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which were established over the centuries between [[East]] and [[West]] 1 .
+
[[Buddhism]] in {{Wiki|Sweden}}
  
During the pre-Christian {{Wiki|era}}, the perlpla , {{Wiki|military}} expedi¬
+
Couple of weeks ago I found a page in Facebook called or group of [[people]] called  [[Buddhism]] in {{Wiki|Sweden}} . I wrote couple of words myself an english on their page and immediately reacted on my words  site Admin  Peter Olin  and told that everybody here on this page have to use only  {{Wiki|Swedish}} because it's a {{Wiki|swedish}} [[buddhist]] site. He [[sound]] quite convincible.
tions and embassies in the [[direction]] of [[India]] were no more than
 
voyages of exploration and discovery. Under the {{Wiki|Roman Empire}},’
 
once the routes were open and {{Wiki|curiosity}} satisfied, dealings be¬
 
tween [[East]] and [[West]] were entirely dominated by trade.  
 
  
I. DISCOVERIES IN THE PRE-CHRISTIAN ERA
+
I explained to Olin that I have been doing the [[Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia]] for 18 hours every day for 8 years  After which he started to explain to me that many links in [[Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia]] what are linked to Wikipedia are suspicious and may change over time, and what,ll happened with these articles in my {{Wiki|encyclopedia}} when there,ll be changes in Wikipedia , He seemed quite excited and determined in their [[own]] deliberations and positions.
  
Scylax of [[Caryanda]] (519 B.C.). - Scylax of [[Caryanda]] in Caria was
+
Then I posted couple of [[thangkas]] made by me and lot of critics or by other words a large avalanche of [[criticism]] arrived at my address. compared to my [[attitude]] towards the {{Wiki|Encyclopedia}} and other [[activities]] in {{Wiki|Asia}}, {{Wiki|Sweden}} had an extremely negative and rusty cold [[attitude]].
  
ordered by [[Darius]] to reconnoitre the marine route which links
+
With this, I felt like the admin's ironic [[logic]] killed me wanting to participate in this site on Facebook and of course since the admin of the page was quite specific in his [[attitude]], I asked him what have you done for [[Buddhism]] yourself? He didn't answer. At the end I just left the {{Wiki|swedish}} [[group of buddhists]]..
the mouths of the [[Indus]] to {{Wiki|Egypt}}. Setting out from Kaspatyrus
 
(Kasyapapura, {{Wiki|modern}} [[Multan]] near Attock), the explorer descended
 
the [[Indus]] as far as the [[Arabian Sea]], ran along the coasts of Hak-
 
  
ran and southern Arabia and, entering the Gulf of Aden, went up
+
I spend there on site just 2 days. And then left because [[people]] started to scream about my work  with [[Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia]]. My secretary who has been a member of this group  started to defend me and almost all [[people]]  on  the page started to talk  that I serve the interests of the [[Chinese government]] and they pay me  for that.
  
the [[Red]] Sea to Arsinoe in the Gulf of Suez . The periplus lasted
+
I started the {{Wiki|encyclopedia}} in [[Australia]] and interestingly there were no negative [[attitude]] towards my work . [[Australia]] gave me a Distinguished Talented Visa for my [[activities]] and work  in  [[Buddhism ]].  
for thirty months, and the length of its duration is enough to
 
prove that the navigator, travelling with a head [[wind]], knew no¬
 
thing of the vayB of the {{Wiki|monsoon}}.  
 
  
[[Wikipedia:Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great]] (331-324 B.C.). - [[Hot]] in pursuit of Bessup
+
I am struck by how two countries may have so different [[views]] on [[Buddhism]]. I arrived back to {{Wiki|Sweden}} a year ago and turned to  {{Wiki|Swedish}}  government and asked if they would like to help me with the {{Wiki|encyclopedia}}. I also wrote to the {{Wiki|Swedish}} {{Wiki|Academy}} of [[Sciences]] and asked them for a positive [[attitude]] towards my work. I wrote to 60 politicians in the government but did not receive any response to my letters at all.
  
after his victory at [[Gaugamela]] (331 B.C.), the. [[Macedonian]] conquer¬
+
The {{Wiki|Academy}} of [[Sciences]] was [[silent]] in {{Wiki|Swedish}} way. I [[thought]] when I arrived first time to {{Wiki|Sweden}} most of the world's press was {{Wiki|present}} and even  {{Wiki|Swedish}} journalists  but now it seemed embarrassing for {{Wiki|Sweden}} that they gave me {{Wiki|swedish}} citizenship, Which shows that my {{Wiki|political}} [[activities]] suited them but not [[Buddhist]] .  
or made use during his march of the great 'twisting artery which
 
linked the Caspian Gates to the southern slopes of the [[Hindu Kush]],
 
passing through Herat (Haraiva or Alexandria-in-Aria), Faraz ([[Phra]]-
 
da or Prophthasia), Dranglana, the southern shore of Lake Hamun,
 
the right bank of the [[River]] Helmand (Haetvmant, Setumant, Etyman-
 
der, Hermandrus), {{Wiki|Kandahar}} (Harahuvati or Alexandria-ln-Arachosla),
 
Parvan (Alexandria-under-the-Caucasus or in the Paropamlsadae) 5 .
 
The bematlsts Diognetus and Bseton, who accompanied [[Alexander]]  
 
on his expedition, surveyed the route and. carefully measured the
 
distances .  
 
  
The revolt in Aria had orevented [[Alexander]] from returning
+
I have organized a major international [[Buddhist]] conferences  and ([[Buddhism]] and Nordland) and  ([[Buddhism]] and [[Australia]])  what lasted 9 years.  I myself have attended other conferences at the {{Wiki|University}} of [[Berkeley]], but I have never seen such a derogatory and monotonous [[attitude]] as in {{Wiki|Europe}}, and especially in Scandinavia haven't seen such negative [[attitude]] anywhere in [[world]]. We can say openly {{Wiki|Sweden}} denies [[Buddhism]].
to {{Wiki|Bactria}} via the most direct route linking the Caspian Gates
 
to the [[Jaxartes]] which passed through {{Wiki|Bactria}} ([[Zariaspa]]) and termi¬
 
nated at Khojend (Alexandria-Eschate) on the [[Syr Darya]]. Notwith¬
 
[[standing]], this route was also explored by his surveyors 5 .  
 
  
Now lord of {{Wiki|Bactria}} and [[Sogdiana]] after a campaign lasting
+
This summer, I approached the {{Wiki|University}} of Kalmar with a proposal to hold an international conference on [[Buddhism]]. In a month's time, my secretary, Marju Broder, sent them letters with a proposal to meet to discuss cooperation and [[activities]] in [[connection]] with the conference.
two years (329-328 B.C.), [[Alexander]] set out to conquer IndiaJ
+
the {{Wiki|university}} replied to me  w month later with such this [[letter]];
  
Early Relations I
+
Dear Marju Broder,
 +
                                                                                                                       
 +
I’m [[professor]] in the study of [[religions]] and like all my [[colleagues]] in the study of [[religions]] we are regularly contacted by, besides of course [[scholars]] of [[religions]], RELIGIONISTS OF DIFFERENT SORTS, NOT RARELY WITH DEEP THEOLOGICAL ERUDITION.
  
to his [[mind]] 'the region which extends eastwards from the [[Indus]]'*.
+
Stefan Arvidsson
 +
[[Professor]] in the History of [[Religions]], Linnæus {{Wiki|University}}   
  
He took the old highway of [[India]] connecting [[Bactra]] to [[Taxila]] ac¬
+
At least someone dared to answer and say what is [[thought]] about of [[Buddhist]] [[activities]] in {{Wiki|Sweden}} . It is [[interesting]] that {{Wiki|Sweden}} is talking about [[religious]] freedom. How to understand it ?
ross the [[Hindu Kush]]. Setting out from [[Bactra]] at the beginning
 
of the year 327, in ten days he crossed the Afghan massif and,
 
by way of Bamlyan, reached the southern slopes where his # settle¬
 
ment, Alexandria-under-the-Caucasus, present-day ParvSn, was locat¬
 
ed. By three or four stages, he arrived at [[Lampaka]] where he con¬
 
centrated his troops in Nlcaea, a temporary encampment to be found
 
between the villages of Mandrawar and Chabar-bagh. The majority
 
of his [[Macedonian]] forces, led by Perdiccas and [[Hephaestion]], des¬
 
cended the [[south]] bank of the [[Kophen]] ([[Kubha]], today the [[Kabul River]]),
 
reprovisioned in [[Nagarahara]] ({{Wiki|Jelalabad}}), occupied PUskarivatl
 
(Peucalaotis, ^{{Wiki|modern}} [[Charsadda]]) and reached the [[Indus]] between
 
  
Udabhanda (Und) and ^b. [[Alexander]], who had been fighting in
+
This freedom seems to [[exist]] only  for [[Christians]] but not for [[Buddhists]] . In addition, we wrote to many other {{Wiki|Swedish}}  organizations, but the answer was [[silence]]  
  
the upper valleys of the Kunar (KhoSs), [[Swat]] (Suvastu, Suastos)
+
My secretary Marju Broder also wrote to others in Scandinavia, but the answer from  them was either [[silence]] or a negative [[attitude]]. The same [[attitude]] was observed by those Swedes on Facebook who call themselves a  [[Buddhists]].
and BunSr, then rejoined his lieutenants; the [[Macedonian]] {{Wiki|army}},
 
at last regrouped, crossed the [[Indus]] by a pontoon-bridge and made
 
peaceably for [[Taxila]] where it was welcomed by the local [[king]] 0m-
 
phis (Ambhl). In [[Taxila]] began the great artery which is still
 
used today by the Trunk Road: pointing in the [[direction]] of the
 
south-east, it reached [[Mathura]] on the right bank of the [[Yamuna]],
 
where it communicated respectively with the [[west]] coast via UJjayl-
 
nl and Bharukaccha and the [[east]] coast through KausambI, Patallputra
 
and Tamrallptl. [[Alexander]], halted at the [[Hydaspes]] by the resis¬
 
tance of [[King]] [[Porus]] (Paurava), turned directly [[east]], and, arm;
 
in hand, crossed the great tributaries of the [[Indus]]: the Jhelua
 
(Vitasti, [[Hydaspes]]), Chenab (Asiknl, Candrabhaga, Aceslnes) anc'
 
[[Ravi]] (Parusnl, Iravatl, Hydraotes), and finally reached the Beat
 
(Vipae, Vlpasa, Hyphasis) where his troops mutinied. The route
 
taken by [[Alexander]] as far as the Beas, with indications of the
 
distances, was also noted by the professional surveyors 7 . All
 
the topographical works carried out on [[Alexander's]] orders ant
 
whose starting-point was the Caspian Gates were collected and pub¬
 
lished, before the establishment of the [[Wikipedia:Parthian Empire|Parthian]] {{Wiki|domination}} ol
 
{{Wiki|Iran}}, in the AsiatiJcoI stathmol by a certain Amyntas, who hat
 
  
followed [[Alexander]] on his expedition .
+
That's what they wrote in {{Wiki|Swedish}} newspaper;
  
The order to [[retreat]] was given in November 326 and the Mace¬
+
[[Buddhism]] is a relatively small [[religion]] in {{Wiki|Sweden}}, but has seen an increase in recent years. The number of [[Buddhists]] in April 2011 is estimated at around 45,000 [[people]] or close to 0.5% of Sweden's population, making it Sweden's third largest [[religion]] after [[Christianity]] and {{Wiki|Islam}}. Most practitioners have an {{Wiki|Asian}} background and come mostly from [[Thailand]], [[China]] or [[Vietnam]].
donian {{Wiki|army}}, reinforced by a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships, descend¬
 
ed the [[Hydaspes]] and the [[Indus]] to the delta of Patalene, whlcl
 
  
 +
In addition, the {{Wiki|Swedish}} government requested that {{Wiki|donations}} to [[Buddhists]] be taxed on the basis of income.
 +
 +
http://religionsvetenskapligakommentarer.blogspot.com/2012/09/strukturell-diskriminering-nar.html
  
 +
http://religionsvetenskapligakommentarer.blogspot.com/2019/08/buddhistiska-tempel-beskattas-for.html 
  
106 [[Buddhist Studies]] Review 5, 2 (1988)
+
It,s a [[shame]] to take a [[money]] from [[buddhist monks]]. [[Interesting]] how much {{Wiki|Swedish}} government pays for [[Christian]] {{Wiki|church}}  to keep it alive.
  
[[Alexander]] explored for six months (January to July 325). The
+
it shows specifically how the {{Wiki|Swedish}} government and [[people]] view [[Buddhism]]. You could say  frankly that they [[hate]] [[Buddhism]]
return to Suslana was made by three routes.  
 
  
Craterus, who had not gone as far as the delta 9 , left. In
+
It shows how wrong  country I chose when I was expelled from the {{Wiki|Soviet Union}} by [[Gorbachev]]  when I made, first time in [[Soviet]] history, an [[opposition]] party against [[Communist Party]], My [[idea]]  that erupted  the {{Wiki|Soviet Union}} and perestroika.
July .325, the right bank of the [[Indus]] off Sklkarpore, crossed
 
the Hulls Pass, Quetta and {{Wiki|Kandahar}}, and skirted the [[south]] bank
 
of the Helmand and Lake Hamun; then, through the desert of Dasht-
 
  
i-Lut and Natretabad, he reached Galashklrd inf 'Carmania, where >
+
Having lived in {{Wiki|Sweden}} for years, I did not come to the [[idea]] or  [[understanding]] that  {{Wiki|Sweden}} does not like  a [[Buddhism]] because I was not involved in promoting [[Buddhism]] in {{Wiki|Sweden}}.  
[[Alexander]] had preceded him 10 .  
 
  
In the meantime [[Alexander]], at the head of some ten thousand
+
I have been actively involved in [[Buddhism]] for 45 years, I established the [[Nyingma]] [[Buddhist tradition]] in {{Wiki|Estonia}}, built 5 [[stupas]] there, My friends also actively contributed to the translation of a large amount of [[Buddhist literature]]. [[Soviet]] times nobody paid [[attention]] to my work in field  of [[Buddhism]].
  
men, had left Pa tala in September 325 and set out along the Makran
+
Now when I went back to {{Wiki|Estonia}} and started [[to build]]  a new [[stupa]] the new [[Estonian]]  government arrested me and my friends and  accused me that I am hiding [[weapons]] in my country house what I haven't visited already 15 years .
  
coast, to Gedrosla. Then turning northwards, in December 325,
+
They hold me in jail two days until  {{Wiki|swedish}} ambassador Dag Hartelius  called to the police. Why it's happened? Because in {{Wiki|Estonia}} old [[Wikipedia:Communism|communists]] are still  in power. And they [[hate]] me because I destroyed the {{Wiki|Soviet Union}}.
  
he reached Galashklrd in Carmania where Craterus and Nearchus
+
I built a [[stupa]]  and large [[prayer wheel]] then left {{Wiki|Estonia}}., 1982  I build 4 [[stupas]]  with my friends in {{Wiki|Estonia}}, first [[Buddhist]] [[thangkas]] were made by Arno Arrak it was the start for [[Buddhism in Estonia]].
  
were not long in.Joining him.  
+
At the same time, the {{Wiki|University of Tartu}} in {{Wiki|Estonia}} was extremely contemptuous of my [[activities]], led by Linnart Mäll,who was  a chronic alcoholic plus his students Märt Läänemets and Maret Kark supported him.  
  
Hearchus, at the head of a fleet of one thousand units con¬
+
It is striking that instead of cooperation, there is an immediate denigration against  [[Buddhist]] [[activities]] from [[scientific]] side . Now that everyone is talking about a multicultural {{Wiki|era}}, both freedom of {{Wiki|speech}} and freedom of [[religion]], the {{Wiki|Swedish}} government is asking to tax {{Wiki|donations}} to [[Buddhists]] .
centrated in the [[Indus]] Delta, had been ordered to delay his depar¬
 
ture until the arrival of the {{Wiki|monsoon}} from the north-east which
 
breaks in October: clear [[proof]] that at that time the {{Wiki|movement}}  
 
  
of the eteslan [[winds]] was well known 11 * However, the {{Wiki|hostility}}  
+
An example my secretary asked {{Wiki|Oxford University}} to participate on coming conference  [[Buddhism]] and Nordland and she got such answer : 
  
of the local populace forced the admiral to weigh anchor on 21
+
I am sorry to say that I cannot give you any encouragement. The OCBS is a small institute with very limited resources. We are not even able to pay any {{Wiki|academic}} salaries. We also have nobody here who [[knows]] anything about [[Buddhism]] and Nordland, so we cannot offer any expertise
September 325. He skirted the Orelte and Makran coasts and, after
 
eighty, days of eventful voyaging, in December of the same year,
 
reached the {{Wiki|mouth}} of the Anamls (Mlnab), in {{Wiki|fertile}} Harmosla,.-
 
near Hormuz. Nearchus, having placed his fleet in safety, went
 
Inland to Galashklrd and rejoined [[Alexander]] and Craterus who anxi¬
 
ously awaited him 12 . The [[reunion]] was an occasion for [[Joyful]] fes¬
 
tivities and a new [[Alexandria]] was founded. The fleet then sailed
 
up the [[[Persian]]]Gulf and the Pasltlgrls and reached Suslana where,  
 
in the spring of 324, it was joined by the land {{Wiki|army}}.
 
  
The seieucids (312-64 B.C.). - After his victorious return from
+
Yours sincerely,
 +
[[Richard Gombrich]]
  
{{Wiki|Babylonia}}, Seleucus I Nicator (312-280) set out to reconquer the
+
And it is a solid old {{Wiki|university}} with English [[traditions]].  
eastern [[satrapies]] which had broken away from the [[Alexandrian]] em¬
 
pire. and his armies again travelled the routes of {{Wiki|Iran}} and Bac-
 
tria. The operations begun in 305 by the Diadochus [Alexander*s
 
successor] against the [[Indian]] [[empire]] of [[Wikipedia:Chandragupta Maurya|Candragupta]] once again
 
drew Seleucus onto the {{Wiki|ancient Indian}} route linking [[Bactra]] to
 
Taxlla, and his momentum took him to the banks of the [[Yamuna]],
 
possibly as far as [[Mathura]]: we know that this campaign ende<)
 
  
 +
The same time we have big site in [[Internet]] dedicated to this conference.
  
Early Relations I
+
The question arises as  how [[Buddhists]] do not notice what other [[Buddhists]] are talking about [[Buddhism]] in their work on conference [[Buddhism]] and Nordland.
  
in a compromise in the terms of which* in exchange for five; hund-i^/
+
It shows the [[stupidity]] and short-sightedness of the {{Wiki|Europeans}} and its [[universities]], And we talk about [[religious]] freedom here . Compared to the {{Wiki|University}} of [[Berkeley]], who immediately agreed to collaborate with leading [[professor]] [[Lewis Lancaster]] .The only company that is actively involved in translating texts and spreading [[knowledge]] about Buddhism,in our days which is  [[Lotsawa house]] and its a very big contribution to {{Wiki|European}} [[Buddhism]],  
red war-elephants, Seleucus ceded-the possession of India and
 
the greater part of Afghanistan to his rival . Seleucus 9 inter¬
 
est then turned to the neighbouring countries of the Caspian SeaVj
 
the strategic and commercial Importance of which did not escape
 
him. Deodamas, the commander of Seleucus and Antlochus, identi-  
 
fled the course of the Jaxsrtes, which until*'then had been confus¬
 
ed with the Don 14 ! Patrocles, governor of the nor i thern p^yj|.i»cea
 
and a geographer of great authority, explored the Caaplgn.; Si*
 
but, on the basis of misinterpreted local records. waa .led to.  
 
claim that not only the Ochus (Tejend) but al,o the Oxu, and Jax»r-
 
tea, tributaries of the Aral Sea, flowed lnjto. the Caspian, the
 
surface of which, according to Patrocles, equalled that of •*.*>,.
 
  
{{Wiki|Black Sea}} 15 . The geographer discovered, or rediscovered
+
https://www.lotsawahouse.org/
  
{{Wiki|Black Sea}} 15 . The geographer discovered, or rediscovered..SubseW^^
+
It,s [[interesting]] most of those [[people]] doesn't belong to {{Wiki|Europe}} who translate in [[Lotsawa House]]. I know  {{Wiki|Erik Pema Kunsang}} because when I started with {{Wiki|Chinese}} {{Wiki|Encyclopedia}} he connected me and  his  relationship to my project was very positive and favorable. He is from {{Wiki|Denmark}} . And well known [[translator]] from [[Tibetan]].  
quent * to Artobulos, the southern. [[Indian]] tredie^routet^ at ‘
+
time the {{Wiki|Oxus}}, which was easily navigable,' servej,^
+
https://lotsawahouse.blog/interviews/erik-pema-kunsang/
a considerable .amount of merchandise from Indie -,tn the
 
[Caspian] Sea'>. from there It rapidly-reached the coast^ofJArMiiifis^^P^
 
(Azerbaijan), there' to ascend the Cyrus (Kour) t vteschV^*T!*piwjs lu,j^^ ^
 
side and redescend to the {{Wiki|Black Sea}} 16 . Plpaliy. it
 
the maritime route skirted the coast of Cedrosla - and, • «f .t,r|
 
explored by S^ylax and Nearchus, was occasionally uoed'hiy^the^;^;/^
 
  
ships of the Diadochus.- Seleucus -. transportediMroB-L’tka'^ta^^feff-^
+
Another [[person]] who has helped me a lot is from [[Holland]]. I asked [[money]] to buy a new {{Wiki|computer}} and new glasses for myself because the old {{Wiki|computer}} is too old and slow he reacted immediately . The rest of the {{Wiki|europe}} was quiet.  
  
Delta to the {{Wiki|mouth}} of the Euphrates, some [[Indian]] »picms>fo^V^«^^
+
I understand because it,s a [[war]] in our days accely between [[christianity]] and [[Buddhism]] what has found new territories here in {{Wiki|Europe}},.  
the Journey proved fatal .... •" F 1
 
  
Antiochus I Soter (280-261), the son of Seleucus^ himself ^ ; ^
+
When I was 11 years old I read the [[book]] about [[Buddhism]] and it was written  that [[Buddha]] was talking about huge amount of other [[worlds]] and [[universes]] the same time I head in school that  {{Wiki|Galileo}}, on the other hand, was tried by the Inquisition after his [[book]] was published.
  
re-explored eastern {{Wiki|Iran}} and built and fortified, under the [[name]] ^
+
He said  that the [[Earth]] revolved around the {{Wiki|sun}}, a {{Wiki|theory}} now known to be true, I understood immediately value of the [[christianity]]  who was telling such rubbish about [[cosmology]] . [[Buddhism]] for me as always been  a [[science]]  and I don't understand why others haven't found such values in [[Buddhist teachings]].
  
of {{Wiki|Antioch}}, Alexandria-in Margiana (Mcrv) and A1 exa nd r la -Esc hat c
+
And {{Wiki|Europe}} still holds the same {{Wiki|principles}} as you can see here in {{Wiki|Sweden}}. For them {{Wiki|Sweden}} is a center of the [[universe]] with his 10.23 million (2019) population. So narrow minded [[people]] here.When you use your {{Wiki|brain}} at least little bit you can understand who,ll be the winner in this [[war]].  
(Khojend (now Leninabad)) 18 .* ;
 
  
During the same period, the Mediterranean [[world]] was aqklng
+
[[Buddhist psychology]] has existed  two thousand years  , {{Wiki|Europe}} discovered it just couple of hundred years back. It seems now that {{Wiki|European}} way of [[thinking]] is really slow and  and related to [[Christian]] [[thought]].
remarkable progress in its [[knowledge]] of [[India]] as a result of the
 
detailed and exact [[information]] supplied to it by its ambassadors •* f
 
  
who had been sent by the Diadochus to. the [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] court. Mega- * ’
+
One thing is a [[religion]] another is [[scientific]] approach. [[Buddhism]] is [[science]]  because it helps you to understand yourself [[Christianity]] reveals that {{Wiki|Jesus}} is your liberator. In [[Buddhism]] you have to {{Wiki|liberate}} yourself. It means different way of [[thinking]] and [[understanding]] about the [[world]] and about your [[own mind]].  
  
sthenes and Deimachus had both been sent as ambassadors to Patall-
+
Now you can see in web often  [[word]] [[tantra]] what [[Christianity]] uses for [[own]] purposes  it means borrowing from [[Buddhism]], but I havent noticed  that [[Buddhism]] is using [[christian]] {{Wiki|terminology}}.  It means {{Wiki|Europe}} and {{Wiki|European}} [[knowledge]] has nothing to offer anymore  new [[ideas]] in field of [[spirituality]] and for a person’s personal [[spiritual]] development,Christianity has only  one most important [[book]] the Bible [[Buddhism]] has them thousands.
[[putra]], Megasthenez to [[Wikipedia:Chandragupta Maurya|Candragupta]] (313-289) and Deimachus to his |
 
  
son {{Wiki|Bindusara}} Amitragbata (289-264), and they have left us records |
+
[[People]] always like to have a rich friends then what about [[religion]]? [[Books]] consist [[ideas]] , teachings view of the [[world]] and I understand why [[people]] in our days who  choose a [[buddhism]]. Because it has more real [[intellectual]] values then [[christianity]]. I understand how most of the [[people]] in {{Wiki|Europe}} and specially in {{Wiki|Sweden}} react on my words but someone have to be the first who says that [[king]] is naked.
  
of their Journeys 19 . In fact [[Megasthenes]]. who was [[attached]] to f
+
I was first who told the [[truth]] in {{Wiki|Soviet Union}} publicly and I was expelled  does it mean that {{Wiki|Europe}} or {{Wiki|Sweden}} will expel me too ? You can see everywhere the new {{Wiki|political}} approach to be friendly, [[peaceful]], not to protest or fight with the government.
  
the [[person]] of Sibyrtius, the satrap of Arachosla, visited [[Candra]]-
+
Why? Because the masses are being asked to be pushed into certain frames so that someone can [[calmly]] [[empty]] the people's pockets of [[money]]. Banks {{Wiki|rule}} everywhere, but if you ask them for [[money]] for their [[own]] [[activities]], you can [[die]] before they help you.  
punt *.*) 20 several rimes and wrof c the T nd i k a which for centuries
 
  
[[Buddhist Studies]] Review 5, 2 (1988)
+
If you look at governments, they are filled with politicians,  [[people]] who do not even have a specific [[education]] to work in a given place or area, and they all always vote diligently in an area that is distant and incomprehensible to them. Recalling Alfred Nobel's message about {{Wiki|democracy}}, he can be said that he was a [[wise]] and the only Swede who understood the basic {{Wiki|principles}} of {{Wiki|democracy}} and expressed them exactly.
  
remained the best, not to say the only source of [[information]] on
+
{{Wiki|Sweden}} uses his [[money]] to share prizes in [[science]], but does not notice when someone is trying to spread [[knowledge]] about [[Buddhism]]. I was told in Öland by local politicians who need this {{Wiki|encyclopedia}}  of no use or need  for the [[people]]. Then I immediately understood what the term politician means today,  [[Sven Hedin]], who was an eastern investigator, has been overlooked by the {{Wiki|Swedish}} government because he had correspondence with {{Wiki|Hitler}}.
  
[[India]]. His description of [[Pataliputra]], reproduced in Arrian's
+
Although he is highly valued and talked about by other countries. Not that he was in correspondence with {{Wiki|Hitler}}, but his [[scientific]] work is appreciated. I have [[realized]] over the years that I have lived in {{Wiki|Sweden}} and understood , Swedes are no longer Vikings but a {{Wiki|mass}} with whom the elective class does what they  want.
  
Indike , is remarkably accurate, t as is proved by recent excava¬
+
if you do not belong to the official nomenclature does not support your work and [[activities]] it doesn't have any value for them, the same [[principle]] was chosen in the {{Wiki|Soviet Union}}, no authority in {{Wiki|Sweden}} responds positively to what I do. The {{Wiki|University}} of [[Berkeley]] immediately supported my [[activities]] in {{Wiki|Sweden}} they  does not understand what it means.
tions; moreover, the precise details supplied by [[Megasthenes]]  
 
  
on the [[Indian]] {{Wiki|nation}}, its manners, {{Wiki|institutions}} and [[castes]] agree
+
They have their [[own]] {{Wiki|Swedish}} opinion. expressed himself in very {{Wiki|Swedish}} wayas said Stefan Arvidsson
 +
[[Professor]] in the History of [[Religions]], Linnæus {{Wiki|University}} ;RELIGIONISTS OF DIFFERENT SORTS, NOT RARELY WITH DEEP THEOLOGICAL ERUDITION.  He even didn't want to meet us a or ask what kind of [[education]] I have. No authority in {{Wiki|Sweden}} responds positively to what I do.  The same way reacted {{Wiki|Swedish}} [[buddhists]] on facebook.
  
with the majority of the more authoritative indications supplied
+
The {{Wiki|University}} of [[Berkeley]] immediately supported my [[activities]] in {{Wiki|Sweden}} does not understand what it means. Why and what i do it for.  which raises the question may be should the government choose [[people]]  based on {{Wiki|IQ}}  .
  
by the tfautaIya-Arthaiastra , a summary of the [[Indian]] institu¬
+
I have huge pile of different support letters from different [[universities]] and [[scientist]] who support my work and project. But {{Wiki|Sweden}} does not think so , Why? Because they have their [[own]] {{Wiki|Swedish}} opinion. It can be understood he has having more [[knowledge]] about [[Buddhism]] and about  Eastern {{Wiki|culture}} as well  than [[Berkeley]] and other [[universities]] in [[world]] , which I deeply [[doubt]].  
tions whose author, or one of several,- vas possibly CSnakya, also
 
known as [[Visnugupta]], a [[minister]] and counsellor of [[Wikipedia:Chandragupta Maurya|Candragupta]].  
 
  
What is more, [[Megasthenes]], on behalf of Seleucus, reconnoit¬
+
I call such [[phenomenon]] connected to [[stupidity]] Another words it's a {{Wiki|swedish}} [[knowledge]] about Eastern {{Wiki|culture}} and [[knowledge]] about [[Buddhism ]]. Most stupid  last {{Wiki|political}}  maneuver what {{Wiki|Sweden}} made with [[China]] - {{Wiki|Stockholm}} was grappling with [[China]] over a [[book]] publisher's imprisonment , unthinking what is useful or  harmful  for {{Wiki|swedish}} business .
[[red]] and measured in schoeni the {{Wiki|Royal}} Highway or basilike hodos
 
- in [[Sanskrit]] rajavlthl - which crossed [[India]] from [[west]] to [[east]],
 
linking the [[Hydaspes]] to the mouths of the [[Ganges]]. Pliny kept
 
  
the topographical record compiled by [[Megasthenes]] and added to
+
Like many countries, {{Wiki|Sweden}} shares significant trade and business dealings with [[China]] -- [[including]] {{Wiki|Chinese}} ownership of one of its most {{Wiki|iconic}} brands, Volvo Cars. Gui Congyou, [[China's]] ambassador in {{Wiki|Stockholm}}, warned of "bad {{Wiki|consequences}}" if it went ahead, {{Wiki|Swedish}} [[Prime Minister]] Stefan Lofven could be barred from visiting [[China]]. "We treat our friends with fine wine," Gui said on a {{Wiki|Swedish}} radio show. "But for our enemies we've got shotguns.
it corrections supplied later by other bematists: 'From the Hypa-  
 
sis to the [[River]] Sydrus, 169,000 paces; from there to the [[River]]  
 
lomanes, as much (a few copies add 5 {{Wiki|miles}}); from there to the
 
  
[[Ganges]], 112.5 {{Wiki|miles}}; from there to Rhodapha, 569 {{Wiki|miles}} (others
+
Now I understand why {{Wiki|Sweden}} does not like my work with [[Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia]].
  
evaluate this distance at 325 {{Wiki|miles}}); from there to the town of
+
[[China]] and [[Russia]] are friends now again what means its quite powerful [[friendship]]. [[China]] has plans to double his population on  next 20 years. It means there,ll be 4 billion {{Wiki|chinese}}. [[China]] is building a aircraft mother ships. It seems they are planning to move to other continents soon.
Calllnlpaza, 167.5 {{Wiki|miles}} (according to others, 165 {{Wiki|miles}}); from
 
there to the confluence of the lomanes and the [[Ganges]], *625 {{Wiki|miles}}
 
(a great many add 13;5 {{Wiki|miles}}); from there to the town of Pallboth-
 
  
ra, 425 {{Wiki|miles}}; from there to the {{Wiki|mouth}} of the [[Ganges]], 637.5
+
If they  build  ships  for tourism  then its a [[peaceful]]  [[action]] it means they have an [[interest]] or need to explore other countries and continents but aircraft mother ships serve another {{Wiki|purpose}},
  
{{Wiki|miles}} . As far as we know, the towns of Rhodapha and Calllnlpaza
+
It's like {{Wiki|Sweden}} doesn't notice it. Maybe  {{Wiki|swedish}} politicians  doesn't understand what's going on in [[world]] because lack of [[education]] and {{Wiki|IQ}}. And {{Wiki|chinese}} have a lot of [[money]], And soon lot of [[people]] too.  [[China]] has already [[worlds]] biggest {{Wiki|army}} . It means something especially in {{Wiki|politics}} soon.
have yet to be identified; conversely, there is no cifficulty
 
in recognising the Beas in the Hypasis, the {{Wiki|Sutlej}} in the Sydrus,
 
the [[Yamuna]] ([[Jumna]]) in the lomanes, [[Prayaga]] in the confluence of  
 
the lomanes and [[Ganges]], and [[Pataliputra]] or [[Patna]] in [[Wikipedia:Pataliputra|Palibothra]].
 
Already by the time of the {{Wiki|Mauryas}}, a great [[communication]] artery
 
connected [[Taxila]] to [[Tamralipti]], present-day Tamluk on the [[east]]
 
coast, by way of [[Mathura]], KauSambI and [[Pataliputra]]. {{Wiki|Ptolemy}} 11
 
Philadelphus (285-247), whose reign partly coincided with that
 
of ASoka, was represented at the [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] court by an ambassador
 
with the [[name]] of {{Wiki|Dionysius}} 25 ; as for the [[Indian]] [[emperor]], it is
 
known in which circumstances and for what {{Wiki|purpose}} he sent his
 
messengers of the Dharraa to {{Wiki|Syria}}, {{Wiki|Egypt}}, [[Macedonia]] and Cyrenai-
 
ca 26 .  
 
  
The secession of the satrapy of Bactrla in 250 B.C., shortly
+
Now about my [[own]] work . I understand that my {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[Buddhist]] Encylopedia has not the same [[quality]] to compare with Wikipedia where thousand [[people]] are working because I am alone and have to do  everything myself. But I have totally different approach to compare with wikipedia. I want o educate [[people]] [[about buddhism]].  
followed by the revolt of Parythene in 249 , was the first blow
 
  
to- Seleucld supremacy in {{Wiki|Asia}}. Relations which had been maintain¬
+
Like one {{Wiki|swedish}} politician said to me, that I am using material what others are have produced  it,s not your work.He is totally right . Seems that He didn't know that Encyclopedias mostly  are based on other peoples work.  
ed until then with the [[Indian]] [[empire]] became desultory: the pro^-
 
gressive weakening of the [[Magadhan]] {{Wiki|kingdoms}} under the last Kauryas
 
and the §unga usurpers made them, moreover, less desirable. The
 
attempt begun between 247 and 246 by Seleucus II Callinicus to
 
reconquer eastern {{Wiki|Iran}} failed due to the coalition of the Parthiap
 
llridates and the Bactrlan Dlodotus II 27 . The operation* carried
 
out In Bactrla, from 207 to 206, by Antlochu* III the Great proved
 
fruitless! vanquishing the [[Wikipedia:Parthian Empire|Parthian]] Artaban, he forced hi* way
 
across the Arlus (Herl-rud) and blockaded Buthydeaus of Hagnptla
 
i„ his stronghold at Zarlaspa (Charjui); however, after two years
 
of investment, the Eplgonus eventually treated with hi* rival
 
and raised the siege in order to return to {{Wiki|Syria}} by taking the
 
route through the Hi“hdu Kush - [[Bactra]], Bamlyan and Parvan - then
 
  
the tracks in Arschosla and Caraania which had previously been
+
Only difference is that an {{Wiki|encyclopedia}}  is a reference work or compendium providing summaries of [[knowledge]] either from all branches or from a particular field or [[discipline]]. {{Wiki|Encyclopedia}} entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries.
  
used by Craterus
+
Historically, both encyclopedias and dictionaries have been researched and written by well-educated, well-informed content experts.  {{Wiki|Encyclopedia}} article is typically not limited to simple definitions, and is not limited to defining an {{Wiki|individual}} [[word]], but provides a more extensive meaning for a [[subject]] or [[discipline]].
  
The defeats inflicted by the Romans on Antiochus III, at
+
It seems that this politician  doesn't use wikipedia what quite exactly explains lot of things and meanings in our days in our [[world]]. And he is a politician.I was away from sweden  years and so much has changed here during this time. {{Wiki|Swedish}} {{Wiki|politics}} has changed, everything cost more , prizes has been  doubled , [[life]] costs more but [[people]] earn the same amount  [[money]] as before . 
Thermopylae (191), Corycus and hagnesia-under-Slpylos (190), toi¬
 
led the knell for Seleucid power in {{Wiki|Asia}}. The [[Wikipedia:Parthian Empire|Parthian]] rulers
 
  
profited from this to consolidate their {{Wiki|kingdom}} and enlarge it
+
Totally different country is {{Wiki|Sweden}} now  to compare when I arrived here. The general opinion today is that one should not be critical about anything or negative then you are enemy of the [[state]].
at the expense of {{Wiki|Syria}}, henceforth cut off from all [[contact]] with
 
[[India]]. In 138 Mithridates I defied [[Demetrius]] II Nicator and took
 
him prisoner; in 128 his son Phraates II killed Antiochus VII
 
Sidetes in combat. When {{Wiki|Syria}} was annexed by Pompey to the Repub¬
 
lican States (64 B.C.), the Arsacid [[Parthians]] continued to oppose
 
any extension of the new {{Wiki|Roman}} province to the [[east]]; in 53 B.C.
 
the Suren of Orodes 1 bested the legions of the triumvir Crassus
 
  
at Carrhae (Harran); more than twenty thousand {{Wiki|Roman}} soldiers
+
There is a {{Wiki|mass}} of [[people]]  in our days who  has the same opinion about everything as  the [[state]] dictates and at the same  time we  speculate on freedom of {{Wiki|speech}}. I [[wonder]] what it is about. We saw what happened when [[people]] in {{Wiki|Germany}} started to protest against Coronavirus. Police used [[water]] cannons against demonstrators.
  
perished on the battlefield, ten thousand prisoners were taken
+
It's called freedom and free {{Wiki|speech}} but for whom?  Only government has  right to express free {{Wiki|speech}} and those who are against it are enemies. of the [[state]] , In  {{Wiki|Soviet Union}} was very popular to use psychiatric hospitals for those. It's time to use the same tactics in our days. Nothing new in here. Totalitarian way of [[thinking]] is flourishing everywhere .  
in {{Wiki|captivity}} to Merv, and the head of Crassus was transported
 
to Artaxata and cast at the feet of [[King]] Orodes and his son Pacor-
 
, us during a performance of the Bacchantes by Euripides. From
 
  
51 to 38, the [[Wikipedia:Parthian Empire|Parthian]] armies commanded by Osaces and Pacorus
+
Bunch of [[people]] without [[special knowledge]] deciding what is useful and what is not. It's called sick [[society]] and [[sickness]] comes not from [[people]] but from the government side .Why because bunch of elected politicians vote and decide what to do and how. 
invaded {{Wiki|Roman}} {{Wiki|Syria}} up to three times, finally to be repulsed
 
at Gindarus (Jindaris in northern {{Wiki|Syria}}) by General Ventidius
 
Bassus. However, when (Mark) Antony, in the year 36 B.C., pro¬
 
ceeded to the Euphrates under the pretext of revenging the affront
 
meted out to the corpse of Crassus seventeen years previously,
 
Phraates IV, the son and successor of Orodes, inflicted a bloody
 
  
defeat on him at the {{Wiki|battle}} of Phraata (Takht-1-Sulemeln) in Atro-
+
How they know what's best for me when they even don't  know how I think and digest intellectually. When we go to the restaurant we choose what to order. Soon it,ll change we all have to eat the same [[food]] and drink the same  drink not drinks. The difference enriches the {{Wiki|culture}}, [[society]] and people's [[minds]] . Everything is dictated by government. We call it {{Wiki|democracy}}. But is it?
  
patene .  
+
Small businesses have  disappeared thanks for coronavirus. It means [[society]] or [[people]]  get poorer and some of them get richer. It's called {{Wiki|democracy}}. I wrote to  60 politicians and got no {{Wiki|reaction}} it's called {{Wiki|democracy}}. I don't blame [[society]] .  I talk about government who likes to feed [[people]] with slogans what are fake.  
  
The {{Wiki|incessant}} [[wars]] kept up by the [[Parthians]] at the end of
+
I talk [[about buddhism]] what is not welcome to {{Wiki|Sweden}}. It's strange we talk about free {{Wiki|speech}} but it seems that  we have forgotten about  what is free [[thinking]]. And [[education]] looks different. Stefan Arvidsson is a product of [[education]] system who has [[taught]] him that [[religion]] is {{Wiki|opium}} for [[people]].
the pre-Christian {{Wiki|era}} against Seleucid {{Wiki|Syria}} and the {{Wiki|Roman}} Repub¬
 
lic considerably slowed trade overland between [[India]] and the Medi¬
 
terranean [[West]]; however, the growing progress of [[Alexandrian]]  
 
{{Wiki|navigation}} under the Ptolemies of {{Wiki|Egypt}} maintained [[contact]] between
 
the two continents.  
 
  
The Ptolemies (323-30 B.C.). - Under the first Lagidae, {{Wiki|Ptolemy}}
+
In [[Marxism]] it's very popular view. So I got answer from [[communist]] who declares  that he [[knows]]   [[Buddhism]] better than me. It's the same view had so called {{Wiki|university}} workers in {{Wiki|Estonia}} in Taru {{Wiki|university}}. But then it was {{Wiki|Estonia}} part of the {{Wiki|Soviet Union}}. Coming back to {{Wiki|Sweden}} after 10 years I [[feel]] as I returned back to {{Wiki|Soviet Union}}.  
I Soter (323-285), {{Wiki|Ptolemy}} II Philadelphus (285-246) and {{Wiki|Ptolemy}}
 
III Euergetes, Graeco-Egyptian ships [[attached]] to the port of Alex¬
 
andria still went no further than to explore the [[Red]] Sea and re¬
 
connoitre the Arabian coast as far as Bab-al Mandeh and the shores
 
of the Somalis to the [[west]] of Cape Guardaful, {{Wiki|initiating}} exchanges
 
with the Sabaean {{Wiki|Arabs}} of the [[Yemen]] and the local Ethiopians.  
 
However Euergetes, whose victory over the {{Wiki|Seleucids}} briefly gave
 
him possession of {{Wiki|Mesopotamia}}, {{Wiki|Babylonia}} and Suaiana, sent ships
 
to re-explore the [[[Persian]]] Gulf, from the Euphrates to [[India]].
 
Without leaving the Gulf, however, this fleet sailed before the
 
[[wind]] in the*direction of A1 Qatar then skirted the 'Pirate Coast'
 
as far as Cape Maketa, {{Wiki|modern}} Ras Masandan 3 ^.  
 
  
In the reign of {{Wiki|Ptolemy}} VIII, known as Euergetes.il Physcon
+
I understand what {{Wiki|reaction}}, ll be on my article from so called politicians side. So what I give a F,, as I did in {{Wiki|Soviet Union}}. {{Wiki|Brain}} of the [[human]] is magnificent and able to do things  which seem impossible at first glance. As one [[professor]] at the {{Wiki|University}} of [[Berkeley]] said to me; how you were the only one who came up with such  [[idea]] to dismantle the {{Wiki|Soviet Union}} and no one else wanted to do it.
(145-116), coastguards on the [[[Persian]]] Gulf discovered a half¬
 
[[dead]] stranger on a shipwrecked boat. He was [[taught]] G^eek and,
 
when he could speak it, the shipwrecked man explained that he
 
had set out from [[India]] but, having gone astray and seen all his
 
companions perish from hunger, he had been cast onto the [[Egyptian]]
 
coast. He agreed, should the [[king]] intend to send an expedition
 
to [[India]], to act as guide. Euergetes II immediately equipped
 
a ship, the command of which he entrusted to a certain Euxodus,
 
who had come from Cyzicus to [[Alexandria]] as a theoros and spondo -
 
phorus of the Choreian games. Euxodus therefore left with rich
 
gifts for [[India]] from where he soon returned with a full lading
 
of [[perfumes]] and [[precious gems]], which Euergetes quickly acquired
 
for himself. Some time later. [[Queen]] [[Cleopatra]], the sister and
 
{{Wiki|widow}} of the [[king]], sent Eudoxus back to [[India]] with greater resour¬
 
ces; while returning, the explorer was carried off by the {{Wiki|monsoon}}  
 
to the [[south]] of Cape Guardaful and stranded in Ethiopia. He col¬
 
  
 +
My answer to him was; My [[idea]] was that [[religion]] was banned in the {{Wiki|Soviet Union}} and the only way for [[Buddhism]] to re-emerge as a [[source of knowledge]] for many [[Buddhists]] was to change this {{Wiki|social}} order. [[Interesting]]  when such an [[idea]] will come in [[connection]] to {{Wiki|Sweden}} ? As a [[monk]] I have no right to think about this because we live in [[sansara]] and big changes in [[society]] will bring a lot of problems in my  next [[life]]. So I am already doomed.
  
lected valuable [[information]] of a geographic and {{Wiki|linguistic}} [[nature]]  
+
I {{Wiki|hope}} [[Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia]] will be as the lifebuoy for me but {{Wiki|Swedish}} [[society]] and government doesn't want to help me with mu problems because they are doomed too I thinkSooner or later there must be certain reforms otherwise there ,ll  appear someone who wants to change something in {{Wiki|social}} order. I understand that my talk and [[thoughts]] seem absurd and out of [[mind]] for {{Wiki|Sweden}} but it,s a [[life]] what dictates our [[actions]] and survival.
on that country and acquired a fragment of prow engraved with
 
the effigy of a [[horse]]: the ship from which that piece of wreckage
 
came had probably belonged to navigators from the [[West]] who had •
 
ventured too far beyond the Lixus (Oued Draa on the southern fron¬
 
tier of Morocco). Back in {{Wiki|Egypt}}, Eudoxus was once again frustrat¬
 
ed of his gains and {{Wiki|Ptolemy}} IX Lathyrus, the son of [[Cleopatra]],
 
seized his cargo. Nonetheless, the explorer wanted to return
 
to [[India]], this time on his [[own]] account and by circumnavigating
 
{{Wiki|Africa}} to the vest: setting out from [[Alexandria]], he called at
 
Dicaerchia (Puteoli) in {{Wiki|Italy}}, Massllla (Marseilles) in Gaul and
 
Gades (Cadiz) in {{Wiki|Spain}}; from there he sailed * before the [[wind]]
 
out to sea, the Cape to his [[south]]. Wrecked on the coast which
 
he hugged  too closmly, he built a pentecontor out of the remains
 
of his ship and continued on his way until a point where he en¬
 
countered peoples who obviously spoke the same [[language]] as the
 
one whose^vocabulary he had recorded on his previous voyage.
 
 
 
He believed himself to be [[south]] of Cape Guardaful when in [[reality]]
 
he was in Moiocco. Wishing to obtain some larger ships before
 
sailing »on for [[India]], he abandoned the expedition and vent back.
 
The ventures of Eudoxus, first narrated by the geographer Posido¬
 
nius (born c. 135 B.C.), were repeated by {{Wiki|Strabo}} 31 who criticises
 
them point by point and rejects the whole story as 'A tale in
 
the style of Antiphanes'. Nevertheless, our geographers gladly
 
give some credit to the peregrinations of Eudoxus while remarking
 
that the record does not supply any precise details on [[India]],
 
the [[object]] of the voyage, and that his vague definitionof it lacks
 
 
 
accuracy.
 
 
 
Under {{Wiki|Ptolemy}} XII Auletus (80-51), {{Wiki|Greek}} adventurers set
 
foot on the [[island]] of Socotra, formerly called dvlpa Sukhadara
 
'the Happiness-bearing [[Island]]', but to which they gave the [[name]]
 
of Dioscorides. Socotra, located on the route to [[India]] off Cape
 
Syagrus (Ras Partak), was still too far from the departure bases
 
and the new colonists Immediately ffell under the {{Wiki|domination}} of
 
the {{Wiki|Arabs}} of the Hadhramaut 32 . At the time of the Perlplus of
 
the Erythraean Sea , that is about the first century of. £he Chris¬
 
[[tian]] {{Wiki|era}}, the [[island]] was still Inhabited by {{Wiki|Arabs}}, {{Wiki|Indians}} and
 
[[Greeks]]. Thrusting their reconnoitres further along the Arabian
 
coast, the Graeco-Alexandrian navigators learned that Acila, pre-
 
 
 
[[Buddhist Studies]] Review 5, 2 (1988)
 
 
 
sent day Ras as-Hadd, situated at the eastern extreme of southern
 
Arabia, constituted an important emporium of thd" Sabaean Scenltes
 
and that it was an embarkation-point for [[India]] 33 ; nevertheless,
 
the {{Wiki|hostility}} of the local inhabitants prevented foreigners from
 
U6ing this port.
 
 
 
II. TRADE UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE*
 
 
 
[[Relative]] [[peace]] in the [[East]]. The constitution of the {{Wiki|Roman Empire}}
 
and the policy of [[peace]] [[initiated]] in the [[East]] [[initiated]] by Augus¬
 
tus had most favourable results on the [[development]] of large-
 
scale trade. The {{Wiki|incessant}} hostilities which had formerly oppos¬
 
ed the Parthlans to the Romans lessened and long periods of [[peace]],
 
often continuing for several decades, cleared the way to {{Wiki|Iran}}
 
and [[India]] for {{Wiki|merchants}} and navigators. After the victory of
 
Actiura (30 B.C.), Augustus became closer to the [[Wikipedia:Parthian Empire|Parthian]] [[King]]
 
Phraates IV (37-2 B.C.) and gave him his youngest son to kq.ep
 
 
 
as a hostage; in exchauge, Phraates formally returned the eagles
 
and standards of Crassus' legions to the Romans (20 B.C.). [[Phra]]¬
 
ates, wishing to demonstrate his [[confidence]] in Augustus, had
 
his [[four sons]] educated in {{Wiki|Rome}}. The [[king]] of the {{Wiki|Persians}} was
 
to [[die]] of [[poison]] through tue manoeuvres of his [[own]] wife Husa,
 
a clave of {{Wiki|Italian}} origin, and of his son Phraates. The [[latter]]
 
mounted the [[throne]] in the year 2 B.C. where he remained until
 
9 A. C, without {{Wiki|Rome}} raising any objections. When Phraates was
 
overthrown by a palace {{Wiki|revolution}}, Augustus, at the request of
 
the {{Wiki|Iranian}} [[nobility]], sent to [[Persia]] the eldest son of Phraates
 
IV who assumed the {{Wiki|crown}} in the year 9 under the [[name]] of Vonones
 
I (9-il A.C.) However, the {{Wiki|Roman}} [[education]] the young {{Wiki|prince}}
 
 
 
had received displeased his compatriots who exiled him to {{Wiki|Syria}}
 
and replaced him by a nobleman of Hyrcanian origin, Artaban III,
 
who ruled from the years II to 43. The new sovereign was on
 
generally friendly terms with Augustus and Tiberius. The {{Wiki|Roman}}
 
[[emperors]] had understood that {{Wiki|Iran}}, over de-centralised and sapped
 
by dynastic quarrels, did not constitute any [[danger]] and there
 
was no point in dealing with it except defensively: [[Persia]] occu¬
 
pied a key position on the great routes of [[communication]] and
 
could at will stop or favour intercontinental trade. Prom the
 
{{Wiki|military}} point of view. {{Wiki|Imperial}} objectives were strictly limited
 
 
 
to the maintenance of the {{Wiki|Roman}} protectorate over Armenia and
 
the {{Wiki|occupation}} of the strongholds in {{Wiki|Mesopotamia}}.
 
 
 
Under Tiberius (14-37), Germanicus, who was named as comman ¬
 
dant of the eastern province, established a cllent-atate-of {{Wiki|Rome}}*
 
in Armenia (17), without provoking any {{Wiki|reaction}} from the {{Wiki|Persians}}.
 
However, in 36 Vitellus, the governor of {{Wiki|Syria}}, found it desirable
 
to depose Artaban Ill and replace him on the [[throne]] of Seleucela
 
with a rival, Tiridates III. The event ended in the {{Wiki|triumph}}
 
of Artaban, who returned victoriously to the capital, and Seleu-
 
ceia was lost to the [[Hellenic]] [[cause]].
 
 
 
Under Nero (54-68). the [[Wikipedia:Parthian Empire|Parthian]] [[King]] Vologeses I (51-78)
 
won Armenia from the ^Romans and installed his brother Tiridates
 
there. Vanquished by General Domitius Corbulo, he nevertheless
 
obtained an honourable [[peace]] in the terms of which his brother
 
would continue to govern Armenia but receive his {{Wiki|crown}} from the
 
hands of Nero. The {{Wiki|ceremony}} took place in the year 66 at {{Wiki|Rome}},
 
to which the [[emperor]] proceeded with great pomp. He was planning,
 
in agreement with the [[Parthians]], to make an expedition to the
 
{{Wiki|Caucasus}} and the [[heart]] of {{Wiki|Asia}} when [[death]] put an end to his pro¬
 
ject .
 
 
 
Some fifty years later, Trajan (97-117), wanting to seise
 
Armenia from the hands of Osroes or Khosrau (107-130), disembark¬
 
ed at {{Wiki|Antioch}} and, in the course of two campaigns (115-114),
 
took Ctesiphon and conquered the major part of the [[Wikipedia:Parthian Empire|Parthian]] em¬
 
pire. f However, while he was exploring the 'Erythraean Sea',
 
near the [[[Persian]]) Gulf, the country rebelled. Once the revolt
 
was quelled Trajan, having returned to Ctesiphon, placed the
 
diadem on the head of Parthamaspates, the son of Osroes. {{Wiki|Illness}}
 
prevented him from consolidating his conquests and he [[died]] in
 
< August 117 on * "the way home, at Sellnus in Clcllla. However,
 
in 123 his successor Hadrian (117-138) concluded peace with Per¬
 
sia and the boundary of the Roman Empire was, once again, extend¬
 
ed to the Euphrates. Hostilities recommenced when Vologeses
 
CXI (148-191) set his brother Pacorus on the throne of Armenia.
 
Emperor Lucius Verus, co-regent of Marcus Aurelius, .-led the war
 
for four years (162-165) with great success: vanquisher at Euro-
 
poe, he rated the palace of Ctesiphon and burnt Seleucela. It
 
would have been worse for the Persian kingdoms had. It nqt been
 
 
 
for a plague which decimated the Roman legions and forced them
 
to retreat before they could spread throughout the empire. Again
 
in 197, Septimus Severus (193-211) marched against Vologeses
 
 
 
IV (191-208) who threatened the stronghold of Nisibis in Mesopo¬
 
tamia; Babylonia was conquered and Ctesiphon laid waste. The
 
Persians were not long in recovering: the last Arsacid, Artaban
 
 
 
V (213-227), despite the intrigues of his rival Vologeses, was
 
able to inflict crushing defeats (217-218) on the emperor Macri-
 
nus and impose heavy war tributes on him. Finally, in 226, the
 
Parthian empire of the Arsacids collapsed under the attack of
 
the Percian Ardashir who inaugurated the Sassanld dynasty in
 
Iran. The new kingdom was to endure until 651 and present a
 
more formidable threat to the decadent Roman Empire than the
 
Parthians«
 
 
 
Eviction of the Arab danger . - From the beginnings of the Roman
 
Empire, the caravan towns located on the border of Parthian and
 
Roman power, such as Damascus, Palmyra, Petra, etc., enjoyed
 
a period of Increased prosperity. However, the safety of commer¬
 
cial trade was threatened by the Himyarite and Sabaean Arabs
 
who ransomed the caravans and controlled navigation on the coasts
 
of the Hejaz, Aslr, Yemen, Hadhramaut and Oman. Augustus resol¬
 
ved to make them see reason. A Roman expedition organised with
 
the concurrence of the Egyptians, Jews and Nabataean Arabs from
 
Petra was entrusted to Aelius Callus. Setting out from Cleopat-
 
ris in the Gulf of Suez in the year 25 B.C., it crossed the Red
 
Sea, disembarked at El Ha ira, pushed across the Nejd and Aslr
 
as far as the frontiers of the Yemerv and Hadhramaut. Aelius
 
Callus, launched In pursuit of an elusive enemy, wandered in
 
the desert for more than six months and ended by relmbarklng
 
 
 
at Acre in order to regain the west shore of the Red Sea at Myos
 
 
 
Hormos . In about the year 1, Isodorus of Charax, commissioned
 
by Augustus and with the authorisation of the Parthians, explored
 
both shores of the (Persian] Gulf, and this reconnaissance proba¬
 
bly led to a raid on Arabia Felix (the Yemen] as well as the
 
sack of Aden *by Caesar* 35 .
 
 
 
Freed from the threat made on their expeditions by the pilla¬
 
ging Arabs, the Graeco-Alexandrian merchants, financed by Roman
 
money, intensified trade between the West and the East, a trade
 
 
 
which was hardly interrupted by the hostilities which broke out
 
at regular intervals between Rome and Ctesiphon. Goods were
 
transported by land and sea, and the length of the regular routes
 
was accurately reconnoitred and described in numerous works plac¬
 
ed at the disposal of travellers, such as for example the Ceogra-*
 
 
 
phica of Strabo, the Stathmoi Parthikoi by Isodorus of Charax,
 
 
 
the Periplus of the Inner Sea by Menippus of Pergamum, the Peri-
 
plus of the Erythraean Sea by an anonymous pilot, etc.
 
 
 
The Silk Road . - Internal trade was carried out along the Silk
 
Road 36 , reconnoitred in the first century by agents of the Graeco-
 
Syrian Maes Titianus. The information they collected was publish¬
 
ed in about the*year 100 A.C. by the geographer Karinus of Tyre
 
 
 
and reproduced a century later in the Ceographia of Claudius
 
Ptolemaeus (128-170 A.C.) 37 . The Silk Road, linking the 30*
 
 
 
and 105* meridians, started at Antioch, the capital of Roman
 
Asia,, and . ended in Lc-yang, the capital of China; the route was
 
divided into two parts of basically equal length: the western
 
section, from the Euphrates crossing to the Stone Tower, and
 
the ea'stern section from the Stone Tower to China.
 
 
 
Starting at Antioch on the Orontes, the Silk Road crossed
 
the Euphrates at Heirapolis (Menbij) and entered the Parthian
 
kingdom. From there it crossed Ecbatana (Hamadan), Rhagae (Rayy,
 
near modern Tehran), the Caspian Gates, Hecatorapylos (Charhud)
 
and Antioch in Margiana (Merv). Then, entering the Kusana king¬
 
dom, it intersected the important communication junt tJlon of Bac-
 
tra (Skt. Bahli), the capital of Bactria (Skt. Tukharasthana)
 
and, continuing eastward, reached, at the foot^of the Komedai
 
mountains, the Stone Tower (GR. Lithinos Pyrgos, Skt. Kabhanda),
 
present-day Tas Kurgan in the Pamirs. It was there that the
 
Levantine merchants exchanged their goods for bales of silk from
 
China.
 
 
 
On 118 eastern section, which was particularly frequented by
 
Serindlan and Chinese caravans, the Silk Road reached Kasgar
 
(Skt. Khasa) where it subdivided into two tracks which ran re¬
 
spectively through the south and north parts of Chinese Turkestan.
 
 
 
The southern route, the oldest to be used, crossed Yarkand
 
(Arghan), Khotan (Kustana),.Niya and Miran, eventually to reach
 
the Serindlan kingdom of Lou-lan, later Shan-shan t in the region
 
 
 
Buddhist Studies Review 5, 2 (1988)
 
 
 
 
 
of Lop-Nor 30 .
 
 
 
The northern track, skirting the Tarim Basin to the north,
 
 
 
passed through U<5 Turfan (Hecyuka), Aksu (Bharuka), Ku6a (Kuci),
 
 
 
Kara&ar (Agni), Turfan, Hami, the Jade Gate and finally Tunhuang,
 
 
 
where it rejoined the southern route
 
 
 
The Silk Road then entered China proper, continuing through
 
Chiu-ch' tian, Chang-yeh, Ch'ang-an (present-day Sian or Xian)
 
and ended at the Han capital Lo-yang (modern Luo-yang).
 
 
 
At Bactra the SJ.lk Road was Intersected perpendicularly by
 
another artery linking the capital of Turkestan with Sogdiana
 
to the north and India to the south.
 
 
 
Leaving Bactra, the route to Sogdiana crossed the Oxus (Vak-
 
su), passed through the Iron Gates and reached Samarkand (Mara-
 
canda), the capital of Sogdiana (Sail). Describing a huge arc
 
circling Ferghana, it crossed the Jaxartes, passed through Ta$-
 
kent and, traversing the Land of a Thousand Streams, reached
 
the town of Aksu through the T*ien-shan massif 40 .
 
 
 
The old Indian highway 41 which also began in Bactra ran south
 
to the high peaks of the Hindu Kush and, through the passes of
 
Kara-Kotal (2,840 'a.), Dandan Shikan (2,690 a.),'Ak Robat (3,215
 
m.), Shibar (2,985 m.), as well as the valleys of Ghorbadd and
 
Kabul, arrived at the Indus which it crossed in order to reach
 
Taxila. The main halting-places on the Bactra-Taxila section,
 
which was some 700 km long, were: Bamiyan (Persian Bamlkan),
 
Klpilt (Begram), Nagarahara (Jelalabad), Puskaravatl (Charsadda),
 
Udabhanda (Und on the Indus) and, finally., /Taksadila 42 . The
 
ancient highway diverged considerably from the modern Trunk Road
 
which, starting in Mazar-e-Sharif or Khanabad,. passes through
 
Bamiyan (or Salang), Kabul, Peshawar and Attock, ending at Rawal¬
 
pindi. In TaksaSila, the Indian highway curved south, reaching
 
Mathura , on the right bank of the Yamuna, a tributary of the Gan¬
 
ges. Mathura communicated with the west coast via UjjaylnX and
 
Bharukaccha, and with the east coast through KaudfnbX, Patallput-
 
ra and Tamraliptl. A transverse track linked Ujjayinl, the chief
 
town of Avanti, with Kaudambr, the Vatsa capital.
 
 
 
To the east of the old Bactra-Taxila artery, the obligatory
 
route for any expedition of importance, began the mountainous
 
tracks which connected India more closely with Kasgaria and Kho-
 
 
 
tan. We will describe only three of them here :
 
 
 
1. The Chitral trail mounting the course of the Kunar and
 
communicating with Chinese Turkestan through the Baroghil Pass
 
and the Vakhjir Pass.
 
 
 
2. The Gilgit route across the great Himalaya and Karakorum
 
mountains (6,000 km. as the crow flies). Starting out from Srin¬
 
agar in Kadmlr, it traversed Bandipur, the Rajingan Pass (3,590
 
m.), Gurez, the Burzll Pass (4,188 m.), Godhai, Astor, Bunji, Gil¬
 
git, Mlsgar, the Kilik Pass (4,750 m.). Mintaka, Tas Kurgan (3,210
 
m.), the Ullong Pabst Pass (4,230 m.), finally ending in KaSgar
 
(1,300 m.) 44 .
 
 
 
3. The route via Leh, also beginning in Srinagar*and linking
 
the capital of Kadmlr with the southern Tarim Basin. Crossing
 
Leh in Little Tibet, it traversed the high passes of the Ladakh
 
Range, the Karakorum and Kun-lun mountains, rejoining Chinese
 
Turkestan between Yarkand and Khotan. Since it reached altitudes
 
of 6,000 m., it was oily practicable in summer.
 
 
 
The Silk Road and the secondary tracks did not serve exclu¬
 
sively for the transport of merchandise but were used also,
 
as were the maritime routes at the same time, by the Chinese
 
and Indian ambassadors tc reach their diplomatic posts. In 138’
 
B.C., the Han emperor Wu-ti sent his envoy Chang Ch*len to the*
 
Greater YUeh-chih of Sogdiana and Bactria in order to conclude
 
an alliance with them against the Hsiung-nu 45 . In 97 A.C., the
 
Chinese general Pan Ch*ao, who had just pacified Serindla, sent
 
his lieutenant Kan Ying to open relations with the Arsacid Parth-
 
ians and the Roman Empire of Nerva; however, overawed by the
 
length of the route, he only partly accomplished his mission
 
and turned back in Parthia without going as far as Ta-ch*in 46 .
 
 
 
The Indians and*Scythians, of whom we know only the name, spontan¬
 
eously sent anbasssadors to Augustus to seek his friendship and
 
that of the Roman people. One of these ambassadors sent by Pan-
 
dion or Porus presented the emperor with rich gifts, and an Indian
 
sophist who was included, Zarmanochegas or Zarmanus of Bargosa
 
(Bharukaccha), repeating the spectacle presented earlier by Cala-
 
nus to Alexander, burnt himself in Athens in 21 B.C. 47 . In the
 
j reign of Claudius, between 41 and 54, a freedman having been
 
carried by the monsoon to Taprobane, the king of Ceylon sent
 
 
 
 
 
Utt Buddhist Studies Review 5, 2 (1988)
 
 
 
to Claudius In return an embassy led by a certain Rachlas (rajan?)
 
who .supplied Pliny with Information on the great island* 8 . In
 
the year 99 an embassy from the king of India, doubtless Wima
 
Kadphlses, arrived in Rome at the moment when Trajan was return¬
 
ing after his brilliant victory over the Dacae. Seated with the
 
senators, the Indian envoys witnessed the emperor's triumph.
 
At the end of the reign of Hadrian (117-138), the kings of the
 
 
 
Bactrians - undoubtedly the Kusana sovereigns of the North-West
 
 
 
- sent him legates to seek his friendship . In 138, during
 
his accession, Antionius Pius (138-161) :also received Indians,
 
Bactrians and Hyrcanians who came, once again, to offer an alli¬
 
ance 50 . Finally, between the years 218 and 222, the Babylonian
 
historian Bardesanes was able to confer, at Emesa in Syria, with
 
Dandaois, an envoy sent on an embassy to the emperor Elagabulus 5 *.
 
 
 
(To be concluded)
 
 
 
 
 
* This article was originally published under the title of ‘Les premieres
 
relations entre l'Inde et 1'Occldent' in La Nouvolle Clio, V, 1-4 (1953),
 
Melanges Albert Carnoy, pp.83-118. Translated from the French by Sara Boin-
 
Webb with most grateful apprec ation to the Council of tho Buddhist Society,
 
London, for generous financial aid.
 
 
 
NOTES
 
 
 
 
 
1 The most valuable information is provided by the Greek and Roman geographers
 
and naturalists. Main sources are the Geographies of Strabo (65 B.C.-20 A.C.),
 
Naturalis Historia , XXXVII libri , by Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.C.), De Chorogra -
 
phia, III libri , by Pomponius Mela (post 44 A.C.), Periplus of the Erythraean
 
Sea by an unknown author of disputed date (end of the first century?). Ceogra-
 
phia of Ptolemy (c. 100-179 A.C.), Historia Rctnana of Dio Cassius (post 229
 
A.C.) etc.
 
 
 
Among the long lists of surveys, noteworthy arc H.G. Rawlinson, Intercourse
 
between India and the Western World ... to the Tall of Ranc , 2nd ed , Cambridge
 
1926; E.H. Warm! ngton. Commerce between the Reman Empire and. India, Cambridge
 
1928; M. Cary and E. Warmington. The Ancient Explorers , Cambridge 1929; and,
 
more recently, J. Filllozat, 'Les ^changes ue l'Inde et de I'Empire romain
 
aux premiers slides de l'6re chr6tienne', Revue historique , Jan-Mar 1949,
 
PP.1-29.
 
 
 
7 Herodotus, IV 44; cf. Ill, 102.
 
 
 
For details of the itinerary followed by Alexander in Asia see W.W. Tarn,
 
Alexander the Great, 2 vol., Cambridge 1948.
 
 
 
 
 
Ed, Since this essay was first published many of the place names, particularly
 
Indian ones, have changed, but wc have not tried to update them all as this
 
would add further to the already long lists. Also a vast literature has grown
 
up around many of the topics discussed by Lamotte but space precludes the
 
insertion of all the relevant additions to the bibliography. However, the
 
following two items warrant mention by virtue of their incorporating major
 
themes featured in the author's own work:’
 
 
 
Jean U. Sedlar India and the Greek World . A Study in the Transmission of
 
Culture, Totowa, New Jersey 1980.
 
 
 
Irene M. Franck and David M. Brownstone The Silk Road . A History. New York
 
, 1986.   
 
 
 
See also, of course, the updated bibliography in E. Lamotte, History of Indian
 
Buddhism , translated from the French by Sara Boln-Webb, Publications de L'ln-
 
stitut Orientaliste de Louvain 36, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988.
 
 
 
(Notes fallow)
 
 
 
4 Strabo, XI, 8, 9; XV, 2, 0; Pliny, VI, 61.
 
 
 
5 Strabo, XI, 8, 9; Pliny, VI, 45.
 
 
 
6 Arrian, IncUAe, II, l: T& 61 dnd xoG *MoG «pdc /». xoGxo pot lexw ij x&p 7><56r yij.
 
 
 
7 Strabo, XV, I, 26-28; XV, 2, 8; Pliny, VI, 62.
 
 
 
8 Strabo, XV, 2,8,; XV, 1,11; Athenaeus, XI, 102, 500 d; XII, 39, 529 e;
 
II, 74, 67 a; X, 59, 442 b; XII, 9, 514 f; Aelianus, De Nature Animalium,
 
XVII, 17; V, 14.
 
 
 
9 Arrian, Anabasis, VI, 15, 7.
 
 
 
Arrian, Anabasis , VI, 3; Strabo, XV, 2, 11.
 
 
 
 
 
Early Relatione 1
 
 
 
 
 
29 For historical details, see C. Huart and L. Delaporte, L'lran Antique ,
 
Paris, 1943, pp.322 ff; R. Ghirshman, L'Jran dee Origines a f Islam, Paris
 
1951, pp.917 ff, 220 ff.
 
 
 
 
 
Pliny, IX, 6; cf. XII, 76.
 
 
 
31 Scrabo, II, 3, *-5.
 
 
 
32 Pliny, VI, 153; Periplus, 30; Cosnas Indicopleustes, III, 169 b.
 
 
 
33 Pliny, VI, 15K
 
 
 
34 Strabo, XVI, 4* 22-23; XVII, l, 54; Pliny, VI. 160-2; Dig Cassius, UII, •'
 
29; Virgil, Aeneid , VIII, 705.
 
 
 
35 Isodorus of Charax, LXXX ff; Periplus, 26.
 
 
 
36 On the Silk Road, see A. Hermann, Die alten 5eidenstrasse zvischen China
 
 
 
und Syrien, Ouellen und Forsch. z. alten Cesch. u. Geogr. , Berlin 1910, ‘Die
 
 
 
Seidenstrassen von China nach dem rdmischen Reich', Mitt . Cecg* Ces.,, Vienna
 
 
 
1915, p.472; 'Die alten chinesischen Karten von Zentralaslen und Westasien',
 
 
 
in Festschrift fur Fr. flirt/., Berlin 1920, p.185; Das Land der Seide und Tibet
 
 
 
im licht der An tike, I, Leipzig 1938; H. Luders, Wei t ere Beitrage zur* Ce-
 
 
 
schichte und Ceoyraphie vaa Ostturkistan, Sitz. Pr. Akad. d. Viss., Berlin
 
1930, p.17; P. Pelliot, La flaute Asie, and, as an appendix, 'Explorations
 
et Voyages dans la Haute Asie', Paris 1931; R. Grousset, etc., I*Asie Orientate
 
des Origines au XVe siecle, Paris 1949, p.198; l'Empire des Steppes, Paris 19-
 
39, p.78.
 
 
 
37 Ptolemy, Geographia, I, 11, 5-7, 12.
 
 
 
3 ® The southern track was especially reconnoitred between 1900 and 1915 by
 
Sir Aurel Stein, who gave an account of his work in the book by Sir John Cam¬
 
ming, Revealing India's Past , London 1939, p#152.
 
 
 
 
 
The northern route was the object of several academic expeditions, among
 
which should be mentioned the French Pelliot-Vaillant mission (1906-B), the
 
German expeditions to Turfin (1902-14), the geographical survey by Sven Hedin
 
 
 
Buddhist Studies Review, 6, 1 (1989)
 
 
 
 
 
peased by the absence of animosity*.. [ incompleteJ.
 
 
 
** ^e finds a knowledgeable companion* who is always
 
of good conduct in this world and surmounts all obstacles,
 
 
 
let him go with him* his mind receptive and alert.
 
 
 
*V e ' does not find a well-experienced companion, who
 
is always of good conduct in this world, like a king
 
departing from his lost kingdom, let him go alone and
 
not commit any faults.
 
 
 
15. And if* while going, you do not find a companion who
 
 
 
Is your equal, (continue firmly on your) way alone: a
 
 
 
fool is not companionship.
 
 
 
alone is better; a fool (is not) companionship.
 
 
 
Go alone and do not commit faults, have few desires,
 
like an elephant in the forest.
 
 
 
This varga is also called bhedavarga in the present Ms although
 
its title is given here as drohavarga ,
 
 
 
(Translated by Sara Boin-Webb fiom the French of N.P. Chakravarti)
 
 
 
 
 
EARLY RELATIONS BETWEEN INDIA AND THE WEST
 
 
 
Etienne Lamotte
 
 
 
Conclusion
 
 
 
The maritime routes. - Under the last Lagidae, the metropolis
 
of Alexandria, once so flourishing, was declining fast. The
 
terrible reprisals taken on the populace by P.toleray Euergetes
 
II (145-116) after his return to Egypt had practically entirely
 
exterminated the Alexandrian element in which were perpetuated,
 
in opposition to the uneducated locals and indlscplincd mercena¬
 
ries, the traditions and customs of ancient Greece. The magistra-
 
ture no longer functioned, laws and rules were no longer applied
 
and,- in all this anarchy, the prosperity of the town was no more
 
than a memory. The situation improved rapidly when Egypt became
 
a Roman province after the battle of Actium'(31 B.C.): assisted
 
by three army corps and nine cohorts, the legate and administra¬
 
tors sent to Egypt >y Augustus reorganised' the policing and re¬
 
established local raagistratures. [[Alexandria]] soon recovered its
 
[[activities]]: ’What today contributes most to its [[prosperity]]/
 
 
 
noted {{Wiki|Strabo}} at the beginning of the [[Christian]] {{Wiki|era}}, ’is that
 
it is the only locality in {{Wiki|Egypt}} yhich is equally well placed
 
both for maritime trade, because of the {{Wiki|excellent}} lay-out of
 
its port, and for inland trade due to the ease with which all
 
the goods sent down the Nile reach it, which [[causes]] it to be the
 
greatest entrepot in the whole [[world]].* Its commercial relations
 
with [[India]] and Troglodytica ([[western]] {{Wiki|Africa}}) have developed fur¬
 
ther. Since the most [[precious]] merchandise first reaches {{Wiki|Egypt}}
 
from tho~e two countries, there to be distributed throughout
 
the [[world]], {{Wiki|Egypt}} exacts double cues (entry and exit dues) there*
 
from, the heavier the more valuable are the goods, without count¬
 
ing the advantages [[inherent]] in any monopoly since [[Alexandria]]
 
is, as it were, the only entrepot for such merchandise and it
 
alone can supply other countries . On the [[west]] coast of the
 
[[Red]] Sea, particularly at Myos Hormos and Berenice, other ports
 
had been fitted up where ships sailing up or down the [[Persian]]
 
Gulf could find a sure haven 53 . After the expeditions organized
 
 
 
[[Buddhist Studies]] Review 6, 1 (1989)
 
 
 
by Augustus against the pillaging {{Wiki|Arabs}} of the [[Yemen]] and Hadhra-
 
maut (25 and 1 B.C.), the way was free and, having gone up the
 
Kile to Syene (Assuan) in the company of the prefect Aellus,
 
{{Wiki|Strabo}} was able to ascertain that 120 vessels left Myos Homos
 
annually for [[India]] whereas, under the Ptolemies, few {{Wiki|merchants}}
 
had risked such a voyage 54 . The [[Alexandrian]] fleets generally
 
called at the [[west]] coast of [[India]], not caring to venture further
 
[[east]]; nevertheless, certain {{Wiki|merchants}}, though as yet very few,
 
having touched land in [[India]], hugged her coastline as far as
 
the [[Ganges]] Delta 55 .
 
 
 
Progress in {{Wiki|navigation}} made under the [[Empire]] consisted in the
 
fact, that pilots, forsaking cabotage which they had practised
 
until then, dared to [[risk]] the open sea by trusting in the move¬
 
ment of the {{Wiki|monsoon}}. In addition to the old route from Aden
 
to the [[Indus]] Delta along the coasts of Arabia and Makran, three
 
new sea-ways were rapidly reconnoitred and used in the first
 
century, of the [[Christian]] {{Wiki|era}}: Aden - Barbarlcon or Aden - Bary-
 
gaaa, Aden - the ports of [[Konkan]], and finally, Aden - the Malabar
 
coast.
 
 
 
1. The earlier cabotage seems still to have been customery
 
at the beginning of the [[Empire]]. The fleets carefully hugged
 
the coastline of the [[Indian Ocean]] which had already been explored
 
from [[east]] to [[west]] by Scylax of [[Caryanda]] under thV Acbaemenlds,
 
as well as by Nearchus under [[Alexander]]. Setting sail from Myos
 
Hormos, the ships went down the [[Persian]] Gulf, at Aden skirted
 
Arabia Felix, ran along the free Coast of [[Incense]] (Hadhramaut)
 
to its easternmost point (Acila, present-day Ras-el-Hadd), sailed
 
up the Gulf of Oman to the tip of Cape Maketa (Ras Masandan),
 
regained the Makran coast which they followed to the {{Wiki|mouth}} of
 
the [[Indus]], there*to drop anchor at Barbarlcon (Skt. [[Patala]], {{Wiki|modern}}
 
Bahadipur), an important trading-post on the central arm of the
 
Delta. 'Northward and inland,* says the Periplus , 'there is
 
the “ctropolis of {{Wiki|Scythia}}, Hinnigara, governed by Parthlans who,
 
pressurised by internal dissensions, pursue each other; the ships
 
remain at anchor in Barbarlcon, but ail the merchandise goes
 
up the [[river]] to the capital' 56 . In fact, Indo^-Scythia Included
 
the Pahlava and ^aka-Pahlava {{Wiki|kingdoms}} respectively of Seletan
 
and the [[Sindh]] which were unified in the reign of the [[Wikipedia:Parthian Empire|Parthian]]
 
sovereign [[Gondophares]] (c. 19-45 A.C.) but* on the [[death]] of the
 
 
 
[[king]], fragmented into a series of {{Wiki|independent}} [[satrapies]] which
 
were forever in dispute: the [[western]] [[Punjab]] ruled by [[Abdagases]],
 
Arachosia and the [[Sindh]] reigned over [[successively]] by Orthagnes
 
and Pacores, and the other territories governed by Sasas, Sapadena
 
and Satavastra. This confused situation, which in no way impeded
 
the [[activities]] of the ports or the {{Wiki|movement}} of trade, continued
 
until approximately the year 65 A.C., the probable date of the
 
conquest of Indo-Scythia by the great [[Kusana]] [[king]] Kujula Kadphi-
 
 
 
 
 
Although at the time the maritime route was mainly used by ,
 
Graeco-Alexandrian navigators, the {{Wiki|Indians}} in turn occasionally
 
attempted one or two expeditions westward. {{Wiki|Nicolaus of Damascus}}
 
(c.64. B.C. - 4 4 A.C.), whose {{Wiki|evidence}} is recorded by {{Wiki|Strabo}} and
 
{{Wiki|Dio Cassius}} 5 ^, narrates how, while at {{Wiki|Antioch}} in {{Wiki|Syria}}, tie met
 
an {{Wiki|embassy}} which the {{Wiki|Indians}} had sent to {{Wiki|Caesar Augustus}}. The
 
deputies, whom the hazards of the Journey had reduced ' to three*
 
in number, bore a [[letter]] in {{Wiki|Greek}} from [[King]] [[Porus]] or [[Wikipedia:Pandyan Dynasty|Pandion]],
 
in which the sovereign declared that, while being lord and [[master]]
 
of 600 [[kings]], he nonetheless set great store by the [[friendship]]
 
of [[Caesar]]. He [[offered]] to give him free passage through his lands
 
to go wherever he wished, even to assist him personally in any .
 
honest and Just enterprise. In addition to the [[letter]] were *
 
young man both of whose arms were amputated but who could draw
 
a [[bow]] with his feet, a [[serpent]] two {{Wiki|cubits}} in length, a giant
 
[[tortoise]] and a partridge larger than a [[vulture]]. This walking
 
circus was accompanied by the gyranosophist [[philosopher]] Zarmanoche-
 
gas or Zarmanus, a native of Bargosa (Bharukaccha, present-day
 
[[Broach]]); repeating the exploit of Calanus, he burnt himself
 
in Athens after having laughingly climbed his [[own]] pyre. On his
 
tomb the following inscription was engraved: 'Here'lies Zarmano-
 
chegas, an [[Indian]] from Bargosa, who [[died]] a voluntary [[death]], [[faith]]¬
 
ful to the {{Wiki|custom}} of his fathers.*
 
 
 
This account, which is full of anachronisms and contradictions,
 
is probably a pastiche invented to transfer to the [[name]] of Augus¬
 
tus the [[Indian]] adventures of [[Alexander]], the [[vanquisher]] of [[Porus]],
 
who was [[interested]] in exotic [[philosophies]] and [[magic]]. However,
 
the legend enables us to infer the possibility, if not the fre¬
 
quency, of [[Indian]] expeditions to the [[West]] at the time of Augustus.
 
 
 
[[Buddhist Studies]] Review 6, l (1989)
 
 
 
 
 
2. It was in the early years of the reign of Tiberius (14-
 
37 A.C.), it is believed, that Hippalus, a particularly intrepid
 
Creek pilot, - iJli robur et aes triplex , Horace supposedly decla¬
 
[[red]]! - forsook in- and off-shore {{Wiki|navigation}} in order to sail
 
before the [[wind]] on the high seas, making use on his. outward voyage
 
of the south-west {{Wiki|monsoon}} (May to October) and, for the return,
 
the north-east {{Wiki|monsoon}} (November to March). First skirting the
 
coastline of southern Arabia ro the tip of Cape Syagros (Ras
 
Fartak), he then headed for the open sea in a straight line in
 
the [[direction]] of [[India]], landing either at Barbaricon on the [[Indus]]
 
Delta in Indo-Scythla, or at {{Wiki|Barygaza}} (Bharukaccha) at the {{Wiki|mouth}}
 
of the Narbada. In [[memory]] of that exploit, repeated by numerous
 
emulators, the [[name]] of Hippalus was given to the south-west mon¬
 
soon, to a cape on the African coast, as well as to part of the
 
[[Arabian Sea]]. Seemingly Hippalus is wrongly attributed with the
 
discovery, or at least rediscovery, of the {{Wiki|monsoon}}. Already
 
by the time of Nearchus, as we saw above, the {{Wiki|movement}} of the
 
etesian [[winds]] was fully known to the [[Greeks]] and from then on
 
never ceased regulating coastal {{Wiki|navigation}}. However, Hippalus
 
used it, not for coastal sailing, but for an excursion on the
 
high seas. It is audacity rather than a [[knowledge]] of the [[winds]]
 
that was Hippalus* [[merit]]. This fact io clear from a paragraph
 
in the Perlplus of the Erythraean Sea : 'All the coastal naviga¬
 
 
 
tion from Kane (on the southern Arabian coast) and Arabia Felix
 
(Aden) was made by earlier navigators by means of cabotage in
 
small ships. But Hippalus, a pilot, having reconnoitred the
 
situation of the ([[Indian]]) ports and the configuration of the
 
(Arabian) Sea, was the first to discover sailing on the open
 
sea. It is from him that... the Libonotus (south-west [[wind]])
 
which blows on the [[Indian Ocean]], seems to have received its [[name]]
 
(of Hippalus). Since then and until now, navigators set out  
 
directly (to the open sea), some leaving from Kane, others sailing
 
from the Coast of [[Incense]]. Those who sail towards Limyrice ([[Mala]]¬
 
bar coast) tack for most of the time; while those who make for
 
{{Wiki|Barygaza}} ([[Broach]] on the Gulf of Cambay) or {{Wiki|Scythia}} ([[Sindh]]) hug
 
(the Arabian coastline) for no more than three days and, finding
 
a [[wind]] faourable to their course, reach the high seas and sail
 
in the open to the aforesaid ports' 58 .
 
 
 
The northern route discovered by Hippalus seems, at least at
 
 
 
the beginning of the [[Empire]], to have been the most used. It
 
led directly from Aden to Barbaricon (1,470 {{Wiki|miles}}) or {{Wiki|Barygaza}}
 
(1,700 {{Wiki|miles}}). Barbaricon, a great trading centre which served
 
North-West [[India]], was easy of access; conversely, entering Bary-
 
xgaza was highly [[dangerous]]: navigators coming from the open sea
 
risked running aground . on the sandy dunes of t v e F.irinos (Rann
 
and the Gulf of Kutch) or breaking up on the reefs of the Barake
 
promontory ([[Dvaraka]], present-day Dwarka) at the eastern point
 
of Sur.astrene (Saurastra or the Kathiawar peninsula) 59 . Those
 
who were forced to sail that route therefore had to turn about
 
and take to the high seas along the southern coast of Surastrene
 
where local fishermen piloted them across the Gulf of Cambay
 
to the port, of {{Wiki|Barygaza}}, at the {{Wiki|mouth}} of the [[river]] Lamniaos (Nar¬
 
bada in [[Sanskrit]]) 60 . At the time of the Perlplus, that is. towards
 
the end of the first century A.C., this major port formed part
 
of the possessions of [[King]] Manbanus who ruled over Aberia (Halva)
 
and [[Aparanta]] in northern [[Konkan]]. This Manbanus in the Perlplus
 
has been identified by A.M. Boyer with the rajan ksaharata ksatta-
 
* pa [[Nahapana]] , The Ksaharata satrap [[king]] NahapSna, that is, in
 
{{Wiki|Iranian}}, '[[Protector]] of the [[People]]'. He struck coins of {{Wiki|silver}},
 
nickel and {{Wiki|copper}} bearing on the obverse the head of the satrap to
 
the right, with traces of {{Wiki|Greek}} characters and, on the reverse,
 
the [[symbols]] of the [[thunderbolt]] and arrow with [[Indian]] {{Wiki|legends}}
 
in Brahml and KharosthI [[script]] 61 . His [[name]] appears on eight
 
[[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|inscriptions}} discovered in the [[caves]] at [[Karli]], {{Wiki|Nasik}}
 
and [[Junnar]], commemorating the [[generosity]] of his son-in-law Usvada-
 
ta and his [[minister]] Ayama towards the [[Community of monks]]
 
Two of them bear the dates 41 , 42 , 45 and 46, probably to be
 
 
 
interpreted as the [[Saka era]]: 119, 120, 123 and 124 A.C. Although
 
the Perlplus locates his capital at Minnigara in Aryake, probably
 
[[Junnar]], the [[Jaina]] legend makes him [[king]] of Bharukaccha and sup¬
 
plies details of the skirmishes of Nahavahana (- [[Nahapana]]) with
 
his powerful neighbour, [[King]] Salavahana (- [[Satavahana]]) of Pai-
 
han 63 . In about the year 124 in fact. [[Nahapana]] was overthrown
 
 
 
by a [[Satavahana]] [[king]] of the [[Deccan]], Gautamlputra Sri SStakarni,
 
who was then in the eighteenth year of his reign . At the time
 
of the Perlplus , the {{Wiki|kingdom}} of NahapSna abounded in {{Wiki|wheat}}, {{Wiki|rice}},
 
sesame oil, butter, and cotton which served to make coarse fabrics;
 
pasturages were .numerous, the inhabitants taller than average
 
 
 
[[Buddhist Studies]] Review 6, 1 (1989)
 
 
 
 
 
and black-skinned 65 . {{Wiki|Barygaza}} (Bharukaccha) was linked with
 
the [[North West]] by a great artery, the main halting-places of
 
which were Ozene ([[Ujjayini]]) in [[Avanti]], Modura (MathurS) in [[Sura]]-
 
[[sena]] country, [[Taxila]] (Tak$a6ila) in the [[western]] [[Punjab]] and, final¬
 
ly, Proklais (Puskarava 1 1) the capital of [[Gandhara]]. Proklais
 
supplied extract of spikenard oil to Kaspapyrus ([[Multan]]) and
 
in the Paropnmisadae, coitus, an aromatic [[Indian]] plant, and rub¬
 
ber; Ozene exported onyx stones, porcelain, linen textile and
 
coarse fabrics in {{Wiki|quantity}} 66 . {{Wiki|Barygaza}} also communicated via
 
rough tracks with the interior markets of Dakhinabades (Daksina-
 
[[patha]] or the [[Deccan]]), the most important of which were Paithana
 
(Pratisthana) and [[Tagara]] (Ter), respectively situated twenty
 
and thirty days by foot from {{Wiki|Barygaza}}. Paithana supplied onyx,
 
and [[Tagara]], textiles and cotton goods. All this merchandise
 
was taken by cart to {{Wiki|Barygaza}} where it [[accumulated]] on the quays.
 
The Graeco-Alexandrian {{Wiki|merchants}} exchanged it for articles from
 
the Vest: metals, glassware, {{Wiki|gold}} and {{Wiki|silver}} work, cheap [[perfumes]],
 
boy-musicians, girIs destined to [[prostitution]] and especially '{{Wiki|gold}}
 
and {{Wiki|silver}} denarii, more highly valued on the exchange markex
 
than the local coinage' 67 .
 
 
 
3. At the time of the Periplus , the ports and markers in the
 
{{Wiki|Bombay}} region were the [[object]] of protectionlst' measures and,
 
consequently, avoided by foreign traders. It appears from the
 
[[Indian]] sources that the port of [[Surparaka]] and the market of KalyS-
 
na played a major part in maritime traffic and local trade, but
 
the Poripius advises against them: 'Beyond {{Wiki|Barygaza}} are situated
 
local emporia of little importance, in this order: Suppara (Sur¬
 
paraka, {{Wiki|modern}} [[Sopara]]) and Calliena ([[Kalyana]], present-day Calli-
 
[[ani]]); the [[latter]] town, at the time of Saragenes the Elder, was
 
a regular market but, when Sandanes captured it, its [[activity]]
 
was heavily curtailed and the {{Wiki|Greek}} ships which venture to those
 
places (are seized) and taken under escort to {{Wiki|Barygaza}}' 6 ®, It
 
was therefore not without [[reason]] that, half a century later,
 
{{Wiki|Ptolemy}} the geographer designated the towns of [[Konkan]] by the
 
[[name]] of Towns of the Andres Poiratai 69 , that is, of the piratical
 
{{Wiki|Andhras}}, from the [[name]] of the [[Andhra]] or [[Satavahana]] sovereigns
 
who then ruled over the region. However, one of the versions
 
of the legend of [[Saint]] Thomas claims that the apostle first reach¬
 
ed [[India]] in the neighbourhood of Jaygarh in southern [[Konkan]];
 
 
 
a papyrus by O^yrhynchus 70 records a meeting In the sane place
 
between the local inhabitants and {{Wiki|Greek}} navigators; finally
 
and in particular, the {{Wiki|inscriptions}} rediscovered in the [[caves]]
 
at {{Wiki|Nasik}}. [[Junnar]] and [[Karli]] mention among the generous benefactors
 
of the [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|Community}} several Vavanas who, at least In part,
 
were [[Greeks]] (Iones) 71 . #
 
 
 
4, However, the extreme [[south]] of the peninsula supplied tra¬
 
ders with even more coveted goods: {{Wiki|pearls}} from the Culf of Hanaar,
 
[[beryl]] from the mines of Coimbatore and pepper from the Malabar
 
coast. The Romans were informed of all these riches by four
 
[[Sinhalese]] ambassadors who went to {{Wiki|Rome}} during the reign of Claudi¬
 
us (41-54 A.C.). An affranchised slave of Annius Plocamus, a
 
 
 
'tax-farmer' of the {{Wiki|imperial}} treasury at the [[Red]] Sea, was carried
 
away by* the [[winds]] 4 when he was turning the Cape of Aden and, after
 
sailing for fifteen days, was cast onto the coast of Taprobane
 
([[Sri Lanka]]) near Hippuri. Made welcome by the [[king]] of the country,
 
at that time BhStikibhaya 72 . the freedman learned [[Sinhalese]]
 
and was able to answer the questions put to him by the locals
 
on {{Wiki|Italy}} and the Romans. The [[king]] of Taprobane, wishing to estab¬
 
lish friendly relations with [[Emperor]] Claudius, sent an {{Wiki|embassy}}
 
to {{Wiki|Rome}} under the [[leadership]] of a certain Rachias, doubtless
 
an anonymous rajan. Once they had reached their destination,
 
the envoys provided the Romans in general and Pliny in particular
 
with all kinds of [[information]] concerning the [[island]] of [[Ceylon]]
 
and [[Sinhalese]] trade with the Seres ({{Wiki|Chinese}}) beyond the [[Himalaya]]
 
[[mountains]] 7 ^. *
 
 
 
Doubtless attracted by the lure of fabulous gains, an unknown
 
navigator, even more audacious than Hippalus, attempted to reach
 
the Malabar coast by setting sail from Aden and following an
 
arc bent northwards, some 2,000 {{Wiki|miles}} in length. This exploit
 
which, it is believed, took place around the year 50 of the Chris¬
 
[[tian]] {{Wiki|era}}, opened up a fourth sea-route towards [[India]]. The Periplus
 
alludes to ft when it speaks of hardy intrepid navigators who,
 
setting out from Kane or the Coast of [[Incense]], 'steer towards
 
Limyrice (Malabar coast) by tacking for most of the time* .and
 
Pliny states that in order to use that route, the most advantage¬
 
ous departure point is Ocelis (Celia near Aden) and that from
 
there one sails with the Hippalus [[wind]] for forty days as far
 
as Huziris, present-day Cranganorc, the foremost market of [[India]]
 
 
 
According to the {{Wiki|evidence}} of Pliny the Elder, the Periplus
 
and [[Claudius Ptolemy]], the ports of southern [[India]] were the scene
 
of intensive trade during the second half of the first century
 
and the whole of the second century of the [[Christian]] {{Wiki|era}}. Here
 
we shall mention only those whose [[Tamil]] [[name]] is easily recognis¬
 
able through their {{Wiki|Greek}} and {{Wiki|Latin}} transcription.
 
 
 
In the Cera region, on the Malabar coast:
 
 
 
Tondi: Krjoo^iQov 0 f t hc Pcriplus (Nos 53, 54) and of {{Wiki|Ptolemy}}
 
 
 
MuciRi: the Muziris of Pliny (VI, 104), Mottos 0 f t h e p er ipi us
 
(Nos 53, 54) and of {{Wiki|Ptolemy}} (VII, 1, 8), *a port packed with
 
{{Wiki|Greek}} ships from [[Ariake]]* where long pepper (pippall, {{Wiki|Greek}} )
 
 
 
was purchased with {{Wiki|gold}}. The Peutinger rabies (Ch.XII), publish¬
 
ed in about the year 226 A.C., mention a [[temple]] of Augustus there.
 
 
 
Karuvur: Koqovq<i, , the {{Wiki|royal}} town of A'i^/Moo; ({{Wiki|Ptolemy}}, VII, 1,
 
86 ).
 
 
 
In the {{Wiki|kingdom}} of the Pandyas, on the [[west]] and [[east]] coasts
 
of Cape Comorin:
 
 
 
Nelcynda and Bacare noted by Pliny (VI, 105), the Periplus
 
(Nos 55, -58) and {{Wiki|Ptolemy}} (VII, 1, 8 and 9), the [[Tamil]] [[name]] of
 
which as well as the exact location are unknown, perhaps Kotayara
 
and Pokarad.
 
 
 
[[Kumari]]: Ko/iap, Kopunct 0 f the Periplus (Nos 58, 59), of Pto¬
 
 
 
lemy (VII, 1, 9), Cape Comorin.
 
 
 
KoRkei: {{Wiki|pearl}} fisheries of the hotyn (Periplus, No.59; {{Wiki|Ptolemy}},
 
(VII, 1, 10), the town of [[King]] Uuv6hu*.
 
 
 
In the Cola {{Wiki|kingdom}}, on the Coromandel coast *(Colamandala):
 
KSvirlpattiNam: the Cabirus of Pliny (VI, 94), Kuuaon of the Per -
 
plus No.60), of {{Wiki|Ptolemy}} (VII, 94), the great emporium of
 
 
 
the iVi*iyy«i (Colas) at the {{Wiki|mouth}} of the {{Wiki|Kaveri}}.
 
 
 
URandei: 9 (te0ovQ*i 0 f {{Wiki|Ptolemy}} (VII, I, 91), capital of the (Co —
 
 
 
sovereign), today [[Wikipedia:burial|buried]] beneath the sands.
 
 
 
Pushing their reconnaissances further [[east]], a small number
 
of [[Greeks]], doubtless making use of local embarkation points,
 
risked venturing into the Gulf of {{Wiki|Bengal}}. Among the [[Indian]] mar¬
 
kets and ports on the [[east]] coast where the navigators from Limyr-
 
ice and the [[north]] put in, the Pcriplus records in this order:
 
[[Camara]] (Kaviripatt INara ), Poduce (Pondicherry?) and Sopatraa (Mad-
 
 
 
ras?) 76 . Small coasters there served the ports of Limyrice,
 
sangaras assembled by joining up large 'piraguas' (barques made
 
from a single piece of timber], and kolandias (from the Skt.
 
kola, 'raft'), vessels of the high seas, sailing from the [[Ganges]]
 
Delta or the Chrysl Chersonesos, the [[ancient]] El Dorado correspon¬
 
ding to the Suvarnabhumi of the {{Wiki|Indians}} and which may vaguely
 
be located in {{Wiki|Malaysia}} or part of [[Burma]]. ' It was, according to
 
the Periplus, these local ships which the [[Greeks]] used to recon¬
 
noitre the [[island]] of Taprobane or [[Ceylon]], Maisolia (Masulipatam)
 
or [[Andhra]] country between the {{Wiki|mouth}} of the Kistna and the Godava¬
 
ri, Dosarene (Da£arna)* or the region of Tosall in [[Orissa]], and
 
doubtless also [[Burma]] and {{Wiki|Malaysia}}
 
 
 
[[penetration]] inland . - In the first century of the [[Christian]] {{Wiki|era}}
 

Latest revision as of 14:39, 31 July 2021

Buddhism in Sweden

Couple of weeks ago I found a page in Facebook called or group of people called Buddhism in Sweden . I wrote couple of words myself an english on their page and immediately reacted on my words site Admin Peter Olin and told that everybody here on this page have to use only Swedish because it's a swedish buddhist site. He sound quite convincible.

I explained to Olin that I have been doing the Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia for 18 hours every day for 8 years After which he started to explain to me that many links in Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia what are linked to Wikipedia are suspicious and may change over time, and what,ll happened with these articles in my encyclopedia when there,ll be changes in Wikipedia , He seemed quite excited and determined in their own deliberations and positions.

Then I posted couple of thangkas made by me and lot of critics or by other words a large avalanche of criticism arrived at my address. compared to my attitude towards the Encyclopedia and other activities in Asia, Sweden had an extremely negative and rusty cold attitude.

With this, I felt like the admin's ironic logic killed me wanting to participate in this site on Facebook and of course since the admin of the page was quite specific in his attitude, I asked him what have you done for Buddhism yourself? He didn't answer. At the end I just left the swedish group of buddhists..

I spend there on site just 2 days. And then left because people started to scream about my work with Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia. My secretary who has been a member of this group started to defend me and almost all people on the page started to talk that I serve the interests of the Chinese government and they pay me for that.

I started the encyclopedia in Australia and interestingly there were no negative attitude towards my work . Australia gave me a Distinguished Talented Visa for my activities and work in Buddhism .

I am struck by how two countries may have so different views on Buddhism. I arrived back to Sweden a year ago and turned to Swedish government and asked if they would like to help me with the encyclopedia. I also wrote to the Swedish Academy of Sciences and asked them for a positive attitude towards my work. I wrote to 60 politicians in the government but did not receive any response to my letters at all.

The Academy of Sciences was silent in Swedish way. I thought when I arrived first time to Sweden most of the world's press was present and even Swedish journalists but now it seemed embarrassing for Sweden that they gave me swedish citizenship, Which shows that my political activities suited them but not Buddhist .

I have organized a major international Buddhist conferences and (Buddhism and Nordland) and (Buddhism and Australia) what lasted 9 years. I myself have attended other conferences at the University of Berkeley, but I have never seen such a derogatory and monotonous attitude as in Europe, and especially in Scandinavia haven't seen such negative attitude anywhere in world. We can say openly Sweden denies Buddhism.

This summer, I approached the University of Kalmar with a proposal to hold an international conference on Buddhism. In a month's time, my secretary, Marju Broder, sent them letters with a proposal to meet to discuss cooperation and activities in connection with the conference. the university replied to me w month later with such this letter;

Dear Marju Broder,

I’m professor in the study of religions and like all my colleagues in the study of religions we are regularly contacted by, besides of course scholars of religions, RELIGIONISTS OF DIFFERENT SORTS, NOT RARELY WITH DEEP THEOLOGICAL ERUDITION.

Stefan Arvidsson Professor in the History of Religions, Linnæus University

At least someone dared to answer and say what is thought about of Buddhist activities in Sweden . It is interesting that Sweden is talking about religious freedom. How to understand it ?

This freedom seems to exist only for Christians but not for Buddhists . In addition, we wrote to many other Swedish organizations, but the answer was silence

My secretary Marju Broder also wrote to others in Scandinavia, but the answer from them was either silence or a negative attitude. The same attitude was observed by those Swedes on Facebook who call themselves a Buddhists.

That's what they wrote in Swedish newspaper;

Buddhism is a relatively small religion in Sweden, but has seen an increase in recent years. The number of Buddhists in April 2011 is estimated at around 45,000 people or close to 0.5% of Sweden's population, making it Sweden's third largest religion after Christianity and Islam. Most practitioners have an Asian background and come mostly from Thailand, China or Vietnam.

In addition, the Swedish government requested that donations to Buddhists be taxed on the basis of income.

http://religionsvetenskapligakommentarer.blogspot.com/2012/09/strukturell-diskriminering-nar.html

http://religionsvetenskapligakommentarer.blogspot.com/2019/08/buddhistiska-tempel-beskattas-for.html

It,s a shame to take a money from buddhist monks. Interesting how much Swedish government pays for Christian church to keep it alive.

it shows specifically how the Swedish government and people view Buddhism. You could say frankly that they hate Buddhism

It shows how wrong country I chose when I was expelled from the Soviet Union by Gorbachev when I made, first time in Soviet history, an opposition party against Communist Party, My idea that erupted the Soviet Union and perestroika.

Having lived in Sweden for years, I did not come to the idea or understanding that Sweden does not like a Buddhism because I was not involved in promoting Buddhism in Sweden.

I have been actively involved in Buddhism for 45 years, I established the Nyingma Buddhist tradition in Estonia, built 5 stupas there, My friends also actively contributed to the translation of a large amount of Buddhist literature. Soviet times nobody paid attention to my work in field of Buddhism.

Now when I went back to Estonia and started to build a new stupa the new Estonian government arrested me and my friends and accused me that I am hiding weapons in my country house what I haven't visited already 15 years .

They hold me in jail two days until swedish ambassador Dag Hartelius called to the police. Why it's happened? Because in Estonia old communists are still in power. And they hate me because I destroyed the Soviet Union.

I built a stupa and large prayer wheel then left Estonia., 1982 I build 4 stupas with my friends in Estonia, first Buddhist thangkas were made by Arno Arrak it was the start for Buddhism in Estonia.

At the same time, the University of Tartu in Estonia was extremely contemptuous of my activities, led by Linnart Mäll,who was a chronic alcoholic plus his students Märt Läänemets and Maret Kark supported him.

It is striking that instead of cooperation, there is an immediate denigration against Buddhist activities from scientific side . Now that everyone is talking about a multicultural era, both freedom of speech and freedom of religion, the Swedish government is asking to tax donations to Buddhists .

An example my secretary asked Oxford University to participate on coming conference Buddhism and Nordland and she got such answer :

I am sorry to say that I cannot give you any encouragement. The OCBS is a small institute with very limited resources. We are not even able to pay any academic salaries. We also have nobody here who knows anything about Buddhism and Nordland, so we cannot offer any expertise

Yours sincerely, Richard Gombrich

And it is a solid old university with English traditions.

The same time we have big site in Internet dedicated to this conference.

The question arises as how Buddhists do not notice what other Buddhists are talking about Buddhism in their work on conference Buddhism and Nordland.

It shows the stupidity and short-sightedness of the Europeans and its universities, And we talk about religious freedom here . Compared to the University of Berkeley, who immediately agreed to collaborate with leading professor Lewis Lancaster .The only company that is actively involved in translating texts and spreading knowledge about Buddhism,in our days which is Lotsawa house and its a very big contribution to European Buddhism,

https://www.lotsawahouse.org/

It,s interesting most of those people doesn't belong to Europe who translate in Lotsawa House. I know Erik Pema Kunsang because when I started with Chinese Encyclopedia he connected me and his relationship to my project was very positive and favorable. He is from Denmark . And well known translator from Tibetan.

https://lotsawahouse.blog/interviews/erik-pema-kunsang/

Another person who has helped me a lot is from Holland. I asked money to buy a new computer and new glasses for myself because the old computer is too old and slow he reacted immediately . The rest of the europe was quiet.

I understand because it,s a war in our days accely between christianity and Buddhism what has found new territories here in Europe,.

When I was 11 years old I read the book about Buddhism and it was written that Buddha was talking about huge amount of other worlds and universes the same time I head in school that Galileo, on the other hand, was tried by the Inquisition after his book was published.

He said that the Earth revolved around the sun, a theory now known to be true, I understood immediately value of the christianity who was telling such rubbish about cosmology . Buddhism for me as always been a science and I don't understand why others haven't found such values in Buddhist teachings.

And Europe still holds the same principles as you can see here in Sweden. For them Sweden is a center of the universe with his 10.23 million (2019) population. So narrow minded people here.When you use your brain at least little bit you can understand who,ll be the winner in this war.

Buddhist psychology has existed two thousand years , Europe discovered it just couple of hundred years back. It seems now that European way of thinking is really slow and and related to Christian thought.

One thing is a religion another is scientific approach. Buddhism is science because it helps you to understand yourself Christianity reveals that Jesus is your liberator. In Buddhism you have to liberate yourself. It means different way of thinking and understanding about the world and about your own mind.

Now you can see in web often word tantra what Christianity uses for own purposes it means borrowing from Buddhism, but I havent noticed that Buddhism is using christian terminology. It means Europe and European knowledge has nothing to offer anymore new ideas in field of spirituality and for a person’s personal spiritual development,Christianity has only one most important book the Bible Buddhism has them thousands.

People always like to have a rich friends then what about religion? Books consist ideas , teachings view of the world and I understand why people in our days who choose a buddhism. Because it has more real intellectual values then christianity. I understand how most of the people in Europe and specially in Sweden react on my words but someone have to be the first who says that king is naked.

I was first who told the truth in Soviet Union publicly and I was expelled does it mean that Europe or Sweden will expel me too ? You can see everywhere the new political approach to be friendly, peaceful, not to protest or fight with the government.

Why? Because the masses are being asked to be pushed into certain frames so that someone can calmly empty the people's pockets of money. Banks rule everywhere, but if you ask them for money for their own activities, you can die before they help you.

If you look at governments, they are filled with politicians, people who do not even have a specific education to work in a given place or area, and they all always vote diligently in an area that is distant and incomprehensible to them. Recalling Alfred Nobel's message about democracy, he can be said that he was a wise and the only Swede who understood the basic principles of democracy and expressed them exactly.

Sweden uses his money to share prizes in science, but does not notice when someone is trying to spread knowledge about Buddhism. I was told in Öland by local politicians who need this encyclopedia of no use or need for the people. Then I immediately understood what the term politician means today, Sven Hedin, who was an eastern investigator, has been overlooked by the Swedish government because he had correspondence with Hitler.

Although he is highly valued and talked about by other countries. Not that he was in correspondence with Hitler, but his scientific work is appreciated. I have realized over the years that I have lived in Sweden and understood , Swedes are no longer Vikings but a mass with whom the elective class does what they want.

if you do not belong to the official nomenclature does not support your work and activities it doesn't have any value for them, the same principle was chosen in the Soviet Union, no authority in Sweden responds positively to what I do. The University of Berkeley immediately supported my activities in Sweden they does not understand what it means.

They have their own Swedish opinion. expressed himself in very Swedish wayas said Stefan Arvidsson Professor in the History of Religions, Linnæus University ;RELIGIONISTS OF DIFFERENT SORTS, NOT RARELY WITH DEEP THEOLOGICAL ERUDITION. He even didn't want to meet us a or ask what kind of education I have. No authority in Sweden responds positively to what I do. The same way reacted Swedish buddhists on facebook.

The University of Berkeley immediately supported my activities in Sweden does not understand what it means. Why and what i do it for. which raises the question may be should the government choose people based on IQ .

I have huge pile of different support letters from different universities and scientist who support my work and project. But Sweden does not think so , Why? Because they have their own Swedish opinion. It can be understood he has having more knowledge about Buddhism and about Eastern culture as well than Berkeley and other universities in world , which I deeply doubt.

I call such phenomenon connected to stupidity Another words it's a swedish knowledge about Eastern culture and knowledge about Buddhism . Most stupid last political maneuver what Sweden made with China - Stockholm was grappling with China over a book publisher's imprisonment , unthinking what is useful or harmful for swedish business .

Like many countries, Sweden shares significant trade and business dealings with China -- including Chinese ownership of one of its most iconic brands, Volvo Cars. Gui Congyou, China's ambassador in Stockholm, warned of "bad consequences" if it went ahead, Swedish Prime Minister Stefan Lofven could be barred from visiting China. "We treat our friends with fine wine," Gui said on a Swedish radio show. "But for our enemies we've got shotguns.

Now I understand why Sweden does not like my work with Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia.

China and Russia are friends now again what means its quite powerful friendship. China has plans to double his population on next 20 years. It means there,ll be 4 billion chinese. China is building a aircraft mother ships. It seems they are planning to move to other continents soon.

If they build ships for tourism then its a peaceful action it means they have an interest or need to explore other countries and continents but aircraft mother ships serve another purpose,

It's like Sweden doesn't notice it. Maybe swedish politicians doesn't understand what's going on in world because lack of education and IQ. And chinese have a lot of money, And soon lot of people too. China has already worlds biggest army . It means something especially in politics soon.

Now about my own work . I understand that my Chinese Buddhist Encylopedia has not the same quality to compare with Wikipedia where thousand people are working because I am alone and have to do everything myself. But I have totally different approach to compare with wikipedia. I want o educate people about buddhism.

Like one swedish politician said to me, that I am using material what others are have produced it,s not your work.He is totally right . Seems that He didn't know that Encyclopedias mostly are based on other peoples work.

Only difference is that an encyclopedia is a reference work or compendium providing summaries of knowledge either from all branches or from a particular field or discipline. Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries.

Historically, both encyclopedias and dictionaries have been researched and written by well-educated, well-informed content experts. Encyclopedia article is typically not limited to simple definitions, and is not limited to defining an individual word, but provides a more extensive meaning for a subject or discipline.

It seems that this politician doesn't use wikipedia what quite exactly explains lot of things and meanings in our days in our world. And he is a politician.I was away from sweden years and so much has changed here during this time. Swedish politics has changed, everything cost more , prizes has been doubled , life costs more but people earn the same amount money as before .

Totally different country is Sweden now to compare when I arrived here. The general opinion today is that one should not be critical about anything or negative then you are enemy of the state.

There is a mass of people in our days who has the same opinion about everything as the state dictates and at the same time we speculate on freedom of speech. I wonder what it is about. We saw what happened when people in Germany started to protest against Coronavirus. Police used water cannons against demonstrators.

It's called freedom and free speech but for whom? Only government has right to express free speech and those who are against it are enemies. of the state , In Soviet Union was very popular to use psychiatric hospitals for those. It's time to use the same tactics in our days. Nothing new in here. Totalitarian way of thinking is flourishing everywhere .

Bunch of people without special knowledge deciding what is useful and what is not. It's called sick society and sickness comes not from people but from the government side .Why because bunch of elected politicians vote and decide what to do and how.

How they know what's best for me when they even don't know how I think and digest intellectually. When we go to the restaurant we choose what to order. Soon it,ll change we all have to eat the same food and drink the same drink not drinks. The difference enriches the culture, society and people's minds . Everything is dictated by government. We call it democracy. But is it?

Small businesses have disappeared thanks for coronavirus. It means society or people get poorer and some of them get richer. It's called democracy. I wrote to 60 politicians and got no reaction it's called democracy. I don't blame society . I talk about government who likes to feed people with slogans what are fake.

I talk about buddhism what is not welcome to Sweden. It's strange we talk about free speech but it seems that we have forgotten about what is free thinking. And education looks different. Stefan Arvidsson is a product of education system who has taught him that religion is opium for people.

In Marxism it's very popular view. So I got answer from communist who declares that he knows Buddhism better than me. It's the same view had so called university workers in Estonia in Taru university. But then it was Estonia part of the Soviet Union. Coming back to Sweden after 10 years I feel as I returned back to Soviet Union.

I understand what reaction, ll be on my article from so called politicians side. So what I give a F,, as I did in Soviet Union. Brain of the human is magnificent and able to do things which seem impossible at first glance. As one professor at the University of Berkeley said to me; how you were the only one who came up with such idea to dismantle the Soviet Union and no one else wanted to do it.

My answer to him was; My idea was that religion was banned in the Soviet Union and the only way for Buddhism to re-emerge as a source of knowledge for many Buddhists was to change this social order. Interesting when such an idea will come in connection to Sweden ? As a monk I have no right to think about this because we live in sansara and big changes in society will bring a lot of problems in my next life. So I am already doomed.

I hope Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia will be as the lifebuoy for me but Swedish society and government doesn't want to help me with mu problems because they are doomed too I think. Sooner or later there must be certain reforms otherwise there ,ll appear someone who wants to change something in social order. I understand that my talk and thoughts seem absurd and out of mind for Sweden but it,s a life what dictates our actions and survival.