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Difference between revisions of "Mahisasaka"

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'''[[Mahīśāsaka]]''' (Sanskrit; traditional Chinese: [[化地部]]; pinyin: [[Huàdì Bù]]) is one of the [[early Buddhist schools]] according to some records. Its origins may go back to the dispute in the [[Second Buddhist Council]]. The [[Dharmaguptaka]] sect is thought to have branched out from Mahīśāsaka sect toward the end of the 2nd or the beginning of the 1st century BCE.
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'''[[Mahīśāsaka]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]; {{Wiki|traditional Chinese}}: [[化地部]]; pinyin: [[Huàdì Bù]]) is one of the [[early Buddhist schools]] according to some records. Its origins may go back to the dispute in the [[Second Buddhist Council]]. The [[Dharmaguptaka]] [[sect]] is [[thought]] to have branched out from [[Mahīśāsaka sect]] toward the end of the 2nd or the beginning of the 1st century BCE.
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
  
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There are two general accounts of the circumstances surrounding the origins of the Mahīśāsakas. The [[Theravada|Theravādin]] ''[[Dipavamsa]]'' asserts that the Mahīśāsaka sect gave rise to the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] sect.<ref>{{Nolinking|Baruah, Bibhuti. ''Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism.'' 2008. p. 50}}</ref> However, both the ''[[Śāriputraparipṛcchā]]'' and the ''[[Samayabhedoparacanacakra]]'' record that the [[Sarvāstivādins]] were the older sect out of which the [[Mahīśāsakas]] emerged.<ref>{{Nolinking|Baruah, Bibhuti. ''Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism.'' 2008. p. 50}}</ref>
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There are two general accounts of the circumstances surrounding the origins of the [[Mahīśāsakas]]. The [[Theravada|Theravādin]] ''[[Dipavamsa]]'' asserts that the [[Mahīśāsaka sect]] gave rise to the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] [[sect]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Baruah, Bibhuti. ''Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism.'' 2008. p. 50}}</ref> However, both the ''[[Śāriputraparipṛcchā]]'' and the ''[[Samayabhedoparacanacakra]]'' record that the [[Sarvāstivādins]] were the older [[sect]] out of which the [[Mahīśāsakas]] emerged.<ref>{{Nolinking|Baruah, Bibhuti. ''Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism.'' 2008. p. 50}}</ref>
  
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The Mahīśāsaka sect is thought to have first originated in the [[Wikipedia:Avanti (India)|Avanti]] region of India. Their founder was a monk named Purāṇa, who is venerated at length in the Mahīśāsaka vinaya, which is preserved in the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]].
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The [[Mahīśāsaka sect]] is [[thought]] to have first originated in the [[Wikipedia:Avanti (India)|Avanti]] region of [[India]]. Their founder was a [[monk]] named [[Purāṇa]], who is venerated at length in the [[Mahīśāsaka vinaya]], which is preserved in the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]].
  
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From the writings of [[Xuanzang]], the Mahīśāsaka are known to have been active in Kashmir in the 4th century CE. Xuanzang records that [[Asanga|Asaṅga]], an important [[Yogācāra]] master and the elder brother of [[Vasubandhu]], received ordination into the Mahīśāsaka sect. Asaṅga's frameworks for [[abhidharma]] writings retained many underlying Mahīśāsaka traits.<ref>{{Nolinking|Anacker, Stefan. ''Seven Works Of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor.'' 1984. p. 58}}</ref> {{Wiki|André Bareau}} writes:<ref>{{Nolinking|Rama Karana Sarma. ''Researches in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy: Essays in Honour of Alex Wayman.'' 1993. p. 5}}</ref>
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From the writings of [[Xuanzang]], the [[Mahīśāsaka]] are known to have been active in [[Kashmir]] in the 4th century CE. [[Xuanzang]] records that [[Asanga|Asaṅga]], an important [[Yogācāra]] [[master]] and the elder brother of [[Vasubandhu]], received [[ordination]] into the [[Mahīśāsaka sect]]. [[Asaṅga's]] frameworks for [[abhidharma]] writings retained many underlying [[Mahīśāsaka]] traits.<ref>{{Nolinking|Anacker, Stefan. ''Seven Works Of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor.'' 1984. p. 58}}</ref> {{Wiki|André Bareau}} writes:<ref>{{Nolinking|Rama Karana Sarma. ''Researches in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy: Essays in Honour of Alex Wayman.'' 1993. p. 5}}</ref>
  
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:[It is] sufficiently obvious that [[Asaṅga]] had been a [[Mahīśāsaka]] when he was a young monk, and that he incorporated a large part of the doctrinal opinions proper to this school within his own work after he became a great master of the [[Mahāyāna]], when he made up what can be considered as a new and [[Mahāyānist]] ''[[Abhidharma-piṭaka]]''.
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:[It is] sufficiently obvious that [[Asaṅga]] had been a [[Mahīśāsaka]] when he was a young [[monk]], and that he incorporated a large part of the [[doctrinal]] opinions proper to this school within his [[own]] work after he became a [[great master]] of the [[Mahāyāna]], when he made up what can be considered as a new and [[Mahāyānist]] ''[[Abhidharma-piṭaka]]''.
  
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The [[Mahīśāsaka]] are believed to have spread from the Northwest down to Southern India including [[Nagarjunakonda|Nāgārjunakoṇḍā]], and even as far as the island of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Dutt, Nalinaksha. ''Buddhist Sects in India.'' 1998. pp. 122-123}}</ref> According to {{Wiki|A.K. Warder}}, the Indian Mahīśāsaka sect also established itself in Sri Lanka alongside the [[Theravāda]], into which they were later absorbed.<ref>{{Nolinking|Warder, A.K. ''Indian Buddhism''. 2000. p. 280}}</ref>
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The [[Mahīśāsaka]] are believed to have spread from the [[Northwest]] down to Southern [[India]] including [[Nagarjunakonda|Nāgārjunakoṇḍā]], and even as far as the [[island]] of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Dutt, Nalinaksha. ''Buddhist Sects in India.'' 1998. pp. 122-123}}</ref> According to {{Wiki|A.K. Warder}}, the [[Indian]] [[Mahīśāsaka sect]] also established itself in [[Sri Lanka]] alongside the [[Theravāda]], into which they were later absorbed.<ref>{{Nolinking|Warder, A.K. ''Indian Buddhism''. 2000. p. 280}}</ref>
  
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In the 7th century CE, [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]] grouped the [[Mahīśāsaka]], [[Dharmaguptaka]], and [[Kāśyapīya]] together as sub-sects of the Sarvāstivāda, and stated that these three were not prevalent in the "five parts of India," but were located in the some parts of [[Oḍḍiyāna]], [[Khotan]], and [[Kucha]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Yijing. Li Rongxi (translator). ''Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia.'' 2000. p. 19}}</ref>
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In the 7th century CE, [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]] grouped the [[Mahīśāsaka]], [[Dharmaguptaka]], and [[Kāśyapīya]] together as sub-sects of the [[Sarvāstivāda]], and stated that these three were not prevalent in the "five parts of [[India]]," but were located in the some parts of [[Oḍḍiyāna]], [[Khotan]], and [[Kucha]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Yijing. Li Rongxi (translator). ''Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia.'' 2000. p. 19}}</ref>
  
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==Appearance==
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==[[Appearance]]==
  
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Between 148 and 170 CE, the {{Wiki|Parthia}}n monk [[An Shigao]] came to China and translated a work which describes the color of monastic robes (Skt. ''[[Kasaya|kāṣāya]]'') utitized in five major Indian Buddhist sects, called ''[[Da Biqiu Sanqian Weiyi]]'' (Ch. [[大比丘三千威儀]]).<ref>{{Nolinking|Hino, Shoun. ''Three Mountains and Seven Rivers.'' 2004. p. 55}}</ref> Another text translated at a later date, the ''[[Śāriputraparipṛcchā]]'', contains a very similar passage corroborating this information.<ref>{{Nolinking|Hino, Shoun. ''Three Mountains and Seven Rivers.'' 2004. p. 55}}</ref> In both sources, members of the Mahīśāsaka sect are described as wearing blue robes.<ref>{{Nolinking|Hino, Shoun. ''Three Mountains and Seven Rivers.'' 2004. p. 55}}</ref> The relevant portion of the [[Mahāsāṃghika]] ''Śāriputraparipṛcchā'' reads, "The Mahīśāsaka school practice [[dhyāna]], and penetrate deeply. They wear blue robes."<ref>{{Nolinking|Bhikku Sujato. ''Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools.'' Santi Forest Monastery, 2006. p. i}}</ref>
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Between 148 and 170 CE, the {{Wiki|Parthia}}n [[monk]] [[An Shigao]] came to [[China]] and translated a work which describes the {{Wiki|color}} of [[monastic robes]] (Skt. ''[[Kasaya|kāṣāya]]'') utitized in five major [[Indian]] [[Buddhist]] sects, called ''[[Da Biqiu Sanqian Weiyi]]'' (Ch. [[大比丘三千威儀]]).<ref>{{Nolinking|Hino, Shoun. ''Three Mountains and Seven Rivers.'' 2004. p. 55}}</ref> Another text translated at a later date, the ''[[Śāriputraparipṛcchā]]'', contains a very similar passage corroborating this [[information]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Hino, Shoun. ''Three Mountains and Seven Rivers.'' 2004. p. 55}}</ref> In both sources, members of the [[Mahīśāsaka sect]] are described as wearing blue [[robes]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Hino, Shoun. ''Three Mountains and Seven Rivers.'' 2004. p. 55}}</ref> The relevant portion of the [[Mahāsāṃghika]] ''[[Śāriputraparipṛcchā]]'' reads, "The [[Mahīśāsaka]] school practice [[dhyāna]], and penetrate deeply. They wear blue [[robes]]."<ref>{{Nolinking|Bhikku Sujato. ''Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools.'' Santi Forest Monastery, 2006. p. i}}</ref>
  
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==Doctrines==
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==[[Doctrines]]==
  
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According to the Mahīśāsakas, the [[Four Noble Truths]] were to be meditated upon simultaneously.<ref>{{Nolinking|Potter, Karl. ''The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. IX: Buddhist philosophy from 350 to 600 AD.'' 2004. p. 106}}</ref>
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According to the [[Mahīśāsakas]], the [[Four Noble Truths]] were to be [[meditated]] upon simultaneously.<ref>{{Nolinking|Potter, Karl. ''The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. IX: Buddhist philosophy from 350 to 600 AD.'' 2004. p. 106}}</ref>
  
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The Mahīśāsaka sect held that everything exists, but only in the present. They also regarded a gift to the [[Sangha|Saṃgha]] as being more meritorious than one given to the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Willemen, Charles. ''The Essence of Scholasticism.'' 2006. p. 17}}</ref> They disagreed with the Dharmaguptakas on this point, as the Dharmaguptakas believed that a giving a gift to the Buddha is more meritorious than giving one to the Saṃgha.<ref>{{Nolinking|Willemen, Charles. ''The Essence of Scholasticism.'' 2006. p. 17}}</ref>
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The [[Mahīśāsaka sect]] held that everything [[exists]], but only in the {{Wiki|present}}. They also regarded a [[gift]] to the [[Sangha|Saṃgha]] as being more [[meritorious]] than one given to the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Willemen, Charles. ''The Essence of Scholasticism.'' 2006. p. 17}}</ref> They disagreed with the [[Dharmaguptakas]] on this point, as the [[Dharmaguptakas]] believed that a giving a [[gift]] to the [[Buddha]] is more [[meritorious]] than giving one to the [[Saṃgha]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Willemen, Charles. ''The Essence of Scholasticism.'' 2006. p. 17}}</ref>
  
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The earlier Mahīśāsakas appear to have not held the doctrine of an [[bardo|intermediate state]] between death and rebirth, but later Mahīśāsakas accepted this doctrine.<ref>{{Nolinking|Potter, Karl. ''The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. IX: Buddhist philosophy from 350 to 600 AD.'' 2004. p. 106}}</ref>
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The earlier [[Mahīśāsakas]] appear to have not held the [[doctrine]] of an [[bardo|intermediate state]] between [[death]] and [[rebirth]], but later [[Mahīśāsakas]] accepted this [[doctrine]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Potter, Karl. ''The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. IX: Buddhist philosophy from 350 to 600 AD.'' 2004. p. 106}}</ref>
  
 
==Works==
 
==Works==
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===Mahīśāsaka Vinaya===
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===[[Mahīśāsaka Vinaya]]===
  
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According to {{Wiki|A.K. Warder}}, the Indian Mahīśāsaka sect also established itself in [[Sri Lanka]] alongside the Theravāda, into which these members were later absorbed.<ref>{{Nolinking|Warder, A.K. ''Indian Buddhism''. 2000. p. 280}}</ref> It is known that [[Faxian]] obtained a [[Sanskrit]] copy of the Mahīśāsaka [[Vinaya]] at the [[Abhayagiri Dagaba|Abhayagiri Vihara]] in Sri Lanka, c. 406 CE. The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya was then translated into Chinese in 434 CE by Buddhajiva and Zhu Daosheng.<ref>{{Nolinking|Hsing Yun. ''Humanistic Buddhism.'' 2005. p. 163}}</ref> This translation of the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya remains extant in the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]] as [[Taisho Tripitaka|Taishō Tripiṭaka]] 1421.<ref>{{Nolinking|[http://www.acmuller.net/descriptive_catalogue/files/k0895.html The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalog (T 1421)]}}</ref>
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According to {{Wiki|A.K. Warder}}, the [[Indian]] [[Mahīśāsaka sect]] also established itself in [[Sri Lanka]] alongside the [[Theravāda]], into which these members were later absorbed.<ref>{{Nolinking|Warder, A.K. ''Indian Buddhism''. 2000. p. 280}}</ref> It is known that [[Faxian]] obtained a [[Sanskrit]] copy of the [[Mahīśāsaka]] [[Vinaya]] at the [[Abhayagiri Dagaba|Abhayagiri Vihara]] in [[Sri Lanka]], c. 406 CE. The [[Mahīśāsaka Vinaya]] was then translated into {{Wiki|Chinese}} in 434 CE by [[Buddhajiva]] and [[Zhu Daosheng]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Hsing Yun. ''Humanistic Buddhism.'' 2005. p. 163}}</ref> This translation of the [[Mahīśāsaka Vinaya]] remains extant in the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]] as [[Taisho Tripitaka|Taishō Tripiṭaka]] 1421.<ref>{{Nolinking|[http://www.acmuller.net/descriptive_catalogue/files/k0895.html The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalog (T 1421)]}}</ref>
  
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===Mahāyāna works===
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===[[Mahāyāna]] works===
  
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It is believed that the Mahāyāna ''[[Infinite Life Sutra|Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra]]'' was compiled in the age of the Kuṣāṇa Dynasty, in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, by an order of Mahīśāsaka [[bhikkhu|bhikṣu]]s, which flourished in the [[Gandhāra]] region.<ref>{{Nolinking|Nakamura, Hajime. ''Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes.'' 1999. p. 205}}</ref><ref>{{Nolinking|Williams, Paul. ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.'' 2008. p. 239}}</ref> It is likely that the longer ''[[Sukhāvatīvyūha]]'' owed greatly to the [[Lokottaravada|Lokottaravāda]] sect as well for its compilation, and in this sūtra there are many elements in common with the ''[[Mahavastu|Mahāvastu]]''.<ref>{{Nolinking|Nakamura, Hajime. ''Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes.'' 1999. p. 205}}</ref> The earliest of these translations show traces of having been translated from the {{Wiki|Gāndhārī language}}, a [[prakrit]] used in the Northwest.<ref>{{Nolinking|Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. ''India in Early Central Asia.'' 1996. p. 15}}</ref> It is also known that manuscripts in the [[Wikipedia:Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī]] script existed in China during this period.<ref>{{Nolinking|Nakamura, Hajime. ''Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes.'' 1999. p. 205}}</ref>
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It is believed that the [[Mahāyāna]] ''[[Infinite Life Sutra|Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra]]'' was compiled in the age of the [[Wikipedia:Kusana|Kuṣāṇa]] Dynasty, in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, by an order of [[Mahīśāsaka]] [[bhikkhu|bhikṣu]][[s]], which flourished in the [[Gandhāra]] region.<ref>{{Nolinking|Nakamura, Hajime. ''Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes.'' 1999. p. 205}}</ref><ref>{{Nolinking|Williams, Paul. ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.'' 2008. p. 239}}</ref> It is likely that the longer ''[[Sukhāvatīvyūha]]'' owed greatly to the [[Lokottaravada|Lokottaravāda]] [[sect]] as well for its compilation, and in this [[sūtra]] there are many [[elements]] in common with the ''[[Mahavastu|Mahāvastu]]''.<ref>{{Nolinking|Nakamura, Hajime. ''Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes.'' 1999. p. 205}}</ref> The earliest of these translations show traces of having been translated from the {{Wiki|Gāndhārī language}}, a [[prakrit]] used in the [[Northwest]].<ref>{{Nolinking|Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. ''India in Early Central Asia.'' 1996. p. 15}}</ref> It is also known that manuscripts in the [[Wikipedia:Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī]] script existed in [[China]] during this period.<ref>{{Nolinking|Nakamura, Hajime. ''Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes.'' 1999. p. 205}}</ref>
  
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==Views on women==
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==[[Views]] on women==
  
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The Mahīśāsaka sect believed that it was not possible for women to become buddhas.<ref>{{Nolinking|{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 109}}</ref> In the ''Nāgadatta Sūtra'', the Mahīśāsaka view is criticized in a narrative about a bhikṣuṇī named Nāgadatta. Here, the demon [[Mara (demon)|Māra]] takes the form of her father, and tries to convince her to work toward the lower stage of an [[arhat]], rather than that of a fully enlightened buddha (Skt. ''[[samyaksaṃbuddha]]'').<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 109}}</ref>
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The [[Mahīśāsaka sect]] believed that it was not possible for women to become [[buddhas]].<ref>{{Nolinking|{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 109}}</ref> In the ''[[Nāgadatta]] [[Sūtra]]'', the [[Mahīśāsaka]] view is criticized in a {{Wiki|narrative}} about a [[bhikṣuṇī]] named [[Nāgadatta]]. Here, the {{Wiki|demon}} [[Mara (demon)|Māra]] takes the [[form]] of her father, and tries to convince her to work toward the lower stage of an [[arhat]], rather than that of a [[fully enlightened buddha]] (Skt. ''[[samyaksaṃbuddha]]'').<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 109}}</ref>
  
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:Māra therefore took the disguise of Nāgadatta's father and said thus to Nāgadatta: "Your thought is too serious. Buddhahood is too difficult to attain. It takes a hundred thousand nayutas of kotis of kalpas to become a Buddha. Since few people attain Buddhahood in this world, why don't you attain Arhatship? For the experience of Arhatship is the same as that of [[nirvana|nirvāṇa]]; moreover, it is easy to attain Arhatship...."
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:[[Māra]] therefore took the disguise of [[Nāgadatta's]] father and said thus to [[Nāgadatta]]: "Your [[thought]] is too serious. [[Buddhahood]] is too difficult to attain. It takes a hundred thousand [[nayutas]] of [[kotis]] of [[kalpas]] to become a [[Buddha]]. Since few [[people]] attain [[Buddhahood]] in this [[world]], why don't you attain [[Arhatship]]? For the [[experience]] of [[Arhatship]] is the same as that of [[nirvana|nirvāṇa]]; moreover, it is easy to attain [[Arhatship]]...."
  
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In her reply, Nāgadatta rejects arhatship as a lower path, saying, "A Buddha's wisdom is like empty space of the ten quarters, which can enlighten innumerable people. But an Arhat's wisdom is inferior."<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 109}}</ref>
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In her reply, [[Nāgadatta]] rejects [[arhatship]] as a [[lower path]], saying, "A [[Buddha's wisdom]] is like [[empty]] [[space]] of the ten quarters, which can [[enlighten]] {{Wiki|innumerable}} [[people]]. But an [[Arhat's]] [[wisdom]] is {{Wiki|inferior}}."<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 109}}</ref>
  
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The Mahīśāsaka sect held that there were five obstacles that were laid before women. These are that they may not become a [[cakravartin]] king, mara king, sakra king, brahma king, or a buddha. This Mahīśāsaka view is ascribed to Māra in the ''Nāgadatta Sūtra'' of the Sarvāstivādins:<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 109}}</ref>
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The [[Mahīśāsaka sect]] held that there were [[five obstacles]] that were laid before women. These are that they may not become a [[cakravartin]] [[king]], [[mara]] [[king]], [[sakra]] [[king]], [[brahma]] [[king]], or a [[buddha]]. This [[Mahīśāsaka]] view is ascribed to [[Māra]] in the ''[[Nāgadatta]] [[Sūtra]]'' of the [[Sarvāstivādins]]:<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 109}}</ref>
  
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:Māra said, "I have not even heard that a woman can be reborn as a cakravartin; how can you be reborn as a Buddha? It takes too long to attain Buddhahood, why not seek for Arhatship and attain nirvāṇa soon?" Nāgadatta replied, "I also have heard that a woman cannot be reborn as a cakravartin, a Sakra, a Brahma, and a Buddha, and yet I shell make the right effort to transform a woman's body into a man's. For I have heard that those Noble Ones, by the practice of [[bodhisattva]]carya for a hundred thousand nayutas of kotis of kalpas diligently attain Buddhahood."
+
:[[Māra]] said, "I have not even heard that a woman can be [[reborn]] as a [[cakravartin]]; how can you be [[reborn]] as a [[Buddha]]? It takes too long to attain [[Buddhahood]], why not seek for [[Arhatship]] and attain [[nirvāṇa]] soon?" [[Nāgadatta]] replied, "I also have heard that a woman cannot be [[reborn]] as a [[cakravartin]], a [[Sakra]], a [[Brahma]], and a [[Buddha]], and yet I shell make the [[right effort]] to [[transform]] a woman's [[body]] into a man's. For I have heard that those [[Noble Ones]], by the practice of [[bodhisattva]][[carya]] for a hundred thousand [[nayutas]] of [[kotis]] of [[kalpas]] diligently attain [[Buddhahood]]."
  
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The Mahīśāsakas believed that women essentially could not change the nature of their minds or physical bodies, and would cause the teachings of Buddhism to decline.<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 113}}</ref> Of this, David Kalupahana writes, "The Mahīśāsaka prejudice against women is based upon the traditional view of women. Like some of the other early Buddhist practitioners, they did not trust women, even nuns. This explains why they restricted nuns' social and religious activities in the sangha. Sometimes they liken the nuns' existence to hail which damages a good harvest."<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 113}}</ref>
+
The [[Mahīśāsakas]] believed that women [[essentially]] could not change the [[nature]] of their [[minds]] or [[physical]] [[bodies]], and would [[cause]] the teachings of [[Buddhism]] to {{Wiki|decline}}.<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 113}}</ref> Of this, [[David Kalupahana]] writes, "The [[Mahīśāsaka]] prejudice against women is based upon the [[traditional]] view of women. Like some of the other early [[Buddhist]] practitioners, they did not [[trust]] women, even [[nuns]]. This explains why they restricted [[nuns]]' {{Wiki|social}} and [[religious]] [[activities]] in the [[sangha]]. Sometimes they liken the [[nuns]]' [[existence]] to hail which damages a good harvest."<ref>{{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. ''Buddhist Thought and Ritual.'' 2001. p. 113}}</ref>
  
 
{{Reflist}}
 
{{Reflist}}

Latest revision as of 02:35, 28 January 2015

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Mahīśāsaka (Sanskrit; traditional Chinese: 化地部; pinyin: Huàdì Bù) is one of the early Buddhist schools according to some records. Its origins may go back to the dispute in the Second Buddhist Council. The Dharmaguptaka sect is thought to have branched out from Mahīśāsaka sect toward the end of the 2nd or the beginning of the 1st century BCE.

History

There are two general accounts of the circumstances surrounding the origins of the Mahīśāsakas. The Theravādin Dipavamsa asserts that the Mahīśāsaka sect gave rise to the Sarvāstivāda sect.[1] However, both the Śāriputraparipṛcchā and the Samayabhedoparacanacakra record that the Sarvāstivādins were the older sect out of which the Mahīśāsakas emerged.[2]

The Mahīśāsaka sect is thought to have first originated in the Avanti region of India. Their founder was a monk named Purāṇa, who is venerated at length in the Mahīśāsaka vinaya, which is preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon.

From the writings of Xuanzang, the Mahīśāsaka are known to have been active in Kashmir in the 4th century CE. Xuanzang records that Asaṅga, an important Yogācāra master and the elder brother of Vasubandhu, received ordination into the Mahīśāsaka sect. Asaṅga's frameworks for abhidharma writings retained many underlying Mahīśāsaka traits.[3] André Bareau writes:[4]

[It is] sufficiently obvious that Asaṅga had been a Mahīśāsaka when he was a young monk, and that he incorporated a large part of the doctrinal opinions proper to this school within his own work after he became a great master of the Mahāyāna, when he made up what can be considered as a new and Mahāyānist Abhidharma-piṭaka.

The Mahīśāsaka are believed to have spread from the Northwest down to Southern India including Nāgārjunakoṇḍā, and even as far as the island of Sri Lanka.[5] According to A.K. Warder, the Indian Mahīśāsaka sect also established itself in Sri Lanka alongside the Theravāda, into which they were later absorbed.[6]

In the 7th century CE, Yijing grouped the Mahīśāsaka, Dharmaguptaka, and Kāśyapīya together as sub-sects of the Sarvāstivāda, and stated that these three were not prevalent in the "five parts of India," but were located in the some parts of Oḍḍiyāna, Khotan, and Kucha.[7]

Appearance

Between 148 and 170 CE, the Parthian monk An Shigao came to China and translated a work which describes the color of monastic robes (Skt. kāṣāya) utitized in five major Indian Buddhist sects, called Da Biqiu Sanqian Weiyi (Ch. 大比丘三千威儀).[8] Another text translated at a later date, the Śāriputraparipṛcchā, contains a very similar passage corroborating this information.[9] In both sources, members of the Mahīśāsaka sect are described as wearing blue robes.[10] The relevant portion of the Mahāsāṃghika Śāriputraparipṛcchā reads, "The Mahīśāsaka school practice dhyāna, and penetrate deeply. They wear blue robes."[11]

Doctrines

According to the Mahīśāsakas, the Four Noble Truths were to be meditated upon simultaneously.[12]

The Mahīśāsaka sect held that everything exists, but only in the present. They also regarded a gift to the Saṃgha as being more meritorious than one given to the Buddha.[13] They disagreed with the Dharmaguptakas on this point, as the Dharmaguptakas believed that a giving a gift to the Buddha is more meritorious than giving one to the Saṃgha.[14]

The earlier Mahīśāsakas appear to have not held the doctrine of an intermediate state between death and rebirth, but later Mahīśāsakas accepted this doctrine.[15]

Works

Mahīśāsaka Vinaya

According to A.K. Warder, the Indian Mahīśāsaka sect also established itself in Sri Lanka alongside the Theravāda, into which these members were later absorbed.[16] It is known that Faxian obtained a Sanskrit copy of the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya at the Abhayagiri Vihara in Sri Lanka, c. 406 CE. The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya was then translated into Chinese in 434 CE by Buddhajiva and Zhu Daosheng.[17] This translation of the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya remains extant in the Chinese Buddhist canon as Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421.[18]

Mahāyāna works

It is believed that the Mahāyāna Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra was compiled in the age of the Kuṣāṇa Dynasty, in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, by an order of Mahīśāsaka bhikṣus, which flourished in the Gandhāra region.[19][20] It is likely that the longer Sukhāvatīvyūha owed greatly to the Lokottaravāda sect as well for its compilation, and in this sūtra there are many elements in common with the Mahāvastu.[21] The earliest of these translations show traces of having been translated from the Gāndhārī language, a prakrit used in the Northwest.[22] It is also known that manuscripts in the Kharoṣṭhī script existed in China during this period.[23]

Views on women

The Mahīśāsaka sect believed that it was not possible for women to become buddhas.[24] In the Nāgadatta Sūtra, the Mahīśāsaka view is criticized in a narrative about a bhikṣuṇī named Nāgadatta. Here, the demon Māra takes the form of her father, and tries to convince her to work toward the lower stage of an arhat, rather than that of a fully enlightened buddha (Skt. samyaksaṃbuddha).[25]

Māra therefore took the disguise of Nāgadatta's father and said thus to Nāgadatta: "Your thought is too serious. Buddhahood is too difficult to attain. It takes a hundred thousand nayutas of kotis of kalpas to become a Buddha. Since few people attain Buddhahood in this world, why don't you attain Arhatship? For the experience of Arhatship is the same as that of nirvāṇa; moreover, it is easy to attain Arhatship...."

In her reply, Nāgadatta rejects arhatship as a lower path, saying, "A Buddha's wisdom is like empty space of the ten quarters, which can enlighten innumerable people. But an Arhat's wisdom is inferior."[26]

The Mahīśāsaka sect held that there were five obstacles that were laid before women. These are that they may not become a cakravartin king, mara king, sakra king, brahma king, or a buddha. This Mahīśāsaka view is ascribed to Māra in the Nāgadatta Sūtra of the Sarvāstivādins:[27]

Māra said, "I have not even heard that a woman can be reborn as a cakravartin; how can you be reborn as a Buddha? It takes too long to attain Buddhahood, why not seek for Arhatship and attain nirvāṇa soon?" Nāgadatta replied, "I also have heard that a woman cannot be reborn as a cakravartin, a Sakra, a Brahma, and a Buddha, and yet I shell make the right effort to transform a woman's body into a man's. For I have heard that those Noble Ones, by the practice of bodhisattvacarya for a hundred thousand nayutas of kotis of kalpas diligently attain Buddhahood."

The Mahīśāsakas believed that women essentially could not change the nature of their minds or physical bodies, and would cause the teachings of Buddhism to decline.[28] Of this, David Kalupahana writes, "The Mahīśāsaka prejudice against women is based upon the traditional view of women. Like some of the other early Buddhist practitioners, they did not trust women, even nuns. This explains why they restricted nuns' social and religious activities in the sangha. Sometimes they liken the nuns' existence to hail which damages a good harvest."[29]

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Baruah, Bibhuti. Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. 2008. p. 50
  2. ↑ Baruah, Bibhuti. Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. 2008. p. 50
  3. ↑ Anacker, Stefan. Seven Works Of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor. 1984. p. 58
  4. ↑ Rama Karana Sarma. Researches in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy: Essays in Honour of Alex Wayman. 1993. p. 5
  5. ↑ Dutt, Nalinaksha. Buddhist Sects in India. 1998. pp. 122-123
  6. ↑ Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. p. 280
  7. ↑ Yijing. Li Rongxi (translator). Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia. 2000. p. 19
  8. ↑ Hino, Shoun. Three Mountains and Seven Rivers. 2004. p. 55
  9. ↑ Hino, Shoun. Three Mountains and Seven Rivers. 2004. p. 55
  10. ↑ Hino, Shoun. Three Mountains and Seven Rivers. 2004. p. 55
  11. ↑ Bhikku Sujato. Sects & Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools. Santi Forest Monastery, 2006. p. i
  12. ↑ Potter, Karl. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. IX: Buddhist philosophy from 350 to 600 AD. 2004. p. 106
  13. ↑ Willemen, Charles. The Essence of Scholasticism. 2006. p. 17
  14. ↑ Willemen, Charles. The Essence of Scholasticism. 2006. p. 17
  15. ↑ Potter, Karl. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. IX: Buddhist philosophy from 350 to 600 AD. 2004. p. 106
  16. ↑ Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. 2000. p. 280
  17. ↑ Hsing Yun. Humanistic Buddhism. 2005. p. 163
  18. ↑ The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalog (T 1421)
  19. ↑ Nakamura, Hajime. Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes. 1999. p. 205
  20. ↑ Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. 2008. p. 239
  21. ↑ Nakamura, Hajime. Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes. 1999. p. 205
  22. ↑ Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. India in Early Central Asia. 1996. p. 15
  23. ↑ Nakamura, Hajime. Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Biographical Notes. 1999. p. 205
  24. ↑ {{Nolinking|Kalupahana, David. Buddhist Thought and Ritual. 2001. p. 109
  25. ↑ Kalupahana, David. Buddhist Thought and Ritual. 2001. p. 109
  26. ↑ Kalupahana, David. Buddhist Thought and Ritual. 2001. p. 109
  27. ↑ Kalupahana, David. Buddhist Thought and Ritual. 2001. p. 109
  28. ↑ Kalupahana, David. Buddhist Thought and Ritual. 2001. p. 113
  29. ↑ Kalupahana, David. Buddhist Thought and Ritual. 2001. p. 113

See also

Source

Wikipedia:Mahisasaka

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