Difference between revisions of "Ignorance, Shamelessness, Recklessness and Restlessness"
m (1 revision: Robo replace 16sept) |
|||
(5 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown) | |||
Line 6: | Line 6: | ||
: What on that occasion is dullness? | : What on that occasion is dullness? | ||
− | : The lack of [[knowledge]], of vision, which is there on that occasion; the lack of coordination, of [[judgement]], of enlightenment<ref>The Atthasālinī (II, 254), in its explanation of this passage of the Dhammasangaṇi, states about lack of [[enlightenment]] that it is: “not connecting them (things) with [[impermanence]], [[dukkha]] and | + | : The lack of [[knowledge]], of [[vision]], which is there on that occasion; the lack of coordination, of [[judgement]], of [[enlightenment]]<ref>The [[Atthasālinī]] (II, 254), in its explanation of this passage of the [[Dhammasangaṇi]], states about lack of [[enlightenment]] that it is: “not connecting them (things) with [[impermanence]], [[dukkha]] and [[anattā]]”, and “perceiving in an unreal, distorted way”.</ref>, of [[penetration]]<ref>No [[penetration]] of the four [[noble]] Truths.</ref>; the inability to comprehend, to [[grasp]] thoroughly; the inability to compare, to consider, to demonstrate; the folly, the childishness, the lack of {{Wiki|intelligence}}; the dullness that is vagueness, obfuscation, [[ignorance]], the Flood ([[ogha]]) of [[ignorance]], the Bond ([[yoga]]) of [[ignorance]], the bias<ref>[[ignorance]] is a bias, it continually lies latent, in the [[sense]] of [[being]] firmly fixed.</ref> of [[ignorance]], the obsession of [[ignorance]], the barrier of [[ignorance]]; the dullness that is the [[root]] of badness—this is the dullness that there then is. |
[[Ignorance]] is firmly fixed, it always lies latent and it is hard to eradicate. The [[Atthasālinī]] (II, Part IX, Chapter I, 249) gives the following definition of [[moha]]: | [[Ignorance]] is firmly fixed, it always lies latent and it is hard to eradicate. The [[Atthasālinī]] (II, Part IX, Chapter I, 249) gives the following definition of [[moha]]: | ||
− | : “[[Delusion]]” has the characteristic of blindness or opposition to [[knowledge]]; the essence of non-penetration, or the function of covering the intrinsic nature of the object; the manifestation of being opposed to right practice<ref>In [[Pāli]]: [[patipatti]]. The English text translates here as: [[right conduct]].</ref> or causing blindness; the proximate [[cause]] of unwise [[attention]]; and should be regarded as the root of all immoralities. | + | : “[[Delusion]]” has the characteristic of {{Wiki|blindness}} or opposition to [[knowledge]]; the [[essence]] of non-penetration, or the function of covering the intrinsic nature of the [[object]]; the [[manifestation]] of [[being]] opposed to right practice<ref>In [[Pāli]]: [[patipatti]]. The English text translates here as: [[right conduct]].</ref> or causing {{Wiki|blindness}}; the proximate [[cause]] of unwise [[attention]]; and should be regarded as the [[root]] of all immoralities. |
The [[Visuddhimagga]] (XIV, 163) gives a similar definition. | The [[Visuddhimagga]] (XIV, 163) gives a similar definition. | ||
[[File:Buddha4u4ia.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Buddha4u4ia.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | [[Moha]] is not the same as lack of [[worldly]] [[knowledge]] such as [[science]] or history, but it is [[ignorance]] of ultimate realities. There are many degrees of [[moha]]. [[Moha]] does not know the true nature of the object which is experienced and therefore its essence is, as stated by the [[Atthasālinī]], non-penetration and its function “covering up” the intrinsic nature of the object. [[Moha]] does not know [[nāma]] and [[rūpa]] as [[impermanent]], [[dukkha]] and [[non-self]], [[anattā]]. [[Moha]] is the root of all that is unwholesome. Every [[akusala]] [[citta]] is rooted in [[moha]]; not only the two types of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]], but also the types of [[lobha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] and [[dosa]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] have [[moha]] as root. | + | [[Moha]] is not the same as lack of [[worldly]] [[knowledge]] such as [[science]] or history, but it is [[ignorance]] of [[ultimate]] [[realities]]. There are many degrees of [[moha]]. [[Moha]] does not [[know]] the [[true nature]] of the [[object]] which is [[experienced]] and therefore its [[essence]] is, as stated by the [[Atthasālinī]], non-penetration and its function “covering up” the intrinsic nature of the [[object]]. [[Moha]] does not [[know]] [[nāma]] and [[rūpa]] as [[impermanent]], [[dukkha]] and [[non-self]], [[anattā]]. [[Moha]] is the [[root]] of all that is [[unwholesome]]. Every [[akusala]] [[citta]] is [[rooted]] in [[moha]]; not only the two types of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]], but also the types of [[lobha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] and [[dosa]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] have [[moha]] as [[root]]. |
− | [[Moha]] is a “folly”, it is | + | [[Moha]] is a “folly”, it is “{{Wiki|blindness}}”, because whenever there is [[moha]], there is “unwise [[attention]]” to the [[object]] which is [[experienced]]. For example, when we eat delicious [[food]], [[attachment]] is bound to arise and then there is also [[moha]]. We are at that moment enslaved to the [[object]] which is [[experienced]] and we do not [[know]] that there is unwise [[attention]]. [[Moha]] does not [[know]] [[akusala]] as [[akusala]] and [[kusala]] as [[kusala]] and it does not [[know]] the [[conditions]] for their arising. If one has not studied the [[Dhamma]] one does not [[know]] that whether [[akusala]] [[citta]] arises or not depends on the manner of [[attention]] to the [[object]] and not on the [[pleasant]] or [[unpleasant]] [[objects]] themselves. Thus, the [[citta]] is the source of [[kusala]] or [[akusala]], not the [[objects]] which are [[experienced]], not the outward circumstances. We [[desire]] [[pleasant]] [[objects]] and when the [[object]] is [[unpleasant]] we are disappointed and [[sad]]. If one has not studied the [[Dhamma]] there is [[ignorance]] of [[kamma]] and [[vipāka]]. When one suffers [[pain]] one does not realize that the [[unpleasant]] [[experience]] through the [[body]] [[sense]] is [[vipāka]], that it is the result of a bad [[deed]] which has been committed. |
− | If we study the [[Buddha]]'s teachings we become less ignorant of realities, we begin to have more understanding of [[kamma]] and [[vipāka]], of [[kusala]] and [[akusala]], of ultimate realities. However, [[moha]] cannot be eradicated merely by [[thinking]] about realities. It can eventually be eradicated by the [[wisdom]] which knows the true nature of realities. Although we have learnt what is [[kusala]] and what is [[akusala]], there are more often [[akusala]] [[citta]]s than [[kusala]] [[citta]]s. When we eat delicious [[food]], how often is there wise [[attention]] to the object? We read in the Gradual Sayings (Book of the Threes, Chapter XIII, par121) that the [[Buddha]] spoke about two kinds of [[monks]] who receive alms food. We read about a certain [[monk]] who has eaten the alms food: | + | If we study the [[Buddha]]'s teachings we become less [[ignorant]] of [[realities]], we begin to have more understanding of [[kamma]] and [[vipāka]], of [[kusala]] and [[akusala]], of [[ultimate]] [[realities]]. However, [[moha]] cannot be eradicated merely by [[thinking]] about [[realities]]. It can eventually be eradicated by the [[wisdom]] which [[knows]] the [[true nature]] of [[realities]]. Although we have learnt what is [[kusala]] and what is [[akusala]], there are more often [[akusala]] [[citta]]s than [[kusala]] [[citta]]s. When we eat delicious [[food]], how often is there [[wise]] [[attention]] to the [[object]]? We read in the Gradual Sayings (Book of the Threes, Chapter XIII, par121) that the [[Buddha]] spoke about two kinds of [[monks]] who receive [[alms]] [[food]]. We read about a certain [[monk]] who has eaten the [[alms]] [[food]]: |
[[File:BuddhaFa.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:BuddhaFa.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | : Now it occurs to him: A good thing in sooth for me to be thus served by a house-father or a house-father's son! Then he [[thinks]]: I should indeed be glad to have this house-father or house-father's son serve me in like manner in the future. Thus he enjoys that [[almsgiving]] and is attracted by it, infatuated with it, attached to it. He sees not danger therein. He is blind to the escape therefrom. The result is that his train of [[thought]] is sensual, [[malevolent]] and harmful to others. Now, [[monks]], I declare that what is given to such a [[monk]] has no great fruit. Why so? Because the [[monk]] lives amiss. | + | : Now it occurs to him: A good thing in sooth for me to be thus served by a house-father or a house-father's son! Then he [[thinks]]: I should indeed be glad to have this house-father or house-father's son serve me in like manner in the future. Thus he enjoys that [[almsgiving]] and is attracted by it, infatuated with it, attached to it. He sees not [[danger]] therein. He is blind to the escape therefrom. The result is that his train of [[thought]] is sensual, [[malevolent]] and harmful to others. Now, [[monks]], I declare that what is given to such a [[monk]] has no great fruit. Why so? Because the [[monk]] [[lives]] amiss. |
We then read about a certain [[monk]] who is not attached to his alms-food. What is given to him is of great fruit because he is vigilant. If there is [[mindfulness]] of the [[reality]] which appears, also while eating, [[right understanding]] can be developed. | We then read about a certain [[monk]] who is not attached to his alms-food. What is given to him is of great fruit because he is vigilant. If there is [[mindfulness]] of the [[reality]] which appears, also while eating, [[right understanding]] can be developed. | ||
− | [[Moha]] is the root of all that is unprofitable, of [[akusala]] which is coarse and of [[akusala]] which is more subtle. When one commits [[akusala]] [[kamma]] through [[body]], [[speech]] or [[mind]] there is [[moha]]. There is [[ignorance]] of the danger of [[akusala]] [[kamma]] which is capable of producing an unpleasant result, even in the form of an unhappy [[rebirth]]. As we have seen, [[moha]] accompanies each [[akusala]] [[citta]]. When there are [[akusala]] [[citta]]s with [[avarice]], [[jealousy]] or conceit, there is also [[moha]]. When one takes realities for [[self]] there is wrong [[view]], diṭṭhi, and at that moment there is also [[moha]]. [[Moha]] conditions [[diṭṭhi]] but they are different realities. [[Moha]] is ignorant of the true nature of realities and [[diṭṭhi]] has wrong [[view]] about them. | + | [[Moha]] is the [[root]] of all that is unprofitable, of [[akusala]] which is coarse and of [[akusala]] which is more subtle. When one commits [[akusala]] [[kamma]] through [[body]], [[speech]] or [[mind]] there is [[moha]]. There is [[ignorance]] of the [[danger]] of [[akusala]] [[kamma]] which is capable of producing an [[unpleasant]] result, even in the [[form]] of an [[unhappy]] [[rebirth]]. As we have seen, [[moha]] accompanies each [[akusala]] [[citta]]. When there are [[akusala]] [[citta]]s with [[avarice]], [[jealousy]] or [[conceit]], there is also [[moha]]. When one takes [[realities]] for [[self]] there is wrong [[view]], diṭṭhi, and at that moment there is also [[moha]]. [[Moha]] [[conditions]] [[diṭṭhi]] but they are different [[realities]]. [[Moha]] is [[ignorant]] of the [[true nature]] of [[realities]] and [[diṭṭhi]] has wrong [[view]] about them. |
− | There is much [[ignorance]] about the processes of [[citta]]s which experience objects through the six doors. Do we realize whether there is at this moment seeing, [[hearing]] or [[thinking]], or does it seem that these experiences occur all at the same time? In [[reality]] only one object can be experienced at a time through the appropriate doorway. When there is [[hearing]] only [[sound]] is experienced through the ears and when we think of the meaning of the words which are spoken there is not [[hearing]] but [[thinking]] of concepts. [[Thinking]] arises in another process of [[citta]]s, it arises in a [[mind]]-door process and this is different from the ear-door process. Does it seem that [[hearing]] can stay for a while? In [[reality]] this is not so, it falls away immediately. But when [[right understanding]] has not been developed the arising and falling away of [[citta]]s cannot be [[realized]]. | + | There is much [[ignorance]] about the processes of [[citta]]s which [[experience]] [[objects]] through the six doors. Do we realize whether there is at this moment [[seeing]], [[hearing]] or [[thinking]], or does it seem that these [[experiences]] occur all at the same [[time]]? In [[reality]] only one [[object]] can be [[experienced]] at a [[time]] through the appropriate doorway. When there is [[hearing]] only [[sound]] is [[experienced]] through the ears and when we think of the meaning of the words which are spoken there is not [[hearing]] but [[thinking]] of concepts. [[Thinking]] arises in another process of [[citta]]s, it arises in a [[mind]]-door process and this is different from the ear-door process. Does it seem that [[hearing]] can stay for a while? In [[reality]] this is not so, it falls away immediately. But when [[right understanding]] has not been developed the arising and falling away of [[citta]]s cannot be [[realized]]. |
[[File:BUDDMoon.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:BUDDMoon.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | [[Moha]] is [[ignorant]] of the true nature of realities, it does not know [[nāma]] and [[rūpa]] as they are. [[Moha]] is lack of [[knowledge]] about the four [[noble]] Truths: about [[dukkha]], the origination of [[dukkha]], the ceasing of [[dukkha]] and the way leading to the ceasing of [[dukkha]]<ref>Dhammasangaṇi, par1061.</ref>. So long as [[ignorance]] has not been eradicated we have to continue to be in the cycle of birth and [[death]], we have to be born again and again. The [[Pāli]] term [[avijjā]] is used for [[ignorance]] in connection with the “[[Dependent Origination]]”, the conditional arising of [[phenomena]] in the cycle of birth and [[death]]. [[Avijjā]] is the first link in the chain of conditions for the continuation of this cycle. At the attainment of [[arahatship]] [[ignorance]] is eradicated and then there are no more conditions for [[rebirth]]. | + | [[Moha]] is [[ignorant]] of the [[true nature]] of [[realities]], it does not [[know]] [[nāma]] and [[rūpa]] as they are. [[Moha]] is lack of [[knowledge]] about the four [[noble]] Truths: about [[dukkha]], the origination of [[dukkha]], the ceasing of [[dukkha]] and the way leading to the ceasing of [[dukkha]]<ref>[[Dhammasangaṇi]], par1061.</ref>. So long as [[ignorance]] has not been eradicated we have to continue to be in the cycle of [[birth]] and [[death]], we have to be born again and again. The [[Pāli]] term [[avijjā]] is used for [[ignorance]] in connection with the “[[Dependent Origination]]”, the conditional arising of [[phenomena]] in the cycle of [[birth]] and [[death]]. [[Avijjā]] is the first link in the chain of [[conditions]] for the continuation of this cycle. At the [[attainment]] of [[arahatship]] [[ignorance]] is eradicated and then there are no more [[conditions]] for [[rebirth]]. |
− | We read in the Kindred Sayings (III, Khandha-vagga, Kindred Sayings on Elements, III, Last Fifty, Chapter 3, par129, Satisfaction) that in the [[Deer park]] at [[Isipatana]] [[Mahā-Koṭṭhita]] said to [[Sāriputta]]: | + | We read in the Kindred Sayings (III, Khandha-vagga, Kindred Sayings on [[Elements]], III, Last Fifty, Chapter 3, par129, [[Satisfaction]]) that in the [[Deer park]] at [[Isipatana]] [[Mahā-Koṭṭhita]] said to [[Sāriputta]]: |
: “'[[Ignorance]]! [[Ignorance]]!' is the saying, friend [[Sāriputta]]. Pray, friend, what is [[ignorance]], and how far is one [[ignorant]]?” | : “'[[Ignorance]]! [[Ignorance]]!' is the saying, friend [[Sāriputta]]. Pray, friend, what is [[ignorance]], and how far is one [[ignorant]]?” | ||
− | : “Herein, friend, the untaught many folk know not as it really is the {{Wiki|satisfaction}} in, the misery of, the escape from [[body]]. So with [[feeling]], [[perception]], the activities...they know not the {{Wiki|satisfaction}} in, the misery of, the escape from [[consciousness]]. | + | : “Herein, friend, the untaught many folk [[know]] not as it really is the {{Wiki|satisfaction}} in, the [[misery]] of, the escape from [[body]]. So with [[feeling]], [[perception]], the activities...they [[know]] not the {{Wiki|satisfaction}} in, the [[misery]] of, the escape from [[consciousness]]. |
: This, friend, is [[ignorance]], and thus far is one [[ignorant]].” | : This, friend, is [[ignorance]], and thus far is one [[ignorant]].” | ||
− | In the next [[sutta]] (par130) it is said that [[wisdom]] is knowing as it really is the satisfaction in, the misery of and the escape from the five [[khandhas]]. | + | In the next [[sutta]] (par130) it is said that [[wisdom]] is [[knowing]] as it really is the [[satisfaction]] in, the [[misery]] of and the escape from the five [[khandhas]]. |
− | If there is no development of [[right understanding]] one does not see that conditioned realities which arise and then have to fall away again are [[dukkha]], and thus there cannot be escape from [[dukkha]]. | + | If there is no development of [[right understanding]] one does not see that [[conditioned]] [[realities]] which arise and then have to fall away again are [[dukkha]], and thus there cannot be escape from [[dukkha]]. |
− | It is hard to know the characteristic of [[moha]]. The [[Buddha]] taught us to be mindful of the realities which appear, but we have many moments of dullness. We should learn to see the [[difference]] between [[awareness]] and forgetfulness of realities. When there is forgetfulness of realities the [[citta]] is [[akusala]]. Even when there is no [[attachment]] or aversion, there can be [[akusala]] [[citta]]; there can be the type of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] which is accompanied by [[restlessness]] ([[uddhacca]])<ref>There are two types of [[moha]]-mūla-[[citta]]: one is accompanied by [[doubt]] (vicikicchā-sampayutta) and one is accompanied by [[restlessness]] ([[uddhacca]]-sampayutta).</ref>. This type is bound to arise very often in between the other types of [[akusala]] [[citta]], but we do not realize it. [[Ignorance]] is dangerous and extremely hard to eradicate. The [[sotāpanna]] sees realities as they are, he has no more wrong [[view]] about them, but he has not eradicated [[ignorance]]. [[Ignorance]] is eradicated stage by stage and only the [[arahat]] has eradicated [[ignorance]] completely. | + | It is hard to know the characteristic of [[moha]]. The [[Buddha]] taught us to be [[mindful]] of the [[realities]] which appear, but we have many moments of dullness. We should learn to see the [[difference]] between [[awareness]] and [[forgetfulness]] of [[realities]]. When there is [[forgetfulness]] of [[realities]] the [[citta]] is [[akusala]]. Even when there is no [[attachment]] or [[aversion]], there can be [[akusala]] [[citta]]; there can be the type of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] which is accompanied by [[restlessness]] ([[uddhacca]])<ref>There are two types of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]]: one is accompanied by [[doubt]] (vicikicchā-sampayutta) and one is accompanied by [[restlessness]] ([[uddhacca]]-[[sampayutta]]).</ref>. This type is bound to arise very often in between the other types of [[akusala]] [[citta]], but we do not realize it. [[Ignorance]] is [[dangerous]] and extremely hard to eradicate. The [[sotāpanna]] sees [[realities]] as they are, he has no more wrong [[view]] about them, but he has not eradicated [[ignorance]]. [[Ignorance]] is eradicated stage by stage and only the [[arahat]] has eradicated [[ignorance]] completely. |
===[[Shamelessness]] and [[Recklessness]]=== | ===[[Shamelessness]] and [[Recklessness]]=== | ||
Line 48: | Line 48: | ||
[[Ahirika]], [[shamelessness]] or [[consciencelessness]], and [[anottappa]], [[recklessness]] or disregard of blame, are two other [[akusala]] [[cetasikas]] which arise with each [[akusala]] [[citta]]. In the [[Visuddhimagga]] (XIV, 160) [[ahirika]] is translated as [[consciencelessness]] and [[anottappa]] as [[shamelessness]]. They are defined as follows: | [[Ahirika]], [[shamelessness]] or [[consciencelessness]], and [[anottappa]], [[recklessness]] or disregard of blame, are two other [[akusala]] [[cetasikas]] which arise with each [[akusala]] [[citta]]. In the [[Visuddhimagga]] (XIV, 160) [[ahirika]] is translated as [[consciencelessness]] and [[anottappa]] as [[shamelessness]]. They are defined as follows: | ||
− | Herein, it has no [[conscientious]] scruples, thus it is [[consciencelessness]]. It is unashamed, thus it is [[shamelessness]] ([[anottappa]]). Of these, [[ahirika]] has the characteristic of absence of disgust at [[bodily]] misconduct, etc., or it has the characteristic of immodesty. [[Anottappa]] has the characteristic of absence of dread on their account, or it has the characteristic of absence of [[anxiety]] about them... | + | Herein, it has no [[conscientious]] scruples, thus it is [[consciencelessness]]. It is [[unashamed]], thus it is [[shamelessness]] ([[anottappa]]). Of these, [[ahirika]] has the characteristic of absence of disgust at [[bodily]] misconduct, etc., or it has the characteristic of immodesty. [[Anottappa]] has the characteristic of absence of dread on their account, or it has the characteristic of absence of [[anxiety]] about them... |
− | The [[Atthasālinī]] (II, Part IX, Chapter I, 248) gives a similar definition. The [[Visuddhimagga]] and the [[Atthasālinī]] do not give the function, manifestation and proximate [[cause]] of [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]]. The [[Paramattha Mañjūsā]] (Mahā-Tīka), a commentary to the [[Visuddhimagga]], deals with these aspects<ref>I have used the [[Thai]] translation, given by Ms. Sujin Boriharnwanaket, in her [[Abhidhamma]] lectures at the Saket Temple in {{Wiki|Bangkok}}.</ref>. | + | The [[Atthasālinī]] (II, Part IX, Chapter I, 248) gives a similar definition. The [[Visuddhimagga]] and the [[Atthasālinī]] do not give the function, [[manifestation]] and proximate [[cause]] of [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]]. The [[Paramattha Mañjūsā]] (Mahā-Tīka), a commentary to the [[Visuddhimagga]], deals with these aspects<ref>I have used the [[Thai]] translation, given by Ms. Sujin Boriharnwanaket, in her [[Abhidhamma]] lectures at the Saket [[Temple]] in {{Wiki|Bangkok}}.</ref>. |
− | According to the [[Paramattha Mañjūsā]], the function of [[shamelessness]] is doing [[evil]] without being ashamed of it, and the function of [[recklessness]] is doing [[evil]] without dreading it. Their manifestation is not to shrink or draw back from [[evil]]. | + | According to the [[Paramattha Mañjūsā]], the function of [[shamelessness]] is doing [[evil]] without [[being]] ashamed of it, and the function of [[recklessness]] is doing [[evil]] without dreading it. Their [[manifestation]] is not to shrink or draw back from [[evil]]. |
[[File:Ses.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Ses.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | The two [[cetasikas]] [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]] seem to be very close in meaning, but they have different characteristics. [[Shamelessness]] does not shrink from [[evil]] because it is not ashamed of it and does not abhor it. The “[[Paramattha Mañjūsā]]” compares it to a domestic pig which does not abhor filth. [[Defilements]] are like filth, they are unclean, impure. [[Shamelessness]] does not abhor [[defilements]], be it [[attachment]], aversion, [[ignorance]], [[avarice]], [[jealousy]], conceit or any other kind of unwholesomeness. | + | The two [[cetasikas]] [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]] seem to be very close in meaning, but they have different characteristics. [[Shamelessness]] does not shrink from [[evil]] because it is not ashamed of it and does not abhor it. The “[[Paramattha Mañjūsā]]” compares it to a domestic pig which does not abhor filth. [[Defilements]] are like filth, they are unclean, [[impure]]. [[Shamelessness]] does not abhor [[defilements]], be it [[attachment]], [[aversion]], [[ignorance]], [[avarice]], [[jealousy]], [[conceit]] or any other kind of [[unwholesomeness]]. |
− | As to [[recklessness]], it does not abhor, draw back from [[evil]] because it does not see the danger of [[akusala]] and it does not {{Wiki|fear}} its consequences such as an unhappy [[rebirth]]. The “[[Paramattha Mañjūsā]]” compares [[recklessness]] to a moth which is attracted to the [[fire]], although this is dangerous for it. Are we enslaved by pleasant experiences? We may even commit [[evil]] through [[body]], [[speech]] or [[mind]] on account of them. Then [[recklessness]] does not {{Wiki|fear}} the danger of [[akusala]], it does not care about the consequences of [[akusala]]. | + | As to [[recklessness]], it does not abhor, draw back from [[evil]] because it does not see the [[danger]] of [[akusala]] and it does not {{Wiki|fear}} its consequences such as an [[unhappy]] [[rebirth]]. The “[[Paramattha Mañjūsā]]” compares [[recklessness]] to a moth which is attracted to the [[fire]], although this is [[dangerous]] for it. Are we enslaved by [[pleasant]] [[experiences]]? We may even commit [[evil]] through [[body]], [[speech]] or [[mind]] on account of them. Then [[recklessness]] does not {{Wiki|fear}} the [[danger]] of [[akusala]], it does not care about the consequences of [[akusala]]. |
[[File:Ignorance.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Ignorance.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | The proximate [[cause]] of [[shamelessness]] is lack of [[respect]] for oneself and the proximate [[cause]] of [[recklessness]] is lack of [[respect]] for someone else. In order to have more understanding of this, we should first study their opposites: [[moral]] [[shame]], [[hiri]], and [[moral]] {{Wiki|fear}} of blame, [[ottappa]]. [[Shame]] has a subjective origin, it is influenced by oneself; its proximate [[cause]] is [[self-respect]]. Fear of blame has an external [[cause]], it is influenced by the [[world]]; its proximate [[cause]] is [[respect]] for someone else. | + | The proximate [[cause]] of [[shamelessness]] is lack of [[respect]] for oneself and the proximate [[cause]] of [[recklessness]] is lack of [[respect]] for someone else. In [[order]] to have more understanding of this, we should first study their opposites: [[moral]] [[shame]], [[hiri]], and [[moral]] {{Wiki|fear}} of blame, [[ottappa]]. [[Shame]] has a subjective origin, it is influenced by oneself; its proximate [[cause]] is [[self-respect]]. {{Wiki|Fear}} of blame has an external [[cause]], it is influenced by the [[world]]; its proximate [[cause]] is [[respect]] for someone else. |
− | The [[Atthasālinī]] (I, Part IV, Chapter I, 125) states that [[shame]], which has a subjective origin, arises from [[consideration]] of one's birth, one's age, heroism (courage and strength) and wide experience. In the case of [[shamelessness]] there is lack of such considerations. For example, when we give in to [[anger]] or when we are jealous of someone else who receives praise or other pleasant things, there is no [[consideration]] of our education or upbringing in [[morality]]. At such moments we have no [[moral]] strength, we behave like a weakling or a fool, in a childish way. Thus, at the moment of [[akusala]] [[citta]] there is lack of [[respect]] for ourselves, we are forgetful of all we have learnt from the [[Buddha]]'s teachings. | + | The [[Atthasālinī]] (I, Part IV, Chapter I, 125) states that [[shame]], which has a subjective origin, arises from [[consideration]] of one's [[birth]], one's age, heroism ({{Wiki|courage}} and strength) and wide [[experience]]. In the case of [[shamelessness]] there is lack of such considerations. For example, when we give in to [[anger]] or when we are jealous of someone else who receives praise or other [[pleasant]] things, there is no [[consideration]] of our education or upbringing in [[morality]]. At such moments we have no [[moral]] strength, we behave like a weakling or a fool, in a childish way. Thus, at the moment of [[akusala]] [[citta]] there is lack of [[respect]] for ourselves, we are forgetful of all we have learnt from the [[Buddha]]'s teachings. |
[[File:Ies4peace3.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Ies4peace3.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | As regards the origin of [[recklessness]], [[anottappa]], we should study first what is said about the origin of its opposite, [[ottappa]] or {{Wiki|fear}} of blame. We refrain from [[evil]] owing to {{Wiki|fear}} of blame from without, from the | + | As regards the origin of [[recklessness]], [[anottappa]], we should study first what is said about the origin of its opposite, [[ottappa]] or {{Wiki|fear}} of blame. We refrain from [[evil]] owing to {{Wiki|fear}} of blame from without, from the “[[world]]”. Thus, {{Wiki|fear}} of blame has an external origin. In the case of [[recklessness]], [[anottappa]], there is lack of {{Wiki|fear}} of blame or punishment from the “[[world]]”. When someone, for example, steals, he may acquire a bad name, he may be punished for this [[crime]], but at the moment of [[akusala]] [[citta]] there is no [[consideration]] of such factors and there is lack of [[respect]] for others. |
− | When there are conditions for the arising of [[akusala]] [[citta]], [[shamelessness]] is not ashamed of [[akusala]] and [[recklessness]] does not {{Wiki|fear}} its consequences. We may think that we are ashamed of and abhor killing or [[stealing]] and that we will never do such things. However, when the situation becomes difficult good intentions are forgotten and then we have no [[shame]] or {{Wiki|fear}} of doing [[evil]] deeds. For example, generally we may not lie, but out of [[consideration]] for our relatives or friends we may not be ashamed of lying. | + | When there are [[conditions]] for the arising of [[akusala]] [[citta]], [[shamelessness]] is not ashamed of [[akusala]] and [[recklessness]] does not {{Wiki|fear}} its consequences. We may think that we are ashamed of and abhor killing or [[stealing]] and that we will never do such things. However, when the situation becomes difficult good intentions are forgotten and then we have no [[shame]] or {{Wiki|fear}} of doing [[evil]] [[deeds]]. For example, generally we may not lie, but out of [[consideration]] for our relatives or friends we may not be ashamed of lying. |
− | [[Akusala]] [[citta]]s arise time and again and these are always accompanied by [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]]. Also when the [[akusala]] [[citta]] does not have the intensity to motivate [[evil]] deeds, for example, when we are [[thinking]] with [[ignorance]] and forgetfulness of realities, there are [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]] performing their functions. It may seem that forgetfulness of realities is not so dangerous, since we do not harm other people by it. However, all kinds and degrees of [[akusala]] are dangerous. If [[right understanding]] is not developed [[defilements]] cannot be eradicated and we have to be subject to birth, old age, [[sickness]] and [[death]], again and again. After there have been many moments of forgetfulness, [[mindfulness]] may arise again and then we are ashamed of our [[ignorance]] and forgetfulness of realities, and we see its danger. | + | [[Akusala]] [[citta]]s arise [[time]] and again and these are always accompanied by [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]]. Also when the [[akusala]] [[citta]] does not have the intensity to motivate [[evil]] [[deeds]], for example, when we are [[thinking]] with [[ignorance]] and [[forgetfulness]] of [[realities]], there are [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]] performing their functions. It may seem that [[forgetfulness]] of [[realities]] is not so [[dangerous]], since we do not harm other [[people]] by it. However, all kinds and degrees of [[akusala]] are [[dangerous]]. If [[right understanding]] is not developed [[defilements]] cannot be eradicated and we have to be [[subject]] to [[birth]], [[old age]], [[sickness]] and [[death]], again and again. After there have been many moments of [[forgetfulness]], [[mindfulness]] may arise again and then we are ashamed of our [[ignorance]] and [[forgetfulness]] of [[realities]], and we see its [[danger]]. |
We read in As it was said ([[Itivuttaka]], The Twos, Chapter II, par3, [[Khuddaka Nikāya]]): | We read in As it was said ([[Itivuttaka]], The Twos, Chapter II, par3, [[Khuddaka Nikāya]]): | ||
[[File:Ien.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Ien.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | : This was said by the Exalted One... | + | : This was said by the [[Exalted One]]... |
− | : | + | : “[[Monks]], [[ignorance]] leads the way to the [[attainment]] of unprofitable things; [[shamelessness]] and disregard of blame follow after. But, [[monks]], [[knowledge]] leads the way to the [[attainment]] of profitable things, shrinking and {{Wiki|fear}} of blame follow after.” |
This is the meaning... | This is the meaning... | ||
Line 78: | Line 78: | ||
: What so be these ill-bourns in this [[world]] and the next, | : What so be these ill-bourns in this [[world]] and the next, | ||
− | : All rooted are in [[ignorance]], of [[lust]] compounded. | + | : All [[rooted]] are in [[ignorance]], of [[lust]] [[compounded]]. |
− | : And since the wicked man is void of [[shame]], and has | + | : And since the wicked man is [[void]] of [[shame]], and has |
: No reverence, therefore he works wickedness, | : No reverence, therefore he works wickedness, | ||
: And through that wickedness he to the Downfall goes. | : And through that wickedness he to the Downfall goes. | ||
Line 87: | Line 87: | ||
− | When we see that all [[akusala]] [[dhammas]] are ugly and impure, we do not neglect [[mindfulness]] of realities, such as hardness, seeing or [[sound]] which appear at this moment. This is the only way to develop the [[wisdom]] which can eradicate [[defilements]]. For the [[arahat]] there are no conditions for [[akusala]] and thus [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]] do not arise. | + | When we see that all [[akusala]] [[dhammas]] are ugly and [[impure]], we do not neglect [[mindfulness]] of [[realities]], such as hardness, [[seeing]] or [[sound]] which appear at this moment. This is the only way to develop the [[wisdom]] which can eradicate [[defilements]]. For the [[arahat]] there are no [[conditions]] for [[akusala]] and thus [[shamelessness]] and [[recklessness]] do not arise. |
===[[Restlessness]]=== | ===[[Restlessness]]=== | ||
Line 93: | Line 93: | ||
[[Uddhacca]], translated as [[restlessness]], [[agitation]], [[excitement]] or confusion, is another [[akusala]] [[cetasika]] which arises with each [[akusala]] [[citta]]. The [[Atthasālinī]] (II, Part IX, Chapter I, 250) gives the following definition of [[uddhacca]]: | [[Uddhacca]], translated as [[restlessness]], [[agitation]], [[excitement]] or confusion, is another [[akusala]] [[cetasika]] which arises with each [[akusala]] [[citta]]. The [[Atthasālinī]] (II, Part IX, Chapter I, 250) gives the following definition of [[uddhacca]]: | ||
− | : ...It has [[mental]] [[excitement]] as characteristic like wind-tossed water; wavering as function, like [[a flag]] waving in the wind; whirling as manifestation like scattered ashes struck by a stone; unsystematic [[thought]] owing to [[mental]] [[excitement]] as proximate [[cause]]; and it should be regarded as [[mental]] distraction over an object of [[excitement]]. | + | : ...It has [[mental]] [[excitement]] as characteristic like wind-tossed [[water]]; wavering as function, like [[a flag]] waving in the wind; whirling as [[manifestation]] like scattered ashes struck by a stone; unsystematic [[thought]] owing to [[mental]] [[excitement]] as proximate [[cause]]; and it should be regarded as [[mental]] {{Wiki|distraction}} over an [[object]] of [[excitement]]. |
− | The [[Visuddhimagga]] (XIV, 165) gives a similar definition<ref>See also Dhammasangaṇi par429.</ref>. The commentaries illustrate with similes that when there is [[uddhacca]], there is no steadiness, there is not the stable condition, the calm, of [[kusala]]. When there is [[uddhacca]] there is forgetfulness of [[kusala]], whereas when there is [[mindfulness]], [[sati]], there is watchfulness, non-forgetfulness of [[kusala]], be it [[generosity]], [[morality]], the development of calm or [[insight]]. [[Mindfulness]] is watchful so that the opportunity for [[kusala]] is not wasted. | + | The [[Visuddhimagga]] (XIV, 165) gives a similar definition<ref>See also [[Dhammasangaṇi]] par429.</ref>. The commentaries illustrate with similes that when there is [[uddhacca]], there is no steadiness, there is not the stable [[condition]], the [[calm]], of [[kusala]]. When there is [[uddhacca]] there is [[forgetfulness]] of [[kusala]], whereas when there is [[mindfulness]], [[sati]], there is watchfulness, non-forgetfulness of [[kusala]], be it [[generosity]], [[morality]], the development of [[calm]] or [[insight]]. [[Mindfulness]] is watchful so that the opportunity for [[kusala]] is not wasted. |
− | [[Uddhacca]] is not the same as what we mean by | + | [[Uddhacca]] is not the same as what we mean by “[[restlessness]]” or “[[agitation]]”, used in conventional [[language]]. When we use the word [[restlessness]] we usually think of [[aversion]] and [[unpleasant]] [[feeling]]. However, [[uddhacca]] arises with each [[akusala]] [[citta]], not only with [[citta]] [[rooted]] in [[aversion]], [[dosa]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]], but also with [[citta]] [[rooted]] in [[attachment]], [[lobha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]], and [[citta]] [[rooted]] in [[ignorance]], [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]]. When there is [[uddhacca]] we are forgetful as to [[kusala]], we are unable to apply ourselves to any kind of [[kusala]]. Even when there is [[pleasant]] [[feeling]], for example, when we are attached to a quiet place, there is [[restlessness]], [[uddhacca]], which arises together with [[lobha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]]. We may think that we are [[calm]] at such a moment, but we have actually “[[mental]] [[excitement]]”. |
[[File:Goytami.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Goytami.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | It is difficult to know exactly when the [[citta]] is [[kusala]] and when it is [[akusala]]. We may take for calm what is actually [[akusala]]. If someone wants to develop [[samatha]], the calm which is wholesome, he has to know very precisely when the [[citta]] is [[kusala]] and when it is [[akusala]]. Thus, [[samatha]] cannot be developed without [[right understanding]]. Understanding knows when the [[citta]] is peaceful in the wholesome way and when the [[citta]] is clinging to quietness and thus [[akusala]]. | + | It is difficult to know exactly when the [[citta]] is [[kusala]] and when it is [[akusala]]. We may take for [[calm]] what is actually [[akusala]]. If someone wants to develop [[samatha]], the [[calm]] which is [[wholesome]], he has to know very precisely when the [[citta]] is [[kusala]] and when it is [[akusala]]. Thus, [[samatha]] cannot be developed without [[right understanding]]. Understanding [[knows]] when the [[citta]] is [[peaceful]] in the [[wholesome]] way and when the [[citta]] is [[clinging]] to quietness and thus [[akusala]]. |
− | As we have seen, [[uddhacca]] accompanies each [[akusala]] [[citta]], it accompanies [[lobha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]], [[dosa]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] and [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]]. There are two types of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]], one is associated with [[doubt]] and one is associated with [[restlessness]]. The fact that one type of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] is called “associated with | + | As we have seen, [[uddhacca]] accompanies each [[akusala]] [[citta]], it accompanies [[lobha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]], [[dosa]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] and [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]]. There are two types of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]], one is associated with [[doubt]] and one is associated with [[restlessness]]. The fact that one type of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] is called “associated with [[restlessness]]”, [[uddhacca]]-[[sampayutta]], does not mean that [[restlessness]] does not arise with the type of moha-mūla-citta which is associated with [[doubt]]. The second type of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] is called “associated with [[restlessness]]” in [[order]] to differentiate it from the first type of [[moha]]-[[mūla]]-[[citta]] which is associated with [[doubt]]. |
− | |||
− | |||
− | Only the [[arahat]] has eradicated [[restlessness]]. So long as there are still conditions for the arising of [[akusala]] [[citta]], it has to be accompanied by [[moha]], [[ignorance]], which is ignorant of realities, by [[ahirika]], [[shamelessness]], which does not abhor [[akusala]], by [[anottappa]], [[recklessness]], which does not {{Wiki|fear}} the consequences of [[akusala]], and by [[uddhacca]], [[restlessness]], which is restless as to [[kusala]]. No matter whether the [[akusala]] [[citta]] is coarse or more subtle, these four [[akusala]] [[cetasikas]] have to accompany the [[akusala]] [[citta]] and assist it in performing its function. | + | [[Restlessness]] arises very often, but we do not [[notice]] it. It is one of the “[[five hindrances]]”<ref>[[Defilements]] are classified into different groups and one of these are the “[[hindrances]]”, which are the following: [[sensuous desire]], [[ill-will]], [[sloth and torpor]], [[restlessness]] and [[regret]], and [[doubt]].</ref> and as such it is mentioned as a pair with [[regret]] ([[kukkucca]]). [[Restlessness]] prevents the [[citta]] from applying itself to [[kusala]], thus it is a [[hindrance]]. We often waste opportunities for [[kusala]]. [[Time]] and again we are [[thinking]] with [[akusala]] [[citta]], for example, we think with {{Wiki|worry}} of the tasks which lie ahead of us. However, even while we are [[thinking]] there is an opportunity for [[kusala]], namely the development of [[right understanding]]. There are [[realities]] all the [[time]] which have different characteristics, and these can be known when there is non-forgetfulness of them. Also [[thinking]] is a [[reality]] with its own characteristic and this can be known when it appears. When there is [[mindfulness]] there is no [[restlessness]]. |
+ | |||
+ | Only the [[arahat]] has eradicated [[restlessness]]. So long as there are still [[conditions]] for the arising of [[akusala]] [[citta]], it has to be accompanied by [[moha]], [[ignorance]], which is [[ignorant]] of [[realities]], by [[ahirika]], [[shamelessness]], which does not abhor [[akusala]], by [[anottappa]], [[recklessness]], which does not {{Wiki|fear}} the consequences of [[akusala]], and by [[uddhacca]], [[restlessness]], which is restless as to [[kusala]]. No matter whether the [[akusala]] [[citta]] is coarse or more subtle, these four [[akusala]] [[cetasikas]] have to accompany the [[akusala]] [[citta]] and assist it in performing its function. | ||
===Questions=== | ===Questions=== | ||
− | + | ||
− | # How many [[akusala]] cittas are accompanied by [[ignorance]]? | + | # How many [[akusala]] [[cittas]] are accompanied by [[ignorance]]? |
− | # Why is the manifestation of [[ignorance]] “causing | + | # Why is the [[manifestation]] of [[ignorance]] “causing {{Wiki|blindness}}”? |
− | # Of what is [[moha]] ignorant? | + | # Of what is [[moha]] [[ignorant]]? |
− | # Can [[ignorance]] experience an object? | + | # Can [[ignorance]] [[experience]] an [[object]]? |
# What is the [[difference]] between [[hiri]], [[shamelessness]] and | # What is the [[difference]] between [[hiri]], [[shamelessness]] and | ||
# [[anottappa]], [[recklessness]]? | # [[anottappa]], [[recklessness]]? | ||
# Why does one not see, at the moment of [[akusala]] [[citta]], that | # Why does one not see, at the moment of [[akusala]] [[citta]], that | ||
− | # [[akusala]] is impure and why does one not {{Wiki|fear}} its danger? | + | # [[akusala]] is [[impure]] and why does one not {{Wiki|fear}} its [[danger]]? |
# When we enjoy nature is there [[restlessness]]? | # When we enjoy nature is there [[restlessness]]? | ||
# Why is understanding a necessary factor not only for the | # Why is understanding a necessary factor not only for the | ||
# development of [[insight]] but also for the development of [[samatha]]? | # development of [[insight]] but also for the development of [[samatha]]? | ||
− | # Can [[restlessness]] experience an object? | + | # Can [[restlessness]] [[experience]] an [[object]]? |
{{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
{{R}} | {{R}} | ||
− | [http://www.zolag.co.uk/Cetasikas/html_node/Ignorance-Shamelessness-Recklessness-and-Restlessness.html] | + | [http://www.zolag.co.uk/Cetasikas/html_node/Ignorance-Shamelessness-Recklessness-and-Restlessness.html zolag.co.uk] |
[[Category:Buddhist psychology]] | [[Category:Buddhist psychology]] |
Latest revision as of 15:01, 16 September 2013
Moha
Moha, ignorance, is one of the four akusala cetasikas which are always present when there is akusala citta. We read in the Dhammasangaṇi (A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics, par390) about moha, here translated as dullness:
- What on that occasion is dullness?
- The lack of knowledge, of vision, which is there on that occasion; the lack of coordination, of judgement, of enlightenment[1], of penetration[2]; the inability to comprehend, to grasp thoroughly; the inability to compare, to consider, to demonstrate; the folly, the childishness, the lack of intelligence; the dullness that is vagueness, obfuscation, ignorance, the Flood (ogha) of ignorance, the Bond (yoga) of ignorance, the bias[3] of ignorance, the obsession of ignorance, the barrier of ignorance; the dullness that is the root of badness—this is the dullness that there then is.
Ignorance is firmly fixed, it always lies latent and it is hard to eradicate. The Atthasālinī (II, Part IX, Chapter I, 249) gives the following definition of moha:
- “Delusion” has the characteristic of blindness or opposition to knowledge; the essence of non-penetration, or the function of covering the intrinsic nature of the object; the manifestation of being opposed to right practice[4] or causing blindness; the proximate cause of unwise attention; and should be regarded as the root of all immoralities.
The Visuddhimagga (XIV, 163) gives a similar definition.
Moha is not the same as lack of worldly knowledge such as science or history, but it is ignorance of ultimate realities. There are many degrees of moha. Moha does not know the true nature of the object which is experienced and therefore its essence is, as stated by the Atthasālinī, non-penetration and its function “covering up” the intrinsic nature of the object. Moha does not know nāma and rūpa as impermanent, dukkha and non-self, anattā. Moha is the root of all that is unwholesome. Every akusala citta is rooted in moha; not only the two types of moha-mūla-citta, but also the types of lobha-mūla-citta and dosa-mūla-citta have moha as root.
Moha is a “folly”, it is “blindness”, because whenever there is moha, there is “unwise attention” to the object which is experienced. For example, when we eat delicious food, attachment is bound to arise and then there is also moha. We are at that moment enslaved to the object which is experienced and we do not know that there is unwise attention. Moha does not know akusala as akusala and kusala as kusala and it does not know the conditions for their arising. If one has not studied the Dhamma one does not know that whether akusala citta arises or not depends on the manner of attention to the object and not on the pleasant or unpleasant objects themselves. Thus, the citta is the source of kusala or akusala, not the objects which are experienced, not the outward circumstances. We desire pleasant objects and when the object is unpleasant we are disappointed and sad. If one has not studied the Dhamma there is ignorance of kamma and vipāka. When one suffers pain one does not realize that the unpleasant experience through the body sense is vipāka, that it is the result of a bad deed which has been committed.
If we study the Buddha's teachings we become less ignorant of realities, we begin to have more understanding of kamma and vipāka, of kusala and akusala, of ultimate realities. However, moha cannot be eradicated merely by thinking about realities. It can eventually be eradicated by the wisdom which knows the true nature of realities. Although we have learnt what is kusala and what is akusala, there are more often akusala cittas than kusala cittas. When we eat delicious food, how often is there wise attention to the object? We read in the Gradual Sayings (Book of the Threes, Chapter XIII, par121) that the Buddha spoke about two kinds of monks who receive alms food. We read about a certain monk who has eaten the alms food:
- Now it occurs to him: A good thing in sooth for me to be thus served by a house-father or a house-father's son! Then he thinks: I should indeed be glad to have this house-father or house-father's son serve me in like manner in the future. Thus he enjoys that almsgiving and is attracted by it, infatuated with it, attached to it. He sees not danger therein. He is blind to the escape therefrom. The result is that his train of thought is sensual, malevolent and harmful to others. Now, monks, I declare that what is given to such a monk has no great fruit. Why so? Because the monk lives amiss.
We then read about a certain monk who is not attached to his alms-food. What is given to him is of great fruit because he is vigilant. If there is mindfulness of the reality which appears, also while eating, right understanding can be developed.
Moha is the root of all that is unprofitable, of akusala which is coarse and of akusala which is more subtle. When one commits akusala kamma through body, speech or mind there is moha. There is ignorance of the danger of akusala kamma which is capable of producing an unpleasant result, even in the form of an unhappy rebirth. As we have seen, moha accompanies each akusala citta. When there are akusala cittas with avarice, jealousy or conceit, there is also moha. When one takes realities for self there is wrong view, diṭṭhi, and at that moment there is also moha. Moha conditions diṭṭhi but they are different realities. Moha is ignorant of the true nature of realities and diṭṭhi has wrong view about them.
There is much ignorance about the processes of cittas which experience objects through the six doors. Do we realize whether there is at this moment seeing, hearing or thinking, or does it seem that these experiences occur all at the same time? In reality only one object can be experienced at a time through the appropriate doorway. When there is hearing only sound is experienced through the ears and when we think of the meaning of the words which are spoken there is not hearing but thinking of concepts. Thinking arises in another process of cittas, it arises in a mind-door process and this is different from the ear-door process. Does it seem that hearing can stay for a while? In reality this is not so, it falls away immediately. But when right understanding has not been developed the arising and falling away of cittas cannot be realized.
Moha is ignorant of the true nature of realities, it does not know nāma and rūpa as they are. Moha is lack of knowledge about the four noble Truths: about dukkha, the origination of dukkha, the ceasing of dukkha and the way leading to the ceasing of dukkha[5]. So long as ignorance has not been eradicated we have to continue to be in the cycle of birth and death, we have to be born again and again. The Pāli term avijjā is used for ignorance in connection with the “Dependent Origination”, the conditional arising of phenomena in the cycle of birth and death. Avijjā is the first link in the chain of conditions for the continuation of this cycle. At the attainment of arahatship ignorance is eradicated and then there are no more conditions for rebirth.
We read in the Kindred Sayings (III, Khandha-vagga, Kindred Sayings on Elements, III, Last Fifty, Chapter 3, par129, Satisfaction) that in the Deer park at Isipatana Mahā-Koṭṭhita said to Sāriputta:
- “'Ignorance! Ignorance!' is the saying, friend Sāriputta. Pray, friend, what is ignorance, and how far is one ignorant?”
- “Herein, friend, the untaught many folk know not as it really is the satisfaction in, the misery of, the escape from body. So with feeling, perception, the activities...they know not the satisfaction in, the misery of, the escape from consciousness.
In the next sutta (par130) it is said that wisdom is knowing as it really is the satisfaction in, the misery of and the escape from the five khandhas.
If there is no development of right understanding one does not see that conditioned realities which arise and then have to fall away again are dukkha, and thus there cannot be escape from dukkha.
It is hard to know the characteristic of moha. The Buddha taught us to be mindful of the realities which appear, but we have many moments of dullness. We should learn to see the difference between awareness and forgetfulness of realities. When there is forgetfulness of realities the citta is akusala. Even when there is no attachment or aversion, there can be akusala citta; there can be the type of moha-mūla-citta which is accompanied by restlessness (uddhacca)[6]. This type is bound to arise very often in between the other types of akusala citta, but we do not realize it. Ignorance is dangerous and extremely hard to eradicate. The sotāpanna sees realities as they are, he has no more wrong view about them, but he has not eradicated ignorance. Ignorance is eradicated stage by stage and only the arahat has eradicated ignorance completely.
Shamelessness and Recklessness
Ahirika, shamelessness or consciencelessness, and anottappa, recklessness or disregard of blame, are two other akusala cetasikas which arise with each akusala citta. In the Visuddhimagga (XIV, 160) ahirika is translated as consciencelessness and anottappa as shamelessness. They are defined as follows:
Herein, it has no conscientious scruples, thus it is consciencelessness. It is unashamed, thus it is shamelessness (anottappa). Of these, ahirika has the characteristic of absence of disgust at bodily misconduct, etc., or it has the characteristic of immodesty. Anottappa has the characteristic of absence of dread on their account, or it has the characteristic of absence of anxiety about them...
The Atthasālinī (II, Part IX, Chapter I, 248) gives a similar definition. The Visuddhimagga and the Atthasālinī do not give the function, manifestation and proximate cause of shamelessness and recklessness. The Paramattha Mañjūsā (Mahā-Tīka), a commentary to the Visuddhimagga, deals with these aspects[7].
According to the Paramattha Mañjūsā, the function of shamelessness is doing evil without being ashamed of it, and the function of recklessness is doing evil without dreading it. Their manifestation is not to shrink or draw back from evil.
The two cetasikas shamelessness and recklessness seem to be very close in meaning, but they have different characteristics. Shamelessness does not shrink from evil because it is not ashamed of it and does not abhor it. The “Paramattha Mañjūsā” compares it to a domestic pig which does not abhor filth. Defilements are like filth, they are unclean, impure. Shamelessness does not abhor defilements, be it attachment, aversion, ignorance, avarice, jealousy, conceit or any other kind of unwholesomeness.
As to recklessness, it does not abhor, draw back from evil because it does not see the danger of akusala and it does not fear its consequences such as an unhappy rebirth. The “Paramattha Mañjūsā” compares recklessness to a moth which is attracted to the fire, although this is dangerous for it. Are we enslaved by pleasant experiences? We may even commit evil through body, speech or mind on account of them. Then recklessness does not fear the danger of akusala, it does not care about the consequences of akusala.
The proximate cause of shamelessness is lack of respect for oneself and the proximate cause of recklessness is lack of respect for someone else. In order to have more understanding of this, we should first study their opposites: moral shame, hiri, and moral fear of blame, ottappa. Shame has a subjective origin, it is influenced by oneself; its proximate cause is self-respect. Fear of blame has an external cause, it is influenced by the world; its proximate cause is respect for someone else.
The Atthasālinī (I, Part IV, Chapter I, 125) states that shame, which has a subjective origin, arises from consideration of one's birth, one's age, heroism (courage and strength) and wide experience. In the case of shamelessness there is lack of such considerations. For example, when we give in to anger or when we are jealous of someone else who receives praise or other pleasant things, there is no consideration of our education or upbringing in morality. At such moments we have no moral strength, we behave like a weakling or a fool, in a childish way. Thus, at the moment of akusala citta there is lack of respect for ourselves, we are forgetful of all we have learnt from the Buddha's teachings.
As regards the origin of recklessness, anottappa, we should study first what is said about the origin of its opposite, ottappa or fear of blame. We refrain from evil owing to fear of blame from without, from the “world”. Thus, fear of blame has an external origin. In the case of recklessness, anottappa, there is lack of fear of blame or punishment from the “world”. When someone, for example, steals, he may acquire a bad name, he may be punished for this crime, but at the moment of akusala citta there is no consideration of such factors and there is lack of respect for others.
When there are conditions for the arising of akusala citta, shamelessness is not ashamed of akusala and recklessness does not fear its consequences. We may think that we are ashamed of and abhor killing or stealing and that we will never do such things. However, when the situation becomes difficult good intentions are forgotten and then we have no shame or fear of doing evil deeds. For example, generally we may not lie, but out of consideration for our relatives or friends we may not be ashamed of lying.
Akusala cittas arise time and again and these are always accompanied by shamelessness and recklessness. Also when the akusala citta does not have the intensity to motivate evil deeds, for example, when we are thinking with ignorance and forgetfulness of realities, there are shamelessness and recklessness performing their functions. It may seem that forgetfulness of realities is not so dangerous, since we do not harm other people by it. However, all kinds and degrees of akusala are dangerous. If right understanding is not developed defilements cannot be eradicated and we have to be subject to birth, old age, sickness and death, again and again. After there have been many moments of forgetfulness, mindfulness may arise again and then we are ashamed of our ignorance and forgetfulness of realities, and we see its danger.
We read in As it was said (Itivuttaka, The Twos, Chapter II, par3, Khuddaka Nikāya):
- This was said by the Exalted One...
- “Monks, ignorance leads the way to the attainment of unprofitable things; shamelessness and disregard of blame follow after. But, monks, knowledge leads the way to the attainment of profitable things, shrinking and fear of blame follow after.”
This is the meaning...
- What so be these ill-bourns in this world and the next,
- All rooted are in ignorance, of lust compounded.
- And since the wicked man is void of shame, and has
- No reverence, therefore he works wickedness,
- And through that wickedness he to the Downfall goes.
- Wherefore forsaking longing, lust and ignorance
- And causing knowledge to arise in him, a monk
- Should give up, leave behind, the ill-bourns one and all...
When we see that all akusala dhammas are ugly and impure, we do not neglect mindfulness of realities, such as hardness, seeing or sound which appear at this moment. This is the only way to develop the wisdom which can eradicate defilements. For the arahat there are no conditions for akusala and thus shamelessness and recklessness do not arise.
Restlessness
Uddhacca, translated as restlessness, agitation, excitement or confusion, is another akusala cetasika which arises with each akusala citta. The Atthasālinī (II, Part IX, Chapter I, 250) gives the following definition of uddhacca:
- ...It has mental excitement as characteristic like wind-tossed water; wavering as function, like a flag waving in the wind; whirling as manifestation like scattered ashes struck by a stone; unsystematic thought owing to mental excitement as proximate cause; and it should be regarded as mental distraction over an object of excitement.
The Visuddhimagga (XIV, 165) gives a similar definition[8]. The commentaries illustrate with similes that when there is uddhacca, there is no steadiness, there is not the stable condition, the calm, of kusala. When there is uddhacca there is forgetfulness of kusala, whereas when there is mindfulness, sati, there is watchfulness, non-forgetfulness of kusala, be it generosity, morality, the development of calm or insight. Mindfulness is watchful so that the opportunity for kusala is not wasted.
Uddhacca is not the same as what we mean by “restlessness” or “agitation”, used in conventional language. When we use the word restlessness we usually think of aversion and unpleasant feeling. However, uddhacca arises with each akusala citta, not only with citta rooted in aversion, dosa-mūla-citta, but also with citta rooted in attachment, lobha-mūla-citta, and citta rooted in ignorance, moha-mūla-citta. When there is uddhacca we are forgetful as to kusala, we are unable to apply ourselves to any kind of kusala. Even when there is pleasant feeling, for example, when we are attached to a quiet place, there is restlessness, uddhacca, which arises together with lobha-mūla-citta. We may think that we are calm at such a moment, but we have actually “mental excitement”.
It is difficult to know exactly when the citta is kusala and when it is akusala. We may take for calm what is actually akusala. If someone wants to develop samatha, the calm which is wholesome, he has to know very precisely when the citta is kusala and when it is akusala. Thus, samatha cannot be developed without right understanding. Understanding knows when the citta is peaceful in the wholesome way and when the citta is clinging to quietness and thus akusala.
As we have seen, uddhacca accompanies each akusala citta, it accompanies lobha-mūla-citta, dosa-mūla-citta and moha-mūla-citta. There are two types of moha-mūla-citta, one is associated with doubt and one is associated with restlessness. The fact that one type of moha-mūla-citta is called “associated with restlessness”, uddhacca-sampayutta, does not mean that restlessness does not arise with the type of moha-mūla-citta which is associated with doubt. The second type of moha-mūla-citta is called “associated with restlessness” in order to differentiate it from the first type of moha-mūla-citta which is associated with doubt.
Restlessness arises very often, but we do not notice it. It is one of the “five hindrances”[9] and as such it is mentioned as a pair with regret (kukkucca). Restlessness prevents the citta from applying itself to kusala, thus it is a hindrance. We often waste opportunities for kusala. Time and again we are thinking with akusala citta, for example, we think with worry of the tasks which lie ahead of us. However, even while we are thinking there is an opportunity for kusala, namely the development of right understanding. There are realities all the time which have different characteristics, and these can be known when there is non-forgetfulness of them. Also thinking is a reality with its own characteristic and this can be known when it appears. When there is mindfulness there is no restlessness.
Only the arahat has eradicated restlessness. So long as there are still conditions for the arising of akusala citta, it has to be accompanied by moha, ignorance, which is ignorant of realities, by ahirika, shamelessness, which does not abhor akusala, by anottappa, recklessness, which does not fear the consequences of akusala, and by uddhacca, restlessness, which is restless as to kusala. No matter whether the akusala citta is coarse or more subtle, these four akusala cetasikas have to accompany the akusala citta and assist it in performing its function.
Questions
- How many akusala cittas are accompanied by ignorance?
- Why is the manifestation of ignorance “causing blindness”?
- Of what is moha ignorant?
- Can ignorance experience an object?
- What is the difference between hiri, shamelessness and
- anottappa, recklessness?
- Why does one not see, at the moment of akusala citta, that
- akusala is impure and why does one not fear its danger?
- When we enjoy nature is there restlessness?
- Why is understanding a necessary factor not only for the
- development of insight but also for the development of samatha?
- Can restlessness experience an object?
Footnotes
- ↑ The Atthasālinī (II, 254), in its explanation of this passage of the Dhammasangaṇi, states about lack of enlightenment that it is: “not connecting them (things) with impermanence, dukkha and anattā”, and “perceiving in an unreal, distorted way”.
- ↑ No penetration of the four noble Truths.
- ↑ ignorance is a bias, it continually lies latent, in the sense of being firmly fixed.
- ↑ In Pāli: patipatti. The English text translates here as: right conduct.
- ↑ Dhammasangaṇi, par1061.
- ↑ There are two types of moha-mūla-citta: one is accompanied by doubt (vicikicchā-sampayutta) and one is accompanied by restlessness (uddhacca-sampayutta).
- ↑ I have used the Thai translation, given by Ms. Sujin Boriharnwanaket, in her Abhidhamma lectures at the Saket Temple in Bangkok.
- ↑ See also Dhammasangaṇi par429.
- ↑ Defilements are classified into different groups and one of these are the “hindrances”, which are the following: sensuous desire, ill-will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and regret, and doubt.