetary systems, beginning with Indra, are mentioned in other Purāṇas. Brahmā’s township is known as Manovatī, and those of his assistants such as Indra and Agni are known as Amarāvatī, Tejovatī, Saṁyamanī, Kṛṣṇāṅganā, Śraddhāvatī, Gandhavatī, Mahodayā and Yaśovatī. Brahmapurī is situated in the middle, and the other eight purīs surround it in all directions. (sb/5/16/29) There are ten directions, namely east, west, south, north, the four corners northeast, southeast, northwest and southwest and up and down. These are the ten directions. Besides the eight guardians of directions, the following two are added: Brahma (Zenith, meaning "vertically the farthest up") and Vishnu (Nadir, meaning "the downward direction") 89 Aṣṭa-Dikpāla or Guardians of Eight Directions Lokapālas 1. Kuvera (North) Mahodayā 2. Yama (South) Saṁyamanī 3. Indra (East) Amarāvatī 4. Varuṇa (West) Śraddhāvatī 5. Īśāna [Śiva] (Northeast) - Yaśovatī 6. Agni (Southeast) Tejovatī 7. Vayu (Northwest) Gandhavatī 8. Nirṛti (Southwest) - Kṛṣṇāṅganā In the centre is Manovatī, capital city of Brahmā. To the east of it is Amarāvatī, capital city of Indra. In the south-east corner is Tejovatī. In the south is Saṁyamanī, city of Yama. In the southwest is Kṛṣṇāṅganā of Nirṛti. In the west is Śraddhāvatī of Varuṇa. In the north west is Gandhavatī of Vāyu. In the north is Mahodayā of Kubera. In the north east corner is Yaśovatī of Īśāna 90 The living entities residing on Sumeru Mountain are always very warm, as at midday, because for them the sun is always overhead. Although the sun moves counterclockwise, facing the constellations, with Sumeru Mountain on its left, it also moves clockwise and appears to have the mountain on its right because it is influenced by the dakṣiṇāvarta wind. People living in countries at points diametrically opposite to where the sun is first seen rising will see the sun setting, and if 91 a straight line were drawn from a point where the sun is at midday, the people in countries at the opposite end of the line would be experiencing midnight. Similarly, if people residing where the sun is setting were to go to countries diametrically opposite, they would not see the sun in the same condition. (sb/5/21/8-9) DESCENT AND FLOW OF THE RIVER GANGES 92 On top of Mount Meru, the Ganges divides into four branches, each of which gushes in a different direction [east, west, north and south]. These branches, known by the names Sītā, Alakanandā, Cakṣu and Bhadrā, flow down to the ocean. (sb/5/17/5-11) The branch of the Ganges known as the Sītā flows through Brahmapurī atop Mount Meru, and from there it runs down to the nearby peaks of the Kesarācala Mountains, which stand almost as high as Mount Meru itself. These mountains are like a bunch of filaments around Mount Meru. From the Kesarācala Mountains, the Ganges falls to the peak of Gandhamādana Mountain and then flows into the land of Bhadrāśva-varṣa. Finally it reaches the ocean of salt water in the west. The branch of the Ganges known as Cakṣu falls onto the summit of Mālyavān Mountain and from there cascades onto the land of Ketumāla-varṣa. The Ganges flows incessantly through Ketumāla-varṣa and in this way also reaches the ocean of salt water in the West. The branch of the Ganges known as Bhadrā flows from the northern side of Mount Meru. Its waters fall onto the peaks of Kumuda Mountain, Mount Nīla, Śveta Mountain and Śṛṅgavān Mountain in succession. Then it runs down into the province of Kuru and, after crossing through that land, flows into the saltwater ocean in the north. Similarly, the branch of the Ganges known as Alakanandā flows from the southern side of Brahmapurī [Brahma-sadana]. Passing over the tops of mountains in various lands, it falls down with fierce force upon the peaks of the mountains Hemakūṭa and Himakūṭa. After inundating the tops of those mountains, the Ganges falls down onto the tract of land known as Bhārata-varṣa, which she also inundates. Then the Ganges flows into the ocean of salt water in the south. Persons who come to bathe in this river are fortunate. It is not very difficult for them to achieve 93 with every step the results of performing great sacrifices like the Rājasūya and Aśvamedha yajñas. Many other rivers, both big and small, flow from the top of Mount Meru. These rivers are like daughters of the mountain, and they flow to the various tracts of land in hundreds of branches. The Ganges River, emanating from the lotus feet of the Lord, inundates the heavenly planets, especially the moon, and then flows through Brahmapurī atop Mount Meru. Here the river divides into four branches (known as Sītā, Alakanandā, Cakṣu and Bhadrā), which then flow down to the ocean of salt water. The branch known as Sītā flows through Śekhara-parvata and Gandhamādana-parvata and then flows down to Bhadrāśva-varṣa, where it mixes with the ocean of salt water in the West. The Cakṣu branch flows through Mālyavān-giri and, after reaching Ketumāla-varṣa, mixes with the ocean of salt water in the West. The branch known as Bhadrā flows onto Mount Meru, Mount Kumuda, and the Nīla, Śveta and Śṛṅgavān mountains before it reaches Kuru-deśa, where it flows into the ocean of salt water in the north. The Alakanandā branch flows through Brahmālaya, crosses over many mountains, including Hemakūṭa and Himakūṭa, and then reaches Bhārata-varṣa, where it flows into the southern side of the ocean of salt water. Many other rivers and their branches flow through the nine varṣas. The Seventeenth Chapter describes the origin of the Ganges River and how it flows in and around Ilāvṛta-varṣa. There is also a description of the prayers Lord Śiva offers to Lord Saṅkarṣaṇa, part of the quadruple expansions of the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Lord Viṣṇu once approached BaliMahārāja while the King was performing a sacrifice. The Lord appeared before him as Trivikrama, or Vāmana, and begged alms from the King in the form of three steps of land. With two steps, Lord Vāmana covered all three planetary systems and pierced the covering of the universe with the toes of His left foot. A few drops of water from the 94 Causal Ocean leaked through this hole and fell on the head of Lord Śiva, where they remained for one thousand millenniums. These drops of water are the sacred Ganges River. It first flows onto the heavenly planets, which are located on the soles of Lord Viṣṇu’s feet. The Ganges River is known by many names, such as the Bhāgīrathī and the Jāhnavī. It purifies Dhruvaloka and the planets of the seven sages because both Dhruva and the sages have no other desire than to serve the Lord’s lotus feet. (sb/5/17/17_summary) GANGA DEVI 95 CHAPTER Multiverse 96 The idea of a physical multiverse or multiple universes came later to physics than it did to religion and philosophy. The Hindu religion has ancient concepts that are similar- it is the first and only religion with this idea. The term itself was, apparently, first applied by a psychologist, rather than a physicist. Concepts of a multiverse are evident in the cyclical infinite worlds of ancient Hindu cosmology since ancient times. In this viewpoint, our world is one of an infinite 97 number of distinct worlds, each governed by its own gods on their own cycles of creation and destruction. Hinduism is the first religion to have formed a Cyclic Theroy of Time, that is time runs in cycles-The Four Yugas, Aeons, Krutha, Tretha,Dwapara and Kali repeat themselves without end. Vedas say that before the creation of the universe Lord Vishnu is sleeping in the ocean of all causes. His bed is a giant serpent with thousands of cobra like hoods. While Vishnu is asleep, a lotus sprouts of his navel (note that navel is symbolised as the root of creation). Inside this lotus, Brahma resides. Brahma represents the universe which we all live in, and it is this Brahma who creates life forms. Vishnu is the personification of the eternal multiverse that exists forever without any beginning or end. Brahma is the personification of our temporary physical universe that was created in the big bang. Brahma is said to have been created from the navel (which is a single point) of Vishnu, described as a lotus blooming out of the navel, much like our big bang universe. “One of the most enduring images in the Vedic scriptures is that of Lord Brahma sitting on a lotus the stem of which goes down to the navel of Garbhodakaśāyī Viṣṇu, who is also praised as Hiranyagarbha. The fourteen planetary systems in Vedic cosmology are described to reside inside the “stem” of this lotus, which is kind of perplexing because the universe is three dimensional—and described as a sphere—but the lotus stem is one dimensional. How can we squeeze three dimensions into one dimension? This post discusses this question, and shows how the three dimensions are reduced to one dimension by “twisting” the single dimension using a process like the “curved” flow of kundalini. The post discusses parallels between the body and the universe, the process of primary and secondary creations, and how these are connected to Sāńkhya as well as the forms of Lord Viṣṇu who are “controllers” in the material universe.”1 The story of Yashoda and the multiverse vision: The Bhagawatam, in which it is told that Yashoda saw the whole universe in lord Krishna’s mouth, is essentially a text written to extol the qualities of Lord Krishna; or is it? Does it show that there was another universe- many more that she saw apart from the one in which she lived. Let us rear the story first: One day, while playing in the fields, little Krishna secretly ate mud. His friends went and told Yashoda about this. When Krishna returned home, Yashoda caught Krishna by his ears and scolded him for putting dirt in his mouth. Krishna promptly replied that he had a fight with his friends in the morning and to take revenge they were all lying and that Yashoda shouldn't believe them. He said that she was being unfair as she believed them instead of believing her son. Yashoda knew her son too well. She ordered, "If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself." Krishna obediently opened his mouth. But when Yashoda peered into his mouth, she was wonderstruck. She saw the entire universe: the mountains the oceans, the planets, air, fire, moon and the stars in his small mouth. Yashoda was stunned and began to wonder whether she were dreaming or actually seeing something extraordinary. She fell on the ground, unconscious. 98 Universes could be visualized like individual flowers on a garland 99 One school of Buddhism is the Huayan, also known as the Flower Garland school. The idea is that the flower garland, which represents all of reality, is made up of universes which all reflect one another. Others have likened the multiverse to Indra’s net, a string of pearls in multiple dimensions. This infinitely large net has a jewel at each vertex, which each reflects on another. The Rigveda presents many theories of cosmology. For example:  Hiranyagarbha sukta, its hymn 10.121, states a golden child was born in the universe and was the lord, established earth and heaven, then asks but who is the god to whom we shall offer the sacrificial prayers?  Devi sukta, its hymn 10.125, states a goddess is all, the creator, the created universe, the feeder and the lover of the universe  Nasadiya sukta, its hymn 10.129, asks who created the universe, does anyone really know, and whether it can ever be known. According to Henry White Wallis in The Cosmology of the Rigveda: An Essay published in 1887 says that the Rigveda and other Vedic texts are full of alternative cosmological theories and curiosity questions. For example, the hymn 1.24 of the Rigveda asks, "these stars, which are set on high, and appear at night, whither do they go in the daytime?" and hymn 10.88 wonders, "how many fires are there, how many suns, how many dawns, how many waters? I am not posing an awkward question for you fathers; I ask you, poets, only to find out?" To its numerous open-ended questions, the Vedic texts present a diversity of thought, in verses imbued with 100 symbols and allegory, where in some cases forces and agencies are clothed with a distinct personality, while in other cases as nature with or without anthropomorphic activity such as forms of mythical sacrifices. The Rigveda contains the Nasadiya sukta hymn which does not offer a cosmological theory, but asks cosmological questions about the nature of universe and how it began: Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden; Without distinctive marks, this all was water; That which, becoming, by the void was covered; That One by force of heat came into being; Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute; Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not; Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows, Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know. — Rigveda 10:129-6 The concept of multiverses is mentioned many times in Hindu Puranic literature, such as in the Bhagavata Purana: Every universe is covered by seven layers – earth, water, fire, air, sky, the total energy and false ego – each ten times greater than the previous one. There are innumerable universes besides this one, and although they are unlimitedly large, they move about like atoms in You. Therefore You are called limitless (Bhagavata Purana 6.16.37) According to the Hindu text Śrīmad Bhāgavatam, “there are innumerable universes besides this one.” This concept of multiple universes is well known to Hindus familiar with the scriptures. But modern physicists have also been pondering whether our universe is all that we have or if there are many universes out there. Throughout much of modern history, our scientific understanding of the universe has been limited by what we could see. As our telescopes have grown more powerful, the size of the universe has increased as well. However, we can only “see” so far, leaving many scientists to wonder what the universe is like beyond the far limits of our technology. Some scientists even postulate that there may be not just one universe, but many—what’s known as a multiverse. Max Tegmark, a physicist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has proposed 4 types of Universes.1 Level One Multiverse: The Extension of Our Universe or Quilted Universe. The universe that we actually can see is limited by the strength of our modern telescopes. Few physicists believe the universe ends right at this point, although it’s impossible to know what exists beyond the range of our telescopes. 101 The first type of multiverse suggests that our universe simply keeps on going, all the way to infinity. If this were true, then an infinite number of possibilities exist out there, such as an infinite number of Earths or Milky Way galaxies. And just as we are limited by our telescopes, other universes would also be isolated by their own. In the Quilted Multiverse, the universe's infinite extension in space leads to worlds necessarily repeating themselves (like the endless library in the Borges story, which contains not only every conceivable book but a multitude of "imperfect facsimiles: works which differ only in a letter or a comma"). Level Two Multiverse: Pocket Universes The second type of multiverse is similar to the first, but it suggests that as the universe expanded, pocket universes were cut off from each other. Unlike the first type of multiverse, where the laws of physics are the same everywhere, in this type they may vary radically among the different pocket universes. This can be tied to string theory, which has many possible solutions. Each one of these may correspond to a separate universe. This leads to the thought that humans only exist because our universe happens to be ideally suited for life. For example, if another pocket universe did not have gravity, then life might never have started, leaving that universe sterile. Level Three Multiverse: Many Worlds Like the first type of multiverse, the third supposes that the laws of physics are consistent across all universes. In this case, though, new daughter universes appear at each moment in time, leading to all possible futures existing somewhere. Take the case of the Schrödinger’s cat paradox, which supposes that until the box is opened, the cat exists in two states—dead and alive. According to the many worlds multiverse, separate universes exist for each of those states (or wave functions). Of course, an observer in each of those universes would be aware of only one of those outcomes. Level Four Multiverse: The Mathematical Multiverse The last type of multiverse moves beyond comprehensible physics and into the realm of metaphysics. Tegmark proposes that each coherent system of mathematics may belong to some kind of physical reality—or separate universe. So a system that does not make sense in our universe might be perfect valid elsewhere. None of these multiverses has been verified experimentally, but this classification system gives physicists a good scaffolding on which to hang their future multiversal endeavors. Analogies to describe multiple universes also exist in the Puranic literature: 1. Because You are limitless, neither the lords of heaven nor even You(Vishnu ie dont speak for all of us) Yourself can ever reach the end of Your glories. The countless universes, each enveloped in its shell, are compelled by the wheel of time to wander within You, like particles of dust blowing about in the sky. The śrutis, following their method of eliminating everything separate from the Supreme, become successful by revealing You as their final conclusion (Bhagavata Purana 10.87.41) 2. The layers or elements covering the universes are each ten times thicker than the one before, and all the universes clustered together appear like atoms in a huge combination (Bhagavata Purana 3.11.41) 102 3. And who will search through the wide infinities of space to count the universes side by side, each containing its Brahma, its Vishnu, its Shiva? Who can count the Indras in them all—those Indras side by side, who reign at once in all the innumerable worlds; those others who passed away before them; or even the Indras who succeed each other in any given line, ascending to godly kingship, one by one, and, one by one, passing away (Brahma Vaivarta Purana) In the Mahabharatha: Krishna responds to the warrior Arjuna's request by telling him that no man can bear his naked splendour, then goes right ahead and gives him the necessary upgrade: "divine sight". What follows is one of the wildest, most truly psychedelic episodes in world literature.No longer veiled by a human semblance, Krishna appears in his universal aspect: a boundless, roaring, all-containing cosmos with a billion eyes and mouths, bristling with "heavenly weapons" and ablaze with the light of a thousand suns. The sight is fearsome not only in its manifold strangeness but because its fire is a consuming one. "The flames of thy mouths," a horrified Arjuna cries, "devour all the worlds … how terrible thy splendours burn!" Arjuna Says: O lotus-eyed one, I have heard from You in detail about the appearance and disappearance of every living entity, as realized through Your inexhaustible glories. O greatest of all personalities, O supreme form, though I see here before me Your actual position, I yet wish to see how You have entered into this cosmic manifestation. I want to see that form of Yours. If You think that I am able to behold Your cosmic form, O my Lord, O master of all mystic power, then kindly show me that universal self. The Blessed Lord said: My dear Arjuna ... behold now My opulences, hundreds of thousands of varied divine forms, multicolored like the sea. 103 O best of the Bharatas, see here the different manifestations of Adityas, Rudras, and all the demigods. Behold the many things which no one has ever seen or heard before.Whatever you wish to see can be seen all at once in this body. This universal form can show you all that you now desire, as well as whatever you may desire in the future. Everything is here completely. But you cannot see Me with your present eyes. Therefore I give to you divine eyes by which you can behold My mystic opulence. Mahabharat 11 Welcome to the multiverse: Five hundred years ago, the western mind considered itself the lordly possessor of a solid, unmoving world. It was as recent as the 1920s that Edwin Hubble found galaxies beyond our own, then realised they were racing away from us -some faster than the speed of light, a supposedly impossible feat that is allowed here since it's not the galaxies that are moving but space that's expanding. And now, as the latest in an increasingly vertiginous series of perspectives, comes the chance that the universe is but one among many: a leaf in a cosmic wood. What is more – as Brian Greene notes in this progress-report on what some are calling the golden age of cosmology – such ideas are not the fevered speculation of autistic savants but "emerge unbidden" from the calculations of physicists. In the Inflationary Multiverse, universes randomly pop into being like holes in a hyperspatial emmental, then fly apart as the cheese itself – the technical term is "inflaton field" – grows at an exponential rate. It is the stuff of delirium. The Brane Multiverse posits other, unseen universes hovering a whisker from our own. In the chapter on the Simulated Multiverse, Greene sees our universe is a virtual one programmed by an alien civilisation. (As he wryly puts it: "evidence for artificial sentience and simulated worlds is grounds for rethinking the nature of your own reality".) The mother of them all is what Greene calls the Ultimate Multiverse, which states that any world that can be mathematically modelled – or even imagined – must perforce exist. We are back to Arjuna, agog in front of a reality that encompasses "the visions from thy innumerable eyes, the words from thy innumerable mouths". It is a joyfully bewildering concept that flags up the impossibility of the endeavour; surely trying to define All That Exists is like trying to box the wind or weigh a dream. What seems certain, as Greene writes, is that "what we've thought to be the universe is only one component of a far grander, perhaps far stranger, and mostly hidden, reality." And what a delicious irony it is that science, that model of sober investigation, is inexorably returning us to vistas so peculiarly like the deranged imaginings of our "superstitious" past. According to Carl Sagan: "The Hindu religion is the only one of the world's great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which time scales correspond to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long, longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang." 104 The Multiverse, and Universes within Universes The idea of the bubble universes forming out of the foam of the multiverse can also be envisioned as universes within universes. This image is common in Eastern thought. For example, the concept is visualized in Buddhist architecture. The Chaoyang North Pagoda, also constructed by the Huayan school, has thirteen stories. On the base of the pagoda are two small reliefs of itself. These two reliefs have imagined smaller reliefs of itself, and so on and so on, seemingly forever. This reflects the Buddhist cosmology of the multiverse containing universes within universes. This universe within universe idea also crops up in Hinduism. The Bhagavata Purana contains a story of Lord Krishna’s youth. About being accused of eating dirt! Since childhood, I've obsessed about existence. What is existence? What's the extent of existence? What's the purpose of existence? Now, six decades on, having explored many things, I'm no surer (and feeling no smarter), but I continue my pursuit. What's the largest, surest fact about existence that I can know with confidence? For me, it's the vastness of the cosmos. The universe is huge, but it is only with recent discoveries that we can realize how inconceivably immense the universe, or multiple universes, may actually be. It's now one of humanity's ultimate questions — and until relatively recently, we didn't know enough to even ask it. How many universes exist? Robert Lawrence Kuhn is the creator, writer and host of "Closer to Truth," a public television series and online resource that features the world's leading thinkers exploring humanity's deepest questions. 105 CHAPTER IV Plato’s Cosmology: The Timaeus The Forms vs. the Cosmos The world of Forms 1. The world of being; everything in this world “always is,” “has no becoming,” and “does not change”(28a). 2. It is apprehended by the understanding, not by the senses. The physical world (= the Cosmos) 1. The world of becoming; everything in this world “comes to be and passes away, but never really is” (28a). 2. It is grasped by opinion and sense-perception. 3. The cosmos itself came into being, created using as its model the world of Forms. The Demiurge (Creator) Literally, “craftsman.” The creator of Plato’s physical world is not a divine intelligence or a personal ruler, but (as it were) a manual laborer. Cf. Vlastos, Plato’s Universe (pp. 26-27): That the supreme god of Plato’s cosmos should wear the mask of a manual worker is a triumph of the philosophical imagination over ingrained social prejudice. ... But this divine mechanic is not a drudge. He is an artist or, more precisely, what an artist would have to be in Plato’s conception of art: not the inventor of new form, but the imposer of pre-existing form on as yet formless material. The Elements       The physical world must have bodily form; it must be visible and tangible (31b). Hence, its ingredients must include fire and earth. Since fire and earth will have to be combined, there must be at least one other ingredient that serves to combine them. But since fire and earth are solids, we require two intermediates to combine them. Hence, the demiurge created air and water, and arranged all four elements proportionally: as fire is to air, air is to water; as air is to water, water is to earth. As we will see below, we have not reached the bottom with these four elements: there are (geometrical) atoms of which these elements are composed. Features of the Cosmos A living being Because it is based on the Form of living being (= Animal) 106 Unique Because it is based on a unique model (the Form of living being), and the Demiurge makes it as much like its model as he can (subject, of course, to the limitations imposed by the fact that it’s made of matter). It has a soul Because it is a living being Spherical Because that is the most perfect and most beautiful shape Temporal That is, there is time in the cosmos - it is characterized by temporal predicates. This is because it is modeled on a Form, an eternal being. The cosmos cannot be eternal, as a Form is, since it comes into being. But it is as much like a Form, as close to being eternal, as it can be (37d). When the Demiurge created the universe, he also created time. But what is Plato’s definition of time? Plato's text at 37d reads: [the Demiurge] began to think of making a moving image of eternity: at the same time as he brought order to the universe, he would make an eternal image, moving according to number, of eternity remaining in unity. This, of course, is what we call “time.” But what is ‘this’? It is sometimes thought that it refers to ‘number’, which would make the definition be that time is the number according to which the image of eternity moves. This would bring Plato's definition close to Aristotle’s (“time is the number of motion (change) in respect of before and after” [Physics 219b2]). On this reading, it is the cosmos that is the “moving image of eternity,” and time is the number that measures the change in the cosmos. But ‘this’ has been traditionally taken to refer to ‘image’, and on this reading, Plato’s definition is that time is a moving image of eternity. Even if Plato’s text is grammatically ambiguous, the most plausible way to understand the definition is the traditional one. Other passages in the Timaeus make it clear that Plato thought of time as a kind of celestial clockwork - that is, a certain kind of motion, rather than a measure of motion. Consider 38d and 39d: [The Demiurge] brought into being the Sun, the Moon, and five other stars, for the begetting of time. These are called “wanderers” [planêta], and they stand guard over the numbers of time. … And so people are all but ignorant of the fact that time really is the wanderings of these bodies. 107 Plato clearly says that time is the wanderings of these bodies - their movement - and not a kind of number that measures such movement. Abstracting time from motion was an innovation of Aristotle’s. For Plato, time just is celestial motion. Note that time applies, strictly speaking, only to the realm of becoming. About the Forms, which are everlasting, we say “is, and was, and will be,” but, strictly speaking, only “is” is appropriate (38a). That is, the ‘is’ we use about the Forms is a tenseless ‘is’; the Forms themselves are, strictly speaking, outside of time. The Heavenly Bodies Plato’s account includes the origin of the stars and planets - “to set limits to and stand guard over the numbers of time” (38c) - which we will skip over here. Human Beings: Souls, Bodies, and their Parts Four kinds of living creature (39e-40b) 1. 2. 3. 4. Heavenly gods Winged things Water creatures Land creatures Human soul (40d-44d) 1. Creation and destruction of the gods (40d-41a) 2. Demiurge instructs gods to make mortals (41a-d) 3. Human souls manufactured o Made of leftovers from manufacture of world-soul, but of a lower grade of purity (41d). o Each soul assigned to a star (41e). o Death: a just soul returns to its companion star, an unjust soul is reincarnated for a second try (42b-c). Human body (44d-47e) 1. Head and limbs (44d-45b) 2. Eyes and vision (45b-46a) 3. Purposes of seeing and hearing (46c-47e) The Structure of Matter At this point Plato ends his discussion of the “works of intellect (nous)” and begins discussing the “works of necessity”. The difference seems to be that the former, but not the latter, directs its creation with an eye toward what is best. 108 Here Plato turns to the old Presocratic question: what is the world made of? His answer both combines and transcends theirs. It mentions the traditional Earth, Air, Fire, and Water (of Empedocles), but goes beyond them, analyzing them in terms of mathematical objects (shades of the Pythagoreans) and empty space (the invention of the atomists). The four elements The intrinsic nature of fire, water, air, and earth (48b), and how they came into being. The receptacle A new concept is introduced, in addition to the model (= the Forms) and the imitation of the model (= the world of becoming): “the receptacle of all becoming” (49a). The receptacle is that in which all becoming takes place. The fires that you see coming into being and being extinguished are just appearances, in the receptacle, of the Fire Itself (the Form). At 52b ff, Plato describes the receptacle as “space.” The coming to be of the elements The four elements are “the most excellent four bodies that can come into being” (53e). But how do they come into being? What are they made of? Plato’s answer is that they are all made of triangles, and constructed in such a way as to explain how the transmutation of elements is possible. Overview 109 Each kind of matter (earth, air, fire, water) is made up of particles (“primary bodies”). Each particle is a regular geometrical solid. There are four kinds of particles, one for each of the four kinds of matter. Each particle is composed of elementary right triangles. The particles are like the molecules of the theory; the triangles are its atoms. The argument that all bodies are ultimately composed of elementary right triangles is given at 53c-d: all bodies are 3-dimensional (“have depth”) and hence are bounded by surfaces. Every surface bounded by straight lines is divisible into triangles. Every triangle is divisible into right triangles. Every right triangle is either isosceles (with two 45° angles) or scalene. So all bodies can be constructed out of isosceles and scalene right triangles. The details 1. The two atomic triangles Plato notes (54a1) that there is only one kind of isosceles right triangle--namely, the 45°/45°/90° triangle--whereas there are “infinitely many” kinds of scalene. But of these, he tells us, “we posit one as the most excellent” (54a7), one “whose longer side squared is always triple its shorter side” (54b5-6). Plato describes the same scalene triangle, equivalently, as “one whose hypotenuse is twice the length of its shorter side” (54d6-7). (The angles of this triangle are thus 30°/60°/90°.) I’ll call the 30°/60°/90° triangles “a triangles” and the 45°/45°/90° triangles “b triangles.” a triangle (scalene, 30°/60°/90°) b triangle (isosceles, 45°/45°/90°) 2. Construction of “faces” of particles out of the atomic triangles o Each face is either an equilateral triangle (t) or a square (s). o Equilateral triangles (t’s) are made of a triangles. o Squares (s’s) are made out of b triangles. 110 Plato’s description at 54e and 55b tells us that each t is made of 6 a’s, and each s is made of 4 b’s. (See diagrams, RAGP 640.) But 57c-d makes clear that he envisages other ways of constructing these faces out of primitive a’s and b’s. 3. Construction of solid particles out of the faces o The construction of the particles is described at 54d-55c. The particles are identified with the four elements at 55d-56b. Click on the names of the elements to see a diagram of a particle of that element: a. Fire: a particle of fire is a tetrahedron (4-sided solid), made of 4 t’s consisting of 24 a’s altogether. b. Air: a particle of air is an octahedron (8-sided solid), made of 8 t’s consisting of 48 a’s altogether. c. Water: a particle of water is an icosahedron (20-sided solid), made of 20 t’s consisting of 120 a’s altogether. d. Earth: a particle of earth is a cube (6-sided solid), made of 6 s’s consisting of 24 b’s altogether. Transformation of elements (described at 56c-57c) Inter-elemental transformations are among fire, air, and water only. Earth cannot be transformed into any of the others (54c, 56d). Transformations can be described at the level of equilateral triangles (that are the faces of the three solids). Since a fire molecule has 4 faces (one F is made up of 4 t), an air molecule 8 (one A is made up of 8 t), and a water molecule 20 (one W is made up of 20 t), any of the following transformations (for example) are possible. (Each transformation is represented by an equation on the left; its geometrical basis is shown by the equation on the right.): 1A=2F 8t=2×4t 1W =5F 20 t = 5 × 4 t 2W =5A 2 × 20 t = 5 × 8 t 1W =2A+1F 20 t = (2 × 8 t) + 4 t 1W =3F+1A 20 t = (3 × 4 t) + 8 t Larger and smaller particles Since equilateral triangles can be constructed out of a’s (and squares out of b’s) in more than one way, it is possible to have “molecules” of each of the elements that have different numbers of atomic triangles (a’s and b’s). These might be considered “isotopes” of the basic molecules described by Plato (with each t made of 6 a’s, and each s made of 4 b’s). 111 An equilateral triangle can also be constructed out of 2, or 8, or 18, a’s (and so on, ad infinitum). A square can also be constructed out of 2, or 8, or 16, b’s (and so on, ad infinitum). This means that one “normal” particle of earth (6 s = 24 b) can be transformed into 2 of the smaller “isotopes” of earth (6 s = 12 b) Similarly, 4 “normal” particles of water (containing 120 a’s each) can combine to form one huge particle of one of the larger “isotopes” of water (20 sides of 24 a’s each, for 480 a’s altogether). Final Reflections Comparison with predecessors Plato’s theory combines elements of the views of many of his predecessors. 1. Pythagoras Like Pythagoras, he made the physical universe fundamentally mathematical. But whereas Pythagoras thought that everything was made of numbers, Plato made geometrical figures - ultimately, triangles - the atoms of his system. 2. Democritus Plato, like Democritus, was an atomist. But whereas Democritean atoms were of all different shapes and sizes, Plato’s came in just two varieties: isosceles and scalene. In this respect, Plato’s theory was far more elegant than that of Democritus. As Vlastos comments (Plato’s Universe, pp. 93-4): Compare [Plato’s theory] with the best of its rivals, the Democritean. There atoms come in infinitely many sizes and in every conceivable shape, the vast majority of them being irregular, a motley multitude, totally destitute of periodicity in their design, incapable of fitting any simple combinatorial formula. If we were satisfied that the choice between the unordered polymorphic infinity of Democritean atoms and the elegantly patterned order of Plato’s polyhedra was incapable of empirical adjudication and could only be settled by asking how a divine, geometrically minded artificer would have made the choice, would we have hesitated about the answer? 3. Empedocles Like Empedocles, Plato recognized that four elements - earth, air, fire, and water underlay all physical changes. But unlike Empedocles, he found a common atomic 112 ingredient underlying the elements. Hence, unlike Empedocles, he could explain the transformation of one element into another. Problems and Responses Plato’s theory of matter faces some prima facie problems. We will consider two of them and suggest how Plato might have responded to them. 1. Problem: Plato’s theory does not allow for transformation of earth into other elements. Since earth is made of different atoms (isosceles triangles) from the other elements (scalene triangles), this transformation is impossible, as Plato knew. So what happens when, e.g., wood burns? Isn’t earth (which is what, presumably, wood is mostly made of) converted into fire? Response: The transformation of one element into another is not an observed phenomenon, but a theoretical explanation of observations. Plato can account for this phenomenon by theorizing that it is the water and air components of wood that are converted into fire; the earth components remain unburned in the ashes that remain. 2. Problem: The transformation of elements seems to violate the principle of conservation of matter. The problem here is that the volumes of the polyhedra in Plato’s “equations” don’t add up correctly. E.g., consider the “equation”: 1W=3F+1A which tells us that one water atom can be converted into 3 fire atoms and one air atom. (There are 20 equilateral triangles, t, involved in this equation.) The problem is that the volume of one water atom (i.e., one icosahedron) is much greater than the combined volumes of 3 fire atoms (3 tetrahedra) and one air atom (one octohedron). If we let s be the length of a side of each equilateral triangle (t) that is a face of each of the polyhedra, we can calculate these volumes: Volume of 1 W = 2.1817 s3 Aggregate volume of 3 F + 1 A = .8248 s3 Response: Remember that matter is not a concept Plato is working with. Hence matter, as we understand it, is not what Plato needs to worry about conserving. In his view, a material object consists, ultimately, of the triangular atoms composing the polyhedral corpuscles of the four different elements. Contained within these polyhedra is empty space - the receptacle, as he called it. 113 So it is not matter that Plato must conserve, but triangles. On his theory, when a corpuscle of water is broken down and converted into corpuscles of fire and air, all of the original triangles in the corpuscle of water are conserved. And the triangles combine to form the surfaces of the polyhedra. Hence it is not the total volume of his polyhedra, but their combined surface area that must be conserved. What remains constant in every transformation, as Vlastos (Plato’s Universe, p. 90) says, is: ... the aggregate surface area of the corpuscles. If you press him to say what happens to that portion of the matter within the icosahedron which cannot be enclosed within the equivalent surface area of smaller polyhedra, Plato would say that there is no such matter: after creation matter exists only in the form of space encapsulated by polyhedra; what is not thus encapsulated is empty space, which becomes matter when captured by envelopes of the approved stereometric form. CHAPTER V 114 Islamic cosmology It is not widely known at least in this part of the world that one of the important evolutionary thought has been the Islamic view of Cosmology. Islamic cosmology is the cosmology of Islamic societies. It is mainly derived from the Qur'an, Hadith, Sunnah, and current Islamic as well as other pre-Islamic sources. The Qur'an itself mentions seven heavens. Metaphysical Principles-Duality In Islamic thought the cosmos includes both the Unseen Universe (Arabic: ‫ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺐ‬, Alam-alGhaib) and the Observable Universe (Arabic: ‫ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﻬﻮﺩ‬, Alam-al-Shahood). Nevertheless, both belong to the created universe. Islamic dualism does not constitute between spirit and matter, but between Creator (God) and creation.[2] The latter including both the seen and unseen. Sufi cosmology Sufi cosmology (Arabic: ‫ )ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺯﻣﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﻓﻴﺔ‬is a general term for cosmological doctrines associated with the mysticism of Sufism. These may differ from place to place, order to order and time to time, but overall show the influence of several different cosmographies:      The Quran's testament concerning God and immaterial beings, the soul and the afterlife, the beginning and end of things, the seven heavens etc. The Neoplatonic views cherished by Islamic philosophers like Avicenna and Ibn Arabi. The Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical geocentric world. The Ishraqi visionary universe as expounded by Suhrawardi Maqtul. Qur'an and science and Islam and science There are several verses in the Qur'an (610–632) which some medieval and modern writers have reinterpreted as foreshadowing modern cosmological theories.[3] An early example of this can be seen in the work of the Islamic theologian Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world in his Matalib. He discusses Islamic cosmology, criticizes the idea of the Earth's centrality within the universe, and explores "the notion of the existence of a multiverse in the context of his commentary" on the Qur'anic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "worlds" in this verse refers to "multiple worlds within this single universe or cosmos, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." He rejects the Aristotelian view of a single world or universe in favour of the existence of multiple worlds and universes, a view that he believed to be supported by the Qur'an and by the Ash'ari theory of atomism.[4] Astronomy in medieval Islam, Qur'an and science, and Islam and science Cosmology was studied extensively in the Muslim world during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age from the 7th to 15th centuries. There are exactly seven verses in the Quran that specify that there are seven heavens. One verse says that each heaven or sky has its own order, possibly meaning laws of nature. Another verse says after mentioning the seven heavens "and similar earths". 115 In 850, al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi Jawani ("A compendium of the science of stars"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy's Almagest based on findings of earlier Iranian astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin. Cosmography Islamic historian Michael Cook states that the "basic structure" of the Islamic universe according to scholars interpretation of the verses of the Quran and Islamic traditions was of seven heavens above seven earths.  "Allah is He Who Created seven firmaments and of the earth a similar number. Through the midst of them (all) descends His command: that ye may know that Allah has power over all things, and that Allah comprehends all things In (His) Knowledge." 65:12 The seven earths formed parallel layers with human beings inhabiting the top layer and Satan dwelling at the bottom. The seven heavens also formed parallel layers; the lowest level being the sky we see from earth and the highest being paradise (Jannah). Other traditions describes the seven heavens as each having a notable prophet in residence that Muhammad visits during Miʿrāj: Moses (Musa) on the sixth heaven, Abraham (Ibrahim) on the seventh heaven, etc. ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt (Arabic: ‫ﻋﺠﺎﺋﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻏﺮﺍﺋﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺍﺕ‬, meaning Marvels of creatures and Strange things existing) is an important work of cosmography by Zakariya ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud Abu Yahya al-Qazwini who was born in Qazwin year 600 (AH (1203 AD). Temporal finitism- Early Islamic philosophy In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning (see Temporal finitism). The Christian philosopher, John Philoponus, presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. His arguments were adopted by many most notably; early Muslim philosopher, AlKindi (Alkindus the Jewish philosopher, Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph); and the Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali (Algazel. They used two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states: a. "An actual infinite cannot exist." b. "An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite." c. "∴ An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist." d. The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states: e. "An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition." f. "The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition." 116 g. "∴ The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite." Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by Immanuel Kant in his thesis of the first antinomy concerning time. Amount of time The Quran states that the universe was created in six ayyam (days). (In verse 50:38 among others). However, it is important to note that the "days" mentioned in Quran does not equals to the "24 hours day period". According to verse 70:4, one day in Quran is equal to 50,000 years on Earth. Therefore, Muslims interpret the description of a "six days" creation as six distinct periods or eons. The length of these periods is not precisely defined, nor are the specific developments that took place during each period. According to Michael Cook "early Muslim scholars" believed the amount of finite time creation had been assigned was about "six or seven thousand years" and that perhaps all but 500 years or so had already passed. He quotes a tradition of Muhammad saying "in reference to the prospective duration" of the community of the Muslim companions: `Your appointed time compared with that of those who were before you is as from the afternoon prayer (Asr prayer) to the setting of the sun'".Early Muslim Ibn Ishaq estimated the prophet Noah lived 1200 years after Adam was expelled from paradise, the prophet Abraham 2342 years after Adam, Moses 2907 years, Jesus 4832 years and Muhammad 5432 years. The Fatimid thinker al-Mu’ayyad fi’l-Din al-Shirazi (d. 1078) shares his own views about the creation of the world in 6 days. He rebukes the idea of the creation of the world in 6 cycles of either 24 hours, 1000 or 50,000 years, and instead questions both how creation can be measured in units of time when time was yet to be created, as well as how an infinitely powerful creator can be limited by the constraints of time, as it is itself part of his own creation. The Ismaili thinker Nasir Khusraw (d. after 1070) expands on his colleague’s work. He writes that that these days refer to cycles of creation demarcated by the arrival of God’s messengers (ṣāḥibān-i adwār), culminating in the arrival of the Lord of the Resurrection (Qāʾim al-Qiyāma), when the world will come out of darkness and ignorance and “into the light of her Lord” (Quran 39:69). His era, unlike that of the enunciators of divine revelation (nāṭiqs) before him, is not one where God prescribes the people to work. Rather, his is an era of reward for those “who laboured in fulfilment of (the Prophets') command and with knowledge”. Galaxy observation The Arabian astronomer Alhazen (965–1037) made the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's parallax, and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very remote from the earth and did not belong to the atmosphere. The Persian astronomer Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars." The Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah ("Avempace", d. 1138) proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars which almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material, citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH (1106/1107 AD) as evidence.[18][19] Ibn Qayyim 117 Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars". In the 10th century, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (known in the West as Azophi) made the earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy, describing it as a "small cloud".Al-Sufi also identified the Large Magellanic Cloud, which is visible from Yemen, though not from Isfahan; it was not seen by Europeans until Magellan's voyage in the 16th century. These were the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth. AlSufi published his findings in his Book of Fixed Stars in 964. Possible worlds Al-Ghazali, in The Incoherence of the Philosophers, defends the Ash'ari doctrine of a created universe that is temporally finite, against the Aristotelian doctrine of an eternal universe. In doing so, he proposed the modal theory of possible worlds, arguing that their actual world is the best of all possible worlds from among all the alternate timelines and world histories that God could have possibly created. His theory parallels that of Duns Scotus in the 14th century. While it is uncertain whether Al-Ghazali had any influence on Scotus, they both may have derived their theory from their readings of Avicenna's Metaphysics. Multiversal cosmology The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device invented by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the diameter of the smaller circle. Rotations of the circles cause a point on the circumference of the smaller circle to oscillate back and forth in linear motion along a diameter of the larger circle. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world in his Matalib al-'Aliya, criticizes the idea of the Earth's centrality within the universe and "explores the notion of the existence of a multiverse in the context of his commentary" on the Qur'anic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds." He raises the question of whether the term "worlds" in this verse refers to "multiple worlds within this single universe or cosmos, or to many other universes or a multiverse beyond this known universe." In volume 4 of the Matalib, Al-Razi states:[25] 118 It is established by evidence that there exists beyond the world a void without a terminal limit (khala' la nihayata laha), and it is established as well by evidence that God Most High has power over all contingent beings (al-mumkinat). Therefore He the Most High has the power (qadir) to create a thousand thousand worlds (alfa alfi 'awalim) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has of the throne (al-arsh), the chair (al-kursiyy), the heavens (al-samawat) and the earth (al-ard), and the sun (al-shams) and the moon (al-qamar). The arguments of the philosophers (dala'il al-falasifah) for establishing that the world is one are weak, flimsy arguments founded upon feeble premises. Al-Razi rejected the Aristotelian and Avicennian notions of a single universe revolving around a single world. He describes the main arguments against the existence of multiple worlds or universes, pointing out their weaknesses and refuting them. This rejection arose from his affirmation of atomism, as advocated by the Ash'ari school of Islamic theology, which entails the existence of vacant space in which the atoms move, combine and separate. He discussed in greater detail the void, the empty space between stars and constellations in the Universe, in volume 5 of the Matalib. He argued that there exists an infinite outer space beyond the known world,] and that God has the power to fill the vacuum with an infinite number of universes.[27] Refutations of astrology- Islamic astrology The study of astrology was refuted by several Muslim writers at the time, including alFarabi, Ibnal-Haytham, Avicenna, Biruni and Averroes. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical) and religious (conflicts with orthodox Islamic scholars) reasons. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah, used empirical arguments in astronomy in order to refute the practice of astrology and divination. He recognized that the stars are much larger than the planets, and thus argued: "And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points [ascending and descending nodes]?" Al-Jawziyya also recognized the Milky Way galaxy as "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and thus argued that "it is certainly impossible to have knowledge of their influences." Early heliocentric models 119 A work of Al-Birjandi's, Sharh al-Tadhkirah, a manuscript copy, beginning of 17th Century Hellenistic Greek astronomer Seleucus of Seleucia, who advocated a heliocentric model in the 2nd century BC, wrote a work that was later translated into Arabic. A fragment of his work has survived only in Arabic translation, which was later referred to by the Persian philosopher Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865–925). In the late ninth century, Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (Albumasar) developed a planetary model which some have interpreted as a heliocentric model. This is due to his orbital revolutions of the planets being given as heliocentric revolutions rather than geocentric revolutions, and the only known planetary theory in which this occurs is in the heliocentric theory. His work on planetary theory has not survived, but his astronomical data was later recorded by al-Hashimi, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and al-Sijzi. In the early eleventh century, al-Biruni had met several Indian scholars who believed in a heliocentric system. In his Indica, he discusses the theories on the Earth's rotation supported by Brahmagupta and other Indian astronomers, while in his Canon Masudicus, al-Biruni writes that Aryabhata's followers assigned the first movement from east to west to the Earth and a second movement from west to east to the fixed stars. Al-Biruni also wrote that al-Sijzi also believed the Earth was moving and invented an astrolabe called the "Zuraqi" based on this idea. "I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky. By my life, it is a problem difficult of solution and refutation. [...] For it is the same whether you take it that the Earth is in motion or the sky. For, in both cases, it does not affect the Astronomical Science. It is just for the physicist to see if it is possible to refute it." 120 In his Indica, al-Biruni briefly refers to his work on the refutation of heliocentrism, the Key of Astronomy, which is now lost: \"The most prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called Miftah 'ilm al-hai'ah (Key of Astronomy), in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in the words, at all events in the matter." Early Hay'a program The Timbuktu Manuscripts showing both mathematics and astronomy. During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. It was Greek tradition to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by Ptolemy) from philosophical cosmology (as typified by Aristotle). Muslim scholars developed a program of seeking a physically real configuration (hay'a) of the universe, that would be consistent with both mathematical and physical principles. Within the context of this hay'a tradition, Muslim astronomers began questioning technical details of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. Some Muslim astronomers, however, most notably Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Nasīr al-Dīn alTūsī, discussed whether the Earth moved and considered how this might be consistent with astronomical computations and physical systems. Several other Muslim astronomers, most notably those following the Maragha school of astronomy, developed non-Ptolemaic planetary models within a geocentric context that were later adapted by the Copernican model in a heliocentric context. Between 1025 and 1028, Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as Alhazen), began the hay'a tradition of Islamic astronomy with his Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus (Doubts on Ptolemy). While maintaining the physical reality of the geocentric model, he was the first to criticize Ptolemy's astronomical system, which he criticized on empirical, observational and experimental grounds,[34] and for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles.[35] Ibn alHaytham developed a physical structure of the Ptolemaic system in his Treatise on the configuration of the World, or Maqâlah fî hay'at al-‛âlam, which became an influential work in the hay'a tradition. In his Epitome of Astronomy, he insisted that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the laws of physics." 121 In 1038, Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in The Model of the Motions. His reform was not concerned with cosmology, as he developed a systematic study of celestial kinematics that was completely geometric. This in turn led to innovative developments in infinitesimal geometry. His reformed model was the first to reject the equant[39] and eccentrics, separate natural philosophy from astronomy, free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. The model also propounded the Earth's rotation about its axis, and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like Johannes Kepler's model centuries later.Abu Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth. In 1030, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī discussed the Indian planetary theories of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira in his Ta'rikh al-Hind (Latinized as Indica). Biruni stated that Brahmagupta and others consider that the earth rotates on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems.[44] Abu Said al-Sijzi, a contemporary of al-Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which al-Biruni did not reject. Al-Biruni agreed with the Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the heliocentric and geocentric models, he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.[47] He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters: "Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution." Andalusian Revolt Averroes rejected the eccentric deferents introduced by Ptolemy. He rejected the Ptolemaic model and instead argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe. In the 11th–12th centuries, astronomers in al-Andalus took up the challenge earlier posed by Ibn al-Haytham, namely to develop an alternate non-Ptolemaic configuration that evaded the errors found in the Ptolemaic model. Like Ibn al-Haytham's critique, the anonymous Andalusian work, al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus (Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy), included a list of objections to Ptolemic astronomy. This marked the beginning of the Andalusian school's revolt against Ptolemaic astronomy, otherwise known as the "Andalusian Revolt". 122 Maragha Revolution and Maragheh observatory The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragheh school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the Maragheh observatory and continuing with astronomers from Damascus and Samarkand. Like their Andalusian predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the equant problem and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations. The most important of the Maragha astronomers included Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (d. 1266), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201– 1274), Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī (d. 1277), Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), Sadr alSharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347), Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375), Ali Qushji (c. 1474), al-Birjandi (d. 1525) and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550) Some have described their achievements in the 13th and 14th centuries as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". An important aspect of this revolution included the realization that astronomy should aim to describe the behavior of physical bodies in mathematical language, and should not remain a mathematical hypothesis, which would only save the phenomena. The Maragha astronomers also realized that the Aristotelian view of motion in the universe being only circular or linear was not true, as the Tusi-couple showed that linear motion could also be produced by applying circular motions only. Unlike the ancient Greek and Hellenistic astronomers who were not concerned with the coherence between the mathematical and physical principles of a planetary theory, Islamic astronomers insisted on the need to match the mathematics with the real world surrounding them,[59] which gradually evolved from a reality based on Aristotelian physics to one based on an empirical and mathematical physics after the work of Ibn al-Shatir. The Maragha Revolution was thus characterized by a shift away from the philosophical foundations of Aristotelian cosmology and Ptolemaic astronomy and towards a greater emphasis on the empirical observation and mathematization of astronomy and of nature in general, as exemplified in the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Qushji, al-Birjandi and al-Khafri. Other achievements of the Maragha school include the first empirical observational evidence for the Earth's rotation on its axis by al-Tusi and Qushjithe separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Shatir and Qushji, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir and the development of a non-Ptolemaic model by Ibn al-Shatir that was mathematically identical to the heliocentric Copernical model. 123 Ibn al-Shatir's model for the appearances of Mercury, showing the multiplication of epicycles using the Tusicouple, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and equant. Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (d. 1266) was the first of the Maragheh astronomers to develop a nonPtolemaic model, and he proposed a new theorem, the "Urdi lemma". Nasīr al-Dīn alTūsī (1201–1274) resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system by developing the Tusicouple as an alternative to the physically problematic equant introduced by Ptolemy.[67] Tusi's student Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), in his The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens, discussed the possibility of heliocentrism. Al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī, who also worked at the Maragheh observatory, in his Hikmat al-'Ain, wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea. 124 Medieval manuscript by Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi depicting an epicyclic planetary model. Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) of Damascus, in A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory, incorporated the Urdi lemma, and eliminated the need for an equant by 125 introducing an extra epicycle (the Tusi-couple), departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way that was mathematically identical to what Nicolaus Copernicus did in the 16th century. Unlike previous astronomers before him, Ibn al-Shatir was not concerned with adhering to the theoretical principles of natural philosophy or Aristotelian cosmology, but rather to produce a model that was more consistent with empirical observations. For example, it was Ibn al-Shatir's concern for observational accuracy which led him to eliminate the epicycle in the Ptolemaic solar model and all the eccentrics, epicycles and equant in the Ptolemaic lunar model. His model was thus in better agreement with empirical observations than any previous model, and was also the first that permitted empirical testing. His work thus marked a turning point in astronomy, which may be considered a "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance".[56] His rectified model was later adapted into a heliocentric model by Copernicus,[67] which was mathematic achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun. An area of active discussion in the Maragheh school, and later the Samarkand and Istanbul observatories, was the possibility of the Earth's rotation. Supporters of this theory included Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi (c. 1311), al-Sayyid alSharif al-Jurjani (1339–1413), Ali Qushji (d. 1474), and Abd al-Ali al-Birjandi (d. 1525). AlTusi was the first to present empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation, using the location of comets relevant to the Earth as evidence, which Qushji elaborated on with further empirical observations while rejecting Aristotelian natural philosophy altogether. Both of their arguments were similar to the arguments later used by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 to explain the Earth's rotation (see Astronomical physics and Earth's motion section below). Experimental astrophysics and celestial mechanics In the 9th century, the eldest Banū Mūsā brother, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, made significant contributions to Islamic astrophysics and celestial mechanics. He was the first to hypothesize that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres are subject to the same laws of physics as Earth, unlike the ancients who believed that the celestial spheres followed their own set of physical laws different from that of Earth. In his Astral Motion and The Force of Attraction, Muhammad ibn Musa also proposed that there is a force of attraction between heavenly bodies, foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation. In the early 11th century, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Maqala fi daw al-qamar (On the Light of the Moon) some time before 1021. This was the first attempt successful at combining mathematical astronomy with physics and the earliest attempt at applying the experimental method to astronomy and astrophysics. He disproved the universally held opinion that the moon reflects sunlight like a mirror and correctly concluded that it "emits light from those portions of its surface which the sun's light strikes." In order to prove that "light is emitted from every point of the moon's illuminated surface," he built an "ingenious experimental device." Ibn al-Haytham had "formulated a clear conception of the relationship between an ideal mathematical model and the complex of observable phenomena; in particular, he was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of the moonlight through two small apertures onto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up.” 126 Ibn al-Haytham, in his Book of Optics (1021), was also the first to discover that the celestial spheres do not consist of solid matter, and he also discovered that the heavens are less dense than the air. These views were later repeated by Witelo and had a significant influence on the Copernican and Tychonic systems of astronomy. In the 12th century, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi participated in the debate among Islamic scholars over whether the celestial spheres or orbits (falak) are "to be considered as real, concrete physical bodies" or "merely the abstract circles in the heavens traced out year in and year out by the various stars and planets." He points out that many astronomers prefer to see them as solid spheres "on which the stars turn," while others, such as the Islamic scholar Dahhak, view the celestial sphere as "not a body but merely the abstract orbit traced by the stars." Al-Razi himself remains "undecided as to which celestial models, concrete or abstract, most conform with external reality," and notes that "there is no way to ascertain the characteristics of the heavens," whether by "observable" evidence or by authority (al-khabar) of "divine revelation or prophetic traditions." He concludes that "astronomical models, whatever their utility or lack thereof for ordering the heavens, are not founded on sound rational proofs, and so no intellectual commitment can be made to them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned." The theologian Adud al-Din al-Iji (1281–1355), under the influence of the Ash'ari doctrine of occasionalism, which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God's will rather than by natural causes, rejected the Aristotelian principle of an innate principle of circular motion in the heavenly bodies, and maintained that the celestial spheres were "imaginary things" and "more tenuous than a spider's web". His views were challenged by al-Jurjani (1339–1413), who argued that even if the celestial spheres "do not have an external reality, yet they are things that are correctly imagined and correspond to what [exists] in actuality". Astronomical physics and Earth's motion Ali Qushji provided empirical evidence for the Earth's motion and developed an astronomical physics independent from Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy. The work of Ali Qushji (d. 1474), who worked at Samarkand and then Istanbul, is seen as a late example of innovation in Islamic theoretical astronomy and it is believed he may have possibly 127 had some influence on Nicolaus Copernicus due to similar arguments concerning the Earth's rotation. Before Qushji, the only astronomer to present empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation was Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (d. 1274), who used the phenomena of comets to refute Ptolemy's claim that a stationary Earth can be determined through observation. Al-Tusi, however, eventually accepted that the Earth was stationary on the basis of Aristotelian cosmology and natural philosophy. By the 15th century, the influence of Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy was declining due to religious opposition from Islamic theologians such as Al-Ghazali who opposed to the interference of Aristotelianism in astronomy, opening up possibilities for an astronomy unrestrained by philosophy. Under this influence, Qushji, in his Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy, rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely empirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth. He also observed comets and elaborated on al-Tusi's argument. He took it a step further and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true. His work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent astronomical physics. Despite the similarity in their discussions regarding the Earth's motion, there is uncertainty over whether Qushji had any influence on Copernicus. However, it is likely that they both may have arrived at similar conclusions due to using the earlier work of al-Tusi as a basis. This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in De revolutionibus (I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s Tadhkira (II.1) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s “proofs” of the Earth's immobility." This can be considered as evidence that not only was Copernicus influenced by the mathematical models of Islamic astronomers, but may have also been influenced by the astronomical physics they began developing and their views on the Earth's motion. In the 16th century, the debate on the Earth's motion was continued by al-Birjandi (d. 1528), who in his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were moving, develops a hypothesis similar to Galileo Galilei's notion of "circular inertia",[78] which he described in the following observational test (as a response to one of Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi's arguments): "The small or large rock will fall to the Earth along the path of a line that is perpendicular to the plane (sath) of the horizon; this is witnessed by experience (tajriba). And this perpendicular is away from the tangent point of the Earth’s sphere and the plane of the perceived (hissi) horizon. This point moves with the motion of the Earth and thus there will be no difference in place of fall of the two rocks." 128 CHAPTER VI Beyond Borders Angkor Wat We go across borders of time and history to trace the journey of India’s heritage in Angkor Wat and the inherent, albeit silent, stories they reveal of harmony Suzanne McNeill As a consequence of the trading and cultural relations that developed across the Bay of Bengal, Indian civilisation started to influence the kingdoms of South-East Asia. A popular legend tells of a South Indian prince who travelled to Cambodia, married a beautiful princess and became the ruler of that land. In an alternative version, an Indian Brahmin called Kaundinya is said to have sailed to the Cambodian kingdom of Funan and, using divine powers, defeated and married the ruling princess, Soma. Other versions see the visitor welcomed by the people and, elected their king, introducing many Indian customs and laws. More certainly, local chieftains were open to religious, artistic and scientific ideas imported from India. The Pasupatas, Hindusim’s oldest Shaivite sect, were ascetic proselytisers whose charismatic rituals made a deep impression on the courts of the South-East Asian kings. Part of the southern Indian Brahmin elite, the Pasupatas were literate, knew medicine and charms, and, importantly, were indifferent to the prohibitions that forbade orthodox Hindus to travel abroad. 129 This southern Indian influence on South-East Asian culture continued to flourish during the rule of the Pallavas (3rd–9th centuries) and the Cholas (9th–13th centuries). Historians call this process ‘Indianisation’. Local rulers who imported Indian advisors to guide them on the practices of Indian kingship and ritual founded Hindu, then Buddhist kingdoms across the region. Amalgamating the various religions, cultures and schools of thought, they adopted the Pali and Sanskrit languages, Indian script, and its sacred texts and literature, including the Mahabharata and the Ramayana epics. They combined Hindu and Buddhist beliefs, codes and court practices to legitimise their own rule, and constructed cities and temples to affirm royal power. For the Khmer dynasty (9th–15th century), this was to reach its zenith in the design and aesthetic achievement of the Angkor monuments. The temple complex of Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument in the world. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the 12th century as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. He broke with the Shaivite tradition of his forebears in dedicating the temple to Lord Vishnu: during the 13th century, the complex was converted to Buddhism. The centuries of cultural and commercial interaction between India and the kingdoms of Cambodia had led to an architectural style that in Angkor Wat was to combine the tiered structures of early Dravidian temples with the temple-mountain architecture of the Khmers, laid out in a balanced and harmonious form around the square mandala symbol that represented the cosmos in Buddhism. 130 The Dravidian temples of South India are open and symmetrical, and display perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares. This is the model on which Angkor Wat’s temples are based, and indeed the architects may have been from Pala India, the powerful Buddhist-supporting dynasty that ruled Bihar and Bengal from the 8th to 12th century. The style, however, was indigenised by local artists. Whilst the region’s early Hindu temples were built on the same scale as their Indian models, with stepped, square terraces and narrative reliefs along the terraces, later buildings such as Java’s Borobudur temple represented a dramatic change of architectural character. Increasingly vast in scale and monumental in design, temples became works of power as kings sought to accumulate religious merit and prestige by constructing ever more magnificent buildings. The Indian heritage is prominent throughout Angkor Wat, particularly in the representations of Vishnu and his avatars, Krishna and Rama. Dazzling bas-relief carvings depict Vishnu battling against the Asuras, the enemies of the gods, or riding on his mount, Garuda, half-vulture, halfman. An enduring contribution of the Pallavas to Angkor Wat is the cult of the eight-armed 131 Ashtabhuja Vishnu, which forms one of the temple’s major iconographic influences. Narratives from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana provide extensive decoration. Episodes include the Ramayana’s long, fierce Battle of Lanka where lithesome monkey warriors are the central figures, watched by Rama and his attendants. The Battle of Kurukshetra from the Mahabharata is illustrated, with the armies of the Kauravas and the Pandavas marching from opposite ends of the panel towards the centre where they meet in combat. Other friezes that portray warfare of the Angkor period mark the shift towards a native identity. There are many depictions of Apsaras and Devatas, semi-divine nymphs and spirits, which show remarkable diversity of hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery and decorative flowers, and are believed to be based on the actual practices of the Khmers. The giant faces of the Bayon Temple, part of the complex, reveal more of the cultural exchange between India and Angkor Wat. Local guides tell visitors that these represent portraits of the kings of the Khmer dynasty, but scholars dispute the identity of the faces. They were thought to be Lord Brahma, the Creator of the Universe, who is traditionally depicted with four heads. A compelling argument is that the giant faces are Vajrasattva, from whom emanates the eightheaded, fiercely protective deity Hevajra, making of the temple a massive icon to the multipleheaded god. His worship is the subject of the Hevajra Tantra, which is believed to have originated in Bengal between the 8th and 10th centuries and thrived in Khmer Cambodia. By the 5th century AD, the Silk Road was less a route of transmission from India to South-East Asia and more a filter. Khmer sculpture began to drift away from Indian influence, particularly the idealised Hindu images of the deities, and by the 10th century had developed its own stylistic refinement. This went beyond religious representation, portraying court figures with great realism in the guise of gods and goddesses, and glorifying the aristocracy through these images. 132 The transition from the worship of Shiva and Vishnu to Mahayana Buddhism was a major break with tradition that asserted the king’s creed as supreme over the long-entrenched Brahminical aristocracy. This also developed into the South-East Asian cult of deified royalty called Devaraja, depicting the king as Buddha, bejewelled, crowned and supported by a pantheon of Bodhisattvas. Thus, the sovereign’s divinity was displayed through his monuments, and the elite immortalised in the splendour of intricate adornments and sophisticated jewellery. However, after the 13th century the more austere form of Buddhism called Theravada gained sway, a movement that revered the historic Buddha but did not pay homage to the numerous other Buddha and Bodhisattvas worshipped by earlier followers. This continues till today. Hidden by jungle and all but forgotten for centuries, Cambodia’s national monument now buzzes with tour groups and picnickers from sunrise to sunset. It is the lesser known temples of the complex that provide a sense of sacred space. Crumbling, many with trees and vegetation growing through the soft sandstone, some reduced to their foundations, it is still possible to trace the decorative carvings of elephants, naga snakes, lotus buds and figures of Garuda. Local people worship the Buddha daily at these temples, burning incense in small shrines that are far removed from the ostentatious grandeur and extravagance of Suryavarman’s stunning testimony to India’s art and heritage. https://www.artsillustrated.in/art-heritage/beyond-borders-angkor-wat. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- See alsoWoodward, Hiram W. “Tantric Buddhism at Angkor Thom.” Ars Orientalis, vol. 12, 1981, pp. 57–67. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4434250. Accessed 6 Feb. 2021. 133 CHAPTER VII Religious cosmology Religious cosmology is an explanation of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe, from a religious perspective. This may include beliefs on origin in the form of a creation myth, subsequent evolution, current organizational form and nature, and eventual fate or destiny. There are various traditions in religion or religious mythology asserting how and why everything is the way it is and the significance of it all. Religious cosmologies describe the spatial lay-out of the universe in terms of the world in which people typically dwell as well as other dimensions, such as the seven dimensions of religion; these are ritual, experiential and emotional, narrative and mythical, doctrinal, ethical, social, and material. Religious mythologies may include descriptions of an act or process of creation by a creator deity or a larger pantheon of deities, explanations of the transformation of chaos into order, or the assertion that existence is a matter of endless cyclical transformations. Religious cosmology differs from a strictly scientific cosmology informed by the results of the study of astronomy and similar fields, and may differ in conceptualizations of the world's physical structure and place in the universe, its creation, and forecasts or predictions on its future. The scope of religious cosmology is more inclusive than a strictly scientific cosmology (physical cosmology) in that religious cosmology is not limited to experiential observation, testing of hypotheses, and proposals of theories; for example, religious cosmology may explain why everything is the way it is or seems to be the way it is and prescribing what humans should do in context. Variations in religious cosmology include those such as from India Buddhism, Hindu, and Jain; the religious beliefs of China, Chinese Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism, Japan's Shintoisim and the beliefs of the Abrahamic faiths, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Religious cosmologies have often developed into the formal logics of metaphysical systems, such as Platonism, Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, Taoism, Kabbalah, Wuxing or the great chain of being. Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the Universe according to the Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. Wat Arun's pagodas were built and located to simulate the Buddhist Cosmology 134 It consists of temporal and spatial cosmology: the temporal cosmology being the division of the existence of a 'world' into four discrete moments (the creation, duration, dissolution, and state of being dissolved; this does not seem to be a canonical division, however). The spatial cosmology consists of a vertical cosmology, the various planes of beings, their bodies, characteristics, food, lifespan, beauty and a horizontal cosmology, the distribution of these world-systems into an "apparently" infinite sheet of “worlds”. The existence of world-periods (moments, kalpas), is well attested to by the Buddha. The historical Buddha (Gautama Buddha) made references to the existence of aeons (the duration of which he describes using a metaphor of the time taken to erode a huge rock measuring 1x1x1 mile by brushing it with a silk cloth, once every century) and simultaneously intimates his knowledge of past events, such as the dawn of human beings in their coarse and gender-split forms, the existence of more than one sun at certain points in time, and his ability to convey his voice vast distances, as well as the ability of his disciples (who if they fare accordingly) to be reborn in any one of these planes (should they so choose). The self-consistent Buddhist cosmology, which is presented in commentaries and works of Abhidharma in both Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions, is the end-product of an analysis and reconciliation of cosmological comments found in the Buddhist sūtra and vinaya traditions. No single sūtra sets out the entire structure of the universe, but in several sūtras the Buddha describes other worlds and states of being, and other sūtras describe the origin and destruction of the universe. The synthesis of these data into a single comprehensive system must have taken place early in the history of Buddhism, as the system described in the Pāli Vibhajyavāda tradition (represented by today's Theravādins) agrees, despite some minor inconsistencies of nomenclature, with the Sarvāstivāda tradition which is preserved by Mahāyāna Buddhists. The picture of the world presented in Buddhist cosmological descriptions cannot be taken as a literal description of the shape of the universe. It is inconsistent, and cannot be made consistent, with astronomical data that were already known in ancient India. However, it is not intended to be a description of how ordinary humans perceive their world; rather, it is the universe as seen through the divyacakṣus दिव्यचक्षुः (Pāli: dibbacakkhu दिब्बचक्खु), the "divine eye" by which a Buddha or an arhat who has cultivated this faculty can perceive all of the other worlds and the beings arising (being born) and passing away (dying) within them, and can tell from what state they have been reborn and into what state they will be reborn. The cosmology has also been interpreted in a symbolical or allegorical sense (for Mahayana teaching see Ten spiritual realms). Buddhist cosmology can be divided into two related kinds: spatial cosmology, which describes the arrangement of the various worlds within the universe; and temporal cosmology, which describes how those worlds come into existence, and how they pass away. Spatial cosmologyEdit Spatial cosmology displays the various, multitude of worlds embedded in the universe. Spatial cosmology can also be divided into two branches. The vertical (or cakravāḍa; Devanagari: चक्रवाड) cosmology describes the arrangement of worlds in a vertical pattern, some being higher and some lower. By contrast, the horizontal (sahasra) cosmology describes the grouping of these vertical worlds into sets of thousands, millions or billions. 135 Vertical cosmologyEdit "In the vertical cosmology, the universe exists of many worlds (lokāḥ; Devanagari: लोकाः) – one might say "planes/realms" – stacked one upon the next in layers. Each world corresponds to a mental state or a state of being".[9] A world is not, however, a location so much as it is the beings which compose it; it is sustained by their karma and if the beings in a world all die or disappear, the world disappears too. Likewise, a world comes into existence when the first being is born into it. The physical separation is not so important as the difference in mental state; humans and animals, though they partially share the same physical environments, still belong to different worlds because their minds perceive and react to those environments differently. The vertical cosmology is divided into thirty-one planes of existence and the planes into three realms, or dhātus, each corresponding to a different type of mentality. These three realms (Tridhātu) are the Ārūpyadhātu (4 Realms), the Rūpadhātu (16 Realms), and the Kāmadhātu (15 Realms). In some instances all of the beings born in the Ārūpyadhātu and the Rūpadhātu are informally classified as "gods" or "deities" (devāḥ), along with the gods of the Kāmadhātu, notwithstanding the fact that the deities of the Kāmadhātu differ more from those of the Ārūpyadhātu than they do from humans. It is to be understood that deva is an imprecise term referring to any being living in a longer-lived and generally more blissful state than humans. Most of them are not "gods" in the common sense of the term, having little or no concern with the human world and rarely if ever interacting with it; only the lowest deities of the Kāmadhātu correspond to the gods described in many polytheistic religions. The term "brahmā; Devanagari: ब्रह्मा" is used both as a name and as a generic term for one of the higher devas. In its broadest sense, it can refer to any of the inhabitants of the Ārūpyadhātu and the Rūpadhātu. In more restricted senses, it can refer to an inhabitant of one of the eleven lower worlds of the Rūpadhātu, or in its narrowest sense, to the three lowest worlds of the Rūpadhātu (Plane of Brahma's retinue) A large number of devas use the name "Brahmā", e.g. Brahmā Sahampati ब्रह्मा सहम्पत्ति, Brahmā Sanatkumāra ब्रह्मा सनत्कुमारः, Baka Brahmā बकब्रह्मा, etc. It is not always clear which world they belong to, although it must always be one of the worlds of the Rūpadhātu. According to the Ayacana Sutta, Brahmā Sahampati, who begs the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the world, resides in the Śuddhāvāsa worlds. 136 A diagrammatic representation of a Buddhist Universe Formless Realm (Ārūpyadhātu आरूपधातु)Edit The Ārūpyadhātu (Sanskrit) or Arūpaloka (Pāli) Devanagari: आरूप्यधातु / अरूपलोक) or "Formless realm" would have no place in a purely physical cosmology, as none of the beings inhabiting it has either shape or location; and correspondingly, the realm has no location either. This realm belongs to those devas who attained and remained in the Four Formless Absorptions (catuḥ-samāpatti चतुःसमापत्ति) of the arūpadhyānas in a previous life, and now enjoys the fruits (vipāka) of the good karma of that accomplishment. Bodhisattvas, however, are never born in the Ārūpyadhātu even when they have attained the arūpadhyānas. There are four types of Ārūpyadhātu devas, corresponding to the four types of arūpadhyānas: Arupa Bhumi (Arupachara Brahmalokas or Immaterial/Formless Brahma Realms)Edit 137     Naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana नैवसंज्ञानासंज्ञायतन or Nevasaññānāsaññāyatana नेवसञ्ञानासञ्ञायतन "Sphere of neither perception nor nonperception". In this sphere the formless beings have gone beyond a mere negation of perception and have attained a liminal state where they do not engage in "perception" (saṃjñā, recognition of particulars by their marks) but are not wholly unconscious. This was the sphere reached by Udraka Rāmaputra (Pāli: Uddaka Rāmaputta), the second of the Buddha's original teachers, who considered it equivalent to enlightenment. Total life span on this realm in human years - 84,000 Maha Kalpa (Maha Kalpa = 4 Asankya Kalpa). This realm is placed 5,580,000 Yojanas ( 1 Yojana = 16 Miles) above the Plane of Nothingness (Ākiṃcanyāyatana). Ākiṃcanyāyatana आकिंचन्यायतना "Sphere of Nothingness" (literally "lacking anything"). In this sphere formless beings dwell contemplating upon the thought that "there is no thing". This is considered a form of perception, though a very subtle one. This was the sphere reached by Ārāḍa Kālāma (Pāli: Āḷāra Kālāma), the first of the Buddha's original teachers; he considered it to be equivalent to enlightenment. Total life span on this realm in human years – 60,000 Maha Kalpa. This realm is placed 5,580,000 yojanas above the Plane of Infinite Consciousness(Vijñānānantyāyatana). Vijñānānantyāyatana विज्ञानानन्त्यायतन "Sphere of Infinite Consciousness". In this sphere formless beings dwell meditating on their consciousness (vijñāna) as infinitely pervasive. Total life span on this realm in human years – 40,000 Maha Kalpa. This realm is placed 5,580,000 yojanas above the Plane of Infinite Space (Ākāśānantyāyatana) Ākāśānantyāyatana अाकाशानन्त्यायतन "Sphere of Infinite Space". In this sphere formless beings dwell meditating upon space or extension (ākāśa) as infinitely pervasive. Total life span on this realm in human years – 20,000 Maha Kalpa. This realm is placed 5,580,000 yojanas above the Akanita Brahma Loka – Highest plane of pure abodes. Form Realm (Rūpadhātu)Edit The Rūpadhātu रूपधातुः "Form realm" is, as the name implies, the first of the physical realms; its inhabitants all have a location and bodies of a sort, though those bodies are composed of a subtle substance which is of itself invisible to the inhabitants of the Kāmadhātu. According to the Janavasabha Sutta, when a brahma (a being from the Brahma-world of the Rūpadhātu) wishes to visit a deva of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven (in the Kāmadhātu), he has to assume a "grosser form" in order to be visible to them. There are 17–22 Rūpadhātu in Buddhism texts, the most common saying is 18. The beings of the Form realm are not subject to the extremes of pleasure and pain, or governed by desires for things pleasing to the senses, as the beings of the Kāmadhātu are. The bodies of Form realm beings do not have sexual distinctions. Like the beings of the Ārūpyadhātu, the dwellers in the Rūpadhātu have minds corresponding to the dhyānas (Pāli: jhānas). In their case it is the four lower dhyānas or rūpadhyānas (रुपध्यान). However, although the beings of the Rūpadhātu can be divided into four broad grades corresponding to these four dhyānas, each of them is subdivided into further grades, three for each of the four dhyānas and five for the Śuddhāvāsa devas, for a total of seventeen grades (the Theravāda tradition counts one less grade in the highest dhyāna for a total of sixteen). Physically, the Rūpadhātu consists of a series of planes stacked on top of each other, each one in a series of steps half the size of the previous one as one descends. In part, this reflects the fact 138 that the devas are also thought of as physically larger on the higher planes. The highest planes are also broader in extent than the ones lower down, as discussed in the section on Sahasra cosmology. The height of these planes is expressed in yojanas, a measurement of very uncertain length, but sometimes taken to be about 4,000 times the height of a man, and so approximately 4.54 miles (7.31 km). Pure AbodesEdit The Śuddhāvāsa शुद्धावास (Pāli: Suddhāvāsa सुद्धावास; Tib: gnas gtsang ma; Chinese: 净居天/凈居天; Thai: สุทฺธาวสฺสภูมิ) worlds, or "Pure Abodes", are distinct from the other worlds of the Rūpadhātu in that they do not house beings who have been born there through ordinary merit or meditative attainments, but only those Anāgāmins ("Non-returners") who are already on the path to Arhat-hood and who will attain enlightenment directly from the Śuddhāvāsa worlds without being reborn in a lower plane. Every Śuddhāvāsa deva is therefore a protector of Buddhism. (Brahma Sahampati, who appealed to the newly enlightened Buddha to teach, was an Anagami under the previous Buddha). Because a Śuddhāvāsa deva will never be reborn outside the Śuddhāvāsa worlds, no Bodhisattva is ever born in these worlds, as a Bodhisattva must ultimately be reborn as a human being. Since these devas rise from lower planes only due to the teaching of a Buddha, they can remain empty for very long periods if no Buddha arises. However, unlike the lower worlds, the Śuddhāvāsa worlds are never destroyed by natural catastrophe. The Śuddhāvāsa devas predict the coming of a Buddha and, taking the guise of Brahmins, reveal to human beings the signs by which a Buddha can be recognized. They also ensure that a Bodhisattva in his last life will see the four signs that will lead to his renunciation. The five Śuddhāvāsa worlds are:      Akaniṣṭha अकनिष्ठ or Akaniṭṭha अकनिठ्ठ (Thai: อกนิฏฺฐา or อกนิษฐา)– World of devas "equal in rank" (literally: having no one as the youngest). The highest of all the Rūpadhātu worlds, it is often used to refer to the highest extreme of the universe. The current Śakra will eventually be born there. The duration of life in Akaniṣṭha is 16,000 kalpas (Vibhajyavāda tradition). Mahesvara (Shiva) the ruler of the three realms of samsara is said to dwell here.[12] The height of this world is 167,772,160 yojanas above the Earth (approximately the distance of Saturn from Earth). Sudarśana सुदर्शन or Sudassī सुदस्सी (Thai: สุทัสสี or สุทารฺศฺน)– The "clear-seeing" devas live in a world similar to and friendly with the Akaniṣṭha world. The height of this world is 83,886,080 yojanas above the Earth (approximately the distance of Jupiter from Earth). Sudṛśa सुदृश or Sudassa सुदस्स (Thai: สุทัสสา or สุทรรศา)– The world of the "beautiful" devas are said to be the place of rebirth for five kinds of anāgāmins. The height of this world is 41,943,040 yojanas above the Earth. Atapa अतप or Atappa अतप्प – The world of the "untroubled" devas, whose company those of lower realms wish for. The height of this world is 20,971,520 yojanas above the Earth (approximately the distance of Sun from Earth). Avṛha अवृह or Aviha अविह– The world of the "not falling" devas, perhaps the most common destination for reborn Anāgāmins. Many achieve arhatship directly in this world, but some pass away and are reborn in sequentially higher worlds of the Pure Abodes until they are at last reborn 139 in the Akaniṣṭha world. These are called in Pāli uddhaṃsotas, "those whose stream goes upward". The duration of life in Avṛha is 1,000 kalpas (Vibhajyavāda tradition). The height of this world is 10,485,760 yojanas above the Earth (approximately the distance of Mars from Earth).        Bṛhatphala worlds बृहत्फलEdit The mental state of the devas of the Bṛhatphala worlds corresponds to the fourth dhyāna, and is characterized by equanimity (upekṣā). The Bṛhatphala worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe by wind at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below), that is, they are spared such destruction. Asaññasatta असञ्ञसत्त– "Unconscious beings", devas who have attained a high dhyāna (similar to that of the Formless Realm), and, wishing to avoid the perils of perception, have achieved a state of non-perception in which they endure for a time. After a while, however, perception arises again and they fall into a lower state. Bṛhatphala बृहत्फल "having great fruit". Their lifespan is 500 mahākalpas. (Vibhajyavāda tradition). Some Anāgāmins are reborn here. The height of this world is 5,242,880 yojanas above the Earth.(approximately the distance of Venus from Earth) Puṇyaprasava पुण्यप्रसव (Sarvāstivāda tradition only; Tib: bsod nams skyes; Thai: ปณฺยปรัสวา) – The world of the devas who are the "offspring of merit". The height of this world is 2,621,440 yojanas above the Earth. Anabhraka अनभ्रक (Sarvāstivāda tradition only; Tib: sprin med; Thai อนภร๎กา) – The world of the "cloudless" devas. The height of this world is 1,310,720 yojanas above the Earth. Śubhakṛtsna worldsEdit The mental state of the devas of the Śubhakṛtsna worlds corresponds to the third dhyāna, and is characterized by a quiet joy (sukha). These devas have bodies that radiate a steady light. The Śubhakṛtsna worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe by water at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below), that is, the flood of water does not rise high enough to reach them. Śubhakṛtsna शुभकृत्स्न or Subhakiṇṇa / Subhakiṇha सुभकिण्ण/सुभकिण्ह The world of devas of "total beauty". Their lifespan is 64 mahākalpas (some sources: 4 mahākalpas) according to the Vibhajyavāda tradition. 64 mahākalpas is the interval between destructions of the universe by wind, including the Śubhakṛtsna worlds. The height of this world is 655,360 yojanas above the Earth. Apramāṇaśubha अप्रमाणशुभ The world of devas of "limitless beauty". Their lifespan is 32 mahākalpas (Vibhajyavāda tradition). They possess "faith, virtue, learning, munificence and wisdom". The height of this world is 327,680 yojanas above the Earth. Parīttaśubha परीत्तशुभ The world of devas of "limited beauty". Their lifespan is 16 mahākalpas. The height of this world is 163,840 yojanas above the Earth. Ābhāsvara worldsEdit The mental state of the devas of the Ābhāsvara आभास्वर worlds (Chn/Jpn: 二禅三天; Thai: อาภัสสราภูม/ิ อาภาสวราธาตุ) corresponds to the second dhyāna, and is characterized by delight (prīti) as well as joy (sukha); the Ābhāsvara devas are said to shout aloud in their joy, crying aho 140       sukham! ("Oh joy!"). These devas have bodies that emit flashing rays of light like lightning. They are said to have similar bodies (to each other) but diverse perceptions. The Ābhāsvara worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe by fire at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below), that is, the column of fire does not rise high enough to reach them. After the destruction of the world, at the beginning of the vivartakalpa, the worlds are first populated by beings reborn from the Ābhāsvara worlds. Ābhāsvara आभास्वर "possessing splendor". The lifespan of the Ābhāsvara devas is 8 mahākalpas (others: 2 mahākalpas). Eight mahākalpas is the interval between destructions of the universe by water, which includes the Ābhāsvara worlds. The height of this world is 81,920 yojanas above the Earth. Apramāṇābha The world of devas of "limitless light", a concept on which they meditate. Their lifespan is 4 mahākalpas. The height of this world is 40,960 yojanas above the Earth. Parīttābha परीत्ताभ or Parittābha परित्ताभ (Tib: 'od chung; Thai: ปริตฺตาภา or ปรีตตาภา) – The world of devas of "limited light". Their lifespan is 2 mahākalpas. The height of this world is 20,480 yojanas above the Earth. Brahmā worldsEdit Main article: Brahma (Buddhism) The mental state of the devas of the Brahmā worlds corresponds to the first dhyāna, and is characterized by observation (vitarka) and reflection (vicāra) as well as delight (prīti) and joy (sukha). The Brahmā worlds, together with the other lower worlds of the universe, are destroyed by fire at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below). Mahābrahmā महाब्रह्मा the world of "Great Brahmā", believed by many to be the creator of the world, and having as his titles "Brahmā, Great Brahmā, the Conqueror, the Unconquered, the All-Seeing, All-Powerful, the Lord, the Maker and Creator, the Ruler, Appointer and Orderer, Father of All That Have Been and Shall Be." According to the Brahmajāla Sutta (DN.1), a Mahābrahmā is a being from the Ābhāsvara worlds who falls into a lower world through exhaustion of his merits and is reborn alone in the Brahma-world; forgetting his former existence, he imagines himself to have come into existence without cause. Note that even such a high-ranking deity has no intrinsic knowledge of the worlds above his own. Mahābrahmā is 1 1⁄ yojanas tall. His lifespan variously said to be 1 kalpa (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or 1 1⁄ kalpas 2 2 long (Sarvāstivāda tradition), although it would seem that it could be no longer than 3⁄4 of a mahākalpa, i.e., all of the mahākalpa except for the Saṃvartasthāyikalpa, because that is the total length of time between the rebuilding of the lower world and its destruction. It is unclear what period of time "kalpa" refers to in this case. The height of this world is 10,240 yojanas above the Earth. Brahmapurohita the "Ministers of Brahmā" are beings, also originally from the Ābhāsvara worlds, that are born as companions to Mahābrahmā after he has spent some time alone. Since they arise subsequent to his thought of a desire for companions, he believes himself to be their creator, and they likewise believe him to be their creator and lord. They are 1 yojana in height and their lifespan is variously said to be 1⁄2 of a kalpa (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or a whole kalpa (Sarvāstivāda tradition). If they are later reborn in a lower world, and come to recall some part of their last existence, they teach the doctrine of Brahmā as creator as a revealed truth. The height of this world is 5,120 yojanas above the Earth. Brahmapāriṣadya ब्रह्मपारिषद्य the "Councilors of Brahmā" or the devas "belonging to the assembly of Brahmā". They are also called Brahmakāyika, but this name can be used for any of 141 the inhabitants of the Brahma-worlds. They are half a yojana in height and their lifespan is variously said to be 1⁄3 of a kalpa (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or 1⁄2 of a kalpa (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 2,560 yojanas above the Earth.    Desire Realm (Kāmadhātu कामधातु)Edit Main article: Desire realm The beings born in the Kāmadhātu कामधातु (Pāli: Kāmaloka कामलोक; Tib: 'dod pa'i khams; Chn/Jpn: 欲界 Yoku-kai; Thai: กามภูม)ิ differ in degree of happiness, but they are all, other than Anagamis, Arhats and Buddhas, under the domination of Māra and are bound by sensual desire, which causes them suffering. HeavensEdit The following four worlds are bounded planes, each 80,000 yojanas square, which float in the air above the top of Mount Sumeru. Although all of the worlds inhabited by devas (that is, all the worlds down to the Cāturmahārājikakāyika world and sometimes including the Asuras) are sometimes called "heavens", in the western sense of the word the term best applies to the four worlds listed below: – The heaven of devas "with power over (others') creations". These devas do not create pleasing forms that they desire for themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who wish for their favor. The ruler of this world is called Vaśavartin (Pāli: Vasavatti), who has longer life, greater beauty, more power and happiness and more delightful sense-objects than the other devas of his world. This world is also the home of the devaputra (being of divine race) called Māra, who endeavors to keep all beings of the Kāmadhātu in the grip of sensual pleasures. Māra is also sometimes called Vaśavartin, but in general these two dwellers of this world are kept distinct. The beings of this world are 4,500 feet (1,400 m) tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 1,280 yojanas above the Earth. Nirmāṇarati निर्माणरति The world of devas "delighting in their creations". The devas of this world are capable of making any appearance to please themselves. The lord of this world is called Sunirmita (Pāli: Sunimmita); his wife is the rebirth of Visākhā, formerly the chief of the upāsikās (female lay devotees) of the Buddha. The beings of this world are 3,750 feet (1,140 m) tall and live for 2,304,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 640 yojanas above the Earth. Tuṣita तुषित– The world of the "joyful" devas. This world is best known for being the world in which a Bodhisattva lives before being reborn in the world of humans. Until a few thousand years ago, the Bodhisattva of this world was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu), who was reborn as Siddhārtha, who would become the Buddha Śākyamuni; since then the Bodhisattva has been Nātha (or Nāthadeva) who will be reborn as Ajita and will become the Buddha Maitreya (Pāli Metteyya). While this Bodhisattva is the foremost of the dwellers in Tuṣita, the ruler of this world is another deva called Santuṣita (Pāli: Santusita). The beings of this world are 3,000 feet (910 m) tall and live for 576,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 320 yojanas above the Earth. Yāma याम "heaven without fighting", because it is the lowest of the heavens to be physically separated from the tumults of the earthly world. These devas live in the air, free of all difficulties. Its ruler is the deva Suyāma; according to some, his wife is the rebirth of Sirimā, a courtesan of Rājagṛha in the Buddha's time who was generous to the monks. The beings of this 142 world are 2,250 feet (690 m) tall and live for 144,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The height of this world is 160 yojanas above the Earth. Worlds of Sumeru    The world-mountain of Sumeru सुमेरु (Sineru सिनेर;ु Thai: เขาพระสุเมรุ, สิเนรุบรรพต) is an immense, strangely shaped peak which arises in the center of the world, and around which the Sun and Moon revolve. Its base rests in a vast ocean, and it is surrounded by several rings of lesser mountain ranges and oceans. The three worlds listed below are all located on, or around, Sumeru: the Trāyastriṃśa devas live on its peak, the Cāturmahārājikakāyika devas live on its slopes, and the Asuras live in the ocean at its base. Sumeru and its surrounding oceans and mountains are the home not just of these deities, but also vast assemblies of beings of popular mythology who only rarely intrude on the human world. Trāyastriṃśa त्रायस्त्रिंश The world "of the Thirty-three (devas)" is a wide flat space on the top of Mount Sumeru, filled with the gardens and palaces of the devas. Its ruler is Śakro devānām indra, शक्रो देवानामिन्द्रः ”Śakra, lord of the devas". Besides the eponymous Thirty-three devas, many other devas and supernatural beings dwell here, including the attendants of the devas and many heavenly courtesans (es or nymphs). The beings of this world are 1,500 feet (460 m) tall and live for 36,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition) or 3/4 of a yojana tall and live for 30,000,000 years (Vibhajyavāda tradition). The height of this world is 80 yojanas above the Earth. Cāturmahārājikakāyika चातुर्महाराजिककायिक The world "of the Four Great Kings" is found on the lower slopes of Mount Sumeru, though some of its inhabitants live in the air around the mountain. Its rulers are the four Great Kings of the name, Virūḍhaka विरूढकः, Dhṛtarāṣṭra धृतराष्ट्रः, Virūpākṣa विरूपाक्षः, and their leader Vaiśravaṇa वैश्रवणः. The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also considered part of this world, as are the retinues of the four kings, composed of Kumbhāṇḍas कुम्भाण्ड (dwarfs), Gandharvas गन्धर्व (fairies), Nāgas नाग (dragons) and Yakṣas यक्ष (goblins). The beings of this world are 750 feet (230 m) tall and live for 9,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition) or 90,000 years (Vibhajyavāda tradition). The height of this world is from sea level up to 40 yojanas above the Earth. – The world of the Asuras is the space at the foot of Mount Sumeru, much of which is a deep ocean. It is not the Asuras' original home, but the place they found themselves after they were hurled, drunken, from Trāyastriṃśa where they had formerly lived. The Asuras are always fighting to regain their lost kingdom on the top of Mount Sumeru, but are unable to break the guard of the Four Great Kings. The Asuras are divided into many groups, and have no single ruler, but among their leaders are Vemacitrin वेमचित्री (Pāli: Vepacitti वेपचित्ती) and Rāhu. Earthly realms Manuṣyaloka मनुष्यलोक– This is the world of humans and human-like beings who live on the surface of the earth. The mountain-rings that engird Sumeru are surrounded by a vast ocean, which fills most of the world. The ocean is in turn surrounded by a circular mountain wall called Cakravāḍa चक्रवाड (Pāli: Cakkavāḷa चक्कवाळ ; Thai: จักรวาล or จกฺกวาฬ) which marks the horizontal limit of the world. In this ocean there are four continents which are, relatively speaking, small islands in it. Because of the immenseness of the ocean, they cannot be 143 reached from each other by ordinary sailing vessels, although in the past, when the cakravartin kings ruled, communication between the continents was possible by means of the treasure called the cakraratna (Pāli cakkaratana’’’), which a cakravartin king and his retinue could use to fly through the air between the continents. The four continents are: o Jambudvīpa जम्वुद्वीप is located in the south and is the dwelling of ordinary human beings. It is said to be shaped "like a cart", or rather a blunt-nosed triangle with the point facing south. (This description probably echoes the shape of the coastline of southern India.) It is 10,000 yojanas in extent (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or has a perimeter of 6,000 yojanas (Sarvāstivāda tradition) to which can be added the southern coast of only 3.5 yojanas' length. The continent takes its name from a giant Jambu tree (Syzygium cumini), 100 yojanas tall, which grows in the middle of the continent. Every continent has one of these giant trees. All Buddhas appear in Jambudvīpa. The people here are five to six feet tall and their length of life varies between 10 and about 10140 years (Asankya Aayu). o Pūrvavideha पूर्वविदेह is located in the east, and is shaped like a semicircle with the flat side pointing westward (i.e., towards Sumeru). It is 7,000 yojanas in extent (Vibhajyavāda tradition) or has a perimeter of 6,350 yojanas of which the flat side is 2,000 yojanas long (Sarvāstivāda tradition). Its tree is the acacia, or Albizia lebbeck (Sukhōthai tradition). The people here are about 12 feet (3.7 m) tall and they live for 700 years. Their main work is trading and buying materials. o Aparagodānīya अपरगोदानीय is located in the west, and is shaped like a circle with a circumference of about 7,500 yojanas (Sarvāstivāda tradition). The tree of this continent is a giant Kadamba tree (Anthocephalus chinensis). The human inhabitants of this continent do not live in houses but sleep on the ground. Their main transportation is Bullock cart. They are about 24 feet (7.3 m) tall and they live for 500 years. o Uttarakuru उत्तरकुरु is located in the north, and is shaped like a square. It has a perimeter of 8,000 yojanas, being 2,000 yojanas on each side. This continent's tree is called a kalpavṛkṣa कल्पवृक्ष (Pāli: kapparukkha कप्परुक्ख) or kalpa-tree, because it lasts for the entire kalpa. The inhabitants of Uttarakuru have cities built in the air. They are said to be extraordinarily wealthy, not needing to labor for a living – as their food grows by itself – and having no private property. They are about 48 feet (15 m) tall and live for 1,000 years, and they are under the protection of Vaiśravaṇa.  Tiryagyoni-loka तिर्यग्योनिलोक -This world comprises all members of the animal kingdom that are capable of feeling suffering, regardless of size.  Pretaloka प्रेतलोक or Petaloka – The pretas, or "hungry ghosts", are mostly dwellers on earth, though due to their mental state they perceive it very differently from humans. They live for the most part in deserts and wastelands. Hells (Narakas)-Naraka नरक or Niraya निरय is the name given to one of the worlds of greatest suffering, usually translated into English as "hell" or "purgatory". As with the other realms, a being is born into one of these worlds as a result of his karma, and resides there for a finite length of time until his karma has achieved its full result, after which he will be reborn in one of the higher worlds as the result of an earlier karma that had not yet ripened. The mentality of a being in the hells corresponds to states of extreme fear and helpless anguish in humans. 144 Physically, Naraka is thought of as a series of layers extending below Jambudvīpa into the earth. There are several schemes for counting these Narakas and enumerating their torments. One of the more common is that of the Eight Cold Narakas and Eight Hot Narakas.         Cold NarakasEdit Arbuda अर्बुद – the "blister" Naraka Nirarbuda निरर्बुद – the "burst blister" Naraka Ataṭa अतट – the Naraka of shivering Hahava हहव – the Naraka of lamentation Huhuva हुहुव – the Naraka of chattering teeth Utpala उत्पल – the Naraka of skin becoming blue as a blue lotus Padma पद्म – the Naraka of cracking skin Mahāpadma महापद्म – the Naraka of total frozen bodies falling apart Each lifetime in these Narakas is twenty times the length of the one before it.         Hot NarakasEdit Sañjīva सञ्जीव the "reviving" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 162×1010 years long. Kālasūtra कालसूत्र – the "black thread" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 1296×1010 years long. Saṃghāta संघात – the "crushing" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 10,368×1010 years long. Raurava/Rīrava रौरव/रीरव the "screaming" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 82,944×1010 years long. Mahāraurava/Mahārīrava महारौरव/महारीरव "great screaming" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 663,552×1010 years long. Tāpana/Tapana तापन/तपन -the "heating" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 5,308,416×1010 years long. Mahātāpana महातापन – the "great heating" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 42,467,328×1010 years long. Avīci अवीचि the "uninterrupted" Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 339,738,624×1010 years long. Each lifetime in these Narakas is eight times the length of the one before it. The foundations of the earthEdit All of the structures of the earth, Sumeru and the rest, extend downward to a depth of 80,000 yojanas below sea level – the same as the height of Sumeru above sea level. Below this is a layer of "golden earth", a substance compact and firm enough to support the weight of Sumeru. It is 320,000 yojanas in depth and so extends to 400,000 yojanas below sea level. The layer of golden earth in turn rests upon a layer of water, which is 8,000,000 yojanas in depth, going down to 8,400,000 yojanas below sea level. Below the layer of water is a "circle of wind", which is 16,000,000 yojanas in depth and also much broader in extent, supporting 1,000 different worlds upon it. Yojanas are equivalent to about 13 km (8 mi). 145 Sahasra cosmology Sahasra means "one thousand". All of the planes, from the plane of neither perception nor nonperception (nevasanna-asanna-ayatana) down to the Avīci – the "without interval") niraya – constitutes the single world-system, cakkavāḷa (intimating something circular, a "wheel", but the etymology is uncertain[14]), described above. In modern parlance it would be called a 'universe', or 'solar system'. A collection of one thousand solar systems are called a "thousandfold minor world-system" (culanika lokadhatu). Or small chiliocosm. A collection of 1,000 times 1,000 world-systems (one thousand squared) is a "thousandfold to the second power middling world-system" (dvisahassi majjhima lokadhatu). Or medium dichiliocosm. The largest grouping, which consists of one thousand cubed world-systems, is called the "tisahassi mahasassi lokadhatu". Or great trichiliocosm. The Tathagata, if he so wished, could effect his voice throughout a great trichiliocosm. He does so by suffusing the trichiliocosm with his radiance, at which point the inhabitants of those worldsystem will perceive this light, and then proceeds to extend his voice throughout that realm.[15] Maha Kalpa The word kalpa, means 'moment'. A maha kalpa consists of four moments (kalpa), the first of which is creation. The creation moment consists of the creation of the "receptacle", and the descent of beings from higher realms into more coarse forms of existence. During the rest of the creation moment, the world is populated. Human beings who exist at this point have no limit on their lifespan. The second moment is the duration moment, the start of this moment is signified by the first sentient being to enter hell (niraya), the hells and nirayas not existing or being empty prior to this moment. The duration moment consists of twenty "intermediate" moments (antarakappas), which unfold in a drama of the human lifespan descending from 80,000 years to 10, and then back up to 80,000 again. The interval between 2 of these "intermediate" moments is the "seven day purge", in which a variety of humans will kill each other (not knowing or recognizing each other), some humans will go into hiding. At the end of this purge, they will emerge from hiding and repopulate the world. After this purge, the lifespan will increase to 80,000, reach its peak and descend, at which point the purge will happen again. Within the duration 'moment', this purge and repeat cycle seems to happen around 18 times, the first "intermediate" moment consisting only of the descent from 80,000 – the second intermediate moment consisting of a rise and descent, and the last consisting only of an ascent. After the duration 'moment' is the dissolution moment, the hells will gradually be emptied, as well as all coarser forms of existence. The beings will flock to the form realms (rupa dhatu), a destruction of fire occurs, sparing everything from the realms of the 'radiant' gods and above (abha deva). After 7 of these destructions by 'fire', a destruction by water occurs, and everything from the realms of the 'pleasant' gods and above is spared (subha deva). 146 After 64 of these destructions by fire and water, that is – 56 destructions by fire, and 7 by water – a destruction by wind occurs, this eliminates everything below the realms of the 'fruitful' devas (vehapphala devas, literally of "great fruit"). The pure abodes (suddhavasa, meaning something like pure, unmixed, similar to the connotation of "pure bred German shepherd"), are never destroyed. Although without the appearance of a Buddha, these realms may remain empty for a long time. The inhabitants of these realms have exceedingly long life spans. The formless realms are never destroyed because they do not consist of form (rupa). The reason the world is destroyed by fire, water and wind, and not earth is because earth is the 'receptacle'. After the dissolution moment, this particular world system remains dissolved for a long time, this is called the 'empty' moment, but the more accurate term would be "the state of being dissolved". The beings that inhabited this realm formerly will migrate to other world systems, and perhaps return if their journeys lead here again. Temporal cosmology Buddhist temporal cosmology describes how the universe comes into being and is dissolved. Like other Indian cosmologies, it assumes an infinite span of time and is cyclical. This does not mean that the same events occur in identical form with each cycle, but merely that, as with the cycles of day and night or summer and winter, certain natural events occur over and over to give some structure to time.     The basic unit of time measurement is the mahākalpa or "Great Eon". The length of this time in human years is never defined exactly, but it is meant to be very long, to be measured in billions of years if not longer. A mahākalpa is divided into four kalpas or "eons" distinguished from the others by the stage of evolution of the universe during that kalpa. The four kalpas are: Vivartakalpa विवर्तकल्प "Eon of evolution" – during this kalpa the universe comes into existence. Vivartasthāyikalpa विवर्तस्थायिकल्प "Eon of evolution-duration" – during this kalpa the universe remains in existence in a steady state. Saṃvartakalpa संवर्तकल्प "Eon of dissolution" – during this kalpa the universe dissolves. Saṃvartasthāyikalpa संवर्तस्थायिकल्प "Eon of dissolution-duration" – during this kalpa the universe remains in a state of emptiness. Each one of these kalpas is divided into twenty antarakalpas अन्तरकल्प (Pāli: antarakappa अन्तरकप्प; Chn/Jpn: 中劫, "inside eons"; Thai: อันตรกัป) each of about the same length. For the Saṃvartasthāyikalpa this division is merely nominal, as nothing changes from one antarakalpa to the next; but for the other three kalpas it marks an interior cycle within the kalpa. Vivartakalpa The Vivartakalpa begins with the arising of the primordial wind, which begins the process of building up the structures of the universe that had been destroyed at the end of the last mahākalpa. As the extent of the destruction can vary, the nature of this evolution can vary as well, but it always takes the form of beings from a higher world being born into a lower world. 147 The example of a Mahābrahmā being the rebirth of a deceased Ābhāsvara deva is just one instance of this, which continues throughout the Vivartakalpa until all the worlds are filled from the Brahmaloka down to Naraka. During the Vivartakalpa the first humans appear; they are not like present-day humans, but are beings shining in their own light, capable of moving through the air without mechanical aid, living for a very long time, and not requiring sustenance; they are more like a type of lower deity than present-day humans are. Over time, they acquire a taste for physical nutriment, and as they consume it, their bodies become heavier and more like human bodies; they lose their ability to shine, and begin to acquire differences in their appearance, and their length of life decreases. They differentiate into two sexes and begin to become sexually active. Then greed, theft and violence arise among them, and they establish social distinctions and government and elect a king to rule them, called Mahāsammata। महासम्मत, "the great appointed one". Some of them begin to hunt and eat the flesh of animals, which have by now come into existence. Vivartasthāyikalpa-First antarakalpaEdit The Vivartasthāyikalpa begins when the first being is born into Naraka, thus filling the entire universe with beings. During the first antarakalpa of this eon, the duration of human lives declines from a vast but unspecified number of years (but at least several tens of thousands of years) toward the modern lifespan of less than 100 years. At the beginning of the antarakalpa, people are still generally happy. They live under the rule of a universal monarch or "wheelturning king" (Sanskrit: cakravartin चक्रवर्ति Chakravartin king, Mahāsudassana (Sanskrit: Mahāsudarśana) who lived for 336,000 years. The Cakkavatti-sīhanāda-sutta (DN.26) tells of a later dynasty of cakravartins, Daḷhanemi (Sanskrit: Dṛḍhanemi) and five of his descendants, who had a lifespan of over 80,000 years. The seventh of this line of cakravartins broke with the traditions of his forefathers, refusing to abdicate his position at a certain age, pass the throne on to his son, and enter the life of a śramaṇa श्रमण. As a result of his subsequent misrule, poverty increased; as a result of poverty, theft began; as a result of theft, capital punishment was instituted; and as a result of this contempt for life, murders and other crimes became rampant. The human lifespan now quickly decreased from 80,000 to 100 years, apparently decreasing by about half with each generation (this is perhaps not to be taken literally), while with each generation other crimes and evils increased: lying, greed, hatred, sexual misconduct, disrespect for elders. During this period, according to the Mahāpadāna-sutta (DN.14) three of the four Buddhas of this antarakalpa lived: Krakucchanda Buddha क्रकुच्छन्दः (Pāli: Kakusandha ककुन्ध), at the time when the lifespan was 40,000 years; Kanakamuni कनकमुनिः Buddha (Pāli: Konāgamana कोनागमन) when the lifespan was 30,000 years; and Kāśyapa काश्यपः Buddha (Pāli: Kassapa कस्सप) when the lifespan was 20,000 years. Our present time is taken to be toward the end of the first antarakalpa of this Vivartasthāyikalpa, when the lifespan is less than 100 years, after the life of Śākyamuni शाक्यमुनिः Buddha (Pāli: Sakyamuni ), who lived to the age of 80. The remainder of the antarakalpa is prophesied to be miserable: lifespans will continue to decrease, and all the evil tendencies of the past will reach their ultimate in destructiveness. People will live no longer than ten years, and will marry at five; foods will be poor and tasteless; no form of morality will be acknowledged. The most contemptuous and hateful people will 148 become the rulers. Incest will be rampant. Hatred between people, even members of the same family, will grow until people think of each other as hunters do of their prey.[20] Eventually a great war will ensue, in which the most hostile and aggressive will arm themselves with swords in their hands and go out to kill each other. The less aggressive will hide in forests and other secret places while the war rages. This war marks the end of the first antarakalpa.[21] Second antarakalpa At the end of the war, the survivors will emerge from their hiding places and repent their evil habits. As they begin to do good, their lifespan increases, and the health and welfare of the human race will also increase with it. After a long time, the descendants of those with a 10-year lifespan will live for 80,000 years, and at that time there will be a cakravartin king named Saṅkha शंख. During his reign, the current bodhisattva in the Tuṣita heaven will descend and be reborn under the name of Ajita अजित. He will enter the life of a śramaṇa and will gain perfect enlightenment as a Buddha; and he will then be known by the name of Maitreya (मैत्रेयः, Pāli: Metteyya मेत्तेय्य). After Maitreya's time, the world will again worsen, and the lifespan will gradually decrease from 80,000 years to 10 years again, each antarakalpa being separated from the next by devastating war, with peaks of high civilization and morality in the middle. After the 19th antarakalpa, the lifespan will increase to 80,000 and then not decrease, because the Vivartasthāyikalpa will have come to an end. Saṃvartakalpa The Saṃvartakalpa begins when beings cease to be born in Naraka. This cessation of birth then proceeds in reverse order up the vertical cosmology, i.e., pretas then cease to be born, then animals, then humans, and so on up to the realms of the deities. When these worlds as far as the Brahmaloka are devoid of inhabitants, a great fire consumes the entire physical structure of the world. It burns all the worlds below the Ābhāsvara worlds. When they are destroyed, the Saṃvartasthāyikalpa begins. Saṃvartasthāyikalpa There is nothing to say about the Saṃvartasthāyikalpa, since nothing happens in it below the Ābhāsvara worlds. It ends when the primordial wind begins to blow and build the structure of the worlds up again. Other destructions The destruction by fire is the normal type of destruction that occurs at the end of the Saṃvartakalpa. But every eighth mahākalpa, after seven destructions by fire, there is a destruction by water. This is more devastating, as it eliminates not just the Brahma worlds but also the Ābhāsvara worlds. Every sixty-fourth mahākalpa, after fifty six destructions by fire and seven destructions by water, there is a destruction by wind. This is the most devastating of all, as it also destroys the Śubhakṛtsna worlds. The higher worlds are never destroyed. Mahayana views A cosmology with some difference is further explained in Chapter 5 of the Avatamsaka Sutra. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra (IAST, Sanskrit: आवतंसक सूत्र); or the Mahāvaipulya Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra (Sanskrit: महावैपुल्य बुद्धावतंसक सूत्र), is one of the most influential Mahāyāna sutras of East Asian Buddhism. The title is rendered in English as Flower Garland Sutra, Flower Adornment Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture. It has been called by 149 the translator Thomas Cleary "the most grandiose, the most comprehensive, and the most beautifully arrayed of the Buddhist scriptures." Covers of a Korean golden pigment sutra chapter. Indigo dyed paper, with rows of golden flower blossoms, and a title cartouche, c. 1400. Buddhist cosmology is the description of the 31 planes of existence in samsara according to the Sutta Pitaka of the Theravada Pali Canon and commentaries.Theravada Buddhist cosmology describes the 31 planes of existence in which rebirth takes place. The order of the planes are found in various discourses of Gautama Buddha in the Sutta Pitaka. For example, in the Saleyyaka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya the Buddha mentioned the planes above the human plane in ascending order.In several suttas in the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha described the causes of rebirth in these planes in the same order. In Buddhism, the devas are not immortal gods that play a creative role in the cosmic process. They are simply elevated beings who had been reborn in the celestial planes as a result of their words, thoughts, and actions. Usually, they are just as much in bondage to delusion and desire as human beings, and as in need of guidance from the Enlightened One. The Buddha is the "teacher of devas and humans (satthadevamanussanam). The devas came to visit the Buddha in the night. The Devatasamyutta and the Devaputtasamyutta of the Samyutta Nikaya gives a record of their conversations. The devaputtas are young devas newly arisen in heavenly planes, and devatas are mature deities. The data for the 31 planes of existence in samsara are compiled from the Majjhima Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Digha Nikaya, Khuddaka Nikaya, and others. The 31 planes of existence can be perceived by a Buddha's Divine eye (dibbacakkhu) and some of his awakened disciples through the development of jhana meditation. According to the suttas, a Buddha can access all these planes and know all his past lives as well as those of other beings. In the Maha-Saccaka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya of the Pali Canon, Gautama Buddha said: When the mind was thus concentrated, purified, bright, unblemished, rid of defilement, pliant, malleable, steady, & attained to imperturbability, I directed it to the knowledge of the passing away & reappearance of beings. I saw — by means of the divine eye, purified & surpassing the 150 human — beings passing away & re-appearing, and I discerned how they are inferior & superior, beautiful & ugly, fortunate & unfortunate in accordance with their kamma: 'These beings — who were endowed with bad conduct of body, speech, & mind, who reviled the noble ones, held wrong views and undertook actions under the influence of wrong views — with the break-up of the body, after death, have re-appeared in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lower realms, in hell. But these beings — who were endowed with good conduct of body, speech & mind, who did not revile the noble ones, who held right views and undertook actions under the influence of right views — with the break-up of the body, after death, have re-appeared in the good destinations, in the heavenly world.' Thus — by means of the divine eye, purified & surpassing the human — I saw beings passing away & re-appearing, and I discerned how they are inferior & superior, beautiful & ugly, fortunate & unfortunate in accordance with their kamma. In the Itivuttaka edition of the Khuddaka Nikaya and in the Māpuññabhāyi Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha told about his past lives: Whenever the eon contracted I reached the "Plane of Streaming Radiance", and when the eon expanded I arose in an empty divine mansion. And there I was Brahma, the great Brahma, the unvanquished victor, the all-seeing, the all-powerful. Thirty-six times I was Sakka, ruler of the devas. And many hundreds of times I was a wheel-turning monarch, righteous, a king of righteousness, conqueror of the four regions of the earth, maintaining stability in the land, in possession of the seven treasures. Causes for rebirth in various planes The process by which sentient beings migrate from one state of existence to another is dependent on causes and conditions. The three causes are giving or charity, moral conduct, meditative development, and their opposites. Rebirth in the Kama-loka depends on a person's moral conduct and practice of giving. Rebirth in the Rupa-loka and Arupa-loka also requires meditation development. Liberation from all rebirth requires wisdom in addition to moral conduct and meditation. About the cycle of rebirth, Bhikkhu Bodhi, a scholar monk who has translated numerous texts from the Pali Canon, writes that beyond all planes of existence is the unconditioned Nibbana, the final goal of the Buddha's teaching: A blissful heavenly rebirth, however, is not the final purpose for which the Buddha taught the Dhamma. At best it is only a temporary way station. The ultimate goal is the cessation of suffering, and the bliss of the heavens, no matter how blissful, is not the same as the cessation of suffering. According to the Buddha's teaching, all states of existence within the round of rebirths, even the heavens, are transient, unreliable, bound up with pain. Thus, the ultimate aim of the Dhamma is nothing short of liberation, which means total release from the round of rebirth and death. Liberation from rebirth Liberation from the rounds of rebirth requires more than just meditation achievement. It is necessary to apply Yoniso Manasikara after emerging from Samma Samadhi (1st to 4th jhana) in order to arrive at a breakthrough by wisdom. The Udana shows that after emerging from the jhanas, the Buddha directed his attention to the cause of dukkha and the way leading to its 151 cessation. This process culminates in the discovery of Pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination) and the Four Noble Truths. When the seven days had come to a close, the Exalted One arose from the state of trance and in the first watch of the night, thoroughly thought out the chain of cause and effect, in direct order, thus; "If there is this (state), another (state) arises, by the arising of this (state), a (state) is produced, that is to say: "From Ignorance spring Fabrications, from Fabrications springs Consciousness, from Consciousness spring Mind and Material Form, from Mind and Material Form, the six Organs of Sense, from the six Organs of Sense, Contact, from Contact, Sensations, from Sensations, Desire, from Desire, Attachment, from Attachment, Becoming, from Becoming, Birth, from Birth spring Decay, Death, Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief and Despair. Thus, the whole mass of suffering originates". "By the destruction of Ignorance, Fabrications are destroyed, by the destruction of Fabrications, Consciousness is destroyed, by the destruction of Consciousness, Mind and Material Form are destroyed, by the destruction of Mind and Material Form, the six Organs of Sense are destroyed, by the destruction of the six Organs of Sense, Contact is destroyed, by the destruction of Contact, Sensations are destroyed, by the destruction of Sensations, Desire is destroyed, by the destruction of Desire, Attachment is destroyed, by the destruction of Attachment, Becoming is destroyed, by the destruction of Becoming, Birth is destroyed, and by the destruction of Birth, Decay, Death, Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief and Despair are destroyed. Thus, the whole mass of suffering is brought to an end." Arupa-Loka (Formless Realms) The immaterial or formless realm (arupa loka) includes four planes into which beings are born as a result of attaining the Four Formless Jhana arūpadhyānas. The inhabitants of these realms are possessed entirely of mind. Having no physical form or location, they are unable to hear Dhamma teachings. They achieve this by attaining the formless jhana levels in a previous life, and now enjoy the fruits (vipāka) of the good karma of that accomplishment for a period before rebirth in a lower plane again. They do not interact with the rest of the universe.     31 - Realm of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception (nevasannanasannayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of attaining the fourth formless jhana in a previous life. The beings in this plane only have mind and no physical body. They are unable to hear Dhamma. In this sphere the formless beings do not engage in "perception". Uddaka Rāmaputta reached this plane and thought that this is awakening. After having experienced this state the Buddha realized that it will eventually lead to further rebirth.[9] 30 - Realm of Nothingness (akincannayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of attaining the third formless jhana in a previous life. This is considered a form of perception, though a very subtle one. This was the sphere reached by Āḷāra Kālāma, the Buddha's first teacher. Alara Kalama thought that it is the state of awakening or liberation.[10] 29 - The Realm of Infinite Consciousness (vinnanancayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of attaining the second formless jhana. In this sphere formless beings dwell meditating on their consciousness (vijñāna) as infinitely pervasive. 28 - Realm of Infinite Space (akasanancayatanupaga deva): Rebirth in this plane is a result of attaining the first formless jhana. 152 Rupa-Loka (Fine-Material World The fine material realm (rupa-loka) consists of sixteen planes. Beings are reborn into these planes as a result of attaining the form jhanas. The prevalent mode of experience here is meditative rather than sensory. They have bodies made of fine matter. The sixteen planes correspond to the attainment of the four form jhanas. The devas of the rupa-loka have physical forms, but are sexless and passionless. Beings in the lower planes are not able to see beings in planes higher than theirs. The beings of the Form realm are not subject to the extremes of pleasure and pain, or governed by desires for things pleasing to the senses, as the beings of the Kāma-loka are. The bodies of Form realm beings do not have sexual distinctions. Like the beings of the Arupa-loka, the dwellers in the Rupa-loka have minds corresponding to the dhyānas (Pāli: jhānas). In their case it is the four lower jhanas or rūpadhyānas. Related Sutta : Jhana Sutta from the Anguttara Nikaya Pure Abodes (Suddhavasa) The Pure Abodes are distinct from the other worlds of the rupa-loka in that they do not house beings who have been born there through ordinary merit or meditative attainments. Birth in these five realms are a result of attaining the fruit of non-returning or Anagami, the third level of enlightenment. These Pure Abodes are accessible only to those who have destroyed the lower five fetters, consisting of self-view, sceptical doubt, clinging to rites and ceremonies, sense desires, and ill-will.[11] They will destroy their remaining fetters of craving for fine material existence, craving for immaterial existence, conceit, restlessness and ignorance during their existence in the Pure Abodes. Those who take rebirth here are called "non-returners" because they do not return from that world, but attain final nibbana there without coming back. They guard and protect Buddhism on earth, and will pass into enlightenment as Arhats when they pass away from the Suddhavasa worlds. According to the Ayacana Sutta, among its inhabitants is Brahma Sahampati, who begs the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the world. The five Pure Abodes are:  27 - Peerless Devas (Akanittha deva): World of devas "un-equal in rank". The highest of all the Rūpadhātu worlds, it is often used to refer to the highest extreme of the universe. The current Śakra will eventually be born there.  26 - Clear-Sighted Devas (Sudassi deva): The "clear-seeing" devas live in a world similar to and friendly with the Akanitṭha world.  25 - Beautiful Devas (Sudassa deva): The world of the "beautiful" devas is said to be the place of rebirth for five kinds of anāgāmins.  24 - Untroubled Devas (Atappa deva): The world of the "untroubled" devas, for whose company those of lower realms long.  23 - Devas not Falling Away (Aviha deva): The world of the "not falling" devas, perhaps the most common destination for reborn Anāgāmins. Many achieve arhatship directly in this world, but some pass away and are reborn in sequentially higher worlds of the Pure Abodes until they are at last reborn in the Akanitṭha world. These are called in Pāli uddhaṃsotas, "those whose stream goes upward". Bṛhatphala Planes 153 These two realms are a result of attaining the fourth jhana. They remain in the tranquil state attained in the 4th Jhana, and is characterized by equanimity (upekṣā).  22 - Unconscious beings (Asaññasatta): Realm of mindless beings who have only bodies without consciousness. Rebirth into this plane results from a meditative practice aimed at the suppression of consciousness. Those who take up this practice assume release from suffering can be achieved by attaining unconsciousness. However, when the life span in this realm ends, the beings pass away and are born in other planes where consciousness returns.  21 - Very Fruitful devas (vehapphala deva): In the Jhana Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya the Buddha said "The Vehapphala devas, monks, have a life-span of 500 eons. A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades." Śubhakṛtsna Planes These three realms are a result of attaining the third jhana. The mental state of the devas of these worlds corresponds to the third jhana, and is characterized by a quiet joy (sukha). These devas have bodies that radiate a steady light.  20 - Devas of Refulgent Glory (subhakinna deva): The Buddha said, "The Subhakinha devas, monks, have a life-span of 64 mahakalpas. A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades."[13]  19 - Devas of Unbounded Glory (appamanasubha deva): The world of devas of "limitless beauty".  18 - Devas of Limited Glory (parittasubha deva): The world of devas of "limited beauty". Ābhāsvara Planes These three are a result of attaining the second jhana. The mental state of the devas of the Ābhāsvara worlds corresponds to the second dhyāna, and is characterized by delight (prīti) as well as joy (sukha).  17 - Devas of Streaming Radiance (abhassara deva): The Abhassara devas have a life-span of 8 mahakalpas. After that period they are reborn in a lower realm.[14]  16 - Devas of Unbounded Radiance (appamanabha deva): The world of devas of "limitless light", a concept on which they meditate. Their lifespan is 4 mahākalpas.  15 - Devas of Limited Radiance (parittabha deva): The world of devas of "limited light". Their lifespan is 2 mahākalpas. Brahmā Planes- Brahma (Buddhism) The mental state of the devas of the Brahmā worlds corresponds to the first jhana. Like all beings, the brahmas are still tied to the cycle of rebirth, though sometimes they forget this and imagine themselves to be immortal. The Buddha said "The devas of Brahma's retinue, monks, have a life-span of an eon. A run-of-the-mill person having stayed there, having used up all the life-span of those devas, goes to hell, to the animal womb, to the state of the hungry shades." One way to rebirth in the brahma world is mastery over the first jhana. Another is through meditations on loving kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. According to the 154 Subha Sutta, the Brahmin Subha asked the Buddha to teach him how to be born in the world of Brahma. And the Buddha said to him: Then young man, listen carefully I will tell.’ The young man agreed and the Blessed One said. The bhikkhu pervades one direction with thoughts of loving kindness, so too the second, the third, the fourth, above, below, across, in every respect, in all circumstances, the entire world, he pervades with the thought of loving kindness grown great and immeasurable without anger and ill will. Young man, when the release of the mind in loving kindness, is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. Just as a clever drummer in no time would make known the message in the four directions. In the same manner, when the release of the mind in loving kindness, is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. This is the method to be born with Brahma. Again the bhikkhu pervades one direction with the thought of compassion,…re…. with intrinsic joy,…re… with equanimity, so too the second, the third, the fourth, above, below, across, in every respect, in all circumstances, the entire world, he pervades with equanimity grown great and immeasurable without anger and ill will. Young man, when the release of the mind in equanimity, is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. Just as a clever drummer in no time would make known the message in the four directions. In the same manner, when the release of the mind in equanimity is developed thus, none of the measured actions remain. This is the method to be born with Brahma.  14 - Great Brahmas (Maha brahma): One of this realm's most famous inhabitants is the Great Brahma, a deity whose delusion leads him to regard himself as the all-powerful, allseeing creator of the Universe. According to the Brahmajāla Sutta, a Mahā brahmā is a being from the Ābhāsvara worlds who falls into a lower world through exhaustion of his merits and is reborn alone in the Brahma-world; forgetting his former existence, he imagines himself to have come into existence without cause. Related Sutta: Kevaddha Sutta 13 - Ministers of Brahma (brahma-purohita deva): The "Ministers of Brahmā" are beings, also originally from the Ābhāsvara worlds, that are born as companions to Mahābrahmā after he has spent some time alone. Since they arise after his thought of a desire for companions, he believes himself to be their creator, and they likewise believe him to be their creator and lord.  12 - Retinue of Brahma (brahma-parisajja deva): The "Councilors of Brahmā" or the devas "belonging to the assembly of Brahmā". Kama-Loka (The Sense-Sphere realm)-Desire realm  Birth into these heavenly planes takes place as a result of giving and moral discipline. The Sense-Sphere Realm is the lowest of the three realms. The driving force within this realm is sensual desire. These devas enjoy aesthetic pleasures, long life, beauty, and certain powers. The heavenly planes are not reserved only for good Buddhists. Anyone who has led a wholesome life can be born in them. People who believe in an "eternal heaven" may carry their belief to the deva plane and take the long life span there to be an eternal existence. Only those who have known the Dhamma will realize that, as these planes are impermanent, some day these sentient beings will fall away from them and be reborn elsewhere. The devas can help people by inclining their minds to wholesome acts, and people can help the devas by inviting them to rejoice in their meritorious deeds. 155 Related Suttas: Saleyyaka Sutta, Dana Sutta Higher Kama (Karma) Loka These devas live in four heavens that float in the air, leaving them free from contact with the strife of the lower world.  11 - Devas Wielding Power over the Creation of Others (Parinimmita-vasavattin deva): These devas enjoy sensual pleasures created by others for them. These devas do not create pleasing forms that they desire themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who wish for their favor. Mara, the personification of delusion and desire, lives here.  10 - Devas Delighting in Creation (Nimmanarati deva): These devas delight in the sense objects of their own creation. They are capable of changing appearance to please themselves. The lord of this world is Sunirmita (Pāli Sunimmita).  9 - Contented deva (Tusita deva): Tushita is the home of the contented gods, among whom many Bodhisattvas, including the future Buddha Maitreya, abide. Before his birth as Siddhartha, the present Buddha also used to dwell with the other Bodhisattvas in this realm. His name in this realm was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu). While Maitreya is undoubtedly the most important of the dwellers in Tuṣita, the ruler of this world is Santuṣita (Pāli: Santusita).  8 - Yama devas: These Yama devas live in the air, free of all difficulties. Lower Kama-Loka- Sumeru The lower devas of the Kama-loka live on different parts of the mountain at the center of the world, Sumeru. They are even more passionate than the higher devas, and do not simply enjoy themselves but also engage in strife and fighting.  7 - Thirty-three gods (Tavatimsa deva): Beings that live on the peak of Sumeru are like the Olympian gods. Their ruler is Sakka or Śakra, a devotee of the Buddha. Sakka rules by righteousness, patience towards aggressors, and compassionate treatment of wrongdoers. Sakka and the devas honor sages and holy men. He earned his place as ruler of the devas by fulfilling seven vows which embody the standards of the virtuous householder while he was still a human being. The Buddha holds up Sakka's patience and forgiveness as a model for the bhikkhus. Many devas dwelling here live in mansions in the air. Besides the thirty-three devas, many other devas and supernatural beings dwell here, including the attendants of the devas and many apsarases (nymphs). Related Suttas: Sakka-panha Sutta and the Sakka Samyutta (11th section of the Samyutta Nikaya) which also contains 25 short discourses connected with Sakka.  6 - Four Great Kings (catummaharajika deva): The world of the Four Great Kings includes the martial kings who guard the four quarters of the Earth. The chief of these kings is Vaisravana, but all are ultimately accountable to Sakra. Dhatarattha, king of the Eastern Direction, is lord of the gandhabbas. Virulha, king of the Southern Direction, is lord of the kumbandas. Virupakkha, king of the Western Direction, is lord of the nagas. Kuvera, who rules as king of the Northern Direction, is lord of the yakkhas. The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also part of this world. This is home to the four types of earthly demigod or nature-spirit: Gandhabba - the celestial musicians or fairies Yakkha - tree spirits of varying degrees of ethical purity. They are analogous 156 to the goblins, trolls, ogres, and fairies of Western fairy tales. They inhabit remote areas such as forests, hills, and abandoned caves. Though living in misery they have the potential for awakening and can attain the path and fruits of the spiritual life. Related Suttas: Yakkhasayutta of the Samyutta Nikaya. According to the Atanatiya Sutta: "There are non-humans who are fierce, violent, given to retaliation; those non-humans heed neither the (four) great kings, nor their ministers nor their attendants. They are called rebels against the (four) great kings. Even as in the kingdom of Magadha, the thieves heed neither the king of Magadha, nor the ministers, nor their attendants, and are called rebels against the king of Magadha, so there are non-humans who are fierce... (as before). They are called rebels against the (four) great kings." Kumbhanda (dwarfs) Naga (dragons) Related Sutta: Maha-samya Sutta of the Digha Nikaya probably also Garuda Human Beings (manussa loka)  5 - Human (manussa loka): Birth in this plane results from giving and moral discipline of middling quality. This is the realm of moral choice where destiny can be guided. The Khana Sutta mentioned that this plane is a unique balance of pleasure and pain. It facilitates the development of virtue and wisdom to liberate oneself from the entire cycle or rebirths. For this reason rebirth as a human being is considered precious according to the Chiggala Sutta. In the Cula-kammavibhanga Sutta (The Shorter Analysis of Action), the Buddha taught that: Killing others lead to short life if one becomes reborn in the human plane instead of the four lower States of Deprivation. By abandoning the very acts of killing and harming, one gets to be reborn in a heavenly world. Alternatively, one gets to be reborn in the human world being endowed with long life. Injuring of others beings can lead to rebirth in the States of Deprivation. Alternatively, the person comes back in the human plane as someone very sickly. Non-injuring of others leads to rebirth in good destinations. Alternatively, one comes back to the human plane enjoying good health. The same goes for the following:    Beautiful or Unattractive Human Rebirth depends on whether the person has an irritable character in this life. Influential or Ordinary Human Rebirth depends on whether the person is envious of the gain and honor received by others in this life. Rich or Poor Human Rebirth depends on whether one is generous to others, such as providing the requisites of holy people, in this present life. Related Suttas: Janussonin Sutta, Cula-kammavibhanga Sutta, States of Deprivation (Apaya) Rebirth into these planes results from unwholesome conduct. Beings reborn there have no moral sense and generally cannot create good kamma (karma). However, when the unwholesome 157 kamma that brought them to these planes is exhausted, some stored good kamma can bring them rebirth in some other plane. Only stream-enterers and other ariyans can be sure they will never again be born in these planes of misery. Related sutta: Saleyyaka Sutta and The Vipaka Sutta  4 - Asura: They are demons or "titans" that are engaged in endless conflict with each other. From the Jataka Tales, we are told that the Asuras are always fighting to regain their lost kingdom on the top of Mount Sumeru, but are unable to break the guard of the Four Great Kings.[17] The Asuras are divided into many groups, and have no single ruler, but among their leaders are Vemacitrin (Pāli: Vepacitti) and Rāhu. According to Marasinghe: "In later texts we find the Asura realm as one of the four unhappy states of rebirth. The Nikāya evidence however does not show that the Asura realm was regarded as a state of suffering"[18] Related sutta: Rattana Sutta  3 - Hungry ghost (pretha loka): This is the realm where ghost and unhappy spirits wander in vain, hopelessly in search of sensual fulfillment. Related sutta : Tirokudda Kanda from the Khuddakapatha  2 - Animal (tiracchana yoni): The animal realm includes animals, insects, fish, birds, worms, etc..  1 - Hell realms (niraya) Main article: Naraka (Buddhism) These are realms of extreme sufferings are mentioned in the Balapandita Sutta and the Devaduta Sutta. 158 CHAPTER VIII Buddhist Cosmology Dr. C. George Boeree-Shippensburg University The following sections explain some of the concepts and ideas in Buddhism that are taken by most Buddhists as metaphorical or even plain mythological. Nevertheless, these things show up even in the most sophisticated texts, and so the student of Buddhism should be familiar with them -- even if they seem at times to take away rather than contribute to the deeper meaning of the Dharma. Westerners are often less comfortable with these things than are easterners, who have grown up with these terms. But a little thought and the reader will recognize that we have very similar concepts in the west, which we use in a similar fashion: Heavens and hells, ghosts and angels, the trinity, the saints.... Whether we take them literally or not, they are a part of how we tell our stories. The Buddhists, following the traditions of their Indian fore-fathers, saw the universe as infinite in time and space, and filled with an infinite number of worlds like our own. Above our ordinary world, there are two realms: the realm of form (rupa-dhatu) and the even higher realm of formlessness (arupa-dhatu). Below these is the realm of desire (kama-dhatu) which contains six domains (gatis), each with its own kinds of beings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Devas or gods. Asuras or titans (or jealous gods, or demigods), Manusyas or humans. Tiryaks or animals. Pretas or hungry ghosts. Narakas or demons (hell beings) All of the above, even the realms of form and formlessness, are in samsara , imperfect existence, and therefore governed by karma and its fruits (vipaka). The world extends around Mount Meru. Above the peak is the realm of the Buddha fields (or heavens). On the upper slopes you find the gods. The titans live on the lower slopes. Animals and humans live on the plains around the mountain. Hungry ghosts live on or just below the surface. And hell is deep under the earth. All this is surrounded by a great ocean. 159 Time in Buddhist cosmology is measured in kalpas. Originally, a kalpa was considered to be 4,320,000 years. Buddhist scholars expanded it with a metaphor: rub a one-mile cube of rock once every hundred years with a piece of silk, until the rock is worn away -- and a kalpa still hasn’t passed! During a kalpa, the world comes into being, exists, is destroyed, and a period of emptiness ensues. Then it all starts again. Some of the actors in the Buddhist mythological drama include... Brahma -- the supreme deva, who convinced Buddha to teach. Indra -- a major deva, originally the Hindu sky god. Prajña -- goddess of knowledge. Buddha’s mother was considered an incarnation. Mara -- a deva associated with death and hindrances to enlightenment. It was Mara who tempted Buddha under the bodhi tree. Yama -- the king of the 21 hells (see image above). Nagas -- great serpents (or dragons, or water creatures). The king of the Nagas protected Buddha from a storm. Gandharvas -- angelic beings who provide the gods with music Trikaya In Mahayana and especially Vajrayana, the idea of the Buddha and his Dharma evolved into a more elaborate system called the Trikaya, or three bodies of Buddha: 1. Nirmanakaya -- The earthly Buddhas (and Bodhisattvas), especially as personified by Siddhartha Gautama. In Tibet, the intentional human embodiment of a reborn master. 2. Sambhogakaya -- Buddhas in their heavens, the result of accumulated merit. Or, in Zen, enlightenment. In Tibetan buddhism, this refers to the means of achieving the Dharmakaya, i.e. the power of meditation on the various visualized dieties called yidams which are archetypal symbols of different qualities of enlightenment. 3. Dharmakaya -- The teachings of the Buddha, and the true nature of the Buddha, which is everything. Buddha mind, or Shunyata. In Tibet, they also refer to the body, speech, and mind of a master. And they are represented by the mudra, the mantra, and the mandala, respectively. Buddha Families Transcendent (or Dhyani) Buddhas These symbolize aspects of enlightened consciousness: 160 1. Vairochana -- center, white, tathagata family, ignorance and wisdom, the primordial Buddha. 2. Akshobhya -- east, blue, vajra (diamond) family, aggression and mirrorlike wisdom. 3. Ratnasambhava -- south, yellow, ratna (jewel) family, pride and equanimity. 4. Amitabha1 -- west, red, padma (lotus) family, passion and discriminating awareness, governs the present age. 5. Amoghasiddhi -- north, green, karma family, envy and all-accomplishing wisdom. Bodhisattvas and Buddhas Corresponding to these five transcendent Buddhas, there are five Bodhisattvas and five earthly Buddhas: 1. Samantabhadra Krakucchanda 2. Vajrapani Kanakamuni 3. Ratnapani Kashyapa 4. Avalokiteshvara (Kuan Yin)2 Shakyamuni (Siddhartha Gotama) 5. Vishvapani Maitreya (the future Buddha) 161 1 Amitabha is the transcendent Buddha of the Western “Pure Land.” Amitabha rules over this period of time. 2 Avalokiteshwara (Chenrezi, Kwan Yin, Kwannon) is the boddhisattva of compassion. Avalokiteshwara is often represented by a female figure, or an ambiguous one, in the Mahayana tradition. (See image at right) The Taras are a set of 21 female saviors, born from Avalokiteshwara’s tears. Green Tara and White Tara are the best known. 3 Maitreya is the future Buddha, who will be born 30,000 years from now. The Chinese monk called Pu-tai (Ho-tei in Japanese) - “the laughing buddha” -- is considered a pre-incarnation of Maitreya. 162 CHAPTER 9 Cosmology, Astronomy and Astrology-Vesna Wallace https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0019.xml Introduction Buddhist cosmology forms an integral part of a Buddhist worldview, without which it would be impossible to understand Buddhist teachings on karma, reincarnation, and soteriological theories. It is also closely related to Buddhist metaphysics, phenomenological theories, meditative practices, and, in some cases, even to Buddhist social theories. Other areas of inquiry intimately related to cosmology are Buddhist astro-sciences (namely, astronomy-cum-astrology), which have been integrated in diverse aspects of Buddhist religious and secular life, including religious rituals and meditation practices, medical therapeutics, preparations of medicine, weddings, trade, military campaigns, and so on. Although the fundamental Buddhist cosmological views in various cultures have remained the same, certain variations have emerged, especially in the areas of astronomy and astrology, due to the influence of either indigenous or foreign non-Buddhist systems of thought. Scholarship on Buddhist cosmology and the disciplines of astronomy and astrology varies, including the analysis of Buddhist canonical texts that describe the shape and size of the cosmos, astrological almanacs, astronomical charts, and architecture. General Overviews Although discussions on Buddhist cosmology can be found in almost every introductory book on Buddhism, and references to Buddhist astronomy-cum-astrology are made in various writings, there are relatively few independent works dealing exclusively with these topics. The encyclopedia articles listed below offer a general introduction to Buddhist cosmology. “Cosmology” 1979 introduces the reader to the discussions on cosmology given in the early Pali sources, while Sadakata 1997 contains descriptions of Indian pre-Mahayana views of the shape, size, and structure of the cosmos. Sadakata’s treatment of the topic centers primarily on the Indian abhidharmic views of the cosmos, but he also includes brief discussions on the later Japanese Buddhist conception of hell and on contemporary Japanese cosmological views. Gethin 2003 gives an excellent but brief introduction to Indian Buddhist cosmology as presented in Theravada, Sarvāstivāda, and Mahayana sources, whereas Cornu 2001 focuses primarily on the later Indo-Tibetan cosmological perspectives. Mabett 1983 gives a short history and description of the cosmological significance of Mount Meru in India, including its influence on religious architecture across Asia. Tantric Buddhism became ascendant in Angkor during the reign of King Jayavarman VII. His great temples in Angkor Thom, especially the Bayon, are tantric centers. The Hevaajra-Tantra seems to have been an important tantric practice in Cambodia at this time. 163 Boisselier says the brahmavihara meditations are featured in the Hevaajra-Tantra [“we shall expound the chapter on the divinities. First one should product thought of love, secondly that of compassion, thirdly that of joy, and last of all that of equanimity. Hevajra Tantra I.iii.1] and the tara-sadhana of the sadhanamala. Why did tantric Buddhism appear so strongly in Angkor (Cambodia) at this time? The Muslim invasion of India destroyed the Tantric centers of Nalanda, Vikramasila and Odantapuri in 1200…Some of the refugee masters went to Angkor, while others went to Nepal and Tibet.A tantric pantheon led by Hevajra, Vajrasattva, Vajradhara and Vajrapani moved center stage in Cambodia at this time, and Jayavarman had all the resources needed for this in the Phimai tradition from which his Mahidhara dynasty hailed. The Bayon temple (Ancestor Yantra Temple) with the four-faced Buddhas looking in every direction is a manifestation of this tradition. The presence of the Buddhist Tantric masters in Angkor may be attested from evidence in Katmandu, Nepal, where the similar tradition of the Tantric Adi-Buddha eyes look out over the city in all directions from the city from each side of the square harmika of the Katmandu’s Svayambhu Mahacaitya, and similar temples. 164 BP Groslier, following Jean Filliozat, speculates that the painting of the eyes on the towers in Katmandu and Patan was inspired by the refugee masters from Bengal, at exactly the same time that the giant four-faced Buddhas were carved at the Bayon in Angkor. “It has been shown recently that it [the new form of Buddhism of Jayavarman VII) very probably consisted of the doctrine elaborated in Nalanda, then taught in Angkor – finally in Japan – by the doctors of the (Buddhist) law who had to flee before the Moslem invaders in the closing years of the 12th century. It is therefore to this school and its texts that we should turn to JayavarmanVII’s conceptions of Buddhism, and therefore for the sources of the Bayon. This is just as much as the case for the Bengali zealots who took refuge at the same time in Nepal and Kashmir, who were very probably the initiators of the stupas marked with four stylized faces, oriented to the four directions, which are the only exact parallels that can be found with the Khmer face towers.” [Groslier, BP] Ulrich von Schroeder said of the refugee Buddhist masters of 1200: “The annihilation of Indian Buddhism caused a great influx of refugees to Nepal who swarmed to the Buddhist monasteries of Kathmandu Valley, mostly in Patan and Kathmandu…the arrival of these Buddhist refugees was beneficial to Nepal and in many ways one of them being that among the immigrants were many eminent Indian Buddhist scholars who had salvaged valuable manuscripts and probably many cast images. There is every reason to believe that among these displaced Buddhists were also many skilled artists and craftsmen. At the same time the importance of the viharas as centers of Buddhist studies increased and the Tibetan Buddhists shifted their focus from north-eastern India to Nepal. In the years 1197-1207, when all the Ganges valley monasteries were being destroyed, the 165 Khmer were carving face-towers in Buddhist Bayon Banteay Chmar and other temples, and producing stone and bronze icons of Tantric deities such as Hevajra, Vajradhara and Vajrapani – all progeny of Nalanda, Vikramasila and another Indian monasteries. “In tantric thinking, a king’s personal meditation in discovering the Buddha inside himself generates a mandala of deities, not only for himself but for the whole state. [Jayavarman was a skillful meditator and a learned Buddhist. His second wife and two sons were skilled Sanskritists who composed his three major extant inscriptions, and he is described in his inscriptions as ‘learned in the sutras’ and “a veritable Panini in his youth’ and is shown pronouncing the mantras at a public ritual.” The apsaras (female goddess dancers) carved into the temples of Angkor are tantric-yoginis. Images of the Yogini-Hevajra cult.History records that King Jayavarman VII entered the pinnacle of his temple at Angkor Thom every night in order to have intercourse with a “female dragon” – that is, engage in tantric meditation rites with a female partner.Hevajra Tantra was the first of a new class of Mother Tantras that gave a strong female orientation to its mandalas. …Jayavarman’s temples were known for the special focus they gave to female officiants. The 1225 chronicle of Chau Ju-Kua, the Chinese Superintendent of Maritime Trade in Canton, contains an account of temple life:“[in Chen-la, ie. Cambodia) the people are devout Buddhists. In the temples there are 300 foreign women; they dance and offer food to the Buddha. They are called a-nan [Skt. Ananda (bliss)]…the incantations of the Buddhist and Taoist (Shiva yogin) priests have magical powers.’” When Cambodia later adopted Theravada Buddhism, this older strata of tantric Buddhism was subsumed and assimilated into the Buddhist traditions. http://chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Tantric_Theravada_in_Cambodia 166 CHAPTER X Tantric Buddhism at Angkor Thom by Hiram W. Woodward Jr. Publication: Ars Orientalis, Vol. 12, pp. 57-67 | Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution and Department of theHistory of Art, University of Michigan Language : English 1981 - 15 pages Tags: Bayon, Tantric Buddhism, Angkor Thom, Avalokitesvara, face-towers, hevajra, Jayavarman VII In preamble: 'The early 1190s was probably the period in which the cult of Lokesvara or Avalokitesvara held sway at Angkor. Before its rise, as George Coedes made clear some years ago, the central element of Jayavarman VII's Buddhism lay in the worship of a triad consisting of Lokesvara, the Buddha, and Prajnaparamita. This triad is found on both a tiny scale and on a grand one-in the temples built by Jayavarman, namely: Preah Khan, the Bayon, T'a Prohm.' Going back to the different interpretations put forward by major French archaeologists (in particular Jean Boisselier and Philippe Stern), the author summarizes his own outlook on 12th century Angkorean religious beliefs, asserting that 'the identification of the faces on the Bayon towers [points to] the Buddha Vajrasattva. If there is a spiritual path to the Naga-protected Buddha that originally sat in the central sanctuary, there is also a path away from it, and the relationship between the principal image and the faces on the towers is most easily understood from the latter point of view. Structurally considered, the faces on the towers must somehow be tinged with the protective and martial qualities of the guardians and lords of the directions of space that stood in the same place on earlier towers. The central Buddha, therefore, has projections or manifestations with something of a fierce quality.' The Matter of Brahmai There are very good reasons for calling the faces on the Baiyon towers Brahm-a or, in local nomenclature, Brahma. This is the traditional Cambodian inter- pretation, one preserved, for instance, in the name T?a Prohm ("Grandfather Brahma"). There is also a tradition of Brahma gates in Thailand-a tradition that may date back nearly to the time of Jayavarman VII.5 167 The Brahm-a identification has recently been revived by Jean Boisselier.54 Although his arguments have not been presented in full, they appear to have developed in the following way. In the southeast Prasat Chrung inscription, from one of the four corners of Angkor Thom, there is the line, "having at its head the assembly hall of the city of gods, his [the king's] land is like the sky."55 George Ccedes believed that the Prasat Chrung inscriptions belonged to the very end of Jayavarman VII's reign.56 (Unfortun- ately, the date of the king's death has never been established.) In a Pali text, the Janavasabha-sutta, a visit by Brahma Sanafikum-ra to this assembly hall-wherein dwell the thirty-three gods of Indra's heaven-is described.57 This Brahm-a, taking the form of Paficasikha, creates thirty-three images of himself, one on the couch of each of thirty-three gods. At some point the scriptural passage became incorporated into mainland Southeast Asian cos- mological traditions. In a cosmology compiled in Bangkok in 1802, it is said that when Sanankum-ra (as Panfcasikha, with five topknots on his head) appears over the throne of any devaputra in the Devasudharmadevasabh-a, that devaputra feels great joy, as if a king had received a new abhiseka and were rejoicing in the prosperity of his kingdom.58 The theory, therefore, is that the faces on the towers represent the appearance of Brahma Sanani- kum-ara to the gods of Indra's heaven. 168 CHAPTER XI INTRODUCTION CHAPTER Hindu cosmology Dr Uday Dokras Ph.D Stockholm,SWEDEN ‘At the end of this day a dissolution of the universe occurs, when all the three worlds, earth, and the regions of space, are consumed with fire Vishnu Purana (320-255 CE). Then lotus-born god Brahma having slept for a night lasting billions of years, rises to create anew then the three worlds form again from one ocean and ‘These profound and lovely images are, I like to imagine, a kind of premonition of modern astrological ideas,’ Carl Sagan in his book Cosmos (1980). 169 Annapurna, the provider of rice, gives alms to Shiva, her consort shown here in a mendicant's saffron robes. Annapurna is a form of Durga and often depicted in this format. Annapurna sits on a lotus and she is depicted with her third eye. She holds in one of her hands a plate full of rice and with the other hand she gives rice to Shiva from a spoon. Annapurna is depicted wearing a blouse under her sari and this is an unusual departure. The contemporary Kalighat paintings as a routine showed women clad in sari but without any blouse and in fact that was customery of the period. Their respective mounts, the lion and the bull, are shown in crouching posture below, both are very stylised. The borders of the painting and the entire composition contains repeated written invocations to Durga in the Bengali script. Hinduism - Gods and Goddess in the Vedas 170 The Vedas are considered supreme in Hinduism. They are used to verify spiritual truths as a standard testimony. The following information about Vedic gods and goddesses is culled from the Vedas only, especially from the hymns of the Rigveda, which is the mother of the other three Vedas. Hinduism underwent many changes in its long history. The gods who once ruled the Vedic minds and cornered the major offerings during sacfificial ceremonies were gradually replaced and relegated into a subordinate position by subsequent developments which heralded the emergence of its principal traditions, namely Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smaraism. By Vedic gods we mean those divinities (devas) who are mentioned in the four Vedas. Information about the gods and goddesses worshipped by the Vedic people comes to us mainly from the Vedas themselves. The Vedic people worshipped several gods. They propitiated them for various purposes during sacrificial rituals, practice of austerities and meditation. The methods of worship and making ritual offerings are also laid out in the Vedas. Of the four parts of the Vedas, the first part called the Samhitas contain invocations or prayers to various gods and goddesses. 171 The second part called Brahmanas contain the methods and procedures to be followed while making such offerings. The third part called Aranyakas contain information about more complex sacrifices that were not usually performed or well known to the public. The fourth part called the Upanishad contain the secret knowledge of internal rituals for achieving liberation. They provide information about the hidden aspects of the deities and their symbolic significance in the human body. Justification for the worship of Vedic gods According to the Vedas, Brahman manifested a part of Himself during creation and diversified Himself into Isvara, Hiranyagarbha and Viraj. He created the earth, the mid-region, the heaven. He created gods and celestial beings, demons and humans/ god and celestial beings reside in the heaven and the mid-regions respectively. Humans and other mortal beings inhabit the earth or our world. The demons reside in the nether regions below the earth. In the mortal world, He manifested as Death (or Kala) and became its ruler. He created hunger and thirst and subjected the beings, including the gods in the heaven to the same. To satisfy them He created food of several kinds. The gods have immense powers, but they do not have the ability to make food for themselves. Human beings have the ability to make food for themselves and others, but do not have the supernatural powers of the gods. Brahman created this distinction to ensure that both gods and humans live in harmony, depending upon each others, and participate in creation by doing their dutiful duties. Thus it is the duty (dharma) of gods to help humans and it is the duty (dharma) of humans to live helplessly and help gods and other beings with nourishment by performing sacrifices. Gods in the macrocosm and microcosm The Vedas declare that the human body is similar to the body of the Cosmic Self, Purusha, who manifested in creation as the Lord of the Universe. Just as there are four tiers in the universe, there are four planes in a human body. The head represents the sky or the heaven. The trunk including the chest and the stomach represents the mid-region, where breath flows and the heart beats. The hips and the legs represent the mortal world. Just as the gods reside in the macrocosm, they reside in our bodies also in their respective sphere as various organs, namely the organs of action (karmendriyas) such as the five organs of speech, such as hands, feet etc., the organs of perception such as the eye, the ears, the nose, the tongue etc., and the internal organs, namely the mind, the ego and the intelligence. Just as they depend 172 upon our sacrificial offerings in the external world for their nourishment, they depend upon us internally for nourishment through the food we eat. While in the external world, the gods receive their share of offerings from fire who is the first recipient of the offerings in the sacrifices since we pour them into fire only, in the body also the gods receive their offering from the digestive fire which resides in the digestive tract. From there the food is supplied to various divinities through the five breathing channels called Prana, Apana, Samana, Vyana and Udana. The Upanishads affirm that just as Vayu rules the mid-region and pervades the earth and the heaven, Prana pervades the whole body and acts as the overlord of the organs. Why the gods are worshipped The Vedic sacrifices are essentially meant to achieve the four aims of human life, namely fulfillment of obligatory duties (dharma), wealth (artha), pleasure (kama) and liberation (moksha). Duty was the foundation and liberation was the ultimate aims. The Vedas affirm clearly that those who perform sacrifices for material ends or the first three aims would be reborn again while those who achieve liberation by living selflessly, fulfilling their obligations would never return. Through the sacrifices and invocations the worshippers of the Vedic gods seek, wealth, peace, happiness, progeny, fame and name, power over the natural forces, destruction of enemies, longevity or a full lifespan, good health, protection from misfortune, sickness and loss of cattle. Number of Gods: The vedic hymns allude to several Gods. We can identify several ones but the estimates may very, since the current version of the Vedas seem to be a remnant of the original texts that existed in the early Vedic period. The Vedas also allude to the existence of ancient gods who reside in the highest heaven and participate in the universal sacrifice performed by Brahman. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, when Vidadgha Sakalya asked Yajnavalkya, how 173 many gods were there, he began the answer saying, "As many as mentioned in the offerings made to the gods of the universe, namely three hundred and three, three thousand and three." On beings queried further, he reduced the number gradually from three thousand three to thirty three, then to six, then to three, then to two, then to one and half and finally to one. In the same conversation, he identified 33 gods as the important ones, namely eightVasus, eleven Rudras, twelve Adityas, Indra and Prajapathi Brahma. These gods belong to different sphere in creation. Based upon the number of invocations available in the Vedas, the following Vedic gods and goddesses are important: Indra, Varuna, Agni, Rudra, Mitra, Vayu, Surya, Vishnu, Savitr, Pusan, Usha, Soma, Asvins, Maruts, Visvadevas, Vasus, Adityas, Vashista, Brihaspathi, Bhaga, Rta, Rhibhus, Heaven, Earth, Kapinjala, Dadhikravan, Rati, Yama, Manyu, Purusha, Prajanya Sarasvathi. Aditi is another prominent goddess. She is considered the mother of gods. Although there are no hymns directly addressed to her, she is mentioned in several of them. Indra Varuna Agni Rudra Mitra Vayu Surya Vishnu Savitr Pusan Usha Soma Asvins Maruts Visvadevas Vasus Adityas Vashista Brihaspathi Bhaga Rta Rhibhus Heaven and Earth Kapinjala Dadhikravan Rati Yama Manyu Purusha Prajanya Sarasvathi 174 Brahma,Vishnu,Mahesh( From Left) 1.Brahma (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मा is the creator god in Hinduism. He is also known as Svayambhu (self-born) or the creative aspect of Vishnu, Vāgīśa (Lord of Speech), and the creator of the four Vedas, one from each of his mouths. Brahma is consort of Saraswati and he is the father of Four Kumaras, Narada, Daksha, Marichi and many more. Brahma is synonymous with the Vedic god Prajapati, he is also known as Vedanatha (god of Vedas), Gyaneshwar (god of Knowledge), Chaturmukha (having Four Faces) Svayambhu (self born), etc, as well as linked to Kama and Hiranyagarbha (the cosmic egg). He is more prominently mentioned in the postVedic Hindu epics and the mythologies in the Puranas. In the epics, he is conflated with Purusha.[3] Although Brahma is part of the Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva Trimurti, ancient Hindu scriptures mention multiple other trinities of gods or goddesses which do not include Brahma. Several Puranas describe him as emerging from a lotus, connected to the navel of Lord Vishnu. Other Puranas suggest that he is born from Shiva or his aspects, or he is a supreme god in diverse versions of Hindu mythology. Brahma, along with other deities, is sometimes viewed as a form 175 (saguna) of the otherwise formless (nirguna) Brahman, the ultimate metaphysical reality in Vedantic Hinduism. In an alternate version, some Puranas state him to be the father of Prajapatis. According to some, Brahma does not enjoy popular worship in present-age Hinduism and has lesser importance than the other members of the Trimurti, Vishnu and Shiva. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshiped as a primary deity in India. 2. Vishnu (विष्णु) is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. The "preserver" in the Hindu triad (Trimurti), Vishnu is revered as the supreme being In Vaishnavism as identical to the metaphysical concept of Brahman (Atman, the self, or unchanging ultimate reality), and is notable for adopting various incarnations (avatars such as Rama and Krishna) to preserve and protect dharmic principles whenever the world is threatened with evil, chaos, and destructive forces. In the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism Vishnu is also one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja. 3. 3. Mahesh or Shiva, the 3rd God of the Hindu Trimurti, is the Distroyer. Mahesh represents the hot-blooded (Tamsik) – dream, thought, action, character, and destiny – way. His attributes represents victory over the demonic activity, and calmness of human nature. Shiva is a the part of the Hindu trinity which has dominion over death and destruction. He appears in a meditating but ever-happy posture having matted hair which holds the flowing Ganges river and a crescent moon, a serpent coiled around his neck, a trident (trishul) in his one hand and ashes all over his body. He is known as the "giver" god. His vehicle is a bull (symbol of happiness and strength) named Nandi. Shiva-Linga, a sign of the Lord, is adored instead of him.Shiva is also considered the greatest of the yogis, the lord of meditation, and the lord of all that is mystic and mysterious in hindu practices. Legend has it that the holy river Ganges (or Ganga) is in fact a representation of Lord Shiva's long hair.Some texts refer to the five letters as the forms of Shiva - Na-gendra (one who wears a garland of snakes), Ma-ndakini Salila (one who is bathed by the water of the Ganges), Shi (the supreme Lord), Va-shishta (one who is praised by the sages like Vashishta), and Ya-ksha (one who takes the form of Yaksha). 4. The Trinity: Foremost, there is no difference between Shiva, Mahesh and Shankara.Mahesh = Maha ( great ) + Eesh (God ), it means Great God.Trillions of years ago, when nothing existed, there lived a Yogi who was always in meditation and away from worldly affairs. Shiva, Mahesh and Shankar are not two different persons, but one and the same.  When Shiva is in deep meditation , we refer him as YOGI.  We see him as SHANKARA, with his consort Parvathi and their children We see him as RUDRA, when he is in his ferocious form.  We see him as KAPAALI, when he is in the Rudra Kshetra(burial ground).  We see him as KAALA BHAIRAVA, with Dog as his Vaahana (vehicle ), (he is the God for time, that is why we chant him as Om kaala Kalaaya namaha, kaal means  HE is VEERABHADRA, the warrior.  He is BHOOTANAADHA, God for the 5 elements of this nature. 176 Even though you say Shiva / Shankara / mahesh / Bhootanaadha / Rudra etc, all are one and the same form of the Para_Brahman Shiva. It depends upon how we are seeing Him ! 5. Lakshmi (लक्ष्मी) is the Goddess who leads to one's goal (lakshya in Sanskrit), hence Her name Lakshmi. For mankind, 8 types of goals are necessary - Spiritual enlightenment, food, knowledge, resources, progeny, abundance, patience and success, hence there are 8 or Ashta Lakshmis - Aadi Lakshmi, Dhaanya Lakshmi, Vidya Lakshmi, Dhana Lakshmi, Santaana Lakshmi, Gaja Lakshmi, Dhairya Lakshmi and Vijaya Lakshmi. First mentioned in the Śrī Sūkta of the Rigveda. Sri, a honorific term for Lakshmi, represents the material world of the earthly realm as the mother goddess, referred to as Prithvi Mata, and known by her twin identities as Bhu Devi, and sridevi (She is having another form along with these two called as Nila Devi). She is the wife of Vishnu, one of the principal deities of Hinduism and the Supreme Being in the Vaishnavism Tradition. With Parvati and Saraswati, she forms Tridevi, the holy trinity.Lakshmi is also an important deity in Jainism and found in Jain temples. Lakshmi has also been a Goddess of abundance and fortune for Buddhists, and was represented on the oldest surviving stupas and cave temples of Buddhism. In Buddhist sects of Tibet, Nepal and Southeast Asia, Lakshmi Goddess Vasudhara mirrors the characteristics and attributes of the Hindu Goddess Lakshmi with minor iconographic differences. Lakshmi is also called Sri or Thirumagal because she is endowed with six auspicious and divine qualities, or gunas, and is the divine energy/Shakti of Vishnu. In Hindu religion, she was pleased and churned out from the churning of the primordial ocean (Samudra manthan) and she chose Vishnu as her eternal consort. As mentioned in Vishnu Purana, when Vishnu descended on the Earth as the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi descended 177 as Sita and Radha and Rukmini. Lakshmi is considered another aspect of the same Supreme Goddess Lakshmi Goddess principle in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. Lakshmi is depicted in Indian art as an elegantly dressed, prosperity-showering golden-coloured woman with an owl as her vehicle, signifying the importance of economic activity in maintenance of life, her ability to move, work and prevail in confusing darkness. She typically stands or sits like a yogin on a lotus pedestal and holds a lotus in her hand, symbolizing fortune, self-knowledge and spiritual liberation. Her iconography shows her with four hands, which represent the four goals of human life considered important to the Hindu way of life: dharma, kāma, artha and moksha. She is often depicted as part of the trinity (Tridevi) consisting of Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. She is also considered as the daughter of Durga in Bengali Hindu culture. Archaeological discoveries and ancient coins suggest the recognition and reverence for Lakshmi by the 1st millennium BCE. Lakshmi's iconography and statues have also been found in Hindu temples throughout Southeast Asia, estimated to be from the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The festivals of Diwali and Sharad Purnima (Kojagiri Purnima) are celebrated in her honor. COSMOLOGY: Having got a fairly good knowledge of the Hindu Gods,we begin now our journey into Hindu Cosmology. The Rigveda contains the Nasadiya sukta hymn which asks a cosmological questions about the nature of universe and how it began: Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden; Without distinctive marks, this all was water; That which, becoming, by the void was covered; That One by force of heat came into being; Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute; Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not; Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows, Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know. — Rigveda 10:129-6 178 Lord Shiva In Hindu cosmology, the universe is cyclically created and destroyed. Its cosmology divides time into four epochs or Yuga, of which the current period is the Kali Yuga. According to Hindu vedic cosmology, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and universe has neither start nor end, rather it is cyclical. The current universe is just the start of a present cycle preceded by an infinite number of universes and to be followed by another infinite number of universes. 179 The dominant theme in Puranic Hindu cosmology, state Chapman and Driver, is of cycles and repetition. There are multiple universes, each takes birth from chaos, grows, decays and dies into chaos, to be reborn again. Further, there are different and parallel realities. Brahma's one day equals 4.32 billion years which is a Kalpa. Each Kalpa is subdivided into four yuga (chaturyuga, also called mahayuga). These are krita (or satya), treta, dvapara and kali yugas. The current time is stated to be one of kali yuga. The starting year, length of each, or the grand total, is not consistent in the Puranas. The total of four yugas is typically 4,320,000 years, of which 432,000 years is assigned to be the duration of the kali yuga. One complete cycle of the four (Kṛta or Satya, Treta, Dvapara and Kali) Yugas is one MahāYuga (4.32 million solar years) and is confirmed by the Gītā Śloka 8.17 (statement) "sahasrayuga-paryantam ahar yad brahmaṇo viduḥ rātriṁ yuga-sahasrāntāṁ te 'ho-rātra-vido janāḥ", meaning, a day of brahma is of 1000 Mahā-Yuga. Thus a day of Brahma, Kalpa, is of duration: 4.32 billion solar years. Two Kalpas constitute 24 hours (day and Night) of Brahma. A Manvantara, which consists of 71 Mahā-Yuga (306,720,000 solar years) is ruled by a Manu. After each Manvantara follows one Sandhi Kāla, of the same duration as a Kṛta Yuga (1,728,000 Solar Years). It is said that during a Sandhi Kāla, the entire earth is submerged in water. According to Hindu scriptures, the world would be destroyed at the end of the Kali Yuga. Rigveda: speculation on universe's creation The Rigveda presents many theories of cosmology. For example:  Hiranyagarbha sukta, its hymn 10.121, states a golden child was born in the universe and was the lord, established earth and heaven, then asks but who is the god to whom we shall offer the sacrificial prayers?  Devi sukta, its hymn 10.125, states a goddess is all, the creator, the created universe, the feeder and the lover of the universe;  Nasadiya sukta, its hymn 10.129, asks who created the universe, does anyone really know, and whether it can ever be known. Rigveda and other Vedic texts are full of alternative cosmological theories and curiosity questions. For example, the hymn 1.24 of the Rigveda asks, "these stars, which are set on high, and appear at night, whither do they go in the daytime?" and hymn 10.88 wonders, "how many fires are there, how many suns, how many dawns, how many waters? I am not posing an awkward question for you fathers; I ask you, poets, only to find out?" To its numerous openended questions, the Vedic texts present a diversity of thought, in verses imbued with symbols and allegory, where in some cases forces and agencies are clothed with a distinct personality, while in other cases as nature with or without anthropomorphic activity such as forms of mythical sacrifices. Vedic: 3 lokas The development of the concept of lokas as follows: The concept of a loka or lokas develops in the Vedic literature. Influenced by the special connotations that a word for space might have for a nomadic people, loka in the Veda did not simply mean place or world, but had a positive valuation: it was a place or position of religious or psychological interest with a special value of function of its own. Hence, inherent in the 'loka' concept in the earliest literature was a double aspect; that is, coexistent with spatiality was a religious or soteriological meaning, which could exist independent of a spatial notion, an 180 'immaterial' significance. The most common cosmological conception of lokas in the Veda was that of the trailokya or triple world: three worlds consisting of earth, atmosphere or sky, and heaven, making up the universe." Lower seven Lokas in Puranas Puranas: 14 lokas The later Puranic view asserts that the Universe is created, destroyed, and re-created in an eternally repetitive series of cycles. A day of Brahma, the creator, endures for about 4,320,000,000 years. In the Brahmanda Purana, there are fourteen worlds. However, other Puranas give different version of this cosmology and associated myths. In the Brahmanda version, the loka consist of seven higher ones (Vyahrtis) and seven lower ones (Pātālas), as follows:  Bhuloka, Bhuvar Loka, svarga, Mahar Loka, Jana Loka, Tapa Loka, and Satyaloka above, and  Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasaataala, Talatala, Mahaatala, Patala and naraka below. The same 14 lokas (worlds) are described in chapter 2.5 of the Bhagavata Purana. The Puranas genre of Indian literature, found in Hinduism and Jainism, contain a section on cosmology and cosmogony as a requirement. There are dozens of different Mahapuranas and Upapuranas, each with its own theory integrated into a proposed human history consisting of solar and lunar dynasties. Some are similar to Indo-European creation myths, while others are novel. One cosmology, shared by Hindu, Buddhist and Jain texts involves Mount Meru, with stars and sun moving around it using Dhruva (North Star) as the focal reference. According to Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, the diversity of cosmology theories in Hinduism may reflect its tendency to not reject new ideas and empirical observations as they became available, but to adapt and integrate them creatively. 181 In our attempts to know ourselves we attempt to know the cosmos, its creation and frontiers. We construct mythologies, turn our minds to science and, in the pursuit of both, send voyagers out beyond the reaches of our own planet to grasp at the unknown. We look up to the night sky and witness a vast universe, one we seek to comprehend here on earth.It’s all about the connections between the earth, the atmosphere and the cosmos.’ The ancient Indians were not aware of the theory of relativity. But they were familiar with the concept of space and relative time. They believed that the duration of time changed from world to world and that our time was not the absolute. They distinguished between the cosmic time of the gods and the earthly time of ours.According to them, the gods were immortal, who lived longer and more intense lives. They were subject to a different time frame and had their own periods of activity and rest. These constituted their days and nights. When the highest Supreme Self was awake, they believed, He would expand outwardly and manifest his objective worlds, and when it was time for rest, He would withdraw into Himself and bring the worlds and the entire creation to a temporary halt. This is similar to the expansion and contraction of the material universe according to the modern theories of the origin of the universe. In Hinduism time is known as kala. Kala means both time and death. Time is personified as the god of death, Yama, because death is a limiting factor in human life. Kala as god of death determines how long a person should live upon earth. So, death and time are associated together. An individual's time upon earth begins with his birth and ends with his death. However for the soul, there is no death. It has no time because it is without a beginning and without an end. The concept of time in Hinduism is based on our own experience of time as recurring and predictable phenomena measurable in terms of units such as days and nights, or months and years. Just as there is regularity to our days and nights, there is regularity to the days and nights 182 of gods. This regularity is perceived as the Rta (rita) or the cosmic rhythm manifested by God. Rta is inherent in every aspect of creation. In the human body it is the biorhythm as well as the beat of the heart and the breath of the lungs. In the universe it is inherent in the configuration of the planetary bodies and their fixed movements. What protects this regularity of rhythm is Dharma, the eternal law, which is but an aspect of God Himself. Mentioned below are some important beliefs of Hinduism associated with time as an aspect of creation. Some of these beliefs are also common to Buddhism and Jainism. However, in Buddhism and Jainism there is no creator. Time is an aspect of this illusory world and it exists as long as we are subject to the process of becoming or change. 1. Hinduism perceives time as cyclical. This is based on our own experience of time in terms of days and nights. We see this cyclical pattern in days, weeks, months, years, seasons and yugas or epochs. So from this perspective, time is a never-ending cyclical process, which is both repetitive and exhaustive. In a sense it is limited. In another it is eternal. From a spiritual perspective, time exists when we are in a state of duality but disappears when we enter into the state of unity or samadhi. 2. Each time-cycle has three components, srishti, sthithi and laya. Srishthi means creation. Sthithi means continuation and laya means dissolution. Each time cycle begins with creation, continues for certain duration of time and then dissolves into nothingness. After a brief respite, the cycle begins all over again. These three aspects of time are under the control of the Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. Brahma is responsible for creation, Vishnu for existence and Siva for dissolution. We can see the same divisions in a day also. Each day is created in the early hours, continues throughout the day and then finally dissolves into darkness. We can see the same pattern in life also, as childhood, adulthood and old age. 3. The Hindu calculation of time comes to us from sage Ganita who is mentioned in the Manusmriti and the Mahabharata. He calculated the duration of each cycle of creation in human years. He divided the cosmic time into Kalpas, which is a day and night in the time and space of Brahma. It is considered to be equal to 8.64 billion years (Vishnu Purana). Each Kalpa consists of two Artha Kalpas of 4.32 billion years each. They are the day and night of Brahman. Each Kalpa is further divided into 1000 maha yugas. Each maha yuga is again divided into four yugas, namely krita yuga, treat yuga, dvapara yuga and kali yuga. Their duration varies. Krita yuga the first in the series has the longest duration of 1.728 million years and kali yuga, which is the last and the current, has a duration of only 432000 years. The durations of other divisions are mentioned in the table at the bottom of this article. 4. The lifespan of Brahma is considered 100 Brahma years, which is known as Maha Kalpa or Parardha. It is equal to 311.04 trillion human years. 5. A day in the life of gods is equal to one year upon earth. It is divided into day and night. The day is known as uttarayana and the night as dakshinayana. They are equal to 180 days each. 6. In Hindu tradition there is another division of time called manvantara. A manavantara is the period during which the earth is ruled by a particular Manu, the father of man. The word 'man' comes from the Sanskrit word Manu. According to tradition, a new Manu manifests at the 183 beginning of each manvantara to produce a new race of human beings. Each manvantara lasts for about 71 mahayugas or approximately 308 million years. In each manvantara along with Manu appear seven seers or rishis and one Indra. In all 14 Manus appear in each Kalpa over a period of 1000 mahayugas in succession. The current Manu is 7th in the line and is known as Vaivasvata Manu. 7. The current yuga or epoch is known as Kaliyuga. It is the last in the cycle of the current mahayuga or great epoch. Its calculated duration is 432000 years. We are not sure presently whether we are at the beginning, in the middle or near the end of Kaliyuga. If we accept the theory that Kaliyuga began with the passing away of Lord Krishna some 6000 or 7000 years ago, then probably we are in the early phase of Kaliyuga and have a long way to go. 8. Hindu Purunas contain several narrative accounts in which celestial events span over longer durations of time. They describe gods waging wars, or practicing meditation or making love for hundreds and thousands of years. Is Time Real Or Illusory? In Hinduism in God's consciousness there are no divisions of time. There is only the present moment, one continuous, indivisible and indistinguishable state of existence.Time is regarded as an aspect of creation. It exists only so long as we are bound to the things of this world through our senses. Time is a mental concept created by the movement of our senses, the celestial objects and our perceptions. It is part of the illusion in which we live and which we take for realTime is also regarded as an aspect of Prakriti or Nature. It is one of the 36 tattvas or principles of creation recognized in Saivism. Prakriti subjects the boundless individual souls of pure consciousness to the limitations of time (kaala), space (niyathi), knowledge (vidya), passion (raga) and power (kala) and binds them to the cycle of births and rebirths. When beings transcend these five limitations through the grace of Siva, they regain their pure consciousness (chit) and become free. The Hindu view time is responsible for absence of accurate historical records of the Indian subcontinent. The ancient Indians did not deem it necessary to record events of a world they believed was illusory. Besides, they believed the events by themselves were of no significance unless they had some relevance to the gods and the percepts of Dharma. Tables Showing Different Divisions of Time-Divisions of Cosmic Time Name of Division the Duration in human years Remarks Artha Kalpa 4.32 billion years A day or night of Brahma Kalpa 8.64 billion years A complete day of Brahma Mahayuga 4.32 million years A great epoch consisting of 4 yugas or epochs 184 Krita yuga 1.728 million years Golden age or age of truth of four feet (charana) length Treta yuga 1.296 million years The Second epoch (charana) length Dvapara yuga 864000 years The third epoch of two feet (charana) length Kali yuga 432000 years The current epoch, the age of darkness of one feet length. Manvantara 308 million years Manu is the progenitor of human race. 3.110415 trillion years 360 Kalpas 311.0415 trillion years 100 years in Brahma's time and space A year Brahma Mahakalpa of of three Divisions of Earth Time in Hindu Calendar as per the Puranas and Epics Name of the Division Duration in human years Truti One twinkle of an eye Tatpara 100 trutis Nimesha 30 Tatparas Kastha 30 Nimeshas kala 30 kasthas muhurtha 30 kalas roughly 45 - 50 minutes ahoratra 30 muhurtas Day and Nigtht 185 Remarks feet masa 30 days One lunar month Paksha 15 days One half of a lunar month Ayana 6 months or half a year Uttarayana is the day of gods, and daskhinayana, their night Divine Year 360 years One year of gods Charana 432,000 years The length of the feet of Time (Kala) Hindu Months Month Corresponding Zodiac Sign Chaitra Mesha Vaishakha Vrishabha Jyeshtha Mithuna Ashadha Karka Sravana Simha Bhadra Kanya Ashvin Tula Kartik Vrshchika Agrahyana Dhanush 186 Paushta Makara Magha Magha Phalguna Meena Hindu Seasons Season Corresponding Months Vasanta (Spring) Chaita and Vaishakha Greeshma (Summer) Jyeshtha and Ashadha Varsha (Rainy Season) Sravana and Bhadra Sharad (Autumn) Ashvin and Karthik Hemant (Winter) Magha and Phalguna 60 Year Cycles Hindus also follow a 60 year cycle in which is given a specific name each year which in turn( the name) repeats after every 60 years. 1. Prabhava 2. Vibhava 3. Shukla 4. Pramoda 5. Prajāpati 6. Āngirasa 7. Shrīmukha 8. Bhāva 9. Yuvan 10. Dhātri 11. Īshvara 12. Bahudhānya 13. Pramāthin 14. Vikrama 15. Vrisha 16. Chitrabhānu 21. Sarvajit AD/CE) 22. Sarvadhārin 23. Virodhin 24. Vikrita 25. Khara 26. Nandana 27. Vijaya 28. Jaya 29. Manmatha 30. Durmukha 31. Hemalambin 32. Vilambin 33. Vikārin 34. Shārvari 35. Plava 36. Shubhakrit 37. Shobhana 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 187 Plavanga Kīlaka Saumya Sādhārana Virodhikrit Paritāpin Pramādin Ānanda Rākshasa Anala Pingala Kālayukti Siddhārthin Raudra Durmati Dundubhi 17. Svabhānu 18. Tārana 19. Pārthiva 20. Vyaya 38. Krodhin 39. Vishvāvasu 40. Parābhava 57. Rudhirodgārin 58. Raktāksha 59. Krodhana 60. Akshaya \ \ Nakshatras or Daily Stars According to Hindu mythology, there are 27 stars or nakshatras who are the daughters of either Daksha or Kashyapa, but wives of Chandra, the moon god. The moon god spends each night with one particular star, with whom he appears in the sky. According to Hindu astronomy, the sky is divided into 27 divisions. During its monthly cycle, the moon passes through each division roughly one per day. According to another tradition the 27 nakshatras are associated with the nine planets or navagrahas, with each planetary deity ruling over three particular stars. During the 27 day lunar cycle, the planetary gods enter into their respective star mansions and spend nine days with each of their three stars. The names of the 27 stars along with their controlling planets are mentioned below. 188 # Name Controlling Planet 1 Ashvinī Ketu 2 Bharanī Shukra (Venus) 3 Krittikā Ravi (Sun) 4 Rohini Chandra (Moon) 5 Mrigashīrsha Mangala (Mars) 6 Ārdrā Rahu 7 Punarvasu Guru (Jupiter) 8 Pushya Shani (Saturn) 9 Āshleshā Budh (Mercury) 10 Maghā Ketu (south lunar node) 11 Pūrva or Pūrva halgunī Shukra (Venus) 12 Uttara or Uttara Phalgunī Surya (Sun) 13 Hasta Chandra (Moon) 14 Chitrā Mangala (Mars 15 Svātī Rahu 16 Vishākhā Guru (Jupiter) 17 Anurādhā Shani (Saturn) 189 18 Jyeshtha Budh (Mercury) 19 Mūla Ketu 20 Pūrva Ashādhā Shukra (Venus) 21 Uttara Ashādhā Surya (Sun) 22 Shravana Chandra (Moon) 23 Dhanishta Mangala (Mars) 24 Shatabhishā Rahu 25 Pūrva Bhādrapadā Guru (Jupiter) 26 Uttara Bhādrapadā Shani (Saturn) 27 Revatī Budh (Mercury) 190 becomes the destroyer. The maintainer and the destroyer are acting bottom-up while the creator acts top-down. 191 CHAPTER 11 Multiverse and the Lotus The idea of a physical multiverse came later to physics than it did to religion and philosophy. The Hindu religion has ancient concepts that are similar. The term itself was, apparently, first applied by a psychologist, rather than a physicist. Concepts of a multiverse are evident in the cyclical infinite worlds of ancient Hindu cosmology. In this viewpoint, our world is one of an infinite number of distinct worlds, each governed by its own gods on their own cycles of creation and destruction. Hinduism is the first religion to have formed a Cyclic Theroy of Time, that is time runs in cycles-The Four Yugas, Aeons, Krutha, Tretha,Dwapara and Kali repeat themselves without end. Vedas say that before the creation of the universe Lord Vishnu is sleeping in the ocean of all causes. His bed is a giant serpent with thousands of cobra like hoods. While Vishnu is asleep, a lotus sprouts of his navel (note that navel is symbolised as the root of creation). Inside this lotus, Brahma resides. Brahma represents the universe which we all live in, and it is this Brahma who creates life forms. Vishnu is the personification of the eternal multiverse that exists forever without any beginning or end. Brahma is the personification of our temporary physical universe that was created in the big bang. Brahma is said to have been created from the navel (which is a single point) of Vishnu, described as a lotus blooming out of the navel, much like our big bang universe. 192 “One of the most enduring images in the Vedic scriptures is that of Lord Brahma sitting on a lotus the stem of which goes down to the navel of Garbhodakaśāyī Viṣṇu, who is also praised as Hiranyagarbha. The fourteen planetary systems in Vedic cosmology are described to reside inside the “stem” of this lotus, which is kind of perplexing because the universe is three dimensional—and described as a sphere—but the lotus stem is one dimensional. How can we squeeze three dimensions into one dimension? This post discusses this question, and shows how the three dimensions are reduced to one dimension by “twisting” the single dimension using a process like the “curved” flow of kundalini. The post discusses parallels between the body and the universe, the process of primary and secondary creations, and how these are connected to Sāńkhya as well as the forms of Lord Viṣṇu who are “controllers” in the material universe.”1 The story of Yashoda and the multiverse vision: The Bhagawatam, in which it is told that Yashoda saw the whole universe in lord Krishna’s mouth, is essentially a text written to extol the qualities of Lord Krishna; or is it? Does it show that there was another universe- many more that she saw apart from the one in which she lived. Let us rear the story first: One day, while playing in the fields, little Krishna secretly ate mud. His friends went and told Yashoda about this. When Krishna returned home, Yashoda caught Krishna by his ears and scolded him for putting dirt in his mouth. Krishna promptly replied that he had had a fight with his friends in the morning and to take revenge they were all lying and that Yashoda shouldn't believe them. He said that she was being unfair as she believed them instead of believing her son. Yashoda knew her son too well. She ordered, "If you have not taken any mud, then open your mouth. I shall see for myself." Krishna obediently opened his mouth. But when Yashoda peered into his mouth, she was wonderstruck. She saw the entire universe: the mountains the oceans, the planets, air, fire, moon and the stars in his small mouth. Yashoda was stunned and began to wonder whether she were dreaming or actually seeing something extraordinary. She fell on the ground, unconscious. 193 One school of Buddhism is the Huayan, also known as the Flower Garland school. The idea is that the flower garland, which represents all of reality, is made up of universes which all reflect one another. Others have likened the multiverse to Indra’s net, a string of pearls in multiple dimensions. This infinitely large net has a jewel at each vertex, which each reflects on another. Universes could be visualized like individual flowers on a garland The Rigveda presents many theories of cosmology. For example: 194  Hiranyagarbha sukta, its hymn 10.121, states a golden child was born in the universe and was the lord, established earth and heaven, then asks but who is the god to whom we shall offer the sacrificial prayers?  Devi sukta, its hymn 10.125, states a goddess is all, the creator, the created universe, the feeder and the lover of the universe  Nasadiya sukta, its hymn 10.129, asks who created the universe, does anyone really know, and whether it can ever be known. According to Henry White Wallis, the Rigveda and other Vedic texts are full of alternative cosmological theories and curiosity questions. For example, the hymn 1.24 of the Rigveda asks, "these stars, which are set on high, and appear at night, whither do they go in the daytime?" and hymn 10.88 wonders, "how many fires are there, how many suns, how many dawns, how many waters? I am not posing an awkward question for you fathers; I ask you, poets, only to find out?" To its numerous open-ended questions, the Vedic texts present a diversity of thought, in verses imbued with symbols and allegory, where in some cases forces and agencies are clothed with a distinct personality, while in other cases as nature with or without anthropomorphic activity such as forms of mythical sacrifices. The Rigveda contains the Nasadiya sukta hymn which does not offer a cosmological theory, but asks cosmological questions about the nature of universe and how it began: Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden; Without distinctive marks, this all was water; That which, becoming, by the void was covered; That One by force of heat came into being; Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute; Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not; Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows, Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know. — Rigveda 10:129-6 195 The concept of multiverses is mentioned many times in Hindu Puranic literature, such as in the Bhagavata Purana: Every universe is covered by seven layers – earth, water, fire, air, sky, the total energy and false ego – each ten times greater than the previous one. There are innumerable universes besides this one, and although they are unlimitedly large, they move about like atoms in You. Therefore You are called limitless (Bhagavata Purana 6.16.37) According to the Hindu text Śrīmad Bhāgavatam, “there are innumerable universes besides this one.” This concept of multiple universes is well known to Hindus familiar with the scriptures. But modern physicists have also been pondering whether our universe is all that we have or if there are many universes out there. Throughout much of modern history, our scientific understanding of the universe has been limited by what we could see. As our telescopes have grown more powerful, the size of the universe has increased as well. However, we can only “see” so far, leaving many scientists to wonder what the universe is like beyond the far limits of our technology. Some scientists even postulate that there may be not just one universe, but many—what’s known as a multiverse. Max Tegmark, a physicist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has proposed 4 types of Universes.1 Level One Multiverse: The Extension of Our Universe or Quilted Universe. The universe that we actually can see is limited by the strength of our modern telescopes. Few physicists believe the universe ends right at this point, although it’s impossible to know what exists beyond the range of our telescopes. The first type of multiverse suggests that our universe simply keeps on going, all the way to infinity. If this were true, then an infinite number of possibilities exist out there, such as an infinite number of Earths or Milky Way galaxies. And just as we are limited by our telescopes, other universes would also be isolated by their own. In the Quilted Multiverse, the universe's infinite extension in space leads to worlds necessarily repeating themselves (like the endless library in the Borges story, which contains not only every conceivable book but a multitude of "imperfect facsimiles: works which differ only in a letter or a comma"). 196 Level Two Multiverse: Pocket Universes The second type of multiverse is similar to the first, but it suggests that as the universe expanded, pocket universes were cut off from each other. Unlike the first type of multiverse, where the laws of physics are the same everywhere, in this type they may vary radically among the different pocket universes. This can be tied to string theory, which has many possible solutions. Each one of these may correspond to a separate universe. This leads to the thought that humans only exist because our universe happens to be ideally suited for life (the “Goldilocks zone”). For example, if another pocket universe did not have gravity, then life might never have started, leaving that universe sterile. Level Three Multiverse: Many Worlds Like the first type of multiverse, the third supposes that the laws of physics are consistent across all universes. In this case, though, new daughter universes appear at each moment in time, leading to all possible futures existing somewhere. Take the case of the Schrödinger’s cat paradox, which supposes that until the box is opened, the cat exists in two states—dead and alive. According to the many worlds multiverse, separate universes exist for each of those states (or wave functions). Of course, an observer in each of those universes would be aware of only one of those outcomes. Level Four Multiverse: The Mathematical Multiverse The last type of multiverse moves beyond comprehensible physics and into the realm of metaphysics. Tegmark proposes that each coherent system of mathematics may belong to some kind of physical reality—or separate universe. So a system that does not make sense in our universe might be perfect valid elsewhere. None of these multiverses has been verified experimentally, but this classification system gives physicists a good scaffolding on which to hang their future multiversal endeavors. _____ 197 Every universe is covered by seven layers— earth, water, fire, air, sky, the total energy and false ego—each ten times greater than the previous one. There are innumerable universes besides this one, and although they are unlimitedly large, they move about like atoms in You. Therefore You are called unlimited. Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 6.16.37 Analogies to describe multiple universes also exist in the Puranic literature: 4. Because You are limitless, neither the lords of heaven nor even You(Vishnu ie dont speak for all of us) Yourself can ever reach the end of Your glories. The countless universes, each enveloped in its shell, are compelled by the wheel of time to wander within You, like particles of dust blowing about in the sky. The śrutis, following their method of eliminating everything separate from the Supreme, become successful by revealing You as their final conclusion (Bhagavata Purana 10.87.41) 5. The layers or elements covering the universes are each ten times thicker than the one before, and all the universes clustered together appear like atoms in a huge combination (Bhagavata Purana 3.11.41) 6. And who will search through the wide infinities of space to count the universes side by side, each containing its Brahma, its Vishnu, its Shiva? Who can count the Indras in them all—those Indras side by side, who reign at once in all the innumerable worlds; those others who passed away before them; or even the Indras who succeed each other in any given line, ascending to godly kingship, one by one, and, one by one, passing away (Brahma Vaivarta Purana) 198 In the Mahabharatha: Krishna responds to the warrior Arjuna's request by telling him that no man can bear his naked splendour, then goes right ahead and gives him the necessary upgrade: "divine sight". What follows is one of the wildest, most truly psychedelic episodes in world literature.No longer veiled by a human semblance, Krishna appears in his universal aspect: a boundless, roaring, all-containing cosmos with a billion eyes and mouths, bristling with "heavenly weapons" and ablaze with the light of a thousand suns. The sight is fearsome not only in its manifold strangeness but because its fire is a consuming one. "The flames of thy mouths," a horrified Arjuna cries, "devour all the worlds … how terrible thy splendours burn!" Arjuna Says: O lotus-eyed one, I have heard from You in detail about the appearance and disappearance of every living entity, as realized through Your inexhaustible glories. O greatest of all personalities, O supreme form, though I see here before me Your actual position, I yet wish to see how You have entered into this cosmic manifestation. I want to see that form of Yours. If You think that I am able to behold Your cosmic form, O my Lord, O master of all mystic power, then kindly show me that universal self. 199 The Blessed Lord said: My dear Arjuna ... behold now My opulences, hundreds of thousands of varied divine forms, multicolored like the sea. O best of the Bharatas, see here the different manifestations of Adityas, Rudras, and all the demigods. Behold the many things which no one has ever seen or heard before. Whatever you wish to see can be seen all at once in this body. This universal form can show you all that you now desire, as well as whatever you may desire in the future. Everything is here completely. But you cannot see Me with your present eyes. Therefore I give to you divine eyes by which you can behold My mystic opulence. Welcome to the multiverse: Five hundred years ago, the western mind considered itself the lordly possessor of a solid, unmoving world. It was as recent as the 1920s that Edwin Hubble found galaxies beyond our own, then realised they were racing away from us -some faster than the speed of light, a supposedly impossible feat that is allowed here since it's not the galaxies that are moving but space that's expanding. And now, as the latest in an increasingly vertiginous series of perspectives, comes the chance that the universe is but one among many: a leaf in a cosmic wood. What is more – as Brian Greene notes in this progress-report on what some are calling the golden age of cosmology – such ideas are not the fevered speculation of autistic savants but "emerge unbidden" from the calculations of physicists. In the Inflationary Multiverse, universes randomly pop into being like holes in a hyperspatial emmental, then fly apart as the cheese itself – the technical term is "inflaton field" – grows at an exponential rate. It is the stuff of delirium. The Brane Multiverse posits other, unseen universes hovering a whisker from our own. In the chapter on the Simulated Multiverse, Greene sees our universe is a virtual one programmed by an alien civilisation. (As he wryly puts it: "evidence for artificial sentience and simulated worlds is grounds for rethinking the nature of your own reality".) The mother of them all is what Greene calls the Ultimate Multiverse, which states that any world that can be mathematically modelled – or even imagined – must perforce exist. We are back to Arjuna, agog in front of a reality that encompasses "the visions from thy innumerable eyes, the words from thy innumerable mouths". It is a joyfully bewildering concept that flags up the impossibility of the endeavour; surely trying to define All That Exists is like trying to box the wind or weigh a dream. What seems certain, as Greene writes, is that "what we've thought to be 200 the universe is only one component of a far grander, perhaps far stranger, and mostly hidden, reality." And what a delicious irony it is that science, that model of sober investigation, is inexorably returning us to vistas so peculiarly like the deranged imaginings of our "superstitious" past. According to Carl Sagan: "The Hindu religion is the only one of the world's great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only religion in which time scales correspond to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long, longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang." The Multiverse, and Universes within Universes The idea of the bubble universes forming out of the foam of the multiverse can also be envisioned as universes within universes. This image is common in Eastern thought. For example, the concept is visualized in Buddhist architecture. The Chaoyang North Pagoda, also constructed by the Huayan school, has thirteen stories. On the base of the pagoda are two small reliefs of itself. These two reliefs have imagined smaller reliefs of itself, and so on and so on, seemingly forever. This reflects the Buddhist cosmology of the multiverse containing universes within universes.This universe within universe idea also crops up in Hinduism. The Bhagavata Purana contains a story of Lord Krishna’s youth. After being accused of eating dirt, Krishna’s mother looks inside his mouth and sees the entire universe. 201 202 The concept of parallel universes appears 203 in the Brahma Vaivarta Purana: REFERENCE 1, 2. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple,Dr Uday Dokras, Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Tampere,Finland,2020 3. https://www.ashishdalela.com/2017/05/08/universe-in-a-lotus-stem/ 4. . https://www.economist.com/schools-brief/2015/08/15/multiversal-truths 204 CHAPTER 12 THE COSMOLOGY OF ANGKOR (Featuring gist of brilliant articles by Subhash Kak) Neither being (sat) nor non-being was as yet. What was concealed? And where? And in whose protection?…Who really knows? Who can declare it? Whence was it born, and whence came this creation? The devas (gods) were born later than this world's creation, so who knows from where it came into existence? None can know from where creation has arisen, and whether he has or has not produced it. He who surveys it in the highest heavens, He alone knows or perhaps He does not know." — Rig Veda 10. 129 Connecting the universal with the physical, Angkor Wat, as a moon temple, is a surrealist impression of the link between the individual and universal worlds. It is an artistic embodiment of the patterns of destiny; and the geometric and mathematical knowledge employed are a product of Vedic Astrology and Hindu Cosmology. The cultural significance of the monument cannot be understated. Angkor Wat is a prime example of traditional Khmer 12th century building techniques. It is the world's largest temple, a world heritage site and the best preserved Khmer temple in the Angkor complex. Arising from the dense jungle in Northwest Cambodia to touch the setting sun over a vast expanse, it is an awe-inspiring vision that captivates the viewer and prepares the mind for a transcendent experience. The complex layout was designed to mark the passing of time, as a place of pilgrimage, a path to purification, and a place to contemplate the meaning of life. It is an expression of grandeur which helped solidify Khmer cultural dominance over the area. Using the elements and natural order of life to mirror cosmic and societal ideologies, Angkor Wat`s design speaks to the original questions of our creation and place in the cosmos. From its very inception Angkor Wat was legendary. It was built in an estimated 37 years. Builders today estimate that by current standards, it would take almost 300 years to complete a project of this scale. The world heritage site was commissioned sometime between 1100 and 1150 CE, by King Suryavarman II (Shield of the Sun) of the Khmer Empire, after military victories that united neighboring areas. The immense 5 million tons of sandstone used, was quarried from one spot 25 miles away. Angkor Wat was built as the Khmer capital and lies 5.5 kilometres north Siem Reap. It was dedicated to the Hindu protector god Vishnu. Workers were brought in from the surrounding areas, and, as well combination of elephants, coir ropes, pulleys and bamboo scaffolding were used to ensure the temple would be completed in record time. The monument and surrounding landscaping are dramatic enough to make a footprint visible from space. Few written records survive of the people who built it. We aren't even sure about its original name. The information available from the temple reliefs at Angkor Wat offer the best available insight into the culture and time period, almost like an art and engineering time capsule for the 12th century Khmer civilization. 205 The city of Angkor was a prosperous city of approximately 1,000,000 people. It had a complex irrigation system, paved roads and beautiful wooden buildings. The kingdom could support a huge population with surplus bounty. There was an extensive rectangular grid system of canals carved across the landscape, improving agricultural yields to 2 to 3 times a year. Communication was an important aspect to the Khmer's regional domination and a sophisticated network of roads lead from across the kingdom directly to Angkor. Angkor Wat “was at once the symbolic centre of the nation and the actual centre where secular and sacred power joined forces,” Eleanor Mannikka writes in her book Angkor: Celestial Temples of the Khmer Empire. She continues “In the central sanctuary, Vishnu is not only placed at the latitude of Angkor Wat, he is also placed along the axis of the earth.” She points out the Khmer knew the earth was round. This was mapped astrologically in the Vedic tradition. The Vedic religion came from the Indo-Aryans of northern India. It is the predecessor of Hinduism, the main religion in the Khmer culture. Angkor Wat sits at the centre of the Khmer universe, marking at least eighteen astronomical alignments. The central spire points perfectly to the sun on the vernal equinox, or zero point of the Sun's path across the sky. It functions as a calendar. The solar year divides into four major sections by alignments from inside the entrance. "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Set on an east-west axis, along a straight causeway that extends into the horizon, the structure was built in very grand terms. The faced oriented structure dictates a precise route for a processional walk. The building only reveals itself as you progress along the route. One passes through the adorned post and lintel gopuras located at the cardinal points, to the concentric series of walls, through the four courtyards lined by cruciform galleries, to the quincunx shaped sanctuary. Vishnu is thought to reside under the central spire where the vertical axis of the buildings are centred, know as the sacred cave. Half galleries buttress the temple as Angkorian architects have yet to discover the true arch. The corbeled arch without mortar was used, which could not span wide spaces adding to the need for the concentric walls. Some of the blocks are fastened by mortise and tenon joints. The buildings along the route are placed axially according to their hierarchy of importance. This mirrors the social order of the Hindu demigod-king tradition. The linga and yoni shaped spire and bases that the temple represents is a rapturous union between male and female evoking Shatapatha cosmology of the union between the individual and the universal, which is the goal of Hinduism. The spire is adorned with lotus flowers. Stories state the lotus arose from Vishnu’s navel, with Brahma the creator at the centre. There are accounts of the world born through a "Golden Lotus" and Padmakalpa, the Lotus Age in the Padmapurana (678 ce). "Hindu texts describe that water represents the procreative aspect of the Absolute, and the cosmic lotus, the generative." As an artistic representation of the Hindu concept of the cosmos, the moat symbolizes the oceans. The temple is Mount Meru. The verandas leading to the sanctum are continents. “The constant upward movement of the building from one gallery to the next represents the spiritual 206 path of a human being. The final destination is the sanctum sanctorum where one comes face to face with divinity." The stone materials used for the Angkor monuments are made from sandstone and laterite. This was a common choice for Khmer architects for a temple material. It is fairly weather resistant and easy to work with. "Grey to yellowish-brown sandstone, consisting mainly of quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar, biotite, muscovite and rock fragments, is the main sandstone used for almost of the monuments in the surrounding area. As for laterite, two types can be distinguished: porous laterite and pisolitic laterite. Types of laterite consist of the same minerals: kaolinite, quartz, hematite and goethite. However, the sandstone blocks of Angkor Wat show a homogeneous magnetic susceptibility despite the large scale. This may suggest that the sandstone blocks were supplied from one quarry keeping its consistency." According to metaphysical mythology, sandstone enhances creativity, helps bring people together, promotes truth, clarity, balance and facilitates energy flow. It removes abrasiveness while encouraging compassion. Laterite, a soft clay that hardens, was used in the hidden structural parts and for the outer wall. The surface of laterite is uneven, thus unsuitable for decorative carvings, so it is dressed with stucco. This stone has a higher concentration of magnetism, because it contains a high percentage of iron. "Hindus once believed that the use of iron in buildings would spread epidemics." It is still unlucky today although it was used and worn in magical protective rituals. Its associated stones are quartz and holey stones such as the lingam. Quartz is also known as the star stone, while Hematite was the blood stone. All have been ascribed protective properties. “Aspects of the cosmos are incorporated into the temple by the use of specific forms, sacred geometry, careful orientation and axial alignments.” Angkor Wat is built on a grid like subdivided-square mandala pattern. The square shape being a symbol for the earthly realm, while the circle represents the heavens. Yantric buildings in the form of mandalas, dated to about 2000 BCE, have been discovered in North Afghanistan that belong to a period that corresponds to the late stage of the Harappan tradition “Numbers associated with the gods are important in constructing and interpreting the mandala which provides link to divine proportions, hence harmony with the cosmos." It is likely that the astronomical basis of the Stupa was inspired by the Vedic altar that represented the circuit of the sun. It has been shown elsewhere how this representation of the sun's motion remained common knowledge and it was used in Angkor Wat." In Vedic Astrology the sun's movements are marked against the backdrop of constellations, which are of unequal distance. The earth, as an imperfect sphere experiences pole shifts every "Great Year" or processional age which occurs every 2,160 years. According to Graham Hancock and precise computer mapping, the area around Angkor Wat is part of an “AngkorDraco” alignment and is a “symbolic diagram of the universe”. There are several temples that line up to reflect the early beacon point. When the Rig Vedas were thought to be conceived, the Pole Star was Draconis, meaning the point at which the Sun returns to has changed since the beginning of time. Knowing the exact date when the point of the vernal equinox and the sidereal zodiac meet is knowing the date of the birth of the universe. Angkor Wat marks the passing of these events and is an excellent place from which to observe the solar system. Perhaps the temple monks were using Angkor Wat to map the changes in order to help calculate this sacred date. 207 The Rig Vedas offer insight into the answer with the four ages of man or yugas. These periods follow the rise and decent of man and last 1,728,000 years; 1,296,000 years; 864,000 years; and 432,000 years respectively. Angkor Wat`s causeway has axial lengths that approximate extremely closely to 1,728 hat, 1,296 hat, 864 hat, and 432 hat – the yuga lengths scaled down by 1000. The temple dimensions are based on the hat or Cambodian cubit measurement unit. In the central sanctuary, the sets of steps are approximately 12 hat apart, like the 12 lunar mansions, or annual months. The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91 hat. On average, there are 91 days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any equinox and the next solstice. The yugas are represented in the moat water level, and various distances. As an example of one of the many stunning carved scenes, the continuous series of relief's in the third gallery take you through the four seasons. Entrance to this space was based on a hierarchy of importance. On the East wall the creation scene is symbolic of the renewal of spring, the bright summer, the west has a great battle as the autumn decline, followed by the dormancy or the lifeless winter. As the sun passes through its annual round, it lights parts of scene. The first light of the year shines on the creation story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk and the creation of the elixir of immortality. At the Fall equinox, the battle of Kurukshtra is hit by the setting sun. In the dry season, the north gallery is dark, the relief's on the south gallery are lit of the kingdom of death. Measuring the impermanence of time, Angkor Wat is a literal and artistic expression of walking a path to purification toward transmigration of the soul, the cyclical nature of time, and the law of natural order, cause and effect. Angkor Wat serves as tool for mapping of Vedic destiny and sacred geometry. It directs us along a path which can deliver us from unhappiness, even if simply to bask in its splendor. Through hard work and spiritual purification as well as the veneration of all living creatures can one attain the elixir of immortality or changeless state. It attempts to convey a message to about the human connection with the infinite. Knowing ones place in the world both spiritually, materially and in the Khmer kingdom can save a lot of suffering and increase ones karmic sphere. As an transcendent experience, a place to train the soul for life after death, a place to increase the prestige of the Khmer Dynasty and home for monks teaching about the mechanisms of change over time, Angkor Wat has expanded the imagination of visitors and views alike.1 Hindu The Hindu cosmology, like the Buddhist and Jain cosmology, considers all existence as cyclic. With its ancient roots, Hindu texts propose and discuss numerous cosmological theories. Hindu culture accepts this diversity in cosmological ideas and has lacked a single mandatory view point even in its oldest known Vedic scripture, the Rigveda. Alternate theories include a universe cyclically created and destroyed by god, or goddess, or no creator at all, or a golden egg or womb (Hiranyagarbha), or self-created multitude of universes with enormous lengths and time scales. The Vedic literature includes a number of cosmology speculations, one of which questions the origin of the cosmos and is called the Nasadiya sukta: Neither being (sat) nor non-being was as yet. What was concealed? And where? And in whose protection?…Who really knows? Who can declare it? Whence was it born, and whence came this creation? 208 The devas (gods) were born later than this world's creation, so who knows from where it came into existence? None can know from where creation has arisen, and whether he has or has not produced it. He who surveys it in the highest heavens, He alone knows or perhaps He does not know." — Rig Veda 10. 129 Time is conceptualized as a cyclic Yuga with trillions of years. In some models, Mount Meru plays a central role. Beyond its creation, Hindu cosmology posits divergent theories on the structure of the universe, from being 3 lokas to 12 lokas (worlds) which play a part in its theories about rebirth, samsara and karma. The complex cosmological speculations found in Hinduism and other Indian religions, states Bolton, is not unique and are also found in Greek, Roman, Irish and Babylonian mythologies, where each age becomes more sinful and of suffering. Philosophy of Cosmology Cosmology (the study of the physical universe) is a science that, due to both theoretical and observational developments, has made enormous strides in the past 100 years. It began as a branch of theoretical physics through Einstein’s 1917 static model of the universe (Einstein 1917) and was developed in its early days particularly through the work of Lemaître (1927).[1] As recently as 1960, cosmology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. It has transitioned to an extremely active area of mainstream physics and astronomy, particularly due to the application to the early universe of atomic and nuclear physics, on the one hand, and to a flood of data coming in from telescopes operating across the entire electromagnetic spectrum on the other. However, there are two main issues that make the philosophy of cosmology unlike that of any other science. The first is, I. The uniqueness of the Universe: there exists only one universe, so there is nothing else similar to compare it with, and the idea of “Laws of the universe” hardly makes sense. This means it is the historical science par excellence: it deals with only one unique object that is the only member of its class that exists physically; indeed there is no non-trivial class of such objects (except in theoreticians’ minds) precisely for this reason. This issue will recur throughout this discussion. The second is II. Cosmology deals with the physical situation that is the context in the large for human existence: the universe has such a nature that our life is possible. This means that although it is a physical science, it is of particular importance in terms of its implications for human life. This leads to important issues about the explanatory scope of cosmology, which we return to at the end. Cosmology’s Standard Model Physical cosmology has achieved a consensus Standard Model (SM), based on extending the local physics governing gravity and the other forces to describe the overall structure of the universe and its evolution. According to the SM, the universe has evolved from an extremely high temperature early state, by expanding, cooling, and developing structures at various scales, such as galaxies and stars. This model is based on bold extrapolations of existing theories— 209 applying general relativity, for example, at length scales 14 orders of magnitude larger than the those at which it has been tested—and requires several novel ingredients, such as dark matter and dark energy. The last few decades have been a golden age of physical cosmology, as the SM has been developed in rich detail and substantiated by compatibility with a growing body of observations. But what was the situation of knowledge at the time of The Kings of Angkor who were DEVRAJAS? Multiverse The multiverse response replaces a single, apparently finely-tuned universe within an ensemble of universes, combined with an appeal to anthropic selection. Suppose that all possible values of the fundamental constants are realized in individual elements of the ensemble. Many of these universes will be inhospitable to life. In calculating the probabilities that we observe specific values of the fundamental constants, we need only consider the subset of universe compatible with the existence of complexity (or some more specific feature associated with life). If we have some way of assigning probabilities over the ensemble, we could then calculate the probability associated with our measured values. These calculations will resolve the fine-tuning puzzles if they show that we observe typical values for a complex (or life-permitting) universe. Many cosmologists have argued in favor of a specific version of the multiverse called eternal inflation (EI).[51] On this view, the rapid expansion hypothesized by inflationary cosmology continues until arbitrarily late times in some regions, and comes to an end (with a transition to slower expansion) in others. This leads to a global structure of “pocket” universes embedded within a larger multiverse. On this line of thought, the multiverse should be accepted for the same reason we accept many claims about what we cannot directly observe—namely, as an inevitable consequence of an established physical theory. It is not clear, however, that EI is inevitable, as not all inflationary models, arguably including those favored by CMB observations, have the kind of potential that leads to EI. Accounts of how inflation leads to EI rely on speculative physics.[53] Furthermore, if inflation does lead to EI, that threatens to undermine the original reasons for accepting inflation (Smeenk 2014): rather than the predictions regarding the state produced at the end of inflation taken to provide evidence for inflation, EI seems to imply that, as Guth (2007) put it, in EI “anything that can happen will happen; in fact, it will happen an infinite number of times”. There have been two distinct approaches to recovering some empirical content in this situation.[54] First, there may be traces of the early formation of the pocket universes, the remnants of collisions between neighboring “bubbles”, left on the CMB sky (Aguirre & Johnson 2011). Detection of a distinctive signature that cannot be explained by other means would provide evidence for the multiverse. However, there is no expectation that a multiverse theory would generically predict such traces; for example, if the collision occurs too early the imprint is erased by subsequent inflationary expansion. The other approach regards predictions for the fundamental constants, such as Weinberg’s prediction of ΛΛ discussed above. The process of forming the pocket universes is assumed to yield variation in the local, low-energy physics in each pocket. Predictions for the values of the fundamental constants follow from two things: (1) a specification of the probabilities for different values of the constant over the ensemble, and (2) a treatment of the selection effect 210 imposed by restricting consideration to pocket universes with observers and then choosing a “typical” observer.The aim is to obtain probabilistic predictions for what a typical observer should see in the EI multiverse. Yet there are several challenges to overcome, alongside those mentioned above related to anthropics. The assumption that the formation of pocket universes leads to variation in constants is just an assumption, which is not yet justified by a plausible, well-tested dynamical theory. The most widely discussed challenge in the physics literature is the “measure problem”: roughly, how to assign “size” to different regions of the multiverse, as a first step towards assigning probabilities. It is difficult to define a measure because the EI multiverse is usually taken to be an infinite ensemble, lacking in the kinds of structure used in constructing a measure. On our view, these unmet challenges undercut the hope that the EI multiverse yields probabilistic predictions. And without such an account, the multiverse proposal does not have any testable consequences. If everything happens somewhere in the ensemble, then any potential observation is compatible with the theory. Supposing that we grant a successful resolution of all these challenges, the merits of a multiverse solution of fine-tuning problems could then be evaluated by comparison with competing ideas. The most widely cited evidence in favor of a multiverse is Weinberg’s prediction for the value of ΛΛ, discussed above. There are other proposals to explain the observed value of ΛΛ; Wang, Zhu, and Unruh (2017), for example, treat the quantum vacuum as extremely inhomogeneous, and argue that resonance among the vacuum fluctuations leads to a small ΛΛ. The unease many have about multiverse proposals are only reinforced by the liberal appeals to “infinities” in discussion of the idea.[55] Many have argued, for example, that we must formulate an account of anthropic reasoning that applies to a truly infinite, rather than merely very large, universe. Claims that we occupy one of infinitely many possible pocket universes, filled with an infinity of other observers, rest on an enormous and speculative extrapolation. Such claims fail to take seriously the concept of infinity, which is not merely a large number. Hilbert (1925 [1983]) emphasized that while infinity is required to complete mathematics, it does not occur anywhere in the accessible physical universe. One response is to require that infinities in cosmology should have a restricted use. It may be useful to introduce infinity as part of an explanatory account of some aspect of cosmology, as is common practice in mathematical models that introduce various idealizations. Yet this infinity should be eliminable, such that the explanation of the phenomena remains valid when the idealization is removed. Even for those who regard this demand as too stringent, there certainly needs to be more care in clarifying and justifying claims regarding infinities. In sum, interest in the multiverse stems primarily from speculations about the consequences of inflation for the global structure of the universe. The main points of debate regard whether EI is a disaster for inflation, undermining the possibility of testing inflation at all, and how much predictions such as that for ΛΛ lend credence to these speculations. Resolution of these questions is needed to decide whether the multiverse can be tested in a stronger sense, going beyond the special cases (such as bubble collisions) that may provide more direct evidence. Buddhist cosmology In Buddhism, like other Indian religions, there is no ultimate beginning nor final end to the universe. It considers all existence as eternal, and believes there is no creator god.[7][8] Buddhism 211 views the universe as impermanent and always in flux. This cosmology is the foundation of its Samsara theory, that evolved over time the mechanistic details on how the wheel of mundane existence works over the endless cycles of rebirth and redeath. In early Buddhist traditions, Saṃsāra cosmology consisted of five realms through which wheel of existence recycled. This included hells (niraya), hungry ghosts (pretas), animals (tiryak), humans (manushya), and gods (devas, heavenly). In latter traditions, this list grew to a list of six realms of rebirth, adding demi-gods (asuras). The "hungry ghost, heavenly, hellish realms" respectively formulate the ritual, literary and moral spheres of many contemporary Buddhist traditions. According to Akira Sadakata, the Buddhist cosmology is far more complex and uses extraordinarily larger numbers than those found in Vedic and post-Vedic Hindu traditions. It also shares many ideas and concepts, such as those about Mount Meru. The Buddhist thought holds that the six cosmological realms are interconnected, and everyone cycles life after life, through these realms, because of a combination of ignorance, desires and purposeful karma, or ethical and unethical actions. Jain Jain cosmology Jain cosmology considers the loka, or universe, as an uncreated entity, existing since infinity, having no beginning or an end. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is narrow at the top, broad at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. Mahāpurāṇa of Ācārya Jinasena is famous for this quote: Some foolish men declare that a creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression. Photo courtesy of www.andybrouwer.co.uk 212 Background: One of the most spectacular structures of astronomical significance that has ever been built is the temple of Angkor Wat in what is now Cambodia. Rarely in history has any culture given rise to a structure that so elaborately and expansively incorporates its concept of the cosmos. Angkor Wat stands as a striking and majestic monument in honor of the Universe and our place in it. Angkor Wat is the most famous temple at Angkor, a former capital of the Khmer empire. It was built by King Suryavarman II in the 12th century, and is as immense as it is beautiful. Surrounded by a rectangular moat 1.5 kilometers (0.9 mile) long and 1.3 kilometers (0.8 mile) wide, the structure itself consists of two rectangular walls enclosing three nested rectangular galleries that culminate in a central spire surrounded by four smaller towers. The straight lines of its moat, walls and galleries are oriented along the north-south, east-west directions, and unlike most temples in the area its entrance faces west, being approached by way of a long bridge that spans the moat. The origins of the temple lie in what may be the world's oldest religious text, the Rigveda, one of the four Veda Samhitas of Hindu literature. This text describes the gods of heaven and earth, including the earthly god Vishnu, "The Preserver." It is to Vishnu that Angkor Wat is consecrated, and with more than mere symbolic intent. Hindu temples were built to be earthly abodes for the gods. The central sanctuary was the most sacred place, directly inline with the vertical axis of the central spire that provided the connection between the realms of heaven and Earth. The surrounding architecture of the temple would then mirror Hindu cosmology, being essentially a mandala in stone—a diagram of the cosmos itself. Furthermore, the Khmer civilization had by the time of Angkor Wat's construction incorporated the idea that a king would, after his death, be transmuted into one of the gods. Hence, it was at Angkor Wat that Suryavarman II, after his death, was believed to reside as Vishnu. Astronomical.significance: Astronomy and Hindu cosmology are inseparably entwined at Angkor Wat. Nowhere is this more evident than in the interior colonnade, which is dedicated to a vast and glorious carved mural, a bas-relief illustrating the gods as well as scenes from the Hindu epic the Mahabharata. Along the east wall is a 45-meter (150-foot) scene illustrating the "churning of the sea of milk," a creation myth in which the gods attempt to churn the elixir of immortality out of the milk of time. The north wall depicts the "day of the gods," along the west wall is a great battle scene from the Mahabharata, and the south wall portrays the kingdom of Yama, the god of death. It has been suggested that the choice and arrangement of these scenes was intended to tie in with the seasons—the creation scene of the east wall is symbolic of the renewal of spring, the "day of the gods" is summer, the great battle on the west wall may represent the decline of autumn, and the portrayal of Yama might signify the dormancy, the lifeless time of winter. The architecture of Angkor Wat also has numerous astronomical aspects beyond the basic mandala plan that is common to other Hindu temples. As many as eighteen astronomical alignments have been identified within its walls. To mention but three of them: when standing just inside the western entrance, the Sun rises over the central tower on the spring (vernal) equinox; it rises over a distant temple at Prasat Kuk Bangro, 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles) away, on 213 the winter solstice; and on the summer solstice it rises over a prominent hill 17.5 kilometers (10.9 miles) away. Finally, some researchers have claimed that the very dimensions of many of the structures at Angkor Wat have astronomical associations. These associations emerge from consideration of the unit of length that was in use at that time, a unit known as the hat or "Cambodian cubit." There is some question as to how long a hat was, and indeed its definition may not have been uniformly applied; but a value of 43.45 centimeters (17.1 inches) for the length of a hat is suggested by the structures themselves. Using this value, archaeologists discovered numerous dimensions of the temple that seem to have astronomical and cosmological significance—for example, the following:  The dimensions of the highest rectangular level of the temple are 189 hat in the east-west direction and 176 hat in the north-south direction. Added together these give 365, the number of days in one year.  In the central sanctuary, the distances between sets of steps is approximately 12 hat. There are roughly 12 lunar cycles, or synodic months (from full Moon to full Moon, say—the basis for our modern month) in one year.  The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91 hat. On average, there are 91 days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any equinox and the next solstice. Because of its orbit around the Earth, the Moon's apparent position in the sky relative to the background stars will appear to shift from night to night. Since it takes the Moon just over 27 days to complete one orbit (known as its sidereal period), it will during this time appear to move through 27 successive regions of the sky. In Hindu cosmology, these regions were known as the naksatras, or lunar mansions. In some contexts there were 27 lunar mansions, while in other contexts an additional naksatra containing the star Vega was included, giving 28 lunar mansions. The central tower at Angkor Wat contains nine inner chambers. If you total the dimensions of all of these chambers it equals 27 hat in the north-south direction and 28 hat in the east-west direction, corresponding to the possible number of lunar mansions. Also, the libraries have lengths measured along their interiors of 16 hat in the east-west direction, and either 12 or 11 hat in the north-south direction, depending upon whether or not the doorways are included. Added together, these also give either 28 or 27 hat. Finally, the north-south width of the libraries measured from the exteriors of the walls is again 28 hat. Hindu cosmology recognizes four time periods, or Yugas, that are represented in the dimensions of the temple:   The length of the Kali-Yuga, our current time period, is 2 x 603 years, or 432 thousand years. The width of the moat that surrounds the temple, measured at the water level, is approximately 432 hat. The length of the Dv apara-Yuga is 4 x 603 years, or 864 thousand years. The distance from the entrance to the inner wall is 867 hat. 214  The length of the Treta-Yuga is 6 x 603 years, or 1,296 thousand years. The distance from the entrance to the central tower is 1,296 hat.  The length of the Krita-Yuga is 8 x 603 years, or 1,728 thousand years. The distance from the moat bridge to the center of the temple is 1,734 hat. According to the Sthapatya Veda (the Indian tradition of architecture), the temple and the town should mirror the cosmos. The temple architecture and the city plan are, therefore, related in their conception. Volwahsen (2001) has remarked on the continuity in the Indian architectural tradition. The Harappan cities have a grid plan, just as is recommended in the Vedic manuals. The square shape represents the heavens, with the four directions representing the cardinal directions as well as the two solstices and the equinoxes of the sun’s orbit. Although it has long been known that the Angkor Wat temple astronomy isderived from Puran.ic and Siddhantic ideas, the Vedic roots of this astronomyhave only recently been identified. We have found the Vedic altar astronomynumbers 21, 78, and 261 in the temple design. The division of the solar yearinto two unequal halves is explained by the design of theSatapatha Brahman.aaltar on the asymmetric circuit of the sun. We need a more thorough exami-nation of the altar numbers in the design to interpret their signicance in thecontext of di erent architectural units so brilliantly decoded by Mannikka.For example, was there any obvious in influence of the Agnicayana ritual on the phased construction of the Angkor Wat temple?The decoding of the astronomy of Angkor Wat has opened the way for asimilar examination of medieval and ancient Indian temple complexes, which were built with astronomical observations in mind.2 The monument that has been studied most extensively for its cosmological basis is the Angkor Wat temple. Although it is located in Cambodia, it was built according to the principles of Indian architecture and, therefore, we will describe it at some length. The connections between Angkor Wat and Vedic astronomy emerged out of my own work (Kak, 1999 and Millar and Kak, 1999). The astronomy and cosmology underlying the design of the Angkor Wat temple was extensively researched in the 1970s and it is well summarized in the book by Eleanor Mannikka (1996). Basically, it was found that the temple served as a practical observatory where the rising sun was aligned on the equinox and solstice days with the western entrance of the temple, and many sighting lines for seasonally observing the risings of the sun and the moon were identified. This paper presents the basis of the Hindu temple design going back to the earliest period. We trace this design back to the fire altars of the Vedic period which were themselves designed to represent astronomical knowledge (Kak, 1995, 2000, 2002). An assumed equivalence between the outer and the inner cosmos is central to the conception of the temple. It is because of this equivalence that numbers such as 108 and 360 are important in the temple design. The number 108 represents the distance from the earth to the sun and the moon in sun and 215 moon diameters, respectively. The diameter of the sun is also 108 times the diameter of the earth, but that fact is not likely to have been known to the Vedic rishis. This number of dance poses (karanas) given in the Natya Shastra is also 108, as is the number of beads in a rosary (japamala). The “distance” between the body and the inner sun is also taken to be 108, and the number of marmas in Ayurveda is 107. The total number of syllables in the Rigveda is taken to be 432,000, a number related to 108. The number 360, the number of days in the civil year, is also taken to be the number of bones in the developing foetus, a number that fuses later into the 206 bones of the adult. The centrality of this number in Vedic ritual is stressed in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The primary Vedic number is three, representing the tripartite division of the physical world into the earth, the atmosphere, and the sky and that of the person into the physical body, the pranas, and the inner sky. The Hindu temple also represents the Meru mountain, the navel of the earth. The Brihat Samhita 56 lists the many design requirements that the temple building must satisfy. For example, it says “the height of the temple should be double its width, and the height of the foundation above the ground with the steps equal to a third of this height. The sanctum sanctorum should be half the width of the temple” and so on. It also lists twenty types of temples that range from one to twelve storeys in height.3 Angkor Wat, the front side of the main complex (Bjørn Christian Tørrissen/Wikimedia Commons) Snapshot  The great Visnu temple at Angkor Wat in north-central Kampuchea (Cambodia) is known to have been built according to an astronomical plan. The astronomy of Angkor Wat has the lesson that the medieval and ancient Indian temple complexes should be examined for their astronomical bases. The great Visnu temple of Angkor Wat was built by the Khmer Emperor Suryavarman II, who reigned during AD 1113-50. This temple was one of the many temples built from AD 879-1191, 216 when the Khmer civilisation was at the height of its power. The Visnu temple has been called one of humankind’s most impressive and enduring architectural achievements. More than 20 years ago, Science carried a comprehensive analysis by Stencel, Gifford and Morón (SGM) of the astronomy and cosmology underlying the design of this temple. The authors concluded that it served as a practical observatory where the rising sun was aligned on the equinox and solstice days with the western entrance of the temple, and they identified 22 sighting lines for seasonally observing the risings of the sun and the moon. Using a survey by Nafilyan and converting the figures to the Cambodian cubit or hat (0.435 m), SGM demonstrated that certain measurements of the temple record calendric and cosmological time cycles. In addition, SGM showed that the west-east axis represents the periods of the yugas. The width of the moat is 439.78 hat; the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to balustrade wall at the end of causeway is 867.03 hat; the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to the first step of the central tower is 1,296.07 hat; and the distance from the first step of bridge to the geographic center of the temple is 1,734.41 hat. These correspond to the periods of 4,32,000, 864,000, 1,296,000, 1,728,000 years for the Kali, Dvapara, Treta, and Krta yuga, respectively. SGM suggest that the very slight discrepancy in the equations might be due to human error or erosion or sinking of the structure. In the central tower, the topmost elevation has external axial dimensions of 189.00 hat east-west, and 176.37 hat north-south, with the sum of 365.37. In the words of SGM, this is “perhaps the most outstanding number” in the complex, “almost the exact length of the solar year.” But SGM were not able to explain the inequality of the two halves, which is the problem that we take up in this paper. We will show that these numbers are old Satapatha Brahmana numbers for the asymmetric motion of the sun. The Historical Background of Angkor Wat The kings of the Khmer empire ruled over a vast domain that reached from what is now southern Vietnam to Yunan, China and from Vietnam westward to the Bay of Bengal. The structures one sees at Angkor today, more than 100 temples in all, are the surviving religious remains of a grand social and administrative metropolis whose other buildings - palaces, public buildings, and houses - were all built of wood and are long since decayed and gone. As in most parts of India, where wood was plentiful, only the gods had the right to live in houses of stone or brick; the sovereigns and the common folk lived in pavilions and houses of wood. Over the half-millenia of Khmer rule, the city of Angkor became a great pilgrimage destination because of the notion of Devaraja, which has been explained by Lokesh Chandra as a coronation icon. Jayavarman II (802-850) was the first to use this royal icon. According to Lokesh Chandra, Devaraja means ‘King of the Gods’ and not ‘God-King’. He is Indra and refers to the highly efficacious aindra mahabhiseka of the Rgvedic rajasuya tradition as elaborated in the Aitareyabrahmana. It was not a simple but a great coronation, a mahabhiseka. It was of extraordinary significance that Jayavarman II performed a Rgvedic rite, which lent him charismatic authority. The increasingly larger temples built by the Khmer kings continued to function as the locus of the devotion to the Devaraja, and were at the same time earthly and symbolic representations of mythical Mt Meru, the cosmological home of the Hindu gods and the axis of the world-system. The symbol of the king’s divine authority was the sign (linga) of Siva within the temple’s inner sanctuary, which represented both the axes of physical and the psychological worlds. The 217 worship of Siva and Visnu separately, and together as Harihara, had been popular for considerable time in southeast Asia; Jayavarman’s chief innovation was to use ancient Vedic mahabhiseka to define the symbol of government. To quote Lokesh Chandra further, The icon used by Jayavarman II for his aindra mahabhiseka, his Devaraja = Indra (icon), became the symbol of the Cambodian state, as the sacred and secular sovereignty denoted by Prajapatısvara/Brahma, as the continuity of the vital flow of the universal (jagat) into the stability of the terrestrial kingdom (raja = rajya). As the founder of the new Kambuja state, he contributed a national palladium under its Cambodian appellation kamraten jagat ta raja/rajya. Whenever the capital was transferred by his successors, it was taken to the new nagara, for it had to be constantly in the capital. Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions of the temple fall far short of communicating the great size, the perfect proportions and the astoundingly beautiful sculpture that everywhere presents itself to the viewer. As an aside, it should be mentioned that some European scholars tended to date Angkor Wat as being after the fourteenth century. The principal reason was that some decorative motifs at Angkor Wat show a striking resemblance to certain motifs of the Italian Renaissance. This argument, which is similar to the one used in dating Indian mathematical texts vis-a-vis Greek texts, has been proven to be wrong. In the words of Cœdes, “If there is some connexion between the twelfth-century art of the Khmers, the direct heirs to the previous centuries, and the art of the Renaissance, it must have been due to a reverse process, that is to the importation of oriental objects into Europe.” Astronomy of Altars and Temples To understand the astronomical aspects of Angkor Wat, it is necessary to begin with the Indian traditions of altar and temple design on which it is based. And since the Angkor Wat ritual hearkened to the Vedic past, it stands to reason that its astronomy was also connected to the Vedic astronomical tradition. In a series of publications I have shown that the Vedic altars had an astronomical basis. In the basic scheme, the circle represented the earth and the square represented the heavens or the deity. But the altar or the temple, as a representation of the dynamism of the universe, required a breaking of the symmetry of the square. As seen clearly in the agnicayana and other altar constructions, this was done in a variety of ways. Although the main altar might be square or its derivative, the overall sacred area was taken to be a departure from this shape. In particular, the temples to the goddess were drawn on a rectangular plan. In the introduction to the Silpa Prakasa, a ninth-twelfth century Orissan temple architecture text, Alice Boner writes, “[the Devı temples] represent the creative expanding forces, and therefore could not be logically be represented by a square, which is an eminently static form. While the immanent supreme principle is represented by the number ONE, the first stir of creation initiates duality, which is the number TWO, and is the producer of THREE and FOUR and all subsequent numbers upto the infinite.” The dynamism is expressed by a doubling of the square to a rectangle or the ratio 1:2, where the garbhagrha is now built in the geometrical centre. For a three-dimensional structure, the basic symmetry-breaking ratio is 1:2:4, which can be continued further to another doubling. The constructions of the Harappan period (2,600-1,900 BC) appear to be according to the same principles. The dynamic ratio of 1:2:4 is the most commonly encountered size of rooms of 218 houses, in the overall plan of houses and the construction of large public buildings. This ratio is also reflected in the overall plan of the large walled sector at Mohenjo Daro called the citadel mound. It is even the most commonly encountered brick size. There is evidence of temple structures in the Harappan period in addition to iconography that recalls the goddess. Structures dating to 2000 BC, built in the design of yantras, have been unearthed in northern Afghanistan. There is ample evidence for a continuity in the religious and artistic tradition of India from the Harappan times, if not earlier. These ideas and the astronomical basis continued in the architecture of the temples of the classical age. Kramrisch has argued that the number 25,920, the number of years in the precessional period of the earth, is also reflected in the plan of the temple. According to the art-historian Alice Boner, [T]he temple must, in its space-directions, be established in relation to the motion of the heavenly bodies. But in as much as it incorporates in a single synthesis the unequal courses of the sun, the moon and the planets, it also symbolises all recurrent time sequences: the day, the month, the year and the wider cycles marked by the recurrence of a complete cycle of eclipses, when the sun and the moon are readjusted in their original positions, anew cycle of creation begins. It is clear then that the Hindu temple is a conception of the astronomical frame of the universe. In this conception, it serves the same purpose as the Vedic altar, which served to express the motions of the sun and the moon. The progressive complexity of the classical temple was inevitable given an attempt to bring in the cycles of the planets and other ideas of the yugas into the scheme. A text like the Silpa Prakasa would be expected to express the principles of temple construction of the times that led to the Angkor Wat temple. Given the prominence to the yuga periods in Angkor Wat and a variety of other evidence, it is clear that there is a continuity between the Vedic and Puranic astronomy and cosmology and the design of Angkor Wat. Solar and lunar measurements Some of the solar and lunar numbers that show up in the design of the Angkor Wat temple are the number of naksatras, the number of months in the year, the days in the lunar month, the days of the solar month, and so so. Lunar observations appear to have been made from the causeway. SGM list 22 alignments in their paper, these could have been used to track not just the solar and lunar motions but also planetary motions. The division of the year into the two halves: 189 and 176.37 has puzzled SGM. But precisely the same division is described in the Satapatha Brahmana. In layer 5 of the altar described in the Satapatha, a division of the year into the two halves in the proportion 15:14 is given. This proportion corresponds to the numbers 189 and 176.4, which are just the numbers used at Angkor Wat. Consider the physics behind the asymmetry in the sun’s orbit. The period from the autumnal equinox to the vernal equinox is smaller than the opposite circuit. The interval between successive perihelia, the anomalistic year, is 365.25964 days, which is 0.01845 days longer than the tropical year on which our calendar is based. In 1,000 calendar years, the date of the 219 perihelion advances about 18 days. The perihelion was roughly on 18 December during the time of the construction of Angkor Wat; and it was on 27 October during early second millennium BC, the most likely period of the composition of the Satapatha Brahmana. In all these cases, the perihelion occurs during the autumn/winter period, and so by Kepler’s 2nd law we know that the speed of the sun in its orbit around the earth is greater during the months of autumn and winter than in spring and summer. During the time of the Satapatha Brahmana, the apogee was about midway through the spring season, which was then somewhat more than 94 days. The extra brick in the spring quadrant may symbolically reflect the discovery that this quarter had more days in it, a discovery made at a time when a satisfactory formula had not yet been developed for the progress of the sun on the ecliptic. It is possible that the period from the spring equinox to the fall equinox was taken to be about 189 days by doubling the period of the spring season; 176 days became the period of the reverse circuit. Why not assume that there was no more to these numbers than a division into the proportions 15:14 derived from some numerological considerations? First, we have the evidence from the Satapatha Brahmana that expressly informs us that the count of days from the winter to the summer solstice was different, and shorter, than the count in the reverse order. Second, the altar design is explicitly about the sun’s circuit around the earth and so the proportion of 15:14 must be converted into the appropriate count with respect to the length of the year. Furthermore, the many astronomical alignments of the Angkor Wat impress on us the fairly elaborate system of naked-eye observations that were the basis of the temple astronomy. But since precisely the same numbers were used in Angkor Wat as were mentioned much earlier in the Satapatha Brahmana, one would presume that these numbers were used as a part of ancient sacred lore. We see the count between the solstices has been changing much faster than the count between the equinoxes because the perigee has been, in the past two thousand years, somewhere between the autumn and the winter months. Because of its relative constancy, the count between the equinoxes became one of the primary ‘constants’ of Vedic/Puranic astronomy. The equinoctial half-years are currently about 186 and 179, respectively, and were not much different when Angkor Wat temple was constructed. Given that the length of the year was known to considerable precision, there is no reason to assume that these counts were not known. But it appears that a ‘normative’ division according to the ancient proportion was used. As it was known that the solar year was about 365.25 days, the old proportion of 15:14 would give the distribution 188.92 and 176.33, and that is very much the Angkor Wat numbers of 189 and 176.37 within human error. In other words, the choice of these ‘constants’ may have been determined by the use of the ancient proportion of 15:14. Conclusions It has long been known that the Angkor Wat temple astronomy is derived from Puranic and Siddhantic ideas. Here we present evidence that takes us to the Vedic roots for the division of the solar year in Angkor Wat into two unequal halves. This division is across the equinoxes and that number has not changed very much during the passage of time from the Brahmanas to the construction of the Angkor Wat temple, so it is not surprising that it figures so prominently in the astronomy. It also appears that the count of 189 days may have been obtained by doubling the measured period for the spring season. 220 The astronomy of Angkor Wat has the lesson that the medieval and ancient Indian temple complexes, which were also built with basic astronomical observations in mind, should be examined for their astronomical bases. The Khmer temple was designed as a microcosm of the Hindu cosmological universe. Moving from the temple’s entrance to the sanctuary at its center, the visitor undergoes a symbolic three-staged journey to salvation through enlightenment. Each of the steps are laid out in the exhibit at right. Stage 1: Moat as Cosmic Sea The outermost boundary of a Khmer temple was often surrounded by a moat, a body of water symbolic of the Cosmic Sea (blue highlights above). For Hindus, the Cosmic Sea is the source of creative energy and life, the starting point for the journey toward salvation.The temple visitor begins his journey by crossing the sea on causeways lined with serpents, beasts similarly intimately associated with both Hindu and Khmer myths of creation (we explore the serpent in detail in our guidebook to Angkor). Stage 2: Enclosure Walls as Sacred Mountain Ranges 221 Continuing on his way to the center of the temple, the visitor passes through a series of massive enclosure walls; these walls recreate sacred mountain ranges, symbolic of obstacles that must be overcome on the path to enlightenment (green highlights in Fig. 1). Monumental tower gateways, called gopurams, grant the visitor passage through the walls, each successive one revealing a more sacred area, farther removed from the outside world. The combination of concentric enclosure walls with large gateways was derived directly from South Indian Hindu architectural precedent. Enclosure walls make their first appearance very early in the Khmer building tradition — at the late 9th century pre-Angkor site of Roluos in the temples of Preah Ko, Bakong and Lolei — and are a constant feature in all subsequent temples. Stage 3: Five Sanctuary Towers as Mount Meru At the center of the temple stand sanctuaries with tower superstructures (red highlights above).  The mountain residence of the gods. Under Hindu cosmology, the gods have always been associated with mountains. The sanctuary’s form, dominated by its large tower, recreates the appearance of the gods’ mountaintop residence, Mount Meru. The mountaintop residence of the gods carried particular symbolic resonance for the Khmer people.  God’s cave. The sanctuary proper, located directly under the tower, is where an image of the deity resides (see exhibit at right). Its dark interior is designed to represent the cave into which god descends from his mountain home and becomes accessible to human beings.  The sacred intersection. At the Hindu temple’s sanctuary, the worlds of the divine and living connect: the god’s vertical axis (mountaintop to cave) intersects with the visitor’s horizontal axis (temple entrance to cave). The entire universe emanates from this intersection, as unity with god is the goal of earthly existence. In Hinduism, god is believed to temporarily physically inhabit his representation in the sanctuary; the Hindu temple is arranged to enable the direct devotee-to-deity interaction that necessarily follows. Unlike other faiths, there is no religious intermediary and no abstraction; god is manifest before the devotee’s eyes, a profound encounter. 222 It is here, among the peaks of Mount Meru, that the visitor’s symbolic journey ends in nirvana: the pairs of opposites characteristic of worldly existence (e.g., good versus bad, right versus wrong) fuse into a single infinite everythingness beyond space and time. 4 “Although it has long been known that the Angkor Wat temple astronomy is derived from Pur¯an. ic and Siddh¯antic ideas, the Vedic roots of this astronomy have only recently been identified. We have found the Vedic altar astronomy numbers 21, 78, and 261 in the temple design. The division of the solar year into two unequal halves is explained by the design of the Satapatha Br¯ ´ ahman. a altar on the asymmetric circuit of the sun. We need a more thorough examination of the altar numbers in the design to interpret their significance in the context of different architectural units so brilliantly decoded by Mannikka. For example, was there any obvious influence of the Agnicayana ritual on the phased construction of the Angkor Wat temple? The decoding of the astronomy of Angkor Wat has opened the way for a similar examination of medieval and ancient Indian temple complexes, which 13 were also built with basic astronomical observations in minds”.5 Discovery Of India’s ‘Oldest Observatory’ Reconnects Us To Our Ancient Sacred Culture byAravindan Neelakandan-Dec 31, 2016 223 Archaeologists this year discovered what is perhaps India’s only megalithic site, at Mudumal in Telangana.This discovery is of great significance for India as it uncovers a dimension of our culture that is now unfortunately forgotten. Of all the discoveries made in 2016, there is one among the few that stood out. It is the discovery by a team of Indian archeologists in a remote village in the newest state of India – a place that should be considered ‘the oldest observatory’ in the Indian region. The site is a 7,000 years Before Present (BP) megalithic site in Mudumal village in Telangana, India. In south-Indian languages, mudumal means ancient hill. The discovery in Mudumal, Telangana, India Here, the archeologists have discovered “a depiction of a star constellation”, perhaps only one of its kind discovered in a megalithic structure in India. The megalithic site itself is just one of several with 80 large menhirs (3.5-4m) and about 2,000 alignment stones, (30-60cm), spread over an area of 80 acres. Such a large concentration and arrangement of megalithic structures in such a small area is in itself a rarity. The central part of the entire site is the most densely populated. The findings related to astronomy are especially fascinating. There is a cup-mark depiction of Ursa Major (Saptarishi) of the northern skies. Another feature is the arrangement of 30 cupmarks that seems to imitate the stellar configuration of the night skies. Also discovered is an imaginary line drawn from the upper two stars (Kratu and Pulaha) in megalithic imitation of Saptarishi pointed to the Pole Star (Dhruva). The findings await further confirmation, though the initial scholarly responses appear positive. Meanwhile, almost 7,800km away in Australia, an astronomer at Monash University, Duane Hamacher, who is studying the Wurdi Youang stone arrangement – an aboriginal sacred site – is coming to a conclusion similar to that of Indian astronomers. These stone arrangements were made in the past for the sake of astronomical observations. The stone arrangement is made up of about a hundred basalt stones. Arranged like an incomplete egg, the key stones in the arrangement are aligned to mark the solstice and equinox sunsets. Hamacher’s in-depth and ongoing study of aboriginal astronomy and other knowledge systems has made him alert to the biases in academia and media with respect to his findings. “Some academics have referred to this stone arrangement here as Australia's version of the Stonehenge,” 224 he points out; however, he says, “The question we might have to ask is, is Stonehenge Britain's version of Wurdi Youang? Because this could be much, much older.” The archeo-astronomical discovery has other ramifications too. It challenges the colonial myth, which is still the dominant historical narrative, that the aborigines were nomads. The stones are estimated by geologists to be almost 11,000 BP. If such structures were created by people with knowledge of astronomy, they were more sedentary than they were nomads, and that might offer a clue to the origin of agriculture as well. Science writer Ray Norris writes about “the remarkable similarity between Aboriginal stories about stars and those of the Ancient Greeks” in his recent article for the New Scientist ('Written in the Stars'). The Greek and Hindu mythological parallels have already been well-established. So, perhaps, the proposal of British geneticist and author Stephen Oppenheimer of a common origin for mythologies in Southeast Asian and Oceanic regions needs a serious relook. Australian aboriginal observatory Of course, solstices and equinoxes have been celebrated the world over. And megalithic structures and indigenous cultures have created sacred spaces based on these two times of the year. In the Petrified Forest National Park in Navajo and Apache counties of Arizona, the United States, during summer solstice, a sunbeam is projected onto a sacred rock, which then travels down to the centre of the spiral. In England, there is the famed Stonehenge. This, too, was once a pagan ritual centre. Famous physicist, polymath and a somewhat controversial figure Sir Fred Hoyle was also a Stonehenge expert. He conjectured that this stone structure was constructed with astronomical knowledge, and was used to predict solar and lunar eclipses (On Stonehenge, 1977). Eclipse rituals were perhaps performed here. Archeologist Aubrey Burl, who had spent a lifetime studying stone circles, also thinks that these structures have religious significance related to lunar circles. 225 Summer solstice ritual petroglyph in Arizona The discovery of an implicit order in the immense celestial circles should have filled the human mind with awe, which would have become the womb for all artistic and scientific achievements of humanity. Hoyle points out that the eighteenth-century poet and painter William Blake seemed to have intuitively grasped this connection when he portrayed the Stonehenge with a lunar eclipse and three figures whom he identified as Bacon, Newton and Locke, in the drawing for his poem ‘Jerusalem’. William Blake: Stonehenge, lunar eclipse and three figures Even in Mecca, the famous Kaaba stone was said to have been surrounded by 360 stone deities arranged in a circle, before the sword of Islam destroyed those shrines. Perhaps there too existed a cultural continuity from megalithic astronomical spirituality which was destroyed by the monotheistic zeal of Muhammad. Back in India, solstices and equinoxes have been embedded in the living culture, and the roots perhaps would have been embedded in the megalithic astronomical substratum. Even today, there are scores of centuries-old temples where the first rays of the solstice sun strike the interior shrine. 226 A detailed study of the famous Gavi Gangadhareshwara Temple in Karnataka, where the sun rays touch the Shiva Linga on Makara Sankranthi, was taken up by the astronomers of Jawaharlal Nehru Planetarium, Bengaluru. They discovered that it was a unique temple which incorporated a marking for both the solstices. They studied a painting of the temple dated 1792, which showed that “the passage of the sunlight into the cave was probably intended for marking winter solstice”. And the new construction made in the last two centuries had actually disrupted the way sunlight interacted with this cave temple as originally intended. Gavi Gangadhareshwara temple: solstice alignment In Tamil Nadu, there are many such temples which await a proper study. - In the southern district of Tirunelveli, at Srivaikuntam, is a Vishnu temple. On the fifth and sixth days of the first month of the Tamil calendar (during the period of spring equinox), the local legend says that the sun arrives here to worship Vishnu. On those days, the morning sun rays directly touch the murthi placed in the sanctum. - At the Nageshwar temple in the famous temple town of Kumbakonam, starting on the eleventh day of the first month of the Tamil calendar, the sun rays directly touch the linga in the sanctum of the temple for three days. - At the Nelli Vananageshwar temple in Tanjore district, during the seventh month of the Tamil Calendar (aligning with the autumnal equinox period), the sun is said to pray to the deity for seven days. In Trivandrum, Kerala, one can see inside, through the doors of the gopuram of the temple, a dramatic slow descent of the autumnal equinox sun. 227 Autumnal solstice: Padmanabhaswamy Temple, Thiruvananthapuram There is a strong possibility that while the shrines and temples were later additions, the original sanctum deity – usually a swayambhu – could have been an astronomically-aligned sacred stone that has come to us from the megalithic times. Perhaps only in Indian culture have these elements been preserved in the subsequent temple architecture and the mythologies. Mythologies too may have encoded the continuity of the ancient megalithic astronomical traditions. Samba Purana speaks of Samba, the son of Krishna, through the bear clan leader Jambavan as the one who built three temples for the sun in India; Konark was built for the morning sun and in eastern India; the Modhera temple in Gujarat, which was built for the evening sun and situated along the western coast of India; Multan temple (now in Pakistan) for the afternoon sun. Though Samba Purana is a later-day mythology, the sun temples themselves should have been older. For example, even a Greek account of Alexander’s time mentions a magnificent sun temple in Taxila (which is now in Pakistan). We don’t know if these temples were aligned to the movement of the sun on a pan-Indian scale. The sun raises exactly on the peak of the main Angkor Temple. This only happens twice a year, at the so called equinox – time of the year when the sun crosses the plane of the earth's equator and day and night are of equal length. 228 Pan-Indian sun temples attributed to Samban, the bear-clan son of Krishna Samba Purana also speaks of bringing Maga Brahmins from Mithra Desa, meaning the crossfertilisation of the Mithra tradition, then flourishing in Persia, with Indic sun veneration. Persian Mithra tradition itself could have branched from the Vedic sun worship, and we do know that the sun mythology embedded in Mithra worship ultimately was carried by Romans to the West, where it enriched the solar Jesus myth, whose birth and resurrection would align with winter solstice and spring equinox respectively. The seventh-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, or Hsüan-tsang, also mentions the wellestablished sun temple at Multan which, today, is utterly destroyed to a pile of stones and in quite a degraded condition. Hsüan-tsang’s description speaks of “the image of the Sun cast in yellow gold and ornamented with rare gems”. Though himself a Buddhist, he felt its “divine insight” and “its spiritual powers made lain to all”. Then, he describes women playing music and of constant royal patronage. The temple was also a centre for compassion. He writes: They have founded a home of mercy (happiness), in which they provide food and drink, and medicines for the poor and sick, affording succour and sustenance. Men from all countries come here to offer up their prayers; there are always some thousands doing so. On the four sides of the Temple are tanks with flowering groves, where one can wander about without restraint. 229 Today, all that remains of this grand multifaceted sun temple is a heap of stones – destroyed by Islamists repeatedly. Early Islamic invaders destroyed most of the temple and kept the sanctum just to blackmail the Hindu confederacy to not attack their base. They would threaten to destroy this temple sanctum if Hindu kings invaded the aggressors. However, they placed a skinned cow hide over the deity to underline the humiliation. Martanda Temple, Kashmir In Kashmir, where yet another magnificent sun temple was present, archeo-astronomical studies have revealed an impressively constant human fascination with celestial events and their attempts to record it. Naseer Iqbal et al of the University of Kashmir investigated a rock carving of multiple concentric circles in Bomai Sopore (Baramullah) as the recording of “a meteorite impact that occurred sometime between 40,000 BP and 6,000 BP”. Another Neolithic hunting scene depicted at the site of Burzaham (Srinagar, Kashmir) might have been a sky map depiction of “the prominent constellations and the moon on the night when a supernova was observed”. The Martand sun temple built by Lalitaditya in Kashmir in eighth century CE, which in turn was built as an improvement over on an earlier existing structure, could be the culmination of a movement that dated back to upper Palaeolithic times in Kashmir. Of all cultures around the world, India alone is unique today in preserving, nourishing and maintaining the archeo-astronomy-based sacred culture embedded in the mythology, temple architecture and, perhaps, even town planning. The discovery in Mudumal of the oldest 230 megalithic observatory, thus, is a discovery of great importance in uncovering a dimension of our culture that we have neglected in the two centuries of colonisation and the resulting mindset. With the vast democratisation of the tools of knowledge and decentralised digital knowledge dissemination, time has come for us to view our temples and mythologies with a new perspective of archaeo-astronomy and look ahead to the discoveries that await us in the future.6 SUNRISE AT ANGKOR WAT DURING THE EQUINOX IN C A M B O D I A - INGAJANUARY 4, 2013 “Quest for the Lost civilization”, by Graham Hancock, is a fascinating documentary about the world’s ancient monuments. By the minute 29:00 of the video you can see the amazing scene of a very special sunrise at Angkor. The sun raises exactly on the peak of the main Angkor Temple. This only happens twice a year, at the so called equinox – time of the year when the sun crosses the plane of the earth’s equator and day and night are of equal length. It is hard to believe how people were able to build up such amazing events already in ancient times. Connecting the earth with the sky at Angkor Archaeologist believe during ancient times kings wanted to connect the earth with the sky. Hence they used to integrate sky events to temples, not just at Angkor but all over the world. The equinox sunrise at Angkor Wat is only one of those. Exciting facts surrounding Angkor Wat Researchers have found that the main route to Angkor Wat temple differs by three quarters of a degree from the east-west axis to the north. According to the precession of the earth’s axis, the North Pole is not fixed but moves like a spiral. This happens extremely slowly. Around 72 years for each degree. It takes about 26,000 years for a complete revolution. 231 Multiplying the precession of the earth’s axis – the aforementioned three quarters of a degree – with the number 72 results in the number 54. The number 54 is more frequent in Angkor Park. For example, the four-faced towers at the Bayon Temple or the guards in front of the South Gate of the city of Angkor Thom. The Equinox in Cambodia In Cambodia, this astronomical event happens during Spring (around 20th of March), and during Autumn (around 23rd of September). Dates are: Primary equinox 20.03.2017 20.03.2018 21.03.2019 20.03.2020 um 10:50 Uhr um um um 17:29 23:15 04:58 Uhr Uhr Uhr um um um 04:02 09:54 17:50 Uhr Uhr Uhr Secondary equinox 22.09.2017 23.09.2018 23.09.2019 22.09.2020 um 21:31 Uhr REFERENCES 1. https://akellsmystic.wixsite.com/sojourner/single-post/2018/01/25/Angkor-Wat%E2%80%99sCosmology#:~:text=Connecting%20the%20universal%20with%20the,the%20individual%20and%20 universal%20worlds.&text=Angkor%20Wat%20is%20a%20prime,Khmer%2012th%20century%20b uilding%20techniques. 2 Time, Space, and Astronomy in Angkor Wat, 2002.Subhash Kak.. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2889330_Time_Space_and_Astronomy_in_Angkor_Wat [accessed Jan 18 2021]. 3.How The Sublime Vishnu Temple At Angkor Wat Is An Expression Of Vedic Astronomy By Subhash Kak-Oct 15, 2016 05:31 PM] 4 https://www.approachguides.com/guide/cambodia-temples-of-angkor/ Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor Wat By Robert Stencel, Fred Gifford, Eleanor Morón,Science 23 Jul 1976: Vol. 193, Issue 4250, pp. 281-287 https://science.sciencemag.org/content/193/4250/281 5. Time, Space, and Astronomy in Angkor Wat Subhash Kak Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, LA 70803-5901, USA FAX: 225.388.5200; Email: kak@ee.lsu.edu August 6, 2001 6. https://swarajyamag.com/culture/discovery-of-indias-oldest-observatory-reconnects-us-to-ourancient-sacred-culture https://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/ang3.pdf 232 CHAPTER CHAPTER XII Jain Cosmology ABSTRACT Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe (loka) and its constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity that has existed since infinity with neither beginning nor end. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. COSMOS: Moral rewards and sufferings are not the work of a divine being, but a result of an innate moral order in the cosmos; a self-regulating mechanism whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own actions through the workings of the karmas. What is known and what is unknown: Saplabhangi : For instance, the word ‘unknowable’ is a contradiction of its own sense. Herbert Spencer meant was that which could not be fully known, not that which was wholly unknowable; for the mere fact that we know that there is a thing, however unknowable be its attributes, removes it from the category of the unknowable or unknown and puts it in that of the known. 233 The Jaina method is calculated to overcame this difficulty. It maintains that full knowledge of a thing is possible only when it has been looked at from all the different points of view which exhaust the categories of knowledge. For instance, to know merely what a thing is, is not enough; we ought also to know what it is not. But as we are not here concerned with the Saplabhangi. It only remains to be added that the ‘Key of Knowledge' does not blindly follow the teaching of any particular sect or creed, not even of Jainism to which sublime and noble faith the author has the privilege of belonging by a happy incident of birth. The views set out herein are based on a study of the nature of things, and the interpretation of the scriptures of some of the prevailing religions has been undertaken only to show that the impartial conclusions of reason are precisely those which have been set before men in the form of doctrines and myths. In dealing with the basic principles of religion it was not found necessary to go into a minute analysis of all the existing religions of the world, inasmuch as a survey of the principles underlying those actually dealt with sufficiently disposes of them all. Besides, a thorough 234 treatment of each religion separately would have swelled the bulk of any book beyond all proportion, voluminous as this paper already is.1 Godlines Jainism does not teach the dependency on any supreme being for enlightenment. The Tirthankara is a guide and teacher who points the way to enlightenment, but the struggle for enlightenment is one's own. In Jainism, godliness is said to be the inherent quality of every soul (or every living organism) characterizing infinite bliss, infinite power, Kevala Jnana (pure infinite knowledge),[3] infinite perception, and perfect manifestations of (countably) infinite other attributes. There are two possible views after this point. One is to look at the soul from the perspective of the soul itself. This entails explanations of the properties of the soul, its exact structure, composition and nature, the nature of various states that arise from it and their source attributes as is done in the deep and arcane texts of Samayasāra, Niyamasara and Pravachanasara. Another view is to consider things apart from the soul and its relationships with the soul. According to this view, the qualities of a soul are subdued due to karmas of the soul. Karmas are the fundamental particles of nature in Jainism. One who achieves this state of soul through right belief, right knowledge and right conduct can be termed a god. This perfection of soul is called Kevalin. A god thus becomes a liberated soul – liberated of miseries, cycles of rebirth, world, karmas and finally liberated of body as well. This is called nirvana or moksha. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one must practice the ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action. Such a practice through lifelong work towards oneself is regarded as observing the Mahavrata ("Great Vows"). Gods can be thus categorized into embodied gods also known as arihantas and non-embodied formless gods who are called Siddhas. Jainism considers the devīs and devas to be souls who dwell in heavens owing to meritorious deeds in their past lives. These souls are in heavens for a fixed lifespan and even they have to undergo reincarnation as humans to achieve moksha. Thus, there are infinite gods in Jainism, all equivalent, liberated, and infinite in the manifestation of all attributes. The Self and karmas are separate substances in Jainism, the former living and the latter non-living. The attainment of enlightenment and the one who exists in such a state, then those who have achieved such a state can be termed gods. Therefore, beings (Arihant) who've attained omniscience (kevala jnana) are worshipped as gods. The quality of godliness is one and the same in all of them. Jainism is sometimes regarded as a transtheistic religion,[4] though it can be atheistic or polytheistic based on the way one defines "God". God in Jainism In Jainism, godliness is said to be the inherent quality of every soul. This quality, however, is subdued by the soul's association with karmic matter. All souls who have achieved the natural state of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge (kevala jnana), infinite power and infinite perception are regarded as God in Jainism. Jainism rejects the idea of a creator deity responsible for the manifestation, creation, or maintenance of this universe. According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents (soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion) have always existed. All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws and perfect soul, an immaterial entity cannot create or affect a material entity like the universe. Definition From the essential perspective, the soul of every living organism is perfect in every way, is independent of any actions of the organism, and is considered God or to have godliness. But the 235 epithet of God is given to the soul in whom its properties manifest in accordance with its inherent nature. There are countably infinite souls in the universe. According to Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra (a major Jain text): आप्तेनो च्छिनदोषेण सर्वज्ञेनागमेशिना। भवितव्यं नियोगेन नान्यथा ह्याप्तता भवेत्।।५। In the nature of things the true God should be free from the faults and weaknesses of the lower nature; [he should be] the knower of all things and the revealer of dharma; in no other way can divinity be constituted. क्षुत्पिपासाजराजरातक्ड जन्मान्तकभयस्मयाः। न रागद्वेषमोहाश्च यस्याप्तः स प्रकीर्त्यते ।।६।। He alone who is free from hunger, thirst, senility, disease, birth, death, fear, pride, attachment, aversion, infatuation, worry, conceit, hatred, uneasiness, sweat, sleep and surprise is called a God. Five supreme beings-Pañca-Parameṣṭhi The five supreme beings are: 1. Arihant: The awakened souls who have attained keval gyan are considered as Arihant. The 24 Tirthankaraas or Jinas, the legendary founding figures of Jainism in the present time cycle are Arihants. All Tirthankaras are Arihants but not all Arihants are Thirthankars 2. Siddha (Ashiri): The souls which have been liberated from the birth and death cycle. 3. Acarya 4. Upadhyaya ("Preceptors") 5. Muni or Jain monks 6. The five initials, viz. A+A+A+U+M are taken as forming the Aum syllable. 7. Five supreme beings[edit] 8. Obeisance to Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (five supreme beings) 9. Dravyasaṃgraha, a major Jain text, succinctly characterizes the five Supreme Beings (PañcaParameṣṭhi. 10. Definition of the World Teacher (Arhat) - verse 50. 11. Definition of the liberated souls (Siddha) - verses 51 12. Definition of the Chief Preceptor (Acarya) - verse 52. 13. Definition of the Preceptor (Upadhyaya) - verse 53. 14. Definition of the Ascetic (Sadhu) - verse 54. 15. Meditate on, recite or chant the sacred mantras, consisting of thirty-five, sixteen, six, five, four, two and one letter(s), pronouncing the virtues of the five supreme beings (PañcaParameṣṭhi). Besides, meditate on and chant other mantras as per the teachings of the Preceptor (guru). 16. Arihant Having destroyed the four inimical varieties of karmas (ghātiyā karmas), possessed of infinite faith, happiness, knowledge and power, and housed in most auspicious body (paramaudārika śarīra), that pure soul of the World Teacher (Arhat) should be meditated on. — Dravyasaṃgraha depicting Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (five supreme beings) worthy of veneration as per Jainism In Jainism, the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (Sanskrit for "five supreme beings") are a fivefold hierarchy of religious authorities worthy of veneration. The five supreme beings are: 1. Arihant 2. Siddha 236 3. Acharya (Head of the monastic order) 4. Upadhyaya ("Preceptor of less advanced ascetics") 5. Muni or Jain monks Arihant A human being who conquers all inner passions and possesses infinite right knowledge (Kevala Jnana) is revered as an arihant in Jainism.[5] They are also called Jinas (conquerors) or Kevalin (omniscient beings). An arihant is a soul who has destroyed all passions, is totally unattached and without any desire and hence is able to destroy the four ghātiyā karmas and attain kevala jñāna, or omniscience. Such a soul still has a body and four aghātiyā karmas. Arihantas, at the end of their human life-span, destroy all remaining aghātiyā karmas and attain Siddhahood. There are two kinds of kevalin or arihant:  Sāmānya Kevalin–Ordinary victors, who are concerned with their own salvation.  Tirthankara Kevalin–Twenty-four human spiritual guides (teaching gods), who show the true path to salvation. The word Tīrthaṅkara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across a sea. The Tirthankara show the "fordable path" across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Jain philosophy divides the wheel of time in two halves, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle. Exactly 24 Tirthankara are said to grace each half of the Tīrthaṅkara 237 Image of Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara (Photo:Samanar Hills) cosmic time cycle. Rishabhanatha was the first Tirthankara and Mahavira was the last Tirthankara of avasarpiṇī. Tirthankara revive the fourfold order of Shraman, Shramani, Śrāvaka, and Śrāvika called sangha. Tirthankara can be called teaching gods who teach the Jain philosophy. However it would be a mistake to regard the tirthankara as gods analogous to the gods of the Hindu pantheon despite the superficial resemblances between Jain and Hindu ways of worship. Tirthankara, being liberated, are beyond any kind of transactions with the rest of the universe. They are not the beings who exercise any sort of creative activity or who have the capacity or ability to intervene in answers to prayers. Tirthamkara-nama-karma is a special type of karma, bondage of which raises a soul to the supreme status of a tirthankara. Below are the details of the present 24 Tirthankars in the Bharatkshetra of Jambudweep. 1. Shri Rishabdev (Adinath) Heaven before Birth : Sarvarthasiddha Father : King Nabhi Mother : Marudevi Birthplace : Vinittanagari, Palitana Complexion : Golden Symbol : Ox / Bull Height : 500 Dhanusha Age : 8,400,000 Purva Diksha Tree : Vata (Banyan) Yaksha : Gomukha Yakshini : Chakresvari Place of Nirvana : Ashtapad Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Jeth Vad 4 Fagan Vad 8 238 Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Fagan Vad 8 Maha Vad 11 Posh Vad 13 Mystery behind the name He had a sign of an ox on his thigh. The mother Marudeva saw 14 dreams, of which the first was that of an ox. He started the religion after a time span of 18 koda Kodi Sagaropam (Sagaropam itself is almost an innumerable number, therefore 18 KodaKodi sagaropam is a countless number). Therefore, he was also known as Ādinath (The first one). 2. Shri Ajitnath Heaven before Birth : Vijayavimana Father : King Jitshatru Mother : Vijaya Rani Birthplace : Ayodhya, Shikharji Complexion : Golden Symbol : Elephant Height : 450 Dhanusha Age : 7,200,000 Purva Diksha Tree : Sala (Shorea Robusta) Yaksha : Mahayaksha Yakshini : Ajitabala Place of Nirvana : Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Vaisakh Sud 13 Maha Sud 8 Maha Sud 9 Posh Sud 11 Chaitra Sud 5 Mystery behind the name The parents of Lord Ajit would always involve themselves in games and sports. Each time they did so, the father invariably won the game against his mother. But after the conception of lord Ajit his mother would always win the games. Thus she named him ‘Ajit’ or the unconquered one. 3. Shri Sambhavnath Heaven before Birth : Uvarimagraiveka Father : Jitari Mother : Senamata Birthplace : Savathi, Sravasti Complexion : Golden 239 Symbol : Height : Age : Diksha Tree : Yaksha : Yakshini : Place of Nirvana : Horse 400 Dhanusha 6,000,000 Purva Prayala Trimukha Prajnapti Samet Shikhar Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Fagan Sud 8 Magsar Sud 14 Magasar Sud 15 Asho Vad 5 Chaitra Sud 5 Mystery behind the name When the Lord Sambhav was conceived the production of grains increased and there was much prosperity. There were no droughts or famine. Hence he was called Sambhav or possible. 4. Shri Abhinandan Swami Heaven before Birth : Jayantavimana Father : Sambararaja Mother : Siddhartha Birthplace : Ayodhya, Shikharji Complexion : Golden Symbol : Ape Height : 350 Dhanusha Age : 5,000,000 Purva Diksha Tree : Priyangu Yaksha : Yakshesvara Yakshini : Vajrasrinkhala Place of Nirvana : Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Vaisakh Sud 4 Maha Sud 2 Maha Sud 12 Posh Sud 14 Vaisakh Sud 8 Mystery behind the name 240 After the conception of Lord Abhinandan, the Lord Indira would often come and greet the unborn child and also praise Him. Also, people in the family and the state became happy and they congratulated each other. So the child came to be known as Abhinandan. 5. Shri Sumatinath Heaven before Birth : Jayantavimana Father : Megharaja Mother : Mangala Birthplace : Ayodhya, Shikharji Complexion : Golden Symbol : Red Goose Height : 300 Dhanusha Age : 4,000,000 Purva Diksha Tree : Sala Yaksha : Purushadatta Yakshini : Tumburu and Mahakali Place of Nirvana : Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Shravan Sud 2 Vaisakh Sud 8 Vaisakh Sud 9 Chaitra Sud 11 Chaitra Sud 9 Mystery behind the name From the time the child was conceived by his mother she had a strange and astonishing enlightenment of wisdom and knowledge. She then decided to call the child Sumati or the one with good wisdom. 6. Shri Padmaprabhu Heaven before Birth : Uvarimagraiveka Father : Sridhara Mother : Susima Birthplace : Kausambi, Samet Shikhar Complexion : Red Symbol : Lotus bud Height : 250 Dhanusha Age : 3,000,000 Purva Diksha Tree : Chhatra Yaksha : Manovega or Manogupti Yakshini : Kusuma and Syama 241 Place of Nirvana : Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Posh Vad 6 Asho Vad 12 Asho Vad 13 Chaitra Sud 11 Chaitra Sud 9 Mystery behind the name When the Lord Padma was concieved by his mother, she had a desire to recline on the bed of the Lotus flowers. One of the Gods, fulfilled her desire by creating a recliner made of lotus petals for her. The child that was born also had the rosy complexion of a lotus flower. Hence he was called Padma or the Lotus flower. 7. Shri Suparshvanath Heaven before Birth : Madhyamagraiveka Father : Pratishtharaja Mother : Prithvi Birthplace : Kausambi, Samet Shikhar Complexion : Emerald Symbol : Swastika Height : 200 Dhanusha Age : 2,000,000 Purva Diksha Tree : Sirisha Yaksha : Matanga and Santa Yakshini : Varanandi and Kali Place of Nirvana : Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Shravan Vad 8 Jeth Sud 12 Jeth Sud 13 Maha Vad 6 Maha Vad 7 Mystery behind the name The mother had a disease on both the sides, but when the Lord Supashva was conceived , she was totally cured and became glittering like Gold. Thus the name was kept as Suparshva. 8. Shri Chandraprabhu Swami Heaven before Birth : Vijayanta 242 Father : Mother : Birthplace : Complexion : Symbol : Height : Age : Diksha Tree : Yaksha : Yakshini : Place of Nirvana : Mahasenaraja Lakshmana Chandrapura, Samet Shikhar White Moon 150 Dhanusha 1,000,000 Purva Naga Vijaya and Bhrikuti Vijaya and Jvalamalini Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Fagan Vad 5 Magasar Vad 12 Magasar Vad 13 Maha Vad 7 Shravan Vad 7 Mystery behind the name When the Lord Chandra was conceived, his mother felt a longing for the moon. Her complexion glowed of happiness with radiance and the beauty of the moon. So the child that had brought that glow to the mother came to be called Chandra or the Moon. 9. Shri Suvidhinath Heaven before Birth : Anatadevaloka Father : Sugrivaraja Mother : Ramarani Birthplace : Kanandinagari, Shikharji Complexion : White Symbol : Crab Height : 100 Dhanusha Age : 2,000,000 Purva Diksha Tree : Sali Yaksha : Ajita and Sutaraka Yakshini : Mahakali Place of Nirvana : Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Maha Vad 9 Kartak Vad 5 243 Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Kartak Vad 6 Kartak Sud 3 Bhadarva Sud 9 Mystery behind the name The mother of Lord Suvidhi achieved success and prosperity in every endeavour she undertook, so she called her child Suvidhi. 10. Shri Shitalnath Heaven before Birth : Achyutadevaloka Father : Dridharatha-raja Mother : Nanda Birthplace : Bhadrapura, Shikharji Complexion : Golden Symbol : Srivatsa Height : 90 Dhanusha Age : 100,000 Purva Diksha Tree : Priyangu Yaksha : Brahma and Asoka Yakshini : Manavi Place of Nirvana : Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Chaitra Vad 6 Posh Vad 12 Posh Vad 13 Magasar Vad 14 Chaitra Vad 2 Mystery behind the name The father of Lord Sheetal was troubled with a malignant heat disease. The medications that he was taking did not help him in any way. Since the conception of the child the father was instantly relieved of his heat disease and hence they called the child Sheetal or the cool one. 11. Shri Shreyanshnath Heaven before Birth : Achyutadevaloka Father : Vishnuraja Mother : Vishna Birthplace : Simhapuri, Shikharji Complexion : Golden Symbol : Rhinocerous / Garuda Height : 80 Dhanusha 244 Age : Diksha Tree : Yaksha : Yakshini : Place of Nirvana : 8,400,000 common years Tanduka Yakshet Manavi Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Vaisakh Vad 6 Maha Vad 12 Maha Vad 13 Posh Vad Amaas Ashadh Vad 3 Mystery behind the name The father of Lord Shreyans had a bed, which was the family heirloom that had been bestowed by the gods. But whoever reclined on it would be greatly inconvenienced. When the child was conceived the mother of the child had a great desire to recline on this bed and she did so. But the gods did her no harm as they realized that she was bearing the Lord. The mother was saved due to her being in family state. So she called her son Shreyans. 12. Shri Vasupujya Swami Heaven before Birth : Pranatadevaloka Father : Vasupujya Mother : Jaya Birthplace : Champapuri, Shikharji Complexion : Ruddy Symbol : Female buffalo Height : 70 Dhanusha Age : 7,200,000 common years Diksha Tree : Patala Yaksha : Kumara Yakshini : Chanda; or Gandhari Place of Nirvana : Samed Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Jeth Sud 9 Maha Vad 14 Maha Vad Amaas Maha Sud 2 Asadh Sud 14 Mystery behind the name 245 When the Lord Vasupujya was conceived the god Indra started venerating the mother of the unborn child. Also the Vaishram Gods started showering the kingdom with diamonds and precious stones, so he came to be called Vasupujya. 13. Shri Vimalnath Heaven before Birth : Mahasaradevaloka Father : Kritavarmaraja Mother : Syama Birthplace : Kampilyapura, Shikharji Complexion : Golden Symbol : Boar Height : 60 Dhanusha Age : 6,000,000 common years Diksha Tree : Jambu Yaksha : Shanmukha Yakshini : Vidita Place of Nirvana : Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Vaisakh Sud 12 Maha Sud 3 Maha Sud 4 Posh Sud 6 Jeth Vad 7 Mystery behind the name When he was in his mother’s womb, both body and mind became pure with his grace. The Lord, destroyed the unclean karmās with purity of his mind. So he was known as Vimal or the relaxed one. 14. Shri Ananthnath Heaven before Birth : Pranatadevaloka Father : Simhasena Mother : Sujasa Birthplace : Ayodhya, Shihkarji Complexion : Golden Symbol : Bear Height : 50 Dhanusha Age : 3,000,000 common years Diksha Tree : Asoka Yaksha : Patala Yakshini : Ankusa; or Anantamati 246 Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Asadh Vad 7 Chaitra Vad 13 Chaitra Vad 14 Chaitra Vad 14 Chaitra Sud 5 Mystery behind the name When the Lord Anant was conceived, one day in her dream his mother saw an endless chain of diamonds linked together. Hence, she called her son Anant or the endless one. 15. Shri Dharmanath Heaven before Birth : Vijayavimana Father : Bhanuraja Mother : Suvrita Birthplace : Ratnapuri, Palitana Complexion : Golden Symbol : Vajra Height : 45 Dhanusha Age : 1,000,000 common years Diksha Tree : Dadhiparna Yaksha : Kinnara Yakshini : Manasi Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Vaisakh Sud 7 Maha Sud 3 Maha Sud 12 Posh sud 15 Jeth Sud 5 Mystery behind the name The mother of the Lord became more religious and devout when he was in her womb. Also, the lord himself was prone to religion by nature. Thus she resolved to call her son Dharma. 16. Shri Shantinath Heaven before Birth : Sarvarthasiddha Father : Visvasena Mother : Achira 247 Birthplace : Complexion : Symbol : Height : Age : Diksha Tree : Yaksha : Yakshini : Place of Nirvana : Vinittanagari, Palitana Golden Antelope 40 Dhanusha 100,000 common years Nandi Garuda Nirvani Hastinapuri Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Shravan Vad 7 Vaishakh Vad 13 Vaiskh Vad 14 Posh Sud 9 Vaisakh Vad 13 Mystery behind the name When the Lord Shanti was conceived there was an uprising that had been peacefully settled. Also, all the diseases which were prevailing in the kingdom disappeared. Since then he came to be known as Shanti or peace. 17. Shri Kunthunath Heaven before Birth : Sarvarthasiddha Father : Suraraja Mother : Srirani Birthplace : Gajapura Complexion : Golden Symbol : Goat Height : 35 Dhanusha Age : 95,000 common years Diksha Tree : Bhilaka Yaksha : Gandharva Yakshini : Bala; or Vijaya Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Asadh Vad 9 Chaitra Vad 14 Chaitra Vad 5 Chaitra Vad 5 248 Moksha : Chaitra Vad 1 Mystery behind the name The mother of Lord Kunthu, one day saw a dream in which on a beautiful and fertile wide expanse of land there was a huge dome of diamonds and she thus awakened from her sleep. And thus she called her son Kunthu. 18. Shri Aranath Heaven before Birth : Sarvarthasiddha Father : Sudarsana Mother : Devirani Birthplace : Gajapura Complexion : Golden Symbol : Nandyavarta Height : 30 Dhanusha Age : 84,000 common years Diksha Tree : Amba Yaksha : Yaksheta Yakshini : Dhana Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Fagan Sud 2 Magsar Sud 10 Magsar Sud 11 Kartik Sud 12 Magsar Sud 10 Mystery behind the name When the Lord Aranath was conceived his mother in her dream saw a beautiful and huge chakra with jewels which resulted in the growth of the dynasty. So his mother named him Aranath. 19. Shri Mallinath Heaven before Birth : Jayantadevaloka Father : Kumbharaja Mother : Prabhavati Birthplace : Mathura Complexion : Blue Symbol : Jar or Kalasa Height : 25 Dhanusha Age : 55,000 common years Diksha Tree : Asoka 249 Yaksha : Yakshini : Place of Nirvana : Kubera Aparajita Samet Shikhar Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Fagan Sud 4 Magsar Sud 11 Magsar Sud 11 Magsar Sud 11 Fagan Sud 12 Mystery behind the name When the Lord Malli was conceived his mother had a strong inclination to sleep on a bed bedecked with the fragrant flowers of all seasons. Hence she called her child Malli. 20. Shri Munisuvrat Swami Heaven before Birth : Aparajita-devaloka Father : Sumitraraja Mother : Padmawati Birthplace : Rajgir Complexion : Black Symbol : Tortoise Height : 20 Dhanusha Age : 30,000 common years Diksha Tree : Champaka Yaksha : Varuna Yakshini : Bahurupini Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Shravan Sud 15 Vaisakh Vad 8 Fagan Sud 12 Shravan Vad 12 Vaisakh Vad 9 Mystery behind the name When the child Lord Munisuvrat was conceived, his mother was bound by a vow so the child came to be known as Suvrat. 21. Shri Naminath Heaven before Birth : Pranatadevaloka 250 Father : Mother : Birthplace : Complexion : Symbol : Height : Age : Diksha Tree : Yaksha : Yakshini : Place of Nirvana : Vijayaraja Viprarani Mathura Yellow or Emerald Blue water-lily; or Asoka tree 15 Dhanusha 10,000 common years Bakula Bhrikuti Gandhari Samet Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Asho Sud 15 Ashadh Vad 8 Jeth Vad 9 Magsar Sud 11 Chaitra Vad 10 Mystery behind the name When the child was conceived the kingdom of Lord Nami was invaded by the enemy. His mother felt a desire to go on to the roof of the house and look down upon the enemy and due to this with the effect of the child in the womb, the enemy was defeated. The child was hence called Nami.. 22. Shri Neminath Heaven before Birth : Aparajita Father : Samudravijaya Mother : Sivadevi Birthplace : Ujjain Complexion : Black Symbol : Conch Height : 10 Dhanusha Age : 1,000 common years Diksha Tree : Vetasa Yaksha : Gomedha or Sarvahna Yakshini : Ambika or Kushmandini Place of Nirvana : Girnarji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Asho Vad 12 251 Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Shravan Sud 5 Shravan Sud 6 Bhadarva Vad Amaas Ashadh Sud 8 Mystery behind the name When the child was conceived the mother in her dream saw a huge diamond studded wheel spinning. They decided to call the child Arishtanemi (also known as Neminath). 23. Shri Parshvanath Heaven before Birth : Pranatadevaloka Father : Asvasenaraja Mother : Vamadevi Birthplace : Varanasi Complexion : Black Symbol : Serpent or Snake Height : 9 hands or cubits Age : 100 common years Diksha Tree : Dhataki Yaksha : Dharanendra Yakshini : Padmavati Mata Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikharji Kalyanaks Chyavan : Janma : Diksha : Keval Gyan : Moksha : Fagan Vad 4 Magsar Vad 10 Magsar Vad 11 Fagan Vad 4 Shravan Sud 8 Mystery behind the name When the Lord conceived in his mother’s womb, one day while his parents were asleep in pitch darkness, the mother felt that there was a seven headed snake passing by the bedside where they were asleep. Drawing her husband’s arm away from where the snake was passing she saved his life. She said that she could see the snake even in pitch darkness. This showed the power of the embryo. Hence they called their child Parshva. 24. Shri Mahavir Swami Mahavir Swami is called the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. There is nothing new in his teachings. In the four pledges of Parshvanath, he added a fifth vow and that was - to live a life of purity. His disciples used to roam naked so he was called Nirgranth. Like Buddha, Mahavir Swami considered the purity of body and mind, non-violence and salvation as the ultimate purpose of life. But his salvation is different from Buddha's nirvana. In Jainism, the soul's union 252 with the divine is considered salvation. Whereas in Buddhism, liberation from rebirth is nirvana. Mahavir Swami preached these same principles for almost 30 years and at the age of 72, he gave up his body in a place called Pavapuri near Rajgir. Mahavir's teachings Mahavir used to say that whoever wants to attain Jain nirvana should purify their conduct, knowledge, and belief and must follow the five vows. There is great glory of tenacity in Jainism. Fasting has also been seen as austerity. No human can be pure from inside without meditating, fasting and meditating. If he wants the salvation of his own soul, he has to meditate, fast and meditates. Mahavir insisted on complete non-violence and since then "Ahimsa Paramo Dharma" came to be considered as a cardinal principle in Jainism. Digambar and Shwetambar Nearly 300 BC Jainism got divided into two sects - Digambara and Shvetambara. Digambar worships the naked idol and Shwetambar dresses his idols in white. According to the 2011 census, there are 44 lakh 51 thousand followers of Jainism in India. They are counted among the rich and affluent class. Most of the people of Jainism belong to the merchant class. Jainism was not propagated among all people because its rules were tough. The kings adopted and propagated Jainism. Most Vaishya classes adopted Jainism. The great scholars Mahatma have also joined the followers of Jainism. 24. Mahaveer Swami Other names Vīr, Ativīr, Vardhamāna, Sanmati, Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta Venerated in Jainism Predecessor Bhagwan Parshvanatha Symbol Lion Height 7 cubits (10.5 feet) Age 72 years Tree Shala Complexion Golden Personal Information 253 Born 6th century BCE c. 599 BCE Kundalpur, Present-day Nalanda district, Bihar, India (historical) (traditional) Moksha 5th century c. 527 BCE Pawapuri, Present-day Bihar, India (historical) (traditional) BCE   Siddhartha (father) Trishala (mother) Birthplace Kundalpur (Nalanda-Bihar) Father King Siddharth Mother Queen Trishala Caste (Varna) Kshatriya Dynasty Nath Body Colour Golden Symbol Lion Age 72 Years Body Occupancy 7 Hands Incarnation (in womb) Asharh Shukla 6 Birth Chaitra Shukla 13 Initiation Magsir Krishna 10 Omniscience Forest & Tree-Shand Forest & Sal (Shorea Robusta) Initiation Tree First Food Given By King Vakul Of Kool Village (Kheer) Special Food Given By Mahasati Chandna In Kaushambi (Kheer) Omniscience Vaishakh Shukla 10 Veershasan Jayanti Shravan Krishna 1 (Day of Lord's First Holy Preaching At Rajgrihi) Salvation Kartik Krishna 15 Salvation Place Pavapuri Chief Disciples 11 (Shri Indrabhuti etc.) (Gandhars) Saints (Munis) 14 Thousand Chief Aryika (Ganini) Aryika Chandana Female saints (Aryikas) 36 Thousand Male Votaries 1 Lacs Female Votaries 3 Lacs Male Demigod Matang Dev Female Demigod Siddhayini Devi Parents PANCH KALYANAKA of 24 TIRTHANKAR Sr. No: Tirthankar Chyavan Janma 254 Diksha Keval Gyan Moksha 1 Shri Aadinath Jeth Vad 4 Fagan Vad 8 Fagan Vad 8 Maha Vad 11 Posh Vad 13 2 Shri Ajitnath Vaisakh Sud 13 Maha Sud 8 Maha Sud 9 Posh Sud 11 Chaitra Sud 5 3 Shri Sambhavnath Fagan Sud 8 Magsar Sud 14 Magasar Sud 15 Asho Vad 5 Chaitra Sud 5 4 Shri Abhinandan Swami Vaisakh Sud 4 Maha Sud 2 Maha Sud 12 Posh Sud 14 Vaisakh Sud 8 5 Shri Sumatinath Shravan Sud 2 Vaisakh Sud 8 Vaisakh Sud 9 Chaitra Sud 11 Chaitra Sud 9 6 Shri Padma Prabh Swami Posh Vad 6 Asho Vad 12 Asho Vad 13 Chaitra Sud 11 Chaitra Sud 9 7 Shri Suparshvanath Shravan Vad 8 Jeth Sud 12 Jeth Sud 13 Maha Vad 6 Maha Vad 7 8 Shri Chandra Prabh Swami Fagan Vad 5 Magasar Vad 12 Magasar Vad 13 Maha Vad 7 Shravan Vad 7 9 Shri Nath Maha Vad 9 Kartak Vad 5 Kartak Vad 6 Kartak Sud 3 Bhadarva Sud 9 10 Shri Shitalnath Chaitra Vad 6 Posh Vad 12 Posh Vad 13 Magasar Vad 14 Chaitra Vad 2 11 Shri Shreyansnath Vaisakh Vad 6 Maha Vad 12 Maha Vad 13 Posh Vad Amaas Ashadh Vad 3 12 Shri Vasupujya Swami Jeth Sud 9 Maha Vad 14 Maha Vad Amaas Maha Sud 2 Asadh Sud 14 13 Shri Vimalnath Vaisakh Sud 12 Maha Sud 3 Maha Sud 4 Posh Sud 6 Jeth Vad 7 Suvidhi 255 14 Shri Anantnath Asadh Vad 7 Chaitra Vad 13 Chaitra Vad 14 Chaitra Vad 14 Chaitra Sud 5 15 Shri Dharmanath Vaisakh Sud 7 Maha Sud 3 Maha Sud 12 Posh 15 Jeth Sud 5 16 Shri Shantinath Shravan Vad 7 Vaishakh Vad 13 Vaiskh Vad 14 Posh Sud 9 Vaisakh Vad 13 17 Shri Kunthunath Asadh Vad 9 Chaitra Vad 14 Chaitra Vad 5 Chaitra Vad 5 Chaitra Vad 1 18 Shri Arnath Fagan Sud 2 Magsar Sud 10 Magsar Sud 11 Kartik Sud 12 Magsar Sud 10 19 Shri Mallinath Fagan Sud 4 Magsar Sud 11 Magsar Sud 11 Magsar Sud 11 Fagan Sud 12 20 Shri Muni Suvrat Swami Shravan Sud 15 Vaisakh Vad 8 Fagan Sud 12 Shravan Vad 12 Vaisakh Vad 9 21 Shri Naminath Asho Sud 15 Ashadh Vad 8 Jeth Vad 9 Magsar Sud 11 Chaitra Vad 10 22 Shri Neminath Asho Vad 12 Shravan Sud 5 Shravan Sud 6 Bhadarva Vad Amaas Ashadh Sud 8 23 Shri Parsvanath Fagan Vad 4 Magsar Vad 10 Magsar Vad 11 Fagan Vad 4 Shravan Sud 8 24 Shri Mahavir Swami Asadh Sud 6 Chaitra Sud 13 Kartak Vad 10 Vaisakh Sud 10 Asho Vad Amaas 256 sud Although the siddhas (the liberated beings) are formless and without a body, this is how the Jain temples often depict them. Previous pic Ultimately all arihantas become siddhas, or liberated souls, at the time of their nirvana. A siddha is a soul who is permanently liberated from the transmigratory cycle of birth and death. Such a soul, having realized its true self, is free from all the Karmas and embodiment. They are formless and dwell in Siddhashila (the realm of the liberated beings) at the apex of the universe in infinite bliss, infinite perception, infinite knowledge and infinite energy. The Acharanga Sutra 1.197 describes siddhas in this way: The liberated soul is not long nor small nor round nor triangular nor quadrangular nor circular; it is not black nor blue nor red nor green nor white; neither of good nor bad smell; not bitter nor pungent nor astringent nor sweet; neither rough nor soft; neither heavy nor light; neither cold nor hot; neither harsh nor smooth; it is without body, without resurrection, without contact (of matter), it is not feminine nor masculine nor neuter. The siddha perceives and knows all, yet is beyond comparison. Its essence is without form; there is no condition of the unconditioned. It is not sound, not colour, not smell, not taste, not touch or anything of that kind. As per the Jain cosmology Siddhahood is the ultimate goal of all souls. There are infinite souls who have become siddhas and infinite more who will attain this state of liberation. According to Jainism, Godhood is not a monopoly of some omnipotent and powerful being(s). All souls, with right perception, knowledge and conduct can achieve self-realisation and attain this state. Once achieving this state of infinite bliss and having destroyed all desires, the soul is not concerned with worldly matters and does not interfere in the working of the universe, as any activity or desire to interfere will once again result in influx of karmas and thus loss of liberation. Jains pray to these passionless Gods not for any favors or rewards but rather pray to the qualities of the God with the objective of destroying the karmas and achieving the Godhood. This is best understood by the term vandetadgunalabhdhaye – i.e. "we pray to the attributes of such Gods to acquire such attributes" According to Anne Vallely: 2 Jainism is not a religion of coming down. In Jainism it is we who must go up. We only have to help ourselves. In Jainism we have to become God. That is the only thing. 257 Devas Symbolic depiction of Saṃsāra( RIGHT) Idol of Padmāvatī devī, śāsanadevī of Lord Parshvanatha at Walkeshwar Temple. She is one of the most popular demi-goddess amongst the Jains. According to Digambar Terapanth, worship of such deities is considered as mithyātva or wrong belief. However, in the Bispanthi Digambar tradition and the Shwetambar tradition, Padmavati is a popular Jain goddess. Jain cosmology offers an elaborate description of heavenly beings (devas), but these beings are neither viewed as creators nor are they immortal; they are subject to suffering and change like all other living beings, and must eventually die. In this way, they are similar to the devas of Buddhism. English-language material tends to retain the term "deva" or describe these beings as "deities", "gods" and "goddesses.” Jainism describes existence of śāsanadevatās and śāsanadevīs, the attendants of a Tirthankara, who create the samavasarana or the divine preaching assembly of a Tirthankara. Such heavenly beings are classified as:    Bhavanapatis – Devas dwelling in abodes Vyantaras – Intermediary devas Jyotiṣkas – Luminaries Vaimānikas – Astral devas The souls on account of accumulation of meritorious karmas reincarnate in heavens as devas. Although their life span is quite long, after their merit karmas are exhausted, they once again have to reincarnate back into the realms of humans, animals or hells depending on their karmas. As these devas themselves are not liberated, they have attachments and passions and hence not worthy of worship. Ācārya Hemachandra decries the worship of such devas: 258 These heavenly beings (devas above) tainted with attachment and passion; having women and weapons by their side, favour some and disfavour some; Such heavenly beings (devas) should not be worshipped by those who desire emancipation. Worship of such devas is considered as mithyatva or wrong belief leading to bondage of karmas. Jain opposition to creationism Jain scriptures reject God as the creator of the universe. Further, it asserts that no God is responsible or causal for actions in the life of any living organism. Ācārya Hemacandra in the 12th century put forth the Jain view of the universe in the Yogaśāstra: This universe is not created nor sustained by anyone; It is self-sustaining, without any base or support According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents—soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion—have always existed. Jainism does not support belief in a creator deity. All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws. It is not possible to create matter out of nothing and hence the sum total of matter in the universe remains the same (similar 259 260 to law of conservation of mass). Jain text claims that the universe consists of jiva (life force or Pic of Mahavir Swamy the 24 th Tirthankar from beginning of 1900 souls) and ajiva (lifeless objects). The soul of each living being is unique and uncreated and has existed during beginningless time. 261 The Jain theory of causation holds that a cause and its effect are always identical in nature and hence a conscious and immaterial entity like God cannot create a material entity like the universe. Furthermore, according to the Jain concept of divinity, any soul who destroys its karmas and desires achieves liberation (nirvana). A soul who destroys all its passions and desires has no desire to interfere in the working of the universe. Moral rewards and sufferings are not the work of a divine being, but a result of an innate moral order in the cosmos: a self-regulating mechanism whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own actions through the workings of the karmas. Through the ages, Jain philosophers have rejected and opposed the concept of creator and omnipotent God and this has resulted in Jainism being labeled as nastika darsana or atheist philosophy by the rival religious philosophies. The theme of non-creationism and absence of omnipotent God and divine grace runs strongly in all the philosophical dimensions of Jainism, including its cosmology, karma, moksa and its moral code of conduct. Jainism asserts a religious and virtuous life is possible without the idea of a creator god. Besides scriptural authority, Jains also resorted to syllogism and deductive reasoning to refute the creationist theories. Various views on divinity and the universe held by the Vedics, samkhyas, mīmāṃsās, Buddhists and other schools of thought were analyzed, debated and repudiated by various Jain Ācāryas. However, the most eloquent refutation of this view is provided by Ācārya Jinasena in Mahāpurāna, which was quoted by Carl Sagan in his 1980 book Cosmos. 1. Some foolish men declare that creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. 2. If God created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression. 3. If you declare that this raw material arose naturally you fall into another fallacy, for the whole universe might thus have been its own creator, and have arisen quite naturally. 4. If God created the world by an act of his own will, without any raw material, then it is just his will and nothing else — and who will believe this silly nonsense? 5. If he is ever perfect and complete, how could the will to create have arisen in him? If, on the other hand, he is not perfect, he could no more create the universe than a potter could. 6. If he is form-less, action-less and all-embracing, how could he have created the world? Such a soul, devoid of all modality, would have no desire to create anything. 7. If he is perfect, he does not strive for the three aims of man, so what advantage would he gain by creating the universe? 8. If you say that he created to no purpose because it was his nature to do so, then God is pointless. If he created in some kind of sport, it was the sport of a foolish child, leading to trouble. 9. If he created because of the karma of embodied beings (acquired in a previous creation), then he is not the Almighty Lord, but subordinate to something else. 10. If out of love for living beings and need of them he made the world, why did he not make creation wholly blissful free from misfortune? 262 11. If he were transcendent he would not create, for he would be free: Nor if involved in transmigration, for then he would not be almighty. Thus the doctrine that the world was created by God makes no sense at all. 12. And God commits great sin in slaying the children whom he himself created. If you say that he slays only to destroy evil beings, why did he create such beings in the first place? 13. Good men should combat the believer in divine creation, maddened by an evil doctrine. Know that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning or end, and is based on the principles, life and rest. Uncreated and indestructible, it endures under the compulsion of its own nature. Saṃsāra (Jainism)-Saṃsāra (transmigration) in Jain philosophy, refers to the worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and reincarnations in various realms of existence. Saṃsāra is described as mundane existence, full of suffering and misery and hence is considered undesirable and worth renunciation. The Saṃsāra is without any beginning and the soul finds itself in bondage with its karma since the beginning-less time. Moksha is the only way to be liberated from saṃsāra. Influx of karmas (asrava According to the Jain text, Tattvartha sutra: (There are two kinds of influx, namely) that of persons with passions, which extends transmigration, and that of persons free from passions, which prevents or shortens it. — Tattvārthsūtra (6-4-81) Activities that lead to the influx of karmas (asrava) which extends transmigration are:[2]  Five senses  Four passions (kasāya) o Anger o Ego o Deceit o Greed  The non-observance of the five vows  Non-observance of the twenty-five activities like Righteousness Saṃsāra bhavanā Jain texts prescribe meditation on twelve forms of reflection (bhāvanā) for those who wish to stop the above described asrava.[3] One such reflection is Saṃsāra bhavanā. It has been described in one of the Jain text, Sarvārthasiddhi as: Transmigration is the attainment of another birth by the self owing to the ripening of karmas. The five kinds of whirling round have been described already. He, who wanders in the endless cycle of births and deaths, undergoing millions of afflictions in innumerable wombs and families, takes different relationships such as father, brother, son, grandson, etc, or mother, sister, wife, daughter and so on, being propelled by the mechanism of karmas. The master becomes servant and the servant master, just as an actor acts several parts on the stage. To be brief, sometimes one becomes one’s own son. There is no end to the transformations undergone by the self owing to the influence of karmas. Thus to reflect on the nature of mundane existence is contemplation on worldly existence. He who contemplates thus is alarmed at the miseries of 263 transmigration and becomes disgusted with worldly existence. And he who is disgusted with it endeavours to free himself from it. Champat Rai Jain, a 20th-century Jain writer in his book The Practical Dharma wrote: Endless is the cycle of transmigration; painful is every form of life; there is no happiness in any of the four conditions of existence; devas, human beings, animals and residents of hells are all involved in pain and misery of some kind or other; moksha alone is blissful and free from pain; the wise should, therefore, only aspire for moksha; all other conditions are temporary and painful." Kāla is a word used in Sanskrit to mean "time".It is also the name of a deity, in which sense it is not always distinguishable from kāla, meaning "black". It is often used as one of the various names or forms of Yama. But in Jainism, Kāla (काल) refers to a class of piśāca deities according to both the Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions of Jainism. The piśācas refer to a category of vyantaras gods which represents one of the four classes of celestial beings (devas). The deities such as Kālas are defined in ancient Jain cosmological texts such as the Saṃgrahaṇīratna in the Śvetāmbara tradition or the Tiloyapaṇṇati by Yativṛṣabha (5th century) in the Digambara tradition. Kāla participated in the war between Rāma and Rāvaṇa, on the side of the latter, as mentioned in Svayambhūdeva’s Paumacariu (Padmacarita, Paumacariya or Rāmāyaṇapurāṇa) chapter 57ff. Svayambhū or Svayambhūdeva (8th or 9th century) was a Jain householder who probably lived in Karnataka. His work recounts the popular Rāma story as known from the older work Rāmāyaṇa (written by Vālmīki). Various chapters [mentioning Kāla] are dedicated to the humongous battle whose armies (known as akṣauhiṇīs) consisted of millions of soldiers, horses and elephants, etc. What is the meaning of ‘continuity /time’ (kāla)? Duration of the existence of an entity is called time. According to Tattvārthasūtra 1.8, “the categories and their details are undefrstood in detail in terms of existence, number (enumeration), place or abode, extent of space touched (pervasion), continuity /time (kāla), interval of time, thought-activity, and reciprocal comparison”.Kāla refers to one of the two Indras (lords) of the Piśāca class of “peripatetic celestial beings” (vyantara), itself a main division of devas (celestial beings) according to the 2nd-century Tattvārthasūtra 4.6. Kāla and Mahākāla are the two lords in the class ‘goblin’ peripatetic celestial beings. According to the 2nd-century Tattvārthasūtra 5.21.—Now many types of time (kāla) are there? There are two types of time, namely transcendental and practical time. What are the characteristics of the transcendental and practical types of time? The characteristic of transcendental time is vartanā. The characteristics of practical time are pariṇāma, kriyā, paratva and aparatva. How many types of practical time are there? It is of three types namely past, present and future. According to, “time (kāla) also is a substance (dravya)”. What is duration of the substance time (kāla)? It is of infinite period duration. Why is time also said to be substance? Time is called a substance because all the characteristics of a substance are found in it. What is the peculiar characteristic of time? Hour, minutes etc are the characteristics of practical time while its ability to support change /transformation of all other substances is the characteristic from transcendental 264 viewpoint. What are the distinguishing and generic attributes of time? Ability to support change /transformation of all other substances is its distinguishing attribute while absence of consciousness, taste, touch etc are its generic attributes long with all the generic attributes of a substance. Jainism is an Indian religion of Dharma whose doctrine revolves around harmlessness (ahimsa) towards every living being. The two major branches (Digambara and Svetambara) of Jainism stimulate self-control (or, shramana, ‘self-reliance’) and spiritual development through a path of peace for the soul to progess to the ultimate goal. Etymology Monier-Williams's widely used Sanskrit-English dictionary lists two distinct words with the form kāla.  kāla 1 means "black, of a dark colour, dark-blue ..." and has a feminine form ending in ī – kālī – as mentioned in Pāṇini 4–1, 42.  kālá 2 means "a fixed or right point of time, a space of time, time ... destiny, fate ... death" and has a feminine form (found at the end of compounds) ending in ā, as mentioned in the ṛgveda Prātiśākhya. As a traditional Hindu unit of time, one kālá corresponds to 144 seconds. According to Monier-Williams, kāla 2 is from the verbal root kal "to calculate", while the root of kāla 1 is uncertain, though possibly the same. As a deity Head of Kala carved on top of Jabung temple niche, East Java, Indonesia. As applied to gods and goddesses in works such as the Devī Māhātmya and the Skanda Purāṇa, kāla 1 and kāla 2 are not readily distinguishable. Thus Wendy Doniger, translating a conversation between Śiva and Pārvatī from the Skanda Purāṇa, says Mahākāla may mean " 'the Great Death' ... or 'the Great Black One' ". And Swāmī Jagadīśvarānanda, a Hindu translator of the Devī Māhātmya, renders the feminine compound kāla-rātri (where rātri means "night") as "dark night of periodic dissolution". As Time personified, destroying all things, Kala is a god of death sometimes identified with Yama. 265 In the epics and the Puranas Kala appears as an impersonal deity within the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavata Purana. In the Mahabharata, Krishna, one of the main characters, reveals his identity as Time personified. He states to Arjuna that both sides on the battlefield of the Kurukshetra War have already been annihilated. At the end of the epic, the entire Yadu dynasty (Krishna's family) is similarly annihilated. The story ends with Yudhishthira, the last of the Pandava brothers, entering Heaven in his human form, thereby closing the link. In Heaven, Yudi sees everyone within the story, both people whom he hated, and people whom he loved, and is happy to see them all. He then sees their transcendent cosmic forms, Krishna as Vishnu, Draupadi as uma, and realizes that the participants in the play were merely gods in human form, engaging in pastimes and working out their karma. Yudi then abandons his bitterness and spends the rest of eternity in Heaven, it is a happy ending. Kala appears in the Uttara Kanda of the Ramayana, as the messenger of Death (Yama). At the end of the story, Time, in the form of inevitability or necessity, informs Rama that his reign on Earth is now over. By a trick or dilemma, he forces the death of Lakshmana, and informs Rama that he must return to the realm of the gods. Lakshmana willingly passes away with Rama's blessing and Rama returns to Heaven. Time appears in the Bhagavata Purana as the force that is responsible for the imperceptible and inevitable change in the entire creation. According to the Purana, all created things are illusory, and thereby subject to creation and annihilation, this imperceptible and inconceivable impermanence is said to be due to the march of Time. Similarly, Time is considered to be the unmanifest aspect of God that remains after the destruction of the entire world at the end of a lifespan of Brahma. In the Chaitanya Bhagavata, a Gaudiya Vaishnavist text and biography of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, it is said that the fire that emerges from the mouth of Sankarshana at the End of Time is the Kālānala, or "fire of Time".[6] One of the names of Sankarshana is kālāgni, also "fire of Time". The Vishnu Purana also states that Time (kala) is one of the four primary forms of Vishnu, the others being matter (Pradhana), visible substance (vyakta), and Spirit (Purusha). In the Bhagavad Gita At Bhagavad Gita 11.32, Krishna takes on the form of kāla, the destroyer, announcing to Arjuna that all the warriors on both sides will be killed, apart from the Pandavas: कालो ऽस्मि लोकक्षयकृत् प्रवृद्धो लोकान् समाहर्तुम् इह प्रवृत्तः । This verse means: "Time (kāla) I am, the great destroyer of the worlds, and I have come here to destroy all people”. This phrase is famous for being quoted by J. Robert Oppenheimer as he reflected on the Manhattan Project's explosion of the first nuclear bomb in 1945. In other cultures In Javanese mythology, Batara Kala is the god of destruction. It is a very huge mighty and powerful god depicted as giant, born of the sperm of Shiva, the kings of gods. 266 In Borobudur, the gate to the stairs is adorned with a giant head, making the gate look like the open mouth of the giant. Many other gates in Javanese traditional buildings have this kind of ornament. Perhaps the most detailed Kala Face in Java is on the south side of Candi Kalasan. As a Substance Logarithmic scale of time used in Jain texts. 267 In Jainism, Kāla (Time) is infinite and is explained in two different ways:  The measure of duration, known in the form of hours, days, like that.  The cause of the continuity of function of things. kalachakras in Jainism However Jainism recognizes a very small measurement of time known as samaya which is an infinitely small part of a second. There are cycles (kalachakras) in it. Each cycle having two eras of equal duration described as the avasarpini and the utsarpini. Surya Siddhanta Surya Siddhanta is a Hindu text on astronomy. Above is verse 1.1, which pays homage to Brahma. The Surya Siddhanta is the name of a Sanskrit treatise in Indian astronomy. The text has been updated several times in the past and the earliest update was found to be made in 8th millennium BCE. Using computer simulation, a match for the Surya Siddhanta latitudinal data was obtained in the time frame of 7300-7800 BCE.[2] The last update took place in the vicinity of 580 CE when Nakshatra data appears to have been updated by adding a fixed precessional increment to all longitudes. Narayanan (2011) showed that for determining the Sun’s longitude, the pulsating Indian epicycle is far more accurate than the Greek eccentric-epicycle model and that the pulsating Indian epicycle for the Sun becomes progressively more accurate as one goes back in time. Peak accuracy, of about 1 minute of arc, is reached around 5200 BCE. This led him to the timing of 5000-5500BCE when the current values of the Sūrya-siddhānta’s pulsating epicycle parameters for the Sun appear to have been set. As per the second verse of the chapter 1 of Surya Siddhanta, Maya Asura is the original author of the text. It has fourteen chapters. The Surya Siddhanta describes rules to calculate the motions of various planets and the moon relative to various constellations, diameters of various planets, and calculates the orbits of various astronomical bodies. The text asserts, according to Markanday and Srivatsava, that the earth is of a spherical shape.[5] It treats earth as stationary globe around which sun orbits, and makes no mention of Uranus, Neptune or Pluto. It calculates the earth's diameter to be 8,000 miles (modern: 7,928 miles), diameter of moon as 2,400 miles (actual ~2,160) and the distance between moon and earth to be 258,000 miles (actual ~238,000). The text is known for some of earliest known discussion of sexagesimal fractions and trigonometric functions. The Surya Siddhanta is one of the several astronomy-related Hindu texts. It represents a functional system that made reasonably accurate predictions. The text was influential on the solar year computations of the luni-solar Hindu calendar. Textual history In a work called the Pañca-siddhāntikā composed in the sixth century by Varāhamihira, five astronomical treatises are named and summarised: Paulīśa-siddhānta, Romaka-siddhānta, Vasiṣṭha-siddhānta, Sūrya-siddhānta, and Paitāmaha-siddhānta. The surviving version of the text is dated to about the 6th-century BCE by Markandaya and Srivastava. Most scholars, however, had placed the text variously from the 4th-century to 5th-century CE. But this was the period when latest update to Surya Siddhanta was made with one of the earliest update being made in 8th millennium BCE. 268 According to John Bowman, another version of the text existed wherein it referenced sexagesimal fractions and trigonometric functions, but the text was a living document and revised through about the 10th-century. One of the evidence for the Surya Siddhanta being a living text is the work of Indian scholar Utpala, who cites and then quotes ten verses from a version of Surya Siddhanta, but these ten verses are not found in any surviving manuscripts of the text.[18] According to Kim Plofker, large portions of the more ancient Sūrya-siddhānta was incorporated into the Panca siddhantika text. Some scholars refer to Panca siddhantika as the old Surya Siddhanta. Vedic influence The Surya Siddhanta is a text on astronomy and time keeping, an idea that appears much earlier as the field of Jyotisha (Vedanga) of the Vedic period. The field of Jyotisha deals with ascertaining time, particularly forecasting auspicious day and time for Vedic rituals.[21] Max Muller, quoting passages by Garga and others, states that the ancient Vedic texts describe four measures of time – savana, solar, lunar and sidereal, as well as twenty seven constellations using Taras (stars). According to Pingree, the idea of twenty eight constellations and movement of astronomical bodies already appears in the Hindu text Atharvaveda. Similarities with Greek astronomy It is hypothesized that there were cultural contacts between the Indian and Greek astronomers via cultural contact with Hellenistic Greece, specifically regarding the work of Hipparchus (2ndcentury BCE). There were some similarities between Surya Siddhanta and Greek astronomy in Hellenistic period. For example, Surya Siddhanta provides table of sines function which parallel the Hipparchus table of chords, though the Indian calculations are more accurate and detailed. According to Alan Cromer, the knowledge share with Greeks may have occurred by about 100 BCE. Astronomical calculations: Estimated time per sidereal revolution. Planet Surya Siddhanta Ptolemy 20th-century Mangala 686 days, 23 hours, 56 686 days, 23 hours, 31 686 days, 23 hours, 30 (Mars) mins, 23.5 secs mins, 56.1 secs mins, 41.4 secs Budha 87 days, 23 hours, 16 mins, 87 days, 23 hours, 16 87 days, 23 hours, 15 (Mercury) 22.3 secs mins, 42.9 secs mins, 43.9 secs Bṛhaspati 4,332 days, 7 hours, 41 4,332 days, 18 hours, 9 4,332 days, 14 hours, 2 (Jupiter) mins, 44.4 secs mins, 10.5 secs mins, 8.6 secs Shukra 224 days, 16 hours, 45 224 days, 16 hours, 51 224 days, 16 hours, 49 (Venus) mins, 56.2 secs mins, 56.8 secs mins, 8.0 secs 10,765 days, 18 hours, 33 10,758 days, 17 hours, 48 10,759 days, 5 hours, 16 Shani (Saturn) mins, 13.6 secs mins, 14.9 secs mins, 32.2 secs The influence of Greek ideas on early medieval era Indian astronomical theories, particularly zodiac symbols (astrology), is broadly accepted by scholars. According to Jayant Narlikar, the Vedic literature lacks astrology, the idea of nine planets and any theory that stars or constellation may affect an individual's destiny. One of the manuscripts of the Surya Siddhanta mentions deva Surya telling asura Maya to go to Rome with this knowledge I give you in the form of Yavana (Greek), states Narlikar.[26] The astrology field likely developed in the centuries after the arrival of Greek astrology with Alexander the Great, their zodiac signs being nearly identical.[21] 269 According to Pingree, the 2nd-century CE cave inscriptions of Nasik mention sun, moon and five planets in the same order as found in Babylon, but "there is no hint, however, that the Indian had learned a method of computing planetary positions in this period".[30] In the 2nd-century CE, a scholar named Yavanesvara translated a Greek astrological text, and another unknown individual translated a second Greek text into Sanskrit. Thereafter started the diffusion of Greek and Babylonian ideas on astronomy and astrology into India, states Pingree.[30] The other evidence of European influential on the Indian thought is Romaka Siddhanta, a title of one of the Siddhanta texts contemporary to Surya Siddhanta, a name that betrays its origin and probably was derived from a translation of a European text by Indian scholars in Ujjain, then the capital of an influential central Indian large kingdom. According to John Roche – a professor of Mathematics with publications on the history of measurement, the astronomical and mathematical methods developed by Greeks related arcs to chords of spherical trigonometry. The Indian mathematical astronomers, in their texts such as Surya Siddhanta developed other linear measures of angles, made their calculations differently, "introduced the versine, which is the difference between the radius and cosine, and discovered various trigonometrical identities. For instance, states Roche, "where the Greeks had adopted 60 relative units for the radius, and 360 for circumference", the Indians chose 3,438 units and 60x360 for the circumference thereby calculating the "ratio of circumference to diameter [pi, π] of about 3.1414. The tradition of Hellenistic astronomy ended in the West after Late Antiquity. According to Cromer, the Surya Siddhanta and other Indian texts reflect the primitive state of Greek science, nevertheless played an important part in the history of science, through its translation in Arabic and stimulating the Arabic sciences. According to a study by Dennis Duke that compares Greek models with Indian models based on the oldest Indian manuscripts such as the Surya Siddhanta with fully described models, the Greek influence on Indian astronomy is strongly likely to be pre-Ptolemaic. The Surya Siddhanta was one of the two books in Sanskrit translated into Arabic in the later half of the eighth century during the reign of Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur. According to Muzaffar Iqbal, this translation and that of Aryabhatta was of considerable influence on geographic, astronomy and related Islamic scholarship. Contents The contents of the Surya Siddhanta is written in classical Indian poetry tradition, where complex ideas are expressed lyrically with a rhyming meter in the form of a terse shloka .This method of expressing and sharing knowledge made it easier to remember, recall, transmit and preserve knowledge. However, this method also meant secondary rules of interpretation, because numbers don't have rhyming synonyms. The creative approach adopted in the Surya Siddhanta was to use symbolic language with double meanings. For example, instead of one, the text uses a word that means moon because there is one moon. To the skilled reader, the word moon means the number one. The entire table of trigonometric functions, sine tables, steps to calculate complex orbits, predict eclipses and keep time are thus provided by the text in a poetic form. This cryptic approach offers greater flexibility for poetic construction. 270 The Surya Siddhanta thus consists of cryptic rules in Sanskrit verse. It is a compendium of astronomy that is easier to remember, transmit and use as reference or aid for the experienced, but does not aim to offer commentary, explanation or proof. The text has 14 chapters and 500 shlokas. It is one of the eighteen astronomical siddhanta (treatises), but thirteen of the eighteen are believed to be lost to history. The Surya Siddhanta text has survived since the ancient times, has been the best known and the most referred astronomical text in the Indian tradition. The fourteen chapters of the Surya Siddhanta are as follows, per the much cited Burgess translation. Chapters of Surya Siddhanta Chapter Title Reference # [37] 1 Of the Mean Motions of the Planets [38] 2 On the True Places of the Planets [39] 3 Of Direction, Place and Time [40] 4 Of Eclipses, and Especially of Lunar Eclipses [41] 5 Of Parallax in a Solar Eclipse [42] 6 The Projection of Eclipses [43] 7 Of Planetary Conjunctions [44] 8 Of the Asterisms [45] 9 Of Heliacal (Sun) Risings and Settings [46] 10 The Moon's Risings and Settings, Her Cusps [47] 11 On Certain Malignant Aspects of the Sun and Moon 12 Cosmogony, Geography, and Dimensions of the Creation [48] 13 Of the Armillary Sphere and other Instruments 14 Of the Different Modes of Reckoning Time The methods for computing time using the shadow cast by a gnomon are discussed in both Chapters 3 and 13. North pole star and South pole star One of the most interesting observation made in Surya Siddhanta is the observation of two pole stars, one each at north and south celestial pole. Surya Siddhanta chapter 12 verse 42 description is as following: मेरोरुभयतो मध्ये ध्रुवतारे नभ:स्थिते। निरक्षदेशसंस्थानामुभये क्षितिजाश्रिये॥१२:४३॥ This translates as "There are two pole stars, one each, near North celestial pole and South celestial pole. From equatorial regions, these stars are seen along the horizon".Currently our North Pole star is Polaris. It is subject to investigation to find out when this astronomical phenomenon occurred in the past to date the addition of this particular update to Surya Siddhanta. Calculation of Earth's Obliquity In Surya Siddhanta chapter 2 and verse 28, it calculated the obliquity of the Earth's axis. The verse says "The sine of greatest declination(obliquity) is 1397.....", which means that R-sine is 271 1397 where R is 3438.To obtain the obliquity in the unit of degree, we have to take the inverse of Sine of the ratio (1397/3438), which gives us 23.975182 degrees and this tilt indicates a period of 3000 BCEIt can be noted that this update was made during 3000 BCE to the Surya Siddhanta. Planets and their characteristics Earth is a sphere Thus everywhere on [the surface of] the terrestrial globe, people suppose their own place higher [than that of others], yet this globe is in space where there is no above nor below. —Surya Siddhanta, XII.53 Translator: Scott L. Montgomery, Alok Kumar The text treats earth as a stationary globe around which sun, moon and five planets orbit. It makes no mention of Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. It presents mathematical formulae to calculate the orbits, diameters, predict their future locations and cautions that the minor corrections are necessary over time to the formulae for the various astronomical bodies. However, unlike modern heliocentric model for the solar system, the Surya Siddhanta relies on a geocentric point of view. The text describes some of its formulae with the use of very large numbers for divya yuga, stating that at the end of this yuga earth and all astronomical bodies return to the same starting point and the cycle of existence repeats againThese very large numbers based on divya-yuga, when divided and converted into decimal numbers for each planet give reasonably accurate sidereal periods when compared to modern era western calculations.[56] For example, the Surya Siddhanta states that the sidereal period of moon is 27.322 which compares to 27.32166 in modern calculations. For Mercury it states the period to be 87.97 (modern W: 87.969), Venus 224.7 (W: 224.701), Mars as 687 (W: 686.98), Jupiter as 4,332.3 (W: 4,332.587) and Saturn to be 10,765.77 days (W: 10,759.202). Calendar The solar part of the luni-solar Hindu calendar is based on the Surya Siddhanta. The various old and new versions of Surya Siddhanta manuscripts yield the same solar calendar. According to J. Gordon Melton, both the Hindu and Buddhist calendars in use in South and Southeast Asia are rooted in this text, but the regional calendars adapted and modified them over time. The Surya Siddhanta calculates the solar year to be 365 days 6 hours 12 minutes and 36.56 seconds. On average, according to the text, the lunar month equals 27 days 7 hours 39 minutes 12.63 seconds. It states that the lunar month varies over time, and this needs to be factored in for accurate time keeping. According to Whitney, the Surya Siddhanta calculations were tolerably accurate and achieved predictive usefulness. In Chapter 1 of Surya Siddhanta, states Whitney, "the Hindu year is too long by nearly three minutes and a half; but the moon's revolution is right within a second; those of Mercury, Venus and Mars within a few minutes; that of Jupiter within six or seven hours; that of Saturn within six days and a half". 272 Chart showing the classification of dravya and astikaya According to Jains, the Universe is made up of six simple and eternal substances called dravya which are broadly categorized under Jiva (Living Substances) and Ajiva (Non Living Substances) as follows: Jīva (Living Substances) Jīva i.e. Souls – Jīva exists as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses it. It is characterised by chetana (consciousness) and upayoga (knowledge and perception). Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearing of another state, these being merely the modes of the soul. Jiva are classified on bases of sense, so there are of 5 types: 1) with one sense (sparshendriya) 2) 2 senses (1st included and raasendriya) 3) 3 senses (1st 2 included and dharnendriya) 4) 4 senses (1st 3 included and chkshuendriya) 5) 5 senses (1st 4 included and shrotendriya) Ajīva (Non-Living Substances)   Pudgala (Matter) – Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter i.e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the basic building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and indestructible. Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed.  Dharmastikaay or Dharma-dravya (Principle of Motion) and Adharmastikaay or Adharmadravya (Principle of Rest) – Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe. Dharmastikaay and Adharmastikaay are by itself not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe. 273   Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-point. Kāla (Time) – Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain text, Dravyasaṃgraha: Conventional time (vyavahāra kāla) is perceived by the senses through the transformations and modifications of substances. Real time (niścaya kāla), however, is the cause of imperceptible, minute changes (called vartanā) that go on incessantly in all substances. — Dravyasaṃgraha Structure of the Universe: The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on universal natural laws. The existence of a creator deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain doctrine. Mahāpurāṇa, a Jain text authored by Ācārya Jinasena is famous for this quote: Some foolish men declare that a creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression. According to Jains, the universe has a firm and an unalterable shape, which is measured in the Jain texts by means of a unit called Rajlok, which is supposed to be very large. The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajloks high and extends seven Rajloks from north to south. Its breadth is seven Rajloks long at the bottom and decreases gradually towards the middle, where it is one Rajlok long. The width then increases gradually until it is five Rajloks long and again decreases until it is one Rajlok long. The apex of the universe is one Rajlok long, one Rajlok wide and eight Rajloks high. The total space of the world is thus 343 cubic Rajloks. The Svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is a constant increase and decrease in the breadth, and the space is 239 cubic Rajlok. Apart from the apex, which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts. The world is surrounded by three atmospheres: dense-water, dense-wind and thin-wind. It is then surrounded by an infinitely large non-world which is completely empty. The whole world is said to be filled with living beings. In all three parts, there is the existence of very small living beings called nigoda. Nigoda are of two types: nitya-nigoda and Itara-nigoda. Nitya-nigoda are those which will reincarnate as nigoda throughout eternity, where as Itaranigoda will be reborn as other beings. The mobile region of universe (Trasnaadi) is one Rajlok wide, one Rajlok broad and fourteen Rajloks high. Within this region, there are animals and plants everywhere, where as Human beings are restricted to 2 continents of the middle world. The beings inhabiting the lower world are called Narak (Hellish beings). The Deva (roughly demi-gods) live in the whole of the top and middle worlds, and top three realms of the lower world. Living beings are divided in fourteen classes (Jivasthana) : Fine beings with 274 one sense, crude beings with one sense, beings with two senses, beings with three senses, beings with four senses, beings with five senses and no mind, and beings with five senses and a mind. These can be under-developed or developed, a total or 14. Human beings can get any form of existence, and are the only ones which can attain salvation. Three lokas The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe. They developed a detailed hypothesis on the various aspects of astronomy and cosmology. According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into 3 parts.  Urdhva Loka – the realms of the gods or heavens  Madhya Loka – the realms of the humans, animals and plants  Adho Loka – the realms of the hellish beings or the infernal regions The following Upanga āgamas describe the Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail: 1. Sūryaprajñapti – Treatise on Sun 2. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti – Treatise on the island of Roseapple tree; it contains a description of Jambūdvī and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata 3. Candraprajñapti – Treatise on moon Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail: 1. Trilokasāra – Essence of the three worlds (heavens, middle level, hells) 2. Trilokaprajñapti – Treatise on the three worlds 3. Trilokadipikā – Illumination of the three worlds 4. Tattvārthasūtra – Description on nature of realities Fourteen Rajlok or Triloka. Shape of Universe as per Jain cosmology in form of a cosmic man. Miniature from 17th century, Saṁgrahaṇīratna by Śrīcandra, in Prakrit with a Gujarati commentary. Jain Śvetāmbara cosmological text with commentary and illustrations. 5. Kṣetrasamasa – Summary of Jain geography 6. Bruhatsamgrahni – Treatise on Jain cosmology and geography Urdhva Loka, the upper world Upper World (Udharva loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly beings (demi-gods) who are non-liberated souls. Upper World is divided into sixteen Devalokas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudish and five Anuttar abodes. Sixteen Devaloka abodes are Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma, Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana and Achyuta. Nine Graiveyak abodes are Sudarshan, Amogh, Suprabuddha, Yashodhar, Subhadra, Suvishal, Sumanas, Saumanas and Pritikar. Nine Anudish are Aditya, Archi, Archimalini, Vair, Vairochan, Saum, Saumrup, Ark and Sphatik. Five Anuttar are Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddhi. The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and the rest are called Kalpatit. Those living in Kalpatit are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration, capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the Heavenly beings residing in the higher abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher groups, dwelling in 9 Greveyak and 5 Anutar Viman. They are independent and dwelling in their 275 own vehicles. The anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups, organized like earthly kingdoms—rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies etc. Above the Anutar vimans, at the apex of the universe is the realm of the liberated souls, the perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains. Madhya Loka, the middle world map of Jambudvipa - Jain Cosmology/Early 19th-century painting depicting map of 2 1⁄2 continents Structure of Universe according to the Jain scriptures. Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, Hastinapur Madhya Loka consists of 900 yojans above and 900 yojans below earth surface. It is inhabited by:[7] 1. Jyotishka devas (luminous gods) – 790 to 900 yojans above earth 2. Humans,[8] Tiryanch (Animals, birds, plants) on the surface 3. Vyantar devas (Intermediary gods) – 100 yojan below the ground level Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names are: Continent/ Island Ocean Jambūdvīpa Lavanoda (Salt – ocean) Ghatki Khand Kaloda (Black sea) Puskarvardvīpa Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean) Varunvardvīpa Varunoda (Varun Ocean) Kshirvardvīpa Kshiroda (Ocean of milk) Ghrutvardvīpa Ghrutoda (Butter milk ocean) Ikshuvardvīpa Iksuvaroda (Sugar Ocean) Nandishwardvīpa Nandishwaroda Mount Meru (also Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa,[8] in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans.[7] There are two sets of sun, moon and 276 stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the Mount Meru. Work of Art showing maps and diagrams as per Jain Cosmography from 17th century CE Manuscript of 12th century Jain text Sankhitta Sangheyan Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mighty mountains, dividing the continent into 7 zones (Ksetra). The names of these zones are: 1. Bharat Kshetra 2. Mahavideh Kshetra 3. Airavat Kshetra 4. Ramyak Kshetra 5. Hiranya vant Kshetra 6. Hemvant Kshetra 7. Hari Varsh Kshetra The three zones i.e. Bharat Kshetra, Mahavideh Kshetra and Airavat Kshetra are also known as Karma bhoomi because practice of austerities and liberation is possible and the Tirthankaras preach the Jain doctrine.[12] The other four zones, Ramyak, Hairanyvat Kshetra, Haimava Kshetra and Hari Kshetra are known as akarmabhoomi or bhogbhumi as humans live a sinless life of pleasure and no religion or liberation is possible. Nandishvara Dvipa is not the edge of cosmos, but it is beyond the reach of humans.[8] Humans can reside only on Jambudvipa, Dhatatikhanda Dvipa, and the inner half of Pushkara Dvipa. Adho Loka, the lower world 277 17th century cloth painting depicting seven levels of Jain hell and various tortures suffered in them. Left panel depicts the demi-god and his animal vehicle presiding over the each hell. The lower world consists of seven hells, which are inhabited by Bhavanpati demigods and the hellish beings. Hellish beings reside in the following hells: 1. Ratna prabha-dharma. 2. Sharkara prabha-vansha. 3. Valuka prabha-megha. 4. Pank prabha-anjana. 5. Dhum prabha-arista. 6. Tamah prabha-maghavi. 7. Mahatamah prabha-maadhavi 8. According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal.[13][14] The Kālacakra, the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two halfrotations, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and Avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle, occurring continuously after each other.[15][16] Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity and happiness where the time spans and ages are at an increasing scale, while Avsarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality with decline in timespans of the epochs. Each of this half time cycle consisting of innumerable period of time (measured in sagaropama and palyopama years)[note 1] is further sub-divided into six aras or epochs of unequal periods. Currently, the time cycle is in avasarpiṇī or descending phase with the following epochs. Name of the Degree Ara happiness Suṣamasuṣamā of Duration of Ara Maximum Maximum lifespan height of people people Utmost happiness 400 trillion and no sorrow sāgaropamas Six miles tall 278 of Three Palyopam years Suṣamā Moderate happiness and no 300 trillion sorrow sāgaropamas Four miles tall Two Palyopam Years Suṣamaduḥṣamā Happiness with 200 trillion very little sorrow sāgaropamas Two miles tall One Palyopam Years Duḥṣamasuṣamā Happiness with 100 trillion little sorrow sāgaropamas 1500 meters 84 Lakh Purva Duḥṣamā Sorrow with very little happiness 21,000 years 7 hatha 120 years Duḥṣamaduḥṣamā Extreme sorrow and misery 21,000 years 1 hatha 20 years In utsarpiṇī the order of the eras is reversed. Starting from duṣamā-duṣamā, it ends with suṣamā-suṣamā and thus this never ending cycle continues.[18] Each of these aras progress into the next phase seamlessly without any apocalyptic consequences. The increase or decrease in the happiness, life spans and length of people and general moral conduct of the society changes in a phased and graded manner as the time passes. No divine or supernatural beings are credited or responsible with these spontaneous temporal changes, either in a creative or overseeing role, rather human beings and creatures are born under the impulse of their own karmas. – The deeds of the 63 illustrious men- Salakapurusa According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called śalākāpuruṣas, are born on this earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara.[20] The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons.[13] They comprise twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras, twelve chakravartins, nine balabhadra, nine narayana, and nine pratinarayana.[21][22][note 2] A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm.[20] Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the cosmos. Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal monarchs). They are golden in complexion.[23] One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata Chakravartin. Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana state that Indian subcontinent came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory. There are nine sets of balabhadra, narayana, and pratinarayana. The balabhadra and narayana are brothers.[26] Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes, narayana are violent heroes, and pratinarayana the villains. According to the legends, the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain liberation and the last goes to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell because of their violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness. Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts (avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī). According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in the human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine appropriate for that era.[28][29][30] The word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which means a fordable passage across a 279 sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and deaths.[31] Rishabhanatha is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle (avasarpiṇī). Mahāvīra (6th century BC) is revered as the twenty fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī. Jain texts state that Jainism has always existed and will always exist. During each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or 63 illustrious men, consisting of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear.[34][16] The Jain universal or legendary history is basically a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious men. They are categorised as follows:[34][35]  24 Tīrthaṅkaras – The 24 Tīrthaṅkaras or the supreme ford makers appear in succession to activate the true religion and establish the community of ascetics and laymen.  12 Chakravartins – The Chakravartīs are the universal monarchs who rule over the six continents.  9 Balabhadras who lead an ideal Jain life.e.g. Lord Rama  9 Narayana or Vasudev (heroes)  9 Prati-Naryana or Prati-Vasudev (anti-heroes) – They are anti-heroes who are ultimately killed by the Narayana. Balabhadra and Narayana are half brothers who jointly rule over three continents. Besides these a few other important classes of 106 persons are recognized: 9 Naradas[34]  11 Rudras[34]  24 Kamdevas[34]  24 Fathers of the Tirthankaras.  24 Mothers of the Tirthankaras.  14 Kulakara (patriarchs) The Prakrit name Jambudīpasi (Sanskrit "Jambudvīpa") for "India" in the Sahasram Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka, circa 250 BCE (Brahmi script). Jambudvīpa (Sanskrit: जम्बुद्वीप) is the dvīpa ("island" or "continent") of the terrestrial world, as envisioned in the cosmologies of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, which is the realm where ordinary human beings live.[ The word Jambudvīpa literally refers to "the land of Jambu trees" where jambu (also known as jamun) is the Indian Blackberry (Syzygium cumini) and dvīpa has two meanings "island" or "continent" and "planets" situated in the ocean of outer space. "The planets are called dvīpas. Outer space is like an ocean of air. Just as there are islands in the watery ocean, these planets in the ocean of space are called dvīpas, or islands in outer space" (Chaitanya Caritamrita Madhya 20.218, Purport) 280 According to Puranic cosmography, the world is divided into seven concentric island continents (sapta-dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the preceding one (going out from within). The seven continents of the Puranas are stated as Jambudvipa, Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa, and Pushkaradvipa. Seven intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice, wine, ghee, yogurt, milk and water respectively.[3][4] The mountain range called Lokaloka, meaning "world-no-world", stretches across this final sea, delineating the known world from the dark void Continent Jambudvipa (Indian Blackberry Island), also known as Sudarshanadvipa, forms the innermost concentric island in the above scheme. Its name is said to derive from a Jambu tree (another name for the Indian Blackberry). The fruits of the Jambu tree are said, in the Viṣṇupurāṇa (ch.2) to be as large as elephants and when they become rotten and fall upon the crest of the mountains, a river of juice is formed from their expressed juice. The river so formed is called Jambunadi (Jambu river) and flows through Jambudvipa, whose inhabitants drink its waters. Insular continent Jambudvipa is said to comprise nine varshas (zones) and eight significant parvatas (mountains). Markandeya Purana portrays Jambudvipa as being depressed on its south and north and elevated and broad in the middle. The elevated region forms the varsha named Ila-vrta or Meruvarsha. At the center of Ila-vrta lies the golden Mount Meru, the king of mountains. On the summit of Mount Meru, is the vast city of Lord Brahma, known as Brahmapuri. Surrounding Brahmapuri are 8 cities - the one of Lord Indra and of seven other Devatas. Markandeya Purana and Brahmanda Purana divide Jambudvipa into four vast regions shaped like four petals of a lotus with Mount Meru being located at the center like a pericarp. The city of Brahmapuri is said to be enclosed by a river, known as Akash Ganga. Akash Ganga is said to issue forth from the foot of Lord Vishnu and after washing the lunar region falls "through the skies" and after encircling the Brahmapuri "splits up into four mighty streams", which are said to flow in four opposite directions from the landscape of Mount Meru and irrigate the vast lands of Jambudvipa. The common names of the dvīpas, having their varṣas (9 for Jambu-dvīpa, 7 for the other dvīpas) with a mountain and a river in each varṣa, is given in several Purāṇas.[7] There is a distinct set of 281 names provides, however, in other Purāṇas.[8] The most detailed geography is that described in the Vāyu Purāṇa Buddhist levels: Kāmadhātu (Desire realm), Rūpadhātu (Form realm), and Ārūpyadhātu (Formless realm). In the Kāmadhātu is located Mount Sumeru which is said to be surrounded by four island-continents. "The southernmost island is called Jambudvīpa". The other three continents of Buddhist accounts around Sumeru are not accessible to humans from Jambudvīpa. Jambudvīpa is shaped like a triangle with a blunted point facing south, somewhat like the Indian subcontinent. In its center is a gigantic Jambu tree from which the continent takes its name, meaning "Jambu Island". Jambudipa, one of the four Mahādīpas, or great continents, which are included in the Cakkavāla and are ruled by a Cakkavatti. They are grouped round MountSineru. In Jambudīpa is Himavā with its eighty-four thousand peaks, its lakes, mountain ranges, etc. This continent derives its name from the Jambu-tree (also called Naga) which grows there, its trunk fifteen yojanas in girth, its outspreading branches fifty yojanas in length, its shade one hundred yojanas in extent and its height one hundred yojanas (Vin.i.30; SNA.ii.443; Vsm.i.205f; Sp.i.119, etc.) On account of this tree, Jambudīpa is also known as Jambusanda (SN.vs.552; SNA.i.121). The continent is ten thousand yojanas in extent; of these ten thousand, four thousand are covered by the ocean, three thousand by the Himālaya mountains, while three thousand are inhabited by men (SNA.ii.437; UdA.300). Jambudvīpa is the region where the humans live and is the only place where a being may become enlightened by being born as a human being. It is in Jambudvīpa that one may receive the gift of Dharma and come to understand the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and ultimately realize the liberation from the cycle of life and death. Another reference is from the Buddhist text Mahavamsa, where the emperor Ashoka's son Mahinda introduces himself to the Sri Lankan king Devanampiyatissa as from Jambudvipa, referring to what is now the Indian subcontinent. This is Based In the Kṣitigarbha Sūtra in the Mahayana. Jain cosmology Image depicting map of Jambudvipa as per Jain Cosmology.. A carving depicting Jambūdvīpa " in Ranakpur According to Jain cosmology, Jambūdvīpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti or the treatise on the island of Roseapple tree contains a description of Jambūdvīpa and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata. Trilokasāra (Essence of the three worlds), Trilokaprajñapti (Treatise on the three worlds), Trilokadipikā (Illumination of the three worlds) and Kṣetrasamāsa (Summary of Jain geography) are the other texts that provide the details of Jambūdvīpa and Jain cosmology. Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names are: 282 Continent/ Island Ocean Jambūdvīpa Lavanoda (Salt - ocean) Dhatki Khand Kaloda (Black sea) Puskarvardvīpa Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean) Varunvardvīpa Varunoda (Varun Ocean) Kshirvardvīpa Kshiroda (Ocean of milk) Ghrutvardvīpa Ghrutoda (Ghee ocean) Ikshuvardvīpa Iksuvaroda (Ocean of Sugarcane Juice) Nandishwardvīpa Nandishwaroda Mount Meru is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa, in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojanas. Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mountains, dividing the continent into 9 zones (Kshetra). The names of these zones are: 1. Bharat Kshetra 2. Mahavideha Kshetra 3. Airavat Kshetra 4. Ramyakwas 5. Hariwas 6. Hairanyvat Kshetra 7. Haimavat Kshetra 8. Devkuru 9. Uttarkuru Architecture Jambudweep Jain tirtha in Hastinapur, constructed under supervision of Gyanmati Mataji, is a depiction of Jambudvipa as per Jain cosmology.The term 'Jambudvipa is used by Ashoka perhaps to represent his realm in 3rd century BC, same terminology is then repeated in subsequent inscriptions for instance mysorean inscription from the tenth century AD which also describes the region, presumably India, as 'Jambudvipa. The Kuntala country (which included the north-western parts of Mysore and the southern parts of the Bombay Presidency) was ruled by the nava-Nanda, Gupta-kula, Mauryya kings ; then the Rattas ruled it : after whom were the Chalukyas; then the Kalachuryya family; and after them the (Hoysala) Ballalas.'’ Another, at Kubatur, expressly states that Chandra Gupta ruled the Naga-khanda in the south of the Bharata-kshetra of Jambu dvipa : this is the Nagara-khanda Seventy of so many inscriptions, of which Bandanikke (Bandalike in Shimoga) seems to have been the chief town. And fuidher, a record to be noticed below says that the daughters of the Kadamba king were given in marriage to the Guptas. — Annual Report Of Mysore 1886 To 1903 Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe (loka) and its constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity that has existed since infinity with 283 neither beginning nor end.[1] Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom.[2] Dravya (Jainism) According to Jains, the Universe is made up of six simple and eternal substances called dravya which are broadly categorized under Jiva (Living Substances) and Ajiva (Non Living Substances) as follows: Jīva (Living Substances)  Jīva i.e. Souls – Jīva exists as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses it. It is characterised by chetana (consciousness) and upayoga (knowledge and perception).[3] Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearing of another state, these being merely the modes of the soul. Jiva are classified on bases of sense, so there are of 5 types: 1) with one sense (sparshendriya) 2) 2 senses (1st included and raasendriya) 3) 3 senses (1st 2 included and dharnendriya) 4) 4 senses (1st 3 included and chkshuendriya) 5) 5 senses (1st 4 included and shrotendriya) [4] Ajīva (Non-Living Substances)  Pudgala (Matter) – Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter i.e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the basic building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and indestructible. Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed.  Dharmastikaay or Dharma-dravya (Principle of Motion) and Adharmastikaay or Adharmadravya (Principle of Rest) – Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe. Dharmastikaay and Adharmastikaay are by itself not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe.  Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points.  Kāla (Time) – Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain text, Dravyasaṃgraha: Conventional time (vyavahāra kāla) is perceived by the senses through the transformations and modifications of substances. Real time (niścaya kāla), however, is the cause of imperceptible, minute changes (called vartanā) that go on incessantly in all substances. — Dravyasaṃgraha (21 284 Six Dravyas According to Jainsim this universe is composed of six fundamental verities; the Jain word for the universe is "Loka" The co-existence of these six substances is called "Loka". There are five Astikayas. (massed verities) among these six fundamental verities. Jiva, Padgala, Dharma, Adharma Akasa and Kala - these are the six fundamental verities. Except Kala, the five are Astikayas. These five Astikayas can be grouped under one name Ajiva. The Jiva dravya has 563 divisions, while the Ajiva dravya has 560 divisions. Jiva and Ajiva are included in the nine tattvas and the six dravyas. The universe is made of Jiva and Ajiva. There are only two tattvas in the univese : (1) Sentient (2) Non-sentient. Jiva is sentient, with a soul while Ajiva is non-sentient, without a soul. There are detailed and lucid discussions on the nature of Jiva and Ajiva in Jain literature. Ajiva dravya plays a crucial role in the construction and management of the universe. A short discussion follows : Ajivatattva is not an agent nor an enjoyer nor a sufferer and it has no soul sentience or Jiva. Like Jiva, the Ajiva tattva is beginningless, endless and eternal. There are two main types of Ajiva (1) formless and (2) with a form. Dharma, Adharma, Akasa and Kala are formless, while Pudgala has a form. Except Kala, the other five dravyas are called Astikayas. Astikaya means having a group of Pradeshes. The constituent units every fundamental verity is called a Pradesha. The Kaya (mass) of Pradeshas is Astikaya "Astikaya is Pradesatmaka, i.e. occupies space; hence it is called an ‘expanded entity’. Kala is not so called because it has astiva (existance) but not Kayatva (expansion in space)". Dr. S.K. Belvelkar - Brahma - Sutrabhasya 2-2-33 285 Dharmastikaya and Adharmastikaya The words - Dharma and Adharma are used here in a technical, special sense. They are not used here in the traditional sense of good conduct and bad conduct. The peculiar meaning of these two words in Jain religion is an original contribution of Jainism to the world. The famous scientist Newton was the first to accept the Principle of motion. A fruit falls down form a higher level. Words flow from a flute. There is some medium through which a substance passes. Scientists give the name ‘ether’ to this medium. But Bhagavan Mahavira said ago 2500 years ago that all moving psychical states are only the subtlest vibrations. All these become active through the help of ‘dharma’. We are able to move through dharmastikaya; birds can fly and fish can swim. Thus, that which helps motion is ‘Dharma’. It is a mass of pradeshas; hence it is called dharmastikaya. Dharma helps motion, while adharma helps inertia. The support of Jiva or Ajiva, which remains steady is a tattva which helps inertia. It is called Adharmastikaya. It helps in keeping one steady. Whatever is moving or steady in this world is due to these two astikayas. Only Jainism uses these two words - Dharma and Adharma, in this peculiar sense. Akasastikaya Akasa (space) means the place where Jiva and Ajiva are accommodated. It is formless and supportless. All these six dravyas are accommodated by it. Akasastikaya is the receptacle of all motion and inertia, Kala and Pudgalas - directions and intermediate directions are its imaginary divisions. Pervasion is its property. There are 2 types of Akasa. Lokakasa and Alokakasa. That area is called Lokakasa where Dharma and Adharma, the two helping entities in motion and inertia, reach; while infinite space, where there is no Jiva or Ajiva is called Alokakasa. Pudgalastikaya 286 Only Jainism has discussed, in detail, the nature of Pudgala. The word ‘physical element’ is current, while Jainism calls it ‘Pudgala’. The word Paramanu (atom) has become current nowadays in science and technology. There is a well-known theory of ‘atomism’. Jainism has discussed, the parmmanu for the first time. Pudgaladravya is divisible in small, big, minute and coarse pieces. Jiva, Dharma, Adharma, and Akasa are non-divisible. There are no conjuctions and disjuctions in them. Pudgala is not an impartite substance. It comes into existence, it is destoryed. Permanent and regular change is its nature. The smallest and minutest form of a Pudgala is a Paramanu. The Padgala, which cannot be cut, pierced, grasped, burnt and divided is a Paramanu. Eight types of touch, five types of taste, two types of smell, five types of colour - these twenty are the qualities of a Pudgala. Four types of Pudgala : (1) Skandha - The impartite portion of a Paramanu (2) Desa - Imaginary portion of a skandha (3) Pradesa - an indivisible part, jointed with the skandha (4) Parmanu - the minutest part, separate from a skandha. There are 8 types of a Parmanu. When a parmanu is changed into a skandha, it has ten forms such as word, sunshine, shade, light etc. Jain religion has, for the first time, called Shabda (word) a Pudgala and discussed it deeply and fully. It has for the first time said that a word moves quickly, pervades the world, and remains steady in the world. The concrete form of this thinking by Jainism is seen today in messages through telegrams, phones, the radio, the T.V. etc. Kala (Time) The word ‘Time’ explained in simple and easy way, is Kala, but this is only one type. There are 4 types of Kala. 1. Pramana Kala - An object is measured through kala hence it is called pramana kala. 287 2. Yathayu nivrti kala - life and death are relative. The various stages of life are therefore called yathayu nivrtti kala. 3. Marana kala - The end of life is called marana kala. 4. Adda kala - The kala conected with the motion of the sun and the moon is called Adda Kala. Adda Kala is the most important division. The other three are its special forms. Adda Kala is used in practice and it is used in the human world. For example, day-night, past tense, present tense, future tense, etc. The minutest part of kala is called ‘Samaya’. The calculation of time in Jainism is typical and distinct. It is as follows : * Indivisible kala - one samaya * Innumerable samayas - one avalika * 256 Availikas - one ksullaka dhava * 2223-1229/3773 avalikas - one breath * One breath - one prana * 7 prans - one lava * 38 1/2 lavas - one ghadi (24 minutes) * 77 lavas - one muhurta (48 minutes) * 30 muhurtas - one whole day * 15 days - one fortnight * 2 fortnights - one month * 2 months - one season * 3 seasons - one half of the year * 2 halves of the year (ayanas) - one year * 5 years - one yuga * 70 Krodakroda 56 lakh kroda years - one purva * Innumerable purvas - one palyopama * 10 krodakroda palyopamas - one sagaropama * 20 krodakroda sagaropamas - one kalacakra * Infinite number of kalacakras - one pudgala paravartana The briefest form of all these varieties of kala - today, yesterday and tomorrow. Literature - Read ‘Navatattva,’ ‘Tattvayathasutra,’ and ‘Padarthasangraha,’ etc. Eternity: The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on universal natural laws. The existence of a creator deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain doctrine. Mahāpurāṇa, a Jain text authored by Ācārya Jinasena is famous for this quote: Some foolish men declare that a creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression. According to Jains, the universe has a firm and an unalterable shape, which is measured in the Jain texts by means of a unit called Rajlok, which is supposed to be very large. The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajloks high and extends seven Rajloks from north to south. Its breadth is seven Rajloks long at the bottom and decreases gradually towards the middle, where it is one Rajlok long. The width then increases gradually until it is five Rajloks long and again decreases until it is one Rajlok long. The apex of the universe is one Rajlok long, one Rajlok wide and eight Rajloks high. The total space of the world 288 is thus 343 cubic Rajloks. The Svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is a constant increase and decrease in the breadth, and the space is 239 cubic Rajlok. Apart from the apex, which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts. The world is surrounded by three atmospheres: dense-water, dense-wind and thin-wind. It is then surrounded by an infinitely large non-world which is completely empty. The whole world is said to be filled with living beings. In all three parts, there is the existence of very small living beings called nigoda. Nigoda are of two types: nitya-nigoda and Itara-nigoda. Nitya-nigoda are those which will reincarnate as nigoda throughout eternity, where as Itaranigoda will be reborn as other beings. The mobile region of universe (Trasnaadi) is one Rajlok wide, one Rajlok broad and fourteen Rajloks high. Within this region, there are animals and plants everywhere, where as Human beings are restricted to 2 continents of the middle world. The beings inhabiting the lower world are called Narak (Hellish beings). The Deva (roughly demi-gods) live in the whole of the top and middle worlds, and top three realms of the lower world. Living beings are divided in fourteen classes (Jivasthana) : Fine beings with one sense, crude beings with one sense, beings with two senses, beings with three senses, beings with four senses, beings with five senses and no mind, and beings with five senses and a mind. These can be under-developed or developed, a total or 14. Human beings can get any form of existence, and are the only ones which can attain salvation. Three lokas Fourteen Rajlok or Triloka. Shape of Universe as per Jain cosmology in form of a cosmic man. Miniature from 17th century, Saṁgrahaṇīratna by Śrīcandra, in Prakrit with a Gujarati commentary. Jain Śvetāmbara cosmological text with commentary and illustrations. The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe. They developed a detailed hypothesis on the various aspects of astronomy and cosmology. According to the Jain texts, the universe is divided into 3 parts:    Urdhva Loka – the realms of the gods or heavens Madhya Loka – the realms of the humans, animals and plants Adho Loka – the realms of the hellish beings or the infernal regions 289 The following Upanga āgamas describe the Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail:[6] 1. Sūryaprajñapti – Treatise on Sun 2. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti – Treatise on the island of Roseapple tree; it contains a description of Jambūdvī and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata 3. Candraprajñapti – Treatise on moon Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail: 1. Trilokasāra – Essence of the three worlds (heavens, middle level, hells) 2. Trilokaprajñapti – Treatise on the three worlds 3. Trilokadipikā – Illumination of the three worlds 4. Tattvārthasūtra – Description on nature of realities 5. Kṣetrasamasa – Summary of Jain geography 6. Bruhatsamgrahni – Treatise on Jain cosmology and geography Urdhva Loka, the upper world Upper World (Udharva loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly beings (demi-gods) who are non-liberated souls. Upper World is divided into sixteen Devalokas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudish and five Anuttar abodes. Sixteen Devaloka abodes are Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma, Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana and Achyuta. Nine Graiveyak abodes are Sudarshan, Amogh, Suprabuddha, Yashodhar, Subhadra, Suvishal, Sumanas, Saumanas and Pritikar. Nine Anudish are Aditya, Archi, Archimalini, Vair, Vairochan, Saum, Saumrup, Ark and Sphatik. Five Anuttar are Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddhi. The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and the rest are called Kalpatit. Those living in Kalpatit are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration, capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the Heavenly beings residing in the higher abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher groups, dwelling in 9 Greveyak and 5 Anutar Viman. They are independent and dwelling in their own vehicles. The anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups, organized like earthly kingdoms—rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies etc. Above the Anutar vimans, at the apex of the universe is the realm of the liberated souls, the perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains.[7] Madhya Loka, the middle world 290 Image depicting map of Jambudvipa as per Jain Cosmology/Early 19th-century painting depicting map of 2 1⁄2 continents/Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, Hastinapur Madhya Loka consists of 900 yojans above and 900 yojans below earth surface. It is inhabited by 1. Jyotishka devas (luminous gods) – 790 to 900 yojans above earth 2. Humans,[8] Tiryanch (Animals, birds, plants) on the surface 3. Vyantar devas (Intermediary gods) – 100 yojan below the ground level Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names are: Work of Art showing maps and diagrams as per Jain Cosmography from 17th century CE Manuscript of 12th century Jain text Sankhitta Sangheyan Continent/ Island Ocean Jambūdvīpa Lavanoda (Salt – ocean) Ghatki Khand Kaloda (Black sea) Puskarvardvīpa Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean) Varunvardvīpa Varunoda (Varun Ocean) Kshirvardvīpa Kshiroda (Ocean of milk) Ghrutvardvīpa Ghrutoda (Butter milk ocean) Ikshuvardvīpa Iksuvaroda (Sugar Ocean) Nandishwardvīpa Nandishwaroda Mount Meru (also Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans.[7] There are two sets of sun, moon and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the Mount Meru. Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mighty mountains, dividing the continent into 7 zones (Ksetra). The names of these zones are: 1. Bharat Kshetra 2. Mahavideh Kshetra 3. Airavat Kshetra 4. Ramyak Kshetra 291 5. Hiranya vant Kshetra 6. Hemvant Kshetra 7. Hari Varsh Kshetra The three zones i.e. Bharat Kshetra, Mahavideh Kshetra and Airavat Kshetra are also known as Karma bhoomi because practice of austerities and liberation is possible and the Tirthankaras preach the Jain doctrine. The other four zones, Ramyak, Hairanyvat Kshetra, Haimava Kshetra and Hari Kshetra are known as akarmabhoomi or bhogbhumi as humans live a sinless life of pleasure and no religion or liberation is possible. Nandishvara Dvipa is not the edge of cosmos, but it is beyond the reach of humans.[8] Humans can reside only on Jambudvipa, Dhatatikhanda Dvipa, and the inner half of Pushkara Dvipa. Adho Loka, the lower world 17th century cloth painting depicting seven levels of Jain hell and various tortures suffered in them. Left panel depicts the demi-god and his animal vehicle presiding over the each hell. The lower world consists of seven hells, which are inhabited by Bhavanpati demigods and the hellish beings. Hellish beings reside in the following hells: 1. Ratna prabha-dharma. 2. Sharkara prabha-vansha. 3. Valuka prabha-megha. 4. Pank prabha-anjana. 5. Dhum prabha-arista. 6. Tamah prabha-maghavi. 7. Mahatamah prabha-maadhavi Division of time as envisaged by Jains-Avasarpiṇī According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal. The Kālacakra, the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-rotations, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and Avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle, occurring continuously after each otherUtsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity and happiness where the time spans and ages are at an increasing scale, while Avsarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow 292 and immorality with decline in timespans of the epochs. Each of this half time cycle consisting of innumerable period of time (measured in sagaropama and palyopama years) is further sub-divided into six aras or epochs of unequal periods. Currently, the time cycle is in avasarpiṇī or descending phase with the following epochs. Maximum Name of the Degree of Maximum Duration of Ara lifespan of Ara happiness height of people people Suṣamasuṣamā Utmost happiness 400 trillion and no sorrow sāgaropamas Six miles tall Three Palyopam years Suṣamā Moderate happiness and no 300 trillion sorrow sāgaropamas Four miles tall Two Palyopam Years Suṣamaduḥṣamā Happiness with 200 trillion very little sorrow sāgaropamas Two miles tall One Palyopam Years Duḥṣamasuṣamā Happiness with 100 trillion little sorrow sāgaropamas 1500 meters 84 Lakh Purva Duḥṣamā Sorrow with very little happiness 21,000 years 7 hatha 120 years Duḥṣamaduḥṣamā Extreme sorrow 21,000 years and misery 1 hatha 20 years In utsarpiṇī the order of the eras is reversed. Starting from duṣamā-duṣamā, it ends with suṣamā-suṣamā and thus this never ending cycle continues. Each of these aras progress into the next phase seamlessly without any apocalyptic consequences. The increase or decrease in the happiness, life spans and length of people and general moral conduct of the society changes in a phased and graded manner as the time passes. No divine or supernatural beings are credited or responsible with these spontaneous temporal changes, either in a creative or overseeing role, rather human beings and creatures are born under the impulse of their own karmas. According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called śalākāpuruṣas, are born on this earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara. The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons. They comprise twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras, twelve chakravartins, nine balabhadra, nine narayana, and nine pratinarayana. A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm.[20] Though he possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the cosmos. Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal monarchs). They are golden in complexion. One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata Chakravartin. Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana state that Indian subcontinent came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory. There are nine sets of balabhadra, narayana, and pratinarayana. The balabhadra and narayana are brothers. Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes, narayana are violent heroes, and pratinarayana the villains. According to the legends, 293 the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain liberation and the last goes to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell because of their violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness. Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts (avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī). According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in the human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine appropriate for that era. The word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which means a fordable passage across a sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Rishabhanatha is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle (avasarpiṇī). Mahāvīra (6th century BC) is revered as the twenty fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī. Jain texts state that Jainism has always existed and will always exist. During each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or 63 illustrious men, consisting of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear. The Jain universal or legendary history is basically a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious men. They are categorised as follows:  24 Tīrthaṅkaras – The 24 Tīrthaṅkaras or the supreme ford makers appear in succession to activate the true religion and establish the community of ascetics and laymen.  12 Chakravartins – The Chakravartīs are the universal monarchs who rule over the six continents.  9 Balabhadras who lead an ideal Jain life.e.g. Lord Rama [36]  9 Narayana or Vasudev (heroes)  9 Prati-Naryana or Prati-Vasudev (anti-heroes) – They are anti-heroes who are ultimately killed by the Narayana. Balabhadra and Narayana are half brothers who jointly rule over three continents. Besides these a few other important classes of 106 persons are recognized:9 Naradas 11 Rudras 24 Kamdevas 24 Fathers of the Tirthankaras. 24 Mothers of the Tirthankaras. 14 Kulakara (patriarchs) Jambudweep was founded by Gyanmati Mataji in 1972 and the model of Jambudvipa was completed in 1985. For the tirtha, Nalini Balbir reported The main attraction of this vast campus is the Jambudvipa. By its height, this original construction dominates all other buildings. It is meant both for education of the believers, since it shows them the Jaina representation of the universe, and for their entertainment. One can climb to the top by an inner staircase, or go boating around the Lavanasamudra. — Nalini Balbir 294 Jambudweep depicts the model Jain cosmology has been designed here under the supervision of Shri Gyanmati Mataji was in 1985. The premises has various Jain temples which includes Sumeru Parvat, Lotus Temple, Teen Murti Mandir, Meditation Temple, Badi Murti, Teen Lok Rachna and many other tourist attractions. Unique circular structures of Jain Geography 'Jambudweep' has been constructed with white & coloured marble stones in the diameter of 250 ft. with 101 ft. tall Mount Sumeru Parvat is built by light pink marble situated in the center of Jambudweep Rachna. In the story about Jambudweep, Gyanmati Mataji had a vision in 1965 while meditating. In the vision, she saw the entire structure of universe. Discovering later that what she had seen perfectly matched the cosmographical details described in Jain scriptures, she decided to create a pilgrimage site with the aim of creating a model of Jambudvipa. "Jambudweep Trilok Sodh Sansthan" has been established at Jambudweep, Hastinapur to raise awareness regarding the Jain Mythology and Jain Philosophy. Jambudweep developed a website http://www.jambudweep.org in 2007 to spread the Jain philosophy online, with more than 2000 books uploaded. The term ‘Tirthankara’ is a portmanteau which is a combination of two words as under: 1. ‘Tiratha’ which means a ‘Ford - i.e. the portion of a river or a stream which is shallow, and thus could be used to cross over to the other side. 2. ‘kara’ which means ‘maker’. So collectively, the word Tirtha-n-kara means the maker of a ford that helps the seekers crossover the ocean called Samsara and reach Nibana. Thus, Tirthhankara or the ford makers are the ones who having experienced ultimate knowledge (Keval-Gyan), creates a path (ford) following which humanity may crossover from the ocean called ‘samsara’. 295 Tirthankara’s significance can be further understood by the below salient features of the same: 1. There are just 48 of these illustrious souls per Kala-Chakra (the cyclic wheel of time), 24 each in its increasing and decreasing phase on our planet. However, it does not mean that there are just 48 per Kala-chakra across the universe as other planets, and other parallel universes have more of these illustrious souls. As per Jain annals, one such soul, the living Tirthankara currently present in a parallel universe called ‘MahaVidhe-Kshetra’ is Tirthankara Simandhar Swami - Wikipedia. He is not one of the 48 Tirthankara that our planet had experienced, but still a Tirthankara equally revered by Jains. 2. A Church gets created around a Tirthankara. Unlike prophets or masters, they do not go around asking people to join, declaring ‘If you have ears, hear’. There is no canvassing of their religion on their part. Seekers gets attracted to them just the way iron gets attracted to a magnet, and thus the ‘church’ around them gets created on its own accord. This is one of the most significant features of a Tirthankara which distinguishes them from other masters or prophets of our planet. 3. Tirthankaras are different from other illustrious souls that experiences Keval-Gyan or ultimate knowledge by the fact that they are the only ones around whom the church gets ‘automatically created’. Its on account of their exceptional good karma in past lives and is the fact that distinguishes them form other Arihanta’s or other completely enlightened beings. 4. Tirthankara does not have any master. They do not follow the church established by the preceding Tirthankara even if its fully established and ripe. On the contrary, the church of the preceding Tirthankara comes and merges itself into the church that has been created around Him. This is also one of the most unique features of a Tirthankara. 5. Tirthankara sets His own rules. Based on the situation of the times, He adds (or subtracts) the rules the member of the church needs to follow. When the church of preceding Tirthankara merges into the current, they follow the rules set by the current Tirthankara. 6. Though a Tirthankara may add (or subtract) rules of His church, the message that resonates through Him is always the same as the previous Tirthankara. 7. Next Tirthankara is set to appear on our planet only after 84000 years from the nibana of Jina - The Mahavira. i.e. appx 81,400 years from he date I am writing this answer. This will be when the current kala-Chakra would have taken a complete circle and the 2nd epoch of the ne Kala-Chakra would be about to end. This next Tirthankara will be regarded as the 1st of the set of 48 illustrious souls that will enrich our planet in times to come. 296 297 Lotus Temple: It is a small temple in the courtyard of Jambudweep. It is a House of Worship, popularly known as the Lotus Temple, is a Jain House of Worship and also a prominent attraction in Hastinapur. It was completed in 1989. 298 REFERENCES 1. The Key of Knowledge,Champat Rai Jain, 1928 ,THE INDIAN PRESS, LTD. 299 2. Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community,ANNE VALLELY,Series: Anthropological Horizons, Published by: University of Toronto Press, 2002 , 300 CHAPTER 14 COSMOLOGY OF THE JAIN TEMPLE There is no set definition for the meaning or even the form of a mandala, nor could there be, since it appears in the art and architecture – in one form or another – of various cultures around the world. The image and use of the term first appear in India via the Hindu text known as the Rig Veda c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE where it is an image and also the name of the books which comprise the work. It was, and is, also used as a meditative tool and spiritual exercise in the belief systems of Jainism, Buddhism, and Shintoism, appears in Persian art, as the Ishtar Star Symbol (and others) from Mesopotamia, figures in Mesoamerican architecture and Native American art, and was used by the Celts of the Iberian peninsula and Northern Europe, to name only a few cultures. This chapter allows us to see how icons and scriptural exegesis are linked in Jainism. In early days, Temples served as the major landmarks of the land. A place was recognized either using the palaces or temples. As the palaces were prone for being ruined due to assault, temples served as the chief landmark for the passengers travelling on foot orcarriages from afar. It was a beacona light house to guide the visitors. Although Mahavir often referenced as Jainism’s founder, he is known by adherents as the 24th tirthankara (“ford builder”), one in a long line of enlightened souls who recognized the illusory nature of existence and freed themselves (and then others) through adherence to a strict spiritual discipline which broke the cycle of samsara and led to liberation. Jains observe this same discipline in the hope of reaching the same goal. Jain mandalas illustrate this path and discipline through images of Mahavira (or an earlier tirthankara) in the center of a circle enclosed by ever-widening squares in which representations of various divine spirits (devas) or life-conditions appear. The details of a Jain mandala vary but, frequently, Mahavira appears in the center and the observer is invited to travel the image from the outer rim of distraction and illusion toward the central truth revealed by Mahavira. An observer, in the stillness of contemplation, is thereby provided with a kind of spiritual map of the Jain path. Samavasarana In Jainism, Samavasarana or Samosharana ("Refuge to All") is the divine preaching hall of the Tirthankara. The word samavasarana is derived from two words, sama, meaning general and avasara, meaning opportunity. It is a place where all have 0 in Jain art. The Samavasarana seems to have replaced the original Jain stupa as an object of worship. In samavasarana hall, the tirthankara sits on a throne without touching it (about two inches above it). Around the tirthankara sit the ganadharas (chief disciples). Living beings sit in the following order.    In the first hall, ascetics In the second hall, one class of deva ladies In the third hall, aryikas (nuns) and laywomen 301     In the next three halls, three other classes of deva ladies In the next four halls, the four classes of devas (heavenly beings) Men, in the eleventh hall Animals, in the last hall According to Jain texts, there would be four wide roads with four huge columns, Manasthamba (literally, pride pillar), one in each side. The total size of the hall varies depending upon the height of the people in that era. The size of Rishabhadeva's samavasarana was 12 km2 (4.6 sq mi). In samavasarana, a tirthankara sits facing the east, but appears to be looking in all directionsTirthankara sits on a soft cushion while preaching the Jain philosophy in plain terms.[7] All humans and animals can understand the discourse. Jain scriptures say that all creatures who listen would become less violent and less greedy. The speech of the tirthankara is distinctly heard by every one present. 302 Samavasarana in the architecture of the Jain temple,; as a material reflection of the ritual, is similar to the Hindu and the Buddhist architecture; it is obvious that the ritual at that time was in general similar to that of Hinduism. The symbolic saturation of the temple space gradually grew, the philosophical concepts embodied in the iconographic program became more complicated and one of them is the idea of Samavasarana of Jina. Initially Jainism did not postulate the worship of images. The monks, in particular, did not need images at all, conducting mental bhāvapūjā with recitation of ancient hymns. Everything external (including sculpture) was involved solely for the sake of the lay donators, the part of the community that provided material support. The images of donators are also present in the iconographic program of the temple. The yakṣa, located on the left and the yakṣini, located to the right of the entrance to the temple, are sasanadevatas, the guardian deities of Tīrthaṅkara; they are the protectors of the Jain teaching [1]. According to Harivaṃśapurāṇa of Jinasena (783 AD.), Indra appointed a pair of Yakṣas to each Tīrthaṅkara. At the same time they are gods who bestow welfare, as indicated by their corpulence and abundance of jewellery decorating their bodies. Such deities, located in the entrance areas of the temple, provide material benefits to the community. Moreover, in contradistinction to Hindu theologians, Jain believes that Tīrthaṅkara is not present in its image; therefore, it is obviously useless to offer prayers to it. Only yakṣas can give an answer and help. It is an important feature of Jain religion that was reflected in iconographic program of temples. The Tīrthaṅkara has already left the circle of rebirth; he is not present in this world. Lawrence A. Babb introduced the concept of "Absent Lord". Liberated Jina conquered all his passions, affections, and desires. For this reason, all the rituals and offerings, as well as musical performances, are virtually unnecessary [2]. Tīrthaṅkaras cannot interact with the worshippers, responding to their requests, which reduces all the efforts of the ritual to naught. However, in reality, sufficiently developed worship rituals indicate that most Jains believe that in some way Jina is present in his image. A formula was introduced according to which the offerings accepted in all religions, the believer does not bestow upon the deity, but simply leaves all this in the temple nearby his image [3]. 303 304 It is interesting to see, that the temples in Khajuraho the Jain temples follow a similar system, 305 with various divinities, both Yakshas, and Tirthankars, along with the Dikpalas, shown on the outer walls. are depicted as the centre of the universe, or the focal point of the entire cosmos, with every icon in place according to the respective philosophical systems. Thus, when we circumambulate the temple, we become a part of this cosmic system as well, through the divinity which rests within us. The temples, therefore, are so much more than just the idols and sculptures. Seen as they are meant to be, they represent the cosmos itself! the architect has conceptualized the temple as Mount Meru, the centre of the universe. Niches on one of the Jain Temples, the lower one a Tirthankar, and the upper one, a deity, probably a dikpala. 306 MANDALA ELEMENTS OF JAIN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE It was the later half of the 7th century that the Jain temple structures of India began to acquire a definite form with consolidation of design structures all over India. Elements of Hindu temple: 1. Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to the mandapa. It unites the main sanctuaryand the pillared hall of the temple. ‘Antarala’ meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber. 2. ‘Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber. The shape and the size of the tower vary from region to region. It is the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple which represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. 1. ‘Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the spire. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess. There is an enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha called the Pradakshina patha’ meaning the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber). the lower portion inside the Vimana is called Shikhara and upper as the Vimana is called as the Sikhara . The visitors are not allowed inside the The chamber is mostly square in plan and is entered by a doorway on its eastern side. It is nucleus and the innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the deity is placed. 3. ‘Gopurams’ meaning the monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the temple complex, specially found in south India 4. ‘Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees. In some of the earlier temples the mandapa was an isolated and separate structure from the sanctuary known as ‘Natamandira’ meaning temple hall of dancing, where in olden days ritual of music and dance was performed. It is used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the priests performing the rituals. 5. The Amalaka the fluted disc like stone placed at the apex of the sikhara. 6. ‘Toranas’, the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in north Indian temple 7. ‘Pitha’ , the plinth or the platform of the temple In order to make easy the roaming folk to recognize the locations easily, the Gopuram’s of the temples had to be built elevated. That tiled way for the elevated Gopuram’s. By way of seeing the Gopuram’s form expanse, passengers planned the approximate distance of their target from their location. Gopuram’s were built extremely high to serve as landmarks as well as for traveler distance’s. Additionally, temples served as the main protection for travelers. When people travel between places, they stay at the temple building to take rest. Before they commence the new part of their journey, they would respect God and begin. Representatively, the Temple Gopuram or the access to the temple represents the feet of the divinity. A devotee bows at the feet of the Lord at the entry as he steps into the temple and proceed towards the chamber, leaving behind the world of contradiction. A Gopura is usually constructed with an enormous stone base and a superstructure of brick and support. It is rectangular in sketch and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of finials. When viewed from apex, the Gopura too resembles a mandala; with sculptures and carvings of Yalis 307 and mythological animals to be found in the outer enclosed space. Humans and divine beings are in the central enclosures. The crest of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is at the centre of the Mandala.T hese sculptures follow a selection of themes resulting from the Hindu mythology, mainly those associated with the presiding idol of the temple where the gopuram is positioned. Gopuras come into view to have inclined revision in the temple plan and outline. The spaces just about the shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the central shrine, the lesser was its distinction. The farthest ring had buildings of a more practical or a secular nature – shops, dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a merely place of worship to the center of a vibrant alive city. A JAIN MANDALA WITH 17TH/18TH CENTURY PADMAVATI-GUJARAT, 308 NORTH-WEST INDIA, A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डल, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid to meditation and trance induction. In the Eastern religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shintoism it is used as a map representing deities, or specially in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines. In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within minds and bodies. MANDALA: Religious meaning In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often have radial balance. A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar, "Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the spiritual aspect of human experience" Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes: Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists in the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the microcosm), 309 every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and is associated with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.[6] The term 'mandala' appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, and Vedic rituals use mandalas such as the Navagraha mandala to this day. The science behind these constructions is that, the temple architecture gives cosmic force to the main idol in the Garbha Griha. Firstly, the Juathaskambam acts like an antenna and receives the cosmic force from the space and through a subversive channel it is linked to the main idol in the Garbha-graha. The cosmic force continuously flows through the Jathuskambam to the statue and energies it. Secondly, the celestial power fetched through the field gives the idol effulgence and metaphysical powers. The cosmic-force is additionally maintained by noise waves (Vedic chants – Read about the Significance of Chanting) and the pyramid like tomb. The pyramid like construction helps to intensify and protect the cosmic force. These are the reasons for anybody to feel a positive energy, goodness, serenity or divinity when we approach the interior sanctum. 310 The copper plate has the propensity to suck part the Ether when that penetrates from the copper and the Herbal resulting in powerful atomic force that penetrates through the skin to heal the human, and that’s why the copper plate is put on the temple tower. he idol is washed with various materials (milk, sandal paste, oil) to preserve the idols. The idol is adorned with flowers and ornaments for mental and visual boost. But the diverse postures of the idol (sitting/standing, number of hands, weapons they hold) do have meaning in emitting the cosmic force. Thus the temples serve up as the scientific room to receive the shower of cosmic force or God’s blessing. From my understanding Temple Gopurams are an important part of any Hindu temples and there are specific reasons for their existence. They are: 1) Temple Gopurams are built to receive the positive energy from the universe. Cosmic rays will be received by the Gopuram and it will be passed to the statue in the temple. 2) Gopuram will also receive the energy from thunder/lightning and pass it to the ground. So it acted as a layer of protection for the temple and the nearby areas. 3) Temple Gopuram were built largely to depict the culture and art of ancient people 4) It also used to act as a landmark in olden days to find out the cities, way to different places. 5) In olden days , kings built temples in order to give job to the people of the country and along with that future generations will come to know the architectural talents that ancient people had. 6) The small carvings and statues in temple gopuram depict the story of the god and also will show life lessons. MANDALA AND HINDU & JAIN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the 8 x 8 grid or the Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the workability of the mandala design throughout India. Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of universal theories which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be thought of as diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the primary aim of the tradition. The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the mandala were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion between God and man. 1 The Vastu Purusha Mandala contains a minimum of nine sections signifying the directions north, south, east, west, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest and the centre represented as square grids. In the Vastu Purusha Mandala, the Purusha’s head is located in the northeast direction and this is considered utmost sacred. In the southwest are his feet and his knees and elbows in the northwest and southeast. Kept open and clear in the centre part of the diagram are his main organs and his torso. Starting from a single undivided square of 1 x 1 there are grid patterns ranging up to 32 x 32 thus making it 1024 sections. Architecturally, the adaptation of the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been seen in the design of houses, palaces, temples and even cities. Integrating it into the design brings a certain amount of order in the design. Here, the squares are assumed as cubes of architectural spaces. 311 The five elements of earth, water, fire, air and space correspond with specific sections of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. The south-west direction is associated with the element of earth(Bhumi); south-east with the elements of fire (Agni); north-east with the element of water (Jala); north-west with the element of air (Vayu) and the centre space with the element of space (Akasha). 2 Indian temples are microcosm of Cosmos, acting as a connecting bridge between physical world and divine world through their proportional arrangement. Mandapa, which were entrance porches in the beginning became an integral part of the temple plan in providing additional functions and in form providing an ex- pression of cosmos especially in elevation. Ashapuri temples analyzed here, corresponds to Nagara temple proportions varying in proportionas they belong to two different styles of nagara Architec- ture. From the study of Adam Hardy it is said that they possessed temples of different styles in Nagara other than these two. The site of Ashapuri seems to be a place for the development of the Ngara school of archigtecture. This mandala is from the Jain faith. Jains believe that every soul is potentially divine and refer to beings that have achieved this, and who founded the Jain faith, as jinas.A mandala is a sacred religious image, usually in the form of complex concentric circles.The first Jina was called Adinath. He was followed by a further 23 Jinas, the most recent of which was Madavira. Madavira is thought to have lived in the sixth century. Like the other Jinas he was an advocate of non-violence and vegetarianism - two precepts of the faith.All 24 Jinas are depicted on this mandala. The mandala is drawn onto paper and is protected by glass and mounted in a circular metal box with lid. The image is divided into three concentric circles, with Mahāvīra in the 312 centre, seated in meditation. Jinas number 13 to 23 are in the next circle and numbers one to 12, including Adinath, in the outer circle. Jainsim is another important religion from the east where mandalas are used. As per Jainism, every soul is potentially divine and jinas are beings who have attained enlightenment. There were 24 jinas who were the tirthankaras, the first being Adinatha and the 24th being Lord Mahavira who lived in the 6th century; who is frequently depicted in the Jaina mandalas. 313 Painting of Samavasarana or assembly of a tirthankara,1800 A.D. Rajasthan.By Unknown – Painting, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18780461 Samavasarana of Lord Mahavira, 19th century, Mysore. Mandalas depict a beautiful amalgamation of religion and art. In recent times also mandalas are constantly being created by children and adults alike. They are being used 314 for meditation and as a form of art therapy. Rangoli designs made at the entrance and courtyards during festivals in homes across India, also resemble mandalas. Ranakpur Jain Temple Mandalas Ranakpur Jain Temple – photo by Sudhagee The Ranakpur Jain Temple houses this collection of stone-carved mandalas every surface, except the floor, is carved and it is an explosion of art all around youAbout this particular photo, she states:Above photo Clockwise from top left: A many-hooded snake protecting Adinath and his family from a deluge; Krishna on Kaalia the snake?; a head with 5 bodies, representing the 5 basic elements; this sculpture is supposed to contain 108 Oms ! 315 Ranakpur Jain Temple – Krishna on Kaalia Ranakpur Jain Temple – hooded snake From Sreenivasan Ramakrishnan’s flickr page, Krishna on Kaalia and the 108 Ohms carving. 316 Ranakpur Jain Temple – Many Ohms 317 The first island of Middle Universe (Madhya Lok) is one lack Yojan (40 crore miles) in circumference and looks like a round plate, which is known as Jamboodweep. It is surrounded by innumerable islands and seas. Where are we in this Jamboodweep? We are just in the Southern corner of this island. Listen! this island is divided in seven regions known as Bharat, Haimvat, Hari,Videh, Ramyak, Hairanyavat and Airavat. These regions are partitioned by six mountains known as Himvan, Mahahimvan, Nishadh, Neel, Rukmi and Shikhari. Bharat Kshetra is equal to one hundred & ninetieth part of Jamboodweep i.e. 526 Yojan. It is again divided in six parts, one part is called Aryakhand; Bharat Varsh (i.e. our country INDIA) is situated in the centre of Aryakhand; we & you all the people live in it. Today’s whole world is situated in Aryakhand. The symbolic structure of Jamboodweep has been built at Hastinapur (Meerut-U.P.) in 1985. Sumeru Mountain of 101 Ft. height is situated at its centre. Tourists and devotees from all over the country and abroad come to visit this heavenly structure and understand the essence of JainGeography. U.P. Tourism has defined this Jamboodweep as the index of Hastinapur along with calling it as 'Man Made Heaven' with 'Unparallel Superlatives'. Jambudweep is a Digambara Jain temple in Hastinapur, Uttar Pradesh built under the blessings of Gyanmati Mataji in 1972. Official name of the tirtha is the Digambar Jain Institute of Cosmographic Research (Digambar Jain Trilok Shodh Sansthan) and its main attraction is the building constructed as a model of Jambudvipa. Jambudweep was founded by Gyanmati Mataji in 1972 and the model of Jambudvipa was completed in 1985. For the tirtha, Nalini Balbir reported The main attraction of this vast campus is the Jambudvipa. By its height, this original construction dominates all other buildings. It is meant both for education of the believers, since it shows them the Jaina representation of the universe, and for their entertainment. One can climb to the top by an inner staircase, or go boating around the Lavanasamudra. — Nalini Balbir Jambudweep depicts the model Jain cosmology has been designed here under the supervision of Shri Gyanmati Mataji was in 1985. The premises has various Jain temples which includes Sumeru Parvat, Lotus Temple, Teen Murti Mandir, Meditation Temple, Badi Murti, Teen Lok Rachna and many other tourist attractions. Unique circular structures of Jain Geography 'Jambudweep' has been constructed with white & coloured marble stones in the diameter of 250 ft. with 101 ft. tall Mount Sumeru Parvat is built by light pink marble situated in the center of Jambudweep Rachna. The structure of Jambudweep, depicting Jain Geography, is the model of our grand universe. Centrally located Sumeru Mountain is considered as the central point of it. Due to the location of Sumeru, Jambudweep structure has four distinct regions in East, West, North and South. The East region is known as East Videh Kshetra and the West region as West Videh Kshetra. In the South direction, with the prominence of Bharat Kshetra, Himvan etc. mountains, Ganga-Sindhu 318 etc. rivers, Haimvat etc. Kshetras, Bhogbhumis (lands of enjoyment) with Kalpa-Vrikshas (wish fulfilling trees), Chaityalayas (Temples), palaces of deities, ponds, gardens etc. have been shown while same structures have been built with different names in the North direction, having the prominence of Airavat Kshetra. ust near the Sumeru Mountain, Jambu Vriksha (tree) in the North and Shalmali Vriksha in the South have been shown. Both of these metal trees have one temple each. If one first reads the description of these structures in scriptures like Tiloypannatti, Triloksar, Tatvartha Sutra etc. and then observes all the details at Jambudweep, he can gain real knowledge about it.According to our scriptures, the present world (all the six continents) is situated at the South of the Bharat Kshetra and the rest of the grand Universe is unavailable to us. 319 CHAPTER 15 THE PERFECT EXAMPLE OF A HINDU TEMPLE AS A COSMIC MANDALA AT ANGKOR WAT Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire. The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted through its great temple. Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire. In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer Empire. Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire 320 from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region. Mandala in Meenakshi temple Madurai with biggest GOPURAMs in the world Temple Structure The entire structure, when viewed from above, represents a mandala. A mandala is a structure built according to the laws of symmetry and loci. There are various shrines built within the temple complex. The temple occupies a huge area in the heart of Madurai as it spreads over 14 acres. The temple is enclosed with huge walls, which were built in response to the invasions. Apart from the two main shrines, which are dedicated to Sundareswarar and Meenakshi, the temple has shrines dedicated to various other deities like Ganesha and Murugan. The temple also houses goddesses Lakshmi, Rukmini, and Saraswati. The temple also has a consecrated pond named ‘Porthamarai Kulam.’ The term ‘Potramarai Kulam’ is a literal translation of ‘pond with a golden lotus.’ The structure of a golden lotus is placed at the center of the pond. It is said that Lord Shiva blessed this pond and declared that no marine life would grow in it. In the Tamil folklore, the pond is believed to be an evaluator for reviewing the worth of any new literature. The temple has four main towering gateways (gopurams) that look identical to each other. Apart from the four ‘gopurams,’ the temple also houses many other ‘gopurams’ that serve as gateways to a number of shrines. The temple has a total of 14 towering gateways. Each one of them is a multi-storey structure and displays thousands of mythological stories and several other sculptures. The major ‘gopurams’ of the temple are listed below: 321  Kadaka Gopuram – This towering gateway leads to the main shrine that houses Goddess Meenakshi. The gateway was rebuilt by Tumpichi Nayakkar during the mid-16th century. The ‘gopuram’ has five storeys.  Sundareswarar Shrine Gopuram – This is the oldest ‘gopuram’ of the temple and was built by Kulasekara Pandya. The ‘gopuram’ serves as a gateway to the Sundareswarar (Lord Shiva) shrine.  Chitra Gopuram – Built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II, the gopuram depicts the religious and secular essence of Hinduism.  Nadukkattu Gopuram – Also called as the ‘Idaikattu Gopuram,’ this gateway leads to the Ganesha shrine. The gateway is placed right in between the two main shrines.  Mottai Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ has fewer stucco images when compared to the other gateways. Interestingly, ‘Mottai gopuram’ had no roof for nearly three centuries.  Nayaka Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ was built by Visvappa Nayakkar around 1530. The ‘gopuram’ is astonishingly similar to another gateway called ‘Palahai Gopuram.’ The temple also has numerous pillared halls called ‘Mandapams.’ These halls were built by various kings and emperors and they serve as resting places for pilgrims and devotees. Some of the most important ‘mandapams’ are given below:  Ayirakkal Mandapam – It literally translates to ‘hall with thousand pillars.’ The hall, which was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar, is a true spectacle as it is supported by 985 pillars. Each and every pillar is sculpted magnificently and has images of Yali, a mythological creature.  Kilikoondu Mandapam – This ‘mandapam’ was originally built to house hundreds of parrots. The parrots that were kept there in cages were trained to say ‘Meenakshi’. The hall, which is next to the Meenakshi shrine, has sculptures of characters from Mahabharata.  Ashta Shakthi Mandapam – This hall houses the sculptures of eight goddesses. Built by two queens, the hall is placed in between the main ‘gopuram’ and the gateway that leads to the Meenakshi shrine.  Nayaka Mandapam – ‘Nayaka Mandapam’ was built by Chinnappa Nayakkar. The hall is supported by 100 pillars and houses a Nataraja statue. 322  Title: Mahāvīra and 23 Jinas.The British Library Board.ossibly Jaipur, Rajasthan. coloured metal plaque.Size:13 cms diameter 323 This is a maṇḍala representing the 24 Jinas. The Jinas here are typical Śvetāmbara images, with jewellery and open eyes. They are placed in three concentric circles, and can be identified by moving from the inside outwards. Circle Jina details Central circle Mahāvīra is in the centre, sitting in meditation and the largest figure Second circle Jinas number 13 to 23 are in the next circle, with Vimala at the top. Then, facing each other in pairs are, first left then right:  Ananta and Dharma  Śānti and Kunthu  Ara and Malli  Munisuvrata and Nami  Nemi and Pārśva. Third circle Jinas number 1 to 12 are in the outermost circle, with Ṛṣabha at the top. Then, facing each other in pairs, first left then right:  Sambhava and Ajita  Sumati and Abhinandana  Supārśva and Padmaprabha  Suvidhi and Candraprabha  Suvidhi and Śītala  Vāsupūjya and Śreyāṁsa. Identification of Jinas in maṇḍala Each Jina is depicted in his colour, along with his Śvetāmbara emblem – lāñchana. The maṇḍala is protected by glass and mounted in a brass case with a lid. A paper inside the lid contains the key to the picture in English. According to the 1975 British Library Journal ('Department of Oriental Manuscripts and Printed Books', volume 1, pages 99–104), this object is one of those the British Library acquired between July and December 1973. It is described as coming from Jaipur, dating back to the 19th century and having been presented by 'Mr. and Mrs. E. M. Prokofiev' (page 102). The maṇḍala is more likely to have been in the house of a Jain lay man than in a temple. An object such as this one could be used for worship or as an aid for meditation or contemplation. 324 Both the Digambara and Shvetambara icon‐worshipping Jains posit that the cosmos is filled with eternal icons. This cosmological “narrative” is analyzed as a defense of icons: if they are eternal and uncreated, then their ritual use is appropriate. According to Jain cosmology, there are eternal icons on the continent of Nandishvara Dvipa, on the axial Mount Meru, and at the four gateways to Black‐Plum Continent (Jambu Dvipa). These eternal icons are described in cosmological texts, and are vectored into contemporary Jain ritual culture through hymns, temple architecture, rituals, and annual festivals. In each of the cosmological examples, the icons are found in temples that in turn are arranged in highly geometric formations. These formations, whether 325 square or circular, are closely related to mandalas. The chapter then frames the eternal icons as mandalas, and also shows how a more adequate understanding of mandalas in Asian religions should see that they are three‐dimensional formations of icons, and not just two‐dimensional painted representations. Descriptions of the eternal icons are found in many Shvetambara scriptures, texts that are accepted by both the iconophilic Murtipujakas and the iconoclastic Sthanakavasis. The Sthanakavasis, therefore, have had to develop a scriptural hermeneutic that interprets the key term of chaitya (“image”) as referring not to images but to knowledgeable people. A Cosmos Filled with Eternal Icons: Icons, Cosmology, Mandalas, and Scripture-John E. Cort (Contributor Webpage) from the book : Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History,John Cort, 2009, Oxford Scholarship Online: February 2010 ANGKOR WAT Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire. The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted through its great temple. Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire. In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics, 326 the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer Empire. Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region. Note how the architectural layout of the temple greatly resembles the symbol of Mandala.For example, you can spot the building's centre point, as well as the four gates on the outermost wall. Rough Layout of Angkor Wat 327 328 The Third Tier GOPURAM 329 330 331 332 “The Vastu Purusha Mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The Vastu Purusha Mandala is both the body of the 333 Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building.” – Stella Kramrisch ; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I Vastu Purush Mandala has been in existence for thousands of years, will continue till eternity. It is the fundamental principle which continues to create and run the whole universe - both at the macro and the micro level If we can decode it's secret and follow its eternal principles for construction, we can ensure a life full of health, wealth, peace and prosperity. The Vastu Purush Mandala is a cosmic geometrical wonder used to design temples amongst other structures. When we observe the energy fields that develop at different stages of a building – starting from the stage of a vacant plot - to the digging of land - to the laying of the foundation - to the completion of the building - and finally to the point when it is inhabited by the people – we unravel the secrets of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. Image of the Universe: The Vastu Mandala is the omnipresent, omnipotent soul of every building. It is based on the principle that Man and Universe are analogous in their structure and spirit. Vastu Purush Mandala is thus a Yantra or an image of the Universe .Hindus believe that the body is the image of the entire Universe( See figure below). Vastu Purusha Mandala is a combination of 45 Devtas and Asuras present in a geometrical figure. The Devtas represent our consciousness and the Asuras our ignorance and fear. The war between consciousness and ignorance goes on each moment within all of us. It is not just a Puranic story, it’s the reality we live in each moment. DECODING THE DEVTAS & ASURAS The 45 Energy Fields PADAVINAYASA ModularGrid After Shilanyas and construction of foundation walls, this is the first energy field to develop in the plot. BRAHMA DEVTASvsASURAS THE ETERNAL WAR- Energy Fields Next to Brahma ARYAMA The Power of Connections VIVASWAN The Power of Revolution or Change MITRA The Power of Inspiration & Action BHUDHAR The Power of Manifestation DEVA VITHI The 8 Energy Fields in the Diagonal Directions NORTH EAST Apaha Apahavatsa SOUTH WEST Indra Indrajaya SOUTH EAST Savita Savitur NORTH WEST Rudra Rajyakshma MANUSHYA VITHI 1. NORTH EAST APAHA Igenerates the energies responsible for healing APAHAVATSA Carries the healing powers to the occupants ww.anantvastu.com 2. SOUTH EAST SAVITA Energies that help to initiate any process or action SAVITUR Energies that give capibilities to continue those actions and overcome all challenges 3. . SOUTH WEST INDRA Energies that establish stability and enhance growth INDRAJAYA The tools and the channels through which one can achieve growth 334 4. .NORTH WEST RUDRA Energies responsible for support and ensure flow of activities and life RAJYAKSHMA Energies which uphold the support and stabilise the mind . The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery PAISHACHA VITHI . These are also the 32 Possible Entrance Locations . The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery ADITI Mother of the Devtas, this energy field provides security and helps one connect with himself/herself) DITI Mother of the Asuras, this energy field gives the powers of a wider vision and to see the actual truth of life.SHIKHI Symbolic of a pointed flame, this field gives the power of ideas and the ability to project one’s thoughts to the world PARJANYA The giver of rains, this field has the powers to bless the occupants with fertility and fulfilment of all their wishes NORTH EAST 5. SOUTH EAST BHRISHA The power of friction needed to initiate any action , thinking or activity AAKASH The energy that provides the space for manifestation ANILA The energy of air or vayu, it helps to uplift the fire or push further the actions initiated PUSHAN The energy of nourishment, it blocks the path of enemies The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery. 6. SOUTH WEST BHRINGRAJ The energy which extracts nutrients from the food and removes the waste MRIGHA The energy that drives curiosity and imparts skills PITRA The energy of the ancestors which provides all means of safety and happiness required for existence DAUWARIK The safe keeper, represents lord Nandi-the trusted vehicle of lord Shiva. The energy of being genius and highly knowledgeable The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Peripher 7. NORTH WEST SHOSHA The power of detoxification from negative emotions PAPYAKSHMA The energy which gives addiction, diseases and the feeling of guilt ROGA The energy which provides support in the hour of need NAGA The energy which gives emotional enjoyments and cravings The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery 8. NORTH MUKHYA The chief architect or lord Vishwakarma, this energy field defines the main purpose of the building & also helps in their manifestation BHALLAT The energy field which grants colossal abundance, it magnifies the efforts and their results SOMA The energy field of Kubera - the lord of all wealth and money. It ensures a smooth flow of money and opportunities BHUJAG The the lord of hidden treasures, this energy field is the preserver of medicines. It safeguards the health of the occupants The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery 9. EAST JAYANT The energy which gives the sense of being victorious, it refreshes the mind and body MAHENDRA The energy which grants the power of administration and connectivity SURYA The core controller, this energy fields imparts health , fame and farsightedness SATYA The energy which establishes goodwill, status, authenticity and credibility The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery 10. SOUTH VITATHA The energy field of falsehood, pretension and the unreal GRUHAKSHAT The power which binds the mind and defines its limits YAMA The power of expansion, this energy field binds the world in laws GANDHARVA The energy of 335 preservation of health & vitality. This energy also governs all kinds of arts and music The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery 11. WEST SUGREEV The power which grants the ability to receive all knowledge PUSHPADANT The power which grants blessings and fulfills all desires VARUN The lord of the seas, this energy field observes and runs the whole world. It is the granter of immortality ASURA The the energy field that releases the mind from temptations and gives depth in spirituality The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery. REFERENCES 1. Bindu and Mandala: Manifestations of Sacred Architecture,Conference: ICABE-2016 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia. Paper presented by Jaffer Adam,Deepika Varadarajan. 2. THE MANDALA AS A COSMIC MODEL USED TO SYSTEMATICALLY STRUCTURE THE TIBETAN BUDDHIST LANDSCAPE,Ping Xu,Journal of Architectural and Planning Research,Vol. 27, No. 3 (Autumn, 2010), pp. 181-203,Published by: Locke Science Publishing Co. 3. On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition,Sonit Bafna,Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 2000), pp. 2649,Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians,https://www.jstor.org/stable/991561 336 CHAPTER 16 The origin of Jambudweepa and Bhartavarsha as per vedic cosmologyGeography of the World in the Ancient times According to our Indian geography in the ancient times, the entire landmass in the northern hemisphere was encircled by ocean in all the directions. This giant land mass on earth was called Jambudvipa. In Sanskrit language dwipa means an Island. Jambudveepa consisted of modern Asia, Europe, Africa and North America. This Jambudvipa was divided into nine varshas (geographical regions) of which one was Bharatha Varsha. The other eight varshas were Ketumula Varsha, Hari Varsha, Ilavrita Varsha, Kuru Varsha, Hiranyaka Varsha, Ramyaka Varsha, Kimpurusha Varsha, Bhadrasva Varsha. Of these, Ilavrita Varsha was at the present North Pole (the Arctic Region)! Approximate Geography of the Ancient World The above picture depicts the Geographical Map of the very ancient times mentioned in the Vedas/Scriptures. The Map elucidates in detail the image of Jambudvipa and the nava varshas here. In the exact centre of Ilavrita Varsha, the North Pole was located. To the west of Ilavrita varsha was said to be Ketumula Varsha which is under under Atlantic Ocean today, was situated to the west of Ilavrita varsha. Bhadrasva Varsha which is today under Pacific Ocean, was supposed to be on the east of Ilavrita varsha. On one side of the Ilavrita Varsha were Hari Varsha, Kimpurusha Varsha and Bharatha Varsha. On the other side of the Ilavrita Varsha were Ramyaka, Hiranyaka and Kuru Varsha. Kuru Varsha was hence on the opposite side of Bharatha Varsha on the globe. It can be observed that in those times, most of South American continent, southern half of African Continent and entire Australia were submerged under water. On the other hand most of modern day Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean, and the entire Arctic Ocean were above sea level. Bharathavarsha- the name and glory of ancient India 337 In the Ancient Times India was called Bharathavarsha and it extended in the west including modern Egypt, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Iran, Sumeria upto Caspian Sea (which was called Kashyapa Samudra in those days). Bhratahvarsha was the Greater India while Bharatha Khanda referred to the Indian Subcontinent which lies at the heart of the Vedic Civilization and extended from Himalayas in the north to KanyaKumari in the South. Hence the aryan invasion theory of a migration of Aryans from Central Asia to modern northern India is a wrong theory,for the entire ancient aryan civilizational geography spanned across the above mentioned regions. The very term “arya” in Sanskrit refers not to any race, but actually means a “noble person”. According to our Puranas and Ithihasas, Bharatha Varsha are full of historical developments. During the vedic period, the vedic civilization spread across the Bharata varsha. Saraswati River mentioned numerous times in the vedas is the cradle and heart of this vedic civilization, has dried up soon after the end of the Mahabharatha war, owing to geological events in that region. As a consequence of this, earlier lush green area of the present Rajasthan had got converted into a desert as we see it today. The Arabian Sea did not exist during the ancient times and the land mass stretched continuously from modern India to Africa. The mighty Saraswati River born in the Himalayas flowed for over 4500 miles into Africa before entering the Oceans. This was the largest and longest river in those days. This is the most mentioned and praised river in the Veda. Of the three Ganga Yamuna and Saraswati – the existence of the first two rivers flow even today, but Saraswati till recent times was thought to be a mythical river. On the contrary, a recent satellite photographs and geological data revealed the existence of an ancient mighty Saraswati river and its geographical span. The name bharathavarsha The Sanskrit word bhārata is a derivation of bharata. The root of the term is bhr-, “to bear to carry”, with a literal meaning of “to be maintained”. The root bhr is cognate with the English verb to bear and Latin ferō. Interestingly, the term Dharma, which is the core concept of Indian values, is derived from the root dhr, meaning – to uphold or to nourish. Both the terms Bharatha and Dharma, eventually signify that which supports universal order or the orderly existence of the individual in life. The first Article of the Constitution of the Republic of India states, “India, that is Bharat, shall be a union of states.” Thus, India and Bharat are equally official short names for the Republic of India. The name Hindustan was used in historical contexts, especially in British times. Bharatha Varsha was not always called by that name. Its earlier name was Aja_nabha_Varsha. Before that, it was Himavath Pradesha. In order to know the reason behind this country’s name as Bharathvavarsha, we have to go back to Swayambhu Manu, the progenitor. His son was Priyavarta, a great monarch. His son was Agni_dhara. His son was Ajanabha also called Nabhi. 338 Ajanabha was a very virtuous and a noble king. During his reign, the land came to be known as Ajanabha_Varsha. Ajanabha’s son was the great Rsabhadeva. . He was a saintly king. Rsabha renounced the kingdom in favor of his son Bharata and became an ascetic. Bharatha was one of the most pious and noblest of Monarchs of his line. He nourished and nurtured his subjects righteously. During his time, the land that was until then called Aja_nabha_Varsha came to be known, as Bharatha Varsha. It has been so since then. Ajanabha (Nabhi), Rsabha and Bharatha figure prominently in the Jain tradition. What we call Bhatatha Varsha or Bharatha is named after a very virtuous and noble king Bharatha. The best we (who are born and who reside in his land) can do is to be worthy of his name. Obviously, in the olden days being born in Bharath was a matter of pride. In the Gita, Krishna often refers to Arjuna as Bharatha, the noble one. Over the centuries the name of Bharatha Varsha, its shape and its extent have changed many times. Whatever is its present name, either borrowed or assigned; whatever the extent of its boundaries is; the concept of India that is Bharath has survived as a many dimensional splendor; even amidst the encircling chaos? It has always been a nation. India has held on to its pluralism, its democratic way of life and its basic values; despite strife, contradictions and endless diversities. This is no mean achievement. It is for these reasons we call it, the Miracle that is India. Rig Veda mentions the tribe of Bharathas several times. The Rig Veda has a certain geographical horizon. It projects a land of seven great rivers bounded by several oceans and many mountains. It mainly shows the geographical sphere of the Bharatas and their neighbors. Accordingly, Rig Veda mentions that Bharathas ruled the land that spread over the banks of the rivers Parushni (Ravi) and Vipasa ( Beas ). 1. The Purus and in particular the Bharatas among them, are the main Vedic Aryans of the Rig Veda. 2. Bharatha son of Dushyanta Bharathas were a clan among the Purus. The Purus prospered in the North and strengthened the Chandra vamsha (Moon Dynasty). Many generations later into this, clan was born Bharatha son of Dushyanta. The great poet Kalidasa in his epic Abhignana Shakuntalam immortalized the love of Dushyanta and Shakuntala. 339 As per the chronology listed in Vishnu Purana,,Bharatha son of Dushyanta appears thousands of years after Emperor Bharatha son of Rshabha. Deva. Pandavas and Kauravas are decedents of Dushyanta/Bharatha but are several generations far away from them. Map of Jambudwipa as per vedic cosmology According to Vedic cosmography, the entire Cosmos is divided into seven concentric island continents (sapta-dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the preceding one (going out from within). The seven continents of the Scriptures are stated as Jambudvipa, Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa, and Pushkaradvipa. Seven intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice, wine, ghee, curd, milk and water respectively. Continent Jambudvipa (Indian Blackberry Island), also known as Sudarshanadvipa, forms the innermost concentric island in the above scheme. Its name is said to derive from a Jambu tree (another name for the Indian Blackberry). The fruits of the Jambu tree are said, in the Viṣṇupurāṇa to be as large as elephants and when they become rotten and fall upon the crest of the mountains, a river of juice is formed from their expressed juice. The river so formed is called Jambunadi (Jambu River) and flows through Jambudvipa, whose inhabitants drink its waters. Insular continent Jambudvipa is said to comprise nine varshas (zones) and eight significant parvatas (mountains). "According to some erudite scholars, Jambudvipa is surrounded by eight islands that are smaller in size ... called Svarnaprastha, Chandrashukla, Avartana, Ramanaka, Mandaraharina, Panchadzhanya, and Simhala Lanka. 340 The seven oceans respectively contain salt water, sugarcane juice, liquor, clarified butter, milk, emulsified yogurt, and sweet drinking water. All the islands are completely surrounded by these oceans, and each ocean is equal in breadth to the island it surrounds. Mahārāja Priyavrata, the husband of Queen Barhiṣmatī, gave sovereignty over these islands to his respective sons, namely Āgnīdhra, Idhmajihva, Yajñabāhu, Hiraṇyaretā, Ghṛtapṛṣṭha, Medhātithi and Vītihotra. Thus they all became kings by the order of their father. It is to be understood that all the dvīpas, or islands, are surrounded by different types of oceans, and it is said herein that the breadth of each ocean is the same as that of the island it surrounds. The length of the oceans, however, cannot equal the length of the islands. According to Vīrarāghava Ācārya, the breadth of the first island is 100,000 yojanas. One yojana equals eight miles, and therefore the breadth of the first island is calculated to be 800,000 miles. The water surrounding it must have the same breadth, but its length must be different. Detailed explanation of Jambudweep 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. According to Puranic cosmography, the entire Cosmos is divided into 7 continents (sapta-dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the preceding one (going out from within). The seven continents of the Puranas are stated as: Jambudvipa, Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kushadvipa, Krounchadvipa, Shakdvipa, and Pushkaradvipa. Right in the centre of everything – Is the Sumeru Mountain – Surrounded by the 1st continent – Jambudvipa, which then, like a moat is surrounded by Salt water – Ocean I presume. Human beings live here on the Jambydvipa. It is the only Karma Bhoommi … lives which seek the heaven and Mokhsha, take birth here on the karma bhoomi. Then the salt water is surrounded with the 2nd dvipa – The Plaksadviipa. The inhabitants of Plaksadvipa apparently live for one thousand years. They are beautiful like the demigods, and they also beget children like the demigods. They pray to the Sun. This island is surrounded by an ocean of sugarcane juice. Then Salmalidvipa — surrounded by an equally broad body of water called Surasagara, the ocean that tastes like liquor. The inhabitants of this island worship Soma, the The moon-god. This island also has a gigantic tree which is the residence of Garuda, the king of all birds and carrier of Lord Vishnu. Kusadvipa is surrounded by an ocean of liquid ghee as broad as the island itself. The inhabitants worship Fire. Outside the ocean of clarified butter / liquid ghee, is another island, known as Krauncadvipa. Krauncadvipa is then further surrounded by an ocean of milk as broad as the island itself. Inhabitants worshiped Varuna - the demigod who has a form of water. Beyond the ocean of milk, is the island, Śākadvīpa, surrounded by an ocean churned yogurt. And its inhabitants worship the Supreme Lord in the form of Vayu - the demi god Wind / Air 341 8. Pushkaradvipa, surrounded by an ocean of very tasteful water. On Pushkaradvipa there is a great lotus flower with 100,000,000 pure golden petals, as effulgent as the flames of fire. That lotus flower is considered the sitting place of Lord Brahma, who is the most powerful living being and who is therefore sometimes called Bhagvan. In the middle of this island is a great mountain named Manasottara, which is supposedly the residence of the demigods such as Indra. In the chariot of the sun-god, the sun travels on the top of the mountain in an orbit called the Samvatsara, encircling Mount Meru. The sun’s path on the northern side is called Uttarāyana, and its path on the southern side is called Dakshināyana. One side represents a day for the demigods, and the other represents their night. The inhabitants of this tract of land worship the Supreme Personality of Godhead as represented by Lord Brahmā. AND … beyond the ocean of sweet water and fully surrounding it, is a mountain named Lokāloka, which divides the countries that are full of sunlight from those not lit by the sun. All living entities, including demigods, human beings, animals, birds, insects, reptiles, creepers and trees, depend upon the heat and light given by the sun-god from the sun planet. By the supreme will of Krishna, the mountain known as Lokaloka has been installed as the outer border of the three worlds — Bhurloka, Bhuvarloka and Svarloka. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Seven Dvipas. Each dvipa then has 7 islands, 7 rulers, seven boundary mountains and seven rivers. The inhabitants of every islands are also divided into four castes. Every dvipa had a very pious tree which is worthy of worship. Each dvipa worshipped either of these: The Sun The Moon Fire Water Air Markandeya Purana portrays Jambudvipa as being depressed on its south and north and elevated and broad in the middle. The elevated region forms the varsha named Ilavrta or Meruvarsha. At the center of Ila-vrta lies the golden Mount Meru, the king of mountains. 342 On the summit of Mount Meru, is the vast city of Lord Brahma, known as Brahmapuri. Surrounding Brahmapuri are 8 cities - the one of Lord Indra and of seven other Devatas. Markandeya Purana and Brahmanda Purana divide Jambudvipa into four vast regions shaped like four petals of a lotus with Mount Meru being located at the center like a pericarp. The city of Brahmapuri is said to be enclosed by a river, known as Akash Ganga. Akash Ganga is said to issue forth from the foot of Lord Vishnu and after washing the lunar region falls "through the skies" and after encircling the Brahmapuri "splits up into four mighty streams", which are said to flow in four opposite directions from the landscape of Mount Meru and irrigate the vast lands of Jambudvipa. Jambudwipa is surrounded by Puîkara Island of 16 lac Yojan diameter. Following this, there is a series of oceans and islands surrounding each other having double the diameter from the preceeding ones. The name of the last island and ocean is Svyambörmaàa DvÍpa and Svayambhöramana Ocean. If it was an example of the pre-historic era, the advancement of civilization has also made this country greatest among the greats. Sanskrit, the mother of every language, was originated from the ancient Bharat. Bharatvarsha is the land of four Vedas. Veda means knowledge. So, it will be no exaggeration if we consider our country as the pioneer of knowledge. The original sound of Vedic hymns is Om which transformed and became the language of every clans of the world. The mysterious stories of Puranas also have a scientific base. Darwin was not the first person concerned with the theory of evolution. It is our Bharat that has this theory hidden with mythical stories. Everyone knows about the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu (Dashavtara). The Matsya (animal of water), the Kurma . The above drawing illustrates a Hindu vedic depiction that elucidates the cosmic tutrtle supporting the elephants that hold up the world, and everything is encircled by the world serpent. 343 In this verse it is stated that the planetary system known as Bhu-mandala extends to the limits of the sunshine. According to modern science, the sunshine reaches earth from a distance of 93,000,000 miles. If we calculate according to this modern information, 93,000,000 miles can be considered the radius of Bhu-mandala. In the Gayatri mantra, we chant om bhur bhuvah svah. The word bhur refers to Bhu-mandala. Tat savitur varenyam: the sunshine spreads throughout Bhu-mandala. Therefore the sun is worshipable. The stars, which are known as naksatra, are not different suns, as modern astronomers suppose. From Bhagavad-gita (10.21) we understand that the stars are similar to the moon (naksatranam aham sasi). Like the moon, the stars reflect the sunshine. Apart from our modern distinguished estimations of where the planetary systems are located, we can understand that the sky and its various planets were studied long, long before Srimad-Bhagavatam was compiled. It is said that the rolling wheels of Maharaja Priyavrata's chariot created seven ditches, in which the seven oceans came into existence. Because of these seven oceans, Bhu-mandala is divided into seven islands. The planetary system known as Bhu-mandala resembles a lotus flower, and its seven islands resemble the whorl of that flower. The length and breadth of the island known as Jambudvipa, which is situated in the middle of the whorl, are one million yojanas [eight million miles]. Jambudvipa is round like the leaf of a lotus flower. The limits of the expansions of Govinda, the Supreme personality of Godhead, cannot be estimated by anyone, even a person as perfect as Brahma, not to speak of tiny scientists whose senses and instruments are all imperfect and who cannot give us information of even this one universe The planetary system known as Bhu-mandala resembles a lotus flower, and its seven islands resemble the whorl of that flower. The length and breadth of the island known as Jambudvipa, which is situated in the middle of the whorl, are one million yojanas [eight million miles]. Jambudvipa is round like the leaf of a lotus flower. In Jambudvipa there are nine divisions of land, each with a length of 9,000 yojanas [72,000 miles]. There are eight mountains that mark the boundaries of these divisions and separate them nicely. Just north of Ilavrta-varsa--and going further northward, one after another--are three mountains named Nila, Sveta and Srngavan. These mark the borders of the three varsas named Ramyaka, Hiranmaya and Kuru and separate them from one another. The width of these mountains is 2,000 yojanas [16,000 miles]. Lengthwise, they extend east and west to the beaches of the ocean of salt water. Going from south to north, the length of each mountain is one tenth that of the previous mountain, but the height of them all is the same. Amidst these divisions, or varsas, is the varsa named Ilavrta, which is situated in the middle of the whorl of the lotus. Within Ilavrta-varsa is Sumeru Mountain, which is made of gold. Sumeru Mountain is like the pericarp of the lotuslike Bhu-mandala planetary system. The mountain's height is the same as the width of Jambudvipa--or, in other words, 100,000 yojanas [800,000 miles]. Of that, 16,000 yojanas [128,000 miles] are within the earth, and therefore the mountain's 344 height above the earth is 84,000 yojanas [672,000 miles]. The mountain's width is 32,000 yojanas [256,000 miles] at its summit and 16,000 yojanas at its base. Similarly, south of Ilavrta-varsa and extending from east to west are three great mountains named (from north to south) Nisadha, Hemakuta and Himalaya? Each of them is 10,000 yojanas [80,000 miles] high. They mark the boundaries of the three varsas named Hari-varsa, Kimpurusa-varsa and Bharata-varsa [India]. In the same way, west and east of Ilavrta-varsa are two great mountains named Malyavan and Gandhamadana respectively. These two mountains, which are 2,000 yojanas [16,000 miles] high, extend as far as Nila Mountain in the north and Nisadha in the south. They indicate the borders of Ilavrta-varsa and also the varsas known as Ketumala and Bhadrasva. On the four sides of the great mountain known as Sumeru are four mountains--Mandara, Merumandara, Suparsva and Kumuda--which are like its belts. The length and height of these mountains are calculated to be 10,000 yojanas [80,000 miles]. Standing like flagstaffs on the summits of these four mountains are a mango tree, a rose apple tree, a kadamba tree and a banyan tree. Those trees are calculated to have a width of 100 yojanas [800 miles] and a height of 1,100 yojanas [8,800 miles]. Their branches also spread to a radius of 1,100 yojanas. Between these four mountains are four huge lakes. The water of the first tastes just like milk; the water of the second, like honey; and that of the third, like sugarcane juice. The fourth lake is filled with pure water. The celestial beings such as the Siddhas, Caranas and Gandharvas, who are also known as demigods, enjoy the facilities of those four lakes. Consequently they have the natural perfections of mystic yoga, such as the power to become smaller than the smallest or greater than the greatest. There are also four celestial gardens named Nandana, Caitraratha, Vaibhrajaka and Sarvatobhadra. On the lower slopes of Mandara Mountain is a mango tree named Devacuta. It is 1,100 yojanas high. Mangoes as big as mountain peaks and as sweet as nectar fall from the top of this tree for the enjoyment of the denizens of heaven. When all those solid fruits fall from such a height, they break, and the sweet, fragrant juice within them flows out and becomes increasingly more fragrant as it mixes with other scents. That juice cascades from the mountain in waterfalls and becomes a river called Arunoda, which flows pleasantly through the eastern side of Ilavrta. The pious wives of the Yaksas act as personal maidservants to assist Bhavani, the wife of Lord Siva. Because they drink the water of the River Arunoda, their bodies become fragrant, and as the air carries away that fragrance, it perfumes the entire atmosphere for eighty miles around. Similarly, the fruits of the jambu tree, which are full of pulp and have very small seeds, fall from a great height and break to pieces. Those fruits are the size of elephants, and the juice gliding from them becomes a river named Jambu-nadi. This river falls a distance of 10,000 yojanas, from the summit of Merumandara to the southern side of Ilavrta, and floods the entire land of Ilavrta with juice. 345 We can only imagine how much juice there might be in a fruit that is the size of an elephant but has a very tiny seed. Naturally the juice from the broken jambu fruits forms waterfalls and floods the entire land of Ilavrta. That juice produces an immense quantity of gold, as will be explained in the next verses. The mud on both banks of the River Jambu-nadi, being moistened by the flowing juice and then dried by the air and the sunshine, produces huge quantities of gold called Jambu-nada. The denizens of heaven use this gold for various kinds of ornaments. Therefore all the inhabitants of the heavenly planets and their youthful wives are fully decorated with golden helmets, bangles and belts, and thus they enjoy life. On the side of Suparsva Mountain stands a big tree called Mahakadamba, which is very celebrated. From the hollows of this tree flow five rivers of honey, each about five vyamas wide. This flowing honey falls incessantly from the top of Suparsva Mountain and flows all around Ilavrta-varsa, beginning from the western side. Thus the whole land is saturated with the pleasing fragrance. The distance between one hand and another when one spreads both his arms is called a vyama. This comes to about eight feet. Thus each of the rivers was about forty feet wide, making a total of about two hundred feet. The air carrying the scent from the mouths of those who drink that honey perfumes the land for a hundred yojanas around. Similarly, on Kumuda Mountain there is a great banyan tree, which is called Satavalsa because it has a hundred main branches. From those branches come many roots, from which many rivers are flowing. These rivers flow down from the top of the mountain to the northern side of Ilavrtavarsa for the benefit of those who live there. Because of these flowing rivers, all the people have ample supplies of milk, yogurt, honey, clarified butter [ghee], molasses, food grains, clothes, bedding, sitting places and ornaments. All the objects they desire are sufficiently supplied for their prosperity, and therefore they are very happy. The residents of the material world who enjoy the products of these flowing rivers have no wrinkles on their bodies and no grey hair. They never feel fatigue, and perspiration does not give their bodies a bad odor. They are not afflicted by old age, disease or untimely death, they do not suffer from chilly cold or scorching heat, nor do their bodies lose their luster. They all live very happily, without anxieties, until death. On the eastern side of Sumeru Mountain are two mountains named Jathara and Devakuta, which extend to the north and south for 18,000 yojanas [144,000 miles]. Similarly, on the western side of Sumeru are two mountains named Pavana and Pariyatra, which also extend north and south for the same distance. On the southern side of Sumeru are two mountains named Kailasa and Karavira, which extend east and west for 18,000 yojanas, and on the northern side of Sumeru, extending for the same distance east and west, are two mountains named Trisrnga and Makara. The width and height of all these mountains is 2,000 yojanas [16,000 miles]. Sumeru, a mountain of solid gold shining as brilliantly as fire, is surrounded by these eight mountains. In the middle of the summit of Meru is the township of Lord Brahma. Each of its four sides is calculated to extend for ten million yojanas [eighty million miles]. It is made entirely of gold, 346 and therefore learned scholars and sages call it Satakaumbhi. Surrounding Brahmapuri in all directions are the residences of the eight principal governors of the planetary systems, beginning with King Indra. These abodes are similar to Brahmapuri but are one fourth the size. Brahma's township is known as Manovati, and those of his assistants such as Indra and Agni are known as Amaravati, Tejovati, Samyamani, Krsnangana, Sraddhavati, Gandhavati, Mahodaya and Yasovati. Brahmapuri is situated in the middle, and the other eight puris surround it in all directions. This is a detailed description of Jambudweepa as in Srimad Bhagwatam. The Universe as described in the Vedas The Srimad-Bhagavatam presents an earth-centered conception of the cosmos. At first glance the cosmology seems foreign, but a closer look reveals that not only does the cosmology of the Bhagavatam describe the world of our experience, but it also presents a much larger and more complete cosmological picture. The Srimad-Bhagavatam’s mode of presentation is very different from the familiar modern approach. Although the Bhagavatam’s “Earth” (disk- shaped Bhu-mandala) may look unrealistic, careful study shows that the Bhagavatam uses Bhu-mandala to represent at least four reasonable and consistent models: (1) a polar- projection map of the Earth globe, (2) a map of the solar system, (3) a topographical map of south-central Asia, and (4) a map of the celestial realm of the demigods. A similar painting from India below shows three parts of a story about Krishna. Such paintings contain apparent contradictions, such as images of one character in different places, but a person who understands the story line will not be disturbed by this. The same is true of the Bhagavatam, which uses one model to represent different features of the cosmos. 347 The Bhagavatam Picture at First Glance The Fifth Canto of the Srimad-Bhagavatam tells of innumerable universes. Each one is contained in a spherical shell surrounded by layers of elemental matter that mark the boundary between mundane space and the unlimited spiritual world. The region within the shell (Figure 3) is called the Brahmanda, or “Brahma egg.” It contains an earth disk or plane—called Bhu-mandala—that divides it into an upper, heavenly half and a subterranean half, filled with water. Bhu-mandala is divided into a series of geographic features, traditionally called dvipas, or “islands,” varshas, or “regions,” and oceans. In the center of Bhu-mandala (Figure 4) is the circular “island” of Jambudvipa, with nine varsha subdivisions. These include Bharata-varsha, which can be understood in one sense as India and in another as the total area inhabited by human beings. In the center of Jambudvipa stands the cone-shaped Sumeru Mountain, which represents the world axis and is surmounted by the city of Brahma, the universal creator. 348 To any modern, educated person, this sounds like science fiction. But is it? Let’s consider the four ways of seeing the Bhagavatam’s descriptions of the Bhu- mandala. Bhu-mandala as a Polar Projection of the Earth Globe We begin by discussing the interpretation of Bhu-mandala as a planisphere, or a polar-projection map of the Earth globe. This is the first model given by the Bhagavatam. A stereographic projection is an ancient method of mapping points on the surface of a sphere to points on a plane. We can use this method to map a modern Earth globe onto a plane, and the resulting flat projection is called a planisphere (Figure 5). We can likewise view Bhu-mandala as a stereographic projection of a globe (Figure 6). In India such globes exist. In the example shown here (Figure 7, next page), the land area between the equator and the mountain arc is Bharatavarsha, corresponding to greater India. India is well represented, but apart from a few references to neighboring places, this globe does not give a realistic map of the Earth. Its purpose was astronomical, rather than geographical. Although the Bhagavatam doesn’t explicitly describe the Earth as a globe, it does so indirectly. For example, it points out that night prevails diametrically opposite to a point where it is day. Likewise, the sun sets at a point opposite where it rises. Therefore, the Bhagavatam does not present the naive view that the Earth is flat. 349 We can compare Bhu-mandala with an astronomical instrument called an astrolabe, popular in the middle Ages. On the astrolabe, an off-centered circle represents the orbit of the sun—the ecliptic. The Earth is represented in stereographic projection on a flat plate, called the mater. The ecliptic circle and important stars are represented on another plate, called the rete. Different planetary orbits could likewise be represented by different plates, and these would be seen projected onto the Earth plate when one looks down on the instrument. The Bhagavatam similarly presents the orbits of the sun, the moon, planets, and important stars on a series of planes parallel to Bhu-mandala. Seeing Bhu-mandala as a polar projection is one example of how it doesn’t represent a flat Earth. Bhu-mandala as a Map of the Solar System Here’s another way to look at Bhu-mandala that also shows that it’s not a flat-Earth model. Descriptions of Bhu-mandala have features that identify it as a model of the solar system. and Bhu-mandala as a planisphere map.. When we do this, it looks at first like we’re back to the naive flat Earth, with the bowl of the sky above and the underworld below. In India, the earth of the Puranas has often been taken as literally flat. But the details given in the Bhagavatam show that its cosmology is much more sophisticated. Not only does the Bhagavatam use the ecliptic model, but it turns out that the disk of Bhumandala corresponds in some detail to the solar system (Figure 8). The solar system is nearly 350 flat. The sun, the moon, and the five traditionally known planets—Mercury through Saturn—all orbit nearly in the ecliptic plane. Thus Bhu- mandala does refer to something flat, but it’s not the Earth. One striking feature of the Bhagavatam’s descriptions has to do with size. If we compare Bhumandala with the Earth, the solar system out to Saturn, and the Milky Way galaxy, Bhumandala matches the solar system closely, while radically differing in size from Earth and the galaxy. Furthermore, the structures of Bhu-mandala correspond with the planetary orbits of the solar system (Figure 9). If we compare the rings of Bhu-mandala with the orbits of Mercury, Venus (Figure 10), Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, we find several close alignments that give weight to the hypothesis that Bhu-mandala was deliberately designed as a map of the solar system. 351 Until recent times, astronomers generally underestimated the distance from the earth to the sun. In particular, Claudius Ptolemy, the greatest astronomer of classical antiquity, seriously underestimated the Earth-sun distance and the size of the solar system. It is remarkable, therefore, that the dimensions of Bhu-mandala in the Bhagavatam are consistent with modern data on the size of the sun’s orbit and the solar system as a whole. Jambudvipa as a Topographical Map of South-Central Asia Jambudvipa, the central hub of Bhumandala, can be understood as a local topographical map of part of south- central Asia. This is the third of the four interpretations of Bhu-mandala. In the planisphere interpretation, Jambudvipa represents the northern hemisphere of the Earth globe. But the detailed geographic features of Jambudvipa do not match the geography of the northern hemisphere. They do, however, match part of the Earth. Six horizontal and two vertical mountain chains divide Jambudvipa into nine regions, or varshas (Figure 11,top left). The southernmost region is called Bharata-varsha. Careful study shows that this map corresponds to India plus adjoining areas of south-central Asia. The first step in making this identification is to observe that the Bhagavatam assigns many rivers in India to Bharatavarsha. Thus Bharata-varsha represents India. The same can be said of many mountains in Bharata-varsha. In particular, the Bhagavatam places the Himalayas to the north of Bharatavarsha in Jambudvipa. A detailed study of Puranic accounts allows the other mountain ranges of Jambudvipa to be identified with mountain ranges in the region north of India. Although this region includes some of the most desolate and mountainous country in the world, it was nonetheless important in ancient times. For example, the famous Silk Road passes through this region. The Pamir Mountains can be identified with Mount Meru and Ilavrita-varsha, the square region in the 352 center of Jambudvipa. (Note that Mount Meru does not represent the polar axis in this interpretation.) Other Puranas give more geographical details that support this interpretation. Bhu-mandala as a Map of the Celestial Realm of the Devas We can also understand Bhu-mandala as a map of the celestial realm of the demigods, or devas. One curious feature of Jambudvipa is that the Bhagavatam describes all of the varshas other than Bharata-varsha as heavenly realms, where the inhabitants live for ten thousand years without suffering. This has led some scholars to suppose that Indians used to imagine foreign lands as celestial paradises. But the Bhagavatam does refer to barbaric peoples outside India, such as Huns, Greeks, Turks, and Mongolians, who were hardly thought to live in paradise. One way around this is to suppose that Bharata-varsha includes the entire Earth globe, while the other eight varshas refer to celestial realms outside the Earth. This is a common understanding in India. But the simplest explanation for the heavenly features of Jambudvipa is that Bhu-mandala was also intended to represent the realm of the devas. Like the other interpretations we have considered, this one is based on a group of mutually consistent points in the cosmology of the Bhagavatam. First of all, consider the very large sizes of mountains and land areas in Jambudvipa. For example, India is said to be 72,000 miles (9,000 yojanas) from north to south, or nearly three times the circumference of the Earth. Likewise, the Himalayas are said to be 80,000 miles high. People in India in ancient times used to go in pilgrimage on foot from one end of India to the other, so they knew how large India is. Why does the Bhagavatam give such unrealistic distances? The answer is that Jambudvipa doubles as a model of the heavenly realm, in which everything is on a superhuman scale. The Bhagavatam portrays the demigods and other divine beings that inhabit this realm to be correspondingly large. Lord Siva in comparison with Europe, according to one text of the Bhagavatam. Why would the Bhagavatam describe Jambudvipa as both part of the earth and part of the celestial realm? Because there’s a connection between the two. To understand, let’s consider the idea of parallel worlds. By siddhis, or mystic perfections, one can take shortcuts across space. 353 This is illustrated by a story from the Bhagavatam in which the mystic yogini Citralekha abducts Aniruddha from his bed in Dvaraka and transports him mystically to a distant city. Besides moving from one place to another in ordinary space, the mystic siddhis enable one to travel in the all- pervading ether or to enter another continuum. The classical example of a parallel continuum is Krishna’s transcendental realm of Vrindavan, said to be unlimitedly expansive and to exist in parallel to the finite, earthly Vrindavan in India. The Sanskrit literature abounds with stories of parallel worlds. For example, the Mahabharata tells the story of how the Naga princess Ulupi abducted Arjuna while he was bathing in the Ganges River . Ulupi pulled Arjuna down not to the riverbed, as we would expect, but into the kingdom of the Nagas (celestial snakelike beings), which exists in another dimension. Mystical travel explains how the worlds of the devas are connected with our world. In particular, it explains how Jambudvipa, as a celestial realm of devas, is connected with Jambudvipa as the Earth or part of the Earth. Thus the double model of Jambudvipa makes sense in terms of the Puranic understanding of the siddhis. Concluding Observations: The Vertical Dimension in Bhagavata Cosmology For centuries the cosmology of the Bhagavatam has seemed incomprehensible to most observers, encouraging many people either to summarily reject it or to accept it literally with unquestioning faith. If we take it literally, the cosmology of the Bhagavatam not only differs from modern astronomy, but, more important, it also suffers from internal contradictions and violations of common sense. These very contradictions, however, point the way to a different understanding of Bhagavata cosmology in which it emerges as a deep and scientifically sophisticated system of 354 thought. The contradictions show that they are caused by overlapping self-consistent interpretations that use the same textual elements to expound different ideas. In the Bhagavatam, the context-sensitive approach was rendered particularly appropriate by the conviction that reality, in the ultimate issue, is avak-manasam, or beyond the reach of the mundane mind or words. This implies that a literal, one-to-one model of reality is unattainable, and so one may as well pack as much meaning as possible into a necessarily incomplete description of the universe. The cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana is a sophisticated system of thought, with multiple layers of meaning, both physical and metaphysical. It combines practical understanding of astronomy with spiritual conceptions to produce a meaningful picture of the universe and reality. Physical cosmology is a branch of cosmology concerned with the study of cosmological models. A cosmological model, or simply cosmology, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and allows study of fundamental questions about its origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate.[1] Cosmology as a science originated with the Copernican principle, which implies that celestial bodies obey identical physical laws to those on Earth, and Newtonian mechanics, which first allowed those physical laws to be understood. Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began with the development in 1915 of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, followed by major observational discoveries in the 1920s: first, Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe contains a huge number of external galaxies beyond the Milky Way; then, work by Vesto Slipher and others showed that the universe is expanding. These advances made it possible to speculate about the origin of the universe, and allowed the establishment of the Big Bang theory, by Georges Lemaître, as the leading cosmological model. A few researchers still advocate a handful of alternative cosmologies;[2] however, most cosmologists agree that the Big Bang theory best explains the observations. Dramatic advances in observational cosmology since the 1990s, including the cosmic microwave background, distant supernovae and galaxy redshift surveys, have led to the development of a standard model of cosmology. This model requires the universe to contain large amounts of dark matter and dark energy whose nature is currently not well understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent agreement with many diverse observations.[3] Cosmology draws heavily on the work of many disparate areas of research in theoretical and applied physics. Areas relevant to cosmology include particle physics experiments and theory, theoretical and observational astrophysics, general relativity, quantum mechanics, and plasma physics. Modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks of theory and observation. In 1916, Albert Einstein published his theory of general relativity, which provided a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time.[4] At the time, Einstein believed in a static universe, but found that his original formulation of the theory did not permit it.[5] This is because masses distributed throughout the universe gravitationally attract, and move toward each other over time.[6] However, he realized that his equations permitted the introduction of a constant term which could counteract the attractive force of gravity on the cosmic scale. Einstein published his first paper on relativistic cosmology in 1917, in which he added this cosmological constant to his field equations in order to force them to model a static universe.[7] The Einstein model describes 355 a static universe; space is finite and unbounded (analogous to the surface of a sphere, which has a finite area but no edges). However, this so-called Einstein model is unstable to small perturbations—it will eventually start to expand or contract.[5] It was later realized that Einstein's model was just one of a larger set of possibilities, all of which were consistent with general relativity and the cosmological principle. The cosmological solutions of general relativity were found by Alexander Friedmann in the early 1920s.[8] His equations describe the Friedmann– Lemaître–Robertson–Walker universe, which may expand or contract, and whose geometry may be open, flat, or closed. In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher (and later Carl Wilhelm Wirtz) interpreted the red shift of spiral nebulae as a Doppler shift that indicated they were receding from Earth.[12][13] However, it is difficult to determine the distance to astronomical objects. One way is to compare the physical size of an object to its angular size, but a physical size must be assumed to do this. Another method is to measure the brightness of an object and assume an intrinsic luminosity, from which the distance may be determined using the inverse-square law. Due to the difficulty of using these methods, they did not realize that the nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own Milky Way, nor did they speculate about the cosmological implications. In 1927, the Belgian Roman Catholic priest Georges Lemaître independently derived the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson– Walker equations and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral nebulae, that the universe began with the "explosion" of a "primeval atom"[14]—which was later called the Big Bang. In 1929, Edwin Hubble provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory. Hubble showed that the spiral nebulae were galaxies by determining their distances using measurements of the brightness of Cepheid variable stars. He discovered a relationship between the redshift of a galaxy and its distance. He interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are receding from Earth in every direction at speeds proportional to their distance.[15] This fact is now known as Hubble's law, though the numerical factor Hubble found relating recessional velocity and distance was off by a factor of ten, due to not knowing about the types of Cepheid variables. Given the cosmological principle, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding. Two primary explanations were proposed for the expansion. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow. The other explanation was Fred Hoyle's steady state model in which new matter is created as the galaxies move away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.[16][17] For a number of years, support for these theories was evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1965 lent strong support to the Big Bang model,[17] and since the precise measurements of the cosmic microwave background by the Cosmic Background Explorer in the early 1990s, few cosmologists have seriously proposed other theories of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. One consequence of this is that in standard general relativity, the universe began with a singularity, as demonstrated by Roger Penrose and Stephen Hawking in the 1960s.[18] An alternative view to extend the Big Bang model, suggesting the universe had no beginning or singularity and the age of the universe is infinite, has been presented.[19][20][21] Energy of the Cosmos; The lightest chemical elements, primarily hydrogen and helium, were created during the Big Bang through the process of nucleosynthesis.[22] In a sequence of stellar 356 nucleosynthesis reactions, smaller atomic nuclei are then combined into larger atomic nuclei, ultimately forming stable iron group elements such as iron and nickel, which have the highest nuclear binding energies.[23] The net process results in a later energy release, meaning subsequent to the Big Bang.[24] Such reactions of nuclear particles can lead to sudden energy releases from cataclysmic variable stars such as novae. Gravitational collapse of matter into black holes also powers the most energetic processes, generally seen in the nuclear regions of galaxies, forming quasars and active galaxies. Cosmologists cannot explain all cosmic phenomena exactly, such as those related to the accelerating expansion of the universe, using conventional forms of energy. Instead, cosmologists propose a new form of energy called dark energy that permeates all space.[25] One hypothesis is that dark energy is just the vacuum energy, a component of empty space that is associated with the virtual particles that exist due to the uncertainty principle.[26] There is no clear way to define the total energy in the universe using the most widely accepted theory of gravity, general relativity. Therefore, it remains controversial whether the total energy is conserved in an expanding universe. For instance, each photon that travels through intergalactic space loses energy due to the redshift effect. This energy is not obviously transferred to any other system, so seems to be permanently lost. On the other hand, some cosmologists insist that energy is conserved in some sense; this follows the law of conservation of energy.[27] Thermodynamics of the universe is a field of study that explores which form of energy dominates the cosmos – relativistic particles which are referred to as radiation, or non-relativistic particles referred to as matter. Relativistic particles are particles whose rest mass is zero or negligible compared to their kinetic energy, and so move at the speed of light or very close to it; non-relativistic particles have much higher rest mass than their energy and so move much slower than the speed of light. As the universe expands, both matter and radiation in it become diluted. However, the energy densities of radiation and matter dilute at different rates. As a particular volume expands, mass energy density is changed only by the increase in volume, but the energy density of radiation is changed both by the increase in volume and by the increase in the wavelength of the photons that make it up. Thus the energy of radiation becomes a smaller part of the universe's total energy than that of matter as it expands. The very early universe is said to have been 'radiation dominated' and radiation controlled the deceleration of expansion. Later, as the average energy per photon becomes roughly 10 eV and lower, matter dictates the rate of deceleration and the universe is said to be 'matter dominated'. The intermediate case is not treated well analytically. As the expansion of the universe continues, matter dilutes even further and the cosmological constant becomes dominant, leading to an acceleration in the universe's expansion. History of the Universe: Timeline of the Big Bang The history of the universe is a central issue in cosmology. The history of the universe is divided into different periods called epochs, according to the dominant forces and processes in each period. The standard cosmological model is known as the Lambda-CDM model. Equations of motion- Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric Within the standard cosmological model, the equations of motion governing the universe as a whole are derived from general relativity with a small, positive cosmological constant.[28] The 357 solution is an expanding universe; due to this expansion, the radiation and matter in the universe cool down and become diluted. At first, the expansion is slowed down by gravitation attracting the radiation and matter in the universe. However, as these become diluted, the cosmological constant becomes more dominant and the expansion of the universe starts to accelerate rather than decelerate. In our universe this happened billions of years ago.[29] Particle physics in cosmology During the earliest moments of the universe the average energy density was very high, making knowledge of particle physics critical to understanding this environment. Hence, scattering processes and decay of unstable elementary particles are important for cosmological models of this period. As a rule of thumb, a scattering or a decay process is cosmologically important in a certain epoch if the time scale describing that process is smaller than, or comparable to, the time scale of the expansion of the universe. The time scale that describes the expansion of the universe is. with being the Hubble parameter, which varies with time. The expansion timescale roughly equal to the age of the universe at each point in time. is Timeline of the Big Bang Observations suggest that the universe began around 13.8 billion years ago.[30] Since then, the evolution of the universe has passed through three phases. The very early universe, which is still poorly understood, was the split second in which the universe was so hot that particles had energies higher than those currently accessible in particle accelerators on Earth. Therefore, while the basic features of this epoch have been worked out in the Big Bang theory, the details are largely based on educated guesses. Following this, in the early universe, the evolution of the universe proceeded according to known high energy physics. This is when the first protons, electrons and neutrons formed, then nuclei and finally atoms. With the formation of neutral hydrogen, the cosmic microwave background was emitted. Finally, the epoch of structure formation began, when matter started to aggregate into the first stars and quasars, and ultimately galaxies, clusters of galaxies and superclusters formed. The future of the universe is not yet firmly known, but according to the ΛCDM model it will continue expanding forever. 358 CHAPTER 17 Tibetan Cosmological Models Fundamental to the Tibetan worldview is the artistic and symbolic representation of the cosmos (or some aspect of it, such as the palace of a specific meditational deity) called a mandala. Although representing a three-dimensional structure, mandalas can be two-dimensional paintings on cloth as well as the famous temporary sand mandalas created for specific rituals. Mandalas can also be generated mentally, or symbolized through intricate hand gestures called mudras. In Tibetan astro science, two distinct flat-earth, stationary, geocentric cosmologies are recognized, both developed in India and later translated into Tibetan. The first is the Abhidharma system, expounded in the 4th or 5th century Indian text Abhidharmakosha (Treasury House of Knowledge) by Vasubandhu, and the Kalachakra system (Wheels of Time), whose root text was translated into Tibetan in 1027 A.D.. Both systems are mandala-like world systems made of concentric oceans and mountain ranges centered around an axis, Mount Meru. The known world exists on one of the four major continents (with other minor accompanying continents), the southern continent, called Jambudvipa. Mount Meru is lapis-blue on our side, which explains why it cannot be seen, but instead blends in with the sky's color.The heavenly bodies orbit around Mount Meru. The cosmic mandala pictured in the header above shows a bird's-eye view of Mount Meru and the orbits of the planets (including sun and moon).The world system, with its complex layered base, floats in space, and is only one of an immense number of such world systems, termed the trichilicosm (a number usually considered to be over a billion). The most obvious differences between the two cosmological systems are geographic and geometric, such as the shape of Mount Meru. Compare the pictures below for more details. To the Tibetans, the existence of two seemingly conflicting cosmological systems is not a problem, as neither is meant to be a complete representation of the universe as it is actually observed by scientists. As with all constructions such as mandalas and meditational deities, they serve different purposes and different audiences. For example, the Kalachakra cosmology is used philosophically to draw connections between cycles in the universe and those of human existence, and in an astronomical sense to develop a complex lunar 359 calendar. Another central idea in Tibetan Buddhism is the concept that the Buddha taught many different kinds of texts and meditational systems because there is no "one size fits all" when it comes to the road to enlightenment. Different practitioners have different intellectual and emotional capacities, and therefore different teachings are required to reach all possible students. [Abhidharma cosmology, from Brauen, 1997] 360 [Abhidharma cosmology, from Sadakata, 1997] [Kalachakra cosmology,from Brauen 1997] 361 [Kalachakra cosmology, from Gyatso 2004] As with other ancient and cultural cosmologies, the Tibetan universe is composed of the classic elements fire, earth, air, and water. These four elements exist and function through a fifth element, space. The parallels between these cosmologies and other geocentric models makes them interesting examples to include in lesson plans centered on ancient cosmologies, such as the GEMS activity “Ancient Models of the World”. In this activity, students are directed to make their own artistic representation of a cosmological model. Tibetan cosmologies are an excellent tie-in, as three different mandalas can be used as illustration: the Kalachakra mandala (a painting on cloth or sand mandala representing the concentric strata of the palace of the meditational 362 deities at the heart of Mount Meru), the Cosmic (or wind tracks) mandala of interlocking circles which represents the paths of the heavenly bodies, and the mandala offering, a mudra made with two hands which represents Mount Meru and the four main continents. Illustrations of each of these can be found here. Students can also construct three-dimensional models of the Abhidharma and Kalachakra cosmologies based on photographs of such models found in Brauen (1997). The concept of impermanence is central to Tibetan Buddhism, including world systems within the larger eternal universe. Just as the individual sentient being is born, dies, and is reborn, so too does the universe transmigrate. As in Hinduism, any cosmological system is seen to come into being, exist for billions of years (a kalpa), then dissolve, before coming into existence again. However, one fundamental difference between the Tibetan and Hindu cyclical universe is the cause of the cycle. In Hinduism, the cause is a trio of deities (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva) while in Tibetan Buddhism the cause is considered to be natural and not supernatural or transcendental. In the Abhidharma system, mere potentiality exists between times of dissolution and creation, as all particles of the five elements disappear. In the Kalachakra system, so-called space particles are the link between cycles. If we follow the evolution of a particular universe (world system), will see four stages: (1) Emptiness (the era of space particles), (2) Formation, (3) Abiding, and (4) Destruction. At the destruction of one system, the fire, earth, air, and water particles separate and perhaps even fall apart, but space particles remain. This is the stage of Emptiness. When motivated through the accumulated karma of all the sentient beings that existed in the previous world system, the space particles begin the process of forming a new universe from the reformed elements. First air particles coagulate to form wind, which then causes the fire particles to join and create lightning. From this process water particles form rain, and the resulting rainbows herald the joining of earth particles. The order of this "creation" is mirrored in the structure of the world system in the Abhidharma and Kalachakra systems depicted above, with the air disk being the lowest layer of the base of the world, topped in succession by disks of fire, water, and earth. Sentient beings begin to populate all possible realms (e.g. various hell realms, animal, human, and deities). During this stage, humans are granted an "infinite" lifespan (until the end of the age). When this process is complete, the Stage of Formation ends. The Stage of Abiding is subdivided into many eras, in which the lifespan of humans changes. We are currently said to be in a degenerate age, when the lifespan is decreasing and is about 80 years. The Stage of Destruction begins when no more sentient beings are reborn in the hell realms, and the hells begin to empty out (as various beings exhaust the karma that brought them there in the first place). Likewise, all higher realms of existence are emptied out in sequence. Finally the world system is destroyed by a great fire. According to the Abhidharmakosha there are also higher cycles where every 8th destruction is accomplished by a flood, and every 8th of those cycles, by a great wind, leading to a "great cycle of destruction." This process is eternal and without beginning or end, and in a sense defines time itself (as a series of changes of impermanent reality).Numerous scientists have found the philosophical parallels between these cosmologies and modern cosmology to be worthy of discussion, similarities which could be incorporated into discussions of ancient and modern cosmologies in elementary astronomy classes (e.g. Zajonc 2004). 363 For more information, consult the following sources: 1. Astro Department (1995) Tibetan Astronomy and Astrology - a Brief Introduction. Dharamsala,India: Tibetan Medical and Astro Institute. 2. Berzin, Alexander (1997) Taking the Kalachakra Initiation. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Press. 3. Brauen, Martin (1997) The Mandala: Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Shambala Publications. 4. Dalai Lama (2005) The Universe in a Single Atom. NY: Morgan Road Books. 5. Gyatso, Khendrup Norsang (2004) Ornament of Stainless Light: An Exposition of the Kalachakra Tantra. Boston: Wisdom Publications. 6. Ricard, Matthieu and Trinh Xuan Thuan (2001) The Quantum and the Lotus. NY: Crown Publishers. 7. Sadakata, Akira (1997) Buddhist Cosmology: Philosophy and Origins. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing 8. Wallace, B. Alan, ed. (2003) Buddhism and Science: Breaking New Ground. NY: Columbia University Press. 9. Zajonc, Arthur, ed. (2004) The New Physics and Cosmology: Dialogues with the Dalai Lama. NY: Oxford University Press. 10. https://web.ccsu.edu/astronomy/tibetan_cosmological_models.htm 364 ABOUT THE AUTHOR- S R I S H T I D O K R A S An Architect by choice and design, she completed a BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE Degree from the now famous Institute of Design Education and Architectural Studies, Nagpur,India. Her distinguished design and architectural experience has taken her to Mumbai, Pondicherry and Hyderabad. She has also visited Dubai, Australia and Seattle, USA as a visiting architect. Srishti has worked for Vivek Varma Architects , Mumbai ,Uday Dighe and Associates , Mumbai, Ashok Mokha Architects Nagpur ,and Shama Dalvi in Auroville.Currently working in the REVIT domain in BASE 4 corporation at Nagpur, the main work center of Base4,USA. She has been a part of the design map of the Nagpur Metro; Google corporate office Hyderabad, residential houses in the city of Pondicherry –AUROVILLE, India and Nagpur, India. Restaurant Designs for Kettle and Brew Beverages Pvt Ltd, PUNE,India She has attended the bamboo and earth construction workshop , Auroville • Attended construction workshop organizedby Indian Institute of Engineers • Participated in N.A.S.A. 2015 • Held 1st position in Product Design/Competition “ Light em up ” at Regional Level • Shortlisted for S.A. Deshpande Trophy/organized by Indian Institute of Architects , Nagpur Visiting Architectural scholar at Melbourne, Sydney , Australia and Seattle, Deira Dubai and New Jersey USA Srishti has published 46 research and allied papers and 5 books on CREATIVITY & ARCHITECTURE. She also contributed a chapter on REVIT software for the book Human Resources in Project Management. Her particular area of interest is INTERIORS DESIGN. Some of the Collected works of Srishti: 1. The GREAT WALL of CHINA an Architectural Foray 2. Architecture of Hotels 3. The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala in Temple Architecture 4. Prambanan, a Hindu temple in Indonesia-general architectural and morphological analysis 5. HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE of BHARAT-SOME MUSINGS 6. Autodesk Revit for Project Management 7. VERTICAL GARDENS - an Architectural Perspective.pdf 8. Theme Park and Architecture 9. Philosophy and Architecture 10. AYODHYA in ITS ARCHITECTURE Myth and Reality 11. The Nagara Architecture of Khajuraho 12. Hotel Design- Architectural Breviary 13. Hindu Temple Architecture 14. Lanka 15. Cambodia and Angkor Vat 16. reativity and architecture. 365 About the Author Dr Uday Dokras The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and Research, Nagpur. In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore. A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years. In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles. Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.” RESEARCH PAPERS-320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd Followers(readers) 65,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2020. 366 Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada, MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Management and Efficacy Consultant, India 367 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace. Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018 368 Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA gimes( May 2010) 369 370 371 372 Some of my books 373 374 375 376 53 books BY DR UDAY DOKRAS Published by The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Stockholm The Indo Nordic Author’s Collective Finland Dr. Uday Dokras Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers 377 The Cambodian Trilogy I.HINDU CAMBODIA II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and waterways. It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this intrinsic kingdom. But is that TRUE? III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT VANISHED- Angkor 378 Building Materials of the Hindu Temple In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR Mathematics in Temple Designs 379 Jain ART Book on Jain Art and Iconography Jain Temples- Part I -Complete Compendium-Book I A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in Jain Temples II 380 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost CITY of KRISHNA TIRUPATI Temple Parts I and II Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods 381 SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete Compendium Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been performed by most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years. MAHALAXMI Puja Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE 382 Palestine my Love Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its legitimacy but also its cultural heritage QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA BOOK I First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase introduces mandalas Maze of MANDALA BOOK II Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about MANDALAS 383 Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms 384 Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's 2 Shrines Hindu Gods in Scandinavia Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out Book on Divinity and Architecture What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic in space 385 Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam CHIDAMBARAM Temple -Celestial Mysteries This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola Kings of South India 2000 years ago T2- Temple Tech. A Book How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft. From A to Z Complete Guide. 386 Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of Temple Art by Srishti Dokras, Architect Special section on Hindu Foods by Karan Dokras, Product Guru Best Foot Forward The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of Hindu temples in 350 page... DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM 387 Ativir ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the Mahavir with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD Vardhaman-वर्धमान IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non- THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God kIngs of Khemer Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo ChinaCambodia. This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in South East Asia. 388 BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations of South East Asia -HINDU Era How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj Built these magnificent structures Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma God King and Kingly Religion The HINDU Era of Great Civilizations of Khemer Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian and Indo-Chinese Vayu- Man's taming of the winds Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by him. Here is the full story... more 389 VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really exist. 7000 years ago? LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of AlexandriaBOOK Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020 The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called Pharos. Its name, legend 390 Cosmology of lotus Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020 The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of creation. Find out the Cosmology. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in the world has many unanswered... Win with this new DIET Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia 391 DISRUPTION-Book Book Architecture Creativity Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book Project HR Management Indo Swedish Author's Collective PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The project sphere has not been valued appropriately 392 Human Resource Engineering in Theme Parks. by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking audience,the role of human res... more Health Human Resource Management Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource practices to be followed in hospitals. WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book ONLY BODY SHAPING GUIDE YOU NEED 393 The Act on Co-determination at Work – an Efficacy study Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990 Author’s earlier book SCIENTIFIC BOROBUDUR U.DOKRAS-S. DOKRAS-K. SHAH Empire of the Winds THE MYSTERIOUS SRIVIJAYA EMPIRE 394 Dr UDAY DOKRAS Architect SRISHTI DOKRAS COSMOLOGY 395 Dr Uday Dokras Architect Srishti Dokras COSMOLOGY 396 Dr Uday DOKRAS Architect Srishti Dokras 397