Difference between revisions of "The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation by Bhikkhu Henepola Gunaratana"
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{{Centre|<big><big>The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation</big></big><br/> | {{Centre|<big><big>The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation</big></big><br/> | ||
<big>by Bhikkhu Henepola Gunaratana</big><br/><br/> | <big>by Bhikkhu Henepola Gunaratana</big><br/><br/> | ||
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Copyright 1988 by Henepola Gunaratana}}<br/><br/> | Copyright 1988 by Henepola Gunaratana}}<br/><br/> | ||
− | ==Chapter 1<br/>Introduction== | + | ==[[Chapter]] 1<br/>Introduction== |
− | ===The Doctrinal Context of Jhana=== | + | ===The [[Doctrinal]] Context of [[Jhana]]=== |
− | The Buddha says that just as in the great ocean there is but one taste, the taste of salt, so in his doctrine and discipline there is but one taste, the taste of freedom. The taste of freedom that pervades the Buddha's teaching is the taste of spiritual freedom, which from the Buddhist perspective means freedom from suffering | + | The [[Buddha]] says that just as in the great ocean there is but one {{Wiki|taste}}, the {{Wiki|taste}} of [[salt]], so in his [[doctrine]] and [[discipline]] there is but one {{Wiki|taste}}, the {{Wiki|taste}} of freedom. The {{Wiki|taste}} of freedom that pervades the [[Buddha's teaching]] is the {{Wiki|taste}} of [[spiritual]] freedom, which from the [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|perspective}} means freedom from [[suffering]]. |
− | + | In the process leading to [[deliverance]] from [[suffering]], [[meditation]] is the means of generating the inner [[awakening]] required for [[liberation]]. The methods of [[meditation]] [[taught]] in the [[Theravada]] [[Buddhist tradition]] are based on the [[Buddha's]] [[own]] [[experience]], forged by him in the course of his [[own]] quest for [[enlightenment]]. | |
− | + | They are designed to re-create in the [[disciple]] who practices them the same [[essential]] [[enlightenment]] that the [[Buddha]] himself [[attained]] when he sat beneath the [[Bodhi tree]], the [[awakening]] to the [[Four Noble Truths]]. | |
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− | + | The various [[subjects]] and methods of [[meditation]] expounded in the [[Theravada]] [[Buddhist scriptures]] -- the [[Pali Canon]] and its commentaries -- divide into two inter-related systems. One is called the [[development of serenity]] ([[samathabhavana]]), the other the [[development of insight]] ([[vipassanabhavana]]). The former also goes under the [[name]] of [[development of concentration]] ([[samadhibhavana]]), the [[latter]] the [[development of wisdom]] ([[pannabhavana]]). The practice of [[serenity]] [[meditation]] aims at developing a [[calm]], [[concentrated]], unified [[mind]] as a means of experiencing [[inner peace]] and as a basis for [[wisdom]]. | |
− | + | The practice of [[insight]] [[meditation]] aims at gaining a direct [[understanding]] of the real [[nature]] of [[phenomena]]. Of the two, the [[development of insight]] is regarded by [[Buddhism]] as the [[essential]] key to [[liberation]], the direct antidote to the [[ignorance]] underlying bondage and [[suffering]]. Whereas [[serenity]] [[meditation]] is [[recognized]] as common to both [[Buddhist]] and [[non-Buddhist]] {{Wiki|contemplative}} [[disciplines]], [[insight]] [[meditation]] is held to be the unique discovery of the [[Buddha]] and an unparalleled feature of his [[path]]. | |
− | + | However, because the growth of [[insight]] presupposes a certain [[degree]] of [[concentration]], and [[serenity]] [[meditation]] helps to achieve this, the [[development of serenity]] also claims an incontestable place in the [[Buddhist]] [[meditative]] process. Together the two types of [[meditation]] work to make the [[mind]] a fit instrument for [[enlightenment]]. With his [[mind]] unified by means of the [[development of serenity]], made sharp and bright by the [[development of insight]], the [[meditator]] can proceed unobstructed to reach the end of [[suffering]], [[Nibbana]]. | |
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− | + | Pivotal to both systems of [[meditation]], though belonging inherently to the side of [[serenity]], is a set of [[meditative]] [[attainments]] called the [[jhanas]]. Though [[translators]] have [[offered]] various renderings of this [[word]], ranging from the feeble "musing" to the misleading "[[trance]]" and the {{Wiki|ambiguous}} "[[meditation]]," we prefer to leave the [[word]] untranslated and to let its meaning emerge from its contextual usages. | |
− | + | From these it is clear that the [[jhanas]] are states of deep [[mental]] unification which result from the centering of the [[mind]] upon a single [[object]] with such power of [[attention]] that a total immersion in the [[object]] takes place. | |
− | + | The early [[suttas]] speak of four [[jhanas]], named simply after their numerical position in the series: the [[first jhana]], the [[second jhana]], the [[third jhana]] and the [[forth jhana]]. In the [[suttas]] the four repeatedly appear each described by a standard [[formula]] which we will examine later in detail. | |
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− | + | The importance of the [[jhanas]] in the [[Buddhist path]] can readily be gauged from the frequency with which they are mentioned throughout the [[suttas]]. The [[jhanas]] figure prominently both in the [[Buddha's]] [[own]] [[experience]] and in his exhortation to [[disciples]]. In his childhood, while attending an annual [[ploughing festival]], the [[future Buddha]] spontaneously entered the [[first jhana]]. | |
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− | + | It was the [[memory]] of this childhood incident, many years later after his futile pursuit of austerities, that revealed to him the way to [[enlightenment]] during his period of deepest [[despondency]] (M.i, 246-47). After taking his seat beneath the [[Bodhi tree]], the [[Buddha]] enter the four [[jhanas]] immediately before [[direction]] his [[mind]] to the [[threefold knowledge]] that issued in his [[enlightenment]] (M.i.247-49). | |
− | + | Throughout his active career the four [[jhanas]] remained "his [[heavenly]] dwelling" (D.iii,220) to which he resorted in order to live happily here and now. His [[understanding]] of the corruption, [[purification]] and [[emergence]] in the [[jhanas]] and other [[meditative]] [[attainments]] is one of the [[Tathagata's]] [[ten powers]] which enable him to turn the matchless [[wheel]] of the [[Dhamma]] (M.i,70). Just before his passing away the [[Buddha]] entered the [[jhanas]] in direct and reverse order, and the passing away itself took place directly from the [[fourth jhana]] (D.ii,156). | |
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− | + | The [[Buddha]] is constantly seen in the [[suttas]] encouraging his [[disciples]] to develop [[jhana]]. The four [[jhanas]] are invariably included in the complete course of {{Wiki|training}} laid down for [[disciples]].<ref>See for example, the [[Samannaphala Sutta]] (D. 2), the [[Culahatthipadopama Sutta]] (M. 27),etc.</ref> | |
− | + | They figure in the {{Wiki|training}} as the [[discipline]] of [[higher consciousness]] ([[adhicittasikkha]]), [[right concentration]] ([[sammasamadhi]]) of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and the {{Wiki|faculty}} and power of [[concentration]] ([[samadhindriya]], [[samadhibala]]). Though a [[vehicle]] of dry [[insight]] can be found, indications are that this [[path]] is not an easy one, lacking the aid of the powerful [[serenity]] available to the [[practitioner]] of [[jhana]]. | |
− | The | + | The way of the [[jhana]] attainer seems by comparison smoother and more [[pleasurable]] (A.ii,150-52). The [[Buddha]] even refers to the four [[jhanas]] figuratively as a kind of [[Nibbana]]: he calls them immediately [[visible]] [[Nibbana]], factorial [[Nibbana]], [[Nibbana]] here and now (A.iv,453-54). |
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− | + | To attain the [[jhanas]], the [[meditator]] must begin by eliminating the [[unwholesome]] [[mental states]] obstructing inner collectedness, generally grouped together as the [[five hindrances]] ([[pancanivarana]]): [[sensual desire]], [[ill will]], [[sloth and torpor]], [[restlessness]] and {{Wiki|worry}} and [[doubt]].<ref>[[Kamacchanda]], [[byapada]], [[thinamiddha]], [[uddhaccakukkucca]], [[vicikiccha]]. </ref> | |
− | The | + | The [[mind's]] [[absorption]] on its [[object]] is brought about by five opposing [[mental states ]]-- applied [[thought]], sustained [[thought]], [[rapture]], [[happiness]] and [[one pointedness]]<ref>[[Vitakka]], [[vicara]], [[piti]], [[sukha]], [[ekaggata]]. </ref> -- called the [[jhana]] factors ([[jhanangani]]) because they lift the [[mind]] to the level of the [[first jhana]] and remain there as its defining components. |
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− | + | After reaching the [[first jhana]] the ardent [[meditator]] can go on to reach the higher [[jhanas]], which is done by eliminating the coarser factors in each [[jhana]]. Beyond the four [[jhanas]] lies another fourfold set of higher [[meditative]] states which deepen still further the [[element]] of [[serenity]]. These [[attainments]] ([[aruppa]]), are the base of [[boundless space]], the base of [[boundless consciousness]], the base of [[nothingness]], and the base of [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]].<ref> | |
− | + | [[Akasanancayatana]], [[vinnanancayatana]], [[akincannayatana]], [[nevasannanasannayatana]]. </ref> In the [[Pali commentaries]] these come to be called the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] ([[arupajhana]]), the four preceding states being renamed for the [[sake]] of clarity, the four fine-material [[jhanas]] ([[rupajhana]]). Often the two sets are joined together under the collective title of the eight [[jhanas]] or the [[eight attainments]] ([[atthasamapattiyo]]). | |
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− | The | + | The four [[jhanas]] and the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]] appear initially as [[mundane]] states of deep [[serenity]] pertaining to the preliminary stage of the [[Buddhist path]], and on this level they help provide the base of [[concentration]] needed for [[wisdom]] to arise. But the four [[jhanas]] again reappear in a later stage in the [[development]] of the [[path]], in direct association with liberating [[wisdom]], and they are then designated the [[supramundane]] ([[lokuttara]]) [[jhanas]]. |
− | + | These [[supramundane jhanas]] are the levels of [[concentration]] pertaining to the four degrees of [[enlightenment]] [[experience]] called the [[supramundane paths]] ([[magga]]) and the [[stages of liberation]] resulting [[form]] them, the four {{Wiki|fruits}} ([[phala]]). | |
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− | The ten kasinas and mindfulness of breathing, owing to their simplicity and freedom from thought construction, can lead to all four jhanas. The ten kinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body lead only to the first jhana, being limited because the mind can only hold onto them with the aid of applied thought (vitakka) which is absent in the second and higher jhanas. The first three divine abidings can induce the lower three jhanas but the fourth, since they arise in association with pleasant feeling, while the divine abiding of equanimity occurs only at the level of the fourth jhana, where neutral feeling gains ascendency. The four immaterial states conduce to the respective immaterial jhanas corresponding to their names. | + | Finally, even after full [[liberation]] is achieved, the [[mundane]] [[jhanas]] can still remain as [[attainments]] available to the fully {{Wiki|liberated}} [[person]], part of his untrammeled {{Wiki|contemplative}} [[experience]]. |
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+ | ==={{Wiki|Etymology}} of [[Jhana]]=== | ||
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+ | The great [[Buddhist]] commentator [[Buddhaghosa]] traces the [[Pali]] [[word]] "[[jhana]]" (Skt. [[dhyana]]) to two [[verbal]] [[forms]]. | ||
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+ | One, the {{Wiki|etymologically}} correct derivation, is the verb [[jhayati]], meaning to think or [[meditate]]; the other is a more playful derivation, intended to [[illuminate]] its [[function]] rather than its [[verbal]] source, from the verb [[jhapeti]] meaning to burn up. | ||
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+ | He explains: "It burns up opposing states, thus it is [[jhana]]" (Vin.A. i, 116), the purport being that [[jhana]] "burns up" or destroys the [[mental defilements]] preventing the developing the [[development of serenity]] and [[insight]]. | ||
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+ | In the same passage [[Buddhaghosa]] says that [[jhana]] has the [[characteristic]] mark of contemplation ([[upanijjhana]]). Contemplation, he states, is twofold: the contemplation of the [[object]] and the contemplation of the [[characteristics]] of [[phenomena]]. | ||
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+ | The former is exercised by the [[eight attainments]] of [[serenity]] together with their access, since these [[contemplate]] the [[object]] used as the basis for developing [[concentration]]; for this [[reason]] these [[attainments]] are given the [[name]] "[[jhana]]" in the {{Wiki|mainstream}} of [[Pali]] [[meditative]] [[exposition]]. | ||
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+ | However, [[Buddhaghosa]] also allows that the term "[[jhana]]" can be extended loosely to [[insight]] ([[vipassana]]), the [[paths]] and the {{Wiki|fruits}} on the ground that these perform the work of contemplating the [[characteristics]] of things the three marks of [[impermanence]], [[suffering]] and [[non-self]] in the case of [[insight]], [[Nibbana]] in the case of the [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}}. | ||
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+ | In brief the twofold meaning of [[jhana]] as "contemplation" and "burning up" can be brought into connection with the [[meditative]] process as follows. By fixing his [[mind]] on the [[object]] the [[meditator]] reduces and eliminates the lower [[mental]] qualities such as the [[five hindrances]] and promotes the growth of the higher qualities such as the [[jhana]] factors, which lead the [[mind]] to complete [[absorption]] in the [[object]]. Then by contemplating the [[characteristics]] of [[phenomena]] with [[insight]], the [[meditator]] eventually reaches the [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] of the four [[paths]], and with this [[jhana]] he burns up the [[defilements]] and attains the liberating [[experience]] of the {{Wiki|fruits}}. | ||
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+ | ===[[Jhana]] and [[Samadhi]]=== | ||
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+ | In the vocabulary of [[Buddhist meditation]] the [[word]] "[[jhana]]" is closely connected with another [[word]], "[[samadhi]]" generally rendered by "[[concentration]]." [[Samadhi]] derives from the prefixed [[verbal]] [[root]] [[sam-a-dha]], meaning to collect or to bring together, thus suggesting the [[concentration]] or unification of the [[mind]]. | ||
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+ | The [[word]] "[[samadhi]]" is almost interchangeable with the [[word]] "[[samatha]]," [[serenity]], though the [[latter]] comes from a different [[root]], sam, meaning to become [[calm]]. | ||
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+ | In the [[suttas]] [[samadhi]] is defined as [[mental]] [[one-pointedness]], (cittass'ekaggata M.i,301) and this [[definition]] is followed through rigorously in the [[Abhidhamma]]. The [[Abhidhamma]] treats [[one-pointedness]] as a {{Wiki|distinct}} [[mental factor]] {{Wiki|present}} in every [[state of consciousness]], exercising the [[function]] of unifying the [[mind]] on its [[object]]. | ||
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+ | From this strict [[psychological]] standpoint [[samadhi]] can be {{Wiki|present}} in [[unwholesome]] states of [[consciousness]] as well as in [[wholesome]] an [[neutral]] states. In its [[unwholesome]] [[forms]] it is called "[[wrong concentration]]" ([[micchasamadhi]]), In its [[wholesome]] [[forms]] "[[right concentration]]" ([[sammasamadhi]]). | ||
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+ | In [[expositions]] on the practice of [[meditation]], however, [[samadhi]] is limited to [[one-pointedness of mind]] (Vism.84-85; PP.84-85), and even here we can understand from the context that the [[word]] means only the [[wholesome]] [[one-pointedness]] involved in the deliberate transmutation of the [[mind]] to a heightened level of [[calm]]. Thus [[Buddhaghosa]] explains [[samadhi]] {{Wiki|etymologically}} as "the centering of [[consciousness]] and [[consciousness]] [[concomitants]] evenly and rightly on a single [[object]] ... the [[state]] in [[virtue]] of which [[consciousness]] and its [[concomitants]] remain evenly and rightly on a single [[object]], undistracted and unscattered" (Vism.84-85; PP.85). | ||
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+ | However, despite the commentator's bid for [[consistency]], the [[word]] [[samadhi]] is used in the [[Pali literature]] on [[meditation]] with varying degrees of specificity of meaning. | ||
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+ | In the narrowest [[sense]], as defined by [[Buddhaghosa]], it denotes the particular [[mental factor]] responsible for the {{Wiki|concentrating}} of the [[mind]], namely, [[one-pointedness]]. In a wider [[sense]] it can signify the states of unified [[consciousness]] that result from the strengthening of [[concentration]], i.e. the [[meditative]] [[attainments]] of [[serenity]] and the stages leading up to them. | ||
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+ | And in a still wider [[sense]] the [[word]] [[samadhi]] can be applied to the method of practice used to produce and cultivate these refined states of [[concentration]], here being {{Wiki|equivalent}} to the [[development of serenity]]. It is in the second [[sense]] that [[samadhi]] and [[jhana]] come closest in meaning. The [[Buddha]] explains [[right concentration]] as the four [[jhanas]] (D.ii,313), and in doing so allows [[concentration]] to encompass the [[meditative]] [[attainments]] signified by the [[jhanas]]. | ||
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+ | However, even though [[jhana]] and [[samadhi]] can overlap in denotation, certain differences in their suggested and contextual meanings prevent unqualified identification of the two terms. First behind the [[Buddha's]] use of the [[jhana]] [[formula]] to explain [[right concentration]] lies a more technical [[understanding]] of the terms. | ||
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+ | According to this [[understanding]] [[samadhi]] can be narrowed down in range to signify only one [[mental factor]], the most prominent in the [[jhana]], namely, [[one-pointedness]], while the [[word]] "[[jhana]]" itself must be seen as encompassing the [[state of consciousness]] in its entirety, or at least the whole group of [[mental factors]] individuating that [[meditative]] [[state]] as a [[jhana]]. | ||
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+ | In the second place, when [[samadhi]] is considered in its broader meaning it involves a wider range of reference than [[jhana]]. The [[Pali]] {{Wiki|exegetical}} [[tradition]] [[recognizes]] three levels of [[samadhi]]: [[preliminary concentration]] ([[parikammasamadhi]]), which is produced as a result of the [[meditator's]] initial efforts to focus his [[mind]] on his [[meditation]] [[subject]]; [[access concentration]] ([[upacarasamadhi]]), marked by the suppression of the [[five hindrances]], | ||
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+ | the [[manifestation of the jhana]] factors, and the [[appearance]] of a {{Wiki|luminous}} [[mental]] replica of the [[meditation]] [[object]] called the [[counterpart sign]] ([[patibhaganimitta]]); and [[absorption]] [[concentration]] ([[appanasamadhi]]), the complete immersion of the [[mind]] in its [[object]] effected by the full {{Wiki|maturation}} of the [[jhana]] factors.<ref>See [[Narada]], A [[Manual of Abhidhamma]]. 4th ed. ({{Wiki|Kandy}}: | ||
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+ | [[Buddhist Publication Society]], 1980), pp.389, 395-96 </ref> [[Absorption]] [[concentration]] comprises the [[eight attainments]], the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]], and to this extent [[jhana]] and [[samadhi]] coincide. | ||
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+ | However, [[samadhi]] still has a broader scope than [[jhana]], since it includes not only the [[jhanas]] themselves but also the two preparatory degrees of [[concentration]] leading up to them. Further, [[samadhi]] also covers a still different type of [[concentration]] called [[momentary concentration]] ([[khanikasamadhi]]), the mobile [[mental]] stabilization produced in the course of [[insight]] contemplation of the passing flow of [[phenomena]]. | ||
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+ | ==[[Chapter]] 2<br/>The Preparation for [[Jhana]]== | ||
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+ | The [[jhanas]] do not arise out of a [[void]] but in [[dependence]] on the right [[conditions]]. They come to growth only when provided with the [[nutriments]] conductive to their [[development]]. Therefore, prior to beginning [[meditation]], the aspirant to the [[jhanas]] must prepare a groundwork for his practice by fulfilling certain preliminary requirements. | ||
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+ | He first must endeavor to {{Wiki|purify}} his [[moral]] [[virtue]], sever the outer impediments to practice, and place himself under a qualified [[teacher]] who will assign him a suitable [[meditation]] [[subject]] and explain to him the methods of developing it. | ||
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+ | After {{Wiki|learning}} these the [[disciple]] must then seek out a congenial dwelling and diligently strive for [[success]]. In this [[chapter]] we will examine in order each of the preparatory steps that have to be fulfilled before commencing to develop [[jhana]]. | ||
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+ | ===The [[Moral]] Foundation for [[Jhana]]=== | ||
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+ | A [[disciple]] aspiring to the [[jhanas]] first has to lay a solid foundation of [[moral discipline]]. [[Moral]] [[purity]] is indispensable to [[meditative]] progress for several deeply [[psychological]] [[reasons]]. It is needed first, in order to safeguard against the [[danger]] of {{Wiki|remorse}}, the nagging [[sense]] of [[guilt]] that arises when the basic {{Wiki|principles}} of [[morality]] are ignored or deliberately violated. Scrupulous conformity to [[virtuous]] {{Wiki|rules}} of conduct protects the [[mediator]] from this [[danger]] disruptive to inner [[calm]], and brings [[joy]] and [[happiness]] when the [[mediator]] reflects upon the [[purity]] of his conduct (see A.v,1-7). | ||
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+ | A second [[reason]] a [[moral]] foundation is needed for [[meditation]] follows from an [[understanding]] of the {{Wiki|purpose}} of [[concentration]]. [[Concentration]], in the [[Buddhist]] [[discipline]], aims at providing a base for [[wisdom]] by cleansing the [[mind]] of the dispersive influence of the [[defilements]]. | ||
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+ | But in order for the [[concentration]] exercises to effectively combat the [[defilements]], the coarser {{Wiki|expressions}} of the [[latter]] through [[bodily]] and [[verbal]] [[action]] first have to be checked. | ||
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+ | [[Moral]] transgressions being invariably motivated by [[defilements]] -- by [[greed]], [[hatred]] and [[delusion]] -- when a [[person]] acts in {{Wiki|violation}} of the [[precepts]] of [[morality]] he excites and reinforces the very same [[mental factors]] his practice of [[meditation]] is intended to eliminate. | ||
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+ | This involves him in a crossfire of incompatible aims which renders his attempts at [[mental]] [[purification]] ineffective. The only way he can avoid [[frustration]] in his endeavor to {{Wiki|purify}} the [[mind]] of its subtler [[defilements]] is to prevent the [[unwholesome]] inner {{Wiki|impulses}} from [[breathing]] out in the coarser [[form]] of [[unwholesome]] [[bodily]] and [[verbal]] [[deeds]]. Only when he establishes control over the outer expression of the [[defilements]] can he turn to deal with them inwardly as [[mental]] {{Wiki|obsessions}} that appear in the process of [[meditation]]. | ||
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+ | The practice of [[moral discipline]] consists negatively in [[abstinence]] from [[immoral]] [[actions]] of [[body]] and {{Wiki|speech}} and positively in the [[observance]] of [[ethical]] {{Wiki|principles}} promoting [[peace]] within oneself and [[harmony]] in one's relations with others. | ||
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+ | The basic code of [[moral discipline]] [[taught]] by the [[Buddha]] for the guidance of his lay followers is the [[five precepts]]: [[abstinence]] from taking [[life]], from [[stealing]], from {{Wiki|sexual}} {{Wiki|misconduct}}, from false {{Wiki|speech}}, and from [[intoxicating]] [[drugs]] and drinks. | ||
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+ | These {{Wiki|principles}} are bindings as minimal [[ethical]] obligations for all practitioners of the [[Buddhist path]], and within their bounds considerable progress in [[meditation]] can be made. However, those aspiring to reach the higher levels of [[jhanas]] and to pursue the [[path]] further to the stages of [[liberation]], are encouraged to take up the more complete [[moral discipline]] pertaining to the [[life]] of [[renunciation]]. [[Early Buddhism]] is unambiguous in its {{Wiki|emphasis}} on the limitations of [[household life]] for following the [[path]] in its fullness and [[perfection]]. | ||
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+ | [[Time]] and again the texts say that the [[household life]] is confining, a "[[path]] for the dust of [[passion]]," while the [[life]] of homelessness is like open [[space]]. Thus a [[disciple]] who is fully intent upon making rapid progress towards [[Nibbana]] will when outer [[conditions]] allow for it, "shave off his [[hair]] and beard, put on the [[yellow robe]], and go forth from the [[home]] [[life]] into homelessness" (M.i,179). | ||
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+ | The [[moral]] {{Wiki|training}} for the [[bhikkhus]] or [[monks]] has been arranged into a system called the fourfold [[purification of morality]] ([[catuparisuddhisila]]).<ref>A full description of the fourfold [[purification of morality]] will be found in the [[Visuddhimagga]], [[Chapter]] 1. </ref> | ||
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+ | The first component of this scheme, its {{Wiki|backbone}}, consists in the [[morality]] of {{Wiki|restraint}} according to the [[Patimokkha]], the code of 227 {{Wiki|training}} [[precepts]] promulgated by the [[Buddha]] to regulate the conduct of the [[Sangha]] or [[monastic order]]. | ||
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+ | Each of these {{Wiki|rules}} is in some way intended to facilitate control over the [[defilements]] and to induce a mode of living marked by [[harmlessness]], [[contentment]] and [[simplicity]]. | ||
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+ | The second aspect of the [[monk's]] [[moral discipline]] is {{Wiki|restraint}} of the [[senses]], by which the [[monk]] maintains close watchfulness over his [[mind]] as he engages in [[sense]] contacts so that he does not give rise to [[desire]] for [[pleasurable]] [[objects]] and [[aversion]] towards repulsive ones. | ||
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+ | Third, the [[monk]] is to live by a [[purified]] [[livelihood]], obtaining his basic requisites such as [[robes]] [[food]], lodgings and {{Wiki|medicines}} in ways consistent with his vocation. | ||
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+ | The fourth factor of the [[moral]] {{Wiki|training}} is proper use of the requisites, which means that the [[monk]] should reflect upon the purposes for which he makes use of his requisites and should employ them only for maintaining his [[health]] and {{Wiki|comfort}}, not for {{Wiki|luxury}} and [[enjoyment]]. | ||
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+ | After establishing a foundation of [[purified]] [[morality]], the aspirant to [[meditation]] is advised to cut off any outer impediments (palibodha) that may hinder his efforts to lead a {{Wiki|contemplative}} [[life]]. | ||
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+ | These impediments are numbered as ten: a dwelling, which becomes an impediment for those who allow their [[minds]] to become preoccupied with its upkeep or with its appurtenances; | ||
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+ | a [[family]] of relatives or supporters with whom the aspirant may become [[emotionally]] involved in ways that hinder his progress; gains, which may bind the [[monk]] by {{Wiki|obligation}} to those who offer them; a class of students who must be instructed; building work, which demands [[time]] and [[attention]]; | ||
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+ | travel; kin, meaning [[parents]], [[teachers]], pupils or close friends; {{Wiki|illness}}; the study of [[scriptures]]; and [[supernormal powers]], which are an impediment to [[insight]] (Vism.90-97; PP.91-98). | ||
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+ | ===The [[Good Friend]] and the [[Subject]] of [[Meditation]]=== | ||
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+ | The [[path]] of practice leading to the [[jhanas]] is an arduous course involving precise techniques and skillfulness is needed in dealing with the pitfalls that lie along the way. The [[knowledge]] of how to attain the [[jhanas]] has been transmitted through a [[lineage]] of [[teachers]] going back to the [[time]] of the [[Buddha]] himself. | ||
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+ | A prospective [[meditator]] is advised to avail himself of the living heritage of [[accumulated]] [[knowledge]] and [[experience]] by placing himself under the care of a qualified [[teacher]], described as a "[[good friend]]" ([[kalyanamitta]]), one who gives guidance and [[wise]] advice rooted in his [[own]] practice and [[experience]]. | ||
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+ | On the basis of either of the power of penetrating others [[minds]], or by personal observation, or by questioning, the [[teacher]] will size up the {{Wiki|temperament}} of his new pupil and then select a [[mediation]] [[subject]] for him appropriate to his {{Wiki|temperament}}. | ||
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+ | The various [[meditation]] [[subjects]] that the [[Buddha]] prescribed for the [[development of serenity]] have been collected in the commentaries into a set called the forty [[kammatthana]]. | ||
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+ | This [[word]] means literally a place of work, and is applied to the [[subject]] of [[meditation]] as the place where the [[meditator]] undertakes the work of [[meditation]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The forty [[meditation]] [[subjects]] are distributed into seven categories, enumerated in the [[Visuddhimagga]] as follows: ten [[kasinas]], ten kinds of [[foulness]], ten [[recollections]], four [[divine]] abidings, four {{Wiki|immaterial}} states, one [[perception]], and one defining.<ref>The following [[discussion]] is based on Vism.110-115; PP.112-118.</ref> | ||
+ | |||
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+ | A [[kasina]] is a device representing a particular [[quality]] used as a support for [[concentration]]. The ten [[kasinas]] are those of [[earth]], [[water]], [[fire]] and [[air]]; four {{Wiki|color}} [[kasinas]] -- blue, [[yellow]], [[red]] and white; the {{Wiki|light}} [[kasina]] and the limited [[space]] [[kasina]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[kasina]] can be either a naturally occurring [[form]] of the [[element]] or {{Wiki|color}} chosen, or an {{Wiki|artificially}} produced device such as a disk that the [[meditator]] can use at his convenience in his [[meditation]] quarters. | ||
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+ | The ten kinds of [[foulness]] are [[ten stages]] in the decomposition of a corpse: the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested and a skeleton. | ||
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+ | The primary {{Wiki|purpose}} of these [[meditations]] is to reduce {{Wiki|sensual}} [[lust]] by gaining a clear [[perception]] of the repulsiveness of the [[body]]. | ||
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+ | The ten [[recollections]] are the [[recollections]] of the [[Buddha]], the [[Dhamma]], the [[Sangha]], [[morality]], [[generosity]] and the [[deities]], [[mindfulness]] of [[death]], [[mindfulness]] of the [[body]], [[mindfulness of breathing]], and the [[recollection]] of [[peace]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The first three are devotional contemplations on the [[sublime]] qualities of the "[[Three Jewels]]," the primary [[objects]] of [[Buddhist]] [[virtues]] and on the [[deities]] inhabiting the [[heavenly]] [[worlds]], intended principally for those still intent on a higher [[rebirth]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Mindfulness]] of [[death]] is {{Wiki|reflection}} on the inevitably of [[death]], a [[constant]] spur to [[spiritual]] {{Wiki|exertion}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Mindfulness]] of the [[body]] involves the [[mental]] dissection of the [[body]] into thirty-two parts, undertaken with a [[view]] to perceiving its unattractiveness. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Mindfulness of breathing]] is [[awareness]] of the in-and-out {{Wiki|movement}} of the [[breath]], perhaps the most fundamental of all [[Buddhist meditation]] [[subjects]]. And the [[recollection]] of [[peace]] is {{Wiki|reflection}} on the qualities of [[Nibbana]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The four [[divine]] abidings ([[brahmavihara]]) are the [[development]] of [[boundless]] [[loving-kindness]], [[compassion]], [[sympathetic joy]] and [[equanimity]]. These [[meditations]] are also called the "[[immeasurables]]" ([[appamanna]]) because they are to be developed towards all [[sentient beings]] without qualification or exclusiveness. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | The four {{Wiki|immaterial}} states are the base of [[boundless space]], the base of [[boundless consciousness]], the base of [[nothingness]], and the base of [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]]. These are the [[objects]] leading to the corresponding [[meditative]] [[attainments]], the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]]. | ||
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+ | The one [[perception]] is the [[perception]] of the repulsiveness of [[food]]. The one defining is the defining of the [[four elements]], that is, the analysis of the [[physical body]] into the [[elemental]] modes of {{Wiki|solidity}}, {{Wiki|fluidity}}, heat and oscillation. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | The forty [[meditation]] [[subjects]] are treated in the {{Wiki|commentarial}} texts from two important angles -- one their ability to induce different levels of [[concentration]], the other their suitability for differing temperaments. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Not all [[meditation]] [[subjects]] are equally effective in inducing the deeper levels of [[concentration]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | They are first {{Wiki|distinguished}} on the basis of their capacity for inducing only [[access concentration]] or for inducing full [[absorption]]; those capable of inducing [[absorption]] are then {{Wiki|distinguished}} further according to their ability to induce the different levels of [[jhana]]. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | Of the forty [[subjects]], ten are capable of leading only to [[access concentration]]: eight [[recollections]] -- i.e. all except [[mindfulness]] of the [[body]] and [[mindfulness of breathing]] -- plus the [[perception]] of repulsiveness in nutriment and the defining of the [[four elements]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | These, because they are occupied with a diversity of qualities and involve and active application of discursive [[thought]], cannot lead beyond access. The other thirty [[subjects]] can all lead to [[absorption]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The ten [[kasinas]] and [[mindfulness of breathing]], owing to their [[simplicity]] and freedom from [[thought]] construction, can lead to all four [[jhanas]]. The ten kinds of [[foulness]] and [[mindfulness]] of the [[body]] lead only to the [[first jhana]], being limited because the [[mind]] can only hold onto them with the aid of applied [[thought]] ([[vitakka]]) which is absent in the second and higher [[jhanas]]. | ||
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+ | The first three [[divine]] abidings can induce the lower three [[jhanas]] but the fourth, since they arise in association with [[pleasant]] [[feeling]], while the [[divine]] abiding of [[equanimity]] occurs only at the level of the [[fourth jhana]], where [[neutral]] [[feeling]] gains ascendency. The four {{Wiki|immaterial}} states conduce to the respective {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] corresponding to their names. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The forty [[subjects]] are also differentiated according to their appropriateness for different [[character]] types. Six main [[character]] types are [[recognized]] -- the [[greedy]], the hating, the deluded, the faithful, the {{Wiki|intelligent}} and the speculative -- this oversimplified [[typology]] being taken only as a {{Wiki|pragmatic}} guideline which in practice admits various shades and combinations. | ||
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+ | The ten kind of [[foulness]] and [[mindfulness]] of the [[body]], clearly intended to attenuate [[sensual desire]], are suitable for those of [[greedy]] {{Wiki|temperament}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Eight [[subjects]] -- the four [[divine]] abidings and four {{Wiki|color}} [[kasinas]] -- are appropriate for the hating {{Wiki|temperament}}. [[Mindfulness of breathing]] is suitable for those of the deluded and the speculative {{Wiki|temperament}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The first [[six recollections]] are appropriate for the faithful {{Wiki|temperament}}. [[Four subjects]] -- [[mindfulness]] of [[death]], the [[recollection]] of [[peace]], the defining of the [[four elements]], and the [[perception]] of the repulsiveness in nutriment -- are especially effective for those of {{Wiki|intelligent}} {{Wiki|temperament}}. The remaining six [[kasinas]] and the {{Wiki|immaterial}} states are suitable for all kinds of temperaments. But the [[kasinas]] should be limited in size for one of speculative {{Wiki|temperament}} and large in size for one of deluded {{Wiki|temperament}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Immediately after giving this breakdown [[Buddhaghosa]] adds a proviso to prevent {{Wiki|misunderstanding}}. He states that this [[division]] by way of {{Wiki|temperament}} is made on the basis of direct [[opposition]] and complete suitability, but actually there is no [[wholesome]] [[form]] of [[meditation]] that does not suppress the [[defilements]] and strengthen the [[virtuous]] [[mental factors]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Thus an {{Wiki|individual}} [[mediator]] may be advised to [[meditate]] on [[foulness]] to abandon [[lust]], on [[loving-kindness]] to abandon [[hatred]], on [[breathing]] to cut off discursive [[thought]], and on [[impermanence]] to eliminate the [[conceit]] "I am" (A.iv,358). | ||
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===Choosing a Suitable Dwelling=== | ===Choosing a Suitable Dwelling=== | ||
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− | ==Chapter 3<br/>The First Jhana and Its Factors== | + | The [[teacher]] assigns a [[meditation]] [[subject]] to his pupil appropriate to his [[character]] and explains the methods of developing it. He can teach it gradually to a pupil who is going to remain in close proximity to him, or in detail to one who will go to practice it elsewhere. If the [[disciple]] is not going to stay with his [[teacher]] he must be careful to select a suitable place for [[meditation]]. |
+ | |||
+ | The texts mention eighteen kinds of [[monasteries]] unfavorable to the [[development]] of [[jhana]]: a large [[monastery]], a new one, a dilapidated one, one near a road, one with a pond, leaves, [[flowers]] or {{Wiki|fruits}}, one sought after by many [[people]], | ||
+ | |||
+ | one in cities, among timber of fields, where [[people]] quarrel, in a port, in border lands, on a frontier, a haunted place, and one without access to a [[spiritual teacher]] (Vism. 118-121; PP122-125). | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The factors which make a dwelling favorable to [[meditation]] are mentioned by the [[Buddha]] himself. If should not be too far from or too near a village that can be relied on as an [[alms]] resort, and should have a clear [[path]]: it should be quiet and secluded; it should be free from rough weather and from harmful {{Wiki|insects}} and [[animals]]; one should be [[able]] to obtain one's [[physical]] requisites while dwelling there; and the dwelling should provide ready access to learned [[elders]] and [[spiritual]] friends who can be consulted when problems arise in [[meditation]] (A.v,15). | ||
+ | |||
+ | The types of dwelling places commended by the [[Buddha]] most frequently in the [[suttas]] as conductive to the [[jhanas]] are a secluded dwelling in the {{Wiki|forest}}, at the foot of a [[tree]], on a mountain, in a cleft, in a {{Wiki|cave}}, in a [[cemetery]], on a wooded flatland, in the open [[air]], or on a heap of straw (M.i,181). Having found a suitable dwelling and settled there, the [[disciple]] should maintain scrupulous [[observance]] of the {{Wiki|rules}} of [[discipline]], He should be content with his simple requisites, exercise control over his [[sense faculties]], be [[mindful]] and discerning in all [[activities]], and practice [[meditation]] diligently as he was instructed. It is at this point that he meets the first great challenge of his {{Wiki|contemplative}} [[life]], the {{Wiki|battle}} with the [[five hindrances]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Chapter]] 3<br/>The [[First Jhana]] and Its Factors== | ||
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+ | |||
− | The attainment of any jhana comes about through a twofold process of development. On one side the states obstructive to it, called its factors of abandonment, have to be eliminated, on the other the states composing it, called its factors of possession, have to be acquired. In the case of the first jhana the factors of abandonment are the five hindrances and the factors of possession the five basic jhana factors. Both are alluded to in the standard formula for the first jhana, the opening phrase referring to the abandonment of the hindrances and the subsequent portion enumerating the jhana factors: | + | The [[attainment]] of any [[jhana]] comes about through a twofold process of [[development]]. On one side the states obstructive to it, called its factors of [[abandonment]], have to be eliminated, on the other the states composing it, called its factors of possession, have to be acquired. In the case of the [[first jhana]] the factors of [[abandonment]] are the [[five hindrances]] and the factors of possession the five basic [[jhana]] factors. Both are alluded to in the standard [[formula]] for the [[first jhana]], the opening [[phrase]] referring to the [[abandonment]] of the [[hindrances]] and the subsequent portion enumerating the [[jhana]] factors: |
− | Quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwells in the first jhana, which is accompanied by applied thought and sustained thought with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (M.i,1818; Vbh.245) | + | Quite secluded from [[sense]] [[pleasures]], secluded from [[unwholesome]] [[states of mind]], he enters and dwells in the [[first jhana]], which is accompanied by applied [[thought]] and sustained [[thought]] with [[rapture]] and [[happiness]] born of [[seclusion]]. (M.i,1818; Vbh.245) |
− | In this chapter we will first discuss the five hindrances and their abandonment, then we will investigate the jhana factors both individually and by way of their combined contribution to the attainment of the first jhana. We will close the chapter with some remarks on the ways of perfecting the first jhana, a necessary preparation for the further development of concentration. | + | In this [[chapter]] we will first discuss the [[five hindrances]] and their [[abandonment]], then we will investigate the [[jhana]] factors both individually and by way of their combined contribution to the [[attainment]] of the [[first jhana]]. We will close the [[chapter]] with some remarks on the ways of perfecting the [[first jhana]], a necessary preparation for the further [[development of concentration]]. |
− | ===The Abandoning of the Hindrances=== | + | ===The [[Abandoning]] of the [[Hindrances]]=== |
− | The five hindrances (pancanivarana) are sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubt. This group, the principal classification the Buddha uses for the obstacles to meditation, receives its name because its five members hinder and envelop the mind, preventing meditative development in the two spheres of serenity and insight. Hence the Buddha calls them "obstructions, hindrances, corruptions of the mind which weaken wisdom"(S.v,94). | + | The [[five hindrances]] ([[pancanivarana]]) are [[sensual desire]], [[ill will]], [[sloth and torpor]], [[restlessness]] and {{Wiki|worry}}, and [[doubt]]. This group, the [[principal]] {{Wiki|classification}} the [[Buddha]] uses for the [[obstacles]] to [[meditation]], receives its [[name]] because its five members hinder and envelop the [[mind]], preventing [[meditative]] [[development]] in the two [[spheres]] of [[serenity]] and [[insight]]. Hence the [[Buddha]] calls them "obstructions, [[hindrances]], [[corruptions]] of the [[mind]] which weaken wisdom"(S.v,94). |
− | The hindrance of sensual desire (kamachanda) is explained as desire for the "five strands of sense pleasure," that is, for pleasant forms, sounds, smells, tastes and tangibles. It ranges from subtle liking to powerful lust. The hindrance of ill will (byapada) signifies aversion directed towards disagreeable persons or things. It can vary in range from mild annoyance to overpowering hatred. Thus the first two hindrances correspond to the first two root defilements, greed and hate. The third root defilement, delusion, is not enumerated separately among the hindrances but can be found underlying the remaining three. | + | The [[hindrance]] of [[sensual desire]] ([[kamachanda]]) is explained as [[desire]] for the "five [[strands]] of [[sense]] [[pleasure]]," that is, for [[pleasant]] [[forms]], {{Wiki|sounds}}, {{Wiki|smells}}, {{Wiki|tastes}} and tangibles. It ranges from {{Wiki|subtle}} liking to powerful [[lust]]. The [[hindrance]] of [[ill will]] ([[byapada]]) {{Wiki|signifies}} [[aversion]] directed towards [[disagreeable]] persons or things. It can vary in range from mild [[annoyance]] to overpowering [[hatred]]. Thus the first [[two hindrances]] correspond to the first two [[root]] [[defilements]], [[greed]] and [[hate]]. The third [[root]] [[defilement]], [[delusion]], is not enumerated separately among the [[hindrances]] but can be found underlying the remaining three. |
− | Sloth and torpor is a compound hindrance made up of two components: sloth (thina), which is dullness, inertia or mental stiffness; and torpor (middha), which is indolence or drowsiness. Restlessness and worry is another double hindrance, restlessness (uddhacca) being explained as excitement, agitation or disquietude, worry (kukkucca) as the sense of guilt aroused by moral transgressions. Finally, the hindrance of doubt (vicikiccha) is explained as uncertainty with regard to the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha and the training. | + | [[Sloth and torpor]] is a compound [[hindrance]] made up of two components: [[sloth]] ([[thina]]), which is [[dullness]], {{Wiki|inertia}} or [[mental]] stiffness; and {{Wiki|torpor}} ([[middha]]), which is indolence or [[drowsiness]]. [[Restlessness]] and {{Wiki|worry}} is another double [[hindrance]], [[restlessness]] ([[uddhacca]]) being explained as [[excitement]], [[agitation]] or disquietude, {{Wiki|worry}} ([[kukkucca]]) as the [[sense]] of [[guilt]] aroused by [[moral]] transgressions. Finally, the [[hindrance]] of [[doubt]] ([[vicikiccha]]) is explained as uncertainty with regard to the [[Buddha]], the [[Dhamma]], the [[Sangha]] and the {{Wiki|training}}. |
− | The Buddha offers two sets of similes to illustrate the detrimental effect of the hindrances. The first compares the five hindrances to five types of calamity: sensual desire is like a debt, ill will like a disease, sloth and torpor like imprisonment, restless and worry like slavery, and doubt like being lost on a desert road. Release from the hindrances is to be seen as freedom from debt, good health, release from prison, emancipation from slavery, and arriving at a place of safety (D.i,71-73). The second set of similes compares the hindrances to five kinds of impurities affecting a bowl of water, preventing a keen-sighted man from seeing his own reflection as it really is. Sensual desire is like a bowl of water mixed with brightly colored paints, ill will like a bowl of boiling water, sloth and torpor like water covered by mossy plants, restlessness and worry like water blown into ripples by the wind, and doubt like muddy water. Just as the keen-eyed man would not be able to see his reflection in these five kinds of water, so one whose mind is obsessed by the five hindrances does not know and see as it is his own good, the good of others or the good of both (S.v,121-24). Although there are numerous defilements opposed to the first jhana the five hindrances alone are called its factors of abandoning. One reason according to the Visuddhimagga, is that the hindrances are specifically obstructive to jhana, each hindrance impeding in its own way the mind's capacity for concentration. | + | The [[Buddha]] offers two sets of similes to illustrate the detrimental effect of the [[hindrances]]. The first compares the [[five hindrances]] to five types of calamity: [[sensual desire]] is like a debt, [[ill will]] like a {{Wiki|disease}}, [[sloth and torpor]] like imprisonment, restless and {{Wiki|worry}} like [[slavery]], and [[doubt]] like being lost on a desert road. [[Release]] from the [[hindrances]] is to be seen as freedom from debt, good [[health]], [[release]] from {{Wiki|prison}}, {{Wiki|emancipation}} from [[slavery]], and arriving at a place of safety (D.i,71-73). The second set of similes compares the [[hindrances]] to five kinds of [[impurities]] affecting a [[bowl]] of [[water]], preventing a keen-sighted man from [[seeing]] his [[own]] {{Wiki|reflection}} as it really is. [[Sensual desire]] is like a [[bowl]] of [[water]] mixed with brightly colored paints, [[ill will]] like a [[bowl]] of boiling [[water]], [[sloth and torpor]] like [[water]] covered by mossy [[plants]], [[restlessness]] and {{Wiki|worry}} like [[water]] blown into ripples by the [[wind]], and [[doubt]] like muddy [[water]]. Just as the keen-eyed man would not be [[able]] to see his {{Wiki|reflection}} in these five kinds of [[water]], so one whose [[mind]] is [[obsessed]] by the [[five hindrances]] does not know and see as it is his [[own]] good, the good of others or the good of both (S.v,121-24). Although there are numerous [[defilements]] opposed to the [[first jhana]] the [[five hindrances]] alone are called its factors of [[abandoning]]. One [[reason]] according to the [[Visuddhimagga]], is that the [[hindrances]] are specifically obstructive to [[jhana]], each [[hindrance]] impeding in its [[own]] way the [[mind's]] capacity for [[concentration]]. |
− | The mind affected through lust by greed for varied objective fields does not become concentrated on an object consisting in unity, or being overwhelmed by lust, it does not enter on the way to abandoning the sense-desire element. When pestered by ill will towards an object, it does not occur uninterruptedly. When overcome by stiffness and torpor, it is unwieldy. When seized by agitation and worry, it is unquiet and buzzes about. When stricken by uncertainty, it fails to mount the way to accomplish the attainment of jhana. So it is these only that are called factors of abandonment because they are specifically obstructive to jhana.(Vism.146: PP.152) | + | The [[mind]] affected through [[lust]] by [[greed]] for varied [[objective]] fields does not become [[concentrated]] on an [[object]] consisting in {{Wiki|unity}}, or being overwhelmed by [[lust]], it does not enter on the way to [[abandoning]] the [[sense-desire]] [[element]]. When pestered by [[ill will]] towards an [[object]], it does not occur uninterruptedly. When overcome by stiffness and {{Wiki|torpor}}, it is unwieldy. When seized by [[agitation]] and {{Wiki|worry}}, it is unquiet and buzzes about. When stricken by uncertainty, it fails to mount the way to [[accomplish]] the [[attainment]] of [[jhana]]. So it is these only that are called factors of [[abandonment]] because they are specifically obstructive to jhana.(Vism.146: PP.152) |
− | A second reason for confining the first jhana's factors of abandoning to the five hindrances is to permit a direct alignment to be made between the hindrances and the jhanic factors. Buddhaghosa states that the abandonment of the five hindrances alone is mentioned in connection with jhana because the hindrances are the direct enemies of the five jhana factors, which the latter must eliminate and abolish. To support his point the commentator cites a passage demonstrating a one-to-one correspondence between the jhana factors and the hindrances: one-pointedness is opposed to sensual desire, rapture to ill will, applied thought to sloth and torpor, happiness to restlessness and worry, and sustained thought to doubt (Vism. 141; PP.147).<ref>Buddhaghosa ascribes the passage he cites in support of the correspondence to the "Petaka," but it cannot be traced anywhere in the present Tipitaka, nor in the exegetical work named Petakopadesa.</ref> Thus each jhana factor is seen as having the specific task of eliminating a particular obstruction to the jhana and to correlate these obstructions with the five jhana factors they are collected into a scheme of five hindrances. | + | A second [[reason]] for confining the first jhana's factors of [[abandoning]] to the [[five hindrances]] is to permit a direct alignment to be made between the [[hindrances]] and the [[jhanic]] factors. [[Buddhaghosa]] states that the [[abandonment]] of the [[five hindrances]] alone is mentioned in connection with [[jhana]] because the [[hindrances]] are the direct enemies of the five [[jhana]] factors, which the [[latter]] must eliminate and abolish. To support his point the commentator cites a passage demonstrating a one-to-one [[correspondence]] between the [[jhana]] factors and the [[hindrances]]: [[one-pointedness]] is opposed to [[sensual desire]], [[rapture]] to [[ill will]], applied [[thought]] to [[sloth and torpor]], [[happiness]] to [[restlessness]] and {{Wiki|worry}}, and sustained [[thought]] to [[doubt]] (Vism. 141; PP.147).<ref>[[Buddhaghosa]] ascribes the passage he cites in support of the [[correspondence]] to the "Petaka," but it cannot be traced anywhere in the {{Wiki|present}} [[Tipitaka]], nor in the {{Wiki|exegetical}} work named [[Petakopadesa]].</ref> Thus each [[jhana]] factor is seen as having the specific task of eliminating a particular obstruction to the [[jhana]] and to correlate these obstructions with the five [[jhana]] factors they are collected into a scheme of [[five hindrances]]. |
− | The standard passage describing the attainment of the first jhana says that the jhana is entered upon by one who is "secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of mind." The Visuddhimagga explains that there are three kinds of seclusion relevant to the present context -- namely, bodily seclusion (kayaviveka), mental seclusion (cittaviveka), and seclusion by suppression (vikkhambhanaviveka) (Vism. 140; PP.145). These three terms allude to two distinct sets of exegetical categories. The first two belong to a threefold arrangement made up of bodily seclusion, mental seclusion, and "seclusion from the substance" (upadhiviveka). The first means physical withdrawal from active social engagement into a condition of solitude for the purpose of devoting time and energy to spiritual development. The second, which generally presupposes the first, means the seclusion of the mind from its entanglement in defilements; it is in effect equivalent to concentration of at least the access level. The third, "seclusion from the substance," is Nibbana, liberation from the elements of phenomenal existence. The achievement of the first jhana does not depend on the third, which is its outcome rather than prerequisite, but it does require physical solitude and the separation of the mind from defilements, hence bodily and mental seclusion. The third type of seclusion pertinent to the context, seclusion by suppression, belongs to a different scheme generally discussed under the heading of "abandonment" (pahana) rather than "seclusion." The type of abandonment required for the attainment of jhana is abandonment by suppression, which means the removal of the hindrances by force of concentration similar to the pressing down of weeds in a pond by means of a porous pot.<ref>The other two types of abandoning are by substitution of opposites (tadangappahana), which means the replacement of unwholesome states by wholesome ones specifically opposed to them, and abandoning by eradication (samucchedappahana), the final destruction of defilements by the supramundane paths. See Vism.693-96;PP.812-16. </ref> | + | The standard passage describing the [[attainment]] of the [[first jhana]] says that the [[jhana]] is entered upon by one who is "secluded from [[sense]] [[pleasures]], secluded from [[unwholesome]] [[states of mind]]." The [[Visuddhimagga]] explains that there are three kinds of [[seclusion]] relevant to the {{Wiki|present}} context -- namely, [[bodily]] [[seclusion]] ([[kayaviveka]]), [[mental]] [[seclusion]] ([[cittaviveka]]), and [[seclusion]] by suppression ([[vikkhambhanaviveka]]) (Vism. 140; PP.145). These three terms allude to two {{Wiki|distinct}} sets of {{Wiki|exegetical}} categories. The first two belong to a threefold arrangement made up of [[bodily]] [[seclusion]], [[mental]] [[seclusion]], and "[[seclusion]] from the [[substance]]" ([[upadhiviveka]]). The first means [[physical]] withdrawal from active {{Wiki|social}} engagement into a [[condition]] of [[solitude]] for the {{Wiki|purpose}} of devoting [[time]] and [[energy]] to [[spiritual]] [[development]]. The second, which generally presupposes the first, means the [[seclusion]] of the [[mind]] from its entanglement in [[defilements]]; it is in effect {{Wiki|equivalent}} to [[concentration]] of at least the access level. The third, "[[seclusion]] from the [[substance]]," is [[Nibbana]], [[liberation]] from the [[elements]] of [[phenomenal existence]]. The [[achievement]] of the [[first jhana]] does not depend on the third, which is its outcome rather than prerequisite, but it does require [[physical]] [[solitude]] and the separation of the [[mind]] from [[defilements]], hence [[bodily]] and [[mental]] [[seclusion]]. The third type of [[seclusion]] pertinent to the context, [[seclusion]] by suppression, belongs to a different scheme generally discussed under the heading of "[[abandonment]]" ([[pahana]]) rather than "[[seclusion]]." The type of [[abandonment]] required for the [[attainment]] of [[jhana]] is [[abandonment]] by suppression, which means the removal of the [[hindrances]] by force of [[concentration]] similar to the pressing down of weeds in a pond by means of a porous pot.<ref>The other two types of [[abandoning]] are by substitution of opposites ([[tadangappahana]]), which means the replacement of [[unwholesome]] states by [[wholesome]] ones specifically opposed to them, and [[abandoning]] by eradication ([[samucchedappahana]]), the final destruction of [[defilements]] by the [[supramundane paths]]. See Vism.693-96;PP.812-16. </ref> |
− | The work of overcoming the five hindrances is accomplished through the gradual training (anupubbasikkha) which the Buddha has laid down so often in the suttas, such as the Samannaphala Sutta and the Culahatthipadopama Sutta. The gradual training is a step-by-step process designed to lead the practitioner gradually to liberation. The training begins with moral discipline, the undertaking and observance of specific rules of conduct which enable the disciple to control the coarser modes of bodily and verbal misconduct through which the hindrances find an outlet. With moral discipline as a basis, the disciple practices the restraint of the senses. He does not seize upon the general appearances of the beguiling features of things, but guards and masters his sense faculties so that sensual attractive and repugnant objects no longer become grounds for desire and aversion. Then, endowed with the self-restraint, he develops mindfulness and discernment (sati-sampajanna) in all his activities and postures, examining everything he does with clear awareness as to its purpose and suitability. He also cultivates contentment with a minimum of robes, food, shelter and other requisites. | + | The work of [[overcoming]] the [[five hindrances]] is accomplished through the [[gradual training]] ([[anupubbasikkha]]) which the [[Buddha]] has laid down so often in the [[suttas]], such as the [[Samannaphala Sutta]] and the [[Culahatthipadopama Sutta]]. The [[gradual training]] is a step-by-step process designed to lead the [[practitioner]] gradually to [[liberation]]. The {{Wiki|training}} begins with [[moral discipline]], the {{Wiki|undertaking}} and [[observance]] of specific {{Wiki|rules}} of conduct which enable the [[disciple]] to control the coarser modes of [[bodily]] and [[verbal]] {{Wiki|misconduct}} through which the [[hindrances]] find an outlet. With [[moral discipline]] as a basis, the [[disciple]] practices the {{Wiki|restraint}} of the [[senses]]. He does not seize upon the general [[appearances]] of the beguiling features of things, but guards and [[masters]] his [[sense faculties]] so that {{Wiki|sensual}} attractive and repugnant [[objects]] no longer become grounds for [[desire]] and [[aversion]]. Then, endowed with the self-restraint, he develops [[mindfulness]] and [[discernment]] ([[sati-sampajanna]]) in all his [[activities]] and [[postures]], examining everything he does with clear [[awareness]] as to its {{Wiki|purpose}} and suitability. He also cultivates [[contentment]] with a minimum of [[robes]], [[food]], [[shelter]] and other requisites. |
− | Once he has fulfilled these preliminaries the disciple is prepared to go into solitude to develop the jhanas, and it is here that he directly confronts the five hindrances. The elimination of the hindrances requires that the meditator honestly appraises his own mind. When sensuality, ill will and the other hindrances are present, he must recognize that they are present and he must investigate the conditions that lead to their arising: the latter he must scrupulously avoid. The meditator must also understand the appropriate antidotes for each of the five hindrances. The Buddha says that all the hindrances arise through unwise consideration (ayoniso manasikara) and that they can be eliminated by wise consideration (yoniso manasikara). Each hindrance, however, has its own specific antidote. Thus wise consideration of the repulsive feature of things is the antidote to sensual desire; wise consideration of loving-kindness counteracts ill will; wise consideration of the elements of effort, exertion and striving opposes sloth and torpor; wise consideration of tranquillity of mind removes restlessness and worry; and wise consideration of the real qualities of things eliminates doubt (S.v,105-106). | + | Once he has fulfilled these preliminaries the [[disciple]] is prepared to go into [[solitude]] to develop the [[jhanas]], and it is here that he directly confronts the [[five hindrances]]. The elimination of the [[hindrances]] requires that the [[meditator]] honestly appraises his [[own]] [[mind]]. When [[sensuality]], [[ill will]] and the other [[hindrances]] are {{Wiki|present}}, he must [[recognize]] that they are {{Wiki|present}} and he must investigate the [[conditions]] that lead to their [[arising]]: the [[latter]] he must scrupulously avoid. The [[meditator]] must also understand the appropriate [[antidotes]] for each of the [[five hindrances]]. The [[Buddha]] says that all the [[hindrances]] arise through unwise [[consideration]] ([[ayoniso manasikara]]) and that they can be eliminated by [[wise]] [[consideration]] ([[yoniso manasikara]]). Each [[hindrance]], however, has its [[own]] specific antidote. Thus [[wise]] [[consideration]] of the repulsive feature of things is the antidote to [[sensual desire]]; [[wise]] [[consideration]] of [[loving-kindness]] counteracts [[ill will]]; [[wise]] [[consideration]] of the [[elements]] of [[effort]], {{Wiki|exertion}} and striving opposes [[sloth and torpor]]; [[wise]] [[consideration]] of [[tranquillity]] of [[mind]] removes [[restlessness]] and {{Wiki|worry}}; and [[wise]] [[consideration]] of the real qualities of things eliminates [[doubt]] (S.v,105-106). |
− | Having given up covetousness [i.e. sensual desire] with regard to the world, he dwells with a heart free of covetousness; he cleanses his mind from covetousness. Having given up the blemish of ill will, he dwells without ill will; friendly and compassionate towards all living beings, he cleanses his mind from the blemishes of ill will. Having given up sloth and torpor, he dwells free from sloth and torpor, in the perception of light; mindful and clearly comprehending, he cleanses his mind from sloth and torpor. Having given up restlessness and worry, he dwells without restlessness; his mind being calmed within, he cleanses it from restlessness and worry. Having given up doubt, he dwells as one who has passed beyond doubt; being free from uncertainty about wholesome things, he cleanses his mind from doubt .... | + | Having given up covetousness [i.e. [[sensual desire]]) with regard to the [[world]], he dwells with a [[heart]] free of covetousness; he cleanses his [[mind]] from covetousness. Having given up the blemish of [[ill will]], he dwells without [[ill will]]; friendly and [[compassionate]] towards [[all living beings]], he cleanses his [[mind]] from the blemishes of [[ill will]]. Having given up [[sloth and torpor]], he dwells free from [[sloth and torpor]], in the [[perception]] of {{Wiki|light}}; [[mindful]] and clearly comprehending, he cleanses his [[mind]] from [[sloth and torpor]]. Having given up [[restlessness]] and {{Wiki|worry}}, he dwells without [[restlessness]]; his [[mind]] being [[calmed]] within, he cleanses it from [[restlessness]] and {{Wiki|worry}}. Having given up [[doubt]], he dwells as one who has passed beyond [[doubt]]; being free from uncertainty about [[wholesome]] things, he cleanses his [[mind]] from [[doubt]] .... |
− | And when he sees himself free of these five hindrances, joy arises; in him who is joyful, rapture arises; in him whose mind is enraptured, the body is stilled; the body being stilled, he feels happiness; and a happy mind finds concentration. Then, quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwells in the first jhana, which is accompanied by applied thought and sustained thought, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (D.i,73-74)<ref>Adapted from Nyanaponika Thera, The Five Mental Hindrances and Their Conquest (Wheel No. 26). This booklet contains a full compilation of texts on the hindrances. </ref> | + | And when he sees himself free of these [[five hindrances]], [[joy]] arises; in him who is [[joyful]], [[rapture]] arises; in him whose [[mind]] is enraptured, the [[body]] is stilled; the [[body]] being stilled, he [[feels]] [[happiness]]; and a [[happy]] [[mind]] finds [[concentration]]. Then, quite secluded from [[sense]] [[pleasures]], secluded from [[unwholesome]] [[states of mind]], he enters and dwells in the [[first jhana]], which is accompanied by applied [[thought]] and sustained [[thought]], with [[rapture]] and [[happiness]] born of [[seclusion]]. (D.i,73-74)<ref>Adapted from [[Nyanaponika Thera]], The [[Five Mental Hindrances]] and Their Conquest ([[Wheel]] No. 26). This booklet contains a full compilation of texts on the [[hindrances]]. </ref> |
− | ===The Factors of the First Jhana=== | + | ===The Factors of the [[First Jhana]]=== |
− | The first jhana possesses five component factors: applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, happiness and one-pointedness of mind. Four of these are explicitly mentioned in the formula for the jhana; the fifth, one-pointedness, is mentioned elsewhere in the suttas but is already suggested by the notion of jhana itself. These five states receive their name, first because they lead the mind from the level of ordinary consciousness to the jhanic level, and second because they constitute the first jhana and give it its distinct definition. | + | The [[first jhana]] possesses five component factors: applied [[thought]], sustained [[thought]], [[rapture]], [[happiness]] and [[one-pointedness of mind]]. Four of these are explicitly mentioned in the [[formula]] for the [[jhana]]; the fifth, [[one-pointedness]], is mentioned elsewhere in the [[suttas]] but is already suggested by the notion of [[jhana]] itself. These five states receive their [[name]], first because they lead the [[mind]] from the level of ordinary [[consciousness]] to the [[jhanic]] level, and second because they constitute the [[first jhana]] and give it its {{Wiki|distinct}} [[definition]]. |
− | The jhana factors are first aroused by the meditator's initial efforts to concentrate upon one of the prescribed objects for developing jhana. As he fixes his mind on the preliminary object, such as a kasina disk, a point is eventually reached where he can perceive the object as clearly with his eyes closed as with them open. This visualized object is called the learning sign (uggahanimitta). As he concentrates on the learning sign, his efforts call into play the embryonic jhana factors, which grow in force, duration and prominence as a result of the meditative exertion. These factors, being incompatible with the hindrances, attenuate them, exclude them, and hold them at bay. With continued practice the learning sign gives rise to a purified luminous replica of itself called the counterpart sign (patibhaganimitta), the manifestation of which marks the complete suppression of the hindrances and the attainment of access concentration (upacarasamadhi). All three events-the suppression of the hindrances, the arising of the counterpart sign, and the attainment of access concentration -- take place at precisely the same moment, without interval (Vism. 126; PP.131). And though previously the process of mental cultivation may have required the elimination of different hindrances at different times, when access is achieved they all subside together: | + | The [[jhana]] factors are first aroused by the [[meditator's]] initial efforts to [[concentrate]] upon one of the prescribed [[objects]] for developing [[jhana]]. As he fixes his [[mind]] on the preliminary [[object]], such as a [[kasina]] disk, a point is eventually reached where he can {{Wiki|perceive}} the [[object]] as clearly with his [[eyes]] closed as with them open. This [[visualized]] [[object]] is called the {{Wiki|learning}} sign ([[uggahanimitta]]). As he [[concentrates]] on the {{Wiki|learning}} sign, his efforts call into play the embryonic [[jhana]] factors, which grow in force, duration and prominence as a result of the [[meditative]] {{Wiki|exertion}}. These factors, being incompatible with the [[hindrances]], attenuate them, exclude them, and hold them at bay. With continued practice the {{Wiki|learning}} sign gives rise to a [[purified]] {{Wiki|luminous}} replica of itself called the [[counterpart sign]] ([[patibhaganimitta]]), the [[manifestation]] of which marks the complete suppression of the [[hindrances]] and the [[attainment]] of [[access concentration]] ([[upacarasamadhi]]). All three events-the suppression of the [[hindrances]], the [[arising]] of the [[counterpart sign]], and the [[attainment]] of [[access concentration]] -- take place at precisely the same [[moment]], without {{Wiki|interval}} (Vism. 126; PP.131). And though previously the process of [[mental]] [[cultivation]] may have required the elimination of different [[hindrances]] at different times, when access is achieved they all subside together: |
− | Simultaneously with his acquiring the counterpart sign his lust is abandoned by suppression owing to his giving no attention externally to sense desires (as object). And owing to his abandoning of approval, ill will is abandoned too, as pus is with the abandoning of blood. Likewise stiffness and torpor is abandoned through exertion of energy, agitation and worry is abandoned through devotion to peaceful things that cause no remorse; and uncertainty about the Master who teaches the way, about the way, and about the fruit of the way, about the way, and about the fruit of the way, is abandoned through the actual experience of the distinction attained. So the five hindrances are abandoned. (Vism. 189; PP.196) | + | Simultaneously with his acquiring the [[counterpart sign]] his [[lust]] is abandoned by suppression owing to his giving no [[attention]] externally to [[sense desires]] (as [[object]]). And owing to his [[abandoning]] of approval, [[ill will]] is abandoned too, as pus is with the [[abandoning]] of {{Wiki|blood}}. Likewise stiffness and {{Wiki|torpor}} is abandoned through {{Wiki|exertion}} of [[energy]], [[agitation]] and {{Wiki|worry}} is abandoned through [[devotion]] to [[peaceful]] things that [[cause]] no {{Wiki|remorse}}; and uncertainty about the [[Master]] who teaches the way, about the way, and about the fruit of the way, about the way, and about the fruit of the way, is abandoned through the actual [[experience]] of the {{Wiki|distinction}} [[attained]]. So the [[five hindrances]] are abandoned. (Vism. 189; PP.196) |
− | Though the mental factors determinative of the first jhana are present in access concentration, they do not as yet possess sufficient strength to constitute the jhana, but are strong enough only to exclude the hindrances. With continued practice, however, the nascent jhana factors grow in strength until they are capable of issuing in jhana. Because of the instrumental role these factors play both in the attainment and constitution of the first jhana they are deserving of closer individual scrutiny. | + | Though the [[mental factors]] {{Wiki|determinative}} of the [[first jhana]] are {{Wiki|present}} in [[access concentration]], they do not as yet possess sufficient strength to constitute the [[jhana]], but are strong enough only to exclude the [[hindrances]]. With continued practice, however, the nascent [[jhana]] factors grow in strength until they are capable of issuing in [[jhana]]. Because of the instrumental role these factors play both in the [[attainment]] and constitution of the [[first jhana]] they are deserving of closer {{Wiki|individual}} {{Wiki|scrutiny}}. |
− | ===Applied Thought (vitakka)=== | + | ===Applied [[Thought]] ([[vitakka]])=== |
− | The word vitakka frequently appears in the texts in conjunction with the word vicara. The pair signify two interconnected but distinct aspects of the thought process, and to bring out the difference between them (as well as their common character), we translate the one as applied thought and the other as sustained thought. | + | The [[word]] [[vitakka]] frequently appears in the texts in {{Wiki|conjunction}} with the [[word]] [[vicara]]. The pair signify two interconnected but {{Wiki|distinct}} aspects of the [[thought]] process, and to bring out the difference between them (as well as their common [[character]]), we translate the one as applied [[thought]] and the other as sustained [[thought]]. |
− | In both the suttas and the Abhidhamma applied thought is defined as the application of the mind to its object (cetaso abhiniropana), a function which the Atthasalini illustrates thus: "Just as someone ascends the king's palace in dependence on a relative of friend dear to the king, so the mind ascends the object in dependence on applied thought" (Dhs.A.157). This function of applying the mind to the object is common to the wide variety of modes in which the mental factor of applied thought occurs, ranging from sense discrimination to imagination, reasoning and deliberation and to the practice of concentration culminating in the first jhana. Applied thought can be unwholesome as in thoughts of sensual pleasure, ill will and cruelty, or wholesome as in thoughts of renunciation, benevolence and compassion (M.i,116). | + | In both the [[suttas]] and the [[Abhidhamma]] applied [[thought]] is defined as the application of the [[mind]] to its [[object]] ([[cetaso abhiniropana]]), a [[function]] which the [[Atthasalini]] illustrates thus: "Just as someone ascends the king's palace in [[dependence]] on a [[relative]] of [[friend]] dear to the [[king]], so the [[mind]] ascends the [[object]] in [[dependence]] on applied [[thought]]" (Dhs.A.157). This [[function]] of applying the [[mind]] to the [[object]] is common to the wide variety of modes in which the [[mental factor]] of applied [[thought]] occurs, ranging from [[sense]] {{Wiki|discrimination}} to [[imagination]], {{Wiki|reasoning}} and {{Wiki|deliberation}} and to the practice of [[concentration]] culminating in the [[first jhana]]. Applied [[thought]] can be [[unwholesome]] as in [[thoughts]] of [[sensual pleasure]], [[ill will]] and [[cruelty]], or [[wholesome]] as in [[thoughts]] of [[renunciation]], [[benevolence]] and [[compassion]] (M.i,116). |
− | In jhana applied through is invariably wholesome and its function of directing the mind upon its object stands forth with special clarity. To convey this the Visuddhimagga explains that in jhana the function of applied thought is "to strike at and thresh -- for the meditator is said, in virtue of it, to have the object struck at by applied thought, threshed by applied thought" (Vism.142;PP148). The Milindapanha makes the same point by defining applied thought as absorption (appana): "Just as a carpenter drives a well-fashioned piece of wood into a joint, so applied thought has the characteristic of absorption" (Miln.62). | + | In [[jhana]] applied through is invariably [[wholesome]] and its [[function]] of directing the [[mind]] upon its [[object]] stands forth with special clarity. To convey this the [[Visuddhimagga]] explains that in [[jhana]] the [[function]] of applied [[thought]] is "to strike at and thresh -- for the [[meditator]] is said, in [[virtue]] of it, to have the [[object]] struck at by applied [[thought]], threshed by applied [[thought]]" (Vism.142;PP148). The [[Milindapanha]] makes the same point by defining applied [[thought]] as [[absorption]] ([[appana]]): "Just as a {{Wiki|carpenter}} drives a well-fashioned piece of [[wood]] into a joint, so applied [[thought]] has the [[characteristic]] of [[absorption]]" (Miln.62). |
− | The object of jhana into which vitakka drives the mind and its concomitant states is the counterpart sign, which emerges from the learning sign as the hindrances are suppressed and the mind enters access concentration. The Visuddhimagga explains the difference between the two signs thus: | + | The [[object]] of [[jhana]] into which [[vitakka]] drives the [[mind]] and its [[concomitant]] states is the [[counterpart sign]], which emerges from the {{Wiki|learning}} sign as the [[hindrances]] are suppressed and the [[mind]] enters [[access concentration]]. The [[Visuddhimagga]] explains the difference between the two [[signs]] thus: |
− | In the learning sign any fault in the kasina is apparent. But the counterpart sign appears as if breaking out from the learning sign, and a hundred times, a thousand times more purified, like a looking-glass disk drawn from its case, like a mother-of-pearl dish well washed, like the moon's disk coming out from behind a cloud, like cranes against a thunder cloud. But it has neither color nor shape; for if it had, it would be cognizable by the eye, gross, susceptible of comprehension (by insight) and stamped with the three characteristics. But it is not like that. For it is born only of perception in one who has obtained concentration, being a mere mode of appearance (Vism. 125-26; PP.130) | + | In the {{Wiki|learning}} sign any fault in the [[kasina]] is apparent. But the [[counterpart sign]] appears as if breaking out from the {{Wiki|learning}} sign, and a hundred times, a thousand times more [[purified]], like a looking-glass disk drawn from its case, like a mother-of-pearl dish well washed, like the [[moon's]] disk coming out from behind a cloud, like cranes against a [[thunder]] cloud. But it has neither {{Wiki|color}} nor shape; for if it had, it would be cognizable by the [[eye]], gross, susceptible of [[comprehension]] (by [[insight]]) and stamped with the [[three characteristics]]. But it is not like that. For it is born only of [[perception]] in one who has obtained [[concentration]], being a mere mode of [[appearance]] (Vism. 125-26; PP.130) |
− | The counterpart sign is the object of both access concentration and jhana, which differ neither in their object nor in the removal of the hindrances but in the strength of their respective jhana factors. In the former the factors are still weak, not yet fully developed, while in the jhana they are strong enough to make the mind fully absorbed in the object. In this process applied thought is the factor primarily responsible for directing the mind towards the counterpart sign and thrusting it in with the force of full absorption. | + | The [[counterpart sign]] is the [[object]] of both [[access concentration]] and [[jhana]], which differ neither in their [[object]] nor in the removal of the [[hindrances]] but in the strength of their respective [[jhana]] factors. In the former the factors are still weak, not yet fully developed, while in the [[jhana]] they are strong enough to make the [[mind]] fully absorbed in the [[object]]. In this process applied [[thought]] is the factor primarily responsible for directing the [[mind]] towards the [[counterpart sign]] and thrusting it in with the force of full [[absorption]]. |
− | ===Sustained Thought (vicara)=== | + | ===Sustained [[Thought]] ([[vicara]])=== |
− | Vicara seems to represent a more developed phase of the thought process than vitakka. The commentaries explain that it has the characteristic of "continued pressure" on the object (Vim. 142; PP.148). Applied thought is described as the first impact of the mind on the object, the gross inceptive phase of thought; sustained thought is described as the act of anchoring the mind on the object, the subtle phase of continued mental pressure. Buddhaghosa illustrates the difference between the two with a series of similes. Applied thought is like striking a bell, sustained thought like the ringing; applied thought is like a bee's flying towards a flower, sustained thought like its buzzing around the flower; applied thought is like a compass pin that stays fixed to the center of a circle, sustained thought like the pin that revolves around (Vism. 142-43; PP.148-49). | + | [[Vicara]] seems to represent a more developed phase of the [[thought]] process than [[vitakka]]. The commentaries explain that it has the [[characteristic]] of "continued pressure" on the [[object]] (Vim. 142; PP.148). Applied [[thought]] is described as the first impact of the [[mind]] on the [[object]], the gross inceptive phase of [[thought]]; sustained [[thought]] is described as the act of anchoring the [[mind]] on the [[object]], the {{Wiki|subtle}} phase of continued [[mental]] pressure. [[Buddhaghosa]] illustrates the difference between the two with a series of similes. Applied [[thought]] is like striking a [[bell]], sustained [[thought]] like the ringing; applied [[thought]] is like a bee's flying towards a [[flower]], sustained [[thought]] like its buzzing around the [[flower]]; applied [[thought]] is like a {{Wiki|compass}} pin that stays fixed to the center of a circle, sustained [[thought]] like the pin that revolves around (Vism. 142-43; PP.148-49). |
− | These similes make it clear that applied thought and sustained thought functionally associated, perform different tasks. Applied thought brings the mind to the object, sustained thought fixes and anchors it there. Applied thought focuses the mind on the object, sustained thought examines and inspects what is focused on. Applied thought brings a deepening of concentration by again and again leading the mind back to the same object, sustained thought sustains the concentration achieved by keeping the mind anchored on that object. | + | These similes make it clear that applied [[thought]] and sustained [[thought]] functionally associated, perform different tasks. Applied [[thought]] brings the [[mind]] to the [[object]], sustained [[thought]] fixes and anchors it there. Applied [[thought]] focuses the [[mind]] on the [[object]], sustained [[thought]] examines and inspects what is focused on. Applied [[thought]] brings a deepening of [[concentration]] by again and again leading the [[mind]] back to the same [[object]], sustained [[thought]] sustains the [[concentration]] achieved by keeping the [[mind]] anchored on that [[object]]. |
− | ===Rapture (piti)=== | + | ===[[Rapture]] ([[piti]])=== |
− | The third factor present in the first jhana is piti, usually translated as joy or rapture.<ref>Ven Nanamoli, in his translation of the Visuddhimagga, renders piti by "happiness," but this rendering can be misleading since most translators use "happiness" as a rendering for sukha, the pleasurable feeling present in the jhana. We will render piti by "rapture," thus maintaining the connection of the term with ecstatic meditative experience. </ref> In the suttas piti is sometimes said to arise from another quality called pamojja, translated as joy or gladness, which springs up with the abandonment of the five hindrances. When the disciple sees the five hindrances abandoned in himself "gladness arises within him; thus gladdened, rapture arises in him; and when he is rapturous his body becomes tranquil" (D.i,73). Tranquillity in turn leads to happiness, on the basis of which the mind becomes concentrated. Thus rapture precedes the actual arising of the first jhana, but persists through the remaining stages up to the third jhana. | + | The third factor {{Wiki|present}} in the [[first jhana]] is [[piti]], usually translated as [[joy]] or [[rapture]].<ref>Ven [[Nanamoli]], in his translation of the [[Visuddhimagga]], renders [[piti]] by "[[happiness]]," but this rendering can be misleading since most [[translators]] use "[[happiness]]" as a rendering for [[sukha]], the [[pleasurable]] [[feeling]] {{Wiki|present}} in the [[jhana]]. We will render [[piti]] by "[[rapture]]," thus maintaining the connection of the term with {{Wiki|ecstatic}} [[meditative]] [[experience]]. </ref> In the [[suttas]] [[piti]] is sometimes said to arise from another [[quality]] called [[pamojja]], translated as [[joy]] or gladness, which springs up with the [[abandonment]] of the [[five hindrances]]. When the [[disciple]] sees the [[five hindrances]] abandoned in himself "gladness arises within him; thus gladdened, [[rapture]] arises in him; and when he is rapturous his [[body]] becomes [[tranquil]]" (D.i,73). [[Tranquillity]] in turn leads to [[happiness]], on the basis of which the [[mind]] becomes [[concentrated]]. Thus [[rapture]] precedes the actual [[arising]] of the [[first jhana]], but persists through the remaining stages up to the [[third jhana]]. |
− | The Vibhanga defines piti as "gladness, joy, joyfulness, mirth, merriment, exultation, exhilaration, and satisfaction of mind" (Vbh. 257). The commentaries ascribe to it the characteristic of endearing, the function of refreshing the body and mind or pervading with rapture, and the manifestation as elation (Vism.143; PP.149). Shwe Zan Aung explains that "piti abstracted means interest of varying degrees of intensity, in an object felt as desirable or as calculated to bring happiness."<ref>Shwe Zan Aung, Compendium of Philosophy (London: Pali Text Society, 1960), p243. </ref> | + | The [[Vibhanga]] defines [[piti]] as "gladness, [[joy]], [[joyfulness]], mirth, merriment, [[exultation]], exhilaration, and [[satisfaction]] of [[mind]]" (Vbh. 257). The commentaries ascribe to it the [[characteristic]] of endearing, the [[function]] of refreshing the [[body]] and [[mind]] or pervading with [[rapture]], and the [[manifestation]] as {{Wikidictionary|elation}} (Vism.143; PP.149). [[Shwe Zan Aung]] explains that "[[piti]] abstracted means [[interest]] of varying degrees of intensity, in an [[object]] felt as desirable or as calculated to bring [[happiness]]."<ref>[[Shwe Zan Aung]], Compendium of [[Philosophy]] ({{Wiki|London}}: [[Pali Text Society]], 1960), p243. </ref> |
− | When defined in terms of agency, piti is that which creates interest in the object; when defined in terms of its nature it is the interest in the object. Because it creates a positive interest in the object, the jhana factor of rapture is able to counter and suppress the hindrance of ill will, a state of aversion implying a negative evaluation of the object. | + | When defined in terms of agency, [[piti]] is that which creates [[interest]] in the [[object]]; when defined in terms of its [[nature]] it is the [[interest]] in the [[object]]. Because it creates a positive [[interest]] in the [[object]], the [[jhana]] factor of [[rapture]] is [[able]] to counter and suppress the [[hindrance]] of [[ill will]], a [[state]] of [[aversion]] implying a negative {{Wiki|evaluation}} of the [[object]]. |
− | Rapture is graded into five categories: minor rapture, momentary rapture, showering rapture, uplifting rapture and pervading rapture.<ref>Khuddhikapiti, khanikapiti, okkantikapiti, ubbega piti and pharana piti. Vism 143-44; PP. 149-51. Dhs.A.158. </ref> Minor rapture is generally the first to appear in the progressive development of meditation; it is capable of causing the hairs of the body to rise. Momentary rapture, which is like lightning, comes next but cannot be sustained for long. Showering rapture runs through the body in waves, producing a thrill but without leaving a lasting impact. Uplifting rapture, which can cause levitation, is more sustained but still tends to disturb concentration, The form of rapture most conductive to the attainment of jhana is all-pervading rapture, which is said to suffuse the whole body so that it becomes like a full bladder or like a mountain cavern inundated with a mighty flood of water. The Visuddhimagga states that what is intended by the jhana factor of rapture is this all-pervading rapture "which is the root of absorption and comes by growth into association with absorption" (Vism.144; PP.151) | + | [[Rapture]] is graded into five categories: minor [[rapture]], momentary [[rapture]], showering [[rapture]], uplifting [[rapture]] and pervading [[rapture]].<ref>[[Khuddhikapiti]], [[khanikapiti]], [[okkantikapiti]], [[ubbega piti]] and [[pharana piti]]. Vism 143-44; PP. 149-51. Dhs.A.158. </ref> Minor [[rapture]] is generally the first to appear in the progressive [[development]] of [[meditation]]; it is capable of causing the hairs of the [[body]] to rise. Momentary [[rapture]], which is like {{Wiki|lightning}}, comes next but cannot be sustained for long. Showering [[rapture]] runs through the [[body]] in waves, producing a thrill but without leaving a lasting impact. Uplifting [[rapture]], which can [[cause]] [[levitation]], is more sustained but still tends to disturb [[concentration]], The [[form]] of [[rapture]] most conductive to the [[attainment]] of [[jhana]] is all-pervading [[rapture]], which is said to suffuse the whole [[body]] so that it becomes like a full bladder or like a mountain cavern inundated with a mighty flood of [[water]]. The [[Visuddhimagga]] states that what is intended by the [[jhana]] factor of [[rapture]] is this all-pervading [[rapture]] "which is the [[root]] of [[absorption]] and comes by growth into association with [[absorption]]" (Vism.144; PP.151) |
− | ===Happiness (sukha)=== | + | ===[[Happiness]] ([[sukha]])=== |
− | As a factor of the first jhana, sukha signifies pleasant feeling. The word is explicitly defined in the sense by the Vibhanga in its analysis of the first jhana: "Therein, what is happiness? Mental pleasure and happiness born of mind-contact, the felt pleasure and happiness born of mind-contact, pleasurable and happy feeling born of mind contact -- this is called 'happiness' " (Vbh.257). The Visuddhimagga explains that happiness in the first jhana has the characteristic of gratifying, the function of intensifying associated states, and as manifestation, the rendering of aid to its associated states (Vism. 145; PP.151). | + | As a factor of the [[first jhana]], [[sukha]] {{Wiki|signifies}} [[pleasant]] [[feeling]]. The [[word]] is explicitly defined in the [[sense]] by the [[Vibhanga]] in its analysis of the [[first jhana]]: "Therein, what is [[happiness]]? [[Mental]] [[pleasure]] and [[happiness]] born of [[mind-contact]], the felt [[pleasure]] and [[happiness]] born of [[mind-contact]], [[pleasurable]] and [[happy]] [[feeling]] born of [[mind]] [[contact]] -- this is called '[[happiness]]' " (Vbh.257). The [[Visuddhimagga]] explains that [[happiness]] in the [[first jhana]] has the [[characteristic]] of gratifying, the [[function]] of intensifying associated states, and as [[manifestation]], the rendering of aid to its associated states (Vism. 145; PP.151). |
− | Rapture and happiness link together in a very close relationship, but though the two are difficult to distinguish, they are not identical. Happiness is a feeling (vedana);, rapture a mental formation (sankhara). Happiness always accompanies rapture, so that when rapture is present happiness must always be present; but rapture does not always accompany happiness, for in the third jhana, as we will see, there is happiness but no rapture. The Atthasalini, which explains rapture as "delight in the attaining of the desired object" and happiness as "the enjoyment of the taste of what is required," illustrates the difference by means of a simile: | + | [[Rapture]] and [[happiness]] link together in a very close relationship, but though the two are difficult to distinguish, they are not [[identical]]. [[Happiness]] is a [[feeling]] ([[vedana]]);, [[rapture]] a [[mental formation]] ([[sankhara]]). [[Happiness]] always accompanies [[rapture]], so that when [[rapture]] is {{Wiki|present}} [[happiness]] must always be {{Wiki|present}}; but [[rapture]] does not always accompany [[happiness]], for in the [[third jhana]], as we will see, there is [[happiness]] but no [[rapture]]. The [[Atthasalini]], which explains [[rapture]] as "[[delight]] in the [[attaining]] of the [[desired]] [[object]]" and [[happiness]] as "the [[enjoyment]] of the {{Wiki|taste}} of what is required," illustrates the difference by means of a simile: |
− | Rapture is like a weary traveler in the desert in summer, who hears of, or sees water of a shady wood. Ease [happiness] is like his enjoying the water of entering the forest shade. For a man who, traveling along the path through a great desert and overcome by the heat, is thirsty and desirous of drink, if he saw a man on the way, would ask 'Where is water?' The other would say, 'Beyond the wood is a dense forest with a natural lake. Go there, and you will get some.' He, hearing these words, would be glad and delighted and as he went would see lotus leaves, etc., fallen on the ground and become more glad and delighted. Going onwards, he would see men with wet clothes and hair, hear the sounds of wild fowl and pea-fowl, etc., see the dense forest of green like a net of jewels growing by the edge of the natural lake, he would see the water lily, the lotus, the white lily, etc., growing in the lake, he would see the clear transparent water, he would be all the more glad and delighted, would descend into the natural lake, bathe and drink at pleasure and, his oppression being allayed, he would eat the fibers and stalks of the lilies, adorn himself with the blue lotus, carry on his shoulders the roots of the mandalaka, ascend from the lake, put on his clothes, dry the bathing cloth in the sun, and in the cool shade where the breeze blew ever so gently lay himself down and saw: 'O bliss! O bliss!' Thus should this illustration be applied. The time of gladness and delight from when he heard of the natural lake and the dense forest till he say the water is like rapture having the manner of gladness and delight at the object in view. The time when, after his bath and dried he laid himself down in the cool shade, saying, 'O bliss! O bliss!' etc., is the sense of ease [happiness] grown strong, established in that mode of enjoying the taste of the object.<ref>Dhs.A.160-61. Translation by Maung Tin, The Expositor (Atthasalini) (London: Pali Text Society, 1921), i.155-56. </ref> | + | [[Rapture]] is like a weary traveler in the desert in summer, who hears of, or sees [[water]] of a shady [[wood]]. Ease ([[happiness]]) is like his enjoying the [[water]] of entering the {{Wiki|forest}} shade. For a man who, traveling along the [[path]] through a great desert and overcome by the heat, is thirsty and desirous of drink, if he saw a man on the way, would ask 'Where is [[water]]?' The other would say, 'Beyond the [[wood]] is a dense {{Wiki|forest}} with a natural [[lake]]. Go there, and you will get some.' He, hearing these words, would be glad and [[delighted]] and as he went would see [[lotus]] leaves, etc., fallen on the ground and become more glad and [[delighted]]. Going onwards, he would see men with wet [[clothes]] and [[hair]], hear the {{Wiki|sounds}} of wild fowl and pea-fowl, etc., see the dense {{Wiki|forest}} of [[green]] like a net of [[jewels]] growing by the edge of the natural [[lake]], he would see the [[water]] lily, the [[lotus]], the white lily, etc., growing in the [[lake]], he would see the clear transparent [[water]], he would be all the more glad and [[delighted]], would descend into the natural [[lake]], bathe and drink at [[pleasure]] and, his oppression being allayed, he would eat the fibers and stalks of the lilies, adorn himself with the [[blue lotus]], carry on his shoulders the [[roots]] of the mandalaka, ascend from the [[lake]], put on his [[clothes]], dry the [[bathing cloth]] in the {{Wiki|sun}}, and in the cool shade where the breeze blew ever so gently lay himself down and saw: 'O [[bliss]]! O [[bliss]]!' Thus should this illustration be applied. The [[time]] of gladness and [[delight]] from when he heard of the natural [[lake]] and the dense {{Wiki|forest}} till he say the [[water]] is like [[rapture]] having the [[manner]] of gladness and [[delight]] at the [[object]] in [[view]]. The [[time]] when, after his bath and dried he laid himself down in the cool shade, saying, 'O [[bliss]]! O [[bliss]]!' etc., is the [[sense]] of ease ([[happiness]]) grown strong, established in that mode of enjoying the {{Wiki|taste}} of the [[object]].<ref>Dhs.A.160-61. Translation by [[Maung Tin]], The [[Expositor]] ([[Atthasalini]]) ({{Wiki|London}}: [[Pali Text Society]], 1921), i.155-56. </ref> |
− | Since rapture and happiness co-exist in the first jhana, this simile should not be taken to imply that they are mutually exclusive. Its purport is to suggest that rapture gains prominence before happiness, for which it helps provide a causal foundation. | + | Since [[rapture]] and [[happiness]] co-exist in the [[first jhana]], this simile should not be taken to imply that they are mutually exclusive. Its purport is to suggest that [[rapture]] gains prominence before [[happiness]], for which it helps provide a causal foundation. |
− | In the description of the first jhana, rapture and happiness are said to be "born of seclusion" and to suffuse the whole body of the meditator in such a way that there is no part of his body which remains unaffected by them: | + | In the description of the [[first jhana]], [[rapture]] and [[happiness]] are said to be "born of [[seclusion]]" and to suffuse the whole [[body]] of the [[meditator]] in such a way that there is no part of his [[body]] which remains unaffected by them: |
− | Monks, secluded from sense pleasure ... a monk enters and dwells in the first jhana. He steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rapture and happiness born of seclusion, so that there is no part of his entire body that is not suffused with this rapture and happiness. Just as a skilled bath-attendant or his apprentice might strew bathing powder in a copper basin, sprinkle it again and again with water, and knead it together so that the mass of bathing soap would be pervaded, suffused, and saturated with moisture inside and out yet would not ooze moisture, so a monk steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rapture and happiness born of seclusion, so that, there is no part of his entire body that is not suffused with this rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (D.i,74) | + | [[Monks]], secluded from [[sense]] [[pleasure]] ... a [[monk]] enters and dwells in the [[first jhana]]. He steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his [[body]] with the [[rapture]] and [[happiness]] born of [[seclusion]], so that there is no part of his entire [[body]] that is not suffused with this [[rapture]] and [[happiness]]. Just as a [[skilled]] bath-attendant or his apprentice might strew bathing powder in a {{Wiki|copper}} basin, sprinkle it again and again with [[water]], and knead it together so that the {{Wiki|mass}} of bathing soap would be pervaded, suffused, and saturated with [[moisture]] inside and out yet would not ooze [[moisture]], so a [[monk]] steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his [[body]] with the [[rapture]] and [[happiness]] born of [[seclusion]], so that, there is no part of his entire [[body]] that is not suffused with this [[rapture]] and [[happiness]] born of [[seclusion]]. (D.i,74) |
− | ===One-pointedness (ekaggata)=== | + | ===[[One-pointedness]] ([[ekaggata]])=== |
− | Unlike the previous four jhana factors, one-pointedness is not specifically mentioned in the standard formula for the first jhana, but it is included among the jhana factors by the Mahavedalla Sutta (M.i,294) as well as in the Abhidhamma and the commentaries. One-pointedness is a universal mental concomitant, the factor by virtue of which the mind is centered upon its object. It brings the mind to a single point, the point occupied by the object. | + | Unlike the previous four [[jhana]] factors, [[one-pointedness]] is not specifically mentioned in the standard [[formula]] for the [[first jhana]], but it is included among the [[jhana]] factors by the [[Mahavedalla Sutta]] (M.i,294) as well as in the [[Abhidhamma]] and the commentaries. [[One-pointedness]] is a [[universal]] [[mental]] [[concomitant]], the factor by [[virtue]] of which the [[mind]] is centered upon its [[object]]. It brings the [[mind]] to a single point, the point occupied by the [[object]]. |
− | One-pointedness is used in the text as a synonym for concentration (samadhi) which has the characteristic of non-distraction, the function of eliminating distractions, non-wavering as its manifestation, and happiness as its proximate cause (Vism.85; PP.85). As a jhana factor one-pointedness is always directed to a wholesome object and wards off unwholesome influences, in particular the hindrance of sensual desire. As the hindrances are absent in jhana one-pointedness acquires special strength, based on the previous sustained effort of concentration. | + | [[One-pointedness]] is used in the text as a {{Wiki|synonym}} for [[concentration]] ([[samadhi]]) which has the [[characteristic]] of non-distraction, the [[function]] of eliminating {{Wiki|distractions}}, non-wavering as its [[manifestation]], and [[happiness]] as its proximate [[cause]] (Vism.85; PP.85). As a [[jhana]] factor [[one-pointedness]] is always directed to a [[wholesome]] [[object]] and wards off [[unwholesome]] [[influences]], in particular the [[hindrance]] of [[sensual desire]]. As the [[hindrances]] are absent in [[jhana]] [[one-pointedness]] acquires special strength, based on the previous sustained [[effort]] of [[concentration]]. |
− | Besides the five jhana factors, the first jhana contains a great number of other mental factors functioning in unison as coordinate members of a single state of consciousness. Already the Anupada Sutta lists such additional components of the first jhana as contact, feeling, perception, volition, consciousness, desire, decision, energy, mindfulness, equanimity and attention (M.iii,25). In the Abhidhamma literature this is extended still further up to thirty-three indispensable components. Nevertheless, only five states are called the factors of the first jhana, for only these have the functions of inhibiting the five hindrances and fixing the mind in absorption. For the jhana to arise all these five factors must be present simultaneously, exercising their special operations: | + | Besides the five [[jhana]] factors, the [[first jhana]] contains a great number of other [[mental factors]] functioning in [[unison]] as coordinate members of a single [[state of consciousness]]. Already the [[Anupada Sutta]] lists such additional components of the [[first jhana]] as [[contact]], [[feeling]], [[perception]], [[Wikipedia:Volition (psychology)|volition]], [[consciousness]], [[desire]], [[decision]], [[energy]], [[mindfulness]], [[equanimity]] and [[attention]] (M.iii,25). In the [[Abhidhamma]] {{Wiki|literature}} this is extended still further up to [[thirty-three]] indispensable components. Nevertheless, only five states are called the factors of the [[first jhana]], for only these have the functions of inhibiting the [[five hindrances]] and fixing the [[mind]] in [[absorption]]. For the [[jhana]] to arise all these five factors must be {{Wiki|present}} simultaneously, exercising their special operations: |
− | But applied thought directs the mind onto the object; sustained thought keeps it anchored there. Happiness [rapture] produced by the success of the effort refreshes the mind whose effort has succeeded through not being distracted by those hindrances; and bliss [happiness] intensifies it for the same reason. Then unification aided by this directing onto, this anchoring, this refreshing and this intensifying, evenly and rightly centers the mind with its remaining associated states on the object consisting in unity. Consequently possession of five factors should be understood as the arising of these five, namely, applied thought, sustained thought, happiness [rapture], bliss [happiness], and unification of mind. For it is when these are arisen that jhana is said to be arisen, which is why they are called the five factors of possession. (Vism.146;PP.152) | + | But applied [[thought]] directs the [[mind]] onto the [[object]]; sustained [[thought]] keeps it anchored there. [[Happiness]] ([[rapture]]) produced by the [[success]] of the [[effort]] refreshes the [[mind]] whose [[effort]] has succeeded through not being distracted by those [[hindrances]]; and [[bliss]] ([[happiness]]) intensifies it for the same [[reason]]. Then unification aided by this directing onto, this anchoring, this refreshing and this intensifying, evenly and rightly centers the [[mind]] with its remaining associated states on the [[object]] consisting in {{Wiki|unity}}. Consequently possession of five factors should be understood as the [[arising]] of these five, namely, applied [[thought]], sustained [[thought]], [[happiness]] ([[rapture]]), [[bliss]] ([[happiness]]), and unification of [[mind]]. For it is when these are arisen that [[jhana]] is said to be arisen, which is why they are called the five factors of possession. (Vism.146;PP.152) |
− | Each jhana factor serves as support for the one which succeeds it. Applied thought must direct the mind to its object in order for sustained thought to anchor it there. Only when the mind is anchored can the interest develop which will culminate in rapture. As rapture develops it brings happiness to maturity, and this spiritual happiness, by providing an alternative to the fickle pleasures of the senses, aids the growth of one-pointedness. In this way, as Nagasena explains, all the other wholesome states lead to concentration, which stands at their head like the apex on the roof of a house (Miln. 38-39). | + | Each [[jhana]] factor serves as support for the one which succeeds it. Applied [[thought]] must direct the [[mind]] to its [[object]] in order for sustained [[thought]] to anchor it there. Only when the [[mind]] is anchored can the [[interest]] develop which will culminate in [[rapture]]. As [[rapture]] develops it brings [[happiness]] to maturity, and this [[spiritual]] [[happiness]], by providing an alternative to the fickle [[pleasures]] of the [[senses]], aids the growth of [[one-pointedness]]. In this way, as [[Nagasena]] explains, all the other [[wholesome]] states lead to [[concentration]], which stands at their head like the apex on the roof of a house (Miln. 38-39). |
− | ===Perfecting the First Jhana=== | + | ===Perfecting the [[First Jhana]]=== |
− | The difference between access and absorption concentration, as we have said, does not lie in the absence of the hindrances, which is common to both, but in the relative strength of the jhana factors. In access the factors are weak so that concentration is fragile, comparable to a child who walks a few steps and then falls down. But in absorption the jhana factors are strong and well developed so that the mind can remain continuously in concentration just as a healthy man can remain standing on his feet for a whole day and night (Vism.126; PP.131). | + | The difference between access and [[absorption]] [[concentration]], as we have said, does not lie in the absence of the [[hindrances]], which is common to both, but in the [[relative]] strength of the [[jhana]] factors. In access the factors are weak so that [[concentration]] is fragile, comparable to a child who walks a few steps and then falls down. But in [[absorption]] the [[jhana]] factors are strong and well developed so that the [[mind]] can remain continuously in [[concentration]] just as a healthy man can remain [[standing]] on his feet for a whole day and night (Vism.126; PP.131). |
− | Because full absorption offers the benefit of strengthened concentration, a meditator who gains access is encouraged to strive for the attainment of jhana. To develop his practice several important measures are recommended.<ref>The following is based on Vism. 126-35; PP.132-40 </ref> The meditator should live in a suitable dwelling, rely upon a suitable alms resort, avoid profitless talk, associate only with spiritually-minded companions, make use only of suitable food, live in a congenial climate, and maintain his practice in a suitable posture. He should also cultivate the ten kinds of skill in absorption. He should clean his lodging and his physical body so that they conduce to clear meditation, balance his spiritual faculties by seeing that faith is balanced with wisdom and energy with concentration, and he must be skillful in producing and developing the sign of concentration (1-3). He should exert the mind when it is slack, restrain it when it is agitated, encourage it when it is restless or dejected, and look at the mind with equanimity when all is proceeding well (4-7). The meditator should avoid distracting persons, should approach people experienced in concentration, and should be firm in his resolution to attain jhana (8-10). | + | Because full [[absorption]] offers the [[benefit]] of strengthened [[concentration]], a [[meditator]] who gains access is encouraged to strive for the [[attainment]] of [[jhana]]. To develop his practice several important measures are recommended.<ref>The following is based on Vism. 126-35; PP.132-40 </ref> The [[meditator]] should live in a suitable dwelling, rely upon a suitable [[alms]] resort, avoid profitless talk, associate only with spiritually-minded companions, make use only of suitable [[food]], live in a congenial climate, and maintain his practice in a suitable [[posture]]. He should also cultivate the ten kinds of skill in [[absorption]]. He should clean his lodging and his [[physical body]] so that they conduce to clear [[meditation]], [[balance]] his [[spiritual faculties]] by [[seeing]] that [[faith]] is balanced with [[wisdom]] and [[energy]] with [[concentration]], and he must be [[skillful]] in producing and developing the sign of [[concentration]] (1-3). He should exert the [[mind]] when it is slack, restrain it when it is agitated, encourage it when it is restless or dejected, and look at the [[mind]] with [[equanimity]] when all is proceeding well (4-7). The [[meditator]] should avoid distracting persons, should approach [[people]] [[experienced]] in [[concentration]], and should be firm in his resolution to attain [[jhana]] (8-10). |
− | After attaining the first jhana a few times the meditator is not advised to set out immediately striving for the second jhana. This would be a foolish and profitless spiritual ambition. Before he is prepared to make the second jhana the goal of his endeavor he must first bring the first jhana to perfection. If he is too eager to reach the second jhana before he has perfected the first, he is likely to fail to gain the second and find himself unable to regain the first. The Buddha compares such a meditator to a foolish cow who, while still unfamiliar with her own pasture, sets out for new pastures and gets lost in the mountains: she fails to find food or drink and is unable to find her way home (A.iv, 418-19). | + | After [[attaining]] the [[first jhana]] a few times the [[meditator]] is not advised to set out immediately striving for the [[second jhana]]. This would be a [[foolish]] and profitless [[spiritual]] [[ambition]]. Before he is prepared to make the [[second jhana]] the goal of his endeavor he must first bring the [[first jhana]] to [[perfection]]. If he is too eager to reach the [[second jhana]] before he has perfected the first, he is likely to fail to gain the second and find himself unable to regain the first. The [[Buddha]] compares such a [[meditator]] to a [[foolish]] {{Wiki|cow}} who, while still unfamiliar with her [[own]] pasture, sets out for new pastures and gets lost in the [[mountains]]: she fails to find [[food]] or drink and is unable to find her way [[home]] (A.iv, 418-19). |
− | The perfecting of the first jhana involves two steps: the extension of the sign and the achievement of the five masteries. The extension of the sign means extending the size of the counterpart sign, the object of the jhana. Beginning with a small area, the size of one or two fingers, the meditator gradually learns to broaden the sign until the mental image can be made to cover the world-sphere or even beyond (Vism. 152-53; PP.158-59). | + | The perfecting of the [[first jhana]] involves two steps: the extension of the sign and the [[achievement]] of the [[five masteries]]. The extension of the sign means extending the size of the [[counterpart sign]], the [[object]] of the [[jhana]]. Beginning with a small area, the size of one or two fingers, the [[meditator]] gradually learns to broaden the sign until the [[mental]] image can be made to cover the world-sphere or even beyond (Vism. 152-53; PP.158-59). |
− | Following this the meditator should try to acquire five kinds of mastery over the jhana: mastery in adverting, in attaining, in resolving, in emerging and in reviewing.<ref>Avajjanavasi, samapajjanavasi, adhitthanavasi, vutthanavasi, paccavekkhanavasi. For a discussion see Vism. 154-55; PP.160-61. The canonical source for the five masteries is the Patisambhidamagga, i.100. </ref> Mastery in adverting is the ability to advert to the jhana factors one by one after emerging from the jhana, wherever he wants, whenever he wants, and for as long as he wants. Mastery in attaining is the ability to enter upon jhana quickly, mastery in resolving the ability to remain in the jhana for exactly the pre-determined length of time, mastery in emerging the ability to emerge from jhana quickly without difficulty, and mastery in reviewing the ability to review the jhana and its factors with retrospective knowledge immediately after adverting to them. When the meditator has achieved this fivefold mastery, then he is ready to strive for the second jhana. | + | Following this the [[meditator]] should try to acquire five kinds of [[mastery]] over the [[jhana]]: [[mastery]] in adverting, in [[attaining]], in resolving, in [[emerging]] and in reviewing.<ref>[[Avajjanavasi]], [[samapajjanavasi]], [[adhitthanavasi]], [[vutthanavasi]], [[paccavekkhanavasi]]. For a [[discussion]] see Vism. 154-55; PP.160-61. The [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] source for the [[five masteries]] is the [[Patisambhidamagga]], i.100. </ref> [[Mastery]] in adverting is the ability to advert to the [[jhana]] factors one by one after [[emerging]] from the [[jhana]], wherever he wants, whenever he wants, and for as long as he wants. [[Mastery]] in [[attaining]] is the ability to enter upon [[jhana]] quickly, [[mastery]] in resolving the ability to remain in the [[jhana]] for exactly the pre-determined length of [[time]], [[mastery]] in [[emerging]] the ability to emerge from [[jhana]] quickly without difficulty, and [[mastery]] in reviewing the ability to review the [[jhana]] and its factors with retrospective [[knowledge]] immediately after adverting to them. When the [[meditator]] has achieved this fivefold [[mastery]], then he is ready to strive for the [[second jhana]]. |
− | ==Chapter 4<br/>The Higher Jhanas== | + | ==[[Chapter]] 4<br/>The Higher [[Jhanas]]== |
− | In this chapter we will survey the higher states of jhana. First we will discuss the remaining three jhanas of the fine-material sphere, using the descriptive formulas of the suttas as our starting point and the later literature as our source for the methods of practice that lead to these attainments. Following this we will consider the four meditative states that pertain to the immaterial sphere, which come to be called the immaterial jhanas. Our examination will bring out the dynamic character of the process by which the jhanas are successively achieved. The attainment of the higher jhanas of the fine-material sphere, we will see, involves the successive elimination of the grosser factors and the bringing to prominence of the subtler ones, the attainment of the formless jhanas the replacement of grosser objects with successively more refined objects. From our study it will become clear that the jhanas link together in a graded sequence of development in which the lower serves as basis for the higher and the higher intensifies and purifies states already present in the lower. We will end the chapter with a brief look at the connection between the jhanas and the Buddhist teaching of rebirth. | + | In this [[chapter]] we will survey the higher states of [[jhana]]. First we will discuss the remaining three [[jhanas]] of the [[fine-material sphere]], using the descriptive [[formulas]] of the [[suttas]] as our starting point and the later {{Wiki|literature}} as our source for the methods of practice that lead to these [[attainments]]. Following this we will consider the four [[meditative]] states that pertain to the [[immaterial sphere]], which come to be called the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]]. Our {{Wiki|examination}} will bring out the dynamic [[character]] of the process by which the [[jhanas]] are [[successively]] achieved. The [[attainment]] of the higher [[jhanas]] of the [[fine-material sphere]], we will see, involves the successive elimination of the grosser factors and the bringing to prominence of the subtler ones, the [[attainment]] of the [[formless]] [[jhanas]] the replacement of grosser [[objects]] with [[successively]] more refined [[objects]]. From our study it will become clear that the [[jhanas]] link together in a graded sequence of [[development]] in which the lower serves as basis for the higher and the higher intensifies and purifies states already {{Wiki|present}} in the lower. We will end the [[chapter]] with a brief look at the connection between the [[jhanas]] and the [[Buddhist teaching]] of [[rebirth]]. |
− | ===The Higher Fine-material Jhanas=== | + | ===The Higher Fine-material [[Jhanas]]=== |
− | The formula for the attainment of the second jhana runs as follows: | + | The [[formula]] for the [[attainment]] of the [[second jhana]] runs as follows: |
− | : With the subsiding of applied thought and sustained thought he enters and dwells in the second jhana, which has internal confidence and unification of mind, is without applied thought and sustained thought, and is filled with rapture and happiness born of concentration (M.i,181; Vbh. 245) | + | : With the subsiding of applied [[thought]] and sustained [[thought]] he enters and dwells in the [[second jhana]], which has internal [[confidence]] and unification of [[mind]], is without applied [[thought]] and sustained [[thought]], and is filled with [[rapture]] and [[happiness]] born of [[concentration]] (M.i,181; Vbh. 245) |
− | The second jhana, like the first, is attained by eliminating the factors to be abandoned and by developing the factors of possession. In this case however, the factors to be abandoned are the two initial factors of the first jhana itself, applied thought and sustained thought; the factors of possession are the three remaining jhana factors, rapture, happiness and one-pointedness. Hence the formula begins "with the subsiding of applied thought and sustained thought," and then mentions the jhana's positive endowments. | + | The [[second jhana]], like the first, is [[attained]] by eliminating the factors to be abandoned and by developing the factors of possession. In this case however, the factors to be abandoned are the two initial factors of the [[first jhana]] itself, applied [[thought]] and sustained [[thought]]; the factors of possession are the three remaining [[jhana]] factors, [[rapture]], [[happiness]] and [[one-pointedness]]. Hence the [[formula]] begins "with the subsiding of applied [[thought]] and sustained [[thought]]," and then mentions the jhana's positive endowments. |
− | After achieving the five kinds of mastery over the first jhana, a meditator who wishes to reach the second jhana should enter the first jhana and contemplate its defects. These are twofold: one, which might be called the defect of proximate corruption, is the nearness of the five hindrances, against which the first jhana provides only a relatively mild safeguard; the other defect, inherent to the first jhana, is its inclusion of applied and sustained thought, which now appear as gross, even as impediments needing to be eliminated to attain the more peaceful and subtle second jhana. | + | After achieving the five kinds of [[mastery]] over the [[first jhana]], a [[meditator]] who wishes to reach the [[second jhana]] should enter the [[first jhana]] and [[contemplate]] its defects. These are twofold: one, which might be called the defect of proximate corruption, is the [[nearness]] of the [[five hindrances]], against which the [[first jhana]] provides only a relatively mild safeguard; the other defect, [[inherent]] to the [[first jhana]], is its inclusion of applied and sustained [[thought]], which now appear as gross, even as impediments needing to be eliminated to attain the more [[peaceful]] and {{Wiki|subtle}} [[second jhana]]. |
− | By reflecting upon the second jhana as more tranquil and sublime than the first, the meditator ends his attachment to the first jhana and engages in renewed striving with the aim of reaching the higher stage. He directs his mind to his meditation subject -- which must be one capable of inducing the higher jhanas such as a kasina or the breath -- and resolves to overcome applied and sustained thought. When his practice comes to maturity the two kinds of thought subside and the second jhana arises. In the second jhana only three of the original five jhana factors remain -- rapture, happiness, and one-pointedness. Moreover, with the elimination of the two grosser factors these have acquired a subtler and more peaceful tone.<ref>Based on the distinction between applied and sustained thought, the Abhidhamma presents a fivefold division of the jhanas obtained by recognizing the sequential rather than simultaneous elimination of the two kinds of thought. On this account a meditator of duller faculties eliminates applied thought first and attains a second jhana with four factors including sustained thought, and a third jhana identical with the second jhana of the fourfold scheme. In contrast a meditator of sharp faculties comprehends quickly the defects of both applied and sustained thought and so eliminates them both at once. </ref> | + | By {{Wiki|reflecting}} upon the [[second jhana]] as more [[tranquil]] and [[sublime]] than the first, the [[meditator]] ends his [[attachment]] to the [[first jhana]] and engages in renewed striving with the aim of reaching the higher stage. He directs his [[mind]] to his [[meditation]] [[subject]] -- which must be one capable of inducing the higher [[jhanas]] such as a [[kasina]] or the [[breath]] -- and resolves to overcome applied and sustained [[thought]]. When his practice comes to maturity the two kinds of [[thought]] subside and the [[second jhana]] arises. In the [[second jhana]] only three of the original five [[jhana]] factors remain -- [[rapture]], [[happiness]], and [[one-pointedness]]. Moreover, with the elimination of the two grosser factors these have acquired a subtler and more [[peaceful]] tone.<ref>Based on the {{Wiki|distinction}} between applied and sustained [[thought]], the [[Abhidhamma]] presents a fivefold [[division]] of the [[jhanas]] obtained by [[recognizing]] the sequential rather than simultaneous elimination of the two kinds of [[thought]]. On this account a [[meditator]] of duller [[faculties]] eliminates applied [[thought]] first and attains a [[second jhana]] with four factors including sustained [[thought]], and a [[third jhana]] [[identical]] with the [[second jhana]] of the fourfold scheme. In contrast a [[meditator]] of sharp [[faculties]] comprehends quickly the defects of both applied and sustained [[thought]] and so eliminates them both at once. </ref> |
− | Besides the main jhana factors, the canonical formula includes several other states in its description of the second jhana. "Internal confidence" (ajjhattamsampasadanam), conveys the twofold meaning of faith and tranquillity. In the first jhana the meditator's faith lacked full clarity and serenity due to "the disturbance created by applied and sustained thought, like water ruffled by ripples and wavelets" (Vism. 157; PP.163). But when applied and sustained thought subside, the mind becomes very peaceful and the meditator's faith acquires fuller confidence. | + | Besides the main [[jhana]] factors, the [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] [[formula]] includes several other states in its description of the [[second jhana]]. "Internal [[confidence]]" ([[ajjhattamsampasadanam]]), conveys the twofold meaning of [[faith]] and [[tranquillity]]. In the [[first jhana]] the [[meditator's]] [[faith]] lacked full clarity and [[serenity]] due to "the {{Wiki|disturbance}} created by applied and sustained [[thought]], like [[water]] ruffled by ripples and wavelets" (Vism. 157; PP.163). But when applied and sustained [[thought]] subside, the [[mind]] becomes [[very peaceful]] and the [[meditator's]] [[faith]] acquires fuller [[confidence]]. |
− | The formula also mentions unification of mind (cetaso ekodibhavam), which is identified with one-pointedness or concentration. Though present in the first jhana, concentration only gains special mention in connection with the second jhana since it is here that it acquires eminence. In the first jhana concentration was still imperfect, being subject to the disturbing influence of applied and sustained thought. For the same reason this jhana, along with its constituent rapture and happiness, is said to be born of concentration (samadhijam): "It is only this concentration that is quite worthy to be called 'concentration' because of its complete confidence and extreme immobility due to absence of disturbance by applied and sustained thought" (Vism.158; PP.164). | + | The [[formula]] also mentions unification of [[mind]] (cetaso ekodibhavam), which is identified with [[one-pointedness]] or [[concentration]]. Though {{Wiki|present}} in the [[first jhana]], [[concentration]] only gains special mention in connection with the [[second jhana]] since it is here that it acquires eminence. In the [[first jhana]] [[concentration]] was still imperfect, being [[subject]] to the {{Wiki|disturbing}} influence of applied and sustained [[thought]]. For the same [[reason]] this [[jhana]], along with its constituent [[rapture]] and [[happiness]], is said to be born of [[concentration]] ([[samadhijam]]): "It is only this [[concentration]] that is quite [[worthy]] to be called '[[concentration]]' because of its complete [[confidence]] and extreme immobility due to absence of {{Wiki|disturbance}} by applied and sustained [[thought]]" (Vism.158; PP.164). |
− | To attain the third jhana the meditator must use the same method he used to ascend from the first jhana to the second. He must master the second jhana in the five ways, enter and emerge from it, and reflect upon its defects. In this case the defect of proximate corruption is the nearness of applied and sustained thought, which threaten to disrupt the serenity of the second jhana; its inherent defect is the presence of rapture, which now appears as a gross factor that should be discarded. Aware of the imperfections in the second jhana, the meditator cultivates indifference towards it and aspires instead for the peace and sublimity of the third jhana, towards the attainment of which he now directs his efforts. When his practice matures he enters the third jhana, which has the two jhana factors that remain when the rapture disappears, happiness and one-pointedness, and which the suttas describe as follows: | + | To attain the [[third jhana]] the [[meditator]] must use the same method he used to ascend from the [[first jhana]] to the second. He must [[master]] the [[second jhana]] in the five ways, enter and emerge from it, and reflect upon its defects. In this case the defect of proximate corruption is the [[nearness]] of applied and sustained [[thought]], which threaten to disrupt the [[serenity]] of the [[second jhana]]; its [[inherent]] defect is the presence of [[rapture]], which now appears as a gross factor that should be discarded. Aware of the imperfections in the [[second jhana]], the [[meditator]] cultivates [[indifference]] towards it and aspires instead for the [[peace]] and sublimity of the [[third jhana]], towards the [[attainment]] of which he now directs his efforts. When his practice matures he enters the [[third jhana]], which has the two [[jhana]] factors that remain when the [[rapture]] disappears, [[happiness]] and [[one-pointedness]], and which the [[suttas]] describe as follows: |
− | : With the fading away of rapture, he dwells in equanimity, mindful and discerning; and he experiences in his own person that happiness of which the noble ones say: 'Happily lives he who is equanimous and mindful' -- thus he enters and dwells in the third jhana. (M.i,182; Vbh.245) | + | : With the fading away of [[rapture]], he dwells in [[equanimity]], [[mindful]] and discerning; and he [[experiences]] in his [[own]] [[person]] that [[happiness]] of which the [[noble ones]] say: 'Happily [[lives]] he who is [[equanimous]] and [[mindful]]' -- thus he enters and dwells in the [[third jhana]]. (M.i,182; Vbh.245) |
− | The formula indicates that the third jhana contains, besides its two defining factors, three additional components not included among the jhana factors: equanimity, mindfulness and discernment. Equanimity is mentioned twice. The Pali word for equanimity, upekkha, occurs in the texts with a wide range of meanings, the most important being neutral feeling -- that is, feeling which is neither painful nor pleasant -- and the mental quality of inner balance or equipoise called "specific neutrality" (tatramajjhattata -- see Vism.161; PP.167). The equanimity referred to in the formula is a mode of specific neutrality which belongs to the aggregate of mental formations (sankharakkhandha) and thus should not be confused with equanimity as neutral feeling. Though the two are often associated, each can exist independently of the other, and in the third jhana equanimity as specific neutrality co-exists with happiness or pleasant feeling. | + | The [[formula]] indicates that the [[third jhana]] contains, besides its two defining factors, three additional components not included among the [[jhana]] factors: [[equanimity]], [[mindfulness]] and [[discernment]]. [[Equanimity]] is mentioned twice. The [[Pali]] [[word]] for [[equanimity]], [[upekkha]], occurs in the texts with a wide range of meanings, the most important being [[neutral]] [[feeling]] -- that is, [[feeling]] which is neither [[painful]] nor [[pleasant]] -- and the [[mental]] [[quality]] of inner [[balance]] or equipoise called "specific [[neutrality]]" ([[tatramajjhattata]] -- see Vism.161; PP.167). The [[equanimity]] referred to in the [[formula]] is a mode of specific [[neutrality]] which belongs to the [[aggregate]] of [[mental formations]] ([[sankharakkhandha]]) and thus should not be confused with [[equanimity]] as [[neutral]] [[feeling]]. Though the two are often associated, each can [[exist]] {{Wiki|independently}} of the other, and in the [[third jhana]] [[equanimity]] as specific [[neutrality]] co-exists with [[happiness]] or [[pleasant]] [[feeling]]. |
− | The meditator in third jhana is also said to be mindful and discerning, which points to another pair of frequently conjoined mental functions. Mindfulness (sati), in this context, means the remembrance of the meditation object, the constant bearing of the object in mind without allowing it to float away. Discernment (sampajanna) is an aspect of wisdom or understanding which scrutinizes the object and grasps its nature free from delusion. Though these two factors were already present even in the first two jhanas, they are first mentioned only in connection with the third since it is here that their efficacy becomes manifest. The two are needed particularly to avoid a return to rapture. Just as a suckling calf, removed from its mother and left unguarded, again approaches the mother, so the happiness of jhana tends to veer towards rapture, its natural partner, if unguarded by mindfulness and discernment (Dhs. A.219). To prevent this and the consequent loss of the third jhana is the task of mindfulness and discernment. | + | The [[meditator]] in [[third jhana]] is also said to be [[mindful]] and discerning, which points to another pair of frequently conjoined {{Wiki|mental functions}}. [[Mindfulness]] ([[sati]]), in this context, means the [[remembrance]] of the [[meditation]] [[object]], the [[constant]] bearing of the [[object]] in [[mind]] without allowing it to float away. [[Discernment]] ([[sampajanna]]) is an aspect of [[wisdom]] or [[understanding]] which scrutinizes the [[object]] and [[grasps]] its [[nature]] free from [[delusion]]. Though these two factors were already {{Wiki|present}} even in the first two [[jhanas]], they are first mentioned only in connection with the third since it is here that their efficacy becomes [[manifest]]. The two are needed particularly to avoid a return to [[rapture]]. Just as a suckling calf, removed from its mother and left unguarded, again approaches the mother, so the [[happiness]] of [[jhana]] tends to veer towards [[rapture]], its natural partner, if unguarded by [[mindfulness]] and [[discernment]] (Dhs. A.219). To prevent this and the consequent loss of the [[third jhana]] is the task of [[mindfulness]] and [[discernment]]. |
− | The attainment of the fourth jhana commences with the aforesaid procedure. In this case the meditator sees that the third jhana is threatened by the proximity of rapture, which is ever ready to swell up again due to its natural affinity with happiness; he also sees that it is inherently defective due to the presence of happiness, a gross factor which provides fuel for clinging. He then contemplates the state where equanimous feeling and one-pointedness subsist together -- the fourth jhana -- as far more peaceful and secure than anything he has so far experienced, and therefore as far more desirable. Taking as his object the same counterpart sign he took for the earlier jhana, he strengthens his efforts in concentration for the purpose of abandoning the gross factor of happiness and entering the higher jhana. When his practice matures the mind enters absorption into the fourth jhana: | + | The [[attainment]] of the [[fourth jhana]] commences with the aforesaid procedure. In this case the [[meditator]] sees that the [[third jhana]] is threatened by the proximity of [[rapture]], which is ever ready [[to swell]] up again due to its natural [[affinity]] with [[happiness]]; he also sees that it is inherently defective due to the presence of [[happiness]], a gross factor which provides fuel for [[clinging]]. He then [[contemplates]] the [[state]] where [[equanimous]] [[feeling]] and [[one-pointedness]] subsist together -- the [[fourth jhana]] -- as far more [[peaceful]] and secure than anything he has so far [[experienced]], and therefore as far more desirable. Taking as his [[object]] the same [[counterpart sign]] he took for the earlier [[jhana]], he strengthens his efforts in [[concentration]] for the {{Wiki|purpose}} of [[abandoning]] the gross factor of [[happiness]] and entering the higher [[jhana]]. When his practice matures the [[mind]] enters [[absorption]] into the [[fourth jhana]]: |
− | : With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous disappearance of joy and grief, he enters and dwells in the fourth jhana, which has neither-pain-nor-pleasure and has purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. (M.i,182; Vbh.245) | + | : With the [[abandoning]] of [[pleasure]] and [[pain]], and with the previous [[disappearance]] of [[joy]] and [[grief]], he enters and dwells in the [[fourth jhana]], which has [[neither-pain-nor-pleasure]] and has [[purity]] of [[mindfulness]] due to [[equanimity]]. (M.i,182; Vbh.245) |
− | The first part of this formula specifies the conditions for the attainment of this jhana -- also called the neither-painful-nor-pleasant liberation of mind (M.i, 296) -- to be the abandoning of four kinds of feeling incompatible with it, the first two signifying bodily feelings, the latter two the corresponding mental feelings. The formula also introduces several new terms and phrases which have not been encountered previously. First, it mentions a new feeling, neither-pain-nor-pleasure (adukkhamasukha), which remains after the other four feelings have subsided. This kind of feeling also called equanimous or neutral feeling, replaces happiness as the concomitant feeling of the jhana and also figures as one of the jhana factors. Thus this attainment has two jhana factors: neutral feeling and one-pointedness of mind. Previously the ascent from one jhana to the next was marked by the progressive elimination of the coarser jhana factors, but none were added to replace those which were excluded. But now, in the move from the third to the fourth jhana, a substitution occurs, neutral feeling moving in to take the place of happiness. | + | The first part of this [[formula]] specifies the [[conditions]] for the [[attainment]] of this [[jhana]] -- also called the neither-painful-nor-pleasant [[liberation of mind]] (M.i, 296) -- to be the [[abandoning]] of four kinds of [[feeling]] incompatible with it, the first two signifying [[bodily]] [[feelings]], the [[latter]] two the corresponding [[mental]] [[feelings]]. The [[formula]] also introduces several new terms and phrases which have not been encountered previously. First, it mentions a new [[feeling]], [[neither-pain-nor-pleasure]] ([[adukkhamasukha]]), which remains after the other four [[feelings]] have subsided. This kind of [[feeling]] also called [[equanimous]] or [[neutral]] [[feeling]], replaces [[happiness]] as the [[concomitant]] [[feeling]] of the [[jhana]] and also figures as one of the [[jhana]] factors. Thus this [[attainment]] has two [[jhana]] factors: [[neutral]] [[feeling]] and [[one-pointedness of mind]]. Previously the [[ascent]] from one [[jhana]] to the next was marked by the progressive elimination of the coarser [[jhana]] factors, but none were added to replace those which were excluded. But now, in the move from the third to the [[fourth jhana]], a substitution occurs, [[neutral]] [[feeling]] moving in to take the place of [[happiness]]. |
− | In addition we also find a new phrase composed of familiar terms, "purity of mindfulness due to equanimity" (upekkhasatiparisuddhi). The Vibhanga explains: "This mindfulness is cleared, purified, clarified by equanimity" (Vbh. 261), and Buddhaghosa adds: "for the mindfulness in this jhana is quite purified, and its purification is effected by equanimity, not by anything else" (Vism.167; PP.174). The equanimity which purifies the mindfulness is not neutral feeling, as might be supposed, but specific neutrality, the sublime impartiality free from attachment and aversion, which also pertains to this jhana. Though both specific neutrality and mindfulness were present in the lower three jhanas, none among these is said to have "purity of mindfulness due to equanimity." The reason is that in the lower jhanas the equanimity present was not purified itself, being overshadowed by opposing states and lacking association with equanimous feeling. It is like a crescent moon which exists by day but cannot be seen because of the sunlight and the bright sky. But in the fourth jhana, where equanimity gains the support of equanimous feeling, it shines forth like the crescent moon at night and purifies mindfulness and the other associated states (Vism. 169; PP.175). | + | In addition we also find a new [[phrase]] composed of familiar terms, "[[purity]] of [[mindfulness]] due to [[equanimity]]" ([[upekkhasatiparisuddhi]]). The [[Vibhanga]] explains: "This [[mindfulness]] is cleared, [[purified]], clarified by [[equanimity]]" (Vbh. 261), and [[Buddhaghosa]] adds: "for the [[mindfulness]] in this [[jhana]] is quite [[purified]], and its [[purification]] is effected by [[equanimity]], not by anything else" (Vism.167; PP.174). The [[equanimity]] which purifies the [[mindfulness]] is not [[neutral]] [[feeling]], as might be supposed, but specific [[neutrality]], the [[sublime]] impartiality free from [[attachment]] and [[aversion]], which also pertains to this [[jhana]]. Though both specific [[neutrality]] and [[mindfulness]] were {{Wiki|present}} in the lower three [[jhanas]], none among these is said to have "[[purity]] of [[mindfulness]] due to [[equanimity]]." The [[reason]] is that in the lower [[jhanas]] the [[equanimity]] {{Wiki|present}} was not [[purified]] itself, being overshadowed by opposing states and lacking association with [[equanimous]] [[feeling]]. It is like a crescent [[moon]] which [[exists]] by day but cannot be seen because of the sunlight and the bright sky. But in the [[fourth jhana]], where [[equanimity]] gains the support of [[equanimous]] [[feeling]], it shines forth like the crescent [[moon]] at night and purifies [[mindfulness]] and the other associated states (Vism. 169; PP.175). |
− | ===The Immaterial Jhanas=== | + | ===The {{Wiki|Immaterial}} [[Jhanas]]=== |
− | Beyond the four jhanas lie four higher attainments in the scale of concentration, referred to in the suttas as the "peaceful immaterial liberations transcending material form" (santa vimokkha atikammarupe aruppa, M.i,33). In the commentaries they are also called the immaterial jhanas, and while this expression is not found in the suttas it seems appropriate in so far as these states correspond to jhanic levels of consciousness and continue the same process of mental unification initiated by the original four jhanas, now sometimes called the fine-material jhanas. The immaterial jhanas are designated, not by numerical names like their predecessors, but by the names of their objective spheres: the base of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.<ref>Akasanancayatana, vinnanancayatana, akincannayatana, nevasannana sannayatana</ref> They receive the designation "immaterial" or " formless" (arupa) because they are achieved by surmounting all perceptions of material form, including the subtle form of the counterpart sign which served as the object of the previous jhanas, and because they are the subjective correlates of the immaterial planes of existence. | + | Beyond the four [[jhanas]] lie four higher [[attainments]] in the scale of [[concentration]], referred to in the [[suttas]] as the "[[peaceful]] {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[liberations]] transcending [[material form]]" ([[santa vimokkha atikammarupe aruppa]], M.i,33). In the commentaries they are also called the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]], and while this expression is not found in the [[suttas]] it seems appropriate in so far as these states correspond to [[jhanic]] levels of [[consciousness]] and continue the same process of [[mental]] unification [[initiated]] by the original four [[jhanas]], now sometimes called the fine-material [[jhanas]]. The {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] are designated, not by numerical names like their predecessors, but by the names of their [[objective]] [[spheres]]: the base of [[boundless space]], the base of [[boundless consciousness]], the base of [[nothingness]], and the base of [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]].<ref>[[Akasanancayatana]], [[vinnanancayatana]], [[akincannayatana]], [[nevasannana sannayatana]]</ref> They receive the designation "{{Wiki|immaterial}}" or " [[formless]]" ([[arupa]]) because they are achieved by surmounting all [[perceptions]] of [[material form]], including the {{Wiki|subtle}} [[form]] of the [[counterpart sign]] which served as the [[object]] of the previous [[jhanas]], and because they are the [[subjective]] correlates of the {{Wiki|immaterial}} planes of [[existence]]. |
− | Like the fine-material jhanas follow a fixed sequence and must be attained in the order in which they are presented. That is, the meditator who wishes to achieve the immaterial jhanas must begin with the base of boundless space and then proceed step by step up to the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. However, an important difference separates the modes of progress in the two cases. In the case of the fine-material jhanas, the ascent from one jhana to another involves a surmounting of jhana factors. To rise from the first jhana to the second the meditator must eliminate applied thought and sustained thought, to rise from the second to the third he must overcome rapture, and to rise from the third to the fourth he must replace pleasant with neutral feeling. Thus progress involves a reduction and refinement of the jhana factors, from the initial five to the culmination in one-pointedness and neutral feeling. | + | Like the fine-material [[jhanas]] follow a fixed sequence and must be [[attained]] in the order in which they are presented. That is, the [[meditator]] who wishes to achieve the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] must begin with the base of [[boundless space]] and then proceed step by step up to the base of [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]]. However, an important difference separates the modes of progress in the two cases. In the case of the fine-material [[jhanas]], the [[ascent]] from one [[jhana]] to another involves a surmounting of [[jhana]] factors. To rise from the [[first jhana]] to the second the [[meditator]] must eliminate applied [[thought]] and sustained [[thought]], to rise from the second to the third he must overcome [[rapture]], and to rise from the third to the fourth he must replace [[pleasant]] with [[neutral]] [[feeling]]. Thus progress involves a reduction and refinement of the [[jhana]] factors, from the initial five to the culmination in [[one-pointedness]] and [[neutral]] [[feeling]]. |
− | Once the fourth jhana is reached the jhana factors remain constant, and in higher ascent to the immaterial attainments there is no further elimination of jhana factors. For this reason the formless jhanas, when classified from the perspective of their factorial constitution as is done in the Abhidhamma, are considered modes of the fourth jhana. They are all two-factored jhanas, constituted by one-pointedness and equanimous feeling. | + | Once the [[fourth jhana]] is reached the [[jhana]] factors remain [[constant]], and in higher [[ascent]] to the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]] there is no further elimination of [[jhana]] factors. For this [[reason]] the [[formless]] [[jhanas]], when classified from the {{Wiki|perspective}} of their factorial constitution as is done in the [[Abhidhamma]], are considered modes of the [[fourth jhana]]. They are all two-factored [[jhanas]], constituted by [[one-pointedness]] and [[equanimous]] [[feeling]]. |
− | Rather than being determined by a surmounting of factors, the order of the immaterial jhanas is determined by a surmounting of objects. Whereas for the lower jhanas the object can remain constant but the factors must be changed, for the immaterial jhanas the factors remain constant while the objects change. The base of boundless space eliminates the kasina object of the fourth jhana, the base of boundless consciousness surmounts the object of the base of boundless space, the base of nothingness surmounts the object of base of boundless consciousness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception surmounts the objects the object of the base of nothingness. | + | Rather than being determined by a surmounting of factors, the order of the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] is determined by a surmounting of [[objects]]. Whereas for the lower [[jhanas]] the [[object]] can remain [[constant]] but the factors must be changed, for the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] the factors remain [[constant]] while the [[objects]] change. The base of [[boundless space]] eliminates the [[kasina]] [[object]] of the [[fourth jhana]], the base of [[boundless consciousness]] surmounts the [[object]] of the base of [[boundless space]], the base of [[nothingness]] surmounts the [[object]] of base of [[boundless consciousness]], and the base of [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]] surmounts the [[objects]] the [[object]] of the base of [[nothingness]]. |
− | Because the objects become progressively more subtle at each level, the jhana factors of equanimous feeling and one-pointedness, while remaining constant in nature throughout, become correspondingly more refined in quality. Buddhaghosa illustrates this with a simile of four pieces of cloth of the same measurements, spun by the same person, yet made of thick, thin, thinner and very thin thread respectively (Vism. 339; PP.369). Also, whereas the four lower jhanas can each take a variety of objects -- the ten kasinas, the in-and-out breath, etc. -- and do not stand in any integral relation to these objects, the four immaterial jhanas each take a single object inseparably related to the attainment itself. The first is attained solely with the base of boundless space as object, the second with the base of boundless consciousness, and so forth. | + | Because the [[objects]] become progressively more {{Wiki|subtle}} at each level, the [[jhana]] factors of [[equanimous]] [[feeling]] and [[one-pointedness]], while remaining [[constant]] in [[nature]] throughout, become correspondingly more refined in [[quality]]. [[Buddhaghosa]] illustrates this with a simile of four pieces of cloth of the same measurements, spun by the same [[person]], yet made of thick, thin, thinner and very thin thread respectively (Vism. 339; PP.369). Also, whereas the four lower [[jhanas]] can each take a variety of [[objects]] -- the ten [[kasinas]], the in-and-out [[breath]], etc. -- and do not stand in any integral [[relation]] to these [[objects]], the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] each take a single [[object]] inseparably related to the [[attainment]] itself. The first is [[attained]] solely with the base of [[boundless space]] as [[object]], the second with the base of [[boundless consciousness]], and so forth. |
− | The motivation which initially leads a meditator to seek the immaterial attainments is a clear recognition of the dangers inherent in material existence: it is in virtue of matter that injuries and death by weapons and knives occur that one is afflicted with diseases, subject of hunger and thirst, while none of this takes place on the immaterial planes of existence (M.i,410). Wishing to escape these dangers by taking rebirth in the immaterial planes, the meditator must first attain the four fine-material jhanas and master the fourth jhana with any kasina as object except the omitted space kasina. By this much the meditator has risen above gross matter, but he still has not transcended the subtle material form comprised by the luminous counterpart sign which is the object of his jhana. To reach the formless attainments the meditator, after emerging from the fourth jhana, must consider that even that jhana, as refined as it is, still has an object consisting in material form and thus is distantly connected with gross matter; moreover, it is close to happiness, a factor of the third jhana, and is far coarser than the immaterial states. The meditator sees the base of boundless space, the first immaterial jhana, as more peaceful and sublime than the fourth fine-material jhana and as more safely removed from materiality. | + | The [[motivation]] which initially leads a [[meditator]] to seek the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]] is a clear [[recognition]] of the dangers [[inherent]] in material [[existence]]: it is in [[virtue]] of {{Wiki|matter}} that injuries and [[death]] by [[weapons]] and knives occur that one is afflicted with {{Wiki|diseases}}, [[subject]] of hunger and [[thirst]], while none of this takes place on the {{Wiki|immaterial}} planes of [[existence]] (M.i,410). [[Wishing]] to escape these dangers by taking [[rebirth]] in the {{Wiki|immaterial}} planes, the [[meditator]] must first attain the four fine-material [[jhanas]] and [[master]] the [[fourth jhana]] with any [[kasina]] as [[object]] except the omitted [[space]] [[kasina]]. By this much the [[meditator]] has risen above gross {{Wiki|matter}}, but he still has not transcended the {{Wiki|subtle}} [[material form]] comprised by the {{Wiki|luminous}} [[counterpart sign]] which is the [[object]] of his [[jhana]]. To reach the [[formless]] [[attainments]] the [[meditator]], after [[emerging]] from the [[fourth jhana]], must consider that even that [[jhana]], as refined as it is, still has an [[object]] consisting in [[material form]] and thus is distantly connected with gross {{Wiki|matter}}; moreover, it is close to [[happiness]], a factor of the [[third jhana]], and is far coarser than the {{Wiki|immaterial}} states. The [[meditator]] sees the base of [[boundless space]], the first {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]], as more [[peaceful]] and [[sublime]] than the fourth fine-material [[jhana]] and as more safely removed from [[materiality]]. |
− | Following these preparatory reflections, the meditator enters the fourth jhana based on a kasina object and extends the counterpart sign of the kasina "to the limit of the world-sphere, or as far as he likes." Then, after emerging from the fourth jhana, he must remove the kasina by attending exclusively to the space it has been made to cover without attending to the kasina itself. Taking as his object the space left after the removal of the kasina, the meditator adverts to it as "boundless space" or simply as "space, space," striking at it with applied and sustained thought. As he cultivates this practice over and over, eventually the consciousness pertaining to the base of boundless space arises with boundless space as its object (Vism. 327-28; PP.355-56). | + | Following these preparatory reflections, the [[meditator]] enters the [[fourth jhana]] based on a [[kasina]] [[object]] and extends the [[counterpart sign]] of the [[kasina]] "to the limit of the world-sphere, or as far as he likes." Then, after [[emerging]] from the [[fourth jhana]], he must remove the [[kasina]] by attending exclusively to the [[space]] it has been made to cover without attending to the [[kasina]] itself. Taking as his [[object]] the [[space]] left after the removal of the [[kasina]], the [[meditator]] adverts to it as "[[boundless space]]" or simply as "[[space]], [[space]]," striking at it with applied and sustained [[thought]]. As he cultivates this practice over and over, eventually the [[consciousness]] pertaining to the base of [[boundless space]] arises with [[boundless space]] as its [[object]] (Vism. 327-28; PP.355-56). |
− | A meditator who has gained mastery over the base of boundless space, wishing to attain as well the second immaterial jhana, must reflect upon the two defects of the first attainment which are its proximity to the fine-material jhanas and its grossness compared to the base of boundless consciousness. Having in this way developed indifferent to the lower attainment, he must next enter and emerge from the base of boundless space and then fix his attention upon the consciousness that occurred there pervading the boundless space. Since the space taken as the object by the first formless jhana was boundless, the consciousness of that space also involves an aspect of boundlessness, and it is to this boundless consciousness that the aspirant for the next attainment adverts. He is not to attend to it merely as boundless, but as "boundless consciousness" or simply as "consciousness." He continues to cultivate this sign again and again until the consciousness belonging to the base of boundless consciousness arises in absorption taking as its object the boundless consciousness pertaining to the first immaterial state (Vism. 331-32; PP.360-61). | + | A [[meditator]] who has gained [[mastery]] over the base of [[boundless space]], wishing to attain as well the second {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]], must reflect upon the two defects of the first [[attainment]] which are its proximity to the fine-material [[jhanas]] and its grossness compared to the base of [[boundless consciousness]]. Having in this way developed indifferent to the lower [[attainment]], he must next enter and emerge from the base of [[boundless space]] and then fix his [[attention]] upon the [[consciousness]] that occurred there pervading the [[boundless space]]. Since the [[space]] taken as the [[object]] by the first [[formless]] [[jhana]] was [[boundless]], the [[consciousness]] of that [[space]] also involves an aspect of boundlessness, and it is to this [[boundless consciousness]] that the aspirant for the next [[attainment]] adverts. He is not to attend to it merely as [[boundless]], but as "[[boundless consciousness]]" or simply as "[[consciousness]]." He continues to cultivate this sign again and again until the [[consciousness]] belonging to the base of [[boundless consciousness]] arises in [[absorption]] taking as its [[object]] the [[boundless consciousness]] pertaining to the first {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[state]] (Vism. 331-32; PP.360-61). |
− | To attain the next formless state, the base of nothingness, the meditator who has mastered the base of boundless consciousness must contemplate its defects in the same twofold manner and advert to the superior peacefulness of the base of nothingness. Without giving any more attention to the base of boundless consciousness, he should "give attention to the present non-existence, voidness, secluded aspect of that same past consciousness belonging to the base consisting of boundless space" (Vism. 333; PP.362). In other words, the meditator is to focus upon the present absence or non-existence of the consciousness belonging to the base of boundless space, adverting to it over and over thus: "There is not, there is not" or "void, void". When his efforts fructify there arises in absorption a consciousness belonging to the base of nothingness, with the non-existence of the consciousness of boundless space as its object. Whereas the second immaterial state relates to the consciousness of boundless space positively, by focusing upon the content of that consciousness and appropriating its boundlessness, the third immaterial state relates to it negatively, by excluding that consciousness from awareness and making the absence or present non-existence of that consciousness its object. | + | To attain the next [[formless]] [[state]], the base of [[nothingness]], the [[meditator]] who has mastered the base of [[boundless consciousness]] must [[contemplate]] its defects in the same twofold [[manner]] and advert to the {{Wiki|superior}} [[peacefulness]] of the base of [[nothingness]]. Without giving any more [[attention]] to the base of [[boundless consciousness]], he should "give [[attention]] to the {{Wiki|present}} [[non-existence]], [[voidness]], secluded aspect of that same {{Wiki|past}} [[consciousness]] belonging to the base consisting of [[boundless space]]" (Vism. 333; PP.362). In other words, the [[meditator]] is to focus upon the {{Wiki|present}} absence or [[non-existence]] of the [[consciousness]] belonging to the base of [[boundless space]], adverting to it over and over thus: "There is not, there is not" or "[[void]], [[void]]". When his efforts fructify there arises in [[absorption]] a [[consciousness]] belonging to the base of [[nothingness]], with the [[non-existence]] of the [[consciousness]] of [[boundless space]] as its [[object]]. Whereas the second {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[state]] relates to the [[consciousness]] of [[boundless space]] positively, by focusing upon the content of that [[consciousness]] and appropriating its boundlessness, the third {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[state]] relates to it negatively, by excluding that [[consciousness]] from [[awareness]] and making the absence or {{Wiki|present}} [[non-existence]] of that [[consciousness]] its [[object]]. |
− | The fourth and final immaterial jhana, the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, is reached through the same preliminary procedure. The meditator can also reflect upon the unsatisfactoriness of perception, thinking: "Perception is a disease, perception is a boil, perception is a dart ... this is peaceful, this is sublime, that is to say, neither-perception-nor-non-perception" (M.ii,231). In this way he ends his attachment to the base of nothingness and strengthens his resolve to attain the next higher stage. He then adverts to the four mental aggregates that constitute the attainment of the base of nothingness -- its feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness -- contemplating them as "peaceful, peaceful," reviewing that base and striking at it with applied and sustained thought. As he does so the hindrances are suppressed, the mind passes through access and enters the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. | + | The fourth and final {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]], the base of [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]], is reached through the same preliminary procedure. The [[meditator]] can also reflect upon the {{Wiki|unsatisfactoriness}} of [[perception]], [[thinking]]: "[[Perception]] is a {{Wiki|disease}}, [[perception]] is a boil, [[perception]] is a dart ... this is [[peaceful]], this is [[sublime]], that is to say, [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]]" (M.ii,231). In this way he ends his [[attachment]] to the base of [[nothingness]] and strengthens his resolve to attain the next higher stage. He then adverts to the four [[mental]] [[aggregates]] that constitute the [[attainment]] of the base of [[nothingness]] -- its [[feeling]], [[perception]], [[mental formations and consciousness]] -- contemplating them as "[[peaceful]], [[peaceful]]," reviewing that base and striking at it with applied and sustained [[thought]]. As he does so the [[hindrances]] are suppressed, the [[mind]] passes through access and enters the base of [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]]. |
− | This jhana receives its name because, on the one hand, it lacks gross perception with its function of clearly discerning objects, and thus cannot be said to have perception; on the other, it retains a very subtle perception, and thus cannot be said to be without perception. Because all the mental functions are here reduced to the finest and most subtle level, this jhana is also named the attainment with residual formations. At this level the mind has reached the highest possible development in the direction of pure serenity. It has attained the most intense degree of concentration, becoming so refined that consciousness can no longer be described in terms of existence or non-existence. Yet even this attainment, from the Buddhist point of view, is still a mundane state which must finally give way to insight that alone leads to true liberation. | + | This [[jhana]] receives its [[name]] because, on the one hand, it lacks gross [[perception]] with its [[function]] of clearly discerning [[objects]], and thus cannot be said to have [[perception]]; on the other, it retains a very {{Wiki|subtle}} [[perception]], and thus cannot be said to be without [[perception]]. Because all the {{Wiki|mental functions}} are here reduced to the finest and most {{Wiki|subtle}} level, this [[jhana]] is also named the [[attainment]] with residual [[formations]]. At this level the [[mind]] has reached the [[highest]] possible [[development]] in the [[direction]] of [[pure]] [[serenity]]. It has [[attained]] the most intense [[degree]] of [[concentration]], becoming so refined that [[consciousness]] can no longer be described in terms of [[existence]] or [[non-existence]]. Yet even this [[attainment]], from the [[Buddhist]] point of [[view]], is still a [[mundane]] [[state]] which must finally give way to [[insight]] that alone leads to true [[liberation]]. |
− | ===The Jhanas and Rebirth=== | + | ===The [[Jhanas]] and [[Rebirth]]=== |
− | Buddhism teaches that all sentient beings in whom ignorance and craving still linger are subject to rebirth following death. Their mode of rebirth is determined by their kamma, their volitional action, wholesome kamma issuing in a good rebirth and unwholesome kamma in a bad rebirth. As a kind of wholesome kamma the attainment of jhana can play a key role in the rebirth process, being considered a weighty good kamma which takes precedence over other lesser kammas in determining the future rebirth of the person who attains it. | + | [[Buddhism]] teaches that all [[sentient beings]] in whom [[ignorance]] and [[craving]] still linger are [[subject]] to [[rebirth]] following [[death]]. Their mode of [[rebirth]] is determined by their [[kamma]], their [[volitional action]], [[wholesome]] [[kamma]] issuing in a good [[rebirth]] and [[unwholesome]] [[kamma]] in a bad [[rebirth]]. As a kind of [[wholesome]] [[kamma]] the [[attainment]] of [[jhana]] can play a key role in the [[rebirth]] process, being considered a weighty good [[kamma]] which takes precedence over other lesser [[kammas]] in determining the {{Wiki|future}} [[rebirth]] of the [[person]] who attains it. |
− | Buddhist cosmology groups the numerous planes of existence into which rebirth takes place into three broad spheres each of which comprises a number of subsidiary planes. The sense-sphere (kamadhatu) is the field of rebirth for evil deeds and for meritorious deeds falling short of the jhanas; the fine-material sphere (rupadhatu), the field of rebirth for the fine-material jhanas; and the immaterial sphere (arupadhatu), the field of rebirth for the immaterial jhanas. | + | [[Buddhist cosmology]] groups the numerous planes of [[existence]] into which [[rebirth]] takes place into three broad [[spheres]] each of which comprises a number of subsidiary planes. The [[sense-sphere]] ([[kamadhatu]]) is the field of [[rebirth]] for [[evil]] [[deeds]] and for [[meritorious]] [[deeds]] falling short of the [[jhanas]]; the [[fine-material sphere]] ([[rupadhatu]]), the field of [[rebirth]] for the fine-material [[jhanas]]; and the [[immaterial sphere]] ([[arupadhatu]]), the field of [[rebirth]] for the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]]. |
− | An unwholesome kamma, should it become determinative of rebirth, will lead to a new existence in one of the four planes of misery belonging to the sense-sphere: the hells, the animal kingdom, the sphere of afflicted spirits, or the host of titans. A wholesome kamma of a subjhanic type produces rebirth in one of the seven happy planes in the sense-sphere, the human world or the six heavenly worlds. | + | An [[unwholesome]] [[kamma]], should it become {{Wiki|determinative}} of [[rebirth]], will lead to a new [[existence]] in one of the four planes of [[misery]] belonging to the [[sense-sphere]]: the [[hells]], the [[animal kingdom]], the [[sphere]] of afflicted [[spirits]], or the host of titans. A [[wholesome]] [[kamma]] of a subjhanic type produces [[rebirth]] in one of the seven [[happy]] planes in the [[sense-sphere]], the [[human world]] or the six [[heavenly]] [[worlds]]. |
− | Above the sense-sphere realms are the fine-material realms, into which rebirth is gained only through the attainment of the fine-material jhanas. The sixteen realms in this sphere are hierarchically ordered in correlation with the four jhanas. Those who have practiced the first jhana to a minor degree are reborn in the Realm of the Retinue of Brahma, to a moderate degree in the Realm of the Ministers of Brahma, and to a superior degree in the Realm of the Great Brahma.<ref>Brahmaparisajja brahmapurohita, maha brahma. </ref> Similarly, practicing the second jhana to a minor degree brings rebirth in the Realm of Minor Lustre, to a moderate degree in the Realm of Infinite Lustre, and to a superior degree the Realm of Radiant Lustre.<ref>Paritabha, appamanabha, abhassara.</ref> Again, practicing the third jhana to a minor degree brings rebirth in the Realm of Minor Aura, to a moderate degree in the Realm of Infinite Aura, and to a superior degree in the Realm of Steady Aura.<ref>Parittasubha, appamanasubha, subhakinha. </ref> | + | Above the [[sense-sphere]] [[realms]] are the fine-material [[realms]], into which [[rebirth]] is gained only through the [[attainment]] of the fine-material [[jhanas]]. The sixteen [[realms]] in this [[sphere]] are {{Wiki|hierarchically}} ordered in correlation with the four [[jhanas]]. Those who have practiced the [[first jhana]] to a minor [[degree]] are [[reborn]] in the [[Realm]] of the [[Retinue of Brahma]], to a moderate [[degree]] in the [[Realm]] of the Ministers of [[Brahma]], and to a {{Wiki|superior}} [[degree]] in the [[Realm]] of the Great [[Brahma]].<ref>[[Brahmaparisajja brahmapurohita]], [[maha brahma]]. </ref> Similarly, practicing the [[second jhana]] to a minor [[degree]] brings [[rebirth]] in the [[Realm of Minor Lustre]], to a moderate [[degree]] in the [[Realm]] of [[Infinite]] Lustre, and to a {{Wiki|superior}} [[degree]] the [[Realm]] of Radiant Lustre.<ref>[[Paritabha]], [[appamanabha]], [[abhassara]].</ref> Again, practicing the [[third jhana]] to a minor [[degree]] brings [[rebirth]] in the [[Realm of Minor Aura]], to a moderate [[degree]] in the [[Realm]] of [[Infinite]] [[Aura]], and to a {{Wiki|superior}} [[degree]] in the [[Realm]] of Steady [[Aura]].<ref>[[Parittasubha]], [[appamanasubha]], [[subhakinha]]. </ref> |
− | Corresponding to the fourth jhana there are seven realms: the Realm of Great Reward, the Realm of Non-percipient Beings, and the five Pure Abodes.<ref>Vehapphala, asannasatta, suddhavasa. </ref> With this jhana the rebirth pattern deviates from the former one. It seems that all beings who practice the fourth jhana of the mundane level without reaching any supramundane attainment are reborn in the realm of Great Reward. There is no differentiation by way of inferior, moderate or superior grades of development. The Realm of Non-percipient Beings is reached by those who, after attaining the fourth jhana, then use the power of their meditation to take rebirth with only material bodies; they do not acquire consciousness again until they pass away from this realm. The five Pure Abodes are open only to non-returners (anagamis), noble disciples at the penultimate stage of liberation who have eradicated the fetters binding them to the sense-sphere and thence automatically take rebirth in higher realms, where they attain arahatship and reach final deliverance. | + | Corresponding to the [[fourth jhana]] there are seven [[realms]]: the [[Realm]] of Great Reward, the [[Realm]] of Non-percipient [[Beings]], and the [[five Pure Abodes]].<ref>[[Vehapphala]], [[asannasatta]], [[suddhavasa]]. </ref> With this [[jhana]] the [[rebirth]] pattern deviates from the former one. It seems that all [[beings]] who practice the [[fourth jhana]] of the [[mundane]] level without reaching any [[supramundane]] [[attainment]] are [[reborn]] in the [[realm]] of Great Reward. There is no differentiation by way of {{Wiki|inferior}}, moderate or {{Wiki|superior}} grades of [[development]]. The [[Realm]] of Non-percipient [[Beings]] is reached by those who, after [[attaining]] the [[fourth jhana]], then use the power of their [[meditation]] to take [[rebirth]] with only material [[bodies]]; they do not acquire [[consciousness]] again until they pass away from this [[realm]]. The [[five Pure Abodes]] are open only to [[non-returners]] ([[anagamis]]), [[noble]] [[disciples]] at the penultimate stage of [[liberation]] who have eradicated the [[fetters]] binding them to the [[sense-sphere]] and thence automatically take [[rebirth]] in [[higher realms]], where they attain [[arahatship]] and reach final [[deliverance]]. |
− | Beyond the fine-material sphere lie the immaterial realms, which are four in number -- the base of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. As should be evident, these are realms of rebirth for those who, without having broken the fetters that bind them to samsara, achieve and master one or another of the four immaterial jhanas. Those mediators who have mastery over a formless attainment at the time of death take rebirth in the appropriate plane, where they abide until the kammic force of the jhana is exhausted. Then they pass away, to take rebirth in some other realm as determined by their accumulated kamma.<ref>A good summary of Buddhist cosmology and of the connection between kamma and planes of rebirth can be found in Narada, A Manual of Abhidhamma. pp.233-55. </ref> | + | Beyond the [[fine-material sphere]] lie the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[realms]], which are four in number -- the base of [[boundless space]], the base of [[boundless consciousness]], the base of [[nothingness]], and the base of [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]]. As should be evident, these are [[realms]] of [[rebirth]] for those who, without having broken the [[fetters]] that bind them to [[samsara]], achieve and [[master]] one or another of the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]]. Those [[mediators]] who have [[mastery]] over a [[formless]] [[attainment]] at the [[time]] of [[death]] take [[rebirth]] in the appropriate plane, where they abide until the [[kammic]] force of the [[jhana]] is exhausted. Then they pass away, to take [[rebirth]] in some other [[realm]] as determined by their [[accumulated]] [[kamma]].<ref>A good summary of [[Buddhist cosmology]] and of the connection between [[kamma]] and planes of [[rebirth]] can be found in [[Narada]], A [[Manual of Abhidhamma]]. pp.233-55. </ref> |
− | ==Chapter 5<br/>Jhana and The Supramundane== | + | ==[[Chapter]] 5<br/>[[Jhana]] and The [[Supramundane]]== |
− | ===The Way of Wisdom=== | + | ===The Way of [[Wisdom]]=== |
− | The goal of the Buddhist path, complete and permanent liberation from suffering, is to be achieved by practicing the full threefold discipline of morality (sila), concentration (samadhi), and wisdom (panna). The mundane jhanas, comprising the four fine-material jhanas and the four immaterial jhanas, pertain to the stage of concentration, which they fulfill to an eminent degree. However, taken by themselves, these states do not ensure complete deliverance, for they are incapable of cutting off the roots of suffering. The Buddha teaches that the cause of suffering, the driving power behind the cycle of rebirths, is the defilements with their three unwholesome roots -- greed, hatred and delusion. Concentration of the absorption level, no matter to what heights it is pursued, only suppresses the defilements, but cannot destroy their latent seeds. Thence bare mundane jhana, even when sustained, cannot by itself terminate the cycle of rebirths. To the contrary, it may even perpetuate the round. For if any fine-material or immaterial jhana is held to with clinging, it will bring about a rebirth in that particular plane of existence corresponding to its own kammic potency, which can then be followed by rebirth in some lower realm. | + | The goal of the [[Buddhist path]], complete and [[permanent]] [[liberation]] from [[suffering]], is to be achieved by practicing the full threefold [[discipline]] of [[morality]] ([[sila]]), [[concentration]] ([[samadhi]]), and [[wisdom]] ([[panna]]). The [[mundane]] [[jhanas]], comprising the four fine-material [[jhanas]] and the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]], pertain to the stage of [[concentration]], which they fulfill to an {{Wiki|eminent}} [[degree]]. However, taken by themselves, these states do not ensure complete [[deliverance]], for they are incapable of cutting off the [[roots]] of [[suffering]]. The [[Buddha]] teaches that the [[cause of suffering]], the driving power behind the cycle of [[rebirths]], is the [[defilements]] with their [[three unwholesome roots]] -- [[greed]], [[hatred]] and [[delusion]]. [[Concentration]] of the [[absorption]] level, no {{Wiki|matter}} to what heights it is pursued, only suppresses the [[defilements]], but cannot destroy their latent [[seeds]]. Thence bare [[mundane]] [[jhana]], even when sustained, cannot by itself terminate the cycle of [[rebirths]]. To the contrary, it may even perpetuate the round. For if any fine-material or {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]] is held to with [[clinging]], it will bring about a [[rebirth]] in that particular [[plane of existence]] corresponding to its [[own]] [[kammic]] [[potency]], which can then be followed by [[rebirth]] in some lower [[realm]]. |
− | What is required to achieve complete deliverance from the cycle of rebirths is the eradication of the defilements. Since the most basic defilement is ignorance (avijja), the key to liberation lies in developing its direct opposite, namely wisdom (panna). | + | What is required to achieve complete [[deliverance]] from the cycle of [[rebirths]] is the eradication of the [[defilements]]. Since the most basic [[defilement]] is [[ignorance]] ([[avijja]]), the key to [[liberation]] lies in developing its direct opposite, namely [[wisdom]] ([[panna]]). |
− | Since wisdom presupposes a certain proficiency in concentration it is inevitable that jhana comes to claim a place in its development. This place, however, is not fixed and invariable, but as we will see allows for differences depending on the individual mediator's disposition. | + | Since [[wisdom]] presupposes a certain proficiency in [[concentration]] it is inevitable that [[jhana]] comes to claim a place in its [[development]]. This place, however, is not fixed and invariable, but as we will see allows for differences depending on the {{Wiki|individual}} mediator's disposition. |
− | Fundamental to the discussion in this chapter is a distinction between two terms crucial to Theravada philosophical exposition, "mundane" (lokiya) and "supramundane" (lokuttara). The term "mundane" applies to all phenomena comprised in the world (loka) -- to subtle states of consciousness as well as matter, to virtue as well as evil, to meditative attainments as well as sensual engrossments. The term "supramundane," in contrast, applies exclusively to that which transcends the world, that is the nine supramundane states: Nibbana, the four noble paths (magga) leading to Nibbana, and their corresponding fruits (phala) which experience the bliss of Nibbana. | + | Fundamental to the [[discussion]] in this [[chapter]] is a {{Wiki|distinction}} between two terms crucial to [[Theravada]] [[philosophical]] [[exposition]], "[[mundane]]" ([[lokiya]]) and "[[supramundane]]" ([[lokuttara]]). The term "[[mundane]]" applies to all [[phenomena]] comprised in the [[world]] ([[loka]]) -- to {{Wiki|subtle}} states of [[consciousness]] as well as {{Wiki|matter}}, to [[virtue]] as well as [[evil]], to [[meditative]] [[attainments]] as well as {{Wiki|sensual}} engrossments. The term "[[supramundane]]," in contrast, applies exclusively to that which {{Wiki|transcends}} the [[world]], that is the nine [[supramundane]] states: [[Nibbana]], the [[four noble paths]] ([[magga]]) leading to [[Nibbana]], and their corresponding {{Wiki|fruits}} ([[phala]]) which [[experience]] the [[bliss]] of [[Nibbana]]. |
− | Wisdom has the specific characteristic of penetrating the true nature of phenomena. It penetrates the particular and general features of things through direct cognition rather than discursive thought. Its function is "to abolish the darkness of delusion which conceals the individual essences of states" and its manifestation is "non-delusion." Since the Buddha says that one whose mind is concentrated knows and sees things as they are, the proximate cause of wisdom is concentration (Vism. 438; PP.481). | + | [[Wisdom]] has the specific [[characteristic]] of penetrating the [[true nature]] of [[phenomena]]. It penetrates the particular and general features of things through direct [[cognition]] rather than discursive [[thought]]. Its [[function]] is "to abolish the {{Wiki|darkness}} of [[delusion]] which conceals the {{Wiki|individual}} [[essences]] of states" and its [[manifestation]] is "[[non-delusion]]." Since the [[Buddha]] says that one whose [[mind]] is [[concentrated]] [[knows]] and sees things as they are, the proximate [[cause]] of [[wisdom]] is [[concentration]] (Vism. 438; PP.481). |
− | The wisdom instrumental in attaining liberation is divided into two principal types: insight knowledge (vipassananana) and the knowledge pertaining to the supramundane paths (magganana). The first is the direct penetration of the three characteristics of conditioned phenomena -- impermanence, suffering and non-self.<ref>Anicca, dukkha, anatta</ref> It takes as its objective sphere the five aggregates (pancakkhandha) -- material form, feeling perception, mental formations and consciousness. Because insight knowledge takes the world of conditioned formations as its object, it is regarded as a mundane form of wisdom. Insight knowledge does not itself directly eradicate the defilements, but serves to prepare the way for the second type of wisdom, the wisdom of the supramundane paths, which emerges when insight has been brought to its climax. The wisdom of the path, occurring in four distinct stages ( to be discussed below ), simultaneously realizes Nibbana, fathoms the Four Noble Truths, and cuts off the defilements. This wisdom is called "supramundane" because it rises up from the world of the five aggregates to realize the state transcendent to the world, Nibbana. | + | The [[wisdom]] instrumental in [[attaining]] [[liberation]] is divided into two [[principal]] types: [[insight knowledge]] ([[vipassananana]]) and the [[knowledge]] pertaining to the [[supramundane paths]] ([[magganana]]). The first is the direct [[penetration]] of the [[three characteristics]] of [[conditioned]] [[phenomena]] -- [[impermanence]], [[suffering]] and [[non-self]].<ref>[[Anicca]], [[dukkha]], [[anatta]]</ref> It takes as its [[objective]] [[sphere]] the [[five aggregates]] ([[pancakkhandha]]) -- [[material form]], [[feeling]] [[perception]], [[mental formations and consciousness]]. Because [[insight knowledge]] takes the [[world]] of [[conditioned]] [[formations]] as its [[object]], it is regarded as a [[mundane]] [[form]] of [[wisdom]]. [[Insight]] [[knowledge]] does not itself directly eradicate the [[defilements]], but serves to prepare the way for the second type of [[wisdom]], the [[wisdom]] of the [[supramundane paths]], which emerges when [[insight]] has been brought to its climax. The [[wisdom]] of the [[path]], occurring in four {{Wiki|distinct}} stages ( to be discussed below ), simultaneously realizes [[Nibbana]], fathoms the [[Four Noble Truths]], and cuts off the [[defilements]]. This [[wisdom]] is called "[[supramundane]]" because it rises up from the [[world]] of the [[five aggregates]] to realize the [[state]] [[transcendent]] to the [[world]], [[Nibbana]]. |
− | The Buddhist disciple, striving for deliverance, begins the development of wisdom by first securely establishing its roots -- purified moral discipline and concentration. He then learns and masters the basic material upon which wisdom is to work -- the aggregates, elements, sense bases, dependent arising, the Four Noble Truths, etc. He commences the actual practice of wisdom by cultivating insight into the impermanence, suffering and non-self aspect of the five aggregates. When this insight reaches its apex it issues in supramundane wisdom, the right view factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, which turns from conditioned formations to the unconditioned Nibbana and thereby eradicates the defilements. | + | The [[Buddhist]] [[disciple]], striving for [[deliverance]], begins the [[development of wisdom]] by first securely establishing its [[roots]] -- [[purified]] [[moral discipline]] and [[concentration]]. He then learns and [[masters]] the basic material upon which [[wisdom]] is to work -- the [[aggregates]], [[elements]], [[sense bases]], [[dependent arising]], the [[Four Noble Truths]], etc. He commences the actual practice of [[wisdom]] by [[cultivating]] [[insight]] into the [[impermanence]], [[suffering]] and [[non-self]] aspect of the [[five aggregates]]. When this [[insight]] reaches its apex it issues in [[supramundane]] [[wisdom]], the [[right view]] factor of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], which turns from [[conditioned]] [[formations]] to the [[unconditioned]] [[Nibbana]] and thereby eradicates the [[defilements]]. |
− | ===The Two Vehicles=== | + | ===The [[Two Vehicles]]=== |
− | The Theravada tradition recognizes two alternative approaches to the development of wisdom, between which practitioners are free to choose according to their aptitude and propensity. These two approaches are the vehicle of serenity (samathayana) and the vehicle of insight (vipassanayana). The meditators who follow them are called, respectively, the samathayanika," one who makes serenity his vehicle," and the vipassanayanika, "one who makes insight his vehicle, " Since both vehicles, despite their names, are approaches to developing insight, to prevent misunderstanding the latter type of meditator is sometimes called a suddhavipassanayanika, "one who makes bare insight his vehicle," or a sukkhavipassaka, "a dry-insight worker." | + | The [[Theravada tradition]] [[recognizes]] two alternative approaches to the [[development of wisdom]], between which practitioners are free to choose according to their aptitude and {{Wiki|propensity}}. These two approaches are the [[vehicle]] of [[serenity]] ([[samathayana]]) and the [[vehicle]] of [[insight]] ([[vipassanayana]]). The [[meditators]] who follow them are called, respectively, the [[samathayanika]]," one who makes [[serenity]] his [[vehicle]]," and the [[vipassanayanika]], "one who makes [[insight]] his [[vehicle]], " Since both vehicles, despite their names, are approaches to developing [[insight]], to prevent {{Wiki|misunderstanding}} the [[latter]] type of [[meditator]] is sometimes called a [[suddhavipassanayanika]], "one who makes bare [[insight]] his [[vehicle]]," or a [[sukkhavipassaka]], "a dry-insight worker." |
− | Though all three terms appear initially in the commentaries rather than in the suttas, the recognition of the two vehicles seems implicit in a number of canonical passages. | + | Though all three terms appear initially in the commentaries rather than in the [[suttas]], the [[recognition]] of the [[two vehicles]] seems implicit in a number of [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] passages. |
− | The samathayanika is a meditator who first attains access concentration or one of the eight mundane jhanas, then emerges and uses his attainment as a basis for cultivating insight until he arrives at the supramundane path. In contrast, the vipassanayanika does not attain mundane jhana prior to practicing insight contemplation, or if he does, does not use it as an instrument for cultivating insight. Instead, without entering and emerging from jhana, he proceeds directly to insight contemplation on mental and material phenomena and by means of this bare insight he reaches the noble path. For both kinds of meditator the experience of the path in any of its four stages always occurs at a level of jhanic intensity and thus necessarily includes supramundane jhana under the heading of right concentration (samma samadhi), the eighth factor of the Noble Eightfold Path. | + | The [[samathayanika]] is a [[meditator]] who first attains [[access concentration]] or one of the eight [[mundane]] [[jhanas]], then emerges and uses his [[attainment]] as a basis for [[cultivating]] [[insight]] until he arrives at the [[supramundane path]]. In contrast, the [[vipassanayanika]] does not attain [[mundane]] [[jhana]] prior to practicing [[insight]] contemplation, or if he does, does not use it as an instrument for [[cultivating]] [[insight]]. Instead, without entering and [[emerging]] from [[jhana]], he proceeds directly to [[insight]] contemplation on [[mental]] and material [[phenomena]] and by means of this bare [[insight]] he reaches the [[noble path]]. For both kinds of [[meditator]] the [[experience]] of the [[path]] in any of its four stages always occurs at a level of [[jhanic]] intensity and thus necessarily includes [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] under the heading of [[right concentration]] ([[samma samadhi]]), the eighth factor of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. |
− | The classical source for the distinction between the two vehicles of serenity and insight is the Visuddhimagga where it is explained that when a meditator begins the development of wisdom "if firstly, his vehicle is serenity, [he] should emerge from any fine-material or immaterial jhana except the base consisting of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, and he should discern, according to characteristic, function, etc. the jhana factors consisting of applied thought, etc. and the states associated with them" (Vism. 557; PP679-80). Other commentarial passages allow access concentration to suffice for the vehicle of serenity, but the last immaterial jhana is excluded because its factors are too subtle to be discerned. The meditator whose vehicle is pure insight, on the other hand, is advised to start directly by discerning material and mental phenomena, beginning with the four elements, without utilizing a jhana for this purpose (Vism. 558; PP.680). Thus the samathayanika first attains access concentration or mundane jhana and then develops insight knowledge, by means of which he reaches the supramundane path containing wisdom under the heading of right view, and supramundane jhana under the heading of right concentration. The vipassanayanika, in contrast, skips over mundane jhana and goes directly into insight contemplation. When he reaches the end of the progression of insight knowledge he arrives at the supramundane path which, as in the previous case, brings together wisdom with supramundane jhana. This jhana counts as his accomplishment of serenity. | + | The classical source for the {{Wiki|distinction}} between the [[two vehicles]] of [[serenity]] and [[insight]] is the [[Visuddhimagga]] where it is explained that when a [[meditator]] begins the [[development of wisdom]] "if firstly, his [[vehicle]] is [[serenity]], [he] should emerge from any fine-material or {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]] except the base consisting of [[neither-perception-nor-non-perception]], and he should discern, according to [[characteristic]], [[function]], etc. the [[jhana]] factors consisting of applied [[thought]], etc. and the states associated with them" (Vism. 557; PP679-80). Other {{Wiki|commentarial}} passages allow [[access concentration]] to suffice for the [[vehicle]] of [[serenity]], but the last {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]] is excluded because its factors are too {{Wiki|subtle}} to be discerned. The [[meditator]] whose [[vehicle]] is [[pure]] [[insight]], on the other hand, is advised to start directly by discerning material and [[mental phenomena]], beginning with the [[four elements]], without utilizing a [[jhana]] for this {{Wiki|purpose}} (Vism. 558; PP.680). Thus the [[samathayanika]] first attains [[access concentration]] or [[mundane]] [[jhana]] and then develops [[insight knowledge]], by means of which he reaches the [[supramundane path]] containing [[wisdom]] under the heading of [[right view]], and [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] under the heading of [[right concentration]]. The [[vipassanayanika]], in contrast, skips over [[mundane]] [[jhana]] and goes directly into [[insight]] contemplation. When he reaches the end of the progression of [[insight knowledge]] he arrives at the [[supramundane path]] which, as in the previous case, brings together [[wisdom]] with [[supramundane]] [[jhana]]. This [[jhana]] counts as his [[accomplishment]] of [[serenity]]. |
− | For a meditator following the vehicle of serenity the attainment of jhana fulfills two functions: first, it produces a basis of mental purity and inner collectedness needed for undertaking the work of insight contemplation; and second, it serves as an object to be examined with insight in order to discern the three characteristics of impermanence, suffering and non-self. Jhana accomplishes the first function by providing a powerful instrument for overcoming the five hindrances. As we have seen, for wisdom to arise the mind must first be concentrated well, and to be concentrated well it must be freed from the hindrances, a task accomplished pre-eminently by the attainment of jhana. Though access concentration will keep the hindrances at bay, jhana will ensure that they are removed to a much safer distance. | + | For a [[meditator]] following the [[vehicle]] of [[serenity]] the [[attainment]] of [[jhana]] fulfills two functions: first, it produces a basis of [[mental]] [[purity]] and inner collectedness needed for {{Wiki|undertaking}} the work of [[insight]] contemplation; and second, it serves as an [[object]] to be examined with [[insight]] in order to discern the [[three characteristics]] of [[impermanence]], [[suffering]] and [[non-self]]. [[Jhana]] accomplishes the first [[function]] by providing a powerful instrument for [[overcoming]] the [[five hindrances]]. As we have seen, for [[wisdom]] to arise the [[mind]] must first be [[concentrated]] well, and to be [[concentrated]] well it must be freed from the [[hindrances]], a task accomplished pre-eminently by the [[attainment]] of [[jhana]]. Though [[access concentration]] will keep the [[hindrances]] at bay, [[jhana]] will ensure that they are removed to a much safer distance. |
− | In their capacity for producing concentration the jhanas are called the basis (pada) for insight, and that particular jhana a meditator enters and emerges from before commencing his practice of insight is designated his padakajjhana, the basic or foundational jhana. Insight cannot be practiced while absorbed in jhana, since insight meditation requires investigation and observation, which are impossible when the mind is immersed in one-pointed absorption. But after emerging form the jhana the mind is cleared of the hindrances, and the stillness and clarity that then result conduce to precise, penetrating insight. | + | In their capacity for producing [[concentration]] the [[jhanas]] are called the basis ([[pada]]) for [[insight]], and that particular [[jhana]] a [[meditator]] enters and emerges from before commencing his practice of [[insight]] is designated his [[padakajjhana]], the basic or foundational [[jhana]]. [[Insight]] cannot be practiced while absorbed in [[jhana]], since [[insight]] [[meditation]] requires [[investigation]] and observation, which are impossible when the [[mind]] is immersed in [[one-pointed]] [[absorption]]. But after [[emerging]] [[form]] the [[jhana]] the [[mind]] is cleared of the [[hindrances]], and the stillness and clarity that then result conduce to precise, penetrating [[insight]]. |
− | The jhanas also enter into the samathayanika's practice in second capacity, that is, as objects for scrutinization by insight. The practice of insight consists essentially in the examination of mental and physical phenomena to discover their marks of impermanence, suffering and non-self. The jhanas a meditator attains provide him with a readily available and strikingly clear object in which to seek out the three characteristics. After emerging from a jhana the meditator will proceed to examine the jhanic consciousness and to discern the way it exemplifies the three universal marks. This process is called sammasananana, "comprehension knowledge," and the jhana subject to such treatment is termed sammasitajjhana, "the comprehended jhana" (Vism. 607-11; PP.706-10). Though the basic jhana and the comprehended jhana will often be the same, the two do not necessarily coincide. A meditator cannot practice comprehension on a jhana higher than he is capable of attaining, but one who uses a higher jhana as his padakajjhana can still practice insight comprehension on a lower jhana which he has previously attained and mastered. The admitted difference between the padakajjhana and the sammasitajjhana leads to discrepant theories about the supramundane concentration of the noble path, as we will see. | + | The [[jhanas]] also enter into the samathayanika's practice in second capacity, that is, as [[objects]] for scrutinization by [[insight]]. The practice of [[insight]] consists [[essentially]] in the {{Wiki|examination}} of [[mental]] and [[physical phenomena]] to discover their marks of [[impermanence]], [[suffering]] and [[non-self]]. The [[jhanas]] a [[meditator]] attains provide him with a readily available and strikingly clear [[object]] in which to seek out the [[three characteristics]]. After [[emerging]] from a [[jhana]] the [[meditator]] will proceed to examine the [[jhanic]] [[consciousness]] and to discern the way it exemplifies the three [[universal]] marks. This process is called [[sammasananana]], "[[comprehension]] [[knowledge]]," and the [[jhana]] [[subject]] to such treatment is termed [[sammasitajjhana]], "the comprehended [[jhana]]" (Vism. 607-11; PP.706-10). Though the basic [[jhana]] and the comprehended [[jhana]] will often be the same, the two do not necessarily coincide. A [[meditator]] cannot practice [[comprehension]] on a [[jhana]] higher than he is capable of [[attaining]], but one who uses a higher [[jhana]] as his [[padakajjhana]] can still practice [[insight]] [[comprehension]] on a lower [[jhana]] which he has previously [[attained]] and mastered. The admitted difference between the [[padakajjhana]] and the [[sammasitajjhana]] leads to discrepant theories about the [[supramundane]] [[concentration]] of the [[noble path]], as we will see. |
− | Whereas the sequence of training undertaken by the samathayanika meditator is unproblematic, the vipassanayanika's approach presents the difficulty of accounting for the concentration he uses to provide a basis for insight. Concentration is needed in order to see and know things as they are, but without access concentration or jhana, what concentration can he use? The solution to this problem is found in a type of concentration distinct from the access and absorption concentrations pertaining to the vehicle of serenity, called "momentary concentration" (khanika samadhi). Despite its name, momentary concentration does not signify a single moment of concentration amidst a current of distracted thoughts, but a dynamic concentration which flows from object to object in the ever-changing flux of phenomena, retaining a constant degree of intensity and collectedness sufficient to purify the mind of the hindrances. Momentary concentration arises in the samathayanika simultaneously with his post-jhanic attainment of insight, but for the vipassanayanika it develops naturally and spontaneously in the course of his insight practice without his having to fix the mind upon a single exclusive object. Thus the follower of the vehicle of insight does not omit concentration altogether from his training, but develops it in a different manner from the practitioner of serenity. Without gaining jhana he goes directly into contemplation on the five aggregates and by observing them constantly from moment to moment acquires momentary concentration as an accompaniment of his investigations. This momentary concentration fulfills the same function as the basic jhana of the serenity vehicle, providing the foundation of mental clarity needed for insight to emerge. | + | Whereas the sequence of {{Wiki|training}} undertaken by the [[samathayanika]] [[meditator]] is unproblematic, the vipassanayanika's approach presents the difficulty of accounting for the [[concentration]] he uses to provide a basis for [[insight]]. [[Concentration]] is needed in order to see and know things as they are, but without [[access concentration]] or [[jhana]], what [[concentration]] can he use? The {{Wiki|solution}} to this problem is found in a type of [[concentration]] {{Wiki|distinct}} from the access and [[absorption]] concentrations pertaining to the [[vehicle]] of [[serenity]], called "[[momentary concentration]]" ([[khanika samadhi]]). Despite its [[name]], [[momentary concentration]] does not signify a [[single moment]] of [[concentration]] amidst a current of distracted [[thoughts]], but a dynamic [[concentration]] which flows from [[object]] to [[object]] in the ever-changing flux of [[phenomena]], retaining a [[constant]] [[degree]] of intensity and collectedness sufficient to {{Wiki|purify}} the [[mind]] of the [[hindrances]]. Momentary [[concentration]] arises in the [[samathayanika]] simultaneously with his post-jhanic [[attainment]] of [[insight]], but for the [[vipassanayanika]] it develops naturally and spontaneously in the course of his [[insight]] practice without his having to fix the [[mind]] upon a single exclusive [[object]]. Thus the follower of the [[vehicle]] of [[insight]] does not omit [[concentration]] altogether from his {{Wiki|training}}, but develops it in a different [[manner]] from the [[practitioner]] of [[serenity]]. Without gaining [[jhana]] he goes directly into contemplation on the [[five aggregates]] and by observing them constantly from [[moment]] to [[moment]] acquires [[momentary concentration]] as an accompaniment of his investigations. This [[momentary concentration]] fulfills the same [[function]] as the basic [[jhana]] of the [[serenity]] [[vehicle]], providing the foundation of [[mental]] clarity needed for [[insight]] to emerge. |
− | ===Supramundane Jhana=== | + | ===[[Supramundane]] [[Jhana]]=== |
− | The climax in the development of insight is the attainment of the supramundane paths and fruits. Each path is a momentary peak experience directly apprehending Nibbana and permanently cutting off certain defilements. These defilements are generally grouped into a set of ten "fetters" (samyojana) which keep beings chained to the round of rebirths. The first path, called the path of stream-entry (sota patti) because it marks the entry into the stream of the Dhamma, eradicates the first three fetters -- The false view of self, doubt, and clinging to rites and rituals. The disciple who has reached stream-entry has limited his future births to a maximum of seven in the happy realms of the human and heavenly worlds, after which he will attain final deliverance. But an ardent disciple may progress to still higher stages in the same life in which he reaches stream-entry, by making an aspiration for the next higher path and again undertaking the development of insight with the aim of reaching that path. | + | The climax in the [[development of insight]] is the [[attainment]] of the [[supramundane paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}}. Each [[path]] is a momentary peak [[experience]] directly apprehending [[Nibbana]] and permanently cutting off certain [[defilements]]. These [[defilements]] are generally grouped into a set of ten "[[fetters]]" ([[samyojana]]) which keep [[beings]] chained to the round of [[rebirths]]. The first [[path]], called the [[path]] of [[stream-entry]] ([[sota patti]]) because it marks the entry into the {{Wiki|stream}} of the [[Dhamma]], eradicates the first [[three fetters]] -- The [[false view]] of [[self]], [[doubt]], and [[clinging to rites and rituals]]. The [[disciple]] who has reached [[stream-entry]] has limited his {{Wiki|future}} [[births]] to a maximum of seven in the [[happy]] [[realms]] of the [[human]] and [[heavenly]] [[worlds]], after which he will attain final [[deliverance]]. But an ardent [[disciple]] may progress to still higher stages in the same [[life]] in which he reaches [[stream-entry]], by making an [[aspiration]] for the next higher [[path]] and again {{Wiki|undertaking}} the [[development of insight]] with the aim of reaching that [[path]]. |
− | The next supramundane path is that of the once-returner (sakadagami). This path does not eradicate any fetters completely, but it greatly attenuates sensual desire and ill will. The once-returner is so called because he is bound to make an end of suffering after returning to this world only one more time. The third path, that of the non-returner (anagami) utterly destroys the sensual desire and ill will weakened by the preceding path. The non-returner is assured that he will never again take rebirth in the sense-sphere; if he does not penetrate higher he will be reborn spontaneously in the Pure Abodes and there reach final Nibbana. The highest path, the path of arahatship, eradicate the remaining five fetters -- desire for existence in the fine-material and immaterial spheres, conceit, restlessness and ignorance. The arahat has completed the development of the entire path taught by the Buddha; he has reached the end of rebirths and can sound his "lion's roar": "Destroyed is birth, the holy life has been lived, what was to be done has been done, there is nothing further beyond this." | + | The next [[supramundane path]] is that of the [[once-returner]] ([[sakadagami]]). This [[path]] does not eradicate any [[fetters]] completely, but it greatly attenuates [[sensual desire]] and [[ill will]]. The [[once-returner]] is so called because he is [[bound]] to make an end of [[suffering]] after returning to this [[world]] only one more [[time]]. The third [[path]], that of the [[non-returner]] ([[anagami]]) utterly destroys the [[sensual desire]] and [[ill will]] weakened by the preceding [[path]]. The [[non-returner]] is assured that he will never again take [[rebirth]] in the [[sense-sphere]]; if he does not penetrate higher he will be [[reborn]] spontaneously in the [[Pure Abodes]] and there reach final [[Nibbana]]. The [[highest]] [[path]], the [[path]] of [[arahatship]], eradicate the remaining five [[fetters]] -- [[desire for existence]] in the fine-material and [[immaterial spheres]], [[conceit]], [[restlessness]] and [[ignorance]]. The [[arahat]] has completed the [[development]] of the entire [[path]] [[taught]] by the [[Buddha]]; he has reached the end of [[rebirths]] and can [[sound]] his "[[lion's roar]]": "Destroyed is [[birth]], the {{Wiki|holy}} [[life]] has been lived, what was to be done has been done, there is nothing further beyond this." |
− | Each path is followed immediately by the supramundane experience of fruition, which results from the path, comes in the same four graded stages, and shares the path's world-transcending character. But whereas the path performs the active function of cutting off defilements, fruition simply enjoys the bliss and peace that result when the path has completed its task. Also, where the path is limited to a single moment of consciousness, the fruition that follows immediately on the path endures for two or three moments. And while each of the four paths occurs only once and can never be repeated, fruition remains accessible to the noble disciple at he appropriate level. He can resort to it as a special meditative state called fruition attainment (phalasamapatti) for the purpose of experiencing nibbanic bliss here and now (Vism. 699-702; PP.819-24). | + | Each [[path]] is followed immediately by the [[supramundane]] [[experience]] of [[fruition]], which results from the [[path]], comes in the same four graded stages, and shares the path's [[world-transcending]] [[character]]. But whereas the [[path]] performs the active [[function]] of cutting off [[defilements]], [[fruition]] simply enjoys the [[bliss]] and [[peace]] that result when the [[path]] has completed its task. Also, where the [[path]] is limited to a [[single moment]] of [[consciousness]], the [[fruition]] that follows immediately on the [[path]] endures for two or three moments. And while each of the four [[paths]] occurs only once and can never be repeated, [[fruition]] remains accessible to the [[noble disciple]] at he appropriate level. He can resort to it as a special [[meditative]] [[state]] called [[fruition]] [[attainment]] ([[phalasamapatti]]) for the {{Wiki|purpose}} of experiencing [[nibbanic]] [[bliss]] here and now (Vism. 699-702; PP.819-24). |
− | The supramundane paths and fruits always arise as states of jhanic consciousness. They occur as states of jhana because they contain within themselves the jhana factors elevated to an intensity corresponding to that of the jhana factors in the mundane jhanas. Since they possess the jhana factors these states are able to fix upon their object with the force of full absorption. Thence, taking the absorptive force of the jhana factors as the criterion, the paths and fruits may be reckoned as belonging to either the first, second, third or fourth jhana of the fourfold scheme, or to the first, second, third, fourth or fifth jhana of the fivefold scheme. | + | The [[supramundane paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}} always arise as states of [[jhanic]] [[consciousness]]. They occur as states of [[jhana]] because they contain within themselves the [[jhana]] factors elevated to an intensity corresponding to that of the [[jhana]] factors in the [[mundane]] [[jhanas]]. Since they possess the [[jhana]] factors these states are [[able]] to fix upon their [[object]] with the force of full [[absorption]]. Thence, taking the absorptive force of the [[jhana]] factors as the criterion, the [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}} may be reckoned as belonging to either the first, second, third or [[fourth jhana]] of the fourfold scheme, or to the first, second, third, fourth or [[fifth jhana]] of the fivefold scheme. |
− | The basis for the recognition of a supramundane type of jhana goes back to the suttas, especially to the section of "The Great Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness" where the Buddha defines right concentration of the Noble Eightfold Path by the standard formula for the four jhanas (D.ii,313). However, it is in the Abhidhamma that the connection between the jhanas, paths and fruits comes to be worked out with great intricacy of detail. The Dhammasangani, in its section on states of consciousness, expounds each of the path and fruition states of consciousness as occasions, first, of one or another of the four jhanas in the fourfold scheme, and then again as occasions of one or another of the five jhanas in the fivefold scheme (Dhs.74-86). Standard Abhidhammic exposition, as formalized in the synoptical manuals of Abhidhamma, employs the fivefold scheme and brings each of the paths and fruits into connection with each of the five jhanas. In this way the eight types of supramundane consciousness -- the path and fruition consciousness of stream-entry, the once-returner, the non-returner and arahatship -- proliferate to forty types of supramundane consciousness, since any path or fruit can occur at the level of any of the five jhanas. It should be noted, however, that there are no paths and fruits conjoined with the immaterial attainments, the reason being that supramundane jhana is presented solely from the standpoint of its factorial constitution, which for the immaterial attainment and the fifth jhana is identical -- equanimity and one-pointedness. | + | The basis for the [[recognition]] of a [[supramundane]] type of [[jhana]] goes back to the [[suttas]], especially to the section of "The Great {{Wiki|Discourse}} on the [[Foundations of Mindfulness]]" where the [[Buddha]] defines [[right concentration]] of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] by the standard [[formula]] for the four [[jhanas]] (D.ii,313). However, it is in the [[Abhidhamma]] that the connection between the [[jhanas]], [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}} comes to be worked out with great intricacy of detail. The [[Dhammasangani]], in its section on states of [[consciousness]], expounds each of the [[path]] and [[fruition]] states of [[consciousness]] as occasions, first, of one or another of the four [[jhanas]] in the fourfold scheme, and then again as occasions of one or another of the five [[jhanas]] in the fivefold scheme (Dhs.74-86). Standard [[Abhidhammic]] [[exposition]], as formalized in the synoptical manuals of [[Abhidhamma]], employs the fivefold scheme and brings each of the [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}} into connection with each of the five [[jhanas]]. In this way the eight types of [[supramundane]] [[consciousness]] -- the [[path]] and [[fruition]] [[consciousness]] of [[stream-entry]], the [[once-returner]], the [[non-returner]] and [[arahatship]] -- {{Wiki|proliferate}} to forty types of [[supramundane]] [[consciousness]], since any [[path]] or fruit can occur at the level of any of the five [[jhanas]]. It should be noted, however, that there are no [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}} conjoined with the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]], the [[reason]] being that [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] is presented solely from the standpoint of its factorial constitution, which for the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainment]] and the [[fifth jhana]] is [[identical]] -- [[equanimity]] and [[one-pointedness]]. |
− | The fullest treatment of the supramundane jhanas in the authoritative Pali literature can be found in the Dhammasangani read in conjunction with its commentary, the Atthasalini. The Dhammasangani opens its analysis of the first wholesome supramundane consciousness with the words: | + | The fullest treatment of the [[supramundane]] [[jhanas]] in the authoritative [[Pali literature]] can be found in the [[Dhammasangani]] read in {{Wiki|conjunction}} with its commentary, the [[Atthasalini]]. The [[Dhammasangani]] opens its analysis of the first [[wholesome]] [[supramundane]] [[consciousness]] with the words: |
− | : On the occasion when one develops supramundane jhana which is emancipating, leading to the demolition (of existence), for the abandonment of views, for reaching the first plane, secluded from sense pleasures ... one enters and dwells in the first jhana. (Dhs. 72) | + | : On the [[occasion]] when one develops [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] which is emancipating, leading to the demolition (of [[existence]]), for the [[abandonment]] of [[views]], for reaching the first plane, secluded from [[sense]] [[pleasures]] ... one enters and dwells in the [[first jhana]]. (Dhs. 72) |
− | The Atthasalini explains the word lokuttara, which we have been translating "supramundane," as meaning "it crosses over the world, it transcends the world, it stands having surmounted and overcome the world." It glosses the phrase "one develops jhana" thus: "One develops, produces, cultivates absorption jhana lasting for a single thought-moment." This gloss shows us two things about the consciousness of the path: that it occurs as a jhana at the level of full absorption and that this absorption of the path lasts for only a single thought-moment. The word "emancipating" (niyyanika) is explained to mean that this jhana "goes out" from the world, from the round of existence, the phrase "leading to demolition" (apacayagami) that it demolishes and dismantles the process of rebirth (Dhs.A.259). | + | The [[Atthasalini]] explains the [[word]] [[lokuttara]], which we have been translating "[[supramundane]]," as meaning "it crosses over the [[world]], it {{Wiki|transcends}} the [[world]], it stands having surmounted and overcome the [[world]]." It glosses the [[phrase]] "one develops [[jhana]]" thus: "One develops, produces, cultivates [[absorption]] [[jhana]] lasting for a single [[thought-moment]]." This gloss shows us two things about the [[consciousness]] of the [[path]]: that it occurs as a [[jhana]] at the level of full [[absorption]] and that this [[absorption]] of the [[path]] lasts for only a single [[thought-moment]]. The [[word]] "emancipating" ([[niyyanika]]) is explained to mean that this [[jhana]] "goes out" from the [[world]], from the round of [[existence]], the [[phrase]] "leading to demolition" ([[apacayagami]]) that it demolishes and dismantles the process of [[rebirth]] (Dhs.A.259). |
− | This last phrase points to a striking difference between mundane and supramundane jhana. The Dhammasangani's exposition of the former begins: "On the occasion when one develops the path for rebirth in the fine-material sphere ... one enters and dwells in the first jhana" [my italics]. Thus, with this statement, mundane jhana is shown to sustain the round of rebirths; it is a wholesome kamma leading to renewed existence. But the supramundane jhana of the path does not promote the continuation of the round. To the contrary, it brings about the round's dismantling and demolition, as the Atthasalini shows with an illustrative simile: | + | This last [[phrase]] points to a striking difference between [[mundane]] and [[supramundane]] [[jhana]]. The Dhammasangani's [[exposition]] of the former begins: "On the [[occasion]] when one develops the [[path]] for [[rebirth]] in the [[fine-material sphere]] ... one enters and dwells in the [[first jhana]]" [my italics]. Thus, with this statement, [[mundane]] [[jhana]] is shown to sustain the round of [[rebirths]]; it is a [[wholesome]] [[kamma]] leading to renewed [[existence]]. But the [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] of the [[path]] does not promote the continuation of the round. To the contrary, it brings about the round's dismantling and demolition, as the [[Atthasalini]] shows with an illustrative simile: |
− | The wholesome states of the three planes are said to lead to accumulation because they build up and increase death and rebirth in the round. But not this. Just as when one man has built up a wall eighteen feet high another might take a club and go along demolishing it, so this goes along demolishing and dismantling the deaths and rebirths built up by the wholesome kammas of the three planes by bringing about a deficiency in their conditions. Thus it leads to demolition.<ref>Dhs.A.259.See Expositor, ii.289-90. </ref> | + | The [[wholesome]] states of the three planes are said to lead to [[accumulation]] because they build up and increase [[death]] and [[rebirth]] in the round. But not this. Just as when one man has built up a wall eighteen feet high another might take a club and go along demolishing it, so this goes along demolishing and dismantling the [[deaths]] and [[rebirths]] built up by the [[wholesome]] [[kammas]] of the three planes by bringing about a deficiency in their [[conditions]]. Thus it leads to demolition.<ref>Dhs.A.259.See [[Expositor]], ii.289-90. </ref> |
− | Supramundane jhana is said to be cultivated "for the abandoning of views." This phrase points to the function of the first path, which is to eradicate the fetters. The supramundane jhana of the first path cuts off the fetter of personality view and all speculative views derived from it. The Atthasalini points out that here we should understand that it abandons not only wrong views but other unwholesome states as well, namely, doubt, clinging to rites and rituals, and greed, hatred and delusion strong enough to lead to the plane of misery. The commentary explicates "for reaching the first plane" as meaning for attaining the fruit of stream-entry. | + | [[Supramundane]] [[jhana]] is said to be cultivated "for the [[abandoning]] of [[views]]." This [[phrase]] points to the [[function]] of the first [[path]], which is to eradicate the [[fetters]]. The [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] of the first [[path]] cuts off the [[fetter]] of [[personality view]] and all [[speculative views]] derived from it. The [[Atthasalini]] points out that here we should understand that it abandons not only [[wrong views]] but other [[unwholesome]] states as well, namely, [[doubt]], [[clinging to rites and rituals]], and [[greed]], [[hatred]] and [[delusion]] strong enough to lead to the plane of [[misery]]. The commentary explicates "for reaching the first plane" as meaning for [[attaining]] the fruit of [[stream-entry]]. |
− | Besides these, several other differences between mundane and supramundane jhana may be briefly noted. First, with regard to their object, the mundane jhanas have as object a conceptual entity such as the counterpart sign of the kasinas or, in the case of the divine abodes, sentient beings. In contrast, for the supramundane jhana of the paths and fruits the object is exclusively Nibbana. With regard to their predominant tone, in mundane jhana the element of serenity prevails, while the supramundane jhana of the paths and fruits brings serenity and insight into balance. Wisdom is present as right view and serenity as right concentration, both function together in perfect harmony, neither one exceeding the other. | + | Besides these, several other differences between [[mundane]] and [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] may be briefly noted. First, with regard to their [[object]], the [[mundane]] [[jhanas]] have as [[object]] a {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[entity]] such as the [[counterpart sign]] of the [[kasinas]] or, in the case of the [[divine abodes]], [[sentient beings]]. In contrast, for the [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] of the [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}} the [[object]] is exclusively [[Nibbana]]. With regard to their predominant tone, in [[mundane]] [[jhana]] the [[element]] of [[serenity]] prevails, while the [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] of the [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}} brings [[serenity]] and [[insight]] into [[balance]]. [[Wisdom]] is {{Wiki|present}} as [[right view]] and [[serenity]] as [[right concentration]], both [[function]] together in {{Wiki|perfect}} [[harmony]], neither one exceeding the other. |
− | This difference in prevailing tone leads into a difference in function or activity between the two kinds of jhana. Both the mundane and supramundane are jhanas in the sense of closely attending (upanijjhana), but in the case of mundane jhana this close attention issues merely in absorption into the object, an absorption that can only suppress the defilement temporarily. In the supramundane jhana, particularly of the four paths, the coupling of close attention with wisdom brings the exercise of four functions at a single moment. These four functions each apply to one of the Four Noble Truths. The path penetrates the First Noble Truth by fully understanding suffering; it penetrates the Second Noble Truth by abandoning craving, the origin of suffering; it penetrates the Third Noble Truth by realizing Nibbana, the cessation of suffering; and it penetrates the fourth Noble Truth by developing the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to the end of suffering. Buddhaghosa illustrates this with the simile of a lamp, which also performs four tasks simultaneously: it burns the wick, dispels darkness, makes light appear, and consumes oil (Vism.690; PP.808). | + | This difference in prevailing tone leads into a difference in [[function]] or [[activity]] between the two kinds of [[jhana]]. Both the [[mundane]] and [[supramundane]] are [[jhanas]] in the [[sense]] of closely attending ([[upanijjhana]]), but in the case of [[mundane]] [[jhana]] this [[close attention]] issues merely in [[absorption]] into the [[object]], an [[absorption]] that can only suppress the [[defilement]] temporarily. In the [[supramundane]] [[jhana]], particularly of the four [[paths]], the coupling of [[close attention]] with [[wisdom]] brings the exercise of four functions at a [[single moment]]. These four functions each apply to one of the [[Four Noble Truths]]. The [[path]] penetrates the [[First Noble Truth]] by fully [[understanding]] [[suffering]]; it penetrates the [[Second Noble Truth]] by [[abandoning]] [[craving]], the origin of [[suffering]]; it penetrates the [[Third Noble Truth]] by [[realizing]] [[Nibbana]], the [[cessation of suffering]]; and it penetrates the fourth [[Noble Truth]] by developing the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] that leads to the end of [[suffering]]. [[Buddhaghosa]] illustrates this with the simile of a [[lamp]], which also performs four tasks simultaneously: it burns the wick, dispels {{Wiki|darkness}}, makes {{Wiki|light}} appear, and consumes oil (Vism.690; PP.808). |
− | ===The Jhanic Level of the Path and Fruit=== | + | ===The [[Jhanic]] Level of the [[Path]] and Fruit=== |
− | When the paths and fruits are assigned to the level of the four or five jhanas, the question arises as to what factor determines their particular level of jhanic intensity. In other words, why do the path and fruit arise for one meditator at the level of the first jhana, for another at the level of the second jhana, and so forth? The commentaries present three theories concerning the determination of the jhanic level of the path, apparently deriving from the lineages of ancient teachers (Vism. 666-67; PP.778-80. Dhs.A.271-74). The first holds that it is the basic jhana, i.e. the jhana used as a basis for the insight leading to emergence in immediate proximity to the path, that governs the difference in the jhanic level of the path. A second theory says that the difference is governed by the aggregates made the objects of insight on the occasion of insight leading to emergence. A third theory holds that it is the personal inclination of the meditator that governs the difference. | + | When the [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}} are assigned to the level of the four or five [[jhanas]], the question arises as to what factor determines their particular level of [[jhanic]] intensity. In other words, why do the [[path and fruit]] arise for one [[meditator]] at the level of the [[first jhana]], for another at the level of the [[second jhana]], and so forth? The commentaries {{Wiki|present}} three theories concerning the [[determination]] of the [[jhanic]] level of the [[path]], apparently deriving from the [[lineages]] of {{Wiki|ancient}} [[teachers]] (Vism. 666-67; PP.778-80. Dhs.A.271-74). The first holds that it is the basic [[jhana]], i.e. the [[jhana]] used as a basis for the [[insight]] leading to [[emergence]] in immediate proximity to the [[path]], that governs the difference in the [[jhanic]] level of the [[path]]. A second {{Wiki|theory}} says that the difference is governed by the [[aggregates]] made the [[objects]] of [[insight]] on the [[occasion]] of [[insight]] leading to [[emergence]]. A third {{Wiki|theory}} holds that it is the personal inclination of the [[meditator]] that governs the difference. |
− | According to the first theory the path arisen in a dry-insight meditator who lacks jhana, and the path arisen in one who possesses a jhana attainment but does not use it as a basis for insight, and the path arisen by comprehending formations after emerging from the first jhana, are all paths of the first jhana only. When the path is produced after emerging from the second, third, fourth and fifth jhanas (of the fivefold system) and using these as the basis for insight, then the path pertains to the level of the jhana used as a basis -- the second, third, fourth of fifth. For a meditator using an immaterial jhana as basis the path will be a fifth jhana path. Thus in this first theory, when formations are comprehended by insight after emerging from a basic jhana, then it is the jhana attainment emerged from at the point nearest to the path, i.e. just before insight leading to emergence is reached, that makes the path similar in nature to itself. | + | According to the first {{Wiki|theory}} the [[path]] arisen in a dry-insight [[meditator]] who lacks [[jhana]], and the [[path]] arisen in one who possesses a [[jhana]] [[attainment]] but does not use it as a basis for [[insight]], and the [[path]] arisen by comprehending [[formations]] after [[emerging]] from the [[first jhana]], are all [[paths]] of the [[first jhana]] only. When the [[path]] is produced after [[emerging]] from the second, third, fourth and fifth [[jhanas]] (of the fivefold system) and using these as the basis for [[insight]], then the [[path]] pertains to the level of the [[jhana]] used as a basis -- the second, third, fourth of fifth. For a [[meditator]] using an {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]] as basis the [[path]] will be a [[fifth jhana]] [[path]]. Thus in this first {{Wiki|theory}}, when [[formations]] are comprehended by [[insight]] after [[emerging]] from a basic [[jhana]], then it is the [[jhana]] [[attainment]] emerged from at the point nearest to the [[path]], i.e. just before [[insight]] leading to [[emergence]] is reached, that makes the [[path]] similar in [[nature]] to itself. |
− | According to the second theory the path that arises is similar in nature to the states which are being comprehended with insight at the time insight leading to emergence occurs. Thus if the meditator, after emerging from a meditative attainment, is comprehending with insight sense-sphere phenomena or the constituents of the first jhana, then the path produced will occur at the level of the first jhana. On this theory, then, it is the comprehended jhana (sammasitajjhana) that determines the jhanic quality of the path. The one qualification that must be added is that a meditator cannot contemplate with insight a jhana higher than he is capable of attaining. | + | According to the second {{Wiki|theory}} the [[path]] that arises is similar in [[nature]] to the states which are being comprehended with [[insight]] at the [[time]] [[insight]] leading to [[emergence]] occurs. Thus if the [[meditator]], after [[emerging]] from a [[meditative]] [[attainment]], is comprehending with [[insight]] [[sense-sphere]] [[phenomena]] or the constituents of the [[first jhana]], then the [[path]] produced will occur at the level of the [[first jhana]]. On this {{Wiki|theory}}, then, it is the comprehended [[jhana]] ([[sammasitajjhana]]) that determines the [[jhanic]] [[quality]] of the [[path]]. The one qualification that must be added is that a [[meditator]] cannot [[contemplate]] with [[insight]] a [[jhana]] higher than he is capable of [[attaining]]. |
− | According to the third theory, the path occurs at the level of whichever jhana the meditator wishes -- either at the level of the jhana he has used as the basis for insight or at the level of the jhana he has made the object of insight comprehension. In other words, the jhanic quality of the path accords with his personal inclination. However, mere wish alone is not sufficient. For the path to occur at the jhanic level wished for, the mundane jhana must have been either made the basis for insight or used as the object of insight comprehension. | + | According to the third {{Wiki|theory}}, the [[path]] occurs at the level of whichever [[jhana]] the [[meditator]] wishes -- either at the level of the [[jhana]] he has used as the basis for [[insight]] or at the level of the [[jhana]] he has made the [[object]] of [[insight]] [[comprehension]]. In other words, the [[jhanic]] [[quality]] of the [[path]] accords with his personal inclination. However, mere wish alone is not sufficient. For the [[path]] to occur at the [[jhanic]] level wished for, the [[mundane]] [[jhana]] must have been either made the basis for [[insight]] or used as the [[object]] of [[insight]] [[comprehension]]. |
− | The difference between the three theories can be understood through a simple example.<ref>Dhs.A.274. See Expositor, ii.310. </ref> If a meditator reaches the supramundane path by contemplating with insight the first jhana after emerging from the fifth jhana, then according to the first theory his path will belong to the fifth jhana, while according to the second theory it will belong to the first jhana. Thus these two theories are incompatible when a difference obtains between basic jhana and comprehended jhana. But according to the third theory, the path becomes of whichever jhana the meditator wishes, either the first or the fifth. Thus this doctrine does not necessarily clash with the other two. | + | The difference between the three theories can be understood through a simple example.<ref>Dhs.A.274. See [[Expositor]], ii.310. </ref> If a [[meditator]] reaches the [[supramundane path]] by contemplating with [[insight]] the [[first jhana]] after [[emerging]] from the [[fifth jhana]], then according to the first {{Wiki|theory}} his [[path]] will belong to the [[fifth jhana]], while according to the second {{Wiki|theory}} it will belong to the [[first jhana]]. Thus these two theories are incompatible when a difference obtains between basic [[jhana]] and comprehended [[jhana]]. But according to the third {{Wiki|theory}}, the [[path]] becomes of whichever [[jhana]] the [[meditator]] wishes, either the first or the fifth. Thus this [[doctrine]] does not necessarily clash with the other two. |
− | Buddhaghosa himself does not make a decision among these three theories. He only points out that in all three doctrines, beneath their disagreements, there is the recognition that the insight immediately preceding the supramundane path determines the jhanic character of the path. For this insight is the proximate and the principal cause for the arising of the path, so whether it be the insight leading to emergence near the basic jhana or that occurring through the contemplated jhana or that fixed by the meditator's wish, it is in all cases this final phase of insight that gives definition to the supramundane path. Since the fruition that occurs immediately after the path has an identical constitution to the path, its own supramundane jhana is determined by the path. Thus a first jhana path produces a first jhana fruit, and so forth for the remaining jhanas. | + | [[Buddhaghosa]] himself does not make a [[decision]] among these three theories. He only points out that in all three [[doctrines]], beneath their disagreements, there is the [[recognition]] that the [[insight]] immediately preceding the [[supramundane path]] determines the [[jhanic]] [[character]] of the [[path]]. For this [[insight]] is the proximate and the [[principal]] [[cause]] for the [[arising]] of the [[path]], so whether it be the [[insight]] leading to [[emergence]] near the basic [[jhana]] or that occurring through the contemplated [[jhana]] or that fixed by the [[meditator's]] wish, it is in all cases this final phase of [[insight]] that gives [[definition]] to the [[supramundane path]]. Since the [[fruition]] that occurs immediately after the [[path]] has an [[identical]] constitution to the [[path]], its [[own]] [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] is determined by the [[path]]. Thus a [[first jhana]] [[path]] produces a [[first jhana]] fruit, and so forth for the remaining [[jhanas]]. |
− | ==Chapter 6<br/>Jhana and The Noble Disciples== | + | ==[[Chapter]] 6<br/>[[Jhana]] and The [[Noble]] [[Disciples]]== |
− | All noble persons, as we saw, acquire supramundane jhana along with their attainment of the noble paths and fruits. The noble ones at each of the four stages of liberation, moreover, have access to the supramundane jhana of their respective fruition attainments, from the fruition attainment of stream-entry up to the fruition attainments of arahatship. It remains problematic, however to what extent they also enjoy the possession of mundane jhana. To determine an answer to this question we will consult an early typology of seven types of noble disciples, which provides a more psychologically oriented way of classifying the eight noble individuals. A look at the explanation of these seven types will enable us to see the range of jhanic attainment reached by the noble disciples. On this basis we will proceed to assess the place of mundane jhana in the early Buddhist picture of the arahat, the perfected individual. | + | All [[noble persons]], as we saw, acquire [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] along with their [[attainment]] of the [[noble paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}}. The [[noble ones]] at each of the four stages of [[liberation]], moreover, have access to the [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] of their respective [[fruition]] [[attainments]], from the [[fruition]] [[attainment]] of [[stream-entry]] up to the [[fruition]] [[attainments]] of [[arahatship]]. It remains problematic, however to what extent they also enjoy the possession of [[mundane]] [[jhana]]. To determine an answer to this question we will consult an early [[typology]] of seven types of [[noble]] [[disciples]], which provides a more {{Wiki|psychologically}} oriented way of classifying the eight [[noble]] {{Wiki|individuals}}. A look at the explanation of these seven types will enable us to see the range of [[jhanic]] [[attainment]] reached by the [[noble]] [[disciples]]. On this basis we will proceed to assess the place of [[mundane]] [[jhana]] in the early [[Buddhist]] picture of the [[arahat]], the perfected {{Wiki|individual}}. |
− | ===Seven Types of Disciples=== | + | ===Seven Types of [[Disciples]]=== |
− | The sevenfold typology is originally found in the Kitagiri Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (M.i,477-79) and is reformulated in the Puggalapannatti of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. This typology classifies the noble persons on the paths and fruits into seven types: | + | The sevenfold [[typology]] is originally found in the Kitagiri [[Sutta]] of the [[Majjhima Nikaya]] (M.i,477-79) and is reformulated in the [[Puggalapannatti]] of the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]. This [[typology]] classifies the [[noble persons]] on the [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}} into seven types: |
− | : 1. the faith-devotee (saddhanusari), | + | : 1. the [[faith-devotee]] ([[saddhanusari]]), |
− | : 2. the one liberated by faith (saddhavimutta), | + | : 2. the one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]] ([[saddhavimutta]]), |
− | : 3. the body-witness (kayasakkhi), | + | : 3. the [[body-witness]] ([[kayasakkhi]]), |
− | : 4. the one liberated in both ways (ubhatobhagavimutta), | + | : 4. the [[one liberated in both ways]] ([[ubhatobhagavimutta]]), |
− | : 5. the truth-devotee ( dhammanusari), | + | : 5. the truth-devotee ( [[dhammanusari]]), |
− | : 6. the one attained to understanding (ditthipatta), and | + | : 6. the one [[attained]] to [[understanding]] ([[ditthipatta]]), and |
− | : 7. the one liberated by wisdom (pannavimutta). | + | : 7. the [[one liberated by wisdom]] ([[pannavimutta]]). |
− | The seven types may be divided into three general groups, each defined by the predominance of a particular spiritual faculty, The first two types are governed by a predominance of faith, the middle two by a predominance of concentration, and the last three by a predominance of wisdom. To this division, however, certain qualifications will have to made as we go along. | + | The seven types may be divided into three general groups, each defined by the predominance of a particular [[spiritual]] {{Wiki|faculty}}, The first two types are governed by a predominance of [[faith]], the middle two by a predominance of [[concentration]], and the last three by a predominance of [[wisdom]]. To this [[division]], however, certain qualifications will have to made as we go along. |
− | 1. The faith-devotee is explained the sutta thus: | + | 1. The [[faith-devotee]] is explained the [[sutta]] thus: |
− | : Herein, monks, some person has not reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form: nor after seeing with wisdom, have his cankers been destroyed.<ref>The cankers (asava) are four powerful defilements that sustain samsara; sensual desire, desire for existence, wrong views and ignorance. </ref> But he has a certain degree of faith in the Tathagata, a certain degree of devotion to him, and he has these qualities -- the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. This person, monks, is called a faith-devotee. (M.i,479) | + | : Herein, [[monks]], some [[person]] has not reached with his [[own]] ([[mental]]) [[body]] those [[peaceful]] {{Wiki|immaterial}} deliverances transcending [[material form]]: nor after [[seeing]] with [[wisdom]], have his [[cankers]] been destroyed.<ref>The [[cankers]] ([[asava]]) are four powerful [[defilements]] that sustain [[samsara]]; [[sensual desire]], [[desire for existence]], [[wrong views]] and [[ignorance]]. </ref> But he has a certain [[degree]] of [[faith]] in the [[Tathagata]], a certain [[degree]] of [[devotion]] to him, and he has these qualities -- the [[faculties]] of [[faith]], [[energy]], [[mindfulness]], [[concentration]] and [[wisdom]]. This [[person]], [[monks]], is called a [[faith-devotee]]. (M.i,479) |
− | The Puggalapannatti (p 182) defines the faith-devotee from a different angle as a disciple practicing for the fruit of stream-entry in whom the faculty of faith is predominant and who develops the noble path led by faith. It adds that when he is established in the fruit he becomes one liberated by faith. Although the sutta excluded the "peaceful immaterial attainments," i.e. the four immaterial jhana, from the faith-devotee's equipment, this implies nothing with regard to his achievement of the four lower mundane jhanas. It would seem that the faith-devotee can have previously attained any of the four fine-material jhanas before reaching the path, and can also be a dry-insight worker bereft of mundane jhana. | + | The [[Puggalapannatti]] (p 182) defines the [[faith-devotee]] from a different angle as a [[disciple]] practicing for the fruit of [[stream-entry]] in whom the {{Wiki|faculty}} of [[faith]] is predominant and who develops the [[noble path]] led by [[faith]]. It adds that when he is established in the fruit he becomes one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]]. Although the [[sutta]] excluded the "[[peaceful]] {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]]," i.e. the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]], from the faith-devotee's equipment, this implies nothing with regard to his [[achievement]] of the four lower [[mundane]] [[jhanas]]. It would seem that the [[faith-devotee]] can have previously [[attained]] any of the four fine-material [[jhanas]] before reaching the [[path]], and can also be a dry-insight worker bereft of [[mundane]] [[jhana]]. |
− | 2. The one liberated by faith is strictly and literally defined as a noble disciple at the six intermediate levels, from the fruit of stream-entry through to the path of arahatship, who lacks the immaterial jhanas and has a predominance of the faith faculty. | + | 2. The one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]] is strictly and literally defined as a [[noble disciple]] at the six [[intermediate]] levels, from the fruit of [[stream-entry]] through to the [[path]] of [[arahatship]], who lacks the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] and has a predominance of the [[faith]] {{Wiki|faculty}}. |
− | The Buddha explains the one liberated by faith as follows: | + | The [[Buddha]] explains the one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]] as follows: |
− | : Herein, monks, some person has not reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form; but having seen with wisdom, some of his cankers have been destroyed, and his faith in the Tathagata is settled, deeply rooted, well established. This person, monks, is called one liberated by faith. (M.i,478) | + | : Herein, [[monks]], some [[person]] has not reached with his [[own]] ([[mental]]) [[body]] those [[peaceful]] {{Wiki|immaterial}} deliverances transcending [[material form]]; but having seen with [[wisdom]], some of his [[cankers]] have been destroyed, and his [[faith]] in the [[Tathagata]] is settled, deeply rooted, well established. This [[person]], [[monks]], is called one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]]. (M.i,478) |
− | As in the case of the faith-devotee, the one liberated by faith, while lacking the immaterial jhanas, may still be an obtainer of the four mundane jhanas as well as a dry insight worker. | + | As in the case of the [[faith-devotee]], the one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]], while lacking the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]], may still be an obtainer of the four [[mundane]] [[jhanas]] as well as a dry [[insight]] worker. |
− | The Puggalapnnatti states (pp.184-85) that the person liberated by faith is one who understands the Four Noble Truths, has seen and verified by means of wisdom the teachings proclaimed by the Tathagata, and having seen with wisdom has eliminated some of his cankers. However, he has not done so as easily as the ditthipatta, the person attained to understanding, whose progress is easier due to his superior wisdom. The fact that the one liberated by faith has destroyed only some of this cankers implies that he has advanced beyond the first path but not yet reached the final fruit, the fruit of arahatship.<ref>The Visuddhimagga, however says that arahats in whom faith is predominant can also be called "liberated by faith" (Vism.659; PP.770). Its commentary points out that this statement is intended only figuratively, in the sense that those arahats reach their goal after having been liberated by faith in the intermediate stages. Literally, they would be "liberated by wisdom". (Vism.T.ii,468) </ref> | + | The Puggalapnnatti states (pp.184-85) that the [[person]] {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]] is one who [[understands]] the [[Four Noble Truths]], has seen and verified by means of [[wisdom]] the teachings proclaimed by the [[Tathagata]], and having seen with [[wisdom]] has eliminated some of his [[cankers]]. However, he has not done so as easily as the [[ditthipatta]], the [[person]] [[attained]] to [[understanding]], whose progress is easier due to his {{Wiki|superior}} [[wisdom]]. The fact that the one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]] has destroyed only some of this [[cankers]] implies that he has advanced beyond the first [[path]] but not yet reached the final fruit, the fruit of [[arahatship]].<ref>The [[Visuddhimagga]], however says that [[arahats]] in whom [[faith]] is predominant can also be called "{{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]]" (Vism.659; PP.770). Its commentary points out that this statement is intended only figuratively, in the [[sense]] that those [[arahats]] reach their goal after having been {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]] in the [[intermediate]] stages. Literally, they would be "[[liberated by wisdom]]". (Vism.T.ii,468) </ref> |
− | 3. The body-witness is a noble disciple at the six intermediate levels, from the fruit of stream-entry to the path of arahatship, who has a predominance of the faculty of concentration and can obtain the immaterial jhanas. The sutta explanation reads: | + | 3. The [[body-witness]] is a [[noble disciple]] at the six [[intermediate]] levels, from the fruit of [[stream-entry]] to the [[path]] of [[arahatship]], who has a predominance of the {{Wiki|faculty}} of [[concentration]] and can obtain the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]]. The [[sutta]] explanation reads: |
− | : And what person, monks is a body-witness? Herein, monks, some person has reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form, and having seen with wisdom, some of his cankers having been destroyed. This person, monks, is called a body-witness. (M.i,478) | + | : And what [[person]], [[monks]] is a [[body-witness]]? Herein, [[monks]], some [[person]] has reached with his [[own]] ([[mental]]) [[body]] those [[peaceful]] {{Wiki|immaterial}} deliverances transcending [[material form]], and having seen with [[wisdom]], some of his [[cankers]] having been destroyed. This [[person]], [[monks]], is called a [[body-witness]]. (M.i,478) |
− | The Puggalapannatti (p. 184) offers a slight variation in this phrasing, substituting "the eight deliverances" (atthavimokkha) for the sutta's "peaceful immaterial deliverances" (santa vimokkha aruppa). These eight deliverances consist of three meditative attainments pertaining to the fine-material sphere (inclusive of all four lower jhanas), the four immaterial jhanas, and the cessation of perception and feeling (sannavedayitanirodha) -- the last a special attainment accessible only to those non-returners and arahats who have also mastered the eight jhanas.<ref>The first three emancipations are: one possessing material form sees material forms; one not perceiving material forms internally sees material forms externally; and one is released upon the idea of the beautiful. They are understood to be variations on the jhanas attained with color kasinas. For the attainment of cessation, see PP.824-833. </ref> The statement of the Puggalapannatti does not mean either that the achievement of all eight deliverances is necessary to become a body-witness or that the achievement of the three lower deliverances is sufficient. What is both requisite and sufficient to qualify as a body-witness is the partial destruction of defilements coupled with the attainment of at least the lowest immaterial jhana. Thus the body witness becomes fivefold by way of those who obtain any of the four immaterial jhanas and the one who also obtains the cessation of perception and feeling. | + | The [[Puggalapannatti]] (p. 184) offers a slight variation in this phrasing, substituting "the eight deliverances" ([[atthavimokkha]]) for the [[sutta's]] "[[peaceful]] {{Wiki|immaterial}} deliverances" (santa [[vimokkha]] [[aruppa]]). These eight deliverances consist of three [[meditative]] [[attainments]] pertaining to the [[fine-material sphere]] (inclusive of all four lower [[jhanas]]), the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]], and the [[cessation]] of [[perception]] and [[feeling]] (sannavedayitanirodha) -- the last a special [[attainment]] accessible only to those [[non-returners]] and [[arahats]] who have also mastered the eight [[jhanas]].<ref>The first three emancipations are: one possessing [[material form]] sees material [[forms]]; one not perceiving material [[forms]] internally sees material [[forms]] externally; and one is released upon the [[idea]] of the beautiful. They are understood to be variations on the [[jhanas]] [[attained]] with {{Wiki|color}} [[kasinas]]. For the [[attainment]] of [[cessation]], see PP.824-833. </ref> The statement of the [[Puggalapannatti]] does not mean either that the [[achievement]] of all eight deliverances is necessary to become a [[body-witness]] or that the [[achievement]] of the three lower deliverances is sufficient. What is both requisite and sufficient to qualify as a [[body-witness]] is the partial destruction of [[defilements]] coupled with the [[attainment]] of at least the lowest {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]]. Thus the [[body]] {{Wiki|witness}} becomes fivefold by way of those who obtain any of the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] and the one who also obtains the [[cessation]] of [[perception]] and [[feeling]]. |
− | 4. One who is liberated in both ways is an arahat who has completely destroyed the defilements and possesses the immaterial attainments. The commentaries explain the name "liberated in both ways" as meaning "through the immaterial attainment he is liberated from the material body and through the path (of arahatship) he is liberated from the mental body" (MA.ii,131). The sutta defines this type of disciple thus: | + | 4. One who is {{Wiki|liberated}} in both ways is an [[arahat]] who has completely destroyed the [[defilements]] and possesses the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]]. The commentaries explain the [[name]] "{{Wiki|liberated}} in both ways" as meaning "through the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainment]] he is {{Wiki|liberated}} from the material [[body]] and through the [[path]] (of [[arahatship]]) he is {{Wiki|liberated}} from the [[mental body]]" (MA.ii,131). The [[sutta]] defines this type of [[disciple]] thus: |
− | : And what person, monks, is liberated in both ways? Herein, monks, someone has reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form, and having seen with wisdom, his cankers are destroyed. This person, monks, is called liberated in both ways. (M.i,477) | + | : And what [[person]], [[monks]], is {{Wiki|liberated}} in both ways? Herein, [[monks]], someone has reached with his [[own]] ([[mental]]) [[body]] those [[peaceful]] {{Wiki|immaterial}} deliverances transcending [[material form]], and having seen with [[wisdom]], his [[cankers]] are destroyed. This [[person]], [[monks]], is called {{Wiki|liberated}} in both ways. (M.i,477) |
− | The Puggalapannatti (p.184) gives basically the same formula but replaces "immaterial deliverances" with "the eight deliverances." The same principle of interpretation that applied to the body-witness applies here: the attainment of any immaterial jhana, even the lowest, is sufficient to qualify a person as both-ways liberated. As the commentary to the Visuddhimagga says: "One who has attained arahatship after gaining even one [immaterial jhana] is liberated both ways" (Vism.T.ii,466). This type becomes fivefold by way of those who attain arahatship after emerging from one or another of the four immaterial jhanas and the one who attains arahatship after emerging from the attainment of cessation (MA:iii,131). | + | The [[Puggalapannatti]] (p.184) gives basically the same [[formula]] but replaces "{{Wiki|immaterial}} deliverances" with "the eight deliverances." The same [[principle]] of [[interpretation]] that applied to the [[body-witness]] applies here: the [[attainment]] of any {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]], even the lowest, is sufficient to qualify a [[person]] as both-ways {{Wiki|liberated}}. As the commentary to the [[Visuddhimagga]] says: "One who has [[attained]] [[arahatship]] after gaining even one [{{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhana]]) is {{Wiki|liberated}} both ways" (Vism.T.ii,466). This type becomes fivefold by way of those who attain [[arahatship]] after [[emerging]] from one or another of the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] and the one who attains [[arahatship]] after [[emerging]] from the [[attainment]] of [[cessation]] (MA:iii,131). |
− | 5. The truth-devotee is a disciple on the first path in whom the faculty of wisdom is predominant. The Buddha explains the truth-devotee as follows: | + | 5. The truth-devotee is a [[disciple]] on the first [[path]] in whom the {{Wiki|faculty}} of [[wisdom]] is predominant. The [[Buddha]] explains the truth-devotee as follows: |
− | : Herein, monks, some person has not reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form; nor, after seeing with wisdom, have his cankers been destroyed. But the teachings proclaimed by the Tathagata are accepted by him through mere reflection, and he has these qualities -- the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. This person, monks, is called a truth-devotee. (M.i,479) | + | : Herein, [[monks]], some [[person]] has not reached with his [[own]] ([[mental]]) [[body]] those [[peaceful]] {{Wiki|immaterial}} deliverances transcending [[material form]]; nor, after [[seeing]] with [[wisdom]], have his [[cankers]] been destroyed. But the teachings proclaimed by the [[Tathagata]] are accepted by him through mere {{Wiki|reflection}}, and he has these qualities -- the [[faculties]] of [[faith]], [[energy]], [[mindfulness]], [[concentration]] and [[wisdom]]. This [[person]], [[monks]], is called a truth-devotee. (M.i,479) |
− | The Puggalapannatti (p.185) defines the truth-devotee as one practicing for realization of the fruit of stream-entry in whom the faculty of wisdom is predominant, and who develops the path led by wisdom. It adds that when a truth-devotee is established in the fruit of stream-entry he becomes one attained to understanding, the sixth type. The sutta and Abhidhamma again differ as to emphasis, the one stressing lack of the immaterial jhanas, the other the ariyan stature. Presumably, he may have any of the four fine-material jhanas or be a bare-insight practitioner without any mundane jhana. | + | The [[Puggalapannatti]] (p.185) defines the truth-devotee as one practicing for [[realization]] of the fruit of [[stream-entry]] in whom the {{Wiki|faculty}} of [[wisdom]] is predominant, and who develops the [[path]] led by [[wisdom]]. It adds that when a truth-devotee is established in the fruit of [[stream-entry]] he becomes one [[attained]] to [[understanding]], the sixth type. The [[sutta]] and [[Abhidhamma]] again differ as to {{Wiki|emphasis}}, the one stressing lack of the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]], the other the [[ariyan]] stature. Presumably, he may have any of the four fine-material [[jhanas]] or be a bare-insight [[practitioner]] without any [[mundane]] [[jhana]]. |
− | 6. The one attained to understanding is a noble disciple at the six intermediate levels who lacks the immaterial jhanas and has a predominance of the wisdom faculty. The Buddha explains: | + | 6. The one [[attained]] to [[understanding]] is a [[noble disciple]] at the six [[intermediate]] levels who lacks the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] and has a predominance of the [[wisdom]] {{Wiki|faculty}}. The [[Buddha]] explains: |
− | : And what person, monks, is the one attained to understanding? Herein, monks someone has not reached with his own mental body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form, but having seen with wisdom some of his cankers are destroyed, and the teachings proclaimed by the Tathagata have been seen and verified by him with wisdom. This person, monks, is called the one attained to understanding. (M.i,478) | + | : And what [[person]], [[monks]], is the one [[attained]] to [[understanding]]? Herein, [[monks]] someone has not reached with his [[own]] [[mental body]] those [[peaceful]] {{Wiki|immaterial}} deliverances transcending [[material form]], but having seen with [[wisdom]] some of his [[cankers]] are destroyed, and the teachings proclaimed by the [[Tathagata]] have been seen and verified by him with [[wisdom]]. This [[person]], [[monks]], is called the one [[attained]] to [[understanding]]. (M.i,478) |
− | The Puggalapannatti (p.185) defines the one attained to understanding as a person who understands the Four Noble Truths, has seen and verified by means of wisdom the teachings proclaimed by the Tathagata, and having seen with wisdom has eliminated some of his cankers. He is thus the "wisdom counterpart" of the one liberated by faith, but progresses more easily than the latter by virtue of his sharper wisdom. Like his counterpart, he may possess any of the four mundane jhanas or may be a dry-insight worker. | + | The [[Puggalapannatti]] (p.185) defines the one [[attained]] to [[understanding]] as a [[person]] who [[understands]] the [[Four Noble Truths]], has seen and verified by means of [[wisdom]] the teachings proclaimed by the [[Tathagata]], and having seen with [[wisdom]] has eliminated some of his [[cankers]]. He is thus the "[[wisdom]] counterpart" of the one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]], but progresses more easily than the [[latter]] by [[virtue]] of his sharper [[wisdom]]. Like his counterpart, he may possess any of the four [[mundane]] [[jhanas]] or may be a dry-insight worker. |
− | 7. The one liberated by wisdom is an arahat who does not obtain the immaterial attainments. In the words of the sutta: | + | 7. The [[one liberated by wisdom]] is an [[arahat]] who does not obtain the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]]. In the words of the [[sutta]]: |
− | : And what person, monks, is the one liberated by wisdom? Herein, monks, someone has not reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful material deliverances transcending material form, but having seen with wisdom his cankers are destroyed. This person, monks, is called one liberated by wisdom. (M.i,477-78) | + | : And what [[person]], [[monks]], is the [[one liberated by wisdom]]? Herein, [[monks]], someone has not reached with his [[own]] ([[mental]]) [[body]] those [[peaceful]] material deliverances transcending [[material form]], but having seen with [[wisdom]] his [[cankers]] are destroyed. This [[person]], [[monks]], is called [[one liberated by wisdom]]. (M.i,477-78) |
− | The Puggalapannatti's definition (p.185) merely replaces "immaterial deliverance" with "the eight deliverances." Though such arahats do not reach the immaterial jhanas it is quite possible for them to attain the lower jhanas. The sutta commentary in fact states that the one liberated by wisdom is fivefold by way of the dry-insight worker and the four who attain arahatship after emerging from the four jhanas. | + | The Puggalapannatti's [[definition]] (p.185) merely replaces "{{Wiki|immaterial}} [[deliverance]]" with "the eight deliverances." Though such [[arahats]] do not reach the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] it is quite possible for them to attain the lower [[jhanas]]. The [[sutta]] commentary in fact states that the [[one liberated by wisdom]] is fivefold by way of the dry-insight worker and the four who attain [[arahatship]] after [[emerging]] from the four [[jhanas]]. |
− | It should be noted that the one liberated by wisdom is contrasted not with the one liberated by faith, but with the one liberated in both ways. The issue that divides the two types of arahat is the lack or possession of the four immaterial jhanas and the attainment of cessation. The person liberated by faith is found at the six intermediate levels of sanctity, not at the level of arahatship. When he obtains arahatship, lacking the immaterial jhanas, he becomes one liberated by wisdom even though faith rather that wisdom is his predominant faculty. Similarly, a meditator with predominance of concentration who possesses the immaterial attainments will still be liberated in both ways even if wisdom rather than concentration claims first place among his spiritual endowments, as was the case with the venerable Sariputta. | + | It should be noted that the [[one liberated by wisdom]] is contrasted not with the one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]], but with the [[one liberated in both ways]]. The issue that divides the two types of [[arahat]] is the lack or possession of the four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] and the [[attainment]] of [[cessation]]. The [[person]] {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]] is found at the six [[intermediate]] levels of sanctity, not at the level of [[arahatship]]. When he obtains [[arahatship]], lacking the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]], he becomes [[one liberated by wisdom]] even though [[faith]] rather that [[wisdom]] is his predominant {{Wiki|faculty}}. Similarly, a [[meditator]] with predominance of [[concentration]] who possesses the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]] will still be {{Wiki|liberated}} in both ways even if [[wisdom]] rather than [[concentration]] claims first place among his [[spiritual]] endowments, as was the case with the [[venerable]] [[Sariputta]]. |
− | ===Jhana and the Arahat=== | + | ===[[Jhana]] and the [[Arahat]]=== |
− | From the standpoint of their spiritual stature the seven types of noble persons can be divided into three categories. The first, which includes the faith-devotee and the truth-devotee, consists of those on the path of stream-entry, the first of the eight noble individuals. The second category, comprising the one liberated by faith, the body-witness and the one attained to understanding, consists of those on the six intermediate levels, from the stream-enterer to one on the path of arahatship. The third category, comprising the one liberated in both ways and the one liberated by wisdom, consists only of arahats.<ref>It should be noted that the Kitagiri Sutta makes not provision in its typology for a disciple on the first path who gains the immaterial jhanas. Vism.T.(ii,466) holds that he would have to be considered either a faith-devotee or a truth-devotee, and at the final fruition would be one liberated in both ways. </ref> | + | From the standpoint of their [[spiritual]] stature the seven types of [[noble persons]] can be divided into [[three categories]]. The first, which includes the [[faith-devotee]] and the truth-devotee, consists of those on the [[path]] of [[stream-entry]], the first of the eight [[noble]] {{Wiki|individuals}}. The second category, comprising the one {{Wiki|liberated}} by [[faith]], the [[body-witness]] and the one [[attained]] to [[understanding]], consists of those on the six [[intermediate]] levels, from the [[stream-enterer]] to one on the [[path]] of [[arahatship]]. The third category, comprising the [[one liberated in both ways]] and the [[one liberated by wisdom]], consists only of [[arahats]].<ref>It should be noted that the Kitagiri [[Sutta]] makes not provision in its [[typology]] for a [[disciple]] on the first [[path]] who gains the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]]. Vism.T.(ii,466) holds that he would have to be considered either a [[faith-devotee]] or a truth-devotee, and at the final [[fruition]] would be [[one liberated in both ways]]. </ref> |
− | The ubhatobhagavimutta, "one liberated in both ways," and the pannavimutta "one liberated by wisdom," thus form the terms of a twofold typology of arahats distinguished on the basis of their accomplishment in jhana. The ubhatobhagavimutta arahat experiences in his own person the "peaceful deliverances" of the immaterial sphere, the pannavimutta arahat lacks this full experience of the immaterial jhanas. Each of these two types, according to the commentaries, again becomes fivefold -- the ubhatobhagavimutta by way of those who possess the ascending four immaterial jhanas and the attainment of cessation, the pannavimutta by way of those who reach arahatship after emerging from on of the four fine-material jhanas and the dry-insight mediator whose insight lacks the support of mundane jhana. | + | The [[ubhatobhagavimutta]], "[[one liberated in both ways]]," and the [[pannavimutta]] "[[one liberated by wisdom]]," thus [[form]] the terms of a twofold [[typology]] of [[arahats]] {{Wiki|distinguished}} on the basis of their [[accomplishment]] in [[jhana]]. The [[ubhatobhagavimutta]] [[arahat]] [[experiences]] in his [[own]] [[person]] the "[[peaceful]] deliverances" of the [[immaterial sphere]], the [[pannavimutta]] [[arahat]] lacks this full [[experience]] of the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]]. Each of these two types, according to the commentaries, again becomes fivefold -- the [[ubhatobhagavimutta]] by way of those who possess the ascending four {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[jhanas]] and the [[attainment]] of [[cessation]], the [[pannavimutta]] by way of those who reach [[arahatship]] after [[emerging]] from on of the four fine-material [[jhanas]] and the dry-insight [[mediator]] whose [[insight]] lacks the support of [[mundane]] [[jhana]]. |
− | The possibility of attaining the supramundane path without possession of a mundane jhana has been questioned by some Theravada scholars, but the Visuddhimagga clearly admits this possibility when it distinguishes between the path arisen in a dry-insight mediator and the path arisen in one who possesses a jhana but does not use it as a basis for insight (Vism.666-67; PP.779). Textual evidence that there can be arahats lacking mundane jhana is provided by the Susima Sutta (S.ii, 199-23) together with is commentaries. When the monks in the sutta are asked how they can be arahats without possessing supernormal powers of the immaterial attainments, they reply: "We are liberated by wisdom" (pannavimutta kho mayam). The commentary glosses this reply thus: "We are contemplatives, dry-insight meditators, liberated by wisdom alone" (Mayam nijjhanaka sukkhavipassaka pannamatten'eva vimutta ti, SA.ii,117). The commentary also states that the Buddha gave his long disquisition on insight in the sutta "to show the arising of knowledge even without concentration" (vina pi samadhimevam nanuppattidassanattham, SA.ii,117). The subcommentary establishes the point by explaining "even without concentration" to mean "even without concentration previously accomplished reaching the mark of serenity" (samathalakkhanappattam purimasiddhamvina pi samadhin ti), adding that this is said in reference to one who makes insight his vehicle (ST.ii,125). | + | The possibility of [[attaining]] the [[supramundane path]] without possession of a [[mundane]] [[jhana]] has been questioned by some [[Theravada]] [[scholars]], but the [[Visuddhimagga]] clearly admits this possibility when it distinguishes between the [[path]] arisen in a dry-insight [[mediator]] and the [[path]] arisen in one who possesses a [[jhana]] but does not use it as a basis for [[insight]] (Vism.666-67; PP.779). Textual {{Wiki|evidence}} that there can be [[arahats]] lacking [[mundane]] [[jhana]] is provided by the [[Susima Sutta]] (S.ii, 199-23) together with is commentaries. When the [[monks]] in the [[sutta]] are asked how they can be [[arahats]] without possessing [[supernormal powers]] of the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[attainments]], they reply: "We are [[liberated by wisdom]]" ([[pannavimutta kho mayam]]). The commentary glosses this reply thus: "We are contemplatives, dry-insight [[meditators]], [[liberated by wisdom]] alone" (Mayam nijjhanaka [[sukkhavipassaka]] pannamatten'eva [[vimutta]] ti, SA.ii,117). The commentary also states that the [[Buddha]] gave his long disquisition on [[insight]] in the [[sutta]] "to show the [[arising]] of [[knowledge]] even without [[concentration]]" ([[vina]] pi samadhimevam nanuppattidassanattham, SA.ii,117). The subcommentary establishes the point by explaining "even without [[concentration]]" to mean "even without [[concentration]] previously accomplished reaching the mark of [[serenity]]" ([[samathalakkhanappattam purimasiddhamvina pi samadhin ti]]), adding that this is said in reference to one who makes [[insight]] his [[vehicle]] (ST.ii,125). |
− | In contrast to the pannavimutta arahats, those arahats who are ubhatobhagavimutta enjoy a twofold liberation. Through their mastery over the formless attainments they are liberated from the material body (rupakaya), capable of dwelling in the very life in the meditations corresponding to the immaterial planes of existence; through their attainment of arahatship they are liberated from the mental body (namakaya), presently free from all defilements and sure of final emancipation from future becoming. Pannavimutta arahats only possess the second of these two liberations. | + | In contrast to the [[pannavimutta]] [[arahats]], those [[arahats]] who are [[ubhatobhagavimutta]] enjoy a twofold [[liberation]]. Through their [[mastery]] over the [[formless]] [[attainments]] they are {{Wiki|liberated}} from the material [[body]] ([[rupakaya]]), capable of dwelling in the very [[life]] in the [[meditations]] corresponding to the {{Wiki|immaterial}} planes of [[existence]]; through their [[attainment]] of [[arahatship]] they are {{Wiki|liberated}} from the [[mental body]] ([[namakaya]]), presently free from all [[defilements]] and sure of final {{Wiki|emancipation}} from {{Wiki|future}} becoming. [[Pannavimutta]] [[arahats]] only possess the second of these two [[liberations]]. |
− | The double liberation of the ubhatobhagavimutta arahat should not be confused with another double liberation frequently mentioned in the suttas in connection with arahatship. This second pair of liberations, called cetovimutti pannavimutti, "liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom," is shared by all arahats. It appears in the stock passage descriptive of arahatship: "With the destruction of the cankers he here and now enters and dwells in the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, having realized it for himself with direct knowledge." That this twofold liberation belongs to pannavimutta arahats as well as those who are ubhatobhagavimutta is made clear by the Putta Sutta, where the stock passage is used for two types of arahats called the "white lotus recluse" and the "red lotus recluse": | + | The double [[liberation]] of the [[ubhatobhagavimutta]] [[arahat]] should not be confused with another double [[liberation]] frequently mentioned in the [[suttas]] in connection with [[arahatship]]. This second pair of [[liberations]], called [[cetovimutti]] pannavimutti, "[[liberation of mind]], [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]]," is shared by all [[arahats]]. It appears in the stock passage descriptive of [[arahatship]]: "With the [[destruction of the cankers]] he here and now enters and dwells in the [[cankerless]] [[liberation of mind]], [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]], having [[realized]] it for himself with direct [[knowledge]]." That this twofold [[liberation]] belongs to [[pannavimutta]] [[arahats]] as well as those who are [[ubhatobhagavimutta]] is made clear by the [[Putta]] [[Sutta]], where the stock passage is used for two types of [[arahats]] called the "[[white lotus]] [[recluse]]" and the "[[red lotus]] [[recluse]]": |
− | : How, monks, is a person a white lotus recluse (samanapundarika)? Here, monks, with the destruction of the cankers a monk here and now enters and dwells in the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, having realized it for himself with direct knowledge. Yet he does not dwell experiencing the eight deliverances with his body. Thus, monks, a person is a white lotus recluse. | + | : How, [[monks]], is a [[person]] a [[white lotus]] [[recluse]] ([[samanapundarika]])? Here, [[monks]], with the [[destruction of the cankers]] a [[monk]] here and now enters and dwells in the [[cankerless]] [[liberation of mind]], [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]], having [[realized]] it for himself with direct [[knowledge]]. Yet he does not dwell experiencing the eight deliverances with his [[body]]. Thus, [[monks]], a [[person]] is a [[white lotus]] [[recluse]]. |
− | : And how, monks, is a person a red lotus recluse (samanapaduma)? Here, monks, with the destruction of the cankers a monk here and now enters and dwells in the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, having realized it for himself with direct knowledge. And he dwells experiencing the eight deliverances with his body. Thus, monks, a person is a red lotus recluse. (A.ii,87) | + | : And how, [[monks]], is a [[person]] a [[red lotus]] [[recluse]] ([[samanapaduma]])? Here, [[monks]], with the [[destruction of the cankers]] a [[monk]] here and now enters and dwells in the [[cankerless]] [[liberation of mind]], [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]], having [[realized]] it for himself with direct [[knowledge]]. And he dwells experiencing the eight deliverances with his [[body]]. Thus, [[monks]], a [[person]] is a [[red lotus]] [[recluse]]. (A.ii,87) |
− | Since the description of these two types coincides with that of pannavimutta and ubhatobhagavimutta the two pairs may be identified, the white lotus recluse with the pannavimutta, the red lotus recluse with the ubhatobhagavimutta. Yet the pannavimutta arahat, while lacking the experience of the eight deliverances, still has both liberation of mind and liberation by wisdom. | + | Since the description of these two types coincides with that of [[pannavimutta]] and [[ubhatobhagavimutta]] the two pairs may be identified, the [[white lotus]] [[recluse]] with the [[pannavimutta]], the [[red lotus]] [[recluse]] with the [[ubhatobhagavimutta]]. Yet the [[pannavimutta]] [[arahat]], while lacking the [[experience]] of the eight deliverances, still has both [[liberation of mind]] and [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]]. |
− | When liberation of mind and liberation by wisdom are joined together and described as "cankerless" (anasava), they can be taken to indicate two aspects of the arahat's deliverance. Liberation of mind signifies the release of his mind from craving and its associated defilements, liberation by wisdom the release from ignorance: "With the fading away of lust there is liberation of mind, with the fading away of ignorance there is liberation by wisdom" (A.i,61). "As he sees and understands thus his mind is liberated from the canker of sensual desire, from the canker of existence from the canker of ignorance" (M.i,183-84) -- here release from the first two cankers can be understood as liberation of mind, release from the canker of ignorance as liberation by wisdom. In the commentaries "liberation of mind" is identified with the concentration factor in the fruition attainment of arahatship, "liberation by wisdom" with the wisdom factor. | + | When [[liberation of mind]] and [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]] are joined together and described as "[[cankerless]]" ([[anasava]]), they can be taken to indicate two aspects of the arahat's [[deliverance]]. [[Liberation of mind]] {{Wiki|signifies}} the [[release]] of his [[mind]] from [[craving]] and its associated [[defilements]], [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]] the [[release]] from [[ignorance]]: "With the fading away of [[lust]] there is [[liberation of mind]], with the fading away of [[ignorance]] there is [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]]" (A.i,61). "As he sees and [[understands]] thus his [[mind]] is {{Wiki|liberated}} from the [[canker]] of [[sensual desire]], from the [[canker of existence]] from the [[canker]] of [[ignorance]]" (M.i,183-84) -- here [[release]] from the first two [[cankers]] can be understood as [[liberation of mind]], [[release]] from the [[canker]] of [[ignorance]] as [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]]. In the commentaries "[[liberation of mind]]" is identified with the [[concentration]] factor in the [[fruition]] [[attainment]] of [[arahatship]], "[[liberation]] by [[wisdom]]" with the [[wisdom]] factor. |
− | Since every arahat reaches arahatship through the Noble Eightfold Path, he must have attained supramundane jhana in the form of right concentration, the eighth factor of the path, defined as the four jhanas. This jhana remains with him as the concentration of the fruition attainment of arahatship, which occurs at the level of supramundane jhana corresponding to that of his path. Thus he always stands in possession of at least the supramundane jhana of fruition, called the "cankerless liberation of mind." However, this consideration does not reflect back on his mundane attainments, requiring that every arahat possess mundane jhana. | + | Since every [[arahat]] reaches [[arahatship]] through the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], he must have [[attained]] [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] in the [[form]] of [[right concentration]], the eighth factor of the [[path]], defined as the four [[jhanas]]. This [[jhana]] remains with him as the [[concentration]] of the [[fruition]] [[attainment]] of [[arahatship]], which occurs at the level of [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] corresponding to that of his [[path]]. Thus he always stands in possession of at least the [[supramundane]] [[jhana]] of [[fruition]], called the "[[cankerless]] [[liberation of mind]]." However, this [[consideration]] does not reflect back on his [[mundane]] [[attainments]], requiring that every [[arahat]] possess [[mundane]] [[jhana]]. |
− | Although early Buddhism acknowledges the possibility of a dry-visioned arahatship, the attitude prevails that jhanas are still desirable attributes in an arahat. They are of value not only prior to final attainment, as a foundation for insight, but retain their value even afterwards. The value of jhana in the stage of arahatship, when all spiritual training has been completed, is twofold. One concern the arahat's inner experience, the other his outer significance as a representative of the Buddha's dispensation. | + | Although [[early Buddhism]] acknowledges the possibility of a dry-visioned [[arahatship]], the [[attitude]] prevails that [[jhanas]] are still desirable [[attributes]] in an [[arahat]]. They are of value not only prior to final [[attainment]], as a foundation for [[insight]], but retain their value even afterwards. The value of [[jhana]] in the stage of [[arahatship]], when all [[spiritual]] {{Wiki|training}} has been completed, is twofold. One [[concern]] the arahat's inner [[experience]], the other his outer significance as a representative of the [[Buddha's]] dispensation. |
− | On the side of inner experience the jhanas are valued as providing the arahat with a "blissful dwelling here and now" (ditthadhammasukhavihara). The suttas often show arahats attaining to jhana and the Buddha himself declares the four jhanas to be figuratively a kind of Nibbana in this present life (A.iv.453-54). With respect to levels and factors there is no difference between the mundane jhanas of an arahat and those of a non-arahat. The difference concerns their function. For non-arahats the mundane jhanas constitute wholesome kamma; they are deeds with a potential to produce results, to precipitate rebirth in a corresponding realm of existence. But in the case of an arahat mundane jhana no longer generates kamma. Since he has eradicated ignorance and craving, the roots of kamma, his actions leave no residue; they have no capacity to generate results. For him the jhanic consciousness is a mere functional consciousness which comes and goes and once gone disappears without a trace. | + | On the side of inner [[experience]] the [[jhanas]] are valued as providing the [[arahat]] with a "[[blissful]] dwelling here and now" ([[ditthadhammasukhavihara]]). The [[suttas]] often show [[arahats]] [[attaining]] to [[jhana]] and the [[Buddha]] himself declares the four [[jhanas]] to be figuratively a kind of [[Nibbana]] in this {{Wiki|present}} [[life]] (A.iv.453-54). With [[respect]] to levels and factors there is no difference between the [[mundane]] [[jhanas]] of an [[arahat]] and those of a non-arahat. The difference concerns their [[function]]. For non-arahats the [[mundane]] [[jhanas]] constitute [[wholesome]] [[kamma]]; they are [[deeds]] with a potential to produce results, to precipitate [[rebirth]] in a corresponding [[realm of existence]]. But in the case of an [[arahat]] [[mundane]] [[jhana]] no longer generates [[kamma]]. Since he has eradicated [[ignorance]] and [[craving]], the [[roots]] of [[kamma]], his [[actions]] leave no residue; they have no capacity to generate results. For him the [[jhanic]] [[consciousness]] is a mere functional [[consciousness]] which comes and goes and once gone disappears without a trace. |
− | The value of the jhanas, however, extends beyond the confines of the arahat's personal experience to testify to the spiritual efficacy of the Buddha's dispensation. The jhanas are regarded as ornamentations of the arahat, testimonies to the accomplishment of the spiritually perfect person and the effectiveness of the teaching he follows. A worthy monk is able to "gain at will without trouble or difficulty, the four jhanas pertaining to the higher consciousness, blissful dwellings here and now." This ability to gain the jhanas at will is a " quality that makes a monk an elder." When accompanied by several other spiritual accomplishments it is an essential quality of "a recluse who graces recluses" and of a monk who can move unobstructed in the four directions. Having ready access to the four jhanas makes an elder dear and agreeable, respected and esteemed by his fellow monks. Facility in gaining the jhanas is one of the eight qualities of a completely inspiring monk (samantapasadika bhikkhu) perfect in all respects; it is also one of the eleven foundations of faith (saddha pada). It is significant that in all these lists of qualities the last item is always the attainment of arahatship, "the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom," showing that all desirable qualities in a bhikkhu culminate in arahatship.<ref>The references are to: A,ii,23;iii,131,135,114;iv,314-15; v,337. </ref> | + | The value of the [[jhanas]], however, extends beyond the confines of the arahat's personal [[experience]] to testify to the [[spiritual]] efficacy of the [[Buddha's]] dispensation. The [[jhanas]] are regarded as ornamentations of the [[arahat]], testimonies to the [[accomplishment]] of the [[spiritually]] {{Wiki|perfect}} [[person]] and the effectiveness of the [[teaching]] he follows. A [[worthy]] [[monk]] is [[able]] to "gain at will without trouble or difficulty, the four [[jhanas]] pertaining to the [[higher consciousness]], [[blissful]] {{Wiki|dwellings}} here and now." This ability to gain the [[jhanas]] at will is a " [[quality]] that makes a [[monk]] an elder." When accompanied by several other [[spiritual]] accomplishments it is an [[essential]] [[quality]] of "a [[recluse]] who graces recluses" and of a [[monk]] who can move unobstructed in the four [[directions]]. Having ready access to the four [[jhanas]] makes an elder dear and agreeable, respected and esteemed by his fellow [[monks]]. Facility in gaining the [[jhanas]] is one of the eight qualities of a completely inspiring [[monk]] ([[samantapasadika bhikkhu]]) {{Wiki|perfect}} in all respects; it is also one of the eleven foundations of [[faith]] ([[saddha pada]]). It is significant that in all these lists of qualities the last item is always the [[attainment]] of [[arahatship]], "the [[cankerless]] [[liberation of mind]], [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]]," showing that all desirable qualities in a [[bhikkhu]] culminate in [[arahatship]].<ref>The references are to: A,ii,23;iii,131,135,114;iv,314-15; v,337. </ref> |
− | The higher the degree of his mastery over the meditative attainments, the higher the esteem in which an arahat monk is held and the more praiseworthy his achievement is considered. Thus the Buddha says of the ubhatobhagavimutta arahat: "There is no liberation in both ways higher and more excellent than this liberation in both ways"(D.ii,71). | + | The higher the [[degree]] of his [[mastery]] over the [[meditative]] [[attainments]], the higher the esteem in which an [[arahat]] [[monk]] is held and the more praiseworthy his [[achievement]] is considered. Thus the [[Buddha]] says of the [[ubhatobhagavimutta]] [[arahat]]: "There is no [[liberation]] in both ways higher and more {{Wiki|excellent}} than this [[liberation]] in both ways"(D.ii,71). |
− | The highest respect goes to those monks who possess not only liberation in both ways but the six abhinnas or "super-knowledges": the exercise of psychic powers, the divine ear, the ability to read the minds of others, the recollection of past lives, knowledge of the death and rebirth of beings, and knowledge of final liberation. The Buddha declares that a monk endowed with the six abhinnas, is worthy of gifts and hospitality, worthy of offerings and reverential salutations, a supreme field of merit for the world (A.iii,280-81). In the period after the Buddha's demise, what qualified a monk to give guidance to others was endowment with ten qualities: moral virtue, learning, contentment, mastery over the four jhanas, the five mundane abhinnas and attainment of the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom (M.iii,11-12). Perhaps it was because he was extolled by the Buddha for his facility in the meditative attainments and the abhinnas that the venerable Mahakassapa assumed the presidency of the first great Buddhist council held in Rajagaha after the Buddha's passing away. | + | The [[highest]] [[respect]] goes to those [[monks]] who possess not only [[liberation]] in both ways but the six [[abhinnas]] or "[[super-knowledges]]": the exercise of [[psychic]] [[powers]], the [[divine ear]], the ability to read the [[minds]] of others, the [[recollection]] of {{Wiki|past}} [[lives]], [[knowledge]] of the [[death]] and [[rebirth]] of [[beings]], and [[knowledge]] of final [[liberation]]. The [[Buddha]] declares that a [[monk]] endowed with the six [[abhinnas]], is [[worthy]] of gifts and [[hospitality]], [[worthy of offerings]] and reverential salutations, a supreme [[field of merit]] for the [[world]] (A.iii,280-81). In the period after the [[Buddha's]] demise, what qualified a [[monk]] to give guidance to others was endowment with ten qualities: [[moral]] [[virtue]], {{Wiki|learning}}, [[contentment]], [[mastery]] over the four [[jhanas]], the five [[mundane]] [[abhinnas]] and [[attainment]] of the [[cankerless]] [[liberation of mind]], [[liberation]] by [[wisdom]] (M.iii,11-12). Perhaps it was because he was extolled by the [[Buddha]] for his facility in the [[meditative]] [[attainments]] and the [[abhinnas]] that the [[venerable]] [[Mahakassapa]] assumed the presidency of the first great [[Buddhist council]] held in [[Rajagaha]] after the [[Buddha's]] passing away. |
− | The graduation in the veneration given to arahats on the basis of their mundane spiritual achievements implies something about the value system of early Buddhism that is not often recognized. It suggests that while final liberation may be the ultimate and most important value, it is not the sole value even in the spiritual domain. Alongside it, as embellishments rather than alternatives, stand mastery over the range of the mind and mastery over the sphere of the knowable. The first is accomplished by the attainment of the eight mundane jhanas, the second by the attainment of the abhinnas. Together, final liberation adorned with this twofold mastery is esteemed as the highest and most desirable way of actualizing the ultimate goal. | + | The graduation in the veneration given to [[arahats]] on the basis of their [[mundane]] [[spiritual]] achievements implies something about the value system of [[early Buddhism]] that is not often [[recognized]]. It suggests that while final [[liberation]] may be the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] and most important value, it is not the sole value even in the [[spiritual]] domain. Alongside it, as embellishments rather than alternatives, stand [[mastery]] over the range of the [[mind]] and [[mastery]] over the [[sphere]] of the knowable. The first is accomplished by the [[attainment]] of the eight [[mundane]] [[jhanas]], the second by the [[attainment]] of the [[abhinnas]]. Together, final [[liberation]] adorned with this twofold [[mastery]] is esteemed as the [[highest]] and most desirable way of actualizing the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] goal. |
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Latest revision as of 21:12, 4 April 2016
The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation
by Bhikkhu Henepola Gunaratana
The Wheel Publication No. 351/353,
Buddhist Publication Society, Sri Lanka
Copyright 1988 by Henepola Gunaratana
Chapter 1
Introduction
The Doctrinal Context of Jhana
The Buddha says that just as in the great ocean there is but one taste, the taste of salt, so in his doctrine and discipline there is but one taste, the taste of freedom. The taste of freedom that pervades the Buddha's teaching is the taste of spiritual freedom, which from the Buddhist perspective means freedom from suffering.
In the process leading to deliverance from suffering, meditation is the means of generating the inner awakening required for liberation. The methods of meditation taught in the Theravada Buddhist tradition are based on the Buddha's own experience, forged by him in the course of his own quest for enlightenment.
They are designed to re-create in the disciple who practices them the same essential enlightenment that the Buddha himself attained when he sat beneath the Bodhi tree, the awakening to the Four Noble Truths.
The various subjects and methods of meditation expounded in the Theravada Buddhist scriptures -- the Pali Canon and its commentaries -- divide into two inter-related systems. One is called the development of serenity (samathabhavana), the other the development of insight (vipassanabhavana). The former also goes under the name of development of concentration (samadhibhavana), the latter the development of wisdom (pannabhavana). The practice of serenity meditation aims at developing a calm, concentrated, unified mind as a means of experiencing inner peace and as a basis for wisdom.
The practice of insight meditation aims at gaining a direct understanding of the real nature of phenomena. Of the two, the development of insight is regarded by Buddhism as the essential key to liberation, the direct antidote to the ignorance underlying bondage and suffering. Whereas serenity meditation is recognized as common to both Buddhist and non-Buddhist contemplative disciplines, insight meditation is held to be the unique discovery of the Buddha and an unparalleled feature of his path.
However, because the growth of insight presupposes a certain degree of concentration, and serenity meditation helps to achieve this, the development of serenity also claims an incontestable place in the Buddhist meditative process. Together the two types of meditation work to make the mind a fit instrument for enlightenment. With his mind unified by means of the development of serenity, made sharp and bright by the development of insight, the meditator can proceed unobstructed to reach the end of suffering, Nibbana.
Pivotal to both systems of meditation, though belonging inherently to the side of serenity, is a set of meditative attainments called the jhanas. Though translators have offered various renderings of this word, ranging from the feeble "musing" to the misleading "trance" and the ambiguous "meditation," we prefer to leave the word untranslated and to let its meaning emerge from its contextual usages.
From these it is clear that the jhanas are states of deep mental unification which result from the centering of the mind upon a single object with such power of attention that a total immersion in the object takes place.
The early suttas speak of four jhanas, named simply after their numerical position in the series: the first jhana, the second jhana, the third jhana and the forth jhana. In the suttas the four repeatedly appear each described by a standard formula which we will examine later in detail.
The importance of the jhanas in the Buddhist path can readily be gauged from the frequency with which they are mentioned throughout the suttas. The jhanas figure prominently both in the Buddha's own experience and in his exhortation to disciples. In his childhood, while attending an annual ploughing festival, the future Buddha spontaneously entered the first jhana.
It was the memory of this childhood incident, many years later after his futile pursuit of austerities, that revealed to him the way to enlightenment during his period of deepest despondency (M.i, 246-47). After taking his seat beneath the Bodhi tree, the Buddha enter the four jhanas immediately before direction his mind to the threefold knowledge that issued in his enlightenment (M.i.247-49).
Throughout his active career the four jhanas remained "his heavenly dwelling" (D.iii,220) to which he resorted in order to live happily here and now. His understanding of the corruption, purification and emergence in the jhanas and other meditative attainments is one of the Tathagata's ten powers which enable him to turn the matchless wheel of the Dhamma (M.i,70). Just before his passing away the Buddha entered the jhanas in direct and reverse order, and the passing away itself took place directly from the fourth jhana (D.ii,156).
The Buddha is constantly seen in the suttas encouraging his disciples to develop jhana. The four jhanas are invariably included in the complete course of training laid down for disciples.[1]
They figure in the training as the discipline of higher consciousness (adhicittasikkha), right concentration (sammasamadhi) of the Noble Eightfold Path, and the faculty and power of concentration (samadhindriya, samadhibala). Though a vehicle of dry insight can be found, indications are that this path is not an easy one, lacking the aid of the powerful serenity available to the practitioner of jhana.
The way of the jhana attainer seems by comparison smoother and more pleasurable (A.ii,150-52). The Buddha even refers to the four jhanas figuratively as a kind of Nibbana: he calls them immediately visible Nibbana, factorial Nibbana, Nibbana here and now (A.iv,453-54).
To attain the jhanas, the meditator must begin by eliminating the unwholesome mental states obstructing inner collectedness, generally grouped together as the five hindrances (pancanivarana): sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry and doubt.[2]
The mind's absorption on its object is brought about by five opposing mental states -- applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, happiness and one pointedness[3] -- called the jhana factors (jhanangani) because they lift the mind to the level of the first jhana and remain there as its defining components.
After reaching the first jhana the ardent meditator can go on to reach the higher jhanas, which is done by eliminating the coarser factors in each jhana. Beyond the four jhanas lies another fourfold set of higher meditative states which deepen still further the element of serenity. These attainments (aruppa), are the base of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.[4] In the Pali commentaries these come to be called the four immaterial jhanas (arupajhana), the four preceding states being renamed for the sake of clarity, the four fine-material jhanas (rupajhana). Often the two sets are joined together under the collective title of the eight jhanas or the eight attainments (atthasamapattiyo).
The four jhanas and the four immaterial attainments appear initially as mundane states of deep serenity pertaining to the preliminary stage of the Buddhist path, and on this level they help provide the base of concentration needed for wisdom to arise. But the four jhanas again reappear in a later stage in the development of the path, in direct association with liberating wisdom, and they are then designated the supramundane (lokuttara) jhanas.
These supramundane jhanas are the levels of concentration pertaining to the four degrees of enlightenment experience called the supramundane paths (magga) and the stages of liberation resulting form them, the four fruits (phala).
Finally, even after full liberation is achieved, the mundane jhanas can still remain as attainments available to the fully liberated person, part of his untrammeled contemplative experience.
Etymology of Jhana
The great Buddhist commentator Buddhaghosa traces the Pali word "jhana" (Skt. dhyana) to two verbal forms.
One, the etymologically correct derivation, is the verb jhayati, meaning to think or meditate; the other is a more playful derivation, intended to illuminate its function rather than its verbal source, from the verb jhapeti meaning to burn up.
He explains: "It burns up opposing states, thus it is jhana" (Vin.A. i, 116), the purport being that jhana "burns up" or destroys the mental defilements preventing the developing the development of serenity and insight.
In the same passage Buddhaghosa says that jhana has the characteristic mark of contemplation (upanijjhana). Contemplation, he states, is twofold: the contemplation of the object and the contemplation of the characteristics of phenomena.
The former is exercised by the eight attainments of serenity together with their access, since these contemplate the object used as the basis for developing concentration; for this reason these attainments are given the name "jhana" in the mainstream of Pali meditative exposition.
However, Buddhaghosa also allows that the term "jhana" can be extended loosely to insight (vipassana), the paths and the fruits on the ground that these perform the work of contemplating the characteristics of things the three marks of impermanence, suffering and non-self in the case of insight, Nibbana in the case of the paths and fruits.
In brief the twofold meaning of jhana as "contemplation" and "burning up" can be brought into connection with the meditative process as follows. By fixing his mind on the object the meditator reduces and eliminates the lower mental qualities such as the five hindrances and promotes the growth of the higher qualities such as the jhana factors, which lead the mind to complete absorption in the object. Then by contemplating the characteristics of phenomena with insight, the meditator eventually reaches the supramundane jhana of the four paths, and with this jhana he burns up the defilements and attains the liberating experience of the fruits.
Jhana and Samadhi
In the vocabulary of Buddhist meditation the word "jhana" is closely connected with another word, "samadhi" generally rendered by "concentration." Samadhi derives from the prefixed verbal root sam-a-dha, meaning to collect or to bring together, thus suggesting the concentration or unification of the mind.
The word "samadhi" is almost interchangeable with the word "samatha," serenity, though the latter comes from a different root, sam, meaning to become calm.
In the suttas samadhi is defined as mental one-pointedness, (cittass'ekaggata M.i,301) and this definition is followed through rigorously in the Abhidhamma. The Abhidhamma treats one-pointedness as a distinct mental factor present in every state of consciousness, exercising the function of unifying the mind on its object.
From this strict psychological standpoint samadhi can be present in unwholesome states of consciousness as well as in wholesome an neutral states. In its unwholesome forms it is called "wrong concentration" (micchasamadhi), In its wholesome forms "right concentration" (sammasamadhi).
In expositions on the practice of meditation, however, samadhi is limited to one-pointedness of mind (Vism.84-85; PP.84-85), and even here we can understand from the context that the word means only the wholesome one-pointedness involved in the deliberate transmutation of the mind to a heightened level of calm. Thus Buddhaghosa explains samadhi etymologically as "the centering of consciousness and consciousness concomitants evenly and rightly on a single object ... the state in virtue of which consciousness and its concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single object, undistracted and unscattered" (Vism.84-85; PP.85).
However, despite the commentator's bid for consistency, the word samadhi is used in the Pali literature on meditation with varying degrees of specificity of meaning.
In the narrowest sense, as defined by Buddhaghosa, it denotes the particular mental factor responsible for the concentrating of the mind, namely, one-pointedness. In a wider sense it can signify the states of unified consciousness that result from the strengthening of concentration, i.e. the meditative attainments of serenity and the stages leading up to them.
And in a still wider sense the word samadhi can be applied to the method of practice used to produce and cultivate these refined states of concentration, here being equivalent to the development of serenity. It is in the second sense that samadhi and jhana come closest in meaning. The Buddha explains right concentration as the four jhanas (D.ii,313), and in doing so allows concentration to encompass the meditative attainments signified by the jhanas.
However, even though jhana and samadhi can overlap in denotation, certain differences in their suggested and contextual meanings prevent unqualified identification of the two terms. First behind the Buddha's use of the jhana formula to explain right concentration lies a more technical understanding of the terms.
According to this understanding samadhi can be narrowed down in range to signify only one mental factor, the most prominent in the jhana, namely, one-pointedness, while the word "jhana" itself must be seen as encompassing the state of consciousness in its entirety, or at least the whole group of mental factors individuating that meditative state as a jhana.
In the second place, when samadhi is considered in its broader meaning it involves a wider range of reference than jhana. The Pali exegetical tradition recognizes three levels of samadhi: preliminary concentration (parikammasamadhi), which is produced as a result of the meditator's initial efforts to focus his mind on his meditation subject; access concentration (upacarasamadhi), marked by the suppression of the five hindrances,
the manifestation of the jhana factors, and the appearance of a luminous mental replica of the meditation object called the counterpart sign (patibhaganimitta); and absorption concentration (appanasamadhi), the complete immersion of the mind in its object effected by the full maturation of the jhana factors.[5] Absorption concentration comprises the eight attainments, the four immaterial attainments, and to this extent jhana and samadhi coincide.
However, samadhi still has a broader scope than jhana, since it includes not only the jhanas themselves but also the two preparatory degrees of concentration leading up to them. Further, samadhi also covers a still different type of concentration called momentary concentration (khanikasamadhi), the mobile mental stabilization produced in the course of insight contemplation of the passing flow of phenomena.
Chapter 2
The Preparation for Jhana
The jhanas do not arise out of a void but in dependence on the right conditions. They come to growth only when provided with the nutriments conductive to their development. Therefore, prior to beginning meditation, the aspirant to the jhanas must prepare a groundwork for his practice by fulfilling certain preliminary requirements.
He first must endeavor to purify his moral virtue, sever the outer impediments to practice, and place himself under a qualified teacher who will assign him a suitable meditation subject and explain to him the methods of developing it.
After learning these the disciple must then seek out a congenial dwelling and diligently strive for success. In this chapter we will examine in order each of the preparatory steps that have to be fulfilled before commencing to develop jhana.
The Moral Foundation for Jhana
A disciple aspiring to the jhanas first has to lay a solid foundation of moral discipline. Moral purity is indispensable to meditative progress for several deeply psychological reasons. It is needed first, in order to safeguard against the danger of remorse, the nagging sense of guilt that arises when the basic principles of morality are ignored or deliberately violated. Scrupulous conformity to virtuous rules of conduct protects the mediator from this danger disruptive to inner calm, and brings joy and happiness when the mediator reflects upon the purity of his conduct (see A.v,1-7).
A second reason a moral foundation is needed for meditation follows from an understanding of the purpose of concentration. Concentration, in the Buddhist discipline, aims at providing a base for wisdom by cleansing the mind of the dispersive influence of the defilements.
But in order for the concentration exercises to effectively combat the defilements, the coarser expressions of the latter through bodily and verbal action first have to be checked.
Moral transgressions being invariably motivated by defilements -- by greed, hatred and delusion -- when a person acts in violation of the precepts of morality he excites and reinforces the very same mental factors his practice of meditation is intended to eliminate.
This involves him in a crossfire of incompatible aims which renders his attempts at mental purification ineffective. The only way he can avoid frustration in his endeavor to purify the mind of its subtler defilements is to prevent the unwholesome inner impulses from breathing out in the coarser form of unwholesome bodily and verbal deeds. Only when he establishes control over the outer expression of the defilements can he turn to deal with them inwardly as mental obsessions that appear in the process of meditation.
The practice of moral discipline consists negatively in abstinence from immoral actions of body and speech and positively in the observance of ethical principles promoting peace within oneself and harmony in one's relations with others.
The basic code of moral discipline taught by the Buddha for the guidance of his lay followers is the five precepts: abstinence from taking life, from stealing, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from intoxicating drugs and drinks.
These principles are bindings as minimal ethical obligations for all practitioners of the Buddhist path, and within their bounds considerable progress in meditation can be made. However, those aspiring to reach the higher levels of jhanas and to pursue the path further to the stages of liberation, are encouraged to take up the more complete moral discipline pertaining to the life of renunciation. Early Buddhism is unambiguous in its emphasis on the limitations of household life for following the path in its fullness and perfection.
Time and again the texts say that the household life is confining, a "path for the dust of passion," while the life of homelessness is like open space. Thus a disciple who is fully intent upon making rapid progress towards Nibbana will when outer conditions allow for it, "shave off his hair and beard, put on the yellow robe, and go forth from the home life into homelessness" (M.i,179).
The moral training for the bhikkhus or monks has been arranged into a system called the fourfold purification of morality (catuparisuddhisila).[6]
The first component of this scheme, its backbone, consists in the morality of restraint according to the Patimokkha, the code of 227 training precepts promulgated by the Buddha to regulate the conduct of the Sangha or monastic order.
Each of these rules is in some way intended to facilitate control over the defilements and to induce a mode of living marked by harmlessness, contentment and simplicity.
The second aspect of the monk's moral discipline is restraint of the senses, by which the monk maintains close watchfulness over his mind as he engages in sense contacts so that he does not give rise to desire for pleasurable objects and aversion towards repulsive ones.
Third, the monk is to live by a purified livelihood, obtaining his basic requisites such as robes food, lodgings and medicines in ways consistent with his vocation.
The fourth factor of the moral training is proper use of the requisites, which means that the monk should reflect upon the purposes for which he makes use of his requisites and should employ them only for maintaining his health and comfort, not for luxury and enjoyment.
After establishing a foundation of purified morality, the aspirant to meditation is advised to cut off any outer impediments (palibodha) that may hinder his efforts to lead a contemplative life.
These impediments are numbered as ten: a dwelling, which becomes an impediment for those who allow their minds to become preoccupied with its upkeep or with its appurtenances;
a family of relatives or supporters with whom the aspirant may become emotionally involved in ways that hinder his progress; gains, which may bind the monk by obligation to those who offer them; a class of students who must be instructed; building work, which demands time and attention;
travel; kin, meaning parents, teachers, pupils or close friends; illness; the study of scriptures; and supernormal powers, which are an impediment to insight (Vism.90-97; PP.91-98).
The Good Friend and the Subject of Meditation
The path of practice leading to the jhanas is an arduous course involving precise techniques and skillfulness is needed in dealing with the pitfalls that lie along the way. The knowledge of how to attain the jhanas has been transmitted through a lineage of teachers going back to the time of the Buddha himself.
A prospective meditator is advised to avail himself of the living heritage of accumulated knowledge and experience by placing himself under the care of a qualified teacher, described as a "good friend" (kalyanamitta), one who gives guidance and wise advice rooted in his own practice and experience.
On the basis of either of the power of penetrating others minds, or by personal observation, or by questioning, the teacher will size up the temperament of his new pupil and then select a mediation subject for him appropriate to his temperament.
The various meditation subjects that the Buddha prescribed for the development of serenity have been collected in the commentaries into a set called the forty kammatthana.
This word means literally a place of work, and is applied to the subject of meditation as the place where the meditator undertakes the work of meditation.
The forty meditation subjects are distributed into seven categories, enumerated in the Visuddhimagga as follows: ten kasinas, ten kinds of foulness, ten recollections, four divine abidings, four immaterial states, one perception, and one defining.[7]
A kasina is a device representing a particular quality used as a support for concentration. The ten kasinas are those of earth, water, fire and air; four color kasinas -- blue, yellow, red and white; the light kasina and the limited space kasina.
The kasina can be either a naturally occurring form of the element or color chosen, or an artificially produced device such as a disk that the meditator can use at his convenience in his meditation quarters.
The ten kinds of foulness are ten stages in the decomposition of a corpse: the bloated, the livid, the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered, the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested and a skeleton.
The primary purpose of these meditations is to reduce sensual lust by gaining a clear perception of the repulsiveness of the body.
The ten recollections are the recollections of the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha, morality, generosity and the deities, mindfulness of death, mindfulness of the body, mindfulness of breathing, and the recollection of peace.
The first three are devotional contemplations on the sublime qualities of the "Three Jewels," the primary objects of Buddhist virtues and on the deities inhabiting the heavenly worlds, intended principally for those still intent on a higher rebirth.
Mindfulness of death is reflection on the inevitably of death, a constant spur to spiritual exertion.
Mindfulness of the body involves the mental dissection of the body into thirty-two parts, undertaken with a view to perceiving its unattractiveness.
Mindfulness of breathing is awareness of the in-and-out movement of the breath, perhaps the most fundamental of all Buddhist meditation subjects. And the recollection of peace is reflection on the qualities of Nibbana.
The four divine abidings (brahmavihara) are the development of boundless loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. These meditations are also called the "immeasurables" (appamanna) because they are to be developed towards all sentient beings without qualification or exclusiveness.
The four immaterial states are the base of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. These are the objects leading to the corresponding meditative attainments, the immaterial jhanas.
The one perception is the perception of the repulsiveness of food. The one defining is the defining of the four elements, that is, the analysis of the physical body into the elemental modes of solidity, fluidity, heat and oscillation.
The forty meditation subjects are treated in the commentarial texts from two important angles -- one their ability to induce different levels of concentration, the other their suitability for differing temperaments.
Not all meditation subjects are equally effective in inducing the deeper levels of concentration.
They are first distinguished on the basis of their capacity for inducing only access concentration or for inducing full absorption; those capable of inducing absorption are then distinguished further according to their ability to induce the different levels of jhana.
Of the forty subjects, ten are capable of leading only to access concentration: eight recollections -- i.e. all except mindfulness of the body and mindfulness of breathing -- plus the perception of repulsiveness in nutriment and the defining of the four elements.
These, because they are occupied with a diversity of qualities and involve and active application of discursive thought, cannot lead beyond access. The other thirty subjects can all lead to absorption.
The ten kasinas and mindfulness of breathing, owing to their simplicity and freedom from thought construction, can lead to all four jhanas. The ten kinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body lead only to the first jhana, being limited because the mind can only hold onto them with the aid of applied thought (vitakka) which is absent in the second and higher jhanas.
The first three divine abidings can induce the lower three jhanas but the fourth, since they arise in association with pleasant feeling, while the divine abiding of equanimity occurs only at the level of the fourth jhana, where neutral feeling gains ascendency. The four immaterial states conduce to the respective immaterial jhanas corresponding to their names.
The forty subjects are also differentiated according to their appropriateness for different character types. Six main character types are recognized -- the greedy, the hating, the deluded, the faithful, the intelligent and the speculative -- this oversimplified typology being taken only as a pragmatic guideline which in practice admits various shades and combinations.
The ten kind of foulness and mindfulness of the body, clearly intended to attenuate sensual desire, are suitable for those of greedy temperament.
Eight subjects -- the four divine abidings and four color kasinas -- are appropriate for the hating temperament. Mindfulness of breathing is suitable for those of the deluded and the speculative temperament.
The first six recollections are appropriate for the faithful temperament. Four subjects -- mindfulness of death, the recollection of peace, the defining of the four elements, and the perception of the repulsiveness in nutriment -- are especially effective for those of intelligent temperament. The remaining six kasinas and the immaterial states are suitable for all kinds of temperaments. But the kasinas should be limited in size for one of speculative temperament and large in size for one of deluded temperament.
Immediately after giving this breakdown Buddhaghosa adds a proviso to prevent misunderstanding. He states that this division by way of temperament is made on the basis of direct opposition and complete suitability, but actually there is no wholesome form of meditation that does not suppress the defilements and strengthen the virtuous mental factors.
Thus an individual mediator may be advised to meditate on foulness to abandon lust, on loving-kindness to abandon hatred, on breathing to cut off discursive thought, and on impermanence to eliminate the conceit "I am" (A.iv,358).
Choosing a Suitable Dwelling
The teacher assigns a meditation subject to his pupil appropriate to his character and explains the methods of developing it. He can teach it gradually to a pupil who is going to remain in close proximity to him, or in detail to one who will go to practice it elsewhere. If the disciple is not going to stay with his teacher he must be careful to select a suitable place for meditation.
The texts mention eighteen kinds of monasteries unfavorable to the development of jhana: a large monastery, a new one, a dilapidated one, one near a road, one with a pond, leaves, flowers or fruits, one sought after by many people,
one in cities, among timber of fields, where people quarrel, in a port, in border lands, on a frontier, a haunted place, and one without access to a spiritual teacher (Vism. 118-121; PP122-125).
The factors which make a dwelling favorable to meditation are mentioned by the Buddha himself. If should not be too far from or too near a village that can be relied on as an alms resort, and should have a clear path: it should be quiet and secluded; it should be free from rough weather and from harmful insects and animals; one should be able to obtain one's physical requisites while dwelling there; and the dwelling should provide ready access to learned elders and spiritual friends who can be consulted when problems arise in meditation (A.v,15).
The types of dwelling places commended by the Buddha most frequently in the suttas as conductive to the jhanas are a secluded dwelling in the forest, at the foot of a tree, on a mountain, in a cleft, in a cave, in a cemetery, on a wooded flatland, in the open air, or on a heap of straw (M.i,181). Having found a suitable dwelling and settled there, the disciple should maintain scrupulous observance of the rules of discipline, He should be content with his simple requisites, exercise control over his sense faculties, be mindful and discerning in all activities, and practice meditation diligently as he was instructed. It is at this point that he meets the first great challenge of his contemplative life, the battle with the five hindrances.
Chapter 3
The First Jhana and Its Factors
The attainment of any jhana comes about through a twofold process of development. On one side the states obstructive to it, called its factors of abandonment, have to be eliminated, on the other the states composing it, called its factors of possession, have to be acquired. In the case of the first jhana the factors of abandonment are the five hindrances and the factors of possession the five basic jhana factors. Both are alluded to in the standard formula for the first jhana, the opening phrase referring to the abandonment of the hindrances and the subsequent portion enumerating the jhana factors:
Quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwells in the first jhana, which is accompanied by applied thought and sustained thought with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (M.i,1818; Vbh.245)
In this chapter we will first discuss the five hindrances and their abandonment, then we will investigate the jhana factors both individually and by way of their combined contribution to the attainment of the first jhana. We will close the chapter with some remarks on the ways of perfecting the first jhana, a necessary preparation for the further development of concentration.
The Abandoning of the Hindrances
The five hindrances (pancanivarana) are sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubt. This group, the principal classification the Buddha uses for the obstacles to meditation, receives its name because its five members hinder and envelop the mind, preventing meditative development in the two spheres of serenity and insight. Hence the Buddha calls them "obstructions, hindrances, corruptions of the mind which weaken wisdom"(S.v,94).
The hindrance of sensual desire (kamachanda) is explained as desire for the "five strands of sense pleasure," that is, for pleasant forms, sounds, smells, tastes and tangibles. It ranges from subtle liking to powerful lust. The hindrance of ill will (byapada) signifies aversion directed towards disagreeable persons or things. It can vary in range from mild annoyance to overpowering hatred. Thus the first two hindrances correspond to the first two root defilements, greed and hate. The third root defilement, delusion, is not enumerated separately among the hindrances but can be found underlying the remaining three.
Sloth and torpor is a compound hindrance made up of two components: sloth (thina), which is dullness, inertia or mental stiffness; and torpor (middha), which is indolence or drowsiness. Restlessness and worry is another double hindrance, restlessness (uddhacca) being explained as excitement, agitation or disquietude, worry (kukkucca) as the sense of guilt aroused by moral transgressions. Finally, the hindrance of doubt (vicikiccha) is explained as uncertainty with regard to the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha and the training.
The Buddha offers two sets of similes to illustrate the detrimental effect of the hindrances. The first compares the five hindrances to five types of calamity: sensual desire is like a debt, ill will like a disease, sloth and torpor like imprisonment, restless and worry like slavery, and doubt like being lost on a desert road. Release from the hindrances is to be seen as freedom from debt, good health, release from prison, emancipation from slavery, and arriving at a place of safety (D.i,71-73). The second set of similes compares the hindrances to five kinds of impurities affecting a bowl of water, preventing a keen-sighted man from seeing his own reflection as it really is. Sensual desire is like a bowl of water mixed with brightly colored paints, ill will like a bowl of boiling water, sloth and torpor like water covered by mossy plants, restlessness and worry like water blown into ripples by the wind, and doubt like muddy water. Just as the keen-eyed man would not be able to see his reflection in these five kinds of water, so one whose mind is obsessed by the five hindrances does not know and see as it is his own good, the good of others or the good of both (S.v,121-24). Although there are numerous defilements opposed to the first jhana the five hindrances alone are called its factors of abandoning. One reason according to the Visuddhimagga, is that the hindrances are specifically obstructive to jhana, each hindrance impeding in its own way the mind's capacity for concentration.
The mind affected through lust by greed for varied objective fields does not become concentrated on an object consisting in unity, or being overwhelmed by lust, it does not enter on the way to abandoning the sense-desire element. When pestered by ill will towards an object, it does not occur uninterruptedly. When overcome by stiffness and torpor, it is unwieldy. When seized by agitation and worry, it is unquiet and buzzes about. When stricken by uncertainty, it fails to mount the way to accomplish the attainment of jhana. So it is these only that are called factors of abandonment because they are specifically obstructive to jhana.(Vism.146: PP.152)
A second reason for confining the first jhana's factors of abandoning to the five hindrances is to permit a direct alignment to be made between the hindrances and the jhanic factors. Buddhaghosa states that the abandonment of the five hindrances alone is mentioned in connection with jhana because the hindrances are the direct enemies of the five jhana factors, which the latter must eliminate and abolish. To support his point the commentator cites a passage demonstrating a one-to-one correspondence between the jhana factors and the hindrances: one-pointedness is opposed to sensual desire, rapture to ill will, applied thought to sloth and torpor, happiness to restlessness and worry, and sustained thought to doubt (Vism. 141; PP.147).[8] Thus each jhana factor is seen as having the specific task of eliminating a particular obstruction to the jhana and to correlate these obstructions with the five jhana factors they are collected into a scheme of five hindrances.
The standard passage describing the attainment of the first jhana says that the jhana is entered upon by one who is "secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of mind." The Visuddhimagga explains that there are three kinds of seclusion relevant to the present context -- namely, bodily seclusion (kayaviveka), mental seclusion (cittaviveka), and seclusion by suppression (vikkhambhanaviveka) (Vism. 140; PP.145). These three terms allude to two distinct sets of exegetical categories. The first two belong to a threefold arrangement made up of bodily seclusion, mental seclusion, and "seclusion from the substance" (upadhiviveka). The first means physical withdrawal from active social engagement into a condition of solitude for the purpose of devoting time and energy to spiritual development. The second, which generally presupposes the first, means the seclusion of the mind from its entanglement in defilements; it is in effect equivalent to concentration of at least the access level. The third, "seclusion from the substance," is Nibbana, liberation from the elements of phenomenal existence. The achievement of the first jhana does not depend on the third, which is its outcome rather than prerequisite, but it does require physical solitude and the separation of the mind from defilements, hence bodily and mental seclusion. The third type of seclusion pertinent to the context, seclusion by suppression, belongs to a different scheme generally discussed under the heading of "abandonment" (pahana) rather than "seclusion." The type of abandonment required for the attainment of jhana is abandonment by suppression, which means the removal of the hindrances by force of concentration similar to the pressing down of weeds in a pond by means of a porous pot.[9]
The work of overcoming the five hindrances is accomplished through the gradual training (anupubbasikkha) which the Buddha has laid down so often in the suttas, such as the Samannaphala Sutta and the Culahatthipadopama Sutta. The gradual training is a step-by-step process designed to lead the practitioner gradually to liberation. The training begins with moral discipline, the undertaking and observance of specific rules of conduct which enable the disciple to control the coarser modes of bodily and verbal misconduct through which the hindrances find an outlet. With moral discipline as a basis, the disciple practices the restraint of the senses. He does not seize upon the general appearances of the beguiling features of things, but guards and masters his sense faculties so that sensual attractive and repugnant objects no longer become grounds for desire and aversion. Then, endowed with the self-restraint, he develops mindfulness and discernment (sati-sampajanna) in all his activities and postures, examining everything he does with clear awareness as to its purpose and suitability. He also cultivates contentment with a minimum of robes, food, shelter and other requisites.
Once he has fulfilled these preliminaries the disciple is prepared to go into solitude to develop the jhanas, and it is here that he directly confronts the five hindrances. The elimination of the hindrances requires that the meditator honestly appraises his own mind. When sensuality, ill will and the other hindrances are present, he must recognize that they are present and he must investigate the conditions that lead to their arising: the latter he must scrupulously avoid. The meditator must also understand the appropriate antidotes for each of the five hindrances. The Buddha says that all the hindrances arise through unwise consideration (ayoniso manasikara) and that they can be eliminated by wise consideration (yoniso manasikara). Each hindrance, however, has its own specific antidote. Thus wise consideration of the repulsive feature of things is the antidote to sensual desire; wise consideration of loving-kindness counteracts ill will; wise consideration of the elements of effort, exertion and striving opposes sloth and torpor; wise consideration of tranquillity of mind removes restlessness and worry; and wise consideration of the real qualities of things eliminates doubt (S.v,105-106).
Having given up covetousness [i.e. sensual desire) with regard to the world, he dwells with a heart free of covetousness; he cleanses his mind from covetousness. Having given up the blemish of ill will, he dwells without ill will; friendly and compassionate towards all living beings, he cleanses his mind from the blemishes of ill will. Having given up sloth and torpor, he dwells free from sloth and torpor, in the perception of light; mindful and clearly comprehending, he cleanses his mind from sloth and torpor. Having given up restlessness and worry, he dwells without restlessness; his mind being calmed within, he cleanses it from restlessness and worry. Having given up doubt, he dwells as one who has passed beyond doubt; being free from uncertainty about wholesome things, he cleanses his mind from doubt ....
And when he sees himself free of these five hindrances, joy arises; in him who is joyful, rapture arises; in him whose mind is enraptured, the body is stilled; the body being stilled, he feels happiness; and a happy mind finds concentration. Then, quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwells in the first jhana, which is accompanied by applied thought and sustained thought, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (D.i,73-74)[10]
The Factors of the First Jhana
The first jhana possesses five component factors: applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, happiness and one-pointedness of mind. Four of these are explicitly mentioned in the formula for the jhana; the fifth, one-pointedness, is mentioned elsewhere in the suttas but is already suggested by the notion of jhana itself. These five states receive their name, first because they lead the mind from the level of ordinary consciousness to the jhanic level, and second because they constitute the first jhana and give it its distinct definition.
The jhana factors are first aroused by the meditator's initial efforts to concentrate upon one of the prescribed objects for developing jhana. As he fixes his mind on the preliminary object, such as a kasina disk, a point is eventually reached where he can perceive the object as clearly with his eyes closed as with them open. This visualized object is called the learning sign (uggahanimitta). As he concentrates on the learning sign, his efforts call into play the embryonic jhana factors, which grow in force, duration and prominence as a result of the meditative exertion. These factors, being incompatible with the hindrances, attenuate them, exclude them, and hold them at bay. With continued practice the learning sign gives rise to a purified luminous replica of itself called the counterpart sign (patibhaganimitta), the manifestation of which marks the complete suppression of the hindrances and the attainment of access concentration (upacarasamadhi). All three events-the suppression of the hindrances, the arising of the counterpart sign, and the attainment of access concentration -- take place at precisely the same moment, without interval (Vism. 126; PP.131). And though previously the process of mental cultivation may have required the elimination of different hindrances at different times, when access is achieved they all subside together:
Simultaneously with his acquiring the counterpart sign his lust is abandoned by suppression owing to his giving no attention externally to sense desires (as object). And owing to his abandoning of approval, ill will is abandoned too, as pus is with the abandoning of blood. Likewise stiffness and torpor is abandoned through exertion of energy, agitation and worry is abandoned through devotion to peaceful things that cause no remorse; and uncertainty about the Master who teaches the way, about the way, and about the fruit of the way, about the way, and about the fruit of the way, is abandoned through the actual experience of the distinction attained. So the five hindrances are abandoned. (Vism. 189; PP.196)
Though the mental factors determinative of the first jhana are present in access concentration, they do not as yet possess sufficient strength to constitute the jhana, but are strong enough only to exclude the hindrances. With continued practice, however, the nascent jhana factors grow in strength until they are capable of issuing in jhana. Because of the instrumental role these factors play both in the attainment and constitution of the first jhana they are deserving of closer individual scrutiny.
Applied Thought (vitakka)
The word vitakka frequently appears in the texts in conjunction with the word vicara. The pair signify two interconnected but distinct aspects of the thought process, and to bring out the difference between them (as well as their common character), we translate the one as applied thought and the other as sustained thought.
In both the suttas and the Abhidhamma applied thought is defined as the application of the mind to its object (cetaso abhiniropana), a function which the Atthasalini illustrates thus: "Just as someone ascends the king's palace in dependence on a relative of friend dear to the king, so the mind ascends the object in dependence on applied thought" (Dhs.A.157). This function of applying the mind to the object is common to the wide variety of modes in which the mental factor of applied thought occurs, ranging from sense discrimination to imagination, reasoning and deliberation and to the practice of concentration culminating in the first jhana. Applied thought can be unwholesome as in thoughts of sensual pleasure, ill will and cruelty, or wholesome as in thoughts of renunciation, benevolence and compassion (M.i,116).
In jhana applied through is invariably wholesome and its function of directing the mind upon its object stands forth with special clarity. To convey this the Visuddhimagga explains that in jhana the function of applied thought is "to strike at and thresh -- for the meditator is said, in virtue of it, to have the object struck at by applied thought, threshed by applied thought" (Vism.142;PP148). The Milindapanha makes the same point by defining applied thought as absorption (appana): "Just as a carpenter drives a well-fashioned piece of wood into a joint, so applied thought has the characteristic of absorption" (Miln.62).
The object of jhana into which vitakka drives the mind and its concomitant states is the counterpart sign, which emerges from the learning sign as the hindrances are suppressed and the mind enters access concentration. The Visuddhimagga explains the difference between the two signs thus:
In the learning sign any fault in the kasina is apparent. But the counterpart sign appears as if breaking out from the learning sign, and a hundred times, a thousand times more purified, like a looking-glass disk drawn from its case, like a mother-of-pearl dish well washed, like the moon's disk coming out from behind a cloud, like cranes against a thunder cloud. But it has neither color nor shape; for if it had, it would be cognizable by the eye, gross, susceptible of comprehension (by insight) and stamped with the three characteristics. But it is not like that. For it is born only of perception in one who has obtained concentration, being a mere mode of appearance (Vism. 125-26; PP.130)
The counterpart sign is the object of both access concentration and jhana, which differ neither in their object nor in the removal of the hindrances but in the strength of their respective jhana factors. In the former the factors are still weak, not yet fully developed, while in the jhana they are strong enough to make the mind fully absorbed in the object. In this process applied thought is the factor primarily responsible for directing the mind towards the counterpart sign and thrusting it in with the force of full absorption.
Sustained Thought (vicara)
Vicara seems to represent a more developed phase of the thought process than vitakka. The commentaries explain that it has the characteristic of "continued pressure" on the object (Vim. 142; PP.148). Applied thought is described as the first impact of the mind on the object, the gross inceptive phase of thought; sustained thought is described as the act of anchoring the mind on the object, the subtle phase of continued mental pressure. Buddhaghosa illustrates the difference between the two with a series of similes. Applied thought is like striking a bell, sustained thought like the ringing; applied thought is like a bee's flying towards a flower, sustained thought like its buzzing around the flower; applied thought is like a compass pin that stays fixed to the center of a circle, sustained thought like the pin that revolves around (Vism. 142-43; PP.148-49).
These similes make it clear that applied thought and sustained thought functionally associated, perform different tasks. Applied thought brings the mind to the object, sustained thought fixes and anchors it there. Applied thought focuses the mind on the object, sustained thought examines and inspects what is focused on. Applied thought brings a deepening of concentration by again and again leading the mind back to the same object, sustained thought sustains the concentration achieved by keeping the mind anchored on that object.
Rapture (piti)
The third factor present in the first jhana is piti, usually translated as joy or rapture.[11] In the suttas piti is sometimes said to arise from another quality called pamojja, translated as joy or gladness, which springs up with the abandonment of the five hindrances. When the disciple sees the five hindrances abandoned in himself "gladness arises within him; thus gladdened, rapture arises in him; and when he is rapturous his body becomes tranquil" (D.i,73). Tranquillity in turn leads to happiness, on the basis of which the mind becomes concentrated. Thus rapture precedes the actual arising of the first jhana, but persists through the remaining stages up to the third jhana.
The Vibhanga defines piti as "gladness, joy, joyfulness, mirth, merriment, exultation, exhilaration, and satisfaction of mind" (Vbh. 257). The commentaries ascribe to it the characteristic of endearing, the function of refreshing the body and mind or pervading with rapture, and the manifestation as elation (Vism.143; PP.149). Shwe Zan Aung explains that "piti abstracted means interest of varying degrees of intensity, in an object felt as desirable or as calculated to bring happiness."[12]
When defined in terms of agency, piti is that which creates interest in the object; when defined in terms of its nature it is the interest in the object. Because it creates a positive interest in the object, the jhana factor of rapture is able to counter and suppress the hindrance of ill will, a state of aversion implying a negative evaluation of the object.
Rapture is graded into five categories: minor rapture, momentary rapture, showering rapture, uplifting rapture and pervading rapture.[13] Minor rapture is generally the first to appear in the progressive development of meditation; it is capable of causing the hairs of the body to rise. Momentary rapture, which is like lightning, comes next but cannot be sustained for long. Showering rapture runs through the body in waves, producing a thrill but without leaving a lasting impact. Uplifting rapture, which can cause levitation, is more sustained but still tends to disturb concentration, The form of rapture most conductive to the attainment of jhana is all-pervading rapture, which is said to suffuse the whole body so that it becomes like a full bladder or like a mountain cavern inundated with a mighty flood of water. The Visuddhimagga states that what is intended by the jhana factor of rapture is this all-pervading rapture "which is the root of absorption and comes by growth into association with absorption" (Vism.144; PP.151)
Happiness (sukha)
As a factor of the first jhana, sukha signifies pleasant feeling. The word is explicitly defined in the sense by the Vibhanga in its analysis of the first jhana: "Therein, what is happiness? Mental pleasure and happiness born of mind-contact, the felt pleasure and happiness born of mind-contact, pleasurable and happy feeling born of mind contact -- this is called 'happiness' " (Vbh.257). The Visuddhimagga explains that happiness in the first jhana has the characteristic of gratifying, the function of intensifying associated states, and as manifestation, the rendering of aid to its associated states (Vism. 145; PP.151).
Rapture and happiness link together in a very close relationship, but though the two are difficult to distinguish, they are not identical. Happiness is a feeling (vedana);, rapture a mental formation (sankhara). Happiness always accompanies rapture, so that when rapture is present happiness must always be present; but rapture does not always accompany happiness, for in the third jhana, as we will see, there is happiness but no rapture. The Atthasalini, which explains rapture as "delight in the attaining of the desired object" and happiness as "the enjoyment of the taste of what is required," illustrates the difference by means of a simile:
Rapture is like a weary traveler in the desert in summer, who hears of, or sees water of a shady wood. Ease (happiness) is like his enjoying the water of entering the forest shade. For a man who, traveling along the path through a great desert and overcome by the heat, is thirsty and desirous of drink, if he saw a man on the way, would ask 'Where is water?' The other would say, 'Beyond the wood is a dense forest with a natural lake. Go there, and you will get some.' He, hearing these words, would be glad and delighted and as he went would see lotus leaves, etc., fallen on the ground and become more glad and delighted. Going onwards, he would see men with wet clothes and hair, hear the sounds of wild fowl and pea-fowl, etc., see the dense forest of green like a net of jewels growing by the edge of the natural lake, he would see the water lily, the lotus, the white lily, etc., growing in the lake, he would see the clear transparent water, he would be all the more glad and delighted, would descend into the natural lake, bathe and drink at pleasure and, his oppression being allayed, he would eat the fibers and stalks of the lilies, adorn himself with the blue lotus, carry on his shoulders the roots of the mandalaka, ascend from the lake, put on his clothes, dry the bathing cloth in the sun, and in the cool shade where the breeze blew ever so gently lay himself down and saw: 'O bliss! O bliss!' Thus should this illustration be applied. The time of gladness and delight from when he heard of the natural lake and the dense forest till he say the water is like rapture having the manner of gladness and delight at the object in view. The time when, after his bath and dried he laid himself down in the cool shade, saying, 'O bliss! O bliss!' etc., is the sense of ease (happiness) grown strong, established in that mode of enjoying the taste of the object.[14]
Since rapture and happiness co-exist in the first jhana, this simile should not be taken to imply that they are mutually exclusive. Its purport is to suggest that rapture gains prominence before happiness, for which it helps provide a causal foundation.
In the description of the first jhana, rapture and happiness are said to be "born of seclusion" and to suffuse the whole body of the meditator in such a way that there is no part of his body which remains unaffected by them:
Monks, secluded from sense pleasure ... a monk enters and dwells in the first jhana. He steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rapture and happiness born of seclusion, so that there is no part of his entire body that is not suffused with this rapture and happiness. Just as a skilled bath-attendant or his apprentice might strew bathing powder in a copper basin, sprinkle it again and again with water, and knead it together so that the mass of bathing soap would be pervaded, suffused, and saturated with moisture inside and out yet would not ooze moisture, so a monk steeps, drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rapture and happiness born of seclusion, so that, there is no part of his entire body that is not suffused with this rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (D.i,74)
One-pointedness (ekaggata)
Unlike the previous four jhana factors, one-pointedness is not specifically mentioned in the standard formula for the first jhana, but it is included among the jhana factors by the Mahavedalla Sutta (M.i,294) as well as in the Abhidhamma and the commentaries. One-pointedness is a universal mental concomitant, the factor by virtue of which the mind is centered upon its object. It brings the mind to a single point, the point occupied by the object.
One-pointedness is used in the text as a synonym for concentration (samadhi) which has the characteristic of non-distraction, the function of eliminating distractions, non-wavering as its manifestation, and happiness as its proximate cause (Vism.85; PP.85). As a jhana factor one-pointedness is always directed to a wholesome object and wards off unwholesome influences, in particular the hindrance of sensual desire. As the hindrances are absent in jhana one-pointedness acquires special strength, based on the previous sustained effort of concentration.
Besides the five jhana factors, the first jhana contains a great number of other mental factors functioning in unison as coordinate members of a single state of consciousness. Already the Anupada Sutta lists such additional components of the first jhana as contact, feeling, perception, volition, consciousness, desire, decision, energy, mindfulness, equanimity and attention (M.iii,25). In the Abhidhamma literature this is extended still further up to thirty-three indispensable components. Nevertheless, only five states are called the factors of the first jhana, for only these have the functions of inhibiting the five hindrances and fixing the mind in absorption. For the jhana to arise all these five factors must be present simultaneously, exercising their special operations:
But applied thought directs the mind onto the object; sustained thought keeps it anchored there. Happiness (rapture) produced by the success of the effort refreshes the mind whose effort has succeeded through not being distracted by those hindrances; and bliss (happiness) intensifies it for the same reason. Then unification aided by this directing onto, this anchoring, this refreshing and this intensifying, evenly and rightly centers the mind with its remaining associated states on the object consisting in unity. Consequently possession of five factors should be understood as the arising of these five, namely, applied thought, sustained thought, happiness (rapture), bliss (happiness), and unification of mind. For it is when these are arisen that jhana is said to be arisen, which is why they are called the five factors of possession. (Vism.146;PP.152)
Each jhana factor serves as support for the one which succeeds it. Applied thought must direct the mind to its object in order for sustained thought to anchor it there. Only when the mind is anchored can the interest develop which will culminate in rapture. As rapture develops it brings happiness to maturity, and this spiritual happiness, by providing an alternative to the fickle pleasures of the senses, aids the growth of one-pointedness. In this way, as Nagasena explains, all the other wholesome states lead to concentration, which stands at their head like the apex on the roof of a house (Miln. 38-39).
Perfecting the First Jhana
The difference between access and absorption concentration, as we have said, does not lie in the absence of the hindrances, which is common to both, but in the relative strength of the jhana factors. In access the factors are weak so that concentration is fragile, comparable to a child who walks a few steps and then falls down. But in absorption the jhana factors are strong and well developed so that the mind can remain continuously in concentration just as a healthy man can remain standing on his feet for a whole day and night (Vism.126; PP.131).
Because full absorption offers the benefit of strengthened concentration, a meditator who gains access is encouraged to strive for the attainment of jhana. To develop his practice several important measures are recommended.[15] The meditator should live in a suitable dwelling, rely upon a suitable alms resort, avoid profitless talk, associate only with spiritually-minded companions, make use only of suitable food, live in a congenial climate, and maintain his practice in a suitable posture. He should also cultivate the ten kinds of skill in absorption. He should clean his lodging and his physical body so that they conduce to clear meditation, balance his spiritual faculties by seeing that faith is balanced with wisdom and energy with concentration, and he must be skillful in producing and developing the sign of concentration (1-3). He should exert the mind when it is slack, restrain it when it is agitated, encourage it when it is restless or dejected, and look at the mind with equanimity when all is proceeding well (4-7). The meditator should avoid distracting persons, should approach people experienced in concentration, and should be firm in his resolution to attain jhana (8-10).
After attaining the first jhana a few times the meditator is not advised to set out immediately striving for the second jhana. This would be a foolish and profitless spiritual ambition. Before he is prepared to make the second jhana the goal of his endeavor he must first bring the first jhana to perfection. If he is too eager to reach the second jhana before he has perfected the first, he is likely to fail to gain the second and find himself unable to regain the first. The Buddha compares such a meditator to a foolish cow who, while still unfamiliar with her own pasture, sets out for new pastures and gets lost in the mountains: she fails to find food or drink and is unable to find her way home (A.iv, 418-19).
The perfecting of the first jhana involves two steps: the extension of the sign and the achievement of the five masteries. The extension of the sign means extending the size of the counterpart sign, the object of the jhana. Beginning with a small area, the size of one or two fingers, the meditator gradually learns to broaden the sign until the mental image can be made to cover the world-sphere or even beyond (Vism. 152-53; PP.158-59).
Following this the meditator should try to acquire five kinds of mastery over the jhana: mastery in adverting, in attaining, in resolving, in emerging and in reviewing.[16] Mastery in adverting is the ability to advert to the jhana factors one by one after emerging from the jhana, wherever he wants, whenever he wants, and for as long as he wants. Mastery in attaining is the ability to enter upon jhana quickly, mastery in resolving the ability to remain in the jhana for exactly the pre-determined length of time, mastery in emerging the ability to emerge from jhana quickly without difficulty, and mastery in reviewing the ability to review the jhana and its factors with retrospective knowledge immediately after adverting to them. When the meditator has achieved this fivefold mastery, then he is ready to strive for the second jhana.
Chapter 4
The Higher Jhanas
In this chapter we will survey the higher states of jhana. First we will discuss the remaining three jhanas of the fine-material sphere, using the descriptive formulas of the suttas as our starting point and the later literature as our source for the methods of practice that lead to these attainments. Following this we will consider the four meditative states that pertain to the immaterial sphere, which come to be called the immaterial jhanas. Our examination will bring out the dynamic character of the process by which the jhanas are successively achieved. The attainment of the higher jhanas of the fine-material sphere, we will see, involves the successive elimination of the grosser factors and the bringing to prominence of the subtler ones, the attainment of the formless jhanas the replacement of grosser objects with successively more refined objects. From our study it will become clear that the jhanas link together in a graded sequence of development in which the lower serves as basis for the higher and the higher intensifies and purifies states already present in the lower. We will end the chapter with a brief look at the connection between the jhanas and the Buddhist teaching of rebirth.
The Higher Fine-material Jhanas
The formula for the attainment of the second jhana runs as follows:
- With the subsiding of applied thought and sustained thought he enters and dwells in the second jhana, which has internal confidence and unification of mind, is without applied thought and sustained thought, and is filled with rapture and happiness born of concentration (M.i,181; Vbh. 245)
The second jhana, like the first, is attained by eliminating the factors to be abandoned and by developing the factors of possession. In this case however, the factors to be abandoned are the two initial factors of the first jhana itself, applied thought and sustained thought; the factors of possession are the three remaining jhana factors, rapture, happiness and one-pointedness. Hence the formula begins "with the subsiding of applied thought and sustained thought," and then mentions the jhana's positive endowments.
After achieving the five kinds of mastery over the first jhana, a meditator who wishes to reach the second jhana should enter the first jhana and contemplate its defects. These are twofold: one, which might be called the defect of proximate corruption, is the nearness of the five hindrances, against which the first jhana provides only a relatively mild safeguard; the other defect, inherent to the first jhana, is its inclusion of applied and sustained thought, which now appear as gross, even as impediments needing to be eliminated to attain the more peaceful and subtle second jhana.
By reflecting upon the second jhana as more tranquil and sublime than the first, the meditator ends his attachment to the first jhana and engages in renewed striving with the aim of reaching the higher stage. He directs his mind to his meditation subject -- which must be one capable of inducing the higher jhanas such as a kasina or the breath -- and resolves to overcome applied and sustained thought. When his practice comes to maturity the two kinds of thought subside and the second jhana arises. In the second jhana only three of the original five jhana factors remain -- rapture, happiness, and one-pointedness. Moreover, with the elimination of the two grosser factors these have acquired a subtler and more peaceful tone.[17]
Besides the main jhana factors, the canonical formula includes several other states in its description of the second jhana. "Internal confidence" (ajjhattamsampasadanam), conveys the twofold meaning of faith and tranquillity. In the first jhana the meditator's faith lacked full clarity and serenity due to "the disturbance created by applied and sustained thought, like water ruffled by ripples and wavelets" (Vism. 157; PP.163). But when applied and sustained thought subside, the mind becomes very peaceful and the meditator's faith acquires fuller confidence.
The formula also mentions unification of mind (cetaso ekodibhavam), which is identified with one-pointedness or concentration. Though present in the first jhana, concentration only gains special mention in connection with the second jhana since it is here that it acquires eminence. In the first jhana concentration was still imperfect, being subject to the disturbing influence of applied and sustained thought. For the same reason this jhana, along with its constituent rapture and happiness, is said to be born of concentration (samadhijam): "It is only this concentration that is quite worthy to be called 'concentration' because of its complete confidence and extreme immobility due to absence of disturbance by applied and sustained thought" (Vism.158; PP.164).
To attain the third jhana the meditator must use the same method he used to ascend from the first jhana to the second. He must master the second jhana in the five ways, enter and emerge from it, and reflect upon its defects. In this case the defect of proximate corruption is the nearness of applied and sustained thought, which threaten to disrupt the serenity of the second jhana; its inherent defect is the presence of rapture, which now appears as a gross factor that should be discarded. Aware of the imperfections in the second jhana, the meditator cultivates indifference towards it and aspires instead for the peace and sublimity of the third jhana, towards the attainment of which he now directs his efforts. When his practice matures he enters the third jhana, which has the two jhana factors that remain when the rapture disappears, happiness and one-pointedness, and which the suttas describe as follows:
- With the fading away of rapture, he dwells in equanimity, mindful and discerning; and he experiences in his own person that happiness of which the noble ones say: 'Happily lives he who is equanimous and mindful' -- thus he enters and dwells in the third jhana. (M.i,182; Vbh.245)
The formula indicates that the third jhana contains, besides its two defining factors, three additional components not included among the jhana factors: equanimity, mindfulness and discernment. Equanimity is mentioned twice. The Pali word for equanimity, upekkha, occurs in the texts with a wide range of meanings, the most important being neutral feeling -- that is, feeling which is neither painful nor pleasant -- and the mental quality of inner balance or equipoise called "specific neutrality" (tatramajjhattata -- see Vism.161; PP.167). The equanimity referred to in the formula is a mode of specific neutrality which belongs to the aggregate of mental formations (sankharakkhandha) and thus should not be confused with equanimity as neutral feeling. Though the two are often associated, each can exist independently of the other, and in the third jhana equanimity as specific neutrality co-exists with happiness or pleasant feeling.
The meditator in third jhana is also said to be mindful and discerning, which points to another pair of frequently conjoined mental functions. Mindfulness (sati), in this context, means the remembrance of the meditation object, the constant bearing of the object in mind without allowing it to float away. Discernment (sampajanna) is an aspect of wisdom or understanding which scrutinizes the object and grasps its nature free from delusion. Though these two factors were already present even in the first two jhanas, they are first mentioned only in connection with the third since it is here that their efficacy becomes manifest. The two are needed particularly to avoid a return to rapture. Just as a suckling calf, removed from its mother and left unguarded, again approaches the mother, so the happiness of jhana tends to veer towards rapture, its natural partner, if unguarded by mindfulness and discernment (Dhs. A.219). To prevent this and the consequent loss of the third jhana is the task of mindfulness and discernment.
The attainment of the fourth jhana commences with the aforesaid procedure. In this case the meditator sees that the third jhana is threatened by the proximity of rapture, which is ever ready to swell up again due to its natural affinity with happiness; he also sees that it is inherently defective due to the presence of happiness, a gross factor which provides fuel for clinging. He then contemplates the state where equanimous feeling and one-pointedness subsist together -- the fourth jhana -- as far more peaceful and secure than anything he has so far experienced, and therefore as far more desirable. Taking as his object the same counterpart sign he took for the earlier jhana, he strengthens his efforts in concentration for the purpose of abandoning the gross factor of happiness and entering the higher jhana. When his practice matures the mind enters absorption into the fourth jhana:
- With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous disappearance of joy and grief, he enters and dwells in the fourth jhana, which has neither-pain-nor-pleasure and has purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. (M.i,182; Vbh.245)
The first part of this formula specifies the conditions for the attainment of this jhana -- also called the neither-painful-nor-pleasant liberation of mind (M.i, 296) -- to be the abandoning of four kinds of feeling incompatible with it, the first two signifying bodily feelings, the latter two the corresponding mental feelings. The formula also introduces several new terms and phrases which have not been encountered previously. First, it mentions a new feeling, neither-pain-nor-pleasure (adukkhamasukha), which remains after the other four feelings have subsided. This kind of feeling also called equanimous or neutral feeling, replaces happiness as the concomitant feeling of the jhana and also figures as one of the jhana factors. Thus this attainment has two jhana factors: neutral feeling and one-pointedness of mind. Previously the ascent from one jhana to the next was marked by the progressive elimination of the coarser jhana factors, but none were added to replace those which were excluded. But now, in the move from the third to the fourth jhana, a substitution occurs, neutral feeling moving in to take the place of happiness.
In addition we also find a new phrase composed of familiar terms, "purity of mindfulness due to equanimity" (upekkhasatiparisuddhi). The Vibhanga explains: "This mindfulness is cleared, purified, clarified by equanimity" (Vbh. 261), and Buddhaghosa adds: "for the mindfulness in this jhana is quite purified, and its purification is effected by equanimity, not by anything else" (Vism.167; PP.174). The equanimity which purifies the mindfulness is not neutral feeling, as might be supposed, but specific neutrality, the sublime impartiality free from attachment and aversion, which also pertains to this jhana. Though both specific neutrality and mindfulness were present in the lower three jhanas, none among these is said to have "purity of mindfulness due to equanimity." The reason is that in the lower jhanas the equanimity present was not purified itself, being overshadowed by opposing states and lacking association with equanimous feeling. It is like a crescent moon which exists by day but cannot be seen because of the sunlight and the bright sky. But in the fourth jhana, where equanimity gains the support of equanimous feeling, it shines forth like the crescent moon at night and purifies mindfulness and the other associated states (Vism. 169; PP.175).
The Immaterial Jhanas
Beyond the four jhanas lie four higher attainments in the scale of concentration, referred to in the suttas as the "peaceful immaterial liberations transcending material form" (santa vimokkha atikammarupe aruppa, M.i,33). In the commentaries they are also called the immaterial jhanas, and while this expression is not found in the suttas it seems appropriate in so far as these states correspond to jhanic levels of consciousness and continue the same process of mental unification initiated by the original four jhanas, now sometimes called the fine-material jhanas. The immaterial jhanas are designated, not by numerical names like their predecessors, but by the names of their objective spheres: the base of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.[18] They receive the designation "immaterial" or " formless" (arupa) because they are achieved by surmounting all perceptions of material form, including the subtle form of the counterpart sign which served as the object of the previous jhanas, and because they are the subjective correlates of the immaterial planes of existence.
Like the fine-material jhanas follow a fixed sequence and must be attained in the order in which they are presented. That is, the meditator who wishes to achieve the immaterial jhanas must begin with the base of boundless space and then proceed step by step up to the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. However, an important difference separates the modes of progress in the two cases. In the case of the fine-material jhanas, the ascent from one jhana to another involves a surmounting of jhana factors. To rise from the first jhana to the second the meditator must eliminate applied thought and sustained thought, to rise from the second to the third he must overcome rapture, and to rise from the third to the fourth he must replace pleasant with neutral feeling. Thus progress involves a reduction and refinement of the jhana factors, from the initial five to the culmination in one-pointedness and neutral feeling.
Once the fourth jhana is reached the jhana factors remain constant, and in higher ascent to the immaterial attainments there is no further elimination of jhana factors. For this reason the formless jhanas, when classified from the perspective of their factorial constitution as is done in the Abhidhamma, are considered modes of the fourth jhana. They are all two-factored jhanas, constituted by one-pointedness and equanimous feeling.
Rather than being determined by a surmounting of factors, the order of the immaterial jhanas is determined by a surmounting of objects. Whereas for the lower jhanas the object can remain constant but the factors must be changed, for the immaterial jhanas the factors remain constant while the objects change. The base of boundless space eliminates the kasina object of the fourth jhana, the base of boundless consciousness surmounts the object of the base of boundless space, the base of nothingness surmounts the object of base of boundless consciousness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception surmounts the objects the object of the base of nothingness.
Because the objects become progressively more subtle at each level, the jhana factors of equanimous feeling and one-pointedness, while remaining constant in nature throughout, become correspondingly more refined in quality. Buddhaghosa illustrates this with a simile of four pieces of cloth of the same measurements, spun by the same person, yet made of thick, thin, thinner and very thin thread respectively (Vism. 339; PP.369). Also, whereas the four lower jhanas can each take a variety of objects -- the ten kasinas, the in-and-out breath, etc. -- and do not stand in any integral relation to these objects, the four immaterial jhanas each take a single object inseparably related to the attainment itself. The first is attained solely with the base of boundless space as object, the second with the base of boundless consciousness, and so forth.
The motivation which initially leads a meditator to seek the immaterial attainments is a clear recognition of the dangers inherent in material existence: it is in virtue of matter that injuries and death by weapons and knives occur that one is afflicted with diseases, subject of hunger and thirst, while none of this takes place on the immaterial planes of existence (M.i,410). Wishing to escape these dangers by taking rebirth in the immaterial planes, the meditator must first attain the four fine-material jhanas and master the fourth jhana with any kasina as object except the omitted space kasina. By this much the meditator has risen above gross matter, but he still has not transcended the subtle material form comprised by the luminous counterpart sign which is the object of his jhana. To reach the formless attainments the meditator, after emerging from the fourth jhana, must consider that even that jhana, as refined as it is, still has an object consisting in material form and thus is distantly connected with gross matter; moreover, it is close to happiness, a factor of the third jhana, and is far coarser than the immaterial states. The meditator sees the base of boundless space, the first immaterial jhana, as more peaceful and sublime than the fourth fine-material jhana and as more safely removed from materiality.
Following these preparatory reflections, the meditator enters the fourth jhana based on a kasina object and extends the counterpart sign of the kasina "to the limit of the world-sphere, or as far as he likes." Then, after emerging from the fourth jhana, he must remove the kasina by attending exclusively to the space it has been made to cover without attending to the kasina itself. Taking as his object the space left after the removal of the kasina, the meditator adverts to it as "boundless space" or simply as "space, space," striking at it with applied and sustained thought. As he cultivates this practice over and over, eventually the consciousness pertaining to the base of boundless space arises with boundless space as its object (Vism. 327-28; PP.355-56).
A meditator who has gained mastery over the base of boundless space, wishing to attain as well the second immaterial jhana, must reflect upon the two defects of the first attainment which are its proximity to the fine-material jhanas and its grossness compared to the base of boundless consciousness. Having in this way developed indifferent to the lower attainment, he must next enter and emerge from the base of boundless space and then fix his attention upon the consciousness that occurred there pervading the boundless space. Since the space taken as the object by the first formless jhana was boundless, the consciousness of that space also involves an aspect of boundlessness, and it is to this boundless consciousness that the aspirant for the next attainment adverts. He is not to attend to it merely as boundless, but as "boundless consciousness" or simply as "consciousness." He continues to cultivate this sign again and again until the consciousness belonging to the base of boundless consciousness arises in absorption taking as its object the boundless consciousness pertaining to the first immaterial state (Vism. 331-32; PP.360-61).
To attain the next formless state, the base of nothingness, the meditator who has mastered the base of boundless consciousness must contemplate its defects in the same twofold manner and advert to the superior peacefulness of the base of nothingness. Without giving any more attention to the base of boundless consciousness, he should "give attention to the present non-existence, voidness, secluded aspect of that same past consciousness belonging to the base consisting of boundless space" (Vism. 333; PP.362). In other words, the meditator is to focus upon the present absence or non-existence of the consciousness belonging to the base of boundless space, adverting to it over and over thus: "There is not, there is not" or "void, void". When his efforts fructify there arises in absorption a consciousness belonging to the base of nothingness, with the non-existence of the consciousness of boundless space as its object. Whereas the second immaterial state relates to the consciousness of boundless space positively, by focusing upon the content of that consciousness and appropriating its boundlessness, the third immaterial state relates to it negatively, by excluding that consciousness from awareness and making the absence or present non-existence of that consciousness its object.
The fourth and final immaterial jhana, the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, is reached through the same preliminary procedure. The meditator can also reflect upon the unsatisfactoriness of perception, thinking: "Perception is a disease, perception is a boil, perception is a dart ... this is peaceful, this is sublime, that is to say, neither-perception-nor-non-perception" (M.ii,231). In this way he ends his attachment to the base of nothingness and strengthens his resolve to attain the next higher stage. He then adverts to the four mental aggregates that constitute the attainment of the base of nothingness -- its feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness -- contemplating them as "peaceful, peaceful," reviewing that base and striking at it with applied and sustained thought. As he does so the hindrances are suppressed, the mind passes through access and enters the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.
This jhana receives its name because, on the one hand, it lacks gross perception with its function of clearly discerning objects, and thus cannot be said to have perception; on the other, it retains a very subtle perception, and thus cannot be said to be without perception. Because all the mental functions are here reduced to the finest and most subtle level, this jhana is also named the attainment with residual formations. At this level the mind has reached the highest possible development in the direction of pure serenity. It has attained the most intense degree of concentration, becoming so refined that consciousness can no longer be described in terms of existence or non-existence. Yet even this attainment, from the Buddhist point of view, is still a mundane state which must finally give way to insight that alone leads to true liberation.
The Jhanas and Rebirth
Buddhism teaches that all sentient beings in whom ignorance and craving still linger are subject to rebirth following death. Their mode of rebirth is determined by their kamma, their volitional action, wholesome kamma issuing in a good rebirth and unwholesome kamma in a bad rebirth. As a kind of wholesome kamma the attainment of jhana can play a key role in the rebirth process, being considered a weighty good kamma which takes precedence over other lesser kammas in determining the future rebirth of the person who attains it.
Buddhist cosmology groups the numerous planes of existence into which rebirth takes place into three broad spheres each of which comprises a number of subsidiary planes. The sense-sphere (kamadhatu) is the field of rebirth for evil deeds and for meritorious deeds falling short of the jhanas; the fine-material sphere (rupadhatu), the field of rebirth for the fine-material jhanas; and the immaterial sphere (arupadhatu), the field of rebirth for the immaterial jhanas.
An unwholesome kamma, should it become determinative of rebirth, will lead to a new existence in one of the four planes of misery belonging to the sense-sphere: the hells, the animal kingdom, the sphere of afflicted spirits, or the host of titans. A wholesome kamma of a subjhanic type produces rebirth in one of the seven happy planes in the sense-sphere, the human world or the six heavenly worlds.
Above the sense-sphere realms are the fine-material realms, into which rebirth is gained only through the attainment of the fine-material jhanas. The sixteen realms in this sphere are hierarchically ordered in correlation with the four jhanas. Those who have practiced the first jhana to a minor degree are reborn in the Realm of the Retinue of Brahma, to a moderate degree in the Realm of the Ministers of Brahma, and to a superior degree in the Realm of the Great Brahma.[19] Similarly, practicing the second jhana to a minor degree brings rebirth in the Realm of Minor Lustre, to a moderate degree in the Realm of Infinite Lustre, and to a superior degree the Realm of Radiant Lustre.[20] Again, practicing the third jhana to a minor degree brings rebirth in the Realm of Minor Aura, to a moderate degree in the Realm of Infinite Aura, and to a superior degree in the Realm of Steady Aura.[21]
Corresponding to the fourth jhana there are seven realms: the Realm of Great Reward, the Realm of Non-percipient Beings, and the five Pure Abodes.[22] With this jhana the rebirth pattern deviates from the former one. It seems that all beings who practice the fourth jhana of the mundane level without reaching any supramundane attainment are reborn in the realm of Great Reward. There is no differentiation by way of inferior, moderate or superior grades of development. The Realm of Non-percipient Beings is reached by those who, after attaining the fourth jhana, then use the power of their meditation to take rebirth with only material bodies; they do not acquire consciousness again until they pass away from this realm. The five Pure Abodes are open only to non-returners (anagamis), noble disciples at the penultimate stage of liberation who have eradicated the fetters binding them to the sense-sphere and thence automatically take rebirth in higher realms, where they attain arahatship and reach final deliverance.
Beyond the fine-material sphere lie the immaterial realms, which are four in number -- the base of boundless space, the base of boundless consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. As should be evident, these are realms of rebirth for those who, without having broken the fetters that bind them to samsara, achieve and master one or another of the four immaterial jhanas. Those mediators who have mastery over a formless attainment at the time of death take rebirth in the appropriate plane, where they abide until the kammic force of the jhana is exhausted. Then they pass away, to take rebirth in some other realm as determined by their accumulated kamma.[23]
Chapter 5
Jhana and The Supramundane
The Way of Wisdom
The goal of the Buddhist path, complete and permanent liberation from suffering, is to be achieved by practicing the full threefold discipline of morality (sila), concentration (samadhi), and wisdom (panna). The mundane jhanas, comprising the four fine-material jhanas and the four immaterial jhanas, pertain to the stage of concentration, which they fulfill to an eminent degree. However, taken by themselves, these states do not ensure complete deliverance, for they are incapable of cutting off the roots of suffering. The Buddha teaches that the cause of suffering, the driving power behind the cycle of rebirths, is the defilements with their three unwholesome roots -- greed, hatred and delusion. Concentration of the absorption level, no matter to what heights it is pursued, only suppresses the defilements, but cannot destroy their latent seeds. Thence bare mundane jhana, even when sustained, cannot by itself terminate the cycle of rebirths. To the contrary, it may even perpetuate the round. For if any fine-material or immaterial jhana is held to with clinging, it will bring about a rebirth in that particular plane of existence corresponding to its own kammic potency, which can then be followed by rebirth in some lower realm.
What is required to achieve complete deliverance from the cycle of rebirths is the eradication of the defilements. Since the most basic defilement is ignorance (avijja), the key to liberation lies in developing its direct opposite, namely wisdom (panna).
Since wisdom presupposes a certain proficiency in concentration it is inevitable that jhana comes to claim a place in its development. This place, however, is not fixed and invariable, but as we will see allows for differences depending on the individual mediator's disposition.
Fundamental to the discussion in this chapter is a distinction between two terms crucial to Theravada philosophical exposition, "mundane" (lokiya) and "supramundane" (lokuttara). The term "mundane" applies to all phenomena comprised in the world (loka) -- to subtle states of consciousness as well as matter, to virtue as well as evil, to meditative attainments as well as sensual engrossments. The term "supramundane," in contrast, applies exclusively to that which transcends the world, that is the nine supramundane states: Nibbana, the four noble paths (magga) leading to Nibbana, and their corresponding fruits (phala) which experience the bliss of Nibbana.
Wisdom has the specific characteristic of penetrating the true nature of phenomena. It penetrates the particular and general features of things through direct cognition rather than discursive thought. Its function is "to abolish the darkness of delusion which conceals the individual essences of states" and its manifestation is "non-delusion." Since the Buddha says that one whose mind is concentrated knows and sees things as they are, the proximate cause of wisdom is concentration (Vism. 438; PP.481).
The wisdom instrumental in attaining liberation is divided into two principal types: insight knowledge (vipassananana) and the knowledge pertaining to the supramundane paths (magganana). The first is the direct penetration of the three characteristics of conditioned phenomena -- impermanence, suffering and non-self.[24] It takes as its objective sphere the five aggregates (pancakkhandha) -- material form, feeling perception, mental formations and consciousness. Because insight knowledge takes the world of conditioned formations as its object, it is regarded as a mundane form of wisdom. Insight knowledge does not itself directly eradicate the defilements, but serves to prepare the way for the second type of wisdom, the wisdom of the supramundane paths, which emerges when insight has been brought to its climax. The wisdom of the path, occurring in four distinct stages ( to be discussed below ), simultaneously realizes Nibbana, fathoms the Four Noble Truths, and cuts off the defilements. This wisdom is called "supramundane" because it rises up from the world of the five aggregates to realize the state transcendent to the world, Nibbana.
The Buddhist disciple, striving for deliverance, begins the development of wisdom by first securely establishing its roots -- purified moral discipline and concentration. He then learns and masters the basic material upon which wisdom is to work -- the aggregates, elements, sense bases, dependent arising, the Four Noble Truths, etc. He commences the actual practice of wisdom by cultivating insight into the impermanence, suffering and non-self aspect of the five aggregates. When this insight reaches its apex it issues in supramundane wisdom, the right view factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, which turns from conditioned formations to the unconditioned Nibbana and thereby eradicates the defilements.
The Two Vehicles
The Theravada tradition recognizes two alternative approaches to the development of wisdom, between which practitioners are free to choose according to their aptitude and propensity. These two approaches are the vehicle of serenity (samathayana) and the vehicle of insight (vipassanayana). The meditators who follow them are called, respectively, the samathayanika," one who makes serenity his vehicle," and the vipassanayanika, "one who makes insight his vehicle, " Since both vehicles, despite their names, are approaches to developing insight, to prevent misunderstanding the latter type of meditator is sometimes called a suddhavipassanayanika, "one who makes bare insight his vehicle," or a sukkhavipassaka, "a dry-insight worker."
Though all three terms appear initially in the commentaries rather than in the suttas, the recognition of the two vehicles seems implicit in a number of canonical passages.
The samathayanika is a meditator who first attains access concentration or one of the eight mundane jhanas, then emerges and uses his attainment as a basis for cultivating insight until he arrives at the supramundane path. In contrast, the vipassanayanika does not attain mundane jhana prior to practicing insight contemplation, or if he does, does not use it as an instrument for cultivating insight. Instead, without entering and emerging from jhana, he proceeds directly to insight contemplation on mental and material phenomena and by means of this bare insight he reaches the noble path. For both kinds of meditator the experience of the path in any of its four stages always occurs at a level of jhanic intensity and thus necessarily includes supramundane jhana under the heading of right concentration (samma samadhi), the eighth factor of the Noble Eightfold Path.
The classical source for the distinction between the two vehicles of serenity and insight is the Visuddhimagga where it is explained that when a meditator begins the development of wisdom "if firstly, his vehicle is serenity, [he] should emerge from any fine-material or immaterial jhana except the base consisting of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, and he should discern, according to characteristic, function, etc. the jhana factors consisting of applied thought, etc. and the states associated with them" (Vism. 557; PP679-80). Other commentarial passages allow access concentration to suffice for the vehicle of serenity, but the last immaterial jhana is excluded because its factors are too subtle to be discerned. The meditator whose vehicle is pure insight, on the other hand, is advised to start directly by discerning material and mental phenomena, beginning with the four elements, without utilizing a jhana for this purpose (Vism. 558; PP.680). Thus the samathayanika first attains access concentration or mundane jhana and then develops insight knowledge, by means of which he reaches the supramundane path containing wisdom under the heading of right view, and supramundane jhana under the heading of right concentration. The vipassanayanika, in contrast, skips over mundane jhana and goes directly into insight contemplation. When he reaches the end of the progression of insight knowledge he arrives at the supramundane path which, as in the previous case, brings together wisdom with supramundane jhana. This jhana counts as his accomplishment of serenity.
For a meditator following the vehicle of serenity the attainment of jhana fulfills two functions: first, it produces a basis of mental purity and inner collectedness needed for undertaking the work of insight contemplation; and second, it serves as an object to be examined with insight in order to discern the three characteristics of impermanence, suffering and non-self. Jhana accomplishes the first function by providing a powerful instrument for overcoming the five hindrances. As we have seen, for wisdom to arise the mind must first be concentrated well, and to be concentrated well it must be freed from the hindrances, a task accomplished pre-eminently by the attainment of jhana. Though access concentration will keep the hindrances at bay, jhana will ensure that they are removed to a much safer distance.
In their capacity for producing concentration the jhanas are called the basis (pada) for insight, and that particular jhana a meditator enters and emerges from before commencing his practice of insight is designated his padakajjhana, the basic or foundational jhana. Insight cannot be practiced while absorbed in jhana, since insight meditation requires investigation and observation, which are impossible when the mind is immersed in one-pointed absorption. But after emerging form the jhana the mind is cleared of the hindrances, and the stillness and clarity that then result conduce to precise, penetrating insight.
The jhanas also enter into the samathayanika's practice in second capacity, that is, as objects for scrutinization by insight. The practice of insight consists essentially in the examination of mental and physical phenomena to discover their marks of impermanence, suffering and non-self. The jhanas a meditator attains provide him with a readily available and strikingly clear object in which to seek out the three characteristics. After emerging from a jhana the meditator will proceed to examine the jhanic consciousness and to discern the way it exemplifies the three universal marks. This process is called sammasananana, "comprehension knowledge," and the jhana subject to such treatment is termed sammasitajjhana, "the comprehended jhana" (Vism. 607-11; PP.706-10). Though the basic jhana and the comprehended jhana will often be the same, the two do not necessarily coincide. A meditator cannot practice comprehension on a jhana higher than he is capable of attaining, but one who uses a higher jhana as his padakajjhana can still practice insight comprehension on a lower jhana which he has previously attained and mastered. The admitted difference between the padakajjhana and the sammasitajjhana leads to discrepant theories about the supramundane concentration of the noble path, as we will see.
Whereas the sequence of training undertaken by the samathayanika meditator is unproblematic, the vipassanayanika's approach presents the difficulty of accounting for the concentration he uses to provide a basis for insight. Concentration is needed in order to see and know things as they are, but without access concentration or jhana, what concentration can he use? The solution to this problem is found in a type of concentration distinct from the access and absorption concentrations pertaining to the vehicle of serenity, called "momentary concentration" (khanika samadhi). Despite its name, momentary concentration does not signify a single moment of concentration amidst a current of distracted thoughts, but a dynamic concentration which flows from object to object in the ever-changing flux of phenomena, retaining a constant degree of intensity and collectedness sufficient to purify the mind of the hindrances. Momentary concentration arises in the samathayanika simultaneously with his post-jhanic attainment of insight, but for the vipassanayanika it develops naturally and spontaneously in the course of his insight practice without his having to fix the mind upon a single exclusive object. Thus the follower of the vehicle of insight does not omit concentration altogether from his training, but develops it in a different manner from the practitioner of serenity. Without gaining jhana he goes directly into contemplation on the five aggregates and by observing them constantly from moment to moment acquires momentary concentration as an accompaniment of his investigations. This momentary concentration fulfills the same function as the basic jhana of the serenity vehicle, providing the foundation of mental clarity needed for insight to emerge.
Supramundane Jhana
The climax in the development of insight is the attainment of the supramundane paths and fruits. Each path is a momentary peak experience directly apprehending Nibbana and permanently cutting off certain defilements. These defilements are generally grouped into a set of ten "fetters" (samyojana) which keep beings chained to the round of rebirths. The first path, called the path of stream-entry (sota patti) because it marks the entry into the stream of the Dhamma, eradicates the first three fetters -- The false view of self, doubt, and clinging to rites and rituals. The disciple who has reached stream-entry has limited his future births to a maximum of seven in the happy realms of the human and heavenly worlds, after which he will attain final deliverance. But an ardent disciple may progress to still higher stages in the same life in which he reaches stream-entry, by making an aspiration for the next higher path and again undertaking the development of insight with the aim of reaching that path.
The next supramundane path is that of the once-returner (sakadagami). This path does not eradicate any fetters completely, but it greatly attenuates sensual desire and ill will. The once-returner is so called because he is bound to make an end of suffering after returning to this world only one more time. The third path, that of the non-returner (anagami) utterly destroys the sensual desire and ill will weakened by the preceding path. The non-returner is assured that he will never again take rebirth in the sense-sphere; if he does not penetrate higher he will be reborn spontaneously in the Pure Abodes and there reach final Nibbana. The highest path, the path of arahatship, eradicate the remaining five fetters -- desire for existence in the fine-material and immaterial spheres, conceit, restlessness and ignorance. The arahat has completed the development of the entire path taught by the Buddha; he has reached the end of rebirths and can sound his "lion's roar": "Destroyed is birth, the holy life has been lived, what was to be done has been done, there is nothing further beyond this."
Each path is followed immediately by the supramundane experience of fruition, which results from the path, comes in the same four graded stages, and shares the path's world-transcending character. But whereas the path performs the active function of cutting off defilements, fruition simply enjoys the bliss and peace that result when the path has completed its task. Also, where the path is limited to a single moment of consciousness, the fruition that follows immediately on the path endures for two or three moments. And while each of the four paths occurs only once and can never be repeated, fruition remains accessible to the noble disciple at he appropriate level. He can resort to it as a special meditative state called fruition attainment (phalasamapatti) for the purpose of experiencing nibbanic bliss here and now (Vism. 699-702; PP.819-24).
The supramundane paths and fruits always arise as states of jhanic consciousness. They occur as states of jhana because they contain within themselves the jhana factors elevated to an intensity corresponding to that of the jhana factors in the mundane jhanas. Since they possess the jhana factors these states are able to fix upon their object with the force of full absorption. Thence, taking the absorptive force of the jhana factors as the criterion, the paths and fruits may be reckoned as belonging to either the first, second, third or fourth jhana of the fourfold scheme, or to the first, second, third, fourth or fifth jhana of the fivefold scheme.
The basis for the recognition of a supramundane type of jhana goes back to the suttas, especially to the section of "The Great Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness" where the Buddha defines right concentration of the Noble Eightfold Path by the standard formula for the four jhanas (D.ii,313). However, it is in the Abhidhamma that the connection between the jhanas, paths and fruits comes to be worked out with great intricacy of detail. The Dhammasangani, in its section on states of consciousness, expounds each of the path and fruition states of consciousness as occasions, first, of one or another of the four jhanas in the fourfold scheme, and then again as occasions of one or another of the five jhanas in the fivefold scheme (Dhs.74-86). Standard Abhidhammic exposition, as formalized in the synoptical manuals of Abhidhamma, employs the fivefold scheme and brings each of the paths and fruits into connection with each of the five jhanas. In this way the eight types of supramundane consciousness -- the path and fruition consciousness of stream-entry, the once-returner, the non-returner and arahatship -- proliferate to forty types of supramundane consciousness, since any path or fruit can occur at the level of any of the five jhanas. It should be noted, however, that there are no paths and fruits conjoined with the immaterial attainments, the reason being that supramundane jhana is presented solely from the standpoint of its factorial constitution, which for the immaterial attainment and the fifth jhana is identical -- equanimity and one-pointedness.
The fullest treatment of the supramundane jhanas in the authoritative Pali literature can be found in the Dhammasangani read in conjunction with its commentary, the Atthasalini. The Dhammasangani opens its analysis of the first wholesome supramundane consciousness with the words:
- On the occasion when one develops supramundane jhana which is emancipating, leading to the demolition (of existence), for the abandonment of views, for reaching the first plane, secluded from sense pleasures ... one enters and dwells in the first jhana. (Dhs. 72)
The Atthasalini explains the word lokuttara, which we have been translating "supramundane," as meaning "it crosses over the world, it transcends the world, it stands having surmounted and overcome the world." It glosses the phrase "one develops jhana" thus: "One develops, produces, cultivates absorption jhana lasting for a single thought-moment." This gloss shows us two things about the consciousness of the path: that it occurs as a jhana at the level of full absorption and that this absorption of the path lasts for only a single thought-moment. The word "emancipating" (niyyanika) is explained to mean that this jhana "goes out" from the world, from the round of existence, the phrase "leading to demolition" (apacayagami) that it demolishes and dismantles the process of rebirth (Dhs.A.259).
This last phrase points to a striking difference between mundane and supramundane jhana. The Dhammasangani's exposition of the former begins: "On the occasion when one develops the path for rebirth in the fine-material sphere ... one enters and dwells in the first jhana" [my italics]. Thus, with this statement, mundane jhana is shown to sustain the round of rebirths; it is a wholesome kamma leading to renewed existence. But the supramundane jhana of the path does not promote the continuation of the round. To the contrary, it brings about the round's dismantling and demolition, as the Atthasalini shows with an illustrative simile:
The wholesome states of the three planes are said to lead to accumulation because they build up and increase death and rebirth in the round. But not this. Just as when one man has built up a wall eighteen feet high another might take a club and go along demolishing it, so this goes along demolishing and dismantling the deaths and rebirths built up by the wholesome kammas of the three planes by bringing about a deficiency in their conditions. Thus it leads to demolition.[25]
Supramundane jhana is said to be cultivated "for the abandoning of views." This phrase points to the function of the first path, which is to eradicate the fetters. The supramundane jhana of the first path cuts off the fetter of personality view and all speculative views derived from it. The Atthasalini points out that here we should understand that it abandons not only wrong views but other unwholesome states as well, namely, doubt, clinging to rites and rituals, and greed, hatred and delusion strong enough to lead to the plane of misery. The commentary explicates "for reaching the first plane" as meaning for attaining the fruit of stream-entry.
Besides these, several other differences between mundane and supramundane jhana may be briefly noted. First, with regard to their object, the mundane jhanas have as object a conceptual entity such as the counterpart sign of the kasinas or, in the case of the divine abodes, sentient beings. In contrast, for the supramundane jhana of the paths and fruits the object is exclusively Nibbana. With regard to their predominant tone, in mundane jhana the element of serenity prevails, while the supramundane jhana of the paths and fruits brings serenity and insight into balance. Wisdom is present as right view and serenity as right concentration, both function together in perfect harmony, neither one exceeding the other.
This difference in prevailing tone leads into a difference in function or activity between the two kinds of jhana. Both the mundane and supramundane are jhanas in the sense of closely attending (upanijjhana), but in the case of mundane jhana this close attention issues merely in absorption into the object, an absorption that can only suppress the defilement temporarily. In the supramundane jhana, particularly of the four paths, the coupling of close attention with wisdom brings the exercise of four functions at a single moment. These four functions each apply to one of the Four Noble Truths. The path penetrates the First Noble Truth by fully understanding suffering; it penetrates the Second Noble Truth by abandoning craving, the origin of suffering; it penetrates the Third Noble Truth by realizing Nibbana, the cessation of suffering; and it penetrates the fourth Noble Truth by developing the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to the end of suffering. Buddhaghosa illustrates this with the simile of a lamp, which also performs four tasks simultaneously: it burns the wick, dispels darkness, makes light appear, and consumes oil (Vism.690; PP.808).
The Jhanic Level of the Path and Fruit
When the paths and fruits are assigned to the level of the four or five jhanas, the question arises as to what factor determines their particular level of jhanic intensity. In other words, why do the path and fruit arise for one meditator at the level of the first jhana, for another at the level of the second jhana, and so forth? The commentaries present three theories concerning the determination of the jhanic level of the path, apparently deriving from the lineages of ancient teachers (Vism. 666-67; PP.778-80. Dhs.A.271-74). The first holds that it is the basic jhana, i.e. the jhana used as a basis for the insight leading to emergence in immediate proximity to the path, that governs the difference in the jhanic level of the path. A second theory says that the difference is governed by the aggregates made the objects of insight on the occasion of insight leading to emergence. A third theory holds that it is the personal inclination of the meditator that governs the difference.
According to the first theory the path arisen in a dry-insight meditator who lacks jhana, and the path arisen in one who possesses a jhana attainment but does not use it as a basis for insight, and the path arisen by comprehending formations after emerging from the first jhana, are all paths of the first jhana only. When the path is produced after emerging from the second, third, fourth and fifth jhanas (of the fivefold system) and using these as the basis for insight, then the path pertains to the level of the jhana used as a basis -- the second, third, fourth of fifth. For a meditator using an immaterial jhana as basis the path will be a fifth jhana path. Thus in this first theory, when formations are comprehended by insight after emerging from a basic jhana, then it is the jhana attainment emerged from at the point nearest to the path, i.e. just before insight leading to emergence is reached, that makes the path similar in nature to itself.
According to the second theory the path that arises is similar in nature to the states which are being comprehended with insight at the time insight leading to emergence occurs. Thus if the meditator, after emerging from a meditative attainment, is comprehending with insight sense-sphere phenomena or the constituents of the first jhana, then the path produced will occur at the level of the first jhana. On this theory, then, it is the comprehended jhana (sammasitajjhana) that determines the jhanic quality of the path. The one qualification that must be added is that a meditator cannot contemplate with insight a jhana higher than he is capable of attaining.
According to the third theory, the path occurs at the level of whichever jhana the meditator wishes -- either at the level of the jhana he has used as the basis for insight or at the level of the jhana he has made the object of insight comprehension. In other words, the jhanic quality of the path accords with his personal inclination. However, mere wish alone is not sufficient. For the path to occur at the jhanic level wished for, the mundane jhana must have been either made the basis for insight or used as the object of insight comprehension.
The difference between the three theories can be understood through a simple example.[26] If a meditator reaches the supramundane path by contemplating with insight the first jhana after emerging from the fifth jhana, then according to the first theory his path will belong to the fifth jhana, while according to the second theory it will belong to the first jhana. Thus these two theories are incompatible when a difference obtains between basic jhana and comprehended jhana. But according to the third theory, the path becomes of whichever jhana the meditator wishes, either the first or the fifth. Thus this doctrine does not necessarily clash with the other two.
Buddhaghosa himself does not make a decision among these three theories. He only points out that in all three doctrines, beneath their disagreements, there is the recognition that the insight immediately preceding the supramundane path determines the jhanic character of the path. For this insight is the proximate and the principal cause for the arising of the path, so whether it be the insight leading to emergence near the basic jhana or that occurring through the contemplated jhana or that fixed by the meditator's wish, it is in all cases this final phase of insight that gives definition to the supramundane path. Since the fruition that occurs immediately after the path has an identical constitution to the path, its own supramundane jhana is determined by the path. Thus a first jhana path produces a first jhana fruit, and so forth for the remaining jhanas.
Chapter 6
Jhana and The Noble Disciples
All noble persons, as we saw, acquire supramundane jhana along with their attainment of the noble paths and fruits. The noble ones at each of the four stages of liberation, moreover, have access to the supramundane jhana of their respective fruition attainments, from the fruition attainment of stream-entry up to the fruition attainments of arahatship. It remains problematic, however to what extent they also enjoy the possession of mundane jhana. To determine an answer to this question we will consult an early typology of seven types of noble disciples, which provides a more psychologically oriented way of classifying the eight noble individuals. A look at the explanation of these seven types will enable us to see the range of jhanic attainment reached by the noble disciples. On this basis we will proceed to assess the place of mundane jhana in the early Buddhist picture of the arahat, the perfected individual.
Seven Types of Disciples
The sevenfold typology is originally found in the Kitagiri Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya (M.i,477-79) and is reformulated in the Puggalapannatti of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. This typology classifies the noble persons on the paths and fruits into seven types:
- 1. the faith-devotee (saddhanusari),
- 2. the one liberated by faith (saddhavimutta),
- 3. the body-witness (kayasakkhi),
- 4. the one liberated in both ways (ubhatobhagavimutta),
- 5. the truth-devotee ( dhammanusari),
- 6. the one attained to understanding (ditthipatta), and
- 7. the one liberated by wisdom (pannavimutta).
The seven types may be divided into three general groups, each defined by the predominance of a particular spiritual faculty, The first two types are governed by a predominance of faith, the middle two by a predominance of concentration, and the last three by a predominance of wisdom. To this division, however, certain qualifications will have to made as we go along.
1. The faith-devotee is explained the sutta thus:
- Herein, monks, some person has not reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form: nor after seeing with wisdom, have his cankers been destroyed.[27] But he has a certain degree of faith in the Tathagata, a certain degree of devotion to him, and he has these qualities -- the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. This person, monks, is called a faith-devotee. (M.i,479)
The Puggalapannatti (p 182) defines the faith-devotee from a different angle as a disciple practicing for the fruit of stream-entry in whom the faculty of faith is predominant and who develops the noble path led by faith. It adds that when he is established in the fruit he becomes one liberated by faith. Although the sutta excluded the "peaceful immaterial attainments," i.e. the four immaterial jhana, from the faith-devotee's equipment, this implies nothing with regard to his achievement of the four lower mundane jhanas. It would seem that the faith-devotee can have previously attained any of the four fine-material jhanas before reaching the path, and can also be a dry-insight worker bereft of mundane jhana.
2. The one liberated by faith is strictly and literally defined as a noble disciple at the six intermediate levels, from the fruit of stream-entry through to the path of arahatship, who lacks the immaterial jhanas and has a predominance of the faith faculty.
The Buddha explains the one liberated by faith as follows:
- Herein, monks, some person has not reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form; but having seen with wisdom, some of his cankers have been destroyed, and his faith in the Tathagata is settled, deeply rooted, well established. This person, monks, is called one liberated by faith. (M.i,478)
As in the case of the faith-devotee, the one liberated by faith, while lacking the immaterial jhanas, may still be an obtainer of the four mundane jhanas as well as a dry insight worker.
The Puggalapnnatti states (pp.184-85) that the person liberated by faith is one who understands the Four Noble Truths, has seen and verified by means of wisdom the teachings proclaimed by the Tathagata, and having seen with wisdom has eliminated some of his cankers. However, he has not done so as easily as the ditthipatta, the person attained to understanding, whose progress is easier due to his superior wisdom. The fact that the one liberated by faith has destroyed only some of this cankers implies that he has advanced beyond the first path but not yet reached the final fruit, the fruit of arahatship.[28]
3. The body-witness is a noble disciple at the six intermediate levels, from the fruit of stream-entry to the path of arahatship, who has a predominance of the faculty of concentration and can obtain the immaterial jhanas. The sutta explanation reads:
- And what person, monks is a body-witness? Herein, monks, some person has reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form, and having seen with wisdom, some of his cankers having been destroyed. This person, monks, is called a body-witness. (M.i,478)
The Puggalapannatti (p. 184) offers a slight variation in this phrasing, substituting "the eight deliverances" (atthavimokkha) for the sutta's "peaceful immaterial deliverances" (santa vimokkha aruppa). These eight deliverances consist of three meditative attainments pertaining to the fine-material sphere (inclusive of all four lower jhanas), the four immaterial jhanas, and the cessation of perception and feeling (sannavedayitanirodha) -- the last a special attainment accessible only to those non-returners and arahats who have also mastered the eight jhanas.[29] The statement of the Puggalapannatti does not mean either that the achievement of all eight deliverances is necessary to become a body-witness or that the achievement of the three lower deliverances is sufficient. What is both requisite and sufficient to qualify as a body-witness is the partial destruction of defilements coupled with the attainment of at least the lowest immaterial jhana. Thus the body witness becomes fivefold by way of those who obtain any of the four immaterial jhanas and the one who also obtains the cessation of perception and feeling.
4. One who is liberated in both ways is an arahat who has completely destroyed the defilements and possesses the immaterial attainments. The commentaries explain the name "liberated in both ways" as meaning "through the immaterial attainment he is liberated from the material body and through the path (of arahatship) he is liberated from the mental body" (MA.ii,131). The sutta defines this type of disciple thus:
- And what person, monks, is liberated in both ways? Herein, monks, someone has reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form, and having seen with wisdom, his cankers are destroyed. This person, monks, is called liberated in both ways. (M.i,477)
The Puggalapannatti (p.184) gives basically the same formula but replaces "immaterial deliverances" with "the eight deliverances." The same principle of interpretation that applied to the body-witness applies here: the attainment of any immaterial jhana, even the lowest, is sufficient to qualify a person as both-ways liberated. As the commentary to the Visuddhimagga says: "One who has attained arahatship after gaining even one [[[Wikipedia:immaterial|immaterial]] jhana) is liberated both ways" (Vism.T.ii,466). This type becomes fivefold by way of those who attain arahatship after emerging from one or another of the four immaterial jhanas and the one who attains arahatship after emerging from the attainment of cessation (MA:iii,131).
5. The truth-devotee is a disciple on the first path in whom the faculty of wisdom is predominant. The Buddha explains the truth-devotee as follows:
- Herein, monks, some person has not reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form; nor, after seeing with wisdom, have his cankers been destroyed. But the teachings proclaimed by the Tathagata are accepted by him through mere reflection, and he has these qualities -- the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. This person, monks, is called a truth-devotee. (M.i,479)
The Puggalapannatti (p.185) defines the truth-devotee as one practicing for realization of the fruit of stream-entry in whom the faculty of wisdom is predominant, and who develops the path led by wisdom. It adds that when a truth-devotee is established in the fruit of stream-entry he becomes one attained to understanding, the sixth type. The sutta and Abhidhamma again differ as to emphasis, the one stressing lack of the immaterial jhanas, the other the ariyan stature. Presumably, he may have any of the four fine-material jhanas or be a bare-insight practitioner without any mundane jhana.
6. The one attained to understanding is a noble disciple at the six intermediate levels who lacks the immaterial jhanas and has a predominance of the wisdom faculty. The Buddha explains:
- And what person, monks, is the one attained to understanding? Herein, monks someone has not reached with his own mental body those peaceful immaterial deliverances transcending material form, but having seen with wisdom some of his cankers are destroyed, and the teachings proclaimed by the Tathagata have been seen and verified by him with wisdom. This person, monks, is called the one attained to understanding. (M.i,478)
The Puggalapannatti (p.185) defines the one attained to understanding as a person who understands the Four Noble Truths, has seen and verified by means of wisdom the teachings proclaimed by the Tathagata, and having seen with wisdom has eliminated some of his cankers. He is thus the "wisdom counterpart" of the one liberated by faith, but progresses more easily than the latter by virtue of his sharper wisdom. Like his counterpart, he may possess any of the four mundane jhanas or may be a dry-insight worker.
7. The one liberated by wisdom is an arahat who does not obtain the immaterial attainments. In the words of the sutta:
- And what person, monks, is the one liberated by wisdom? Herein, monks, someone has not reached with his own (mental) body those peaceful material deliverances transcending material form, but having seen with wisdom his cankers are destroyed. This person, monks, is called one liberated by wisdom. (M.i,477-78)
The Puggalapannatti's definition (p.185) merely replaces "immaterial deliverance" with "the eight deliverances." Though such arahats do not reach the immaterial jhanas it is quite possible for them to attain the lower jhanas. The sutta commentary in fact states that the one liberated by wisdom is fivefold by way of the dry-insight worker and the four who attain arahatship after emerging from the four jhanas.
It should be noted that the one liberated by wisdom is contrasted not with the one liberated by faith, but with the one liberated in both ways. The issue that divides the two types of arahat is the lack or possession of the four immaterial jhanas and the attainment of cessation. The person liberated by faith is found at the six intermediate levels of sanctity, not at the level of arahatship. When he obtains arahatship, lacking the immaterial jhanas, he becomes one liberated by wisdom even though faith rather that wisdom is his predominant faculty. Similarly, a meditator with predominance of concentration who possesses the immaterial attainments will still be liberated in both ways even if wisdom rather than concentration claims first place among his spiritual endowments, as was the case with the venerable Sariputta.
Jhana and the Arahat
From the standpoint of their spiritual stature the seven types of noble persons can be divided into three categories. The first, which includes the faith-devotee and the truth-devotee, consists of those on the path of stream-entry, the first of the eight noble individuals. The second category, comprising the one liberated by faith, the body-witness and the one attained to understanding, consists of those on the six intermediate levels, from the stream-enterer to one on the path of arahatship. The third category, comprising the one liberated in both ways and the one liberated by wisdom, consists only of arahats.[30]
The ubhatobhagavimutta, "one liberated in both ways," and the pannavimutta "one liberated by wisdom," thus form the terms of a twofold typology of arahats distinguished on the basis of their accomplishment in jhana. The ubhatobhagavimutta arahat experiences in his own person the "peaceful deliverances" of the immaterial sphere, the pannavimutta arahat lacks this full experience of the immaterial jhanas. Each of these two types, according to the commentaries, again becomes fivefold -- the ubhatobhagavimutta by way of those who possess the ascending four immaterial jhanas and the attainment of cessation, the pannavimutta by way of those who reach arahatship after emerging from on of the four fine-material jhanas and the dry-insight mediator whose insight lacks the support of mundane jhana.
The possibility of attaining the supramundane path without possession of a mundane jhana has been questioned by some Theravada scholars, but the Visuddhimagga clearly admits this possibility when it distinguishes between the path arisen in a dry-insight mediator and the path arisen in one who possesses a jhana but does not use it as a basis for insight (Vism.666-67; PP.779). Textual evidence that there can be arahats lacking mundane jhana is provided by the Susima Sutta (S.ii, 199-23) together with is commentaries. When the monks in the sutta are asked how they can be arahats without possessing supernormal powers of the immaterial attainments, they reply: "We are liberated by wisdom" (pannavimutta kho mayam). The commentary glosses this reply thus: "We are contemplatives, dry-insight meditators, liberated by wisdom alone" (Mayam nijjhanaka sukkhavipassaka pannamatten'eva vimutta ti, SA.ii,117). The commentary also states that the Buddha gave his long disquisition on insight in the sutta "to show the arising of knowledge even without concentration" (vina pi samadhimevam nanuppattidassanattham, SA.ii,117). The subcommentary establishes the point by explaining "even without concentration" to mean "even without concentration previously accomplished reaching the mark of serenity" (samathalakkhanappattam purimasiddhamvina pi samadhin ti), adding that this is said in reference to one who makes insight his vehicle (ST.ii,125).
In contrast to the pannavimutta arahats, those arahats who are ubhatobhagavimutta enjoy a twofold liberation. Through their mastery over the formless attainments they are liberated from the material body (rupakaya), capable of dwelling in the very life in the meditations corresponding to the immaterial planes of existence; through their attainment of arahatship they are liberated from the mental body (namakaya), presently free from all defilements and sure of final emancipation from future becoming. Pannavimutta arahats only possess the second of these two liberations.
The double liberation of the ubhatobhagavimutta arahat should not be confused with another double liberation frequently mentioned in the suttas in connection with arahatship. This second pair of liberations, called cetovimutti pannavimutti, "liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom," is shared by all arahats. It appears in the stock passage descriptive of arahatship: "With the destruction of the cankers he here and now enters and dwells in the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, having realized it for himself with direct knowledge." That this twofold liberation belongs to pannavimutta arahats as well as those who are ubhatobhagavimutta is made clear by the Putta Sutta, where the stock passage is used for two types of arahats called the "white lotus recluse" and the "red lotus recluse":
- How, monks, is a person a white lotus recluse (samanapundarika)? Here, monks, with the destruction of the cankers a monk here and now enters and dwells in the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, having realized it for himself with direct knowledge. Yet he does not dwell experiencing the eight deliverances with his body. Thus, monks, a person is a white lotus recluse.
- And how, monks, is a person a red lotus recluse (samanapaduma)? Here, monks, with the destruction of the cankers a monk here and now enters and dwells in the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, having realized it for himself with direct knowledge. And he dwells experiencing the eight deliverances with his body. Thus, monks, a person is a red lotus recluse. (A.ii,87)
Since the description of these two types coincides with that of pannavimutta and ubhatobhagavimutta the two pairs may be identified, the white lotus recluse with the pannavimutta, the red lotus recluse with the ubhatobhagavimutta. Yet the pannavimutta arahat, while lacking the experience of the eight deliverances, still has both liberation of mind and liberation by wisdom.
When liberation of mind and liberation by wisdom are joined together and described as "cankerless" (anasava), they can be taken to indicate two aspects of the arahat's deliverance. Liberation of mind signifies the release of his mind from craving and its associated defilements, liberation by wisdom the release from ignorance: "With the fading away of lust there is liberation of mind, with the fading away of ignorance there is liberation by wisdom" (A.i,61). "As he sees and understands thus his mind is liberated from the canker of sensual desire, from the canker of existence from the canker of ignorance" (M.i,183-84) -- here release from the first two cankers can be understood as liberation of mind, release from the canker of ignorance as liberation by wisdom. In the commentaries "liberation of mind" is identified with the concentration factor in the fruition attainment of arahatship, "liberation by wisdom" with the wisdom factor.
Since every arahat reaches arahatship through the Noble Eightfold Path, he must have attained supramundane jhana in the form of right concentration, the eighth factor of the path, defined as the four jhanas. This jhana remains with him as the concentration of the fruition attainment of arahatship, which occurs at the level of supramundane jhana corresponding to that of his path. Thus he always stands in possession of at least the supramundane jhana of fruition, called the "cankerless liberation of mind." However, this consideration does not reflect back on his mundane attainments, requiring that every arahat possess mundane jhana.
Although early Buddhism acknowledges the possibility of a dry-visioned arahatship, the attitude prevails that jhanas are still desirable attributes in an arahat. They are of value not only prior to final attainment, as a foundation for insight, but retain their value even afterwards. The value of jhana in the stage of arahatship, when all spiritual training has been completed, is twofold. One concern the arahat's inner experience, the other his outer significance as a representative of the Buddha's dispensation.
On the side of inner experience the jhanas are valued as providing the arahat with a "blissful dwelling here and now" (ditthadhammasukhavihara). The suttas often show arahats attaining to jhana and the Buddha himself declares the four jhanas to be figuratively a kind of Nibbana in this present life (A.iv.453-54). With respect to levels and factors there is no difference between the mundane jhanas of an arahat and those of a non-arahat. The difference concerns their function. For non-arahats the mundane jhanas constitute wholesome kamma; they are deeds with a potential to produce results, to precipitate rebirth in a corresponding realm of existence. But in the case of an arahat mundane jhana no longer generates kamma. Since he has eradicated ignorance and craving, the roots of kamma, his actions leave no residue; they have no capacity to generate results. For him the jhanic consciousness is a mere functional consciousness which comes and goes and once gone disappears without a trace.
The value of the jhanas, however, extends beyond the confines of the arahat's personal experience to testify to the spiritual efficacy of the Buddha's dispensation. The jhanas are regarded as ornamentations of the arahat, testimonies to the accomplishment of the spiritually perfect person and the effectiveness of the teaching he follows. A worthy monk is able to "gain at will without trouble or difficulty, the four jhanas pertaining to the higher consciousness, blissful dwellings here and now." This ability to gain the jhanas at will is a " quality that makes a monk an elder." When accompanied by several other spiritual accomplishments it is an essential quality of "a recluse who graces recluses" and of a monk who can move unobstructed in the four directions. Having ready access to the four jhanas makes an elder dear and agreeable, respected and esteemed by his fellow monks. Facility in gaining the jhanas is one of the eight qualities of a completely inspiring monk (samantapasadika bhikkhu) perfect in all respects; it is also one of the eleven foundations of faith (saddha pada). It is significant that in all these lists of qualities the last item is always the attainment of arahatship, "the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom," showing that all desirable qualities in a bhikkhu culminate in arahatship.[31]
The higher the degree of his mastery over the meditative attainments, the higher the esteem in which an arahat monk is held and the more praiseworthy his achievement is considered. Thus the Buddha says of the ubhatobhagavimutta arahat: "There is no liberation in both ways higher and more excellent than this liberation in both ways"(D.ii,71).
The highest respect goes to those monks who possess not only liberation in both ways but the six abhinnas or "super-knowledges": the exercise of psychic powers, the divine ear, the ability to read the minds of others, the recollection of past lives, knowledge of the death and rebirth of beings, and knowledge of final liberation. The Buddha declares that a monk endowed with the six abhinnas, is worthy of gifts and hospitality, worthy of offerings and reverential salutations, a supreme field of merit for the world (A.iii,280-81). In the period after the Buddha's demise, what qualified a monk to give guidance to others was endowment with ten qualities: moral virtue, learning, contentment, mastery over the four jhanas, the five mundane abhinnas and attainment of the cankerless liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom (M.iii,11-12). Perhaps it was because he was extolled by the Buddha for his facility in the meditative attainments and the abhinnas that the venerable Mahakassapa assumed the presidency of the first great Buddhist council held in Rajagaha after the Buddha's passing away.
The graduation in the veneration given to arahats on the basis of their mundane spiritual achievements implies something about the value system of early Buddhism that is not often recognized. It suggests that while final liberation may be the ultimate and most important value, it is not the sole value even in the spiritual domain. Alongside it, as embellishments rather than alternatives, stand mastery over the range of the mind and mastery over the sphere of the knowable. The first is accomplished by the attainment of the eight mundane jhanas, the second by the attainment of the abhinnas. Together, final liberation adorned with this twofold mastery is esteemed as the highest and most desirable way of actualizing the ultimate goal.
Footnotes
- ↑ See for example, the Samannaphala Sutta (D. 2), the Culahatthipadopama Sutta (M. 27),etc.
- ↑ Kamacchanda, byapada, thinamiddha, uddhaccakukkucca, vicikiccha.
- ↑ Vitakka, vicara, piti, sukha, ekaggata.
- ↑ Akasanancayatana, vinnanancayatana, akincannayatana, nevasannanasannayatana.
- ↑ See Narada, A Manual of Abhidhamma. 4th ed. (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1980), pp.389, 395-96
- ↑ A full description of the fourfold purification of morality will be found in the Visuddhimagga, Chapter 1.
- ↑ The following discussion is based on Vism.110-115; PP.112-118.
- ↑ Buddhaghosa ascribes the passage he cites in support of the correspondence to the "Petaka," but it cannot be traced anywhere in the present Tipitaka, nor in the exegetical work named Petakopadesa.
- ↑ The other two types of abandoning are by substitution of opposites (tadangappahana), which means the replacement of unwholesome states by wholesome ones specifically opposed to them, and abandoning by eradication (samucchedappahana), the final destruction of defilements by the supramundane paths. See Vism.693-96;PP.812-16.
- ↑ Adapted from Nyanaponika Thera, The Five Mental Hindrances and Their Conquest (Wheel No. 26). This booklet contains a full compilation of texts on the hindrances.
- ↑ Ven Nanamoli, in his translation of the Visuddhimagga, renders piti by "happiness," but this rendering can be misleading since most translators use "happiness" as a rendering for sukha, the pleasurable feeling present in the jhana. We will render piti by "rapture," thus maintaining the connection of the term with ecstatic meditative experience.
- ↑ Shwe Zan Aung, Compendium of Philosophy (London: Pali Text Society, 1960), p243.
- ↑ Khuddhikapiti, khanikapiti, okkantikapiti, ubbega piti and pharana piti. Vism 143-44; PP. 149-51. Dhs.A.158.
- ↑ Dhs.A.160-61. Translation by Maung Tin, The Expositor (Atthasalini) (London: Pali Text Society, 1921), i.155-56.
- ↑ The following is based on Vism. 126-35; PP.132-40
- ↑ Avajjanavasi, samapajjanavasi, adhitthanavasi, vutthanavasi, paccavekkhanavasi. For a discussion see Vism. 154-55; PP.160-61. The canonical source for the five masteries is the Patisambhidamagga, i.100.
- ↑ Based on the distinction between applied and sustained thought, the Abhidhamma presents a fivefold division of the jhanas obtained by recognizing the sequential rather than simultaneous elimination of the two kinds of thought. On this account a meditator of duller faculties eliminates applied thought first and attains a second jhana with four factors including sustained thought, and a third jhana identical with the second jhana of the fourfold scheme. In contrast a meditator of sharp faculties comprehends quickly the defects of both applied and sustained thought and so eliminates them both at once.
- ↑ Akasanancayatana, vinnanancayatana, akincannayatana, nevasannana sannayatana
- ↑ Brahmaparisajja brahmapurohita, maha brahma.
- ↑ Paritabha, appamanabha, abhassara.
- ↑ Parittasubha, appamanasubha, subhakinha.
- ↑ Vehapphala, asannasatta, suddhavasa.
- ↑ A good summary of Buddhist cosmology and of the connection between kamma and planes of rebirth can be found in Narada, A Manual of Abhidhamma. pp.233-55.
- ↑ Anicca, dukkha, anatta
- ↑ Dhs.A.259.See Expositor, ii.289-90.
- ↑ Dhs.A.274. See Expositor, ii.310.
- ↑ The cankers (asava) are four powerful defilements that sustain samsara; sensual desire, desire for existence, wrong views and ignorance.
- ↑ The Visuddhimagga, however says that arahats in whom faith is predominant can also be called "liberated by faith" (Vism.659; PP.770). Its commentary points out that this statement is intended only figuratively, in the sense that those arahats reach their goal after having been liberated by faith in the intermediate stages. Literally, they would be "liberated by wisdom". (Vism.T.ii,468)
- ↑ The first three emancipations are: one possessing material form sees material forms; one not perceiving material forms internally sees material forms externally; and one is released upon the idea of the beautiful. They are understood to be variations on the jhanas attained with color kasinas. For the attainment of cessation, see PP.824-833.
- ↑ It should be noted that the Kitagiri Sutta makes not provision in its typology for a disciple on the first path who gains the immaterial jhanas. Vism.T.(ii,466) holds that he would have to be considered either a faith-devotee or a truth-devotee, and at the final fruition would be one liberated in both ways.
- ↑ The references are to: A,ii,23;iii,131,135,114;iv,314-15; v,337.