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Difference between revisions of "History of Buddhism in India"

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[[Buddhism]] is a [[world]] [[religion]], which arose in and around the [[ancient]] {{Wiki|Kingdom}} of [[Magadha]] (now in [[Bihar]], [[India]]), and is based on the teachings of [[Siddhārtha Gautama]][note 1] who was deemed a "[[Buddha]]" ("[[Awakened One]]"). [[Buddhism]] spread outside of [[Magadha]] starting in the [[Buddha's]] [[lifetime]].
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With the reign of the [[Buddhist]] [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] [[Emperor Ashoka]], the [[Buddhist community]] split into two branches: the [[Mahāsāṃghika]] and the [[Sthaviravāda]], each of which spread throughout [[India]] and split into numerous sub-sects.
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In {{Wiki|modern}} times, two major branches of [[Buddhism]] [[exist]]: the [[Theravāda]] in [[Sri Lanka]] and {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}, and the [[Mahāyāna]] throughout the [[Himalayas]] and {{Wiki|East Asia}}.
  
[[Buddhism]] is a [[world]] [[religion]], which arose in and around the [[ancient]] {{Wiki|Kingdom}} of [[Magadha]] (now in [[Bihar]], [[India]]), and is based on the teachings of [[Siddhārtha Gautama]][note 1] who was deemed a "[[Buddha]]" ("[[Awakened One]]"). [[Buddhism]] spread outside of [[Magadha]] starting in the [[Buddha's]] [[lifetime]].
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The practice of [[Buddhism]] as a {{Wiki|distinct}} and organized [[religion]] lost influence after the [[Gupta]] reign (c.7th century CE), and declined from the land of its origin in around 13th century, but not without leaving a significant impact.
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[[Buddhist practice]] is most common and [[Buddhism]] remains a major presence in the [[Himalayan]] areas such as [[Sikkim]], {{Wiki|Ladakh}}, [[Arunachal Pradesh]], the {{Wiki|Darjeeling}} hills in {{Wiki|West Bengal}}, and the {{Wiki|Lahaul}} and {{Wiki|Spiti}} areas of upper [[Himachal Pradesh]].  
  
With the reign of the [[Buddhist]] [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] [[Emperor Ashoka]], the [[Buddhist community]] split into two branches: the [[Mahāsāṃghika]] and the [[Sthaviravāda]], each of which spread throughout [[India]] and split into numerous sub-sects. In {{Wiki|modern}} times, two major branches of [[Buddhism]] [[exist]]: the [[Theravāda]] in [[Sri Lanka]] and {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}, and the [[Mahāyāna]] throughout the [[Himalayas]] and {{Wiki|East Asia}}.
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[[Buddhism]] has been reemerging in [[India]] since the {{Wiki|past}} century, due to its adoption by many [[Indian]] intellectuals, the migration of [[Buddhist]] [[Tibetan]] exiles, and the {{Wiki|mass}} [[conversion]] of hundreds of thousands of [[Hindu]] [[Dalits]].  
  
The practice of [[Buddhism]] as a {{Wiki|distinct}} and organized [[religion]] lost influence after the [[Gupta]] reign (c.7th century CE), and declined from the land of its origin in around 13th century, but not without leaving a significant impact. [[Buddhist practice]] is most common and [[Buddhism]] remains a major presence in the [[Himalayan]] areas such as [[Sikkim]], {{Wiki|Ladakh}}, [[Arunachal Pradesh]], the {{Wiki|Darjeeling}} hills in {{Wiki|West Bengal}}, and the {{Wiki|Lahaul}} and {{Wiki|Spiti}} areas of upper [[Himachal Pradesh]]. [[Buddhism]] has been reemerging in [[India]] since the {{Wiki|past}} century, due to its adoption by many [[Indian]] intellectuals, the migration of [[Buddhist]] [[Tibetan]] exiles, and the {{Wiki|mass}} [[conversion]] of hundreds of thousands of [[Hindu]] [[Dalits]]. According to the 2001 census, [[Buddhists]] make up 0.8% of [[India's]] population, or 7.95 million {{Wiki|individuals}}.
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According to the 2001 census, [[Buddhists]] make up 0.8% of [[India's]] population, or 7.95 million {{Wiki|individuals}}.
  
  
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[[Buddha]] was born in [[Lumbini]] in the central Ganges-plain, now in present-day [[Nepal]], to a {{Wiki|Vedic}} chieftain of Kapilvastu-Suddhodana. After [[asceticism]] and [[meditation]] which was a [[Samana]] practice, the [[Buddha]] discovered the [[Buddhist]] Middle Way—a [[path]] of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and [[self-mortification]].
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[[Buddha]] was born in [[Lumbini]] in the central [[Ganges]]-plain, now in present-day [[Nepal]], to a {{Wiki|Vedic}} chieftain of [[Kapilvastu]]-[[Suddhodana]]. After [[asceticism]] and [[meditation]] which was a [[Samana]] practice, the [[Buddha]] discovered the [[Buddhist]] Middle Way—a [[path]] of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and [[self-mortification]].
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[[Siddhārtha Gautama]] [[attained enlightenment]] sitting under a [[pipal tree]], now known as the [[Bodhi tree]] in [[Bodh Gaya]], [[India]].
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[[Gautama]], from then on, was known as "The [[Perfectly Self-Awakened One]]," the [[Samyaksambuddha]]. [[Buddha]] found {{Wiki|patronage}} in the [[ruler]] of [[Magadha]], [[emperor]] [[Bimbisāra]].
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The [[emperor]] accepted [[Buddhism]] as personal [[faith]] and allowed the establishment of many [[Buddhist]] "[[Vihāras]]." This eventually led to the renaming of the entire region as [[Bihar]].
  
[[Siddhārtha Gautama]] [[attained enlightenment]] sitting under a [[pipal tree]], now known as the [[Bodhi tree]] in [[Bodh Gaya]], [[India]]. [[Gautama]], from then on, was known as "The Perfectly [[Self-Awakened One]]," the [[Samyaksambuddha]]. [[Buddha]] found {{Wiki|patronage}} in the [[ruler]] of [[Magadha]], [[emperor]] [[Bimbisāra]]. The [[emperor]] accepted [[Buddhism]] as personal [[faith]] and allowed the establishment of many [[Buddhist]] "[[Vihāras]]." This eventually led to the renaming of the entire region as [[Bihar]].
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At the [[Deer Park]] [[Water]] Reservation near [[Vārāṇasī]] in {{Wiki|northern India}}, [[Buddha]] set in {{Wiki|motion}} the [[Wheel of Dharma]] by delivering his [[first sermon]] to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought [[enlightenment]].  
  
At the [[Deer Park]] [[Water]] Reservation near [[Vārāṇasī]] in {{Wiki|northern India}}, [[Buddha]] set in {{Wiki|motion}} the [[Wheel of Dharma]] by delivering his [[first sermon]] to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought [[enlightenment]]. They, together with the [[Buddha]], formed the first [[Saṅgha]], the company of [[Buddhist monks]], and hence, the first formation of [[Triple Gem]] ([[Buddha]], [[Dharma]] and [[Sangha]]) was completed.
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They, together with the [[Buddha]], formed the first [[Saṅgha]], the company of [[Buddhist monks]], and hence, the first formation of [[Triple Gem]] ([[Buddha]], [[Dharma]] and [[Sangha]]) was completed.
  
 
For the remaining years of his [[life]], the [[Buddha]] is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain of {{Wiki|Northern India}} and other regions.
 
For the remaining years of his [[life]], the [[Buddha]] is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain of {{Wiki|Northern India}} and other regions.
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==[[Buddhists]]==
 
==[[Buddhists]]==
  
Followers of [[Buddhism]], called [[Buddhists]] in English, referred to themselves as Saugata. Other terms were [[Sakyans]] or Sakyabhiksu in {{Wiki|ancient India}}. Sakyaputto was another term used by [[Buddhists]], as well as Ariyasavako and Jinaputto. [[Buddhist scholar]] [[Wikipedia:Donald S. Lopez, Jr.|Donald S. Lopez]] asserts they also used the term [[Bauddha]], although [[scholar]] Richard Cohen asserts that that term was used only by outsiders to describe [[Buddhists]].
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Followers of [[Buddhism]], called [[Buddhists]] in English, referred to themselves as [[Saugata]]. Other terms were [[Sakyans]] or [[Sakyabhiksu]] in {{Wiki|ancient India}}. [[Sakyaputto]] was another term used by [[Buddhists]], as well as [[Ariyasavako]] and [[Jinaputto]].  
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[[Buddhist scholar]] [[Wikipedia:Donald S. Lopez, Jr.|Donald S. Lopez]] asserts they also used the term [[Bauddha]], although [[scholar]] [[Richard Cohen]] asserts that that term was used only by outsiders to describe [[Buddhists]].
  
  
--[[Buddhist movements]]--
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===[[Buddhist movements]]===
  
  
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What is commonly called the [[Third Buddhist Council]] was held at [[Pāṭaliputra]], and was allegedly called by [[Emperor]] [[Aśoka]] in the 3rd century BCE. Organized by the [[monk]] [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], it was held in order to rid the [[sangha]] of the large number of [[monks]] who had joined the order because of its {{Wiki|royal}} {{Wiki|patronage}}. Most [[scholars]] now believe this council was exclusively [[Theravada]], and that the dispatch of [[missionaries]] to various countries at about this time was nothing to do with it.
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What is commonly called the [[Third Buddhist Council]] was held at [[Pāṭaliputra]], and was allegedly called by [[Emperor]] [[Aśoka]] in the 3rd century BCE. Organized by the [[monk]] [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], it was held in order to rid the [[sangha]] of the large number of [[monks]] who had joined the order because of its {{Wiki|royal}} {{Wiki|patronage}}.  
  
What is often called the [[Fourth Buddhist council]] is generally believed to have been held under the {{Wiki|patronage}} of [[Emperor]] [[Wikipedia:Kanishka|Kaniṣka]] at Jālandhar in [[Kashmir]], though the late Monseigneur [[Professor]] [[Wikipedia:Étienne Lamotte|Lamotte]] considered it fictitious. It is generally believed to have been a council of the [[Sarvastivāda]] school.
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Most [[scholars]] now believe this council was exclusively [[Theravada]], and that the dispatch of [[missionaries]] to various countries at about this time was nothing to do with it.
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What is often called the [[Fourth Buddhist council]] is generally believed to have been held under the {{Wiki|patronage}} of [[Emperor]] [[Wikipedia:Kanishka|Kaniṣka]] at [[Jālandhar]] in [[Kashmir]], though the late Monseigneur [[Professor]] [[Wikipedia:Étienne Lamotte|Lamotte]] considered it fictitious. It is generally believed to have been a council of the [[Sarvastivāda]] school.
  
  
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The [[Dharmaguptakas]] made more efforts than any other [[sect]] to spread [[Buddhism]] outside [[India]], to areas such as {{Wiki|Afghanistan}}, {{Wiki|Central Asia}}, and [[China]], and they had great [[success]] in doing so. Therefore, most countries which adopted [[Buddhism]] from [[China]], also adopted the [[Dharmaguptaka]] [[vinaya]] and [[ordination lineage]] for [[bhikṣus]] and [[bhikṣuṇīs]].
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The [[Dharmaguptakas]] made more efforts than any other [[sect]] to spread [[Buddhism]] outside [[India]], to areas such as {{Wiki|Afghanistan}}, {{Wiki|Central Asia}}, and [[China]], and they had great [[success]] in doing so.  
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Therefore, most countries which adopted [[Buddhism]] from [[China]], also adopted the [[Dharmaguptaka]] [[vinaya]] and [[ordination lineage]] for [[bhikṣus]] and [[bhikṣuṇīs]].
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During the early period of [[Chinese Buddhism]], the [[Indian Buddhist]] sects [[recognized]] as important, and whose texts were studied, were the [[Dharmaguptakas]], [[Mahīśāsakas]], [[Kāśyapīyas]], [[Sarvāstivādins]], and the [[Mahāsāṃghikas]].  
  
During the early period of [[Chinese Buddhism]], the [[Indian Buddhist]] sects [[recognized]] as important, and whose texts were studied, were the [[Dharmaguptakas]], [[Mahīśāsakas]], [[Kāśyapīyas]], [[Sarvāstivādins]], and the [[Mahāsāṃghikas]]. Complete [[vinayas]] preserved in the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]] include the [[Mahīśāsaka Vinaya]] (T. 1421), [[Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya]] (T. 1425), [[Dharmaguptaka Vinaya]] (T. 1428), [[Sarvāstivāda Vinaya]] (T. 1435), and the [[Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya]] (T. 1442). Also preserved are a set of [[Āgamas]] ([[Sūtra Piṭaka]]), a complete [[Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma]] [[Piṭaka]], and many other texts of the [[early Buddhist schools]].
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Complete [[vinayas]] preserved in the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]] include the [[Mahīśāsaka Vinaya]] (T. 1421), [[Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya]] (T. 1425), [[Dharmaguptaka Vinaya]] (T. 1428), [[Sarvāstivāda Vinaya]] (T. 1435), and the [[Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya]] (T. 1442).  
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Also preserved are a set of [[Āgamas]] ([[Sūtra Piṭaka]]), a complete [[Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭaka]], and many other texts of the [[early Buddhist schools]].
  
 
[[Early Buddhist schools]] in [[India]] often divided modes of [[Buddhist practice]] into several "vehicles" ([[yāna]]). For example, the [[Vaibhāṣika]] [[Sarvāstivādins]] are known to have employed the outlook of [[Buddhist practice]] as consisting of the [[Three Vehicles]]:
 
[[Early Buddhist schools]] in [[India]] often divided modes of [[Buddhist practice]] into several "vehicles" ([[yāna]]). For example, the [[Vaibhāṣika]] [[Sarvāstivādins]] are known to have employed the outlook of [[Buddhist practice]] as consisting of the [[Three Vehicles]]:
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[[Mahāyāna]]
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==[[Mahāyāna]]==
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The [[Mahāyāna tradition]] of [[Buddhism]], developed in [[India]], popularized the {{Wiki|concept}} of a [[bodhisattva]] ("[[enlightenment being]]") and the {{Wiki|worship}} of the [[bodhisattvas]]. [[Bodhisattvas]] such as [[Mañjuśrī]], [[Avalokiteśvara]], and [[Maitreya]] were highly esteemed in [[Indian]] [[Mahāyāna]] practice.
  
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[[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] advocates the [[path of a bodhisattva]] practicing the [[pāramitās]], or "[[perfections]]," culminating with [[Prajñāpāramitā]], the [[perfection of wisdom]].
  
The [[Mahāyāna tradition]] of [[Buddhism]], developed in [[India]], popularized the {{Wiki|concept}} of a [[bodhisattva]] ("[[enlightenment being]]") and the {{Wiki|worship}} of the [[bodhisattvas]]. [[Bodhisattvas]] such as [[Mañjuśrī]], [[Avalokiteśvara]], and [[Maitreya]] were highly esteemed in [[Indian]] [[Mahāyāna]] practice. [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] advocates the [[path of a bodhisattva]] practicing the [[pāramitās]], or "[[perfections]]," culminating with [[Prajñāpāramitā]], the [[perfection of wisdom]].
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[[Paul Williams]] has also noted that the [[Mahāyāna]] never had nor ever attempted to have a separate [[Vinaya]] or [[ordination lineage]] from the [[early Buddhist schools]], and therefore each [[bhikṣu]] or [[bhikṣuṇī]] adhering to the [[Mahāyāna]] formally belonged to one of the [[early Buddhist schools]].  
  
[[Paul Williams]] has also noted that the [[Mahāyāna]] never had nor ever attempted to have a separate [[Vinaya]] or [[ordination lineage]] from the [[early Buddhist schools]], and therefore each [[bhikṣu]] or [[bhikṣuṇī]] adhering to the [[Mahāyāna]] formally belonged to one of the [[early Buddhist schools]]. Membership in these [[nikāyas]], or [[monastic]] sects, continues today with the [[Dharmaguptaka nikāya]] in {{Wiki|East Asia}}, and the [[Mūlasarvāstivāda nikāya]] in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. [[Paul Harrison]] clarifies that while [[monastic]] [[Mahāyānists]] belonged to a [[nikāya]], not all members of a [[nikāya]] were [[Mahāyānists]]. From {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[monks]] visiting [[India]], we now know that both [[Mahāyāna]] and non-Mahāyāna [[monks]] in [[India]] often lived in the same [[monasteries]] side by side.
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Membership in these [[nikāyas]], or [[monastic]] sects, continues today with the [[Dharmaguptaka nikāya]] in {{Wiki|East Asia}}, and the [[Mūlasarvāstivāda nikāya]] in [[Tibetan Buddhism]].  
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[[Paul Harrison]] clarifies that while [[monastic]] [[Mahāyānists]] belonged to a [[nikāya]], not all members of a [[nikāya]] were [[Mahāyānists]]. From {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[monks]] visiting [[India]], we now know that both [[Mahāyāna]] and non-Mahāyāna [[monks]] in [[India]] often lived in the same [[monasteries]] side by side.
  
 
The {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[monk]] [[Yijing]] who visited [[India]] in the 7th century CE, distinguishes [[Mahāyāna]] as follows:
 
The {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[monk]] [[Yijing]] who visited [[India]] in the 7th century CE, distinguishes [[Mahāyāna]] as follows:
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A [[form]] of [[Indian Buddhism]] that emerged in the 4th century and later spread to [[China]] (Tangmi), [[Japan]] ([[Shingon]]), [[Tibet]], [[Sri Lanka]], {{Wiki|Indonesia}}, and other countries. It remains widespread in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], and in [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], and [[Mongolia]].
 
A [[form]] of [[Indian Buddhism]] that emerged in the 4th century and later spread to [[China]] (Tangmi), [[Japan]] ([[Shingon]]), [[Tibet]], [[Sri Lanka]], {{Wiki|Indonesia}}, and other countries. It remains widespread in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], and in [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], and [[Mongolia]].
  
This school emerged from {{Wiki|forest}} [[meditation]] [[traditions]] in {{Wiki|northern India}}, in which the entire {{Wiki|emphasis}} of teachings was on practice, using [[skillful means]] to attain the goal of [[enlightenment]] in one's {{Wiki|present}} [[lifetime]].[citation needed] This [[form]] is also known as [[Vajrayāna]] (The [[Diamond Vehicle]]). [[Tantrism]] is an [[esoteric tradition]]. Its [[initiation]] {{Wiki|ceremonies}} involve entry into a [[mandala]], a [[mystic]] circle or [[symbolic]] map of the [[spiritual]] [[universe]]. Also central to [[Tantrism]] is the use of [[mudras]] and [[mantras]].
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This school emerged from {{Wiki|forest}} [[meditation]] [[traditions]] in {{Wiki|northern India}}, in which the entire {{Wiki|emphasis}} of teachings was on practice, using [[skillful means]] to attain the goal of [[enlightenment]] in one's {{Wiki|present}} [[lifetime]].[citation needed] This [[form]] is also known as [[Vajrayāna]] (The [[Diamond Vehicle]]).  
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[[Tantrism]] is an [[esoteric tradition]]. Its [[initiation]] {{Wiki|ceremonies}} involve entry into a [[mandala]], a [[mystic]] circle or [[symbolic]] map of the [[spiritual]] [[universe]]. Also central to [[Tantrism]] is the use of [[mudras]] and [[mantras]].
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A lesser known route of [[transmission]] is that which went through the [[Wikipedia:Kathmandu Valley|valley of Kathmandu]], situated in present-day [[Nepal]].
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The valley, [[forms]] the cradle of the {{Wiki|Nepali}} [[state]] today, and since the farthest point in historical time, has found itself under the [[cultural influence]] of the [[Wikipedia:South Asia|South Asian]] [[Hindu]] (and also [[Buddhist]]) {{Wiki|civilization}}.
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However, being a distant outpost of [[Hinduism]] (and [[Buddhism]]), it was spared from the ravages of later {{Wiki|Muslim}} conquests and {{Wiki|social}} upheavals. Even after [[Buddhism]] [[died]] in the heartland, it survived in the [[Kathmandu valley]].
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[[Monastic]] records in the numerous [[monasteries]] show that until the mid-medieval period in {{Wiki|Nepalese}} history, [[Tibetan]] students regularly came there for {{Wiki|learning}} [[Buddhism]] from the local [[spiritual masters]].
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The [[Tibetan]] [[religious]] scripts [[Lantsha]] and [[Vartu]] are variants of the Rañjanā system used by the [[Newars]] of [[Kathmandu]]. However, due to numerous {{Wiki|social}}, economic and {{Wiki|political}} factors, [[Buddhist monasticism]] in the valley [[died]].
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By then [[Tibetan Buddhism]] had already gained prominence in the region.  
  
A lesser known route of [[transmission]] is that which went through the [[Wikipedia:Kathmandu Valley|valley of Kathmandu]], situated in present-day [[Nepal]]. The valley, [[forms]] the cradle of the {{Wiki|Nepali}} [[state]] today, and since the farthest point in historical time, has found itself under the [[cultural influence]] of the [[Wikipedia:South Asia|South Asian]] [[Hindu]] (and also [[Buddhist]]) {{Wiki|civilization}}. However, being a distant outpost of [[Hinduism]] (and [[Buddhism]]), it was spared from the ravages of later {{Wiki|Muslim}} conquests and {{Wiki|social}} upheavals. Even after [[Buddhism]] [[died]] in the heartland, it survived in the [[Kathmandu valley]]. [[Monastic]] records in the numerous [[monasteries]] show that until the mid-medieval period in {{Wiki|Nepalese}} history, [[Tibetan]] students regularly came there for {{Wiki|learning}} [[Buddhism]] from the local [[spiritual masters]]. The [[Tibetan]] [[religious]] scripts [[Lantsha]] and [[Vartu]] are variants of the Rañjanā system used by the [[Newars]] of [[Kathmandu]]. However, due to numerous {{Wiki|social}}, economic and {{Wiki|political}} factors, [[Buddhist monasticism]] in the valley [[died]]. By then [[Tibetan Buddhism]] had already gained prominence in the region. Today, in the urban centres of [[Kathmandu valley]], we still find [[Indian Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]], modified through mixing with [[Vajrayāna]], practiced by the local [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Newar}} population.
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Today, in the urban centres of [[Kathmandu valley]], we still find [[Indian Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]], modified through mixing with [[Vajrayāna]], practiced by the local [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Newar}} population.
  
  
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The early spread of [[Buddhism]]
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===The [[early spread of Buddhism]]===
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"During the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E.(Before [[Common Era]]), commerce and cash became increasingly important in an {{Wiki|economy}} previously dominated by self-sufficient production and bartered exchange.
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{{Wiki|Merchants}} found [[Buddhist]] [[moral]] and [[ethical teachings]] an attractive alternative to the [[esoteric rituals]] of the [[traditional]] [[Brahmin]] priesthood, which seemed to cater exclusively to [[Brahmin]] interests while ignoring those of the new and [[emerging]] {{Wiki|social}} classes."
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"During the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E.(Before [[Common Era]]), commerce and cash became increasingly important in an {{Wiki|economy}} previously dominated by self-sufficient production and bartered exchange. {{Wiki|Merchants}} found [[Buddhist]] [[moral]] and [[ethical teachings]] an attractive alternative to the [[esoteric rituals]] of the [[traditional]] [[Brahmin]] priesthood, which seemed to cater exclusively to [[Brahmin]] interests while ignoring those of the new and [[emerging]] {{Wiki|social}} classes."
 
  
 
"Furthermore, [[Buddhism]] was prominent in communities of {{Wiki|merchants}}, who found it well suited to their needs and who increasingly established commercial links throughout the [[Mauryan empire]]."
 
"Furthermore, [[Buddhism]] was prominent in communities of {{Wiki|merchants}}, who found it well suited to their needs and who increasingly established commercial links throughout the [[Mauryan empire]]."
  
"{{Wiki|Merchants}} proved to be an efficient vector of the [[Buddhist]] [[faith]], as they established {{Wiki|diaspora}} communities in the string of oasis towns-Merv, [[Bukhara]], {{Wiki|Samarkand}}, [[wikipedia:Kashgar|Kashgar]], [[wikipedia:Khotan|Khotan]], Kuqa, [[Turpan]], [[Dunhuang]] - that served as lifeline of the {{Wiki|silk}} roads through central {{Wiki|Asia}}."
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"{{Wiki|Merchants}} proved to be an efficient vector of the [[Buddhist]] [[faith]], as they established {{Wiki|diaspora}} communities in the string of oasis towns-Merv, [[Bukhara]], {{Wiki|Samarkand}}, [[wikipedia:Kashgar|Kashgar]], [[wikipedia:Khotan|Khotan]], [[Kuqa]], [[Turpan]], [[Dunhuang]] - that served as lifeline of the {{Wiki|silk}} roads through central {{Wiki|Asia}}."
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===[[Aśoka and the Mauryan Empire]]===
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==[[Aśoka and the Mauryan Empire]]==
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The {{Wiki|Maurya empire}} reached its peak at the time of [[emperor]] [[Aśoka]], who converted to [[Buddhism]] under the influence of his [[Buddhist]] wife and {{Wiki|Empress}} [[consort]] [[Devi]] after the [[Battle of Kaliṅga]].
  
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This heralded a long period of stability under the [[Buddhist]] [[emperor]].
  
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The power of the [[empire]] was vast—ambassadors were sent to other countries to propagate [[Buddhism]].
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{{Wiki|Greek}} envoy [[Megasthenes]] describes the [[wealth]] of the [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] capital. [[Stupas]], pillars and {{Wiki|edicts}} on stone remain at [[Sanchi]], [[Sarnath]] and [[Mathura]], indicating the extent of the [[empire]].
  
The {{Wiki|Maurya empire}} reached its peak at the time of [[emperor]] [[Aśoka]], who converted to [[Buddhism]] under the influence of his [[Buddhist]] wife and {{Wiki|Empress}} [[consort]] [[Devi]] after the Battle of [[Kaliṅga]]. This heralded a long period of stability under the [[Buddhist]] [[emperor]]. The power of the [[empire]] was vast—ambassadors were sent to other countries to propagate [[Buddhism]]. {{Wiki|Greek}} envoy [[Megasthenes]] describes the [[wealth]] of the [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] capital. [[Stupas]], pillars and {{Wiki|edicts}} on stone remain at [[Sanchi]], [[Sarnath]] and [[Mathura]], indicating the extent of the [[empire]].
 
  
 
[[Emperor]] [[Aśoka]] the Great (304 BCE–232 BCE) was the [[ruler]] of the {{Wiki|Maurya Empire}} from 273 BCE to 232 BCE.
 
[[Emperor]] [[Aśoka]] the Great (304 BCE–232 BCE) was the [[ruler]] of the {{Wiki|Maurya Empire}} from 273 BCE to 232 BCE.
 
[[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|proselytism}} at the time of [[king]] [[Asoka]] (260-218 BCE), according to his Edicts.
 
[[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|proselytism}} at the time of [[king]] [[Asoka]] (260-218 BCE), according to his Edicts.
  
[[Aśoka]] reigned over most of [[India]] after a series of {{Wiki|military}} campaigns. [[Emperor]] Aśoka's {{Wiki|kingdom}} stretched from {{Wiki|South Asia}} and beyond, from present-day parts of {{Wiki|Afghanistan}} in the [[north]] and Balochistan in the [[west]], to {{Wiki|Bengal}} and {{Wiki|Assam}} in the [[east]], and as far [[south]] as {{Wiki|Mysore}}.
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[[Aśoka]] reigned over most of [[India]] after a series of {{Wiki|military}} campaigns. [[Emperor]] Aśoka's {{Wiki|kingdom}} stretched from {{Wiki|South Asia}} and beyond, from present-day parts of {{Wiki|Afghanistan}} in the [[north]] and [[Balochistan]] in the [[west]], to {{Wiki|Bengal}} and {{Wiki|Assam}} in the [[east]], and as far [[south]] as {{Wiki|Mysore}}.
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According to legend, [[emperor]] [[Aśoka]] was overwhelmed by [[guilt]] after the conquest of [[Kaliṅga]], following which he accepted [[Buddhism]] as personal [[faith]] with the help of his [[Brahmin]] mentors Rādhāsvāmī and Mañjūśrī.
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[[Aśoka]] established monuments marking several significant sites in the [[life]] of [[Śakyamuni Buddha]], and according to [[Buddhist tradition]] was closely involved in the preservation and [[transmission]] of [[Buddhism]].
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He used his position to propagate the relatively new [[philosophy]] to new heights, as far as [[ancient]] {{Wiki|Rome}} and {{Wiki|Egypt}}.
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===[[Graeco-Bactrians]], [[Sakas]] and [[Indo-Parthians]]===
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[[Menander]] was the most famous [[Wikipedia:Bactria|Bactrian]] [[king]]. He ruled from [[Taxila]] and later from [[Sagala]] ([[Sialkot]]). He rebuilt [[Taxila]] ([[Sirkap]]) and [[Puṣkalavatī]]. He became [[Buddhist]] and is remembered in [[Buddhists]] records due to his discussions with a great [[Buddhist philosopher]] in the [[book]] [[Milinda Pañha]].
  
According to legend, [[emperor]] [[Aśoka]] was overwhelmed by [[guilt]] after the conquest of [[Kaliṅga]], following which he accepted [[Buddhism]] as personal [[faith]] with the help of his [[Brahmin]] mentors Rādhāsvāmī and Mañjūśrī. [[Aśoka]] established monuments marking several significant sites in the [[life]] of [[Śakyamuni Buddha]], and according to [[Buddhist tradition]] was closely involved in the preservation and [[transmission]] of [[Buddhism]]. He used his position to propagate the relatively new [[philosophy]] to new heights, as far as [[ancient]] {{Wiki|Rome}} and {{Wiki|Egypt}}.
 
Graeco-Bactrians, [[Sakas]] and Indo-Parthians
 
  
[[Menander]] was the most famous [[Wikipedia:Bactria|Bactrian]] [[king]]. He ruled from [[Taxila]] and later from [[Sagala]] ([[Sialkot]]). He rebuilt [[Taxila]] ([[Sirkap]]) and Puṣkalavatī. He became [[Buddhist]] and is remembered in [[Buddhists]] records due to his discussions with a great [[Buddhist philosopher]] in the [[book]] [[Milinda Pañha]].
 
  
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By 90 BC, [[Parthians]] took control of eastern {{Wiki|Iran}} and around 50 BC put an end to last remnants of {{Wiki|Greek}} {{Wiki|rule}} in {{Wiki|Afghanistan}}.
  
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By around 7 AD, an [[Indo-Parthian dynasty]] succeeded in taking control of [[Gandhāra]]. [[Parthians]] continued to support {{Wiki|Greek}} artistic [[traditions]] in [[Gandhara]].
  
By 90 BC, [[Parthians]] took control of eastern {{Wiki|Iran}} and around 50 BC put an end to last remnants of {{Wiki|Greek}} {{Wiki|rule}} in {{Wiki|Afghanistan}}. By around 7 AD, an [[Indo-Parthian dynasty]] succeeded in taking control of [[Gandhāra]]. [[Parthians]] continued to support {{Wiki|Greek}} artistic [[traditions]] in [[Gandhara]]. The start of the [[Gandhāran]] [[Greco-Buddhist art]] is dated to the period between 50 BC and 75 AD.
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The start of the [[Gandhāran]] [[Greco-Buddhist art]] is dated to the period between 50 BC and 75 AD.
 
[[Wikipedia:Kushan Empire|Kuṣāna]] [[Empire]]
 
[[Wikipedia:Kushan Empire|Kuṣāna]] [[Empire]]
  
[[Wikipedia:Kushan Empire|Kuṣāna]] under [[emperor]] [[Wikipedia:Kanishka|Kaniṣka]] was known as the {{Wiki|Kingdom}} of [[Gandhāra]]. The [[Buddhist art]] spread outward from [[Gandhāra]] to other parts of {{Wiki|Asia}}. He greatly encouraged [[Buddhism]]. Before [[Wikipedia:Kanishka|Kaniṣka]], [[Buddha]] was not represented in [[human form]]. In [[Gandhāra]] [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] flourished and [[Buddha]] was represented in [[human form]].
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[[Wikipedia:Kushan Empire|Kuṣāna]] under [[emperor]] [[Wikipedia:Kanishka|Kaniṣka]] was known as the {{Wiki|Kingdom}} of [[Gandhāra]]. The [[Buddhist art]] spread outward from [[Gandhāra]] to other parts of {{Wiki|Asia}}.  
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He greatly encouraged [[Buddhism]]. Before [[Wikipedia:Kanishka|Kaniṣka]], [[Buddha]] was not represented in [[human form]]. In [[Gandhāra]] [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] flourished and [[Buddha]] was represented in [[human form]].
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===The [[Pāla and Sena era]]===
  
==The [[Pāla and Sena era]]==
 
  
Under the {{Wiki|rule}} of the Pāla and [[Sena]][disambiguation needed] [[kings]], large mahāvihāras flourished in what is now [[Bihar]] and {{Wiki|Bengal}}. According to [[Tibetan]] sources, five great Mahāvihāras stood out: [[Vikramashila]], the premier {{Wiki|university}} of the {{Wiki|era}}; [[Nālanda]], {{Wiki|past}} its prime but still illustrious, [[Somapura]], [[Odantapurā]], and [[Jaggadala]]. The five [[monasteries]] formed a network; "all of them were under [[state]] supervision" and their existed "a system of co-ordination among them . . it seems from the {{Wiki|evidence}} that the different seats of [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|learning}} that functioned in {{Wiki|eastern India}} under the Pāla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of {{Wiki|institutions}}," and it was common for great [[scholars]] to move easily from position to position among them.
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Under the {{Wiki|rule}} of the Pāla and [[Sena]][disambiguation needed] [[kings]], large mahāvihāras flourished in what is now [[Bihar]] and {{Wiki|Bengal}}. According to [[Tibetan]] sources, five great Mahāvihāras stood out: [[Vikramashila]], the premier {{Wiki|university}} of the {{Wiki|era}}; [[Nālanda]], {{Wiki|past}} its prime but still illustrious, [[Somapura]], [[Odantapurā]], and [[Jaggadala]].  
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The five [[monasteries]] formed a network; "all of them were under [[state]] supervision" and their existed "a system of co-[[ordination]] among them . . it seems from the {{Wiki|evidence}} that the different seats of [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|learning}} that functioned in {{Wiki|eastern India}} under the [[Pāla]] were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of {{Wiki|institutions}}," and it was common for great [[scholars]] to move easily from position to position among them.
  
  
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In the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], [[Ashoka]] mentions the {{Wiki|Hellenistic}} [[kings]] of the period as a recipient of his [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|proselytism}}. Emissaries of [[Ashoka]], such as [[Dharmaraksita]], are described in [[Pali]] sources as leading {{Wiki|Greek}} ("[[Yona]]") [[Buddhist monks]], active in [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|proselytism}} (the [[Mahavamsa]], XII).
 
In the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], [[Ashoka]] mentions the {{Wiki|Hellenistic}} [[kings]] of the period as a recipient of his [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|proselytism}}. Emissaries of [[Ashoka]], such as [[Dharmaraksita]], are described in [[Pali]] sources as leading {{Wiki|Greek}} ("[[Yona]]") [[Buddhist monks]], active in [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|proselytism}} (the [[Mahavamsa]], XII).
  
{{Wiki|Roman}} Historical accounts describe an {{Wiki|embassy}} sent by the "[[Indian]] [[king]] [[Wikipedia:Pandyan Dynasty|Pandion]] ({{Wiki|Pandya}}?), also named Porus," to {{Wiki|Caesar Augustus}} around the 1st century. The {{Wiki|embassy}} was travelling with a diplomatic [[letter]] in {{Wiki|Greek}}, and one of its members was a [[sramana]] who burned himself alive in Athens, to demonstrate his [[faith]]. The event made a [[sensation]] and was described by {{Wiki|Nicolaus of Damascus}}, who met the {{Wiki|embassy}} at {{Wiki|Antioch}}, and related by {{Wiki|Strabo}} (XV,1,73) and {{Wiki|Dio Cassius}} (liv, 9). A tomb was made to the [[sramana]], still [[visible]] in the time of Plutarch, which bore the mention:
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{{Wiki|Roman}} Historical accounts describe an {{Wiki|embassy}} sent by the "[[Indian]] [[king]] [[Wikipedia:Pandyan Dynasty|Pandion]] ({{Wiki|Pandya}}?), also named Porus," to {{Wiki|Caesar Augustus}} around the 1st century.  
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The {{Wiki|embassy}} was traveling with a diplomatic [[letter]] in {{Wiki|Greek}}, and one of its members was a [[sramana]] who burned himself alive in Athens, to demonstrate his [[faith]].  
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The event made a [[sensation]] and was described by {{Wiki|Nicolaus of Damascus}}, who met the {{Wiki|embassy}} at {{Wiki|Antioch}}, and related by {{Wiki|Strabo}} (XV,1,73) and {{Wiki|Dio Cassius}} (liv, 9).  
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A tomb was made to the [[sramana]], still [[visible]] in the time of Plutarch, which bore the mention:
  
  
 
("The [[sramana]] [[master]] from {{Wiki|Barygaza}} in [[India]]")
 
("The [[sramana]] [[master]] from {{Wiki|Barygaza}} in [[India]]")
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[[Lokaksema]] is the earliest known [[Buddhist monk]] to have translated [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhist scriptures]] into the [[Chinese language]]. [[Gandharan]] [[monks]] [[Jnanagupta]] and [[Prajna]] contributed through several important translations of [[Sanskrit]] [[sutras]] into [[Chinese language]].
 
[[Lokaksema]] is the earliest known [[Buddhist monk]] to have translated [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhist scriptures]] into the [[Chinese language]]. [[Gandharan]] [[monks]] [[Jnanagupta]] and [[Prajna]] contributed through several important translations of [[Sanskrit]] [[sutras]] into [[Chinese language]].
  
The [[Indian]] [[dhyana]] [[master]] [[Buddhabhadra]] was the founding [[abbot]] and [[patriarch]] of the [[Shaolin Temple]]. [[Buddhist monk]] and [[esoteric]] [[master]] from [[South India]] (6th century), [[Kanchipuram]] is regarded as the [[patriarch]] of the Ti-Lun school. [[Bodhidharma]] (c. 6th century) was the [[Buddhist]] [[Bhikkhu]] [[traditionally]] credited as the founder of [[Zen Buddhism]] in [[China]].
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The [[Indian]] [[dhyana]] [[master]] [[Buddhabhadra]] was the founding [[abbot]] and [[patriarch]] of the [[Shaolin Temple]]. [[Buddhist monk]] and [[esoteric]] [[master]] from [[South India]] (6th century), [[Kanchipuram]] is regarded as the [[patriarch]] of the [[Ti-Lun school]].  
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[[Bodhidharma]] (c. 6th century) was the [[Buddhist]] [[Bhikkhu]] [[traditionally]] credited as the founder of [[Zen Buddhism]] in [[China]].
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In 580, [[Indian monk]] [[Vinītaruci]] travelled to [[Vietnam]]. This, then, would be the first [[appearance]] of [[Vietnamese Zen]], or [[Thien]] [[Buddhism]].
 
In 580, [[Indian monk]] [[Vinītaruci]] travelled to [[Vietnam]]. This, then, would be the first [[appearance]] of [[Vietnamese Zen]], or [[Thien]] [[Buddhism]].
[[Guru Rinpoche]], the {{Wiki|patron}} [[saint]] of [[Sikkim]]. The 118 foot statue in Namchi, [[South]] [[Sikkim]], is the tallest statue of the [[saint]] in the [[world]].
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[[Guru Rinpoche]], the {{Wiki|patron}} [[saint]] of [[Sikkim]]. The 118 foot statue in [[Namchi]], [[South]] [[Sikkim]], is the tallest statue of the [[saint]] in the [[world]].
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[[Padmasambhava]], in [[Sanskrit]] meaning "[[lotus-born]]", is said to have brought [[Tantric Buddhism]] to [[Tibet]] in the 8th century. In [[Bhutan]] and [[Tibet]] he is better known as "[[Guru Rinpoche]]" ("[[Precious Master]]") where followers of the [[Nyingma school]] regard him as the [[second Buddha]].  
  
[[Padmasambhava]], in [[Sanskrit]] meaning "[[lotus-born]]", is said to have brought [[Tantric Buddhism]] to [[Tibet]] in the 8th century. In [[Bhutan]] and [[Tibet]] he is better known as "[[Guru Rinpoche]]" ("[[Precious Master]]") where followers of the [[Nyingma school]] regard him as the [[second Buddha]]. [[Śāntarakṣita]], [[abbot]] of [[Nālanda]] and founder of the [[Yogacara-Madhyamaka]] is said to have helped [[Padmasambhava]] establish [[Buddhism in Tibet]].
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[[Śāntarakṣita]], [[abbot]] of [[Nālanda]] and founder of the [[Yogacara]]-[[Madhyamaka]] is said to have helped [[Padmasambhava]] establish [[Buddhism in Tibet]].
  
 
[[Indian monk]] [[Atiśa]], holder of the [[mind training]] (Tib. [[lojong]]) teachings, is considered an indirect founder of the [[Geluk school]] of [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. [[Indian]] [[monks]], such as [[Vajrabodhi]], also travelled to {{Wiki|Indonesia}} to propagate [[Buddhism]].
 
[[Indian monk]] [[Atiśa]], holder of the [[mind training]] (Tib. [[lojong]]) teachings, is considered an indirect founder of the [[Geluk school]] of [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. [[Indian]] [[monks]], such as [[Vajrabodhi]], also travelled to {{Wiki|Indonesia}} to propagate [[Buddhism]].
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The {{Wiki|decline}} of [[Buddhism]] has been attributed to various factors. Regardless of the [[religious]] [[beliefs]] of their [[kings]], states usually treated all the important sects relatively even-handedly. This consisted of building [[monasteries]] and [[religious]] monuments, donating property such as the income of villages for the support of [[monks]], and exempting donated property from taxation. {{Wiki|Donations}} were most often made by private persons such as wealthy {{Wiki|merchants}} and {{Wiki|female}} relatives of the {{Wiki|royal}} [[family]], but there were periods when the [[state]] also gave its support and [[protection]]. In the case of [[Buddhism]], this support was particularly important because of its high level of [[organization]] and the reliance of [[monks]] on {{Wiki|donations}} from the laity. [[State]] {{Wiki|patronage}} of [[Buddhism]] took the [[form]] of massive propertied foundations.
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The {{Wiki|decline}} of [[Buddhism]] has been attributed to various factors. Regardless of the [[religious]] [[beliefs]] of their [[kings]], states usually treated all the important sects relatively evenhandedly.  
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This consisted of building [[monasteries]] and [[religious]] monuments, donating property such as the income of villages for the support of [[monks]], and exempting donated property from taxation.  
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{{Wiki|Donations}} were most often made by private persons such as wealthy {{Wiki|merchants}} and {{Wiki|female}} relatives of the {{Wiki|royal}} [[family]], but there were periods when the [[state]] also gave its support and [[protection]].  
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In the case of [[Buddhism]], this support was particularly important because of its high level of [[organization]] and the reliance of [[monks]] on {{Wiki|donations}} from the laity. [[State]] {{Wiki|patronage}} of [[Buddhism]] took the [[form]] of massive propertied foundations.
  
 
The [[gradual]] expansion of [[caste]] regulations shifted {{Wiki|political}} and economic power to localities, reversing a trend toward centralization. The [[caste]] system began to dominate {{Wiki|secular}} [[life]] as a code for {{Wiki|social}} and economic transactions.
 
The [[gradual]] expansion of [[caste]] regulations shifted {{Wiki|political}} and economic power to localities, reversing a trend toward centralization. The [[caste]] system began to dominate {{Wiki|secular}} [[life]] as a code for {{Wiki|social}} and economic transactions.
  
[[Brahmins]] developed a new relationship with the [[state]] that obliged {{Wiki|political}} officials to enforce the [[caste]] regulations. As the system grew, states gradually lost control of land revenue. A key transition was the downfall of the [[Guptas]]. [[Indian]] [[society]] developed in a manner opposite to that of [[China]] or {{Wiki|Rome}}, which were dominated by government officials. Instead, [[Brahmins]] became [[Wikipedia:Heredity|hereditary]] authorities in a series of weak, {{Wiki|ephemeral}} states.
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[[Brahmins]] developed a new relationship with the [[state]] that obliged {{Wiki|political}} officials to enforce the [[caste]] regulations. As the system grew, states gradually lost control of land revenue.  
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A key transition was the downfall of the [[Guptas]]. [[Indian]] [[society]] developed in a manner opposite to that of [[China]] or {{Wiki|Rome}}, which were dominated by government officials. Instead, [[Brahmins]] became [[Wikipedia:Heredity|hereditary]] authorities in a series of weak, {{Wiki|ephemeral}} states.
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[[Brahmins]] came to regulate more and more aspects of public [[life]], and collected fees for the performance of [[rituals]].
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[[Caste]] law, administered by [[Brahmins]], was built up to control all local economic production and much of its distribution, [[transforming]] the property system. Hinduism's displacement of [[Buddhism]] came by this indirect route.
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[[Orthodox]] [[Brahmins]] could now dictate the flow of resources upon which institutional [[Buddhism]] depended.
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[[Buddhism]] was also weakened by rival {{Wiki|Hindu temples}}, an innovation of the [[bhakti]] {{Wiki|movement}}, and the [[appearance]] of [[Hindu]] [[monks]]. These undercut [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|patronage}} and popular support.
  
[[Brahmins]] came to regulate more and more aspects of public [[life]], and collected fees for the performance of [[rituals]]. [[Caste]] law, administered by [[Brahmins]], was built up to control all local economic production and much of its distribution, [[transforming]] the property system. Hinduism's displacement of [[Buddhism]] came by this indirect route. [[Orthodox]] [[Brahmins]] could now dictate the flow of resources upon which institutional [[Buddhism]] depended. [[Buddhism]] was also weakened by rival {{Wiki|Hindu temples}}, an innovation of the [[bhakti]] {{Wiki|movement}}, and the [[appearance]] of [[Hindu]] [[monks]]. These undercut [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|patronage}} and popular support.
 
  
 
The last [[empire]] to support [[Buddhism]], the [[Wikipedia:Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Pala dynasty]], fell in the 12th century, and {{Wiki|Muslim}} invaders destroyed [[monasteries]] and monuments.
 
The last [[empire]] to support [[Buddhism]], the [[Wikipedia:Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Pala dynasty]], fell in the 12th century, and {{Wiki|Muslim}} invaders destroyed [[monasteries]] and monuments.
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The period between the 400 CE and 1000 CE saw gains by [[Brahmanism]] and local {{Wiki|cults}} at the expense of [[Buddhism]].
 
The period between the 400 CE and 1000 CE saw gains by [[Brahmanism]] and local {{Wiki|cults}} at the expense of [[Buddhism]].
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==The [[White Hun invasions]]==
 
==The [[White Hun invasions]]==
  
{{Wiki|Chinese}} [[scholars]] traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries, such as [[Faxian]], [[Xuanzang]], [[I-ching]], [[Hui-sheng]], and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a {{Wiki|decline}} of the [[Buddhist Sangha]], especially in the wake of the White Hun invasion. The {{Wiki|Huns}} were a [[nomadic]] {{Wiki|Central Asian}} [[people]]. [[Xuanzang]], the most famous of {{Wiki|Chinese}} travellers, found “millions of [[monasteries]]” in north-western [[India]] reduced to ruins by the {{Wiki|Huns}}.
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{{Wiki|Chinese}} [[scholars]] traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries, such as [[Faxian]], [[Xuanzang]], [[I-ching]], [[Hui-sheng]], and [[Sung-Yun]], began to speak of a {{Wiki|decline}} of the [[Buddhist Sangha]], especially in the wake of the [[White Hun invasion]]. The {{Wiki|Huns}} were a [[nomadic]] {{Wiki|Central Asian}} [[people]]. [[Xuanzang]], the most famous of {{Wiki|Chinese}} travelers, found “millions of [[monasteries]]” in north-western [[India]] reduced to ruins by the {{Wiki|Huns}}.
  
  
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The {{Wiki|Muslim}} conquest of the [[Indian]] subcontinent was the first great iconoclastic invasion into {{Wiki|South Asia}}. By the end of 10th century CE, [[Buddhism]] had almost completely disappeared from [[Northern]] and [[Deccan]] regions of [[India]], as apparent from [[Xuanzang]] and Al-Biruni's accounts. However, the occasional destruction of [[monasteries]] and [[stupas]] has been attributed with a final effacement. Additionally, more {{Wiki|academic}} [[forms]] of [[Indian Buddhism]] relied on {{Wiki|patronage}} by [[kings]] and {{Wiki|merchants}} and this change in rulership coupled with the economic {{Wiki|integration}} with the {{Wiki|Muslim}} [[world]] and thus the growing {{Wiki|domination}} of long-distance trade by the {{Wiki|Muslim}} {{Wiki|merchant}} class eroded these sources of {{Wiki|patronage}} resulting in an [[absorption]] into either [[Hinduism]] or {{Wiki|Islam}}.
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The {{Wiki|Muslim}} conquest of the [[Indian]] subcontinent was the first great iconoclastic invasion into {{Wiki|South Asia}}. By the end of 10th century CE, [[Buddhism]] had almost completely disappeared from [[Northern]] and [[Deccan]] regions of [[India]], as apparent from [[Xuanzang]] and [[Al-Biruni's]] accounts. However, the occasional destruction of [[monasteries]] and [[stupas]] has been attributed with a final effacement.  
[[Causes]] within the [[Buddhist tradition]] of the time
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Additionally, more {{Wiki|academic}} [[forms]] of [[Indian Buddhism]] relied on {{Wiki|patronage}} by [[kings]] and {{Wiki|merchants}} and this change in rulership coupled with the economic {{Wiki|integration}} with the {{Wiki|Muslim}} [[world]] and thus the growing {{Wiki|domination}} of long-distance trade by the {{Wiki|Muslim}} {{Wiki|merchant}} class eroded these sources of {{Wiki|patronage}} resulting in an [[absorption]] into either [[Hinduism]] or {{Wiki|Islam}}.
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==[[Causes within the Buddhist tradition of the time]]==
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By the time the {{Wiki|Muslims}} began conquering {{Wiki|northern India}} in the 12th century under the [[Ghurids]], the number of [[monasteries]] had severely declined. [[Buddhism]], which once had spread across the face of [[India]], was a [[vital force]] confined to an ever-shrinking number of [[monasteries]] in the areas of its origins.
  
By the time the {{Wiki|Muslims}} began conquering {{Wiki|northern India}} in the 12th century under the [[Ghurids]], the number of [[monasteries]] had severely declined. [[Buddhism]], which once had spread across the face of [[India]], was a [[vital force]] confined to an ever-shrinking number of [[monasteries]] in the areas of its origins. [[Scholars]] believe that the [[monasteries]] at the time became [[detached]] from everyday [[life]] in [[India]] and that [[Indian Buddhism]] had no [[rituals]] or {{Wiki|priests}} with the [[laymen]] relying on [[Brahmin]] {{Wiki|priests}} for marriages and [[funerals]].\\
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[[Scholars]] believe that the [[monasteries]] at the time became [[detached]] from everyday [[life]] in [[India]] and that [[Indian Buddhism]] had no [[rituals]] or {{Wiki|priests}} with the [[laymen]] relying on [[Brahmin]] {{Wiki|priests}} for marriages and [[funerals]].
  
  
 
==[[Revival of Buddhism in India]]==
 
==[[Revival of Buddhism in India]]==
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[[Anagarika Dharmapala]] and the [[Maha Bodhi Society]]
 
[[Anagarika Dharmapala]] and the [[Maha Bodhi Society]]
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In 1892, Kripasaran Mahasthavir founded the {{Wiki|Bengal}} [[Buddhist]] Association ([[Bauddha]] Dharmankur Sabha) in [[Calcutta]]. Kripasaran (1865–1926) was instrumental in uniting the [[Buddhist community]] of {{Wiki|Bengal}} and {{Wiki|North East India}}. He built other branches of the {{Wiki|Bengal}} [[Buddhist]] Association at {{Wiki|Shimla}} (1907), Lucknow (1907), Dibrugarh (1908), Ranchi (1915), Shillong (1918), {{Wiki|Darjeeling}} (1919), Tatanagar Jamshedpur (1922), as well as in Sakpura, Satbaria, Noapara, Uninepura, [[Chittagong]] Region in present-day [[Bangladesh]].
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In 1892, [[Kripasaran Mahasthavir]] founded the [[Bengal Buddhist Association]] ([[Bauddha Dharmankur Sabha]]) in [[Calcutta]]. [[Kripasaran]] (1865–1926) was instrumental in uniting the [[Buddhist community]] of {{Wiki|Bengal}} and {{Wiki|North East India}}.  
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He built other branches of the {{Wiki|Bengal}} [[Buddhist]] Association at {{Wiki|Shimla}} (1907), Lucknow (1907), Dibrugarh (1908), Ranchi (1915), Shillong (1918), {{Wiki|Darjeeling}} (1919), [[Tatanagar]] Jamshedpur (1922), as well as in [[Sakpura]], [[Satbaria]], [[Noapara]], [[Uninepura]], [[Chittagong]] Region in present-day [[Bangladesh]].
  
  
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The [[14th Dalai Lama]] departed [[Tibet]] in 1959, when [[Indian]] [[Prime Minister]] {{Wiki|Jawaharlal Nehru}} [[offered]] to permit him and his followers to establish a "government-in-exile" in {{Wiki|Dharamsala}}. [[Tibetan]] exiles have settled in the town, numbering several thousand. Many of these exiles live in Upper {{Wiki|Dharamsala}}, or [[McLeod Ganj]], where they established [[monasteries]], [[temples]] and schools. The town is sometimes known as "Little [[Lhasa]]", after the [[Tibetan]] {{Wiki|capital city}}, and has become one of the centers of [[Buddhism]] in the [[world]]. Many settlements for [[Tibetan]] refugee communities came up across many parts of [[India]] on the lands [[offered]] by the {{Wiki|Government of India}}. Some of the biggest [[Tibetan]] settlements in exile are in the [[state]] of [[Karnataka]]. The [[Dalai Lama's]] brother, Gyalo [[Thondup]], himself [[lives]] in [[Kalimpong]] and his wife established the [[Tibetan]] Refugee Centre in {{Wiki|Darjeeling}} . [[His Holiness]] [[Penor Rinpoche]], the head of [[Nyingma]], the [[ancient school]] of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] re-established a [[Nyingma monastery]] in {{Wiki|Bylakuppe}}, {{Wiki|Mysore}}. This is the largest [[Nyingma monastery]] today. [[Monks]] from [[Himalayan]] regions of [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and from [[Tibet]] join this [[monastery]] for their higher [[education]]. HH [[Penor Rinpoche]] also founded Thubten [[Lekshey Ling]], a [[dharma]] center for lay practitioners in [[Bangalore]]. [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] and [[Dzogchen]] (maha-sandhi) [[meditation]] again became accessible to aspirants in [[India]] after that.
+
The [[14th Dalai Lama]] departed [[Tibet]] in 1959, when [[Indian]] [[Prime Minister]] {{Wiki|Jawaharlal Nehru}} [[offered]] to permit him and his followers to establish a "government-in-exile" in {{Wiki|Dharamsala}}. [[Tibetan]] exiles have settled in the town, numbering several thousand.  
 +
 
 +
Many of these exiles live in Upper {{Wiki|Dharamsala}}, or [[McLeod Ganj]], where they established [[monasteries]], [[temples]] and schools.  
 +
 
 +
The town is sometimes known as "Little [[Lhasa]]", after the [[Tibetan]] {{Wiki|capital city}}, and has become one of the centers of [[Buddhism]] in the [[world]].  
 +
 
 +
Many settlements for [[Tibetan]] refugee communities came up across many parts of [[India]] on the lands [[offered]] by the {{Wiki|Government of India}}. Some of the biggest [[Tibetan]] settlements in exile are in the [[state]] of [[Karnataka]].  
 +
 
 +
The [[Dalai Lama's]] brother, [[Gyalo Thondup]], himself [[lives]] in [[Kalimpong]] and his wife established the [[Tibetan]] Refugee Centre in {{Wiki|Darjeeling}} .  
 +
 
 +
[[His Holiness]] [[Penor Rinpoche]], the head of [[Nyingma]], the [[ancient school]] of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] re-established a [[Nyingma monastery]] in {{Wiki|Bylakuppe}}, {{Wiki|Mysore}}.  
 +
 
 +
This is the largest [[Nyingma monastery]] today. [[Monks]] from [[Himalayan]] regions of [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and from [[Tibet]] join this [[monastery]] for their higher [[education]].  
 +
 
 +
HH [[Penor Rinpoche]] also founded [[Thubten Lekshey Ling]], a [[dharma]] center for lay practitioners in [[Bangalore]].  
 +
 
 +
[[Vajrayana Buddhism]] and [[Dzogchen]] ([[maha-sandhi]]) [[meditation]] again became accessible to aspirants in [[India]] after that.
 
Neo [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|movement}}
 
Neo [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|movement}}
  
 
Map of minority [[religions]] of [[India]], showing [[Buddhist]] regions and minorities. The [[Dalits]] who converted in 1956 are [[concentrated]] in the [[state]] of {{Wiki|Maharashtra}}.
 
Map of minority [[religions]] of [[India]], showing [[Buddhist]] regions and minorities. The [[Dalits]] who converted in 1956 are [[concentrated]] in the [[state]] of {{Wiki|Maharashtra}}.
  
A [[Buddhist]] revivalist {{Wiki|movement}} among Dalit {{Wiki|Indians}} was [[initiated]] in 1890s by socialist leaders such as Iyothee Thass, Bagya Reddy [[varma]] of {{Wiki|Hyderabad}}, and Damodar [[Dharmananda Kosambi]]. In the 1950s, Dr. [[B. R. Ambedkar]] turned his [[attention]] to [[Buddhism]] and travelled to [[Sri Lanka]] (then [[Ceylon]]) to attend a convention of [[Buddhist scholars]] and [[monks]]. While dedicating a new [[Buddhist]] [[vihara]] near Pune, Dr. [[B. R. Ambedkar]] announced that he was [[writing]] a [[book]] on [[Buddhism]], and that as soon as it was finished, he planned to make a formal [[conversion]] to [[Buddhism]]. Dr. [[B. R. Ambedkar]] twice visited [[Burma]] in 1954; the second time in order to attend the third conference of the {{Wiki|World Fellowship of Buddhists}} in [[Rangoon]]. In 1955, he founded the Bharatiya [[Bauddha]] [[Mahasabha]], or the [[Buddhist]] [[Society]] of [[India]]. He completed his final work, The [[Buddha]] and His [[Dhamma]], in 1956. It was published posthumously.
 
  
After meetings with the [[Sri Lankan]] [[Buddhist monk]] Hammalawa [[Saddhatissa]], [[Ambedkar]] organised a formal public {{Wiki|ceremony}} for himself and his supporters in Nagpur on 14 October 1956. Accepting the [[Three Refuges]] and [[Five Precepts]] from a [[Buddhist monk]] in the [[traditional]] manner, [[Ambedkar]] completed his [[own]] [[conversion]]. He then proceeded to convert an estimated 500,000 of his supporters who were [[gathered]] around him. Taking the 22 [[Vows]], [[Ambedkar]] and his supporters explicitly condemned and rejected [[Hinduism]] and [[Hindu]] philosophy.This was the world's biggest {{Wiki|mass}} [[religious]] [[conversion]]; it is celebrated by [[Buddhists]] every year at Nagpur; 1-1.5 million [[Buddhists]] [[gather]] there every year for the {{Wiki|ceremony}}. He then traveled to [[Kathmandu]] in [[Nepal]] to attend the Fourth [[World]] [[Buddhist]] Conference. His final {{Wiki|manuscript}}, The [[Buddha]] or {{Wiki|Karl Marx}}, remains unfinished; he [[died]] on 6 December 1956.
+
A [[Buddhist]] revivalist {{Wiki|movement}} among Dalit {{Wiki|Indians}} was [[initiated]] in 1890s by socialist leaders such as [[Iyothee Thass]], [[Bagya Reddy varma]] of {{Wiki|Hyderabad}}, and [[Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi]].
 +
 
 +
In the 1950s, Dr. [[B. R. Ambedkar]] turned his [[attention]] to [[Buddhism]] and travelled to [[Sri Lanka]] (then [[Ceylon]]) to attend a convention of [[Buddhist scholars]] and [[monks]].
 +
 
 +
While dedicating a new [[Buddhist]] [[vihara]] near Pune, Dr. [[B. R. Ambedkar]] announced that he was [[writing]] a [[book]] on [[Buddhism]], and that as soon as it was finished, he planned to make a formal [[conversion]] to [[Buddhism]].
 +
 
 +
Dr. [[B. R. Ambedkar]] twice visited [[Burma]] in 1954; the second time in order to attend the third conference of the {{Wiki|World Fellowship of Buddhists}} in [[Rangoon]].
 +
 
 +
In 1955, he founded the [[Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha]], or the [[Buddhist Society of India]]. He completed his final work, The [[Buddha]] and His [[Dhamma]], in 1956. It was published posthumously.
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
After meetings with the [[Sri Lankan]] [[Buddhist monk]] [[Hammalawa Saddhatissa]], [[Ambedkar]] organised a formal public {{Wiki|ceremony}} for himself and his supporters in Nagpur on 14 October 1956.  
 +
 
 +
Accepting the [[Three Refuges]] and [[Five Precepts]] from a [[Buddhist monk]] in the [[traditional]] manner, [[Ambedkar]] completed his [[own]] [[conversion]].  
 +
 
 +
He then proceeded to convert an estimated 500,000 of his supporters who were [[gathered]] around him. Taking the 22 [[Vows]], [[Ambedkar]] and his supporters explicitly condemned and rejected [[Hinduism]] and [[Hindu]] [[philosophy]].
 +
 
 +
This was the world's biggest {{Wiki|mass}} [[religious]] [[conversion]]; it is celebrated by [[Buddhists]] every year at Nagpur; 1-1.5 million [[Buddhists]] [[gather]] there every year for the {{Wiki|ceremony}}.  
 +
 
 +
He then traveled to [[Kathmandu]] in [[Nepal]] to attend the [[Fourth World Buddhist Conference]]. His final {{Wiki|manuscript}}, The [[Buddha]] or {{Wiki|Karl Marx}}, remains unfinished; he [[died]] on 6 December 1956.
  
  
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The [[Buddhist meditation]] [[tradition]] of [[Vipassana meditation]] is growing in [[popularity]] in [[India]]. Many institutions—both government and private sector—now offer courses for their employees. This [[form]] is mainly practiced by the {{Wiki|elite}} and middle class {{Wiki|Indians}}. This {{Wiki|movement}} has spread to many other countries in {{Wiki|Europe}}, [[America]] and {{Wiki|Asia}}.
+
The [[Buddhist meditation]] [[tradition]] of [[Vipassana meditation]] is growing in [[popularity]] in [[India]]. Many institutions—both government and private sector—now offer courses for their employees.  
 +
 
 +
This [[form]] is mainly practiced by the {{Wiki|elite}} and middle class {{Wiki|Indians}}.  
 +
 
 +
This {{Wiki|movement}} has spread to many other countries in {{Wiki|Europe}}, [[America]] and {{Wiki|Asia}}.
 
{{W}}
 
{{W}}
 
[[Category:India]]
 
[[Category:India]]
 
[[Category:History of Buddhism]]
 
[[Category:History of Buddhism]]

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Buddhism is a world religion, which arose in and around the ancient Kingdom of Magadha (now in Bihar, India), and is based on the teachings of Siddhārtha Gautama[note 1] who was deemed a "Buddha" ("Awakened One"). Buddhism spread outside of Magadha starting in the Buddha's lifetime.

With the reign of the Buddhist Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, the Buddhist community split into two branches: the Mahāsāṃghika and the Sthaviravāda, each of which spread throughout India and split into numerous sub-sects.


In modern times, two major branches of Buddhism exist: the Theravāda in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, and the Mahāyāna throughout the Himalayas and East Asia.

The practice of Buddhism as a distinct and organized religion lost influence after the Gupta reign (c.7th century CE), and declined from the land of its origin in around 13th century, but not without leaving a significant impact.

Buddhist practice is most common and Buddhism remains a major presence in the Himalayan areas such as Sikkim, Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh, the Darjeeling hills in West Bengal, and the Lahaul and Spiti areas of upper Himachal Pradesh.

Buddhism has been reemerging in India since the past century, due to its adoption by many Indian intellectuals, the migration of Buddhist Tibetan exiles, and the mass conversion of hundreds of thousands of Hindu Dalits.

According to the 2001 census, Buddhists make up 0.8% of India's population, or 7.95 million individuals.


Siddhārtha Gautama

Buddha was born in Lumbini in the central Ganges-plain, now in present-day Nepal, to a Vedic chieftain of Kapilvastu-Suddhodana. After asceticism and meditation which was a Samana practice, the Buddha discovered the Buddhist Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

Siddhārtha Gautama attained enlightenment sitting under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India.

Gautama, from then on, was known as "The Perfectly Self-Awakened One," the Samyaksambuddha. Buddha found patronage in the ruler of Magadha, emperor Bimbisāra.

The emperor accepted Buddhism as personal faith and allowed the establishment of many Buddhist "Vihāras." This eventually led to the renaming of the entire region as Bihar.

At the Deer Park Water Reservation near Vārāṇasī in northern India, Buddha set in motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought enlightenment.

They, together with the Buddha, formed the first Saṅgha, the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first formation of Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) was completed.

For the remaining years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain of Northern India and other regions.


Buddhists

Followers of Buddhism, called Buddhists in English, referred to themselves as Saugata. Other terms were Sakyans or Sakyabhiksu in ancient India. Sakyaputto was another term used by Buddhists, as well as Ariyasavako and Jinaputto.

Buddhist scholar Donald S. Lopez asserts they also used the term Bauddha, although scholar Richard Cohen asserts that that term was used only by outsiders to describe Buddhists.


Buddhist movements

The Buddha did not appoint any successor, and asked his followers to work toward liberation. The teachings of the Buddha existed only in oral traditions. The Sangha held a number of Buddhist councils in order to reach consenseus on matters of Buddhist doctrine and practice.

Mahākāśyapa, a disciple of the Buddha, presided over the first Buddhist council held at Rājagṛha. Its purpose was to recite and agree on the Buddha's actual teachings and on monastic discipline. Some scholars consider this council fictitious.

The Second Buddhist Council is said to have taken place at Vaiśālī. Its purpose was to deal with questionable monastic practices like the use of money, the drinking of palm wine, and other irregularities; the council declared these practices unlawful.


What is commonly called the Third Buddhist Council was held at Pāṭaliputra, and was allegedly called by Emperor Aśoka in the 3rd century BCE. Organized by the monk Moggaliputta Tissa, it was held in order to rid the sangha of the large number of monks who had joined the order because of its royal patronage.

Most scholars now believe this council was exclusively Theravada, and that the dispatch of missionaries to various countries at about this time was nothing to do with it.

What is often called the Fourth Buddhist council is generally believed to have been held under the patronage of Emperor Kaniṣka at Jālandhar in Kashmir, though the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it fictitious. It is generally believed to have been a council of the Sarvastivāda school.


Early Buddhism Schools

The Early Buddhist Schools were the various schools in which pre-sectarian Buddhism split in the first few centuries after the passing away of the Buddha (in about the 5th century BCE). The earliest division was between the majority Mahāsāṃghika and the minority Sthaviravāda. Some existing Buddhist traditions follow the vinayas of early Buddhist schools.


Theravāda: practiced mainly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Bangladesh.

Dharmaguptaka: followed in China, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan.

Mūlasarvāstivāda: followed in Tibetan Buddhism.


The Dharmaguptakas made more efforts than any other sect to spread Buddhism outside India, to areas such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China, and they had great success in doing so.

Therefore, most countries which adopted Buddhism from China, also adopted the Dharmaguptaka vinaya and ordination lineage for bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs.

During the early period of Chinese Buddhism, the Indian Buddhist sects recognized as important, and whose texts were studied, were the Dharmaguptakas, Mahīśāsakas, Kāśyapīyas, Sarvāstivādins, and the Mahāsāṃghikas.

Complete vinayas preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon include the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya (T. 1421), Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (T. 1425), Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (T. 1428), Sarvāstivāda Vinaya (T. 1435), and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (T. 1442).

Also preserved are a set of Āgamas (Sūtra Piṭaka), a complete Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭaka, and many other texts of the early Buddhist schools.

Early Buddhist schools in India often divided modes of Buddhist practice into several "vehicles" (yāna). For example, the Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins are known to have employed the outlook of Buddhist practice as consisting of the Three Vehicles:



Mahāyāna

The Mahāyāna tradition of Buddhism, developed in India, popularized the concept of a bodhisattva ("enlightenment being") and the worship of the bodhisattvas. Bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī, Avalokiteśvara, and Maitreya were highly esteemed in Indian Mahāyāna practice.

Mahāyāna Buddhism advocates the path of a bodhisattva practicing the pāramitās, or "perfections," culminating with Prajñāpāramitā, the perfection of wisdom.

Paul Williams has also noted that the Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early Buddhist schools, and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to one of the early Buddhist schools.

Membership in these nikāyas, or monastic sects, continues today with the Dharmaguptaka nikāya in East Asia, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda nikāya in Tibetan Buddhism.

Paul Harrison clarifies that while monastic Mahāyānists belonged to a nikāya, not all members of a nikāya were Mahāyānists. From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side.

The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th century CE, distinguishes Mahāyāna as follows:


Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offences, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. Those who venerate the bodhisattvas and read the Mahāyāna sūtras are called the Mahāyānists, while those who do not perform these are called the Hīnayānists.

Mahāyāna Buddhism includes the following Indian schools:


Mādhyamaka (Middle Way), a Mahāyāna tradition popularized by Nāgārjuna and Aśvaghoṣa.

Yogācāra (Consciousness Only), founded by Asaṅga and Vasubandhu.


Vajrayāna

A form of Indian Buddhism that emerged in the 4th century and later spread to China (Tangmi), Japan (Shingon), Tibet, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and other countries. It remains widespread in Tibetan Buddhism, and in Nepal, Bhutan, and Mongolia.

This school emerged from forest meditation traditions in northern India, in which the entire emphasis of teachings was on practice, using skillful means to attain the goal of enlightenment in one's present lifetime.[citation needed] This form is also known as Vajrayāna (The Diamond Vehicle).

Tantrism is an esoteric tradition. Its initiation ceremonies involve entry into a mandala, a mystic circle or symbolic map of the spiritual universe. Also central to Tantrism is the use of mudras and mantras.

A lesser known route of transmission is that which went through the valley of Kathmandu, situated in present-day Nepal.

The valley, forms the cradle of the Nepali state today, and since the farthest point in historical time, has found itself under the cultural influence of the South Asian Hindu (and also Buddhist) civilization.

However, being a distant outpost of Hinduism (and Buddhism), it was spared from the ravages of later Muslim conquests and social upheavals. Even after Buddhism died in the heartland, it survived in the Kathmandu valley.

Monastic records in the numerous monasteries show that until the mid-medieval period in Nepalese history, Tibetan students regularly came there for learning Buddhism from the local spiritual masters.

The Tibetan religious scripts Lantsha and Vartu are variants of the Rañjanā system used by the Newars of Kathmandu. However, due to numerous social, economic and political factors, Buddhist monasticism in the valley died.

By then Tibetan Buddhism had already gained prominence in the region.

Today, in the urban centres of Kathmandu valley, we still find Indian Mahayana Buddhism, modified through mixing with Vajrayāna, practiced by the local Buddhist Newar population.


Strengthening of Buddhism in India

The early spread of Buddhism

"During the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E.(Before Common Era), commerce and cash became increasingly important in an economy previously dominated by self-sufficient production and bartered exchange.

Merchants found Buddhist moral and ethical teachings an attractive alternative to the esoteric rituals of the traditional Brahmin priesthood, which seemed to cater exclusively to Brahmin interests while ignoring those of the new and emerging social classes."


"Furthermore, Buddhism was prominent in communities of merchants, who found it well suited to their needs and who increasingly established commercial links throughout the Mauryan empire."

"Merchants proved to be an efficient vector of the Buddhist faith, as they established diaspora communities in the string of oasis towns-Merv, Bukhara, Samarkand, Kashgar, Khotan, Kuqa, Turpan, Dunhuang - that served as lifeline of the silk roads through central Asia."


Aśoka and the Mauryan Empire

The Maurya empire reached its peak at the time of emperor Aśoka, who converted to Buddhism under the influence of his Buddhist wife and Empress consort Devi after the Battle of Kaliṅga.

This heralded a long period of stability under the Buddhist emperor.

The power of the empire was vast—ambassadors were sent to other countries to propagate Buddhism.

Greek envoy Megasthenes describes the wealth of the Mauryan capital. Stupas, pillars and edicts on stone remain at Sanchi, Sarnath and Mathura, indicating the extent of the empire.


Emperor Aśoka the Great (304 BCE–232 BCE) was the ruler of the Maurya Empire from 273 BCE to 232 BCE. Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Asoka (260-218 BCE), according to his Edicts.

Aśoka reigned over most of India after a series of military campaigns. Emperor Aśoka's kingdom stretched from South Asia and beyond, from present-day parts of Afghanistan in the north and Balochistan in the west, to Bengal and Assam in the east, and as far south as Mysore.

According to legend, emperor Aśoka was overwhelmed by guilt after the conquest of Kaliṅga, following which he accepted Buddhism as personal faith with the help of his Brahmin mentors Rādhāsvāmī and Mañjūśrī.

Aśoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Śakyamuni Buddha, and according to Buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of Buddhism.

He used his position to propagate the relatively new philosophy to new heights, as far as ancient Rome and Egypt.


Graeco-Bactrians, Sakas and Indo-Parthians

Menander was the most famous Bactrian king. He ruled from Taxila and later from Sagala (Sialkot). He rebuilt Taxila (Sirkap) and Puṣkalavatī. He became Buddhist and is remembered in Buddhists records due to his discussions with a great Buddhist philosopher in the book Milinda Pañha.


By 90 BC, Parthians took control of eastern Iran and around 50 BC put an end to last remnants of Greek rule in Afghanistan.

By around 7 AD, an Indo-Parthian dynasty succeeded in taking control of Gandhāra. Parthians continued to support Greek artistic traditions in Gandhara.

The start of the Gandhāran Greco-Buddhist art is dated to the period between 50 BC and 75 AD. Kuṣāna Empire

Kuṣāna under emperor Kaniṣka was known as the Kingdom of Gandhāra. The Buddhist art spread outward from Gandhāra to other parts of Asia.

He greatly encouraged Buddhism. Before Kaniṣka, Buddha was not represented in human form. In Gandhāra Mahāyāna Buddhism flourished and Buddha was represented in human form.


The Pāla and Sena era

Under the rule of the Pāla and Sena[disambiguation needed] kings, large mahāvihāras flourished in what is now Bihar and Bengal. According to Tibetan sources, five great Mahāvihāras stood out: Vikramashila, the premier university of the era; Nālanda, past its prime but still illustrious, Somapura, Odantapurā, and Jaggadala.

The five monasteries formed a network; "all of them were under state supervision" and their existed "a system of co-ordination among them . . it seems from the evidence that the different seats of Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India under the Pāla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of institutions," and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them.



Dharma masters

Indian ascetics (Skt. śramaṇa) propagated Buddhism in various regions, including East Asia and Central Asia.

In the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of his Buddhist proselytism. Emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII).

Roman Historical accounts describe an embassy sent by the "Indian king Pandion (Pandya?), also named Porus," to Caesar Augustus around the 1st century.


The embassy was traveling with a diplomatic letter in Greek, and one of its members was a sramana who burned himself alive in Athens, to demonstrate his faith.

The event made a sensation and was described by Nicolaus of Damascus, who met the embassy at Antioch, and related by Strabo (XV,1,73) and Dio Cassius (liv, 9).

A tomb was made to the sramana, still visible in the time of Plutarch, which bore the mention:


("The sramana master from Barygaza in India")


Lokaksema is the earliest known Buddhist monk to have translated Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into the Chinese language. Gandharan monks Jnanagupta and Prajna contributed through several important translations of Sanskrit sutras into Chinese language.


The Indian dhyana master Buddhabhadra was the founding abbot and patriarch of the Shaolin Temple. Buddhist monk and esoteric master from South India (6th century), Kanchipuram is regarded as the patriarch of the Ti-Lun school.

Bodhidharma (c. 6th century) was the Buddhist Bhikkhu traditionally credited as the founder of Zen Buddhism in China.


In 580, Indian monk Vinītaruci travelled to Vietnam. This, then, would be the first appearance of Vietnamese Zen, or Thien Buddhism. Guru Rinpoche, the patron saint of Sikkim. The 118 foot statue in Namchi, South Sikkim, is the tallest statue of the saint in the world.

Padmasambhava, in Sanskrit meaning "lotus-born", is said to have brought Tantric Buddhism to Tibet in the 8th century. In Bhutan and Tibet he is better known as "Guru Rinpoche" ("Precious Master") where followers of the Nyingma school regard him as the second Buddha.

Śāntarakṣita, abbot of Nālanda and founder of the Yogacara-Madhyamaka is said to have helped Padmasambhava establish Buddhism in Tibet.

Indian monk Atiśa, holder of the mind training (Tib. lojong) teachings, is considered an indirect founder of the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism. Indian monks, such as Vajrabodhi, also travelled to Indonesia to propagate Buddhism.


Decline of Buddhism in India

The decline of Buddhism has been attributed to various factors. Regardless of the religious beliefs of their kings, states usually treated all the important sects relatively evenhandedly.

This consisted of building monasteries and religious monuments, donating property such as the income of villages for the support of monks, and exempting donated property from taxation.

Donations were most often made by private persons such as wealthy merchants and female relatives of the royal family, but there were periods when the state also gave its support and protection.

In the case of Buddhism, this support was particularly important because of its high level of organization and the reliance of monks on donations from the laity. State patronage of Buddhism took the form of massive propertied foundations.

The gradual expansion of caste regulations shifted political and economic power to localities, reversing a trend toward centralization. The caste system began to dominate secular life as a code for social and economic transactions.

Brahmins developed a new relationship with the state that obliged political officials to enforce the caste regulations. As the system grew, states gradually lost control of land revenue.

A key transition was the downfall of the Guptas. Indian society developed in a manner opposite to that of China or Rome, which were dominated by government officials. Instead, Brahmins became hereditary authorities in a series of weak, ephemeral states.

Brahmins came to regulate more and more aspects of public life, and collected fees for the performance of rituals.

Caste law, administered by Brahmins, was built up to control all local economic production and much of its distribution, transforming the property system. Hinduism's displacement of Buddhism came by this indirect route.

Orthodox Brahmins could now dictate the flow of resources upon which institutional Buddhism depended.

Buddhism was also weakened by rival Hindu temples, an innovation of the bhakti movement, and the appearance of Hindu monks. These undercut Buddhist patronage and popular support.


The last empire to support Buddhism, the Pala dynasty, fell in the 12th century, and Muslim invaders destroyed monasteries and monuments.


Influence of Hinduism

It has been asserted, simplistically and without much historical evidence, that Hinduism became a more "intelligible and satisfying road to faith for many ordinary worshippers" than it had been because it now included not only an appeal to a personal god, but had also seen the development of an emotional facet with the composition of devotional hymns.

The period between the 400 CE and 1000 CE saw gains by Brahmanism and local cults at the expense of Buddhism.


The White Hun invasions

Chinese scholars traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries, such as Faxian, Xuanzang, I-ching, Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist Sangha, especially in the wake of the White Hun invasion. The Huns were a nomadic Central Asian people. Xuanzang, the most famous of Chinese travelers, found “millions of monasteries” in north-western India reduced to ruins by the Huns.


Turkish Muslim conquerors

The Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent was the first great iconoclastic invasion into South Asia. By the end of 10th century CE, Buddhism had almost completely disappeared from Northern and Deccan regions of India, as apparent from Xuanzang and Al-Biruni's accounts. However, the occasional destruction of monasteries and stupas has been attributed with a final effacement.

Additionally, more academic forms of Indian Buddhism relied on patronage by kings and merchants and this change in rulership coupled with the economic integration with the Muslim world and thus the growing domination of long-distance trade by the Muslim merchant class eroded these sources of patronage resulting in an absorption into either Hinduism or Islam.


Causes within the Buddhist tradition of the time

By the time the Muslims began conquering northern India in the 12th century under the Ghurids, the number of monasteries had severely declined. Buddhism, which once had spread across the face of India, was a vital force confined to an ever-shrinking number of monasteries in the areas of its origins.

Scholars believe that the monasteries at the time became detached from everyday life in India and that Indian Buddhism had no rituals or priests with the laymen relying on Brahmin priests for marriages and funerals.


Revival of Buddhism in India

Anagarika Dharmapala and the Maha Bodhi Society


A revival of Buddhism began in India in 1891, when the Sri Lankan Buddhist leader Anagarika Dharmapala founded the Maha Bodhi Society. Its activities expanded to involve the promotion of Buddhism in India. In June 1892, a meeting of Buddhists took place at Darjeeling. Dharmapala spoke to Tibetan Buddhists and presented a relic of the Buddha to be sent to the Dalai Lama.

Dharmapāla built many vihāras and temples in India, including the one at Sarnath, the place of Buddha's first sermon. He died in 1933, the same year he was ordained a bhikkhu.


Bengal Buddhist Association

In 1892, Kripasaran Mahasthavir founded the Bengal Buddhist Association (Bauddha Dharmankur Sabha) in Calcutta. Kripasaran (1865–1926) was instrumental in uniting the Buddhist community of Bengal and North East India.

He built other branches of the Bengal Buddhist Association at Shimla (1907), Lucknow (1907), Dibrugarh (1908), Ranchi (1915), Shillong (1918), Darjeeling (1919), Tatanagar Jamshedpur (1922), as well as in Sakpura, Satbaria, Noapara, Uninepura, Chittagong Region in present-day Bangladesh.


Tibetan Buddhism

The 14th Dalai Lama departed Tibet in 1959, when Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru offered to permit him and his followers to establish a "government-in-exile" in Dharamsala. Tibetan exiles have settled in the town, numbering several thousand.

Many of these exiles live in Upper Dharamsala, or McLeod Ganj, where they established monasteries, temples and schools.

The town is sometimes known as "Little Lhasa", after the Tibetan capital city, and has become one of the centers of Buddhism in the world.

Many settlements for Tibetan refugee communities came up across many parts of India on the lands offered by the Government of India. Some of the biggest Tibetan settlements in exile are in the state of Karnataka.

The Dalai Lama's brother, Gyalo Thondup, himself lives in Kalimpong and his wife established the Tibetan Refugee Centre in Darjeeling .

His Holiness Penor Rinpoche, the head of Nyingma, the ancient school of Tibetan Buddhism re-established a Nyingma monastery in Bylakuppe, Mysore.

This is the largest Nyingma monastery today. Monks from Himalayan regions of India, Nepal, Bhutan and from Tibet join this monastery for their higher education.

HH Penor Rinpoche also founded Thubten Lekshey Ling, a dharma center for lay practitioners in Bangalore.

Vajrayana Buddhism and Dzogchen (maha-sandhi) meditation again became accessible to aspirants in India after that. Neo Buddhist movement

Map of minority religions of India, showing Buddhist regions and minorities. The Dalits who converted in 1956 are concentrated in the state of Maharashtra.


A Buddhist revivalist movement among Dalit Indians was initiated in 1890s by socialist leaders such as Iyothee Thass, Bagya Reddy varma of Hyderabad, and Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi.

In the 1950s, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar turned his attention to Buddhism and travelled to Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) to attend a convention of Buddhist scholars and monks.

While dedicating a new Buddhist vihara near Pune, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar announced that he was writing a book on Buddhism, and that as soon as it was finished, he planned to make a formal conversion to Buddhism.

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar twice visited Burma in 1954; the second time in order to attend the third conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Rangoon.

In 1955, he founded the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha, or the Buddhist Society of India. He completed his final work, The Buddha and His Dhamma, in 1956. It was published posthumously.


After meetings with the Sri Lankan Buddhist monk Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Ambedkar organised a formal public ceremony for himself and his supporters in Nagpur on 14 October 1956.

Accepting the Three Refuges and Five Precepts from a Buddhist monk in the traditional manner, Ambedkar completed his own conversion.

He then proceeded to convert an estimated 500,000 of his supporters who were gathered around him. Taking the 22 Vows, Ambedkar and his supporters explicitly condemned and rejected Hinduism and Hindu philosophy.

This was the world's biggest mass religious conversion; it is celebrated by Buddhists every year at Nagpur; 1-1.5 million Buddhists gather there every year for the ceremony.

He then traveled to Kathmandu in Nepal to attend the Fourth World Buddhist Conference. His final manuscript, The Buddha or Karl Marx, remains unfinished; he died on 6 December 1956.


Vipassana movement

The Buddhist meditation tradition of Vipassana meditation is growing in popularity in India. Many institutions—both government and private sector—now offer courses for their employees.

This form is mainly practiced by the elite and middle class Indians.

This movement has spread to many other countries in Europe, America and Asia.

Source

Wikipedia:History of Buddhism in India