Difference between revisions of "Karma and Rebirth"
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[[File:Lord buddha (2).jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Lord buddha (2).jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
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− | The [[wheel of life]], or "[[samsara]]", is an ancient [[symbol]] that has the same meaning in [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]]. It is | + | The [[wheel of life]], or "[[samsara]]", is an {{Wiki|ancient}} [[symbol]] that has the same meaning in [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]]. It is symbolizes the [[cycle of birth, life, and death]]. When one {{Wiki|revolution}} of the [[wheel]] is completed, [[life]] begins again with [[rebirth]]. |
+ | The idea of reincarnation is first clearly stated in the [[Upaniṣads]], seeming to have developed as an extension of the idea, found in the Brāhmaṇas, that the power of a person’s sacrificial action might be insufficient to lead to an [[afterlife]] that did not end in another death. The [[Upaniṣads]], perhaps due to some non-Aryan influence, saw such a death as being followed by reincarnation as a human or animal. | ||
+ | |||
+ | NonAryan influence was probably more certain in developing the idea that it was the quality of a person’s [[karma]], or ‘[[action]]’, that determines the nature of their [[reincarnation]] in an insecure earthly form; previously, ‘[[karma]]’ had only referred to sacrificial action. Nevertheless, [[Brahmanism]] continued to see [[karma]] in largely [[ritual]] terms, and actions were judged relative to a person’s [[varṇa]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | While the [[Upaniṣads]] were starting to move away from the sacrificial ways of thinking which permeated early [[Brahmanism]], they were still affected by it. In [[Buddhism]] we see a decoupling of [[karma]] from its link to [[ritual]] by identifying it with the [[mental]] impulse behind an act; the [[ethica]]l quality of this was the key to an action’s being good or bad, not its conformity with [[ritual]] norms (Gombrich 1988: 65–9). Even in [[Buddhist ritual]], which is mild by comparison with [[brahmin]] [[ritual]], this still holds good. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
What is [[karma]]? | What is [[karma]]? | ||
− | [[Karma]] is a [[Sanskrit]] word that literally means "[[action]]". The word is used to refer to [[volitional]] acts as well as the [[fruits]] or consequences that arise from these acts. The [[idea]] of [[karma]] had existed in ancient [[Indian philosophy]] before the [[time]] of [[Siddhartha Gautama]], and it became an important [[element]] of [[Buddhist philosophy]]. | + | |
− | The [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] concepts of [[karma]] are quite similar, although [[Hinduism]] makes a further distinction between different types of [[karma]], such as present [[karma]], latent [[karma]], and future [[karma]]. In the understanding of both [[thought]] systems, the [[law of karma]] describes the connection between [[actions]] and the resulting forces, as follows: [[wholesome]] [[actions]] lead to [[wholesome]] states while [[unwholesome]] [[actions]] lead to [[unwholesome]] states, individually as well as collectively. | + | |
+ | [[Karma]] is a [[Sanskrit]] [[word]] that literally means "[[action]]". The [[word]] is used to refer to [[volitional]] acts as well as the [[fruits]] or {{Wiki|consequences}} that arise from these acts. The [[idea]] of [[karma]] had existed in {{Wiki|ancient}} [[Indian philosophy]] before the [[time]] of [[Siddhartha Gautama]], and it became an important [[element]] of [[Buddhist philosophy]]. | ||
+ | The [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] of [[karma]] are quite similar, although [[Hinduism]] makes a further {{Wiki|distinction}} between different types of [[karma]], such as {{Wiki|present}} [[karma]], latent [[karma]], and {{Wiki|future}} [[karma]]. In the [[understanding]] of both [[thought]] systems, the [[law of karma]] describes the connection between [[actions]] and the resulting forces, as follows: [[wholesome]] [[actions]] lead to [[wholesome]] states while [[unwholesome]] [[actions]] lead to [[unwholesome]] states, individually as well as collectively. | ||
The [[ethical]] [[dimension]]. | The [[ethical]] [[dimension]]. | ||
− | |||
− | |||
− | Good and bad vs. skilful and unskilful. | + | |
− | Wherever the three [[defilements]] - [[delusion]], [[greed]], and [[aversion]] - are present, they blur the [[view]] and increase the level of confusion in the {{Wiki|individual}} or group. Consequently, if the [[defilements]] are present, there is a low level of skill in distinguishing between good and bad [[actions]]. [[Thus]] it makes [[sense]] to say that we have skilful (good) and unskilful (bad) [[thoughts]], we speak skilful (good) and unskilful (bad) words, and we act either in a skilful (good) or in an unskilful (bad) way. | + | To make this more intelligible, one has to account for (un)wholesome [[actions]] and (un)wholesome states and their respective meaning in [[Buddhism]]. The former is outlined in the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. [[Action]] springs from [[volition]], which springs from {{Wiki|intention}}, which springs from [[thought]], and so forth. The quality of [[actions]] can be described in [[ethical]] terms, simply as either good or bad, or both [[good and bad]], or indifferent. |
− | The [[Buddhist]] [[Precepts]] and the [[Ten Perfections]] give concrete meaning to good and bad and explain skilful and unskilful [[volitional]] acts in detail. Since everything in [[Buddhism]] is interrelated, the [[Eightfold Path]] must be seen in connection with the [[Four Noble Truths]], the {{Wiki|concept}} of [[karma]], and the tenet of [[rebirth]]. | + | There are various grades of [[ethical]] qualities; and most [[people]] have an intuitive [[understanding]] that enables them to discern between [[good and bad]], although the discerning ability depends on the person's [[state]] of [[mental]] [[development]]. A [[wise]] [[person]] at a high level of [[mental]] [[development]] can clearly discern [[mental]] [[activities]] and [[actions]] in an [[ethical]] [[dimension]], while a deluded [[person]] has difficulties or is even unable to do so. |
+ | |||
+ | [[Good and bad]] vs. [[skilful]] and unskilful. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Wherever the three [[defilements]] - [[delusion]], [[greed]], and [[aversion]] - are {{Wiki|present}}, they blur the [[view]] and increase the level of {{Wiki|confusion}} in the {{Wiki|individual}} or group. Consequently, if the [[defilements]] are {{Wiki|present}}, there is a low level of skill in distinguishing between [[good and bad]] [[actions]]. [[Thus]] it makes [[sense]] to say that we have [[skilful]] (good) and unskilful (bad) [[thoughts]], we speak [[skilful]] (good) and unskilful (bad) words, and we act either in a [[skilful]] (good) or in an unskilful (bad) way. | ||
+ | The [[Buddhist]] [[Precepts]] and the [[Ten Perfections]] give concrete meaning to [[good and bad]] and explain [[skilful]] and unskilful [[volitional]] acts in detail. Since everything in [[Buddhism]] is {{Wiki|interrelated}}, the [[Eightfold Path]] must be seen in connection with the [[Four Noble Truths]], the {{Wiki|concept}} of [[karma]], and the [[tenet]] of [[rebirth]]. | ||
+ | |||
[[Moral]] quality of [[volitional]] acts determines [[karma]]. | [[Moral]] quality of [[volitional]] acts determines [[karma]]. | ||
− | The [[law of karma]] states that there is a connection between the [[moral]] quality, the level of skill in [[volitional]] [[actions]], and the resulting states. What we are is determined largely by what we [[thought]], said and did in the past, while what we are [[thinking]], saying, and doing now will [[form]] our future. The [[karma]] of past, present, and future events are connected by the [[law of cause and effect]]. | + | |
+ | |||
+ | The [[law of karma]] states that there is a connection between the [[moral]] quality, the level of skill in [[volitional]] [[actions]], and the resulting states. What we are is determined largely by what we [[thought]], said and did in the {{Wiki|past}}, while what we are [[thinking]], saying, and doing now will [[form]] our {{Wiki|future}}. The [[karma]] of {{Wiki|past}}, {{Wiki|present}}, and {{Wiki|future}} events are connected by the [[law of cause and effect]]. | ||
[[File:Mandal Japanese.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Mandal Japanese.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | For instance, if one generates bad [[karma]] by hurting or killing [[sentient beings]], one will have to endure the negative consequences of these [[deeds]] in this or another [[lifetime]]. Similarly, if one generates good [[karma]] by observing [[ | + | For instance, if one generates bad [[karma]] by hurting or {{Wiki|killing}} [[sentient beings]], one will have to endure the negative {{Wiki|consequences}} of these [[deeds]] in this or another [[lifetime]]. Similarly, if one generates good [[karma]] by observing the [[precepts]], positive {{Wiki|consequences}} will follow inevitably. |
− | [[Buddhists]] understand [[karma]] as a {{Wiki|natural law}}. There is no higher instance, no [[judgement]], no [[divine]] intervention, and no [[gods]] that steer man's [[destiny]], but only the [[law of karma]] itself, which works on a [[universal]] scale. [[Deeds]] yield consequences either in the next second, in the next hour, day, month, year, decade, or even in the next [[lifetime]], or in another distant [[lifetime]]. To illustrate this, consider the following example describing a sequence of [[volitional]] acts, which yield instant [[karmic]] results: | + | [[Buddhists]] understand [[karma]] as a {{Wiki|natural law}}. There is no higher instance, no [[judgement]], no [[divine]] intervention, and no [[gods]] that steer man's [[destiny]], but only the [[law of karma]] itself, which works on a [[universal]] scale. [[Deeds]] yield {{Wiki|consequences}} either in the next second, in the next hour, day, month, year, decade, or even in the next [[lifetime]], or in another distant [[lifetime]]. To illustrate this, consider the following example describing a sequence of [[volitional]] acts, which yield instant [[karmic]] results: |
− | Example: The arising of [[volition]] and [[karma]]. | + | Example: The [[arising]] of [[volition]] and [[karma]]. |
+ | |||
+ | An [[unpleasant]] [[sensation]] occurs. A [[thought]] arises that the source of the unpleasantness was a [[person]]. This [[thought]] is a [[delusion]]; any decisions based upon it will therefore be unskilful. A [[thought]] arises that some {{Wiki|past}} [[sensations]] of unpleasantness issued from this same [[person]]. This [[thought]] is a further [[delusion]]. This is followed by a wilful [[decision]] to speak words that will produce an [[unpleasant]] [[sensation]] in that which is [[perceived]] as a [[person]]. This [[decision]] is an act of [[hostility]]. | ||
+ | Of all the events described so far, only the last is called [[karma]]. Words are carefully chosen in the [[Wikipedia:Hope|hopes]] that when [[heard]] they will [[cause]] [[pain]]. The words are pronounced aloud. This is the execution of the [[decision]] to be {{Wiki|hostile}}. It may also be classed as a kind of [[karma]], although technically it is after-karma. | ||
+ | |||
+ | There is a [[visual]] [[sensation]] of a furrowed {{Wiki|brow}} and turned down {{Wiki|mouth}}. The [[thought]] arises that the other person's face is frowning. The [[thought]] arises that the other person's [[feelings]] were {{Wiki|hurt}}. There is a fleeting [[joyful]] [[feeling]] of [[success]] in [[knowing]] that one has scored a damaging [[verbal]] blow. | ||
+ | Eventually, perhaps much later, there is an [[unpleasant]] [[sensation]] of [[regret]], perhaps taking the [[form]] of a [[sensation]] of {{Wiki|fear}} that the [[perceived]] enemy may retaliate, or perhaps taking the [[form]] of {{Wiki|remorse}} on having acted impetuously, like an immature child, and hoping that no one will remember this childish [[action]]. This [[regret]] or {{Wiki|fear}} is the [[unpleasant]] ripening of the [[karma]], the unskilful [[decision]] to inflict [[pain]] through words. | ||
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− | |||
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[[Rebirth]]. | [[Rebirth]]. | ||
− | [[Buddhists]] hold that the retributive process of [[karma]] can span more than one [[lifetime]]. [[Rebirth]] has always been an important tenet in [[Buddhism]]; and it is often referred to as walking the [[wheel of life]] ([[samsara]]). It is the process of [[being]] born over and over again in different times and different situations, possibly for many thousand times. | + | |
− | As long as there is [[delusion]], [[greed]], and [[aversion]], and as long as [[passions]] are not [[extinguished]], we generate [[karma]]. Because we eventually accumulate unmaterialised [[karma]], there is a next [[lifetime]] in which the accumulated [[karma]] will take [[form]]. Only when all accumulated [[karma]] is realised and the generation of new [[karma]] is [[calmed]], one can enter the stream that leads to [[Nirvana]]. This process continues until [[Nirvana]] is reached, which signifies the [[cessation]] of [[rebirth]] and, hence, the end of [[suffering]]. | + | |
− | It is notable that this also entails the avoidance of "good [[karma]]". Once the stream that leads to [[Nirvana]] is entered, creating [[wholesome]] [[karma]] is not an [[object]] anymore. Although [[wholesome]] [[karma]] leads to entering the stream, it does not necessarily lead to [[Nirvana]], only the extinguishment of all [[karma]] leads to [[Nirvana]]. | + | [[Buddhists]] hold that the retributive process of [[karma]] can span more than one [[lifetime]]. [[Rebirth]] has always been an important [[tenet]] in [[Buddhism]]; and it is often referred to as walking the [[wheel of life]] ([[samsara]]). It is the process of [[being]] born over and over again in different times and different situations, possibly for many thousand times. |
+ | As long as there is [[delusion]], [[greed]], and [[aversion]], and as long as [[passions]] are not [[extinguished]], we generate [[karma]]. Because we eventually [[accumulate]] unmaterialised [[karma]], there is a next [[lifetime]] in which the [[accumulated]] [[karma]] will take [[form]]. Only when all [[accumulated]] [[karma]] is realised and the generation of new [[karma]] is [[calmed]], one can enter the {{Wiki|stream}} that leads to [[Nirvana]]. This process continues until [[Nirvana]] is reached, which {{Wiki|signifies}} the [[cessation]] of [[rebirth]] and, hence, the end of [[suffering]]. | ||
+ | It is notable that this also entails the avoidance of "good [[karma]]". Once the {{Wiki|stream}} that leads to [[Nirvana]] is entered, creating [[wholesome]] [[karma]] is not an [[object]] anymore. Although [[wholesome]] [[karma]] leads to entering the {{Wiki|stream}}, it does not necessarily lead to [[Nirvana]], only the extinguishment of all [[karma]] leads to [[Nirvana]]. | ||
[[File:Maitreya teaching.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Maitreya teaching.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
+ | |||
The [[Non-Self]]. | The [[Non-Self]]. | ||
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− | The [[idea]] of an abiding [[self]] is deceptive, because it is derived from unenlightened {{Wiki|reasoning}}. The word [[self]] simply provides a reference frame for the mind-body [[phenomena]] of [[sentient beings]]. We usually identify it with our [[body]] and the stream of [[consciousness]] that is sustained by [[sense]] [[perceptions]] and [[thoughts]]. In [[reality]], what we call [[self]] is neither abiding nor [[detached]] from the rest of the [[world]] and other [[beings]]. [[Buddhists]] call this the "neither [[self]] nor [[non-self]]". | + | |
+ | The {{Wiki|concept}} of [[rebirth]] is unfamiliar to most {{Wiki|Western}} [[people]]. Its [[philosophical]] and [[traditional]] foundation is found in [[India]], where the {{Wiki|theory}} of [[transmigration]] of [[souls]] had presumably existed long before it was written down in the {{Wiki|Upanishads}} around 300 BC. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|concept}} is subtly different from the classical [[Indian]] [[understanding]], because it denies the [[existence]] of a [[self]] or a [[soul]]. In [[Buddhism]], the [[idea]] of [[self]] is merely an [[illusion]]. Man wrongly identifies [[perception]], [[consciousness]], [[mind]] and [[body]] with what he calls [[self]]. In [[reality]], there is no abiding [[entity]] that could be identified with a [[self]], because the states of [[perception]], [[consciousness]], and [[mind]] and [[body]] constantly change. | ||
+ | The [[body]] is {{Wiki|mortal}} and when it [[dies]], all [[mental]] [[activities]] cease. That is why there is no [[soul]]. The [[idea]] of [[soul]] is simply an extension of the [[self]]; in fact it is an [[immortal]] version of the [[self]] that supposedly survives [[physical]] [[death]]. [[Buddhism]] denies the [[existence]] of such an [[entity]]. Instead, what we call [[self]] is just a {{Wiki|stream}} of [[consciousness]] that draws [[Wikipedia:Identity (social science)|identity]] from [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] and {{Wiki|memories}}, all of which are [[impermanent]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[idea]] of an abiding [[self]] is deceptive, because it is derived from unenlightened {{Wiki|reasoning}}. The [[word]] [[self]] simply provides a reference frame for the mind-body [[phenomena]] of [[sentient beings]]. We usually identify it with our [[body]] and the {{Wiki|stream}} of [[consciousness]] that is sustained by [[sense]] [[perceptions]] and [[thoughts]]. In [[reality]], what we call [[self]] is neither abiding nor [[detached]] from the rest of the [[world]] and other [[beings]]. [[Buddhists]] call this the "neither [[self]] nor [[non-self]]". | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
What is [[reborn]] if not the "[[self]]"? | What is [[reborn]] if not the "[[self]]"? | ||
− | |||
− | + | If the [[idea]] of [[non-self]] {{Wiki|sounds}} odd, then it must [[sound]] even more curious that [[non-self]] can be [[reborn]]. There is a seeming {{Wiki|contradiction}} between the [[canon]] of [[rebirth]] and that of the [[non-self]], which even many [[Buddhists]] find difficult to understand. The {{Wiki|contradiction}} is, however, only on the surface and can be solved if one pictures the [[self]] as the result of [[karmic]] formation. This can be put into less abstract words: | |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | If we [[imagine]] the [[world]] as an ocean, we are like the ripples on the ocean. [[Formations]] like ripples and waves occur, because of [[wind]], tides, and other kinetic forces. In the [[Buddhist]] analogy, the [[universe]] is in {{Wiki|motion}} due to [[karmic]] forces. A ripple, a wave, or a billow may seem as an {{Wiki|individual}} [[entity]] for a [[moment]], creating the [[illusion]] that it has a [[self]], but it is gone in the next [[moment]]. The [[truth]] is that all {{Wiki|individuals}} are one. A ripple is a temporary [[phenomenon]]; it is just [[water]] in {{Wiki|motion}}. We [[know]] that kinetic [[energy]] [[causes]] wave [[forms]] on a [[body]] of [[water]] and it would be ridiculous to say that a single ripple or wave has a [[self]]. | ||
+ | |||
− | Similarly, in case of [[beings]], the process of coming into [[life]] and [[being]] [[conditioned]] in a particular way is [[caused]] by [[karmic]] forces. The up and down of the ocean's waves corresponds with the rotation of the [[wheel of life]]. The sea that surges, falls, and resurges, is the [[life]] that is born, [[dies]], and is [[reborn]] again. It is therefore obvious that we should not focus on the temporary [[phenomenon]] of the wave, but on the force that [[causes]], forms, and drives it. [[Nothing]] else is said, although in more practical terms, in the [[Eightfold Path]]. | + | Similarly, in case of [[beings]], the process of coming into [[life]] and [[being]] [[conditioned]] in a particular way is [[caused]] by [[karmic]] forces. The up and down of the ocean's waves corresponds with the rotation of the [[wheel of life]]. The sea that surges, falls, and resurges, is the [[life]] that is born, [[dies]], and is [[reborn]] again. It is therefore obvious that we should not focus on the temporary [[phenomenon]] of the wave, but on the force that [[causes]], [[forms]], and drives it. [[Nothing]] else is said, although in more {{Wiki|practical}} terms, in the [[Eightfold Path]]. |
</poem> | </poem> | ||
{{R}} | {{R}} |
Latest revision as of 09:51, 3 September 2018
The wheel of life, or "samsara", is an ancient symbol that has the same meaning in Buddhism and Hinduism. It is symbolizes the cycle of birth, life, and death. When one revolution of the wheel is completed, life begins again with rebirth.
The idea of reincarnation is first clearly stated in the Upaniṣads, seeming to have developed as an extension of the idea, found in the Brāhmaṇas, that the power of a person’s sacrificial action might be insufficient to lead to an afterlife that did not end in another death. The Upaniṣads, perhaps due to some non-Aryan influence, saw such a death as being followed by reincarnation as a human or animal.
NonAryan influence was probably more certain in developing the idea that it was the quality of a person’s karma, or ‘action’, that determines the nature of their reincarnation in an insecure earthly form; previously, ‘karma’ had only referred to sacrificial action. Nevertheless, Brahmanism continued to see karma in largely ritual terms, and actions were judged relative to a person’s varṇa.
While the Upaniṣads were starting to move away from the sacrificial ways of thinking which permeated early Brahmanism, they were still affected by it. In Buddhism we see a decoupling of karma from its link to ritual by identifying it with the mental impulse behind an act; the ethical quality of this was the key to an action’s being good or bad, not its conformity with ritual norms (Gombrich 1988: 65–9). Even in Buddhist ritual, which is mild by comparison with brahmin ritual, this still holds good.
What is karma?
Karma is a Sanskrit word that literally means "action". The word is used to refer to volitional acts as well as the fruits or consequences that arise from these acts. The idea of karma had existed in ancient Indian philosophy before the time of Siddhartha Gautama, and it became an important element of Buddhist philosophy.
The Hindu and Buddhist concepts of karma are quite similar, although Hinduism makes a further distinction between different types of karma, such as present karma, latent karma, and future karma. In the understanding of both thought systems, the law of karma describes the connection between actions and the resulting forces, as follows: wholesome actions lead to wholesome states while unwholesome actions lead to unwholesome states, individually as well as collectively.
The ethical dimension.
To make this more intelligible, one has to account for (un)wholesome actions and (un)wholesome states and their respective meaning in Buddhism. The former is outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path. Action springs from volition, which springs from intention, which springs from thought, and so forth. The quality of actions can be described in ethical terms, simply as either good or bad, or both good and bad, or indifferent.
There are various grades of ethical qualities; and most people have an intuitive understanding that enables them to discern between good and bad, although the discerning ability depends on the person's state of mental development. A wise person at a high level of mental development can clearly discern mental activities and actions in an ethical dimension, while a deluded person has difficulties or is even unable to do so.
Good and bad vs. skilful and unskilful.
Wherever the three defilements - delusion, greed, and aversion - are present, they blur the view and increase the level of confusion in the individual or group. Consequently, if the defilements are present, there is a low level of skill in distinguishing between good and bad actions. Thus it makes sense to say that we have skilful (good) and unskilful (bad) thoughts, we speak skilful (good) and unskilful (bad) words, and we act either in a skilful (good) or in an unskilful (bad) way.
The Buddhist Precepts and the Ten Perfections give concrete meaning to good and bad and explain skilful and unskilful volitional acts in detail. Since everything in Buddhism is interrelated, the Eightfold Path must be seen in connection with the Four Noble Truths, the concept of karma, and the tenet of rebirth.
Moral quality of volitional acts determines karma.
The law of karma states that there is a connection between the moral quality, the level of skill in volitional actions, and the resulting states. What we are is determined largely by what we thought, said and did in the past, while what we are thinking, saying, and doing now will form our future. The karma of past, present, and future events are connected by the law of cause and effect.
For instance, if one generates bad karma by hurting or killing sentient beings, one will have to endure the negative consequences of these deeds in this or another lifetime. Similarly, if one generates good karma by observing the precepts, positive consequences will follow inevitably.
Buddhists understand karma as a natural law. There is no higher instance, no judgement, no divine intervention, and no gods that steer man's destiny, but only the law of karma itself, which works on a universal scale. Deeds yield consequences either in the next second, in the next hour, day, month, year, decade, or even in the next lifetime, or in another distant lifetime. To illustrate this, consider the following example describing a sequence of volitional acts, which yield instant karmic results:
Example: The arising of volition and karma.
An unpleasant sensation occurs. A thought arises that the source of the unpleasantness was a person. This thought is a delusion; any decisions based upon it will therefore be unskilful. A thought arises that some past sensations of unpleasantness issued from this same person. This thought is a further delusion. This is followed by a wilful decision to speak words that will produce an unpleasant sensation in that which is perceived as a person. This decision is an act of hostility.
Of all the events described so far, only the last is called karma. Words are carefully chosen in the hopes that when heard they will cause pain. The words are pronounced aloud. This is the execution of the decision to be hostile. It may also be classed as a kind of karma, although technically it is after-karma.
There is a visual sensation of a furrowed brow and turned down mouth. The thought arises that the other person's face is frowning. The thought arises that the other person's feelings were hurt. There is a fleeting joyful feeling of success in knowing that one has scored a damaging verbal blow.
Eventually, perhaps much later, there is an unpleasant sensation of regret, perhaps taking the form of a sensation of fear that the perceived enemy may retaliate, or perhaps taking the form of remorse on having acted impetuously, like an immature child, and hoping that no one will remember this childish action. This regret or fear is the unpleasant ripening of the karma, the unskilful decision to inflict pain through words.
Rebirth.
Buddhists hold that the retributive process of karma can span more than one lifetime. Rebirth has always been an important tenet in Buddhism; and it is often referred to as walking the wheel of life (samsara). It is the process of being born over and over again in different times and different situations, possibly for many thousand times.
As long as there is delusion, greed, and aversion, and as long as passions are not extinguished, we generate karma. Because we eventually accumulate unmaterialised karma, there is a next lifetime in which the accumulated karma will take form. Only when all accumulated karma is realised and the generation of new karma is calmed, one can enter the stream that leads to Nirvana. This process continues until Nirvana is reached, which signifies the cessation of rebirth and, hence, the end of suffering.
It is notable that this also entails the avoidance of "good karma". Once the stream that leads to Nirvana is entered, creating wholesome karma is not an object anymore. Although wholesome karma leads to entering the stream, it does not necessarily lead to Nirvana, only the extinguishment of all karma leads to Nirvana.
The Non-Self.
The concept of rebirth is unfamiliar to most Western people. Its philosophical and traditional foundation is found in India, where the theory of transmigration of souls had presumably existed long before it was written down in the Upanishads around 300 BC.
The Buddhist concept is subtly different from the classical Indian understanding, because it denies the existence of a self or a soul. In Buddhism, the idea of self is merely an illusion. Man wrongly identifies perception, consciousness, mind and body with what he calls self. In reality, there is no abiding entity that could be identified with a self, because the states of perception, consciousness, and mind and body constantly change.
The body is mortal and when it dies, all mental activities cease. That is why there is no soul. The idea of soul is simply an extension of the self; in fact it is an immortal version of the self that supposedly survives physical death. Buddhism denies the existence of such an entity. Instead, what we call self is just a stream of consciousness that draws identity from concepts and memories, all of which are impermanent.
The idea of an abiding self is deceptive, because it is derived from unenlightened reasoning. The word self simply provides a reference frame for the mind-body phenomena of sentient beings. We usually identify it with our body and the stream of consciousness that is sustained by sense perceptions and thoughts. In reality, what we call self is neither abiding nor detached from the rest of the world and other beings. Buddhists call this the "neither self nor non-self".
What is reborn if not the "self"?
If the idea of non-self sounds odd, then it must sound even more curious that non-self can be reborn. There is a seeming contradiction between the canon of rebirth and that of the non-self, which even many Buddhists find difficult to understand. The contradiction is, however, only on the surface and can be solved if one pictures the self as the result of karmic formation. This can be put into less abstract words:
If we imagine the world as an ocean, we are like the ripples on the ocean. Formations like ripples and waves occur, because of wind, tides, and other kinetic forces. In the Buddhist analogy, the universe is in motion due to karmic forces. A ripple, a wave, or a billow may seem as an individual entity for a moment, creating the illusion that it has a self, but it is gone in the next moment. The truth is that all individuals are one. A ripple is a temporary phenomenon; it is just water in motion. We know that kinetic energy causes wave forms on a body of water and it would be ridiculous to say that a single ripple or wave has a self.
Similarly, in case of beings, the process of coming into life and being conditioned in a particular way is caused by karmic forces. The up and down of the ocean's waves corresponds with the rotation of the wheel of life. The sea that surges, falls, and resurges, is the life that is born, dies, and is reborn again. It is therefore obvious that we should not focus on the temporary phenomenon of the wave, but on the force that causes, forms, and drives it. Nothing else is said, although in more practical terms, in the Eightfold Path.