Difference between revisions of "Buddhist Dharma and Dharmas."
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− | The pan-Indian term [[dharma]] (from the [[Sanskrit]] [[root]] dhr, "to sustain, to hold"; [[Pali]], [[dhamma]]; Tib., [[chos]]) has acquired a variety of meanings and interpretations in the course of many centuries of [[Indian]] [[religious]] [[thought]]. [[Buddhism]] shares this term and some of its meanings with other [[Indian religions]], but at the same time it has provided a set of unique and | + | The pan-Indian term [[dharma]] (from the [[Sanskrit]] [[root]] dhr, "to sustain, to hold"; [[Pali]], [[dhamma]]; Tib., [[chos]]) has acquired a variety of meanings and interpretations in the course of many centuries of [[Indian]] [[religious]] [[thought]]. [[Buddhism]] shares this term and some of its meanings with other [[Indian religions]], but at the same time it has provided a set of unique and |
− | + | exclusive interpretations of its [[own]]. [[Dharma]] can imply many different meanings in various contexts and with reference to different things. Here we shall consider it under two general headings: the first as [[dharma]] in a general [[sense]], comprising a variety of | |
− | + | meanings, and the second as dharma(s) in a technical [[sense]], denoting the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] constituents or [[elements]] of the whole of the [[existing]] [[reality]]. Page 332-333 General Usages. [[Dharma]] was and still is employed by all the [[religious]] denominations that have | |
− | [[essence]] of [[sentient beings]] as well as the [[nature]] of the [[Buddhas]]. In the [[sense]] of denoting [[phenomenal existence]], it is also referred to as [[reality]] ([[dharmatā]]), the [[essence of reality]] ([[dharmadhātu]]), [[suchness]] ([[tathatā]]), [[emptiness]] ([[śūnyatā]]), or [[store-consciousness]] ([[ālaya-vijñāna]]). In the [[sense]] of referring to the [[nature]] of the [[Buddhas]], it is known as [[Buddhahood]] ([[buddhatā]]), as the [[self-nature]] of the [[Buddhas]] (buddhasvabhāva), or as the [[womb]] of the [[Buddhas]] ([[tathāgata-garbha]]). Page 333 [[Dharma]] as the [[Buddha's teaching]] or [[doctrine]] as a whole comprises his [[exposition]] of the [[universal]] order of [[nature]] as described above and his proclamation of the [[path]] toward [[deliverance]]. Thus, when his [[teaching]] is meant as a whole system it is the term [[dharma]] (or [[śāsana]]) that is employed. When his teachings are referred to or explained from two different angles, that is, when {{Wiki|theoretical}} and {{Wiki|practical}} aspects are differentiated, two terms are employed: [[dharma]], as a [[body]] of religio-philosophical | + | |
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+ | originated in [[India]] to indicate their [[religious]] [[beliefs]] and practices. In this [[sense]], [[dharma]] refers broadly to what we would term "[[religion]]." [[Dharma]] also designates the [[universal]] order, the {{Wiki|natural law}} or the {{Wiki|uniform}} norm according to which the whole [[world]] ([[saṃsāra]]) runs its course. Within the [[Buddhist]] context this [[universal]] order is | ||
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+ | coordinated in the [[doctrine of dependent origination]] ([[pratītya-samutpāda]]). This rigorous {{Wiki|natural law}}, which controls the sequence of events and the {{Wiki|behavior}} and acts of [[beings]], has no [[cause]] or originator. It is [[beginningless]] and functions | ||
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+ | of its [[own]] [[nature]]. It is said in the [[Aṅguttara Nikāya]] and the [[Samyutta Nikāya]], and later rephrased in the [[Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra]], that the [[nature]] of things is such that the causal law as the inevitable [[determination]] of [[karman]] continues to evolve spontaneously whether or not the | ||
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+ | [[tathāgatas]] appear in this [[world]]. It is an [[inherent]] and all-pervading law that does not depend for its [[existence]] on the [[appearance]] of the [[Buddhas]], whose [[mission]] in this [[world]] is merely to reveal it. [[Śākyamuni Buddha]] first [[perceived]] and | ||
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+ | understood this [[fundamental law]] and then proclaimed and explained it to his followers. The discovery of the [[nature]] of [[dharma]] is compared in some [[sūtras]] to the discovery of an old and forgotten city. In the [[Mahāyāna]], especially within the context of the [[doctrine]] of the three [[Buddha bodies]] ([[trikāya]]) and the reinterpretation of the relationship between [[samsara]] and [[nirvāṇa]] | ||
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+ | as two aspects of the same [[reality]], [[dharma]] as the [[universal]] norm received a wider and deeper [[interpretation]]. As a part of the compound [[dharmakāya]], it {{Wiki|signifies}} both the immanent and [[transcendental]] [[reality]] of all [[beings]] and [[appearances]]. Thus, it clearly denotes the | ||
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+ | [[essence]] of [[sentient beings]] as well as the [[nature]] of the [[Buddhas]]. In the [[sense]] of denoting [[phenomenal existence]], it is also referred to as [[reality]] ([[dharmatā]]), the [[essence of reality]] ([[dharmadhātu]]), [[suchness]] ([[tathatā]]), [[emptiness]] | ||
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+ | ([[śūnyatā]]), or [[store-consciousness]] ([[ālaya-vijñāna]]). In the [[sense]] of referring to the [[nature]] of the [[Buddhas]], it is known as [[Buddhahood]] ([[buddhatā]]), as the [[self-nature]] of the [[Buddhas]] ([[buddhasvabhāva]]), or as the [[womb]] of the [[Buddhas]] | ||
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+ | ([[tathāgata-garbha]]). Page 333 [[Dharma]] as the [[Buddha's teaching]] or [[doctrine]] as a whole comprises his [[exposition]] of the [[universal]] order of [[nature]] as described above and his proclamation of the [[path]] toward [[deliverance]]. Thus, when his | ||
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+ | [[teaching]] is meant as a whole system it is the term [[dharma]] (or [[śāsana]]) that is employed. When his teachings are referred to or explained from two different angles, that is, when {{Wiki|theoretical}} and {{Wiki|practical}} aspects are differentiated, two terms are employed: [[dharma]], as a [[body]] of religio-philosophical | ||
− | [[discourses]] as contained in the [[Sūtras]], and [[Vinaya]], or [[monastic discipline]], the {{Wiki|rules}} and regulations for the application and practice of [[dharma]]. The [[Prātimokṣa]] ([[monastic code]]) contains {{Wiki|rules}} of conduct, each of which is also called [[dharma]]. | + | [[discourses]] as contained in the [[Sūtras]], and [[Vinaya]], or [[monastic discipline]], the {{Wiki|rules}} and regulations for the application and practice of [[dharma]]. The [[Prātimokṣa]] ([[monastic code]]) contains {{Wiki|rules}} of conduct, each of which is also |
+ | called [[dharma]]. | ||
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+ | The shortest and yet the clearest [[exposition]] of [[dharma]] as the [[Buddha's]] [[word]] ([[buddhavacana]]) is epitomized in [[Sakyamuni's]] [[first sermon]], when he "set in {{Wiki|motion}}" (i. e., proclaimed) the [[wheel]] (lore) of [[dharma]]: the [[Four Noble Truths]] and [[Eightfold Noble Path]]. There is [[suffering]] and it has a [[cause]] that can be eliminated through the | ||
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+ | [[knowledge]] and practice of the [[path]] of [[dharma]] as summarized by the [[Eightfold Noble Path]]: [[right views]], [[right conduct]], and so forth. Another presentation of the same [[path]] is articulated within the basic [[trilogy]] of [[monastic]] practice of [[cultivating]] [[wisdom]] ([[prajñā]]), [[morality]] ([[sīla]]), and [[meditation]] ([[dhyāna]]). Through [[wisdom]] one acquires a full | ||
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+ | [[vision]] of [[dharma]], through [[morality]] one purifies all that obscures the [[vision]] of [[dharma]], and through [[meditation]] one matures [[dharma]] within oneself and indeed transforms oneself into an {{Wiki|epitome}} of [[dharma]]. [See [[Four Noble Truths]].] Page 333 [[Dharma]] denotes [[truth]], [[knowledge]], [[morality]], and [[duty]]. | ||
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+ | It is the [[truth]] about the [[state]] and function of the [[world]], the [[truth]] about how to eliminate its [[evil]] {{Wiki|tendencies}}, and the [[truth]] about its immutable [[spiritual]] potentiality. It is [[knowledge]] in the [[sense]] that once one | ||
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+ | becomes {{Wiki|aware}} of [[dharma]] one acquires the [[knowledge]] to become free from the bonds of [[phenomenal existence]]. It is [[morality]], for it contains a code of [[moral conduct]] that conduces to [[spiritual]] [[purification]] and {{Wiki|maturation}}. It is [[duty]], for whoever professes [[dharma]] has a [[duty]] to comply with its norms and to achieve the goal that it sets forth. In this | ||
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+ | [[sense]] there is only one [[duty]] in [[Buddhism]]: the ceaseless and [[constant]] [[effort]] to strive for [[nirvana]]. Page 333 [[Dharma]], together with the [[Buddha]] and the [[saṃgha]], constitute a "[[threefold jewel]]" ([[triratna]]) before which one makes [[prostrations]] and in which one takes [[refuge]]. Here [[dharma]] does not so much represent a [[body]] of | ||
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+ | teachings as it assumes a [[character]] of awesomeness, [[protection]], and [[deliverance]] wholly appropriate to the [[Truth]]. One stands in awe of [[dharma]] as a self-sustained [[righteousness]] whose [[universal]] legacy is to {{Wiki|protect}} through its [[righteousness]] those who profess it. Soon after his [[enlightenment]], [[realizing]] that there is no one more {{Wiki|perfect}} than himself in [[virtue]], | ||
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+ | [[wisdom]], and [[meditation]] under whom he could live in {{Wiki|obedience}} and reverence, [[Śākyamuni]] decided that he would live honoring and revering [[dharma]], the [[universal truth]] he had just [[realized]]. As one of the [[Three Jewels]], the [[Buddha]] is | ||
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+ | [[dharma's]] [[embodied]] {{Wiki|personification}}, revealer, and [[teacher]]. The [[saṃgha]] constitutes a [[body]] of [[dharma's]] followers among whom [[dharma]] thrives as the norm of daily [[life]], becoming an inspiration and a [[path]] to [[deliverance]]. The [[Three Jewels]] as [[conceived]] in the early period can be paralleled, as a | ||
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+ | somewhat general compar-ison, with the later {{Wiki|concept}} of the three [[Buddha bodies]]. [[Dharma]] as [[dharmakāya]] represents its [[own]] [[sublime]] and [[absolute]] aspect, the [[Buddha]] as a [[saṃbhogakāya]] represents the [[pure]] and glorified [[state]] of | ||
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+ | [[dharma]], and the [[saṃgha]] as [[nirmāṇakāya]] represents [[dharma]] as discovered and operating within the [[world]]. Page 333 Technical Usages. The strictly technical meaning of [[dharmas]] as [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[elements]] or | ||
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+ | {{Wiki|principles}} of [[existence]] as systematized in the [[Abhidharma]] {{Wiki|literature}}, especially in the [[Abhidharma]] works of the [[Sarvāstivāda school]], is not so {{Wiki|distinct}} or rigidly formulated in the four [[Nikāyas]] ([[Āgamas]]). In the [[sūtras]] of the four [[Nikāyas]] we find many descriptions of [[dharmas]] and their various classifications, but their | ||
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+ | systematization into what we could call "[[dharma theory]]" took place within the [[Abhidharma]] {{Wiki|literature}}. Thus, in the [[Nikāyas]] [[dharmas]] are usually characterized as good or bad concerning [[ethical]] conduct, but receive little [[attention]] as coherent [[metaphysical]] or [[epistemological]] systems. The [[Dasuttara Sutta]] enumerates some 550 [[dharmas]] to be cultivated or | ||
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+ | abandoned. The [[Saṅgīti Sutta]] gives an even larger number of them, and the [[Mahāparinibbāna]] [[Suttanta]] lists some 1,011 [[dharmas]]. In this [[latter]] work we also find a set of [[dharmas]] that [[Śākyamuni]] ascertained to be for the [[benefit]] of [[living beings]]. These include the thirty-seven bodhipakṣya [[dharmas]] that constitute the thirty-seven practices and {{Wiki|principles}} conducive to the | ||
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+ | [[attainment]] of [[enlightenment]]. Page 333-334 Rather than providing further examples from the [[sūtras]] I propose now to [[concentrate]] on describing the [[dharma]] {{Wiki|theory}} of the [[Sarvāstivāda school]]. Within its systematized presentation, one finds practically all the important aspects of [[dharmas]] and their role; the variant | ||
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+ | interpretations of other schools will be mentioned wherever appropriate. Page 334 [[Buddhism]] makes an emphatic and "[[dogmatic]]" statement that a "[[soul]]" ([[ātman]]) as interpreted by [[non-Buddhist]] schools in [[India]] does not [[exist]]. By denying the [[existence]] of a [[soul]] as a [[permanent]] and unifying factor of a [[human]] [[entity]] it has removed all grounds for asserting the | ||
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+ | permanency of the [[human]] [[entity]] or the [[existence]] of any [[indestructible]] [[element]] therein. Concerning the substantiality of [[physical]] things, it has removed the {{Wiki|concept}} of [[substance]] and replaced it by modalities: there is no [[substance]] but only the [[appearances]] of what we call {{Wiki|substances}} or things. Having removed the notion of [[substance]] | ||
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+ | [[Buddhism]] has construed an explanation as to how this [[world]] functions. According to this explanation, the [[universe]] is seen as a flux of [[dharmas]], the smallest [[elements]] or {{Wiki|principles}} of which it consists, but this flux is not merely a flux of | ||
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+ | [[Wikipedia:Coherentism|incoherent]] {{Wiki|motion}} or change. On the contrary, the [[world]] evolves according to the strict [[law of dependent origination]] ([[pratītya-samutpāda]]). Page 334 This [[universal]] flux can be conveniently viewed, for the [[moment]], at three simultaneous and {{Wiki|interrelated}} levels. If we take the [[inanimate world]] | ||
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+ | ({{Wiki|matter}}) alone, it flows under a uniformly homogeneous and {{Wiki|natural law}} of change. Similarly, the organic [[world]] (vegetation) flows according to its [[own]] {{Wiki|uniform}} [[evolution]] of natural [[life]] (germination, growth, etc.). The third level is constituted by [[sentient]] [[life]]. This last one, apart from comprehending the other levels ({{Wiki|matter}} and organic | ||
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+ | functions), includes a [[sentient]] [[element]] ([[consciousness]] or [[mind]]) as well. In general, we can say that it includes material as well as {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[elements]]. Such [[sentient]] [[life]], in which the material and {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[elements]] are tied together, evolve or flow according to the strict law of [[causality]] as decreed in the causal {{Wiki|nexus}} of [[dependent origination]]. Furthermore, this [[constant]] flux of [[sentient]] [[life]] coordinated by the [[law of dependent origination]] has a | ||
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+ | [[moral]] law {{Wiki|superimposed}} upon it: the "law" of [[karman]]. It is concerning such a flux that the [[dharma]] {{Wiki|theory}} attempts to explain. There is no [[substance]] or [[person]] but there are [[dharmas]] ({{Wiki|psychophysical}} [[elements]]) that flow according to the [[law of dependent origination]] that is set in {{Wiki|motion}} by the law of [[karman]]. Basically, the [[dharma]] {{Wiki|theory}} provides an explanation of how the [[universe]] functions within the context of a [[sentient]] [[life]], in | ||
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+ | particular a [[human]] flux, for it is [[Wikipedia:Human life|human life]] that [[Buddhism]] is concerned with. [[Dharma]] {{Wiki|theory}} constitutes then not so much an explanation of what the [[universe]] is as it does an attempt to describe of what it consists and how it functions. Thus, in the detailed {{Wiki|enumeration}} of [[dharmas]] as | ||
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+ | basic and infinitesimal [[elements]] that constitute the conglomeration of the [[universe]] we find an analysis of [[Wikipedia:Human life|human life]] and its [[destiny]]. But this analysis is not "[[Buddhist psychology]]," as many call it; it is an [[exposition]] of both | ||
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+ | the [[constant]] and inevitably coordinated flux of [[phenomena]] and the [[inherent]] potentiality of bringing this flux to a halt. Page 334 I shall now describe some general classifications of [[dharmas]] (again, after the [[Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma]]). [[Dharmas]] are divided into [[conditioned]] ([[saṃskṛta]]) and [[unconditioned]] ([[asaṃskṛta]]). The [[conditioned]] [[dharmas]] (seventy-two in all) comprise all the [[elements]] of [[phenomenal existence]] ([[saṃsāra]]). They are called [[conditioned]] because by their [[nature]] and in | ||
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+ | their flow they cooperate in and are [[subject]] to the law of [[causality]]; they conglomerate or cooperate in the production of [[life]] ([[pṛthagjana]]). The [[unconditioned]] [[elements]] (three in all) are those that are not [[subject]] to the law that governs [[phenomenal existence]]. [[Dharmas]] are also divided into those that are influenced or permeated by negative {{Wiki|tendencies}} or depravities | ||
− | + | ([[āsrava]]; [[in a moral sense]], bad [[karmas]]) and those that are not under the influence of depravities ([[anāsrava]]; {{Wiki|morally}}, [[good karmas]]). These are the same [[dharmas]] as in the previous {{Wiki|classification}} but here they are viewed from two aspects: when they are influenced chiefly by [[ignorance]] ([[avidyā]]) their flux tends to perpetuate itself; when they are under the influence of | |
− | + | [[intuitive wisdom]] ([[prajñā]]) they acquire the tendency toward appeasement or [[tranquillity]]. By their [[nature]] [[the unconditioned]] [[dharmas]] must be classed among the [[dharmas]] that are not under the influence of depravities. We should recall here that the chief [[characteristic]] of [[saṃsāra]] is {{Wiki|motion}} or unrest, [[duḥkha]], and that of nirvāṇna is [[tranquillity]], | |
− | + | [[nirodha]]. The [[dharmas]] can be also divided in relationship to the [[Four Truths]]. Here again, we have a twofold [[division]]. The first [[two truths]] (unrest, [[duḥkha]], and its [[cause]], [[samudaya]]) refer to the seventy-two [[dharmas]] that are permeated by depravities or that are [[conditioned]]. The two other [[truths]] (rest, [[nirodha]], and the means to it, [[mārga]]) refer to the three | |
+ | [[unconditioned dharmas]] that are always at rest ([[nirodha]]) and to the [[dharmas]] that are on the way ([[mārga]]) to become [[extinguished]] ([[nirodha]]). Page 334-335 Having described the general divisions I shall now proceed to list a set of three standard classifications within which | ||
− | + | {{Wiki|individual}} [[dharmas]] are distributed. The first {{Wiki|classification}}, which includes the [[conditioned]] [[dharmas]] alone, refers to their grouping as [[perceived]] in a [[sentient]] [[life]]. This {{Wiki|classification}} divides [[dharmas]] into [[five | |
− | + | aggregates]] or [[skandhas]]. Here we have | |
− | ( | + | (1) {{Wiki|matter}} or [[body]] ([[rūpaskandha]]): eleven [[dharmas]]; |
+ | (2) [[feelings]], [[sensations]], or [[emotions]] (vedanāskandha): one [[dharma]]; | ||
− | + | (3) [[perceptions]] (samjñāskandha): one [[dharma]]; | |
− | + | (4) {{Wiki|impulses}} or will-forces ([[saṃskāraskandha]]): fiftyeight [[dharmas]]; | |
− | + | (5) [[consciousness]] or [[mind]] ([[vijñānaskandha]]): one [[dharma]]. | |
− | ([[śabda]]-); (9) {{Wiki|smell}} ([[gandha]]-); (10) {{Wiki|taste}} ([[rasa]]-); (11) [[contact]] ([[spraṣṭavya]]-); and (12) nonsensuous or {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[objects]] ([[dharma]]-). The first eleven [[āyatanas]] have one [[dharma]] each; the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[objects]] comprise sixty-four [[dharmas]]. | + | This [[division]] into [[five skandhas]] not only constitutes an analysis of all [[phenomena]] but also serves to prove that there is [[no soul]] ([[atman]]) in a [[human]] [[entity]], for none of the [[five skandhas]] can be identified with or regarded as a [[soul]]. Page 335 The second {{Wiki|classification}} divides [[dharmas]] about the [[process of cognition]]. Here we have the [[six sense organs]] ([[indriya]]) and the [[six sense objects]] ([[viṣaya]]) jointly called the "bases" or "foundations" ([[āyatana]]) of [[cognition]]. |
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+ | The [[six sense organs]] or internal bases are | ||
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+ | (1) [[sense]] of [[vision]] (cakṣur-indriyāyatana); | ||
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+ | (2) [[sense]] of hearing ([[śrotra]]-); | ||
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+ | (3) [[sense of smell]] ([[ghrāṇa]]-); | ||
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+ | (4) [[sense of taste]] ([[jihvā]]-); | ||
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+ | (5) [[sense]] of {{Wiki|touch}} ([[kaya]]-); and | ||
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+ | (6) [[consciousness]] or [[intellectual]] {{Wiki|faculty}} ([[mana]]-). The [[six sense objects]] or [[external bases]] are | ||
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+ | (7) {{Wiki|color}} and [[form]] ([[rūpa-āyatana]]); | ||
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+ | (8) [[sound]] ([[śabda]]-); | ||
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+ | (9) {{Wiki|smell}} ([[gandha]]-); | ||
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+ | (10) {{Wiki|taste}} ([[rasa]]-); | ||
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+ | (11) [[contact]] ([[spraṣṭavya]]-); and | ||
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+ | (12) nonsensuous or {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[objects]] ([[dharma]]-). | ||
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+ | The first eleven [[āyatanas]] have one [[dharma]] each; the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[objects]] | ||
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+ | comprise sixty-four [[dharmas]]. The third {{Wiki|classification}} groups [[dharmas]] in relationship to the flow ([[santāna]]) of [[life]] that evolves within the [[threefold world]] ([[kāma]]-, [[rūpa]]-, and [[ārūpya-dhātu]]) as described by [[Buddhist cosmology]]. This group is divided into [[eighteen dhātus]], or [[elements]]. It incorporates the previous [[division]] into the [[twelve bases]], to which is added a [[corresponding]] set of six kinds of [[consciousness]] to the [[intellectual]] {{Wiki|faculty}}. | ||
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+ | Thus we have | ||
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+ | (13) [[visual consciousness]] ([[cakṣur-vijñānadhātu]]); | ||
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+ | (14) [[auditory consciousness]] ([[śrotra]]-); | ||
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+ | (15) [[olfactory consciousness]] ([[ghrāṇa]]-); | ||
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+ | (16) [[gustatory consciousness]] ([[jihvā]]-); | ||
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+ | (17) [[tactile consciousness]] ([[kāya]]-); and | ||
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+ | (18) nonsensuous [[consciousness]] ([[mano]]-). | ||
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+ | Within this group the [[five sense organs]] and their five [[objects]] contain one [[dharma]] each ([[ten dharmas]] in all). [[Consciousness]] (no. 6) is divided here into seven [[dhātus]] (no. 6 plus 13-18). The [[dhātu]] that represents | ||
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+ | {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[objects]] (no. 12) contains sixty-four [[dharmas]]. All the [[eighteen dhātus]] [[exist]] in the [[sensuous world]] ([[kāmadhātu]]) or the [[world]] in which the [[mind]] operates through the [[sense]] {{Wiki|data}}. In the [[world]] of refined {{Wiki|matter}} (rūpadhatu), the [[objects]] of {{Wiki|smell}} and {{Wiki|taste}} (nos. 9-10) and the {{Wiki|olfactory}} and {{Wiki|gustatory}} [[consciousnesses]] cease to [[exist]]. In the [[world]] without {{Wiki|matter}} (but frequently interpreted as very | ||
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+ | [[subtle matter]] for we are still within [[saṃsāra]]) all the [[dhātus]] cease to [[exist]] except for [[consciousness]] (no. 6), its {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[objects]] (no. 12), and its nonsensuous aspect of [[cognition]] (no. 18). (See table l.) Page 335 TABLE 1.The Twelve [[Āyatanas]] and the [[Eighteen Dhātus]] Receptive [[Faculties]] ([[indriya]]) BASES OF COGNITION ([[āyatana]]) [[CONSCIOUSNESS]] ([[vijñana]]) | ||
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− | caksur-vijñanadhatu | + | [[caksur-vijñanadhatu]] |
− | 2. [[Sense | + | 2. [[Sense of hearing] [[srotra]]- |
8. [[Sound]] [[sabda]]- | 8. [[Sound]] [[sabda]]- | ||
− | 14. [[Auditory consciousness]] | + | 14. [[Auditory consciousness]] [[srotra]]- |
− | 9. {{Wiki|Smell}} [[gandha]]- 15. [[Olfactory consciousness]] | + | 3. [[Sense of smell]] [[ghrana]]- |
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+ | 9. {{Wiki|Smell}} [[gandha]]- | ||
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+ | 15. [[Olfactory consciousness]] [[ghrana]]- | ||
4. [[Sense of taste]] [[jihva]]- | 4. [[Sense of taste]] [[jihva]]- | ||
− | 10. {{Wiki|Taste}} [[rasa]]- | + | 10. {{Wiki|Taste}} [[rasa]]- |
− | + | 16. [[Gustatory consciousness]] [[jihva]]- 5. [[Sense]] of {{Wiki|touch}} [[kaya]]- | |
− | + | 11. [[Contact]], tangibles | |
− | + | 17. [[Tactile consciousness]] sprastavya- [[kaya]]- 6. [[Intellect]] [[mana]]- | |
+ | 12. Nonsensuous [[objects]] 18. Nonsensuous [[dharma]]- [[consciousness]] [[mano]]- * When the [[āyatanas]] are enumerated as [[dhātus]] they are termed [[cakṣur-dhātu]], [[śrotra-dhātu]] etc. | ||
− | + | Now at last we come to enumerate the {{Wiki|individual}} [[dharmas]]. Within the {{Wiki|classification}} into the [[five skandhas]], {{Wiki|matter}} ([[rūpa]]) contains eleven [[dharmas]]: [[five sense organs]] ([[āyatanas]] | |
− | Consequently, because [[Buddhists]] are constrained from {{Wiki|speaking}} in terms of [[soul]] or [[substance]], {{Wiki|matter}} is styled as [[sense]] {{Wiki|data}} alone. Such a [[definition]] of the [[physical]] [[dharmas]] that constitute the [[sense]] {{Wiki|data}} ([[ten dharmas]]) accounts for the component of {{Wiki|matter}} that sustains [[consciousness]], the other component of [[sentient]] [[life]]. What then is the eleventh [[dharma]]? Page 336 The [[Sarvāstivāda]], viewing the [[human]] [[personality]] as a threefold aspect of [[body]], {{Wiki|speech}}, and [[mind]], divided [[karman]] (as it operates within a [[sentient]] [[life]]) into [[mental action]] ([[manas]], identified with [[Wikipedia:Volition (psychology)|volition]], or [[cetanā]]) and [[physical]] and {{Wiki|vocal}} [[actions]]. [[Mental action]] was classed as {{Wiki|immaterial}} but [[physical]] and {{Wiki|vocal}} [[actions]] that proceed | + | 1-5) and their five [[corresponding]] [[sense objects]] ([[āyatanas]] 7-11), |
+ | |||
+ | plus an additional [[element]] to be discussed below. [[Āyatana]] ([[dhātu]]) number 12 (non-sensuous [[objects]]) is in this system classified as an {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[dharma]], as we shall see, and hence is not considered here. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[sense]] {{Wiki|data}}). As already mentioned above, there is no [[substance]] as such. The [[four primary elements]] are talked about in [[Buddhism]], but rightly understood these are taken to refer to properties: {{Wiki|hardness}} ([[earth]]), cohesion ([[water]]), heat ([[fire]]), and {{Wiki|motion}} ([[wind]]). The primary {{Wiki|matter}} ([[four elements]]) {{Wiki|present}} in a [[body]] sustains the | ||
+ | |||
+ | secondary {{Wiki|matter}} (the [[senses]] and their [[objects]]). Since the [[Buddhists]] analyze {{Wiki|matter}} within the context of a [[sentient]] [[life]], their description of {{Wiki|matter}} is mainly concerned with discerning how it functions and how it appears, not with what it is, for properly {{Wiki|speaking}} it does not [[exist]]. The [[world]] is in [[constant]] flux, the living [[life]] changes from one [[moment]] to the next. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Consequently, because [[Buddhists]] are constrained from {{Wiki|speaking}} in terms of [[soul]] or [[substance]], {{Wiki|matter}} is styled as [[sense]] {{Wiki|data}} alone. Such a [[definition]] of the [[physical]] [[dharmas]] that constitute the [[sense]] {{Wiki|data}} ([[ten | ||
+ | |||
+ | dharmas]]) accounts for the component of {{Wiki|matter}} that sustains [[consciousness]], the other component of [[sentient]] [[life]]. What then is the eleventh [[dharma]]? Page 336 The [[Sarvāstivāda]], viewing the [[human]] [[personality]] as a threefold aspect of [[body]], | ||
+ | |||
+ | {{Wiki|speech}}, and [[mind]], divided [[karman]] (as it operates within a [[sentient]] [[life]]) into [[mental action]] ([[manas]], identified with [[Wikipedia:Volition (psychology)|volition]], or [[cetanā]]) and [[physical]] and {{Wiki|vocal}} [[actions]]. [[Mental action]] was classed as {{Wiki|immaterial}} but [[physical]] and {{Wiki|vocal}} [[actions]] that proceed | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | from [[mental action]] were classed as belonging to {{Wiki|matter}} ([[rūpaskandha]]). Furthermore, [[physical]] and [[vocal action]] was seen as being an (external) "expression" ([[vijñapti]]), but when [[mental action]] was committed but not externalized its "material" | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[concomitant]] was seen as "nonexpression" ([[avijñapti]]). It is the [[latter]] "unexpressed {{Wiki|matter}}" (avijñaptirūpa) that constitutes the eleventh [[dharma]] among the [[skandha]] [[division]]. Although {{Wiki|immaterial}}, it was classed as {{Wiki|matter}} because [[physical]] and [[vocal action]] with which it was associated was classed as such. Page 336 Three [[skandhas]] ([[feelings]], | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[perceptions]], and {{Wiki|impulses}}) contain jointly sixty [[dharmas]], which are included as {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[objects]] within the two other ([[āyatana]], [[dhātu]]) classifications (no. 12 in both). The three immutable [[elements]] ([[asaṃskṛta]]) and [[avijñapti]] are also included among the {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[dharmas]] of these two [[latter]] divisions, thus making a total of sixty-four [[dharmas]]. Page 336 Now I shall describe the sixty [[dharmas]] that are included in all [[three classifications]] ([[skandha]], [[āyatana]], and | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[dhātu]]). They are divided into two main groups: one group comprises forty-six associated [[dharmas]] or [[mental]] [[dharmas]] (caittadharma), that arise from or in association with [[pure consciousness]] or [[mind]] (citta-saṃprayuktasaṃskāra); the second group | ||
+ | |||
+ | comprises fourteen unassociated [[dharmas]], that is to say, [[dharmas]] that can be associated neither with {{Wiki|matter}} nor with [[mind]] (rūpa-cittaviprayukta-saṃskāra). Page 336 The forty-six associated [[dharmas]] include ten [[mental]] [[dharmas]] that are {{Wiki|present}} in a [[sentient]] [[life]] (citta-mahābhūmika): | ||
− | |||
− | |||
<poem> | <poem> | ||
Line 95: | Line 267: | ||
(8) [[attention]], | (8) [[attention]], | ||
(9) [[aspiration]], and | (9) [[aspiration]], and | ||
− | (10) [[concentration]]; ten {{Wiki|morally}} good (kuśala-mahābhūmika) [[dharmas]] that are {{Wiki|present}} in favorable [[conditions]]: | + | (10) [[concentration]]; ten {{Wiki|morally}} good ([[kuśala-mahābhūmika]]) [[dharmas]] that are {{Wiki|present}} in favorable [[conditions]]: |
(11) [[faith]], | (11) [[faith]], | ||
(12) [[courage]], | (12) [[courage]], | ||
Line 124: | Line 296: | ||
(36) self-gratification; two universally {{Wiki|inauspicious}} (akuśala-mahābhūmika) [[dharmas]]: | (36) self-gratification; two universally {{Wiki|inauspicious}} (akuśala-mahābhūmika) [[dharmas]]: | ||
(37) irreverence, and | (37) irreverence, and | ||
+ | |||
(38) willful [[tolerance]] of offences; and eight [[dharmas]] that are called [[undetermined]] (aniyatabhūmika) or undifferentiated in the [[sense]] that they can have different [[moral]] implications: | (38) willful [[tolerance]] of offences; and eight [[dharmas]] that are called [[undetermined]] (aniyatabhūmika) or undifferentiated in the [[sense]] that they can have different [[moral]] implications: | ||
+ | |||
(39) [[remorse]], | (39) [[remorse]], | ||
Line 133: | Line 307: | ||
(44) [[hatred]], | (44) [[hatred]], | ||
(45) [[pride]], and | (45) [[pride]], and | ||
+ | |||
(46) [[doubt]]. All forty-six [[dharmas]] listed above cannot be associated with (or cofunction with) [[consciousness]] at the same time on the general [[principle]] that their inner inclinations are variously geared toward either good or [[evil]]. Page 336 The fourteen unassociated [[dharmas]] are | (46) [[doubt]]. All forty-six [[dharmas]] listed above cannot be associated with (or cofunction with) [[consciousness]] at the same time on the general [[principle]] that their inner inclinations are variously geared toward either good or [[evil]]. Page 336 The fourteen unassociated [[dharmas]] are | ||
+ | |||
(47) acquisition ([[prāpti]]), or the controlling force of an {{Wiki|individual}} flux of [[life]], | (47) acquisition ([[prāpti]]), or the controlling force of an {{Wiki|individual}} flux of [[life]], | ||
Line 153: | Line 329: | ||
</poem> | </poem> | ||
− | Page 336 [[Pure consciousness]] or [[mind]] constitutes one [[dharma]] ([[fifth skandha]], sixth [[āyatana]]). In the [[division]] into [[dhātus]] [[vijñāna]] is, as it were, subdivided among seven [[dhātus]] (no. 6 plus 13-18) where the same [[consciousness]] is viewed in [[relation]] to the [[sense organs]] and {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[objects]]. Page 336 Adding all the [[conditioned]] [[dharmas]] together yields eleven material [[dharmas]], one [[dharma]] representing [[consciousness]], forty-six associated [[dharmas]], and fourteen unassociated | + | Page 336 [[Pure consciousness]] or [[mind]] constitutes one [[dharma]] ([[fifth skandha]], sixth [[āyatana]]). In the [[division]] into [[dhātus]] [[vijñāna]] is, as it were, subdivided among seven [[dhātus]] (no. 6 plus 13-18) where the same [[consciousness]] is viewed in |
+ | |||
+ | [[relation]] to the [[sense organs]] and {{Wiki|immaterial}} [[objects]]. Page 336 Adding all the [[conditioned]] [[dharmas]] together yields eleven material [[dharmas]], one [[dharma]] representing [[consciousness]], forty-six associated [[dharmas]], and fourteen unassociated [[dharmas]]—seventy-two in all. These are the [[dharmas]] into which the whole of [[phenomenal existence]] is analyzed and which account for all events that take place within it. The [[Sarvāstivāda]] also enumerate three | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[unconditioned dharmas]]: [[space]] ([[ākāśa]]), {{Wiki|emancipation}} through discerning [[knowledge]] ([[pratisaṃkhyānirodha]]), and {{Wiki|emancipation}} through nondiscerning [[knowledge]] ([[apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha]]). Thus, the total of [[dharmas]] both [[conditioned]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | and [[unconditioned]] amounts to seventy-five in the [[Sarvāstivāda school]]. (See figure l. missing here) The [[Theravāda tradition]] enumerates only one [[unconditioned]] [[dharma]] ([[nirvāṇa]]) and eighty-one [[conditioned]] [[dharmas]]: [[four primary | ||
+ | |||
+ | elements]]; four secondary [[elements]]; [[five sense organs]]; [[five sense objects]]; two aspects of {{Wiki|sex}} ({{Wiki|male}} and {{Wiki|female}}); [[heart]] as the sustaining [[element]] of [[psychic]] [[life]]; two kinds ([[bodily]] and {{Wiki|vocal}}) of avijñaptirūpa; a [[psychic]] [[vitality of matter]]; [[space]]; three | ||
+ | |||
+ | properties (agility, elasticity, and pliability) of [[body]]; [[three characteristics]] (origination, duration, and [[decay]]) of [[conditioned]] [[dharmas]]; material [[food]]; fifty-two [[mental]] [[elements]], [[including]] twenty-five [[wholesome]], fourteen | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[unwholesome]], and thirteen {{Wiki|morally}} [[neutral]] [[elements]]; and [[consciousness]]. Page 337 The [[Sarvāstivāda]] asserted that all the [[conditioned]] [[dharmas]] are real (they [[exist]] for they happen) and that they have the [[characteristic]] of coming into [[existence]], lasting for a short period, and disappearing again in order to reappear in a new [[karmically]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | determined formation. They also maintained that [[dharmas]] [[exist]] in all three times: {{Wiki|past}}, {{Wiki|present}}, and {{Wiki|future}}. The [[Lokottaravāda]] school, a [[Mahāsāṃghika]] subsect, treated all the [[conditioned]] [[dharmas]] as unreal | ||
+ | |||
+ | and held that only [[the unconditioned]] [[dharmas]] are real. The [[Prajñaptivāda]] school, another [[Mahāsāṃghika]] group, argued that the [[twelve ayatanas]] are not real because they are the products of the [[skandhas]], which are the only real entities. The [[Sautrāntikas]] admitted the [[existence]] of [[thought]] but rejected | ||
+ | |||
+ | the [[reality]] of the majority of the associated and all the unassociated [[dharmas]], denied the [[reality]] of the {{Wiki|past}} and {{Wiki|future}}, and maintained that only the {{Wiki|present}} [[exists]]. They also rejected the [[existence]] of [[the unconditioned]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[dharmas]], considering them mere denominations of absence. The [[Mādhyamika]] school rejected the [[ultimate reality]] of [[dharmas]] altogether. The [[Vijñānavāda]] school [[recognized]] [[mind]] as the only [[reality]] ([[cittamātra]]) and treated the whole of [[phenomenal existence]] as its illusive projection. [See [[Mādhyamika]] and [[Yogācāra]]. Finally, a well-known [[Buddhist]] | ||
− | [[ | + | [[formula]] ([[ye dharmā]] hetuprabhavā, etc.) expresses the [[soteriological]] aspect associated with the analysis of [[sentient beings]] in terms of [[dharmas]]: "Whatever events arise from a [[cause]], the [[Tathāgata]] has foretold their [[cause]], and the Great [[Hermit]] |
− | + | has also explained their [[cessation]]." For further [[discussion]] of the [[Buddhist]] notion of the [[person]], see [[Buddhist Philosophy]]; [[Soul]], article on [[Buddhist]] Concepts; [[Karman]], article on [[Buddhist]] Concepts; and [[Pratitya-samutpada]]. | |
− | + | [[Abhidharma]] analysis is treated in [[Nirvana]] and in {{Wiki|Soteriology}}, article on [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Soteriology}}. See also [[Sarvastivada]] and [[Sautrantika]] for two conflicting [[views]] of [[dharmas]]. For a | |
− | + | [[discussion]] of [[dharma]] as [[truth]] or law, see also [[Cosmic]] Law. The [[dharma]] {{Wiki|theory}} of the [[Sarvāstivādins]] is systematically set forth in [[Vasubandhu's]] [[Abhidharmakośa]], translated by {{Wiki|Louis de La Vallée Poussin}} as | |
− | + | L'Abhidharmakośa de [[Vasubandhu]], 6 vols. (1923-1931; reprint, Brussels, 1971). Theodore Stcherbatsky's The [[Central Conception of Buddhism]] and the Meaning of the [[Word]] "[[Dharma]]" (1923; reprint, [[Delhi]], 1970) is a lucid introduction to the topic. For the [[Theravāda]] view, see especially A [[Buddhist]] Manual of | |
[[Psychological]] [[Ethics]]: [[Dhammasangaṇi]], translated by {{Wiki|C. A. F. Rhys Davids}} ([[London]], 1923), a rendering of the first [[book]] of the [[Theravāda Abhidharma]]. Ñyanatiloka's Guide through the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]], 3d ed., revised and enlarged by Ñyanaponika [[Thera]] ({{Wiki|Colombo}}, 1957), is the single most useful guide to the study of the [[Theravāda Abhidhamma]]. The reader will also find useful A. K. Warder's "[[Dharmas]] and {{Wiki|Data}}," [[Journal of Indian Philosophy]] 1 (1971): 272-295. TADEUSZ SKORUPSKI | [[Psychological]] [[Ethics]]: [[Dhammasangaṇi]], translated by {{Wiki|C. A. F. Rhys Davids}} ([[London]], 1923), a rendering of the first [[book]] of the [[Theravāda Abhidharma]]. Ñyanatiloka's Guide through the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]], 3d ed., revised and enlarged by Ñyanaponika [[Thera]] ({{Wiki|Colombo}}, 1957), is the single most useful guide to the study of the [[Theravāda Abhidhamma]]. The reader will also find useful A. K. Warder's "[[Dharmas]] and {{Wiki|Data}}," [[Journal of Indian Philosophy]] 1 (1971): 272-295. TADEUSZ SKORUPSKI |
Latest revision as of 08:22, 7 March 2024
Encyclopedia of Religion.
Mircea Eliade, Editor in Chief.
New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987,
volume 4, 332-338.
The pan-Indian term dharma (from the Sanskrit root dhr, "to sustain, to hold"; Pali, dhamma; Tib., chos) has acquired a variety of meanings and interpretations in the course of many centuries of Indian religious thought. Buddhism shares this term and some of its meanings with other Indian religions, but at the same time it has provided a set of unique and
exclusive interpretations of its own. Dharma can imply many different meanings in various contexts and with reference to different things. Here we shall consider it under two general headings: the first as dharma in a general sense, comprising a variety of
meanings, and the second as dharma(s) in a technical sense, denoting the ultimate constituents or elements of the whole of the existing reality. Page 332-333 General Usages. Dharma was and still is employed by all the religious denominations that have
originated in India to indicate their religious beliefs and practices. In this sense, dharma refers broadly to what we would term "religion." Dharma also designates the universal order, the natural law or the uniform norm according to which the whole world (saṃsāra) runs its course. Within the Buddhist context this universal order is
coordinated in the doctrine of dependent origination (pratītya-samutpāda). This rigorous natural law, which controls the sequence of events and the behavior and acts of beings, has no cause or originator. It is beginningless and functions
of its own nature. It is said in the Aṅguttara Nikāya and the Samyutta Nikāya, and later rephrased in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, that the nature of things is such that the causal law as the inevitable determination of karman continues to evolve spontaneously whether or not the
tathāgatas appear in this world. It is an inherent and all-pervading law that does not depend for its existence on the appearance of the Buddhas, whose mission in this world is merely to reveal it. Śākyamuni Buddha first perceived and
understood this fundamental law and then proclaimed and explained it to his followers. The discovery of the nature of dharma is compared in some sūtras to the discovery of an old and forgotten city. In the Mahāyāna, especially within the context of the doctrine of the three Buddha bodies (trikāya) and the reinterpretation of the relationship between samsara and nirvāṇa
as two aspects of the same reality, dharma as the universal norm received a wider and deeper interpretation. As a part of the compound dharmakāya, it signifies both the immanent and transcendental reality of all beings and appearances. Thus, it clearly denotes the
essence of sentient beings as well as the nature of the Buddhas. In the sense of denoting phenomenal existence, it is also referred to as reality (dharmatā), the essence of reality (dharmadhātu), suchness (tathatā), emptiness
(śūnyatā), or store-consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna). In the sense of referring to the nature of the Buddhas, it is known as Buddhahood (buddhatā), as the self-nature of the Buddhas (buddhasvabhāva), or as the womb of the Buddhas
(tathāgata-garbha). Page 333 Dharma as the Buddha's teaching or doctrine as a whole comprises his exposition of the universal order of nature as described above and his proclamation of the path toward deliverance. Thus, when his
teaching is meant as a whole system it is the term dharma (or śāsana) that is employed. When his teachings are referred to or explained from two different angles, that is, when theoretical and practical aspects are differentiated, two terms are employed: dharma, as a body of religio-philosophical
discourses as contained in the Sūtras, and Vinaya, or monastic discipline, the rules and regulations for the application and practice of dharma. The Prātimokṣa (monastic code) contains rules of conduct, each of which is also
called dharma.
The shortest and yet the clearest exposition of dharma as the Buddha's word (buddhavacana) is epitomized in Sakyamuni's first sermon, when he "set in motion" (i. e., proclaimed) the wheel (lore) of dharma: the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Noble Path. There is suffering and it has a cause that can be eliminated through the
knowledge and practice of the path of dharma as summarized by the Eightfold Noble Path: right views, right conduct, and so forth. Another presentation of the same path is articulated within the basic trilogy of monastic practice of cultivating wisdom (prajñā), morality (sīla), and meditation (dhyāna). Through wisdom one acquires a full
vision of dharma, through morality one purifies all that obscures the vision of dharma, and through meditation one matures dharma within oneself and indeed transforms oneself into an epitome of dharma. [See Four Noble Truths.] Page 333 Dharma denotes truth, knowledge, morality, and duty.
It is the truth about the state and function of the world, the truth about how to eliminate its evil tendencies, and the truth about its immutable spiritual potentiality. It is knowledge in the sense that once one
becomes aware of dharma one acquires the knowledge to become free from the bonds of phenomenal existence. It is morality, for it contains a code of moral conduct that conduces to spiritual purification and maturation. It is duty, for whoever professes dharma has a duty to comply with its norms and to achieve the goal that it sets forth. In this
sense there is only one duty in Buddhism: the ceaseless and constant effort to strive for nirvana. Page 333 Dharma, together with the Buddha and the saṃgha, constitute a "threefold jewel" (triratna) before which one makes prostrations and in which one takes refuge. Here dharma does not so much represent a body of
teachings as it assumes a character of awesomeness, protection, and deliverance wholly appropriate to the Truth. One stands in awe of dharma as a self-sustained righteousness whose universal legacy is to protect through its righteousness those who profess it. Soon after his enlightenment, realizing that there is no one more perfect than himself in virtue,
wisdom, and meditation under whom he could live in obedience and reverence, Śākyamuni decided that he would live honoring and revering dharma, the universal truth he had just realized. As one of the Three Jewels, the Buddha is
dharma's embodied personification, revealer, and teacher. The saṃgha constitutes a body of dharma's followers among whom dharma thrives as the norm of daily life, becoming an inspiration and a path to deliverance. The Three Jewels as conceived in the early period can be paralleled, as a
somewhat general compar-ison, with the later concept of the three Buddha bodies. Dharma as dharmakāya represents its own sublime and absolute aspect, the Buddha as a saṃbhogakāya represents the pure and glorified state of
dharma, and the saṃgha as nirmāṇakāya represents dharma as discovered and operating within the world. Page 333 Technical Usages. The strictly technical meaning of dharmas as ultimate elements or
principles of existence as systematized in the Abhidharma literature, especially in the Abhidharma works of the Sarvāstivāda school, is not so distinct or rigidly formulated in the four Nikāyas (Āgamas). In the sūtras of the four Nikāyas we find many descriptions of dharmas and their various classifications, but their
systematization into what we could call "dharma theory" took place within the Abhidharma literature. Thus, in the Nikāyas dharmas are usually characterized as good or bad concerning ethical conduct, but receive little attention as coherent metaphysical or epistemological systems. The Dasuttara Sutta enumerates some 550 dharmas to be cultivated or
abandoned. The Saṅgīti Sutta gives an even larger number of them, and the Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta lists some 1,011 dharmas. In this latter work we also find a set of dharmas that Śākyamuni ascertained to be for the benefit of living beings. These include the thirty-seven bodhipakṣya dharmas that constitute the thirty-seven practices and principles conducive to the
attainment of enlightenment. Page 333-334 Rather than providing further examples from the sūtras I propose now to concentrate on describing the dharma theory of the Sarvāstivāda school. Within its systematized presentation, one finds practically all the important aspects of dharmas and their role; the variant
interpretations of other schools will be mentioned wherever appropriate. Page 334 Buddhism makes an emphatic and "dogmatic" statement that a "soul" (ātman) as interpreted by non-Buddhist schools in India does not exist. By denying the existence of a soul as a permanent and unifying factor of a human entity it has removed all grounds for asserting the
permanency of the human entity or the existence of any indestructible element therein. Concerning the substantiality of physical things, it has removed the concept of substance and replaced it by modalities: there is no substance but only the appearances of what we call substances or things. Having removed the notion of substance
Buddhism has construed an explanation as to how this world functions. According to this explanation, the universe is seen as a flux of dharmas, the smallest elements or principles of which it consists, but this flux is not merely a flux of
incoherent motion or change. On the contrary, the world evolves according to the strict law of dependent origination (pratītya-samutpāda). Page 334 This universal flux can be conveniently viewed, for the moment, at three simultaneous and interrelated levels. If we take the inanimate world
(matter) alone, it flows under a uniformly homogeneous and natural law of change. Similarly, the organic world (vegetation) flows according to its own uniform evolution of natural life (germination, growth, etc.). The third level is constituted by sentient life. This last one, apart from comprehending the other levels (matter and organic
functions), includes a sentient element (consciousness or mind) as well. In general, we can say that it includes material as well as immaterial elements. Such sentient life, in which the material and immaterial elements are tied together, evolve or flow according to the strict law of causality as decreed in the causal nexus of dependent origination. Furthermore, this constant flux of sentient life coordinated by the law of dependent origination has a
moral law superimposed upon it: the "law" of karman. It is concerning such a flux that the dharma theory attempts to explain. There is no substance or person but there are dharmas (psychophysical elements) that flow according to the law of dependent origination that is set in motion by the law of karman. Basically, the dharma theory provides an explanation of how the universe functions within the context of a sentient life, in
particular a human flux, for it is human life that Buddhism is concerned with. Dharma theory constitutes then not so much an explanation of what the universe is as it does an attempt to describe of what it consists and how it functions. Thus, in the detailed enumeration of dharmas as
basic and infinitesimal elements that constitute the conglomeration of the universe we find an analysis of human life and its destiny. But this analysis is not "Buddhist psychology," as many call it; it is an exposition of both
the constant and inevitably coordinated flux of phenomena and the inherent potentiality of bringing this flux to a halt. Page 334 I shall now describe some general classifications of dharmas (again, after the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma). Dharmas are divided into conditioned (saṃskṛta) and unconditioned (asaṃskṛta). The conditioned dharmas (seventy-two in all) comprise all the elements of phenomenal existence (saṃsāra). They are called conditioned because by their nature and in
their flow they cooperate in and are subject to the law of causality; they conglomerate or cooperate in the production of life (pṛthagjana). The unconditioned elements (three in all) are those that are not subject to the law that governs phenomenal existence. Dharmas are also divided into those that are influenced or permeated by negative tendencies or depravities
(āsrava; in a moral sense, bad karmas) and those that are not under the influence of depravities (anāsrava; morally, good karmas). These are the same dharmas as in the previous classification but here they are viewed from two aspects: when they are influenced chiefly by ignorance (avidyā) their flux tends to perpetuate itself; when they are under the influence of
intuitive wisdom (prajñā) they acquire the tendency toward appeasement or tranquillity. By their nature the unconditioned dharmas must be classed among the dharmas that are not under the influence of depravities. We should recall here that the chief characteristic of saṃsāra is motion or unrest, duḥkha, and that of nirvāṇna is tranquillity,
nirodha. The dharmas can be also divided in relationship to the Four Truths. Here again, we have a twofold division. The first two truths (unrest, duḥkha, and its cause, samudaya) refer to the seventy-two dharmas that are permeated by depravities or that are conditioned. The two other truths (rest, nirodha, and the means to it, mārga) refer to the three
unconditioned dharmas that are always at rest (nirodha) and to the dharmas that are on the way (mārga) to become extinguished (nirodha). Page 334-335 Having described the general divisions I shall now proceed to list a set of three standard classifications within which
individual dharmas are distributed. The first classification, which includes the conditioned dharmas alone, refers to their grouping as perceived in a sentient life. This classification divides dharmas into [[five
aggregates]] or skandhas. Here we have
(1) matter or body (rūpaskandha): eleven dharmas;
(2) feelings, sensations, or emotions (vedanāskandha): one dharma;
(3) perceptions (samjñāskandha): one dharma;
(4) impulses or will-forces (saṃskāraskandha): fiftyeight dharmas;
(5) consciousness or mind (vijñānaskandha): one dharma.
This division into five skandhas not only constitutes an analysis of all phenomena but also serves to prove that there is no soul (atman) in a human entity, for none of the five skandhas can be identified with or regarded as a soul. Page 335 The second classification divides dharmas about the process of cognition. Here we have the six sense organs (indriya) and the six sense objects (viṣaya) jointly called the "bases" or "foundations" (āyatana) of cognition.
The six sense organs or internal bases are
(1) sense of vision (cakṣur-indriyāyatana);
(2) sense of hearing (śrotra-);
(3) sense of smell (ghrāṇa-);
(4) sense of taste (jihvā-);
(5) sense of touch (kaya-); and
(6) consciousness or intellectual faculty (mana-). The six sense objects or external bases are
(7) color and form (rūpa-āyatana);
(11) contact (spraṣṭavya-); and
(12) nonsensuous or immaterial objects (dharma-).
The first eleven āyatanas have one dharma each; the immaterial objects
comprise sixty-four dharmas. The third classification groups dharmas in relationship to the flow (santāna) of life that evolves within the threefold world (kāma-, rūpa-, and ārūpya-dhātu) as described by Buddhist cosmology. This group is divided into eighteen dhātus, or elements. It incorporates the previous division into the twelve bases, to which is added a corresponding set of six kinds of consciousness to the intellectual faculty.
Thus we have
(13) visual consciousness (cakṣur-vijñānadhātu);
(14) auditory consciousness (śrotra-);
(15) olfactory consciousness (ghrāṇa-);
(16) gustatory consciousness (jihvā-);
(17) tactile consciousness (kāya-); and
(18) nonsensuous consciousness (mano-).
Within this group the five sense organs and their five objects contain one dharma each (ten dharmas in all). Consciousness (no. 6) is divided here into seven dhātus (no. 6 plus 13-18). The dhātu that represents
immaterial objects (no. 12) contains sixty-four dharmas. All the eighteen dhātus exist in the sensuous world (kāmadhātu) or the world in which the mind operates through the sense data. In the world of refined matter (rūpadhatu), the objects of smell and taste (nos. 9-10) and the olfactory and gustatory consciousnesses cease to exist. In the world without matter (but frequently interpreted as very
subtle matter for we are still within saṃsāra) all the dhātus cease to exist except for consciousness (no. 6), its immaterial objects (no. 12), and its nonsensuous aspect of cognition (no. 18). (See table l.) Page 335 TABLE 1.The Twelve Āyatanas and the Eighteen Dhātus Receptive Faculties (indriya) BASES OF COGNITION (āyatana) CONSCIOUSNESS (vijñana)
Matter or body is conceived as consisting of the four primary elements (mahābhūtas)—earth, water, fire, and air. Secondary or refined matter (bhautika, derived from or related to matter) is represented by the senses and their objects (i. e.,
2. [[Sense of hearing] srotra-
14. Auditory consciousness srotra-
3. Sense of smell ghrana-
15. Olfactory consciousness ghrana-
4. Sense of taste jihva-
16. Gustatory consciousness jihva- 5. Sense of touch kaya-
11. Contact, tangibles
17. Tactile consciousness sprastavya- kaya- 6. Intellect mana-
12. Nonsensuous objects 18. Nonsensuous dharma- consciousness mano- * When the āyatanas are enumerated as dhātus they are termed cakṣur-dhātu, śrotra-dhātu etc.
Now at last we come to enumerate the individual dharmas. Within the classification into the five skandhas, matter (rūpa) contains eleven dharmas: five sense organs (āyatanas
1-5) and their five corresponding sense objects (āyatanas 7-11),
plus an additional element to be discussed below. Āyatana (dhātu) number 12 (non-sensuous objects) is in this system classified as an immaterial dharma, as we shall see, and hence is not considered here.
sense data). As already mentioned above, there is no substance as such. The four primary elements are talked about in Buddhism, but rightly understood these are taken to refer to properties: hardness (earth), cohesion (water), heat (fire), and motion (wind). The primary matter (four elements) present in a body sustains the
secondary matter (the senses and their objects). Since the Buddhists analyze matter within the context of a sentient life, their description of matter is mainly concerned with discerning how it functions and how it appears, not with what it is, for properly speaking it does not exist. The world is in constant flux, the living life changes from one moment to the next.
Consequently, because Buddhists are constrained from speaking in terms of soul or substance, matter is styled as sense data alone. Such a definition of the physical dharmas that constitute the sense data ([[ten
dharmas]]) accounts for the component of matter that sustains consciousness, the other component of sentient life. What then is the eleventh dharma? Page 336 The Sarvāstivāda, viewing the human personality as a threefold aspect of body,
speech, and mind, divided karman (as it operates within a sentient life) into mental action (manas, identified with volition, or cetanā) and physical and vocal actions. Mental action was classed as immaterial but physical and vocal actions that proceed
from mental action were classed as belonging to matter (rūpaskandha). Furthermore, physical and vocal action was seen as being an (external) "expression" (vijñapti), but when mental action was committed but not externalized its "material"
concomitant was seen as "nonexpression" (avijñapti). It is the latter "unexpressed matter" (avijñaptirūpa) that constitutes the eleventh dharma among the skandha division. Although immaterial, it was classed as matter because physical and vocal action with which it was associated was classed as such. Page 336 Three skandhas (feelings,
perceptions, and impulses) contain jointly sixty dharmas, which are included as immaterial objects within the two other (āyatana, dhātu) classifications (no. 12 in both). The three immutable elements (asaṃskṛta) and avijñapti are also included among the immaterial dharmas of these two latter divisions, thus making a total of sixty-four dharmas. Page 336 Now I shall describe the sixty dharmas that are included in all three classifications (skandha, āyatana, and
dhātu). They are divided into two main groups: one group comprises forty-six associated dharmas or mental dharmas (caittadharma), that arise from or in association with pure consciousness or mind (citta-saṃprayuktasaṃskāra); the second group
comprises fourteen unassociated dharmas, that is to say, dharmas that can be associated neither with matter nor with mind (rūpa-cittaviprayukta-saṃskāra). Page 336 The forty-six associated dharmas include ten mental dharmas that are present in a sentient life (citta-mahābhūmika):
(1) feeling,
(2) perception,
(3) will,
(4) contact,
(5) desire,
(6) comprehension,
(7) memory,
(8) attention,
(9) aspiration, and
(10) concentration; ten morally good (kuśala-mahābhūmika) dharmas that are present in favorable conditions:
(11) faith,
(12) courage,
(13) equanimity,
(14) modesty,
(15) aversion to evil,
(16) detachment from love,
(17) detachment from hatred,
(18) nonviolence,
(19) dexterity, and
(20) perseverance in good; six obscuring (kleśamahābhūmika) dharmas that enter the stream of a sentient life in unfavorable moments:
(21) confusion (ignorance),
(22) remissness,
(23) mental dullness,
(24) lack of faith,
(25) indolence, and
(26) addiction to pleasure; ten additional obscuring (upakleśa-bhūmika) dharmas that may occur at different times:
(27) anger,
(28) hypocrisy,
(29) maliciousness,
(30) envy,
(31) ill-motivated rivalry,
(32) violence,
(33) malice,
(34) deceit,
(35) treachery, and
(36) self-gratification; two universally inauspicious (akuśala-mahābhūmika) dharmas:
(37) irreverence, and
(38) willful tolerance of offences; and eight dharmas that are called undetermined (aniyatabhūmika) or undifferentiated in the sense that they can have different moral implications:
(39) remorse,
(40) deliberation,
(41) investigation,
(42) determination,
(43) passion,
(44) hatred,
(45) pride, and
(46) doubt. All forty-six dharmas listed above cannot be associated with (or cofunction with) consciousness at the same time on the general principle that their inner inclinations are variously geared toward either good or evil. Page 336 The fourteen unassociated dharmas are
(47) acquisition (prāpti), or the controlling force of an individual flux of life,
(48) force (aprāpti) that suspends some elements,
(49) force of homogeneity of existence,
(50) force that leads to trance,
(51) force produced by effort to enter trance,
(52) force that stops consciousness, thus effecting the highest trance,
(53) force that projects life's duration,
(54) origination,
(55) duration,
(56) decay,
(57) extinction,
(58) force that imparts meaning to words,
(59) force that imparts meaning to sentences, and
(60) force that imparts meaning to sounds.
Page 336 Pure consciousness or mind constitutes one dharma (fifth skandha, sixth āyatana). In the division into dhātus vijñāna is, as it were, subdivided among seven dhātus (no. 6 plus 13-18) where the same consciousness is viewed in
relation to the sense organs and immaterial objects. Page 336 Adding all the conditioned dharmas together yields eleven material dharmas, one dharma representing consciousness, forty-six associated dharmas, and fourteen unassociated dharmas—seventy-two in all. These are the dharmas into which the whole of phenomenal existence is analyzed and which account for all events that take place within it. The Sarvāstivāda also enumerate three
unconditioned dharmas: space (ākāśa), emancipation through discerning knowledge (pratisaṃkhyānirodha), and emancipation through nondiscerning knowledge (apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha). Thus, the total of dharmas both conditioned
and unconditioned amounts to seventy-five in the Sarvāstivāda school. (See figure l. missing here) The Theravāda tradition enumerates only one unconditioned dharma (nirvāṇa) and eighty-one conditioned dharmas: [[four primary
elements]]; four secondary elements; five sense organs; five sense objects; two aspects of sex (male and female); heart as the sustaining element of psychic life; two kinds (bodily and vocal) of avijñaptirūpa; a psychic vitality of matter; space; three
properties (agility, elasticity, and pliability) of body; three characteristics (origination, duration, and decay) of conditioned dharmas; material food; fifty-two mental elements, including twenty-five wholesome, fourteen
unwholesome, and thirteen morally neutral elements; and consciousness. Page 337 The Sarvāstivāda asserted that all the conditioned dharmas are real (they exist for they happen) and that they have the characteristic of coming into existence, lasting for a short period, and disappearing again in order to reappear in a new karmically
determined formation. They also maintained that dharmas exist in all three times: past, present, and future. The Lokottaravāda school, a Mahāsāṃghika subsect, treated all the conditioned dharmas as unreal
and held that only the unconditioned dharmas are real. The Prajñaptivāda school, another Mahāsāṃghika group, argued that the twelve ayatanas are not real because they are the products of the skandhas, which are the only real entities. The Sautrāntikas admitted the existence of thought but rejected
the reality of the majority of the associated and all the unassociated dharmas, denied the reality of the past and future, and maintained that only the present exists. They also rejected the existence of the unconditioned
dharmas, considering them mere denominations of absence. The Mādhyamika school rejected the ultimate reality of dharmas altogether. The Vijñānavāda school recognized mind as the only reality (cittamātra) and treated the whole of phenomenal existence as its illusive projection. [See Mādhyamika and Yogācāra. Finally, a well-known Buddhist
formula (ye dharmā hetuprabhavā, etc.) expresses the soteriological aspect associated with the analysis of sentient beings in terms of dharmas: "Whatever events arise from a cause, the Tathāgata has foretold their cause, and the Great Hermit
has also explained their cessation." For further discussion of the Buddhist notion of the person, see Buddhist Philosophy; Soul, article on Buddhist Concepts; Karman, article on Buddhist Concepts; and Pratitya-samutpada.
Abhidharma analysis is treated in Nirvana and in Soteriology, article on Buddhist Soteriology. See also Sarvastivada and Sautrantika for two conflicting views of dharmas. For a
discussion of dharma as truth or law, see also Cosmic Law. The dharma theory of the Sarvāstivādins is systematically set forth in Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośa, translated by Louis de La Vallée Poussin as
L'Abhidharmakośa de Vasubandhu, 6 vols. (1923-1931; reprint, Brussels, 1971). Theodore Stcherbatsky's The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word "Dharma" (1923; reprint, Delhi, 1970) is a lucid introduction to the topic. For the Theravāda view, see especially A Buddhist Manual of
Psychological Ethics: Dhammasangaṇi, translated by C. A. F. Rhys Davids (London, 1923), a rendering of the first book of the Theravāda Abhidharma. Ñyanatiloka's Guide through the Abhidhamma Pitaka, 3d ed., revised and enlarged by Ñyanaponika Thera (Colombo, 1957), is the single most useful guide to the study of the Theravāda Abhidhamma. The reader will also find useful A. K. Warder's "Dharmas and Data," Journal of Indian Philosophy 1 (1971): 272-295. TADEUSZ SKORUPSKI