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− | The Pāli Canon (Pali: Tipitaka) is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language.[1] It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon.It was composed in North India, and preserved orally until it was committed to writing during the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka in 29 BCE, approximately four hundred and fifty four years after the death of Shākyamuni. | + | The [[Pāli Canon]] ([[Pali]]: [[Tipitaka]]) is the standard collection of [[scriptures]] in the [[Theravada]] [[Buddhist tradition]], as preserved in the [[Pāli]] [[language]].[1] It is the most complete extant early [[Buddhist]] canon.It was composed in [[North]] [[India]], and preserved orally until it was committed to [[writing]] during the [[Fourth Buddhist Council]] in [[Sri Lanka]] in 29 BCE, approximately four hundred and fifty four years after the [[death]] of [[Shākyamuni]]. |
− | The Pāli Canon falls into three general categories, called pitaka (from Pali piṭaka, meaning "basket", referring to the receptacles in which the scrolls were kept). Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as the Tipiṭaka (Sanskrit: Tripiṭaka; "three baskets"). The three pitakas are as follows: | + | The [[Pāli Canon]] falls into three general categories, called [[pitaka]] (from [[Pali]] [[piṭaka]], meaning "[[basket]]", referring to the receptacles in which the scrolls were kept). Because of this, the [[canon]] is [[traditionally]] known as the [[Tipiṭaka]] ([[Sanskrit]]: [[Tripiṭaka]]; "[[three baskets]]"). The [[three pitakas]] are as follows: |
− | Vinaya Pitaka ("Discipline Basket"), dealing with rules for monks and nuns | + | [[Vinaya Pitaka]] ("[[Discipline Basket]]"), dealing with {{Wiki|rules}} for [[monks and nuns]] |
− | Sutta Pitaka (Sutra/Sayings Basket), discourses, mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but some to disciples | + | [[Sutta Pitaka]] ([[Sutra]]/[[Sayings Basket]]), [[discourses]], mostly ascribed to the [[Buddha]], but some to [[disciples]] |
− | Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics, etc. | + | [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]], variously described as [[philosophy]], {{Wiki|psychology}}, [[metaphysics]], etc. |
− | The Vinaya Pitaka and the Sutta Pitaka are remarkably similar to the works of other early Buddhist schools. The Abhidhamma Pitaka however is a strictly Theravada collection, and has little in common with the Abhidhamma works recognized by other Buddhist schools. | + | The [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the [[Sutta Pitaka]] are remarkably similar to the works of other [[early Buddhist schools]]. The [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] however is a strictly [[Theravada]] collection, and has little in common with the [[Abhidhamma]] works [[recognized]] by other [[Buddhist]] schools. |
− | ly described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples. | + | ly described by the [[Theravada]] as the [[Word of the Buddha]] ([[buddhavacana]]), though this is obviously not intended in a literal [[sense]], since it includes teachings by [[disciples]]. |
− | The traditional Theravādin (Mahavihārin) interpretation of the Pali Canon is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fl. 4th–5th century CE) and later monks, mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost. Subcommentaries have been written afterward, commenting further on the Canon and its commentaries. The traditional Theravādin interpretation is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga. | + | The [[traditional]] [[Theravādin]] ([[Mahavihārin]]) [[interpretation]] of the [[Pali Canon]] is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole [[Canon]], compiled by [[Buddhaghosa]] (fl. 4th–5th century CE) and later [[monks]], mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost. Subcommentaries have been written afterward, commenting further on the [[Canon]] and its commentaries. The [[traditional]] [[Theravādin]] [[interpretation]] is summarized in [[Buddhaghosa's]] [[Visuddhimagga]]. |
− | An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvāna; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars. | + | An official [[view]] is given by a spokesman for the [[Buddha]] [[Sasana]] Council of Burma:the [[Canon]] contains everything needed to show the [[path]] to [[nirvāna]]; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative {{Wiki|matter}}, but are [[faithful]] to its teachings and often give very [[illuminating]] illustrations. In [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Thailand]], "official" [[Buddhism]] has in large part adopted the interpretations of {{Wiki|Western}} [[scholars]]. |
− | Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its earlier oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. Among frequently recited texts are the Paritta. Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learned the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering). Recitation is in Pali as the ritual language. | + | Although the [[Canon]] has existed in written [[form]] for two millennia, its earlier oral [[nature]] has not been forgotten in actual [[Buddhist practice]] within the [[tradition]]: [[memorization]] and {{Wiki|recitation}} remain common. Among frequently recited texts are the [[Paritta]]. Even [[lay people]] usually know at least a few short texts by [[heart]] and recite them regularly; this is considered a [[form]] of [[meditation]], at least if one [[understands]] the meaning. [[Monks]] are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see [[Dhammapada]] below for an example). A [[Burmese]] [[monk]] named [[Vicittasara]] even learned the entire [[Canon]] by [[heart]] for the [[Sixth Council]] (again according to the usual [[Theravada]] numbering). Recitation is in [[Pali]] as the [[ritual]] [[language]]. |
[[File:Pali_kaanon.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Pali_kaanon.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | The relation of the scriptures to Buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary monks and lay people is, as with other major religious traditions, problematical: the evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon ever enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes very much more widely used; the details varied from place to place.[14] Rupert Gethin suggests that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures. | + | The [[relation]] of the [[scriptures]] to [[Buddhism]] as it actually [[exists]] among ordinary [[monks]] and [[lay people]] is, as with other major [[religious]] [[traditions]], problematical: the {{Wiki|evidence}} suggests that only parts of the [[Canon]] ever enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes very much more widely used; the details varied from place to place.[14] {{Wiki|Rupert Gethin}} suggests that the whole of [[Buddhist]] history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early [[scriptures]]. |
Origins | Origins | ||
− | According to a late part of the Pali Canon, the Buddha taught the three pitakas.[16] It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon originated from the Buddha and his immediate disciples. According to the scriptures, a council was held shortly after the Buddha's passing to collect and preserve his teachings. It was recited orally from the 5th century BCE to the first century BCE, when it was written down. The tradition holds that only a few later additions were made. The pitakas were first written down in Sri Lanka in the Alu Viharaya Temple. | + | According to a late part of the [[Pali Canon]], the [[Buddha]] [[taught]] the [[three pitakas]].[16] It is [[traditionally]] believed by [[Theravadins]] that most of the [[Pali Canon]] originated from the [[Buddha]] and his immediate [[disciples]]. According to the [[scriptures]], a council was held shortly after the [[Buddha's]] passing to collect and preserve his teachings. It was recited orally from the 5th century BCE to the first century BCE, when it was written down. The [[tradition]] holds that only a few later additions were made. The [[pitakas]] were first written down in [[Sri Lanka]] in the [[Alu Viharaya]] [[Temple]]. |
− | Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically Theravādin, but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey, it contains material which is at odds with later Theravādin orthodoxy. He states that "the Theravādins, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period." A variety of factors suggest that the early Sri Lankan Buddhists regarded canonical literature as such and transmitted it conservatively.[18] | + | Much of the material in the [[Canon]] is not specifically [[Theravādin]], but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, [[non-sectarian]] [[body]] of teachings. According to [[Peter Harvey]], it contains material which is at odds with later [[Theravādin]] {{Wiki|orthodoxy}}. He states that "the [[Theravādins]], then, may have added texts to the [[Canon]] for some [[time]], but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period." A variety of factors suggest that the early [[Sri Lankan]] [[Buddhists]] regarded [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] {{Wiki|literature}} as such and transmitted it conservatively.[18] |
− | Attribution according to scholars | + | Attribution according to [[scholars]] |
− | The views of scholars concerning the attribution of the Pali Canon can be grouped into three categories: | + | The [[views]] of [[scholars]] concerning the attribution of the [[Pali Canon]] can be grouped into [[three categories]]: |
− | Attribution to the Buddha himself. | + | Attribution to the [[Buddha]] himself. |
− | Attribution to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism. | + | Attribution to the period of pre-sectarian [[Buddhism]]. |
− | Agnosticism. | + | [[Agnosticism]]. |
− | Scholars have both supported and opposed the various existing views. | + | [[Scholars]] have both supported and opposed the various [[existing]] [[views]]. |
− | Views concerning attribution to the Buddha himself | + | [[Views]] concerning attribution to the [[Buddha]] himself |
[[File:49007 n.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:49007 n.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Several scholars who specialize in the field of early Buddhism have said that much of the contents of the Pali Canon (and its main teachings) can be attributed to Gautama Buddha. Richard Gombrich says that the main preachings of the Buddha (as in the Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka) are coherent and cogent, and must be the work of a single genius: the Buddha himself, not a committee of followers after his death. Peter Harvey also affirms the authenticity of "much" of the Pali Canon. A.K. Warder has stated that there is no evidence to suggest that the shared teaching of the early schools was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers. J.W. de Jong has said it would be "hypocritical" to assert that we can say nothing about the teachings of earliest Buddhism, arguing that "the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas." A. Wynne has said that the Pali Canon includes texts which go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words. Hajime Nakamura writes that while nothing can be definitively attributed to Gautama as a historical figure, some sayings or phrases must derive from him. | + | Several [[scholars]] who specialize in the field of [[early Buddhism]] have said that much of the contents of the [[Pali Canon]] (and its main teachings) can be attributed to [[Gautama Buddha]]. {{Wiki|Richard Gombrich}} says that the main preachings of the [[Buddha]] (as in the [[Vinaya]] and [[Sutta Pitaka]]) are coherent and cogent, and must be the work of a single genius: the [[Buddha]] himself, not a committee of followers after his [[death]]. [[Peter Harvey]] also affirms the authenticity of "much" of the [[Pali Canon]]. {{Wiki|A.K. Warder}} has stated that there is no {{Wiki|evidence}} to suggest that the shared [[teaching]] of the [[early schools]] was formulated by anyone else than the [[Buddha]] and his immediate followers. {{Wiki|J.W. de Jong}} has said it would be "hypocritical" to assert that we can say nothing about the teachings of earliest [[Buddhism]], arguing that "the basic [[ideas]] of [[Buddhism]] found in the [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the [[Buddha]]), transmitted and developed by his [[disciples]] and, finally, codified in fixed [[formulas]]." A. Wynne has said that the [[Pali Canon]] includes texts which go back to the very beginning of [[Buddhism]], which perhaps include the [[substance]] of the [[Buddha’s teaching]], and in some cases, maybe even his words. [[Hajime Nakamura]] writes that while nothing can be definitively attributed to [[Gautama]] as a historical figure, some sayings or phrases must derive from him. |
− | Views concerning attribution to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism | + | [[Views]] concerning attribution to the period of pre-sectarian [[Buddhism]] |
− | History of literature | + | History of {{Wiki|literature}} |
− | by era | + | by {{Wiki|era}} |
Bronze Age | Bronze Age | ||
− | Sumerian | + | {{Wiki|Sumerian}} |
− | Ancient Egyptian | + | {{Wiki|Ancient}} [[Egyptian]] |
− | Akkadian | + | [[Akkadian]] |
Classical | Classical | ||
− | Chinese | + | {{Wiki|Chinese}} |
− | Greek | + | {{Wiki|Greek}} |
− | Hebrew | + | [[Wikipedia:Hebrew language|Hebrew]] |
− | Latin | + | {{Wiki|Latin}} |
− | Pahlavi | + | [[Wikipedia:Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] |
− | Pali | + | [[Pali]] |
− | Prakrit | + | {{Wiki|Prakrit}} |
− | Sanskrit | + | [[Sanskrit]] |
− | Syriac | + | [[Wikipedia:Syriac language|Syriac]] |
− | Tamil | + | {{Wiki|Tamil}} |
− | Early Medieval | + | Early {{Wiki|Medieval}} |
− | Matter of Rome | + | Matter of {{Wiki|Rome}} |
− | Matter of France | + | Matter of {{Wiki|France}} |
− | Matter of Britain | + | Matter of {{Wiki|Britain}} |
− | Byzantine | + | {{Wiki|Byzantine}} |
− | Kannada | + | [[Kannada]] |
− | Persian | + | {{Wiki|Persian}} |
− | Turkish | + | {{Wiki|Turkish}} |
[[File:7-the.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:7-the.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Medieval | + | {{Wiki|Medieval}} |
− | Old Bulgarian | + | [[Wikipedia:History of the Bulgarian language|Old Bulgarian]] |
− | Old English | + | {{Wiki|Old English}} |
− | Middle English | + | {{Wiki|Middle English}} |
− | Arabic | + | {{Wiki|Arabic}} |
− | Byzantine | + | {{Wiki|Byzantine}} |
− | Catalan | + | {{Wiki|Catalan}} |
− | Dutch | + | {{Wiki|Dutch}} |
− | French | + | {{Wiki|French}} |
− | German | + | {{Wiki|German}} |
− | Indian | + | [[Indian]] |
− | Old Irish | + | {{Wiki|Old Irish}} |
− | Italian | + | {{Wiki|Italian}} |
− | Japanese | + | [[Japanese]] |
− | Kannada | + | [[Kannada]] |
− | Nepal Bhasa | + | {{Wiki|Nepal Bhasa}} |
− | Norse | + | {{Wiki|Norse}} |
− | Persian | + | {{Wiki|Persian}} |
− | Telugu | + | {{Wiki|Telugu}} |
− | Turkish | + | {{Wiki|Turkish}} |
− | Most scholars do agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature that a relatively early community maintained and transmitted.[26] Much of the Pali Canon is found also in the scriptures of other early schools of Buddhism, parts of whose versions are preserved, mainly in Chinese. Many scholars have argued that this shared material can be attributed to the period of Pre-sectarian Buddhism. This is the period before the early schools separated in about the fourth or third century BCE. | + | Most [[scholars]] do agree that there was a rough [[body]] of [[sacred]] {{Wiki|literature}} that a relatively early {{Wiki|community}} maintained and transmitted.[26] Much of the [[Pali Canon]] is found also in the [[scriptures]] of other [[early schools of Buddhism]], parts of whose versions are preserved, mainly in {{Wiki|Chinese}}. Many [[scholars]] have argued that this shared material can be attributed to the period of [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]]. This is the period before the [[early schools]] separated in about the fourth or third century BCE. |
− | Views concerning agnosticism | + | [[Views]] concerning [[agnosticism]] |
[[File:Ananda14.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Ananda14.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Some scholars see the Pali Canon as expanding and changing from an unknown nucleus. Arguments given for an agnostic attitude include that the evidence for the Buddha's teachings dates from (long) after his death. | + | Some [[scholars]] see the [[Pali Canon]] as expanding and changing from an unknown nucleus. Arguments given for an agnostic [[attitude]] include that the {{Wiki|evidence}} for the [[Buddha's teachings]] dates from (long) after his [[death]]. |
− | Some scholars of later Indian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism say that little or nothing goes back to the Buddha. Ronald Davidson has little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historical Buddha. Geoffrey Samuel says the Pali Canon largely derives from the work of Buddhaghosa and his colleagues in the 5th century AD. Gregory Schopen argues that it is not until the 5th to 6th centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. This position was criticized by A. Wynne. | + | Some [[scholars]] of later [[Indian Buddhism]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]] say that little or nothing goes back to the [[Buddha]]. [[Ronald Davidson]] has little [[confidence]] that much, if any, of surviving [[Buddhist scripture]] is actually the [[word]] of the [[historical Buddha]]. [[Geoffrey Samuel]] says the [[Pali Canon]] largely derives from the work of [[Buddhaghosa]] and his [[colleagues]] in the 5th century AD. {{Wiki|Gregory Schopen}} argues that it is not until the 5th to 6th centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the contents of the [[Canon]]. This position was criticized by A. Wynne. |
− | The earliest books of the Pali Canon | + | The earliest [[books]] of the [[Pali Canon]] |
− | Different positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works, the Vinaya (excluding the Parivāra) and the first four nikāyas of the Sutta Pitaka, and perhaps also some short verse works such as the Suttanipata. However, some scholars, particularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipāta is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udāna. However, some of the developments in teachings may only reflect changes in teaching that the Buddha himself adopted, during the 45 years that the Buddha was teaching. | + | Different positions have been taken on what are the earliest [[books]] of the [[Canon]]. The majority of {{Wiki|Western}} [[scholars]] consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works, the [[Vinaya]] ([[excluding]] the [[Parivāra]]) and the first four [[nikāyas]] of the [[Sutta Pitaka]], and perhaps also some short verse works such as the [[Suttanipata]]. However, some [[scholars]], particularly in [[Japan]], maintain that the [[Suttanipāta]] is the earliest of all [[Buddhist scriptures]], followed by the [[Itivuttaka]] and [[Udāna]]. However, some of the developments in teachings may only reflect changes in [[teaching]] that the [[Buddha]] himself adopted, during the 45 years that the [[Buddha]] was [[teaching]]. |
− | Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions. On the other hand, some scholars have claimed that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier. | + | Most of the above [[scholars]] would probably agree that their early [[books]] include some later additions. On the other hand, some [[scholars]] have claimed that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier. |
− | According to the Sri Lankan Mahavamsa, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagāmini (Vaṭṭagāmiṇi) (1st century BCE) in Sri Lanka, at the Fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this, though Schopen questions this. | + | According to the [[Sri Lankan]] [[Mahavamsa]], the [[Pali Canon]] was written down in the reign of [[King]] [[Wikipedia:Valagamba of Anuradhapura|Vattagāmini]] ([[Wikipedia:Valagamba of Anuradhapura|Vaṭṭagāmiṇi]]) (1st century BCE) in [[Sri Lanka]], at the [[Fourth Buddhist council]]. Most [[scholars]] hold that little if anything was added to the [[Canon]] after this, though [[Wikipedia:Gregory Schopen|Schopen]] questions this. |
Texts and translations | Texts and translations | ||
− | The climate of Theravāda countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century, and there is not very much from before the eighteenth. | + | The climate of [[Theravāda]] countries is not conducive to the survival of [[manuscripts]]. Apart from brief quotations in {{Wiki|inscriptions}} and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in [[Nepal]], the oldest [[manuscripts]] known are from late in the fifteenth century, and there is not very much from before the eighteenth. |
− | The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes. The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West: | + | The first complete printed edition of the [[Canon]] was published in [[Burma]] in 1900, in 38 volumes. The following editions of the [[Pali]] text of the [[Canon]] are readily available in the [[West]]: |
[[File:Avalokitesvara-41op.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Avalokitesvara-41op.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Pali Text Society edition, 1877–1927 (a few volumes subsequently replaced by new editions), 57 volumes including indexes, individual volumes also for sale separately. | + | [[Pali Text Society]] edition, 1877–1927 (a few volumes subsequently replaced by new editions), 57 volumes [[including]] indexes, {{Wiki|individual}} volumes also for sale separately. |
− | The Pali scriptures and some Pali commentaries were digitized as an MS-DOS/extended ASCII compatible database through cooperation between the Dhammakaya Foundation and the Pali Text Society in 1996 as PALITEXT version 1.0: CD-ROM Database of the Entire Buddhist Pali Canon ISBN 978-974-8235-87-5. The Dhammakāya Foundation are currently negotiating with the Pali Text Society to make available an updated database which adds the English translations and Windows/Unicode compatibility. | + | The [[Pali scriptures]] and some [[Pali commentaries]] were digitized as an MS-DOS/extended ASCII compatible database through cooperation between the [[Dhammakaya]] Foundation and the [[Pali Text Society]] in 1996 as PALITEXT version 1.0: CD-ROM Database of the Entire [[Buddhist]] [[Pali Canon]] ISBN 978-974-8235-87-5. The [[Dhammakāya]] Foundation are currently negotiating with the [[Pali Text Society]] to make available an updated database which adds the English translations and Windows/Unicode compatibility. |
− | Thai edition, 1925–28, 45 volumes; more accurate than the PTS edition, but with fewer variant readings; | + | [[Thai]] edition, 1925–28, 45 volumes; more accurate than the PTS edition, but with fewer variant readings; |
− | BUDSIR on Internet free with login; and electronic transcript by BUDSIR: Buddhist scriptures information retrieval, CD-ROM and online, both requiring payment. | + | BUDSIR on [[Internet]] free with login; and electronic transcript by BUDSIR: [[Buddhist scriptures]] [[information]] retrieval, CD-ROM and online, both requiring payment. |
− | Sixth Council edition, Rangoon, 1954–56, 40 volumes; more accurate than the Thai edition, but with fewer variant readings; | + | [[Sixth Council]] edition, {{Wiki|Rangoon}}, 1954–56, 40 volumes; more accurate than the [[Thai]] edition, but with fewer variant readings; |
− | electronic transcript by Vipāssana Research Institute available online[49] in searchable database free of charge, or on CD-ROM (p&p only) from the institute. | + | electronic transcript by [[Vipāssana]] Research Institute available online[49] in searchable database free of charge, or on CD-ROM (p&p only) from the institute. |
− | Another transcript of this edition, produced under the patronage of the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, World Tipitaka Edition, 2005, 40 volumes, published by the Dhamma Society Fund, claims to include the full extent of changes made at the Sixth Council, and therefore reflect the results of the council more accurately than some existing Sixth Council editions. Available for viewing online (registration required) at Tipiṭaka Quotation WebService. | + | Another transcript of this edition, produced under the {{Wiki|patronage}} of the [[Supreme Patriarch of Thailand]], [[World]] [[Tipitaka]] Edition, 2005, 40 volumes, published by the [[Dhamma]] {{Wiki|Society}} Fund, claims to include the full extent of changes made at the [[Sixth Council]], and therefore reflect the results of the council more accurately than some [[existing]] [[Sixth Council]] editions. Available for viewing online (registration required) at [[Tipiṭaka]] Quotation WebService. |
− | Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti) edition, 1957–?1993, 58 volumes including parallel Sinhalese translations, searchable, free of charge (not yet fully proofread.) Available at Journal of Buddhist Ethics. | + | {{Wiki|Sinhalese}} ([[Buddha Jayanti]]) edition, 1957–?1993, 58 volumes [[including]] parallel {{Wiki|Sinhalese}} translations, searchable, free of charge (not yet fully proofread.) Available at Journal of [[Buddhist Ethics]]. |
− | Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti). Image files in Sinhala script. The only accurate version of the Sri Lankan text available, in individual page images. Cannot be searched though. | + | {{Wiki|Sinhalese}} ([[Buddha Jayanti]]). Image files in [[Sinhala]] [[script]]. The only accurate version of the [[Sri Lankan]] text available, in {{Wiki|individual}} page images. Cannot be searched though. |
− | Transcript in | + | Transcript in [[Budhgaya]] News [[Pali Canon]]. In this version it is easy to search for {{Wiki|individual}} words across all 16,000+ pages at once and [[view]] the contexts in which they appear. |
− | No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions. | + | No one edition has all the best readings, and [[scholars]] must compare different editions. |
− | The Complete Collection of Chinese Pattra Scripture | + | The Complete Collection of {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[Pattra Scripture]] |
− | Translation: Pali Canon in English Translation, 1895-, in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Bristol; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles. In 1994, the then President of the Pali Text Society stated that most of these translations were unsatisfactory.[58] Another former President said in 2003 that most of the translations were done very badly. The style of many translations from the Canon has been criticized as "Buddhist Hybrid English", a term invented by Paul Griffiths for translations from Sanskrit. He describes it as "deplorable", "comprehensible only to the initiate, written by and for Buddhologists". | + | Translation: [[Pali Canon]] in English Translation, 1895-, in progress, 43 volumes so far, [[Pali Text Society]], Bristol; for details of these and other translations of {{Wiki|individual}} [[books]] see the separate articles. In 1994, the then [[President]] of the [[Pali Text Society]] stated that most of these translations were unsatisfactory.[58] Another former [[President]] said in 2003 that most of the translations were done very badly. The style of many translations from the [[Canon]] has been criticized as "[[Buddhist]] Hybrid English", a term invented by Paul Griffiths for translations from [[Sanskrit]]. He describes it as "deplorable", "comprehensible only to the [[initiate]], written by and for [[Buddhologists]]". |
− | Selections: see List of Pali Canon anthologies. | + | Selections: see List of [[Pali Canon]] {{Wiki|anthologies}}. |
− | Contents of the Canon | + | Contents of the [[Canon]] |
− | Pali Canon | + | [[Pali Canon]] |
− | Vinaya Pitaka | + | [[Vinaya Pitaka]] |
[[File:Bluebuddha31.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Bluebuddha31.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Suttavibhanga | + | [[Suttavibhanga]] |
− | Khandhaka | + | [[Khandhaka]] |
− | Parivara | + | [[Parivara]] |
− | Sutta Pitaka | + | [[Sutta Pitaka]] |
− | Digha Nikaya | + | [[Digha Nikaya]] |
− | Majjhima Nikaya | + | [[Majjhima Nikaya]] |
− | Samyutta Nikaya | + | [[Samyutta Nikaya]] |
− | Anguttara Nikaya | + | [[Anguttara Nikaya]] |
− | Khuddaka Nikaya | + | [[Khuddaka Nikaya]] |
− | Abhidhamma Pitaka | + | [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] |
− | Dhammasangani | + | [[Dhammasangani]] |
− | Vibhanga | + | [[Vibhanga]] |
− | Dhatukatha and Puggalapannatti | + | [[Dhatukatha]] and [[Puggalapannatti]] |
− | Kathavatthu | + | [[Kathavatthu]] |
− | Yamaka | + | [[Yamaka]] |
− | Patthana | + | [[Patthana]] |
− | As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas. | + | As noted above, the [[Canon]] consists of [[three pitakas]]. |
− | Vinaya Pitaka (vinayapiṭaka) | + | [[Vinaya Pitaka]] ([[vinayapiṭaka]]) |
− | Sutta Pitaka or Suttanta Pitaka | + | [[Sutta Pitaka]] or [[Suttanta]] [[Pitaka]] |
− | Abhidhamma Pitaka | + | [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] |
− | Details are given below. For more complete information, see standard references on Pali literature. | + | Details are given below. For more complete [[information]], see standard references on [[Pali literature]]. |
− | Vinaya Pitaka | + | [[Vinaya Pitaka]] |
− | The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts: | + | The first category, the [[Vinaya Pitaka]], is mostly concerned with the {{Wiki|rules}} of the [[sangha]], both [[monks and nuns]]. The {{Wiki|rules}} are preceded by stories telling how the [[Buddha]] came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the {{Wiki|rules}} were devised on an ad hoc basis as the [[Buddha]] encountered various {{Wiki|behavioral}} problems or [[disputes]] among his followers. This [[pitaka]] can be divided into three parts: |
[[File:Brainheadmind.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Brainheadmind.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Suttavibhanga (-vibhaṅga) Commentary on the Patimokkha, a basic code of rules for monks and nuns that is not as such included in the Canon. The monks' rules are dealt with first, followed by those of the nuns' rules not already covered. | + | [[Suttavibhanga]] (-[[vibhaṅga]]) Commentary on the [[Patimokkha]], a basic code of {{Wiki|rules}} for [[monks and nuns]] that is not as such included in the [[Canon]]. The [[monks]]' {{Wiki|rules}} are dealt with first, followed by those of the [[nuns]]' {{Wiki|rules}} not already covered. |
− | Khandhaka Other rules grouped by topic in 22 chapters. | + | [[Khandhaka]] Other {{Wiki|rules}} grouped by topic in 22 chapters. |
− | Parivara (parivāra) Analysis of the rules from various points of view. | + | [[Parivara]] ([[parivāra]]) Analysis of the {{Wiki|rules}} from various points of [[view]]. |
− | Sutta Pitaka | + | [[Sutta Pitaka]] |
− | The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions, or nikayas: | + | The second category is the [[Sutta Pitaka]] (literally "[[basket of threads]]", or of "the well spoken"; [[Sanskrit]]: [[Sutra Pitaka]], following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the [[Buddha's teachings]]. The [[Sutta Pitaka]] has five subdivisions, or [[nikayas]]: |
− | Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya) 34 long discourses. Joy Manné argues[64] that this book was particularly intended to make converts, with its high proportion of debates and devotional material. | + | [[Digha Nikaya]] ([[dīghanikāya]]) 34 [[long discourses]]. [[Joy]] Manné argues[64] that this [[book]] was particularly intended to make converts, with its high proportion of [[debates]] and devotional material. |
− | Majjhima Nikaya 152 medium-length discourses.[ Manné argues[64] that this book was particularly intended to give a solid grounding in the teaching to converts, with a high proportion of sermons and consultations. | + | [[Majjhima Nikaya]] 152 medium-length [[discourses]].[ Manné argues[64] that this [[book]] was particularly intended to give a solid grounding in the [[teaching]] to converts, with a high proportion of [[sermons]] and consultations. |
− | Samyutta Nikaya (saṃyutta-) Thousands of short discourses in fifty-odd groups by subject, person etc. Bhikkhu Bodhi, in his translation, says this nikaya has the most detailed explanations of doctrine. | + | [[Samyutta Nikaya]] ([[saṃyutta]]-) Thousands of short [[discourses]] in fifty-odd groups by [[subject]], [[person]] etc. [[Bhikkhu Bodhi]], in his translation, says this [[nikaya]] has the most detailed explanations of [[doctrine]]. |
− | Anguttara Nikaya (aṅguttara-) Thousands of short discourses arranged numerically from ones to elevens. It contains more elementary teaching for ordinary people than the preceding three. | + | [[Anguttara Nikaya]] ([[aṅguttara]]-) Thousands of short [[discourses]] arranged numerically from ones to [[elevens]]. It contains more elementary [[teaching]] for [[ordinary people]] than the preceding three. |
− | Khuddaka Nikaya A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse. | + | [[Khuddaka Nikaya]] A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse. |
− | Abhidhamma Pitaka | + | [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] |
− | The third category, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka: | + | The third category, the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] (literally "beyond the [[dhamma]]", "[[higher dhamma]]" or "special [[dhamma]]", [[Sanskrit]]: [[Abhidharma Pitaka]]), is a collection of texts which give a systematic [[philosophical]] description of the [[nature of mind]], {{Wiki|matter}} and [[time]]. There are seven [[books]] in the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]: |
[[File:Buddha 0681.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Buddha 0681.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Dhammasangani (-saṅgaṇi or -saṅgaṇī) Enumeration, definition and classification of dhammas | + | [[Dhammasangani]] (-[[saṅgaṇi]] or -[[saṅgaṇī]]) Enumeration, [[definition]] and {{Wiki|classification}} of [[dhammas]] |
− | Vibhanga (vibhaṅga) Analysis of 18 topics by various methods, including those of the Dhammasangani | + | [[Vibhanga]] ([[vibhaṅga]]) Analysis of 18 topics by various [[methods]], [[including]] those of the [[Dhammasangani]] |
− | Dhatukatha (dhātukathā) Deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books | + | [[Dhatukatha]] ([[dhātukathā]]) Deals with interrelations between [[ideas]] from the previous two [[books]] |
− | Puggalapannatti (-paññatti) Explanations of types of person, arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens | + | [[Puggalapannatti]] (-[[paññatti]]) Explanations of types of [[person]], arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens |
− | Kathavatthu (kathā-) Over 200 debates on points of doctrine | + | [[Kathavatthu]] ([[kathā]]-) Over 200 [[debates]] on points of [[doctrine]] |
− | Yamaka Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (e.g. Is X Y? Is Y X?) | + | [[Yamaka]] Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (e.g. Is X Y? Is Y X?) |
− | Patthana (paṭṭhāna) Analysis of 24 types of condition[66] | + | [[Patthana]] ([[paṭṭhāna]]) Analysis of 24 types of [[condition]][66] |
− | The traditional position is that abhidhamma refers to the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Harvey,[ | + | The [[traditional]] position is that [[abhidhamma]] refers to the [[absolute]] [[teaching]], while the [[suttas]] are adapted to the hearer. Most [[scholars]] describe the [[abhidhamma]] as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the [[suttas]]: Harvey, [[Gethin]].[68] Cousins says that where the [[suttas]] think in terms of sequences or {{Wiki|processes}} the [[abhidhamma]] [[thinks]] in terms of specific events or occasions. By Anney tesloyn |
− | Comparison with other Buddhist canons | + | Comparison with other [[Buddhist]] canons |
− | See also: Āgama (Buddhism) | + | See also: [[Āgama]] ([[Buddhism]]) |
− | The other two main Buddhist canons in use in the present day are the Chinese Buddhist Canon and the Tibetan Kangyur. | + | The other two main [[Buddhist]] canons in use in the {{Wiki|present}} day are the [[Chinese Buddhist Canon]] and the [[Tibetan]] [[Kangyur]]. |
− | The standard modern edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon is the Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka, with a hundred major divisions, totaling over 80,000 pages. This includes Vinayas for the Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivāda, Mahīśāsaka, and Mahāsaṃghika schools. It also includes the four major Āgamas, which are analogous to the Nikayas of the Pali Canon. Namely, they are the Saṃyukta Āgama, Madhyama Āgama, Dīrgha Āgama, and Ekottara Āgama. Also included are the Dhammapada, the Udāna, the Itivuttaka, and Milindapanha. There are also additional texts, including early histories, that are preserved from the early Buddhist schools but not found in Pali. The canon contains voluminous works of Abhidharma, especially from the Sarvāstivāda school. The Indian works preserved in the Chinese Canon were translated from Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit, or from regional Prakrits. The Chinese generally referred to these simply as "Sanskrit" (Ch. 梵語, Fànyǔ). The first woodblock printing of the whole Chinese Buddhist Canon was done by imperial order in China in CE 868. | + | The standard {{Wiki|modern}} edition of the [[Chinese Buddhist Canon]] is the [[Taishō]] Revised [[Tripiṭaka]], with a hundred major divisions, totaling over 80,000 pages. This includes [[Vinayas]] for the [[Dharmaguptaka]], [[Sarvāstivāda]], [[Mahīśāsaka]], and [[Mahāsaṃghika]] schools. It also includes the four major [[Āgamas]], which are analogous to the [[Nikayas]] of the [[Pali Canon]]. Namely, they are the [[Saṃyukta Āgama]], [[Madhyama Āgama]], [[Dīrgha Āgama]], and [[Ekottara Āgama]]. Also included are the [[Dhammapada]], the [[Udāna]], the [[Itivuttaka]], and [[Milindapanha]]. There are also additional texts, [[including]] early histories, that are preserved from the [[early Buddhist schools]] but not found in [[Pali]]. The [[canon]] contains voluminous works of [[Abhidharma]], especially from the [[Sarvāstivāda]] school. The [[Indian]] works preserved in the {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[Canon]] were translated from [[Buddhist]] [[Wikipedia:Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit|Hybrid Sanskrit]], {{Wiki|Classical Sanskrit}}, or from regional [[Prakrits]]. The {{Wiki|Chinese}} generally referred to these simply as "[[Sanskrit]]" (Ch. [[梵語]], [[Fànyǔ]]). The first woodblock [[printing]] of the whole [[Chinese Buddhist Canon]] was done by {{Wiki|imperial}} order in [[China]] in CE 868. |
− | The Tibetan Kangyur comprises about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the Dhammapada (under the title Udanavarga) and parts of some other books. Due to the later compilation, it contains comparatively fewer early Buddhist texts than the Pali and Chinese canons. | + | The [[Tibetan]] [[Kangyur]] comprises about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the [[Vinaya Pitaka]], the [[Dhammapada]] (under the title [[Udanavarga]]) and parts of some other [[books]]. Due to the later compilation, it contains comparatively fewer early [[Buddhist texts]] than the [[Pali]] and {{Wiki|Chinese}} canons. |
− | The Chinese and Tibetan canons are not translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but contain some recognizably similar early works. However, the Abhidharma books are fundamentally different works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Chinese and Tibetan canons also consist of Mahāyāna sūtras and Vajrayāna tantras, which, apart from a few tantras, have no equivalent in the Pali Canon. | + | The {{Wiki|Chinese}} and [[Tibetan canons]] are not translations of the [[Pali]] and differ from it to varying extents, but contain some recognizably similar early works. However, the [[Abhidharma]] [[books]] are fundamentally different works from the [[Pali]] [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]. The {{Wiki|Chinese}} and [[Tibetan canons]] also consist of [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] and [[Vajrayāna]] [[tantras]], which, apart from a few [[tantras]], have no {{Wiki|equivalent}} in the [[Pali Canon]]. |
</poem> | </poem> | ||
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[[Category:Theravada Buddhism]] | [[Category:Theravada Buddhism]] | ||
[[Category:Pāli Canon]] | [[Category:Pāli Canon]] | ||
+ | [[Category:[[Category:Pali Dictionaries]])] |
Latest revision as of 18:57, 4 April 2016
The Pāli Canon (Pali: Tipitaka) is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language.[1] It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon.It was composed in North India, and preserved orally until it was committed to writing during the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka in 29 BCE, approximately four hundred and fifty four years after the death of Shākyamuni.
The Pāli Canon falls into three general categories, called pitaka (from Pali piṭaka, meaning "basket", referring to the receptacles in which the scrolls were kept). Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as the Tipiṭaka (Sanskrit: Tripiṭaka; "three baskets"). The three pitakas are as follows:
Vinaya Pitaka ("Discipline Basket"), dealing with rules for monks and nuns
Sutta Pitaka (Sutra/Sayings Basket), discourses, mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but some to disciples
Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics, etc.
The Vinaya Pitaka and the Sutta Pitaka are remarkably similar to the works of other early Buddhist schools. The Abhidhamma Pitaka however is a strictly Theravada collection, and has little in common with the Abhidhamma works recognized by other Buddhist schools.
ly described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples.
The traditional Theravādin (Mahavihārin) interpretation of the Pali Canon is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fl. 4th–5th century CE) and later monks, mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost. Subcommentaries have been written afterward, commenting further on the Canon and its commentaries. The traditional Theravādin interpretation is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga.
An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvāna; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars.
Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its earlier oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. Among frequently recited texts are the Paritta. Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learned the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering). Recitation is in Pali as the ritual language.
The relation of the scriptures to Buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary monks and lay people is, as with other major religious traditions, problematical: the evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon ever enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes very much more widely used; the details varied from place to place.[14] Rupert Gethin suggests that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures.
Origins
According to a late part of the Pali Canon, the Buddha taught the three pitakas.[16] It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon originated from the Buddha and his immediate disciples. According to the scriptures, a council was held shortly after the Buddha's passing to collect and preserve his teachings. It was recited orally from the 5th century BCE to the first century BCE, when it was written down. The tradition holds that only a few later additions were made. The pitakas were first written down in Sri Lanka in the Alu Viharaya Temple.
Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically Theravādin, but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey, it contains material which is at odds with later Theravādin orthodoxy. He states that "the Theravādins, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period." A variety of factors suggest that the early Sri Lankan Buddhists regarded canonical literature as such and transmitted it conservatively.[18]
Attribution according to scholars
The views of scholars concerning the attribution of the Pali Canon can be grouped into three categories:
Attribution to the Buddha himself.
Attribution to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism.
Agnosticism.
Scholars have both supported and opposed the various existing views.
Views concerning attribution to the Buddha himself
Several scholars who specialize in the field of early Buddhism have said that much of the contents of the Pali Canon (and its main teachings) can be attributed to Gautama Buddha. Richard Gombrich says that the main preachings of the Buddha (as in the Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka) are coherent and cogent, and must be the work of a single genius: the Buddha himself, not a committee of followers after his death. Peter Harvey also affirms the authenticity of "much" of the Pali Canon. A.K. Warder has stated that there is no evidence to suggest that the shared teaching of the early schools was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers. J.W. de Jong has said it would be "hypocritical" to assert that we can say nothing about the teachings of earliest Buddhism, arguing that "the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha), transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas." A. Wynne has said that the Pali Canon includes texts which go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words. Hajime Nakamura writes that while nothing can be definitively attributed to Gautama as a historical figure, some sayings or phrases must derive from him.
Views concerning attribution to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism
History of literature
by era
Bronze Age
Sumerian
Ancient Egyptian
Akkadian
Classical
Chinese
Greek
Hebrew
Latin
Pahlavi
Pali
Prakrit
Sanskrit
Syriac
Tamil
Early Medieval
Matter of Rome
Matter of France
Matter of Britain
Byzantine
Kannada
Persian
Turkish
Medieval
Old Bulgarian
Old English
Middle English
Arabic
Byzantine
Catalan
Dutch
French
German
Indian
Old Irish
Italian
Japanese
Kannada
Nepal Bhasa
Norse
Persian
Telugu
Turkish
Most scholars do agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature that a relatively early community maintained and transmitted.[26] Much of the Pali Canon is found also in the scriptures of other early schools of Buddhism, parts of whose versions are preserved, mainly in Chinese. Many scholars have argued that this shared material can be attributed to the period of Pre-sectarian Buddhism. This is the period before the early schools separated in about the fourth or third century BCE.
Views concerning agnosticism
Some scholars see the Pali Canon as expanding and changing from an unknown nucleus. Arguments given for an agnostic attitude include that the evidence for the Buddha's teachings dates from (long) after his death.
Some scholars of later Indian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism say that little or nothing goes back to the Buddha. Ronald Davidson has little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historical Buddha. Geoffrey Samuel says the Pali Canon largely derives from the work of Buddhaghosa and his colleagues in the 5th century AD. Gregory Schopen argues that it is not until the 5th to 6th centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. This position was criticized by A. Wynne.
The earliest books of the Pali Canon
Different positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works, the Vinaya (excluding the Parivāra) and the first four nikāyas of the Sutta Pitaka, and perhaps also some short verse works such as the Suttanipata. However, some scholars, particularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipāta is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udāna. However, some of the developments in teachings may only reflect changes in teaching that the Buddha himself adopted, during the 45 years that the Buddha was teaching.
Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions. On the other hand, some scholars have claimed that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier.
According to the Sri Lankan Mahavamsa, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagāmini (Vaṭṭagāmiṇi) (1st century BCE) in Sri Lanka, at the Fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this, though Schopen questions this.
Texts and translations
The climate of Theravāda countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century, and there is not very much from before the eighteenth.
The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes. The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West:
Pali Text Society edition, 1877–1927 (a few volumes subsequently replaced by new editions), 57 volumes including indexes, individual volumes also for sale separately.
The Pali scriptures and some Pali commentaries were digitized as an MS-DOS/extended ASCII compatible database through cooperation between the Dhammakaya Foundation and the Pali Text Society in 1996 as PALITEXT version 1.0: CD-ROM Database of the Entire Buddhist Pali Canon ISBN 978-974-8235-87-5. The Dhammakāya Foundation are currently negotiating with the Pali Text Society to make available an updated database which adds the English translations and Windows/Unicode compatibility.
Thai edition, 1925–28, 45 volumes; more accurate than the PTS edition, but with fewer variant readings;
BUDSIR on Internet free with login; and electronic transcript by BUDSIR: Buddhist scriptures information retrieval, CD-ROM and online, both requiring payment.
Sixth Council edition, Rangoon, 1954–56, 40 volumes; more accurate than the Thai edition, but with fewer variant readings;
electronic transcript by Vipāssana Research Institute available online[49] in searchable database free of charge, or on CD-ROM (p&p only) from the institute.
Another transcript of this edition, produced under the patronage of the Supreme Patriarch of Thailand, World Tipitaka Edition, 2005, 40 volumes, published by the Dhamma Society Fund, claims to include the full extent of changes made at the Sixth Council, and therefore reflect the results of the council more accurately than some existing Sixth Council editions. Available for viewing online (registration required) at Tipiṭaka Quotation WebService.
Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti) edition, 1957–?1993, 58 volumes including parallel Sinhalese translations, searchable, free of charge (not yet fully proofread.) Available at Journal of Buddhist Ethics.
Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti). Image files in Sinhala script. The only accurate version of the Sri Lankan text available, in individual page images. Cannot be searched though.
Transcript in Budhgaya News Pali Canon. In this version it is easy to search for individual words across all 16,000+ pages at once and view the contexts in which they appear.
No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions.
The Complete Collection of Chinese Pattra Scripture
Translation: Pali Canon in English Translation, 1895-, in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Bristol; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles. In 1994, the then President of the Pali Text Society stated that most of these translations were unsatisfactory.[58] Another former President said in 2003 that most of the translations were done very badly. The style of many translations from the Canon has been criticized as "Buddhist Hybrid English", a term invented by Paul Griffiths for translations from Sanskrit. He describes it as "deplorable", "comprehensible only to the initiate, written by and for Buddhologists".
Selections: see List of Pali Canon anthologies.
Contents of the Canon
Pali Canon
Vinaya Pitaka
Suttavibhanga
Khandhaka
Parivara
Sutta Pitaka
Digha Nikaya
Majjhima Nikaya
Samyutta Nikaya
Anguttara Nikaya
Khuddaka Nikaya
Abhidhamma Pitaka
Dhammasangani
Vibhanga
Dhatukatha and Puggalapannatti
Kathavatthu
Yamaka
Patthana
As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.
Vinaya Pitaka (vinayapiṭaka)
Sutta Pitaka or Suttanta Pitaka
Abhidhamma Pitaka
Details are given below. For more complete information, see standard references on Pali literature.
Vinaya Pitaka
The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts:
Suttavibhanga (-vibhaṅga) Commentary on the Patimokkha, a basic code of rules for monks and nuns that is not as such included in the Canon. The monks' rules are dealt with first, followed by those of the nuns' rules not already covered.
Khandhaka Other rules grouped by topic in 22 chapters.
Parivara (parivāra) Analysis of the rules from various points of view.
Sutta Pitaka
The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions, or nikayas:
Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya) 34 long discourses. Joy Manné argues[64] that this book was particularly intended to make converts, with its high proportion of debates and devotional material.
Majjhima Nikaya 152 medium-length discourses.[ Manné argues[64] that this book was particularly intended to give a solid grounding in the teaching to converts, with a high proportion of sermons and consultations.
Samyutta Nikaya (saṃyutta-) Thousands of short discourses in fifty-odd groups by subject, person etc. Bhikkhu Bodhi, in his translation, says this nikaya has the most detailed explanations of doctrine.
Anguttara Nikaya (aṅguttara-) Thousands of short discourses arranged numerically from ones to elevens. It contains more elementary teaching for ordinary people than the preceding three.
Khuddaka Nikaya A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse.
Abhidhamma Pitaka
The third category, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka:
Dhammasangani (-saṅgaṇi or -saṅgaṇī) Enumeration, definition and classification of dhammas
Vibhanga (vibhaṅga) Analysis of 18 topics by various methods, including those of the Dhammasangani
Dhatukatha (dhātukathā) Deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books
Puggalapannatti (-paññatti) Explanations of types of person, arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens
Kathavatthu (kathā-) Over 200 debates on points of doctrine
Yamaka Applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (e.g. Is X Y? Is Y X?)
Patthana (paṭṭhāna) Analysis of 24 types of condition[66]
The traditional position is that abhidhamma refers to the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Harvey, Gethin.[68] Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions. By Anney tesloyn
Comparison with other Buddhist canons
See also: Āgama (Buddhism)
The other two main Buddhist canons in use in the present day are the Chinese Buddhist Canon and the Tibetan Kangyur.
The standard modern edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon is the Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka, with a hundred major divisions, totaling over 80,000 pages. This includes Vinayas for the Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivāda, Mahīśāsaka, and Mahāsaṃghika schools. It also includes the four major Āgamas, which are analogous to the Nikayas of the Pali Canon. Namely, they are the Saṃyukta Āgama, Madhyama Āgama, Dīrgha Āgama, and Ekottara Āgama. Also included are the Dhammapada, the Udāna, the Itivuttaka, and Milindapanha. There are also additional texts, including early histories, that are preserved from the early Buddhist schools but not found in Pali. The canon contains voluminous works of Abhidharma, especially from the Sarvāstivāda school. The Indian works preserved in the Chinese Canon were translated from Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit, or from regional Prakrits. The Chinese generally referred to these simply as "Sanskrit" (Ch. 梵語, Fànyǔ). The first woodblock printing of the whole Chinese Buddhist Canon was done by imperial order in China in CE 868.
The Tibetan Kangyur comprises about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the Dhammapada (under the title Udanavarga) and parts of some other books. Due to the later compilation, it contains comparatively fewer early Buddhist texts than the Pali and Chinese canons.
The Chinese and Tibetan canons are not translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but contain some recognizably similar early works. However, the Abhidharma books are fundamentally different works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Chinese and Tibetan canons also consist of Mahāyāna sūtras and Vajrayāna tantras, which, apart from a few tantras, have no equivalent in the Pali Canon.
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