Difference between revisions of "Mahayana"
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− | Mahāyāna (Sanskrit: महायान mahāyāna, literally the "Great Vehicle") is one of the two main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of [[Buddhist philosophy|Buddhist philosophies]] and practice. Mahāyāna Buddhism originated in India, and is associated with the oldest historical sect of Buddhism, the [[Mahāsāṃghika]]. | + | [[Mahāyāna]] ([[Sanskrit]]: {{SanskritBig|[[महायान]]}} [[mahāyāna]], literally the "[[Great Vehicle]]") is one of the two main [[existing]] branches of [[Buddhism]] and a term for {{Wiki|classification}} of [[Buddhist philosophy|Buddhist philosophies]] and practice. [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] originated in [[India]], and is associated with the oldest historical sect of [[Buddhism]], the [[Mahāsāṃghika]]. |
− | The Mahāyāna tradition is the larger of the two major traditions of Buddhism existing today, the other being that of the [[Theravāda]] school. According to the teachings of Mahāyāna traditions, "Mahāyāna" also refers to the path of seeking complete enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, also called "Bodhisattvayāna", or the "[[Bodhisattva]] Vehicle". | + | The [[Mahāyāna tradition]] is the larger of the two major [[traditions]] of [[Buddhism]] [[existing]] today, the other being that of the [[Theravāda]] school. According to the teachings of [[Mahāyāna]] [[traditions]], "[[Mahāyāna]]" also refers to the [[path]] of seeking [[complete enlightenment]] for the [[benefit]] of all [[sentient beings]], also called "[[Bodhisattvayāna]]", or the "[[Bodhisattva]] [[Vehicle]]". |
− | In the course of its history, Mahāyāna Buddhism spread from India to various other Asian countries such as China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Major traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhism today include [[Zen|Zen/Chán]], [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], [[Tiantai]], and [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]], as well as the [[Vajrayana|Esoteric Buddhist]] traditions of [[Shingon]], [[Tendai]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. | + | In the course of its history, [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] spread from [[India]] to various other {{Wiki|Asian}} countries such as [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Vietnam]], [[Korea]], {{Wiki|Singapore}}, {{Wiki|Taiwan}}, [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]], and [[Mongolia]]. Major [[traditions]] of [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] today include [[Zen|Zen/Chán]], [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], [[Tiantai]], and [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]], as well as the [[Vajrayana|Esoteric Buddhist]] [[traditions]] of [[Shingon]], [[Tendai]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. |
− | ==Etymology== | + | =={{Wiki|Etymology}}== |
− | According to Jan Nattier, the term ''Mahāyāna'' ("Great Vehicle") was originally an honorary synonym for ''Bodhisattvayāna'' ("[[Bodhisattva]] Vehicle") — the vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking [[buddhahood]] for the benefit of all sentient beings. The term ''Mahāyāna'' was therefore formed independently at an early date as a synonym for the path and the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for ''Bodhisattvayāna'', the creation of the term ''Mahāyāna'' and its application to Bodhisattvayāna did not represent a significant turning point in the development of a Mahāyāna tradition. | + | According to Jan Nattier, the term ''[[Mahāyāna]]'' ("[[Great Vehicle]]") was originally an {{Wiki|honorary}} {{Wiki|synonym}} for ''[[Bodhisattvayāna]]'' ("[[Bodhisattva]] [[Vehicle]]") — the [[vehicle]] of a [[bodhisattva]] seeking [[buddhahood]] for the [[benefit]] of all [[sentient beings]]. The term ''[[Mahāyāna]]'' was therefore formed independently at an early date as a {{Wiki|synonym}} for the [[path]] and the teachings of the [[bodhisattvas]]. Since it was simply an {{Wiki|honorary}} term for ''[[Bodhisattvayāna]]'', the creation of the term ''[[Mahāyāna]]'' and its application to [[Bodhisattvayāna]] did not represent a significant turning point in the development of a [[Mahāyāna tradition]]. |
− | The earliest Mahāyāna texts often use the term ''Mahāyāna'' as a synonym for ''Bodhisattvayāna'', but the term ''[[Hinayana|Hīnayāna]]'' is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between ''Mahāyāna'' and ''Hīnayāna'' can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in relation to one another in the same era. | + | The earliest [[Mahāyāna texts]] often use the term ''[[Mahāyāna]]'' as a {{Wiki|synonym}} for ''[[Bodhisattvayāna]]'', but the term ''[[Hinayana|Hīnayāna]]'' is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed {{Wiki|dichotomy}} between ''[[Mahāyāna]]'' and ''[[Hīnayāna]]'' can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in [[relation]] to one another in the same {{Wiki|era}}. |
− | Among the earliest and most important references to the term Mahāyāna are those that occur in the [[Lotus Sutra]] (Skt. Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra) dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. Seishi Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier Gandhāri Prakrit version of the Lotus Sūtra was not the term mahāyāna but the Prakrit word mahājāna in the sense of mahājñāna (great knowing). At a later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this mahājāna, being phonetically ambivalent, was mistakenly converted into mahāyāna, possibly due to what may have been a double meaning in the famous [[Upaya#Parable of the burning house|Parable of the Burning House]], which talks of three vehicles or carts (Skt: yāna). | + | Among the earliest and most important references to the term [[Mahāyāna]] are those that occur in the [[Lotus Sutra]] (Skt. [[Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra]]) dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. [[Seishi]] Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier Gandhāri [[Prakrit]] version of the [[Lotus Sūtra]] was not the term [[mahāyāna]] but the [[Prakrit]] [[word]] mahājāna in the [[sense]] of mahājñāna (great [[knowing]]). At a later stage when the early [[Prakrit]] [[word]] was converted into [[Sanskrit]], this mahājāna, being {{Wiki|phonetically}} ambivalent, was mistakenly converted into [[mahāyāna]], possibly due to what may have been a double meaning in the famous [[Upaya#Parable of the burning house|Parable of the Burning House]], which talks of [[three vehicles]] or carts (Skt: [[yāna]]). |
==History== | ==History== | ||
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[[File:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|right|upright|Early statue of the Buddha from Gandhāra, 1st–2nd century CE.]] | [[File:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|right|upright|Early statue of the Buddha from Gandhāra, 1st–2nd century CE.]] | ||
===Origins=== | ===Origins=== | ||
− | The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood. The earliest views of Mahāyāna Buddhism in the West assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called "Hīnayāna" schools. Due to the veneration of buddhas and [[bodhisattva]]s, Mahāyāna was often interpreted as a more devotional, lay-inspired form of [[Buddhism]], with supposed origins in [[stupa]] veneration, or by making parallels with the history of the European Protestant Reformation. These views have been largely dismissed in modern times in light of a much broader range of early texts that are now available. These earliest Mahāyāna texts often depict strict adherence to the path of a [[bodhisattva]], and engagement in the ascetic ideal of a monastic life in the wilderness, akin to the ideas expressed in the [[Rhinoceros Sutra|Rhinoceros Sūtra]]. The old views of Mahāyāna as a separate lay-inspired and devotional sect are now largely dismissed as misguided and wrong on all counts. | + | The origins of [[Mahāyāna]] are still not completely understood. The earliest [[views]] of [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] in the [[West]] assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called "[[Hīnayāna]]" schools. Due to the veneration of [[buddhas]] and [[bodhisattva]]s, [[Mahāyāna]] was often interpreted as a more devotional, lay-inspired [[form]] of [[Buddhism]], with supposed origins in [[stupa]] veneration, or by making parallels with the history of the {{Wiki|European}} {{Wiki|Protestant}} Reformation. These [[views]] have been largely dismissed in {{Wiki|modern}} times in [[light]] of a much broader range of early texts that are now available. These earliest [[Mahāyāna texts]] often depict strict adherence to the [[path]] of a [[bodhisattva]], and engagement in the [[ascetic]] {{Wiki|ideal}} of a [[monastic]] [[life]] in the wilderness, akin to the [[ideas]] expressed in the [[Rhinoceros Sutra|Rhinoceros Sūtra]]. The old [[views]] of [[Mahāyāna]] as a separate lay-inspired and devotional sect are now largely dismissed as misguided and wrong on all counts. |
− | The earliest textual evidence of "Mahāyāna" comes from sūtras originating around the beginning of the common era. Jan Nattier has noted that in some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts such as the Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and the early schools, and that "Mahāyāna" referred rather to the rigorous emulation of [[Gautama Buddha]] in the path of a [[bodhisattva]] seeking to become a fully enlightened buddha. | + | The earliest textual {{Wiki|evidence}} of "[[Mahāyāna]]" comes from [[sūtras]] originating around the beginning of the common {{Wiki|era}}. Jan Nattier has noted that in some of the earliest [[Mahāyāna texts]] such as the Ugraparipṛccha [[Sūtra]] use the term "[[Mahāyāna]]", yet there is no [[doctrinal]] difference between [[Mahāyāna]] in this context and the [[early schools]], and that "[[Mahāyāna]]" referred rather to the rigorous emulation of [[Gautama Buddha]] in the [[path]] of a [[bodhisattva]] seeking to become a fully [[enlightened]] [[buddha]]. |
− | There is also no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas. Paul Williams has also noted that the Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate [[Vinaya]] or ordination lineage from the [[early schools of Buddhism]], and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to an early school. This continues today with the [[Dharmaguptaka]] ordination lineage in East Asia, and the [[Mūlasarvāstivāda]] ordination lineage in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. Therefore Mahāyāna was never a separate rival sect of the early schools. | + | There is also no {{Wiki|evidence}} that [[Mahāyāna]] ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of [[Buddhism]], but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later [[doctrines]], for [[bodhisattvas]]. Paul Williams has also noted that the [[Mahāyāna]] never had nor ever attempted to have a separate [[Vinaya]] or [[ordination]] [[lineage]] from the [[early schools of Buddhism]], and therefore each [[bhikṣu]] or [[bhikṣuṇī]] adhering to the [[Mahāyāna]] formally belonged to an early school. This continues today with the [[Dharmaguptaka]] [[ordination]] [[lineage]] in {{Wiki|East Asia}}, and the [[Mūlasarvāstivāda]] [[ordination]] [[lineage]] in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. Therefore [[Mahāyāna]] was never a separate rival sect of the [[early schools]]. |
− | The Chinese monk [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]] who visited India in the 7th century CE, distinguishes Mahāyāna from [[Hīnayāna]] as follows: | + | The {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[monk]] [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]] who visited [[India]] in the 7th century CE, distinguishes [[Mahāyāna]] from [[Hīnayāna]] as follows: |
− | <blockquote>Both adopt one and the same [[Vinaya]], and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offences, and also the practice of the [[Four Noble Truths]]. Those who venerate the [[bodhisattva]]s and read the [[Mahayana sutras]] are called the Mahāyānists, while those who do not perform these are called the Hīnayānists.</blockquote> | + | <blockquote>Both adopt one and the same [[Vinaya]], and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offences, and also the practice of the [[Four Noble Truths]]. Those who venerate the [[bodhisattva]]s and read the [[Mahayana sutras]] are called the [[Mahāyānists]], while those who do not perform these are called the [[Hīnayānists]].</blockquote> |
− | Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts. These Mahāyāna teachings were first propagated into China by [[Lokaksema]], the first translator of [[Mahāyāna sutras]] into Chinese during the 2nd century CE | + | Much of the early extant {{Wiki|evidence}} for the origins of [[Mahāyāna]] comes from early {{Wiki|Chinese}} translations of [[Mahāyāna texts]]. These [[Mahāyāna]] teachings were first propagated into [[China]] by [[Lokaksema]], the first [[translator]] of [[Mahāyāna sutras]] into {{Wiki|Chinese}} during the 2nd century CE |
[[File:Prajnaparamita Java.jpg|thumb|upright|A statue of Prajñāpāramitā personified, from Singhasari, East Java, Indonesia.]] | [[File:Prajnaparamita Java.jpg|thumb|upright|A statue of Prajñāpāramitā personified, from Singhasari, East Java, Indonesia.]] | ||
− | ===Earliest Mahāyāna sūtras=== | + | ===Earliest [[Mahāyāna sūtras]]=== |
− | Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] series, along with texts concerning [[Akṣobhya Buddha]], which were probably written down in the 1st century BCE in the south of India. Some early [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] were translated by the Kuṣāṇa monk [[Lokakṣema]], who came to China from the kingdom of Gandhāra. His first translations to Chinese were made in the Chinese capital of Luoyang between 178 and 189 CE. Some [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] translated during the 2nd century CE include the following: | + | Some [[scholars]] have [[traditionally]] considered the earliest [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] to include the very first versions of the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] series, along with texts concerning [[Akṣobhya Buddha]], which were probably written down in the 1st century BCE in the [[south]] of [[India]]. Some early [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] were translated by the [[Wikipedia:Kushan Empire|Kuṣāṇa]] [[monk]] [[Lokakṣema]], who came to [[China]] from the {{Wiki|kingdom}} of [[Gandhāra]]. His first translations to {{Wiki|Chinese}} were made in the {{Wiki|Chinese}} capital of [[Luoyang]] between 178 and 189 CE. Some [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] translated during the 2nd century CE include the following: |
#[[Prajnaparamita|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]] | #[[Prajnaparamita|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]] | ||
#[[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra]] | #[[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra]] | ||
#[[Infinite Life Sutra|Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra]] | #[[Infinite Life Sutra|Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra]] | ||
− | #Akṣobhyatathāgatasyavyūha Sūtra | + | #[[Akṣobhyatathāgatasyavyūha Sūtra]] |
− | #Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra | + | #[[Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra]] |
− | #Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā Sūtra | + | #[[Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā Sūtra]] |
− | #Drumakinnararājaparipṛcchā Sūtra | + | #[[Drumakinnararājaparipṛcchā Sūtra]] |
#[[Shurangama Samadhi Sutra|Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra]] | #[[Shurangama Samadhi Sutra|Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra]] | ||
− | #Bhadrapāla Sūtra | + | #[[Bhadrapāla Sūtra]] |
− | #Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana Sūtra | + | #[[Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana Sūtra]] |
− | #Kāśyapaparivarta Sūtra | + | #[[Kāśyapaparivarta Sūtra]] |
− | #Lokānuvartana Sūtra | + | #[[Lokānuvartana Sūtra]] |
− | #An early sūtra connected to the [[Avatamsaka Sutra]] | + | #An early [[sūtra]] connected to the [[Avatamsaka Sutra]] |
− | Some of these were probably composed in the north of India in the 1st century CE. Thus scholars generally think that the earliest [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] were mainly composed in the south of India, and later the activity of writing additional scriptures was continued in the north. However, the assumption that the presence of an evolving body of Mahāyāna scriptures implies the contemporaneous existence of distinct religious movement called "Mahāyāna", may be a serious misstep. | + | Some of these were probably composed in the [[north]] of [[India]] in the 1st century CE. Thus [[scholars]] generally think that the earliest [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] were mainly composed in the [[south]] of [[India]], and later the [[activity]] of [[writing]] additional [[scriptures]] was continued in the [[north]]. However, the assumption that the presence of an evolving [[body]] of [[Mahāyāna]] [[scriptures]] implies the contemporaneous [[existence]] of {{Wiki|distinct}} [[religious]] {{Wiki|movement}} called "[[Mahāyāna]]", may be a serious misstep. |
− | [[File:BuddhistTriad.JPG|thumb|right|Mahāyāna Buddhist triad, including [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], the Buddha, and Bodhisattva [[Avalokitesvara|Avalokiteśvara]]. 2nd–3rd century CE, Gandhāra.]] | + | [[File:BuddhistTriad.JPG|thumb|right|Mahāyāna Buddhist triad, including [[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], the [[Buddha]], and [[Bodhisattva]] [[Avalokitesvara|Avalokiteśvara]]. 2nd–3rd century CE, [[Gandhāra]].]] |
===Earliest inscriptions=== | ===Earliest inscriptions=== | ||
− | The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of the Buddha [[Amitabha]] was found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura, and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the Brahmi inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of king Huvishka, ... for the Buddha [[Amitabha]]" (Mathura Museum). | + | The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably [[Mahāyāna]] formulation and a mention of the [[Buddha]] [[Amitabha]] was found in the [[Indian]] subcontinent in [[Mathura]], and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a [[Buddha]] bear the [[Brahmi]] inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of [[king]] Huvishka, ... for the [[Buddha]] [[Amitabha]]" ({{Wiki|Mathura Museum}}). |
− | However, this image was in itself extremely marginal and isolated in the overall context of Buddhism in India at the time, and had no lasting or long-term consequences. Evidence of the name "Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted from {{Wiki|Central Asia}} to China at that time. | + | However, this image was in itself extremely marginal and isolated in the overall context of [[Buddhism]] in [[India]] at the [[time]], and had no lasting or long-term consequences. {{Wiki|Evidence}} of the [[name]] "[[Mahāyāna]]" in [[Indian]] inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of [[Mahāyāna]] writings transmitted from {{Wiki|Central Asia}} to [[China]] at that [[time]]. |
− | These views of a discrepancy between translated texts and epigraphical evidence assume the presence of Mahāyāna as distinct from the "Hīnayāna" schools. This view has been largely disproved in more recent scholarship[citation needed], as Mahāyāna is now recognized as a tradition working within the context of the [[early Buddhist schools]] rather than as a separate movement. | + | These [[views]] of a discrepancy between translated texts and epigraphical {{Wiki|evidence}} assume the presence of [[Mahāyāna]] as {{Wiki|distinct}} from the "[[Hīnayāna]]" schools. This [[view]] has been largely disproved in more recent {{Wiki|scholarship}}[citation needed], as [[Mahāyāna]] is now [[recognized]] as a [[tradition]] working within the context of the [[early Buddhist schools]] rather than as a separate {{Wiki|movement}}. |
− | ===Early Mahāyāna Buddhism=== | + | ===Early [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]]=== |
− | During the period of early Mahāyāna Buddhism, four major types of thought developed: [[Madhyamaka|Mādhyamaka]], [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]], [[Tathagatagarbha|Buddha Nature]] (''Tathāgatagarbha''), and [[Buddhist Logic]] as the last and most recent. In India, the two main philosophical schools of the Mahāyāna were the Mādhyamaka and the later Yogācāra. | + | During the period of early [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]], four major types of [[thought]] developed: [[Madhyamaka|Mādhyamaka]], [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]], [[Tathagatagarbha|Buddha Nature]] (''[[Tathāgatagarbha]]''), and [[Buddhist Logic]] as the last and most recent. In [[India]], the two main [[philosophical]] schools of the [[Mahāyāna]] were the [[Mādhyamaka]] and the later [[Yogācāra]]. |
====Legacy==== | ====Legacy==== | ||
− | Earlier stage forms of Mahāyāna such as the doctrines of Prajñāpāramitā, Yogācāra, Buddha Nature, and the [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]] teachings are still popular in East Asia. In some cases these have spawned new developments, while in others they are treated in the more traditional syncretic manner. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to study of the sūtras. | + | Earlier stage [[forms]] of [[Mahāyāna]] such as the [[doctrines]] of [[Prajñāpāramitā]], [[Yogācāra]], [[Buddha Nature]], and the [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]] teachings are still popular in {{Wiki|East Asia}}. In some cases these have spawned new developments, while in others they are treated in the more [[traditional]] {{Wiki|syncretic}} [[manner]]. Paul Williams has noted that in this [[tradition]] in the {{Wiki|Far East}}, primacy has always been given to study of the [[sūtras]]. |
− | ===Late Mahāyāna Buddhism=== | + | ===Late [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]]=== |
− | Late stage forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India are found largely in the schools of [[Vajrayana|Esoteric Buddhism]]. These were replaced in India and {{Wiki|Central Asia}} after the early millennium by Islam (Sufism etc.) and Hinduism, and in south-east Asia by [[Theravāda]] Buddhism from Sri Lanka and Islam. They continue to exist in certain regions of the Himalayas. In contrast to the East Asian traditions, there has been a strong tendency in Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan traditions to approach the sūtras indirectly through the medium of exegetical treatises if at all. | + | Late stage [[forms]] of [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] in [[India]] are found largely in the schools of [[Vajrayana|Esoteric Buddhism]]. These were replaced in [[India]] and {{Wiki|Central Asia}} after the early millennium by {{Wiki|Islam}} ({{Wiki|Sufism}} etc.) and [[Hinduism]], and in south-east {{Wiki|Asia}} by [[Theravāda]] [[Buddhism]] from [[Sri Lanka]] and {{Wiki|Islam}}. They continue to [[exist]] in certain regions of the [[Himalayas]]. In contrast to the {{Wiki|East Asian}} [[traditions]], there has been a strong tendency in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and the [[Himalayan]] [[traditions]] to approach the [[sūtras]] indirectly through the {{Wiki|medium}} of {{Wiki|exegetical}} treatises if at all. |
− | == Doctrine == | + | == [[Doctrine]] == |
[[File:Seated Buddha Amitabha statue.jpg|thumb|right|Amitābha Buddha statue from Borobodur, Indonesia.]] | [[File:Seated Buddha Amitabha statue.jpg|thumb|right|Amitābha Buddha statue from Borobodur, Indonesia.]] | ||
− | Few things can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism, especially its early Indian form, other than that the Buddhism practiced in China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings with large and expansive doctrines that are able to coexist simultaneously. | + | Few things can be said with certainty about [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]], especially its early [[Indian]] [[form]], other than that the [[Buddhism]] practiced in [[China]], {{Wiki|Indonesia}}, [[Vietnam]], [[Korea]], [[Tibet]], and [[Japan]] is [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]]. [[Mahāyāna]] can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings with large and expansive [[doctrines]] that are able to coexist simultaneously. |
− | Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive tradition characterized by plurality and the adoption of new Mahāyāna sūtras in addition to the earlier [[Āgama]] texts. Mahāyāna sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the Buddha's [[Dharma]]. There is a tendency in [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] to regard adherence to these sūtras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches to [[Dharma]]. Thus the [[Śrīmālādevī Sūtra]] claims that the Buddha said that devotion to Mahāyāna is inherently superior in its virtues to the following the [[śravaka]] or [[pratyekabuddha]] paths. | + | [[Mahāyāna]] constitutes an inclusive [[tradition]] characterized by plurality and the adoption of new [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] in addition to the earlier [[Āgama]] texts. [[Mahāyāna]] sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the [[Buddha's]] [[Dharma]]. There is a tendency in [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] to regard adherence to these [[sūtras]] as generating [[spiritual]] benefits greater than those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches to [[Dharma]]. Thus the [[Śrīmālādevī Sūtra]] claims that the [[Buddha]] said that [[devotion]] to [[Mahāyāna]] is inherently {{Wiki|superior}} in its [[virtues]] to the following the [[śravaka]] or [[pratyekabuddha]] [[paths]]. |
− | The fundamental principles of Mahāyāna doctrine were based on the possibility of universal liberation from [[Dukkha|suffering]] for all beings (hence the "Great Vehicle") and the existence of buddhas and [[bodhisattva]]s embodying [[Buddha Nature]]. The Pure Land school of Mahāyāna simplify the expression of faith by allowing salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the [[Amitābha]] Buddha by having faith and devoting oneself to [[Nianfo|mindfulness of the Buddha]]. This devotional lifestyle of Buddhism has greatly contributed to the success of Mahāyāna in East Asia, where spiritual elements traditionally relied upon mindfulness of the Buddha, [[mantra]]s and [[Dharani|dhāraṇīs]], and reading of [[Mahāyāna sūtras]]. In Chinese Buddhism, most monks, let alone lay people, practice [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], some combining it with [[Zen|Chán]] (Zen). | + | The fundamental {{Wiki|principles}} of [[Mahāyāna]] [[doctrine]] were based on the possibility of [[universal]] [[liberation]] from [[Dukkha|suffering]] for all [[beings]] (hence the "[[Great Vehicle]]") and the [[existence]] of [[buddhas]] and [[bodhisattva]]s [[embodying]] [[Buddha Nature]]. The [[Pure Land school]] of [[Mahāyāna]] simplify the expression of [[faith]] by allowing {{Wiki|salvation}} to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the [[Amitābha]] [[Buddha]] by having [[faith]] and devoting oneself to [[Nianfo|mindfulness of the Buddha]]. This devotional lifestyle of [[Buddhism]] has greatly contributed to the [[success]] of [[Mahāyāna]] in {{Wiki|East Asia}}, where [[spiritual]] [[elements]] [[traditionally]] relied upon [[mindfulness of the Buddha]], [[mantra]]s and [[Dharani|dhāraṇīs]], and reading of [[Mahāyāna sūtras]]. In [[Chinese Buddhism]], most [[monks]], let alone [[lay people]], practice [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]], some combining it with [[Zen|Chán]] ([[Zen]]). |
− | Most Mahāyāna schools believe in supernatural [[bodhisattva]]s who devote themselves to the [[Pāramitā|perfections]] (Skt. pāramitā), ultimate knowledge (Skt. sarvajñāna), and the liberation of all sentient beings. In Mahāyāna, the Buddha is seen as the ultimate, highest being, present in all times, in all beings, and in all places, and the [[bodhisattva]]s come to represent the universal ideal of altruistic excellence. | + | Most [[Mahāyāna]] schools believe in [[supernatural]] [[bodhisattva]]s who devote themselves to the [[Pāramitā|perfections]] (Skt. [[pāramitā]]), [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[knowledge]] (Skt. [[sarvajñāna]]), and the [[liberation]] of all [[sentient beings]]. In [[Mahāyāna]], the [[Buddha]] is seen as the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]], [[highest]] being, present in all times, in all [[beings]], and in all places, and the [[bodhisattva]]s come to represent the [[universal]] {{Wiki|ideal}} of {{Wiki|altruistic}} [[excellence]]. |
− | [[File:Maitreya Buddha the next Buddha.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], the future successor of Gautama Buddha. Thikse monastery, Ladakh.]] | + | [[File:Maitreya Buddha the next Buddha.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Bodhisattva]] [[Maitreya]], the future successor of [[Gautama Buddha]]. [[Thikse monastery]], {{Wiki|Ladakh}}.]] |
− | ===Universalism=== | + | ===[[Universalism]]=== |
− | Mahāyāna traditions generally consider that attainment of the level of [[arhat]] is not final. This is based on a subtle doctrinal distinction between the Mahāyāna and some views contained in the [[early Buddhist schools]] concerning the issues of [[Nirvāṇa]] With Remainder and [[Parinirvana|Nirvāṇa Without Remainder]]. The Mahāyāna position here is similar to that of the early school of the [[Mahāsāṃghika]]. | + | [[Mahāyāna]] [[traditions]] generally consider that [[attainment]] of the level of [[arhat]] is not final. This is based on a {{Wiki|subtle}} [[doctrinal]] distinction between the [[Mahāyāna]] and some [[views]] contained in the [[early Buddhist schools]] concerning the issues of [[Nirvāṇa]] With Remainder and [[Parinirvana|Nirvāṇa Without Remainder]]. The [[Mahāyāna]] position here is similar to that of the early school of the [[Mahāsāṃghika]]. |
− | Some of the early schools considered that Nirvāṇa Without Remainder always follows Nirvāṇa With Remainder (Buddhas first achieve enlightenment and then, at "death", [[Parinirvana|Mahāparinirvāṇa]]) and that Nirvāṇa Without Remainder is final; whereas the Mahāyāna traditions consider that Nirvāṇa Without Remainder is always followed by Nirvāṇa With Remainder — the state of attainment of [[arhat]] is not considered final, and should be succeeded by [[Bodhisattva]]hood. | + | Some of the [[early schools]] considered that [[Nirvāṇa]] Without Remainder always follows [[Nirvāṇa]] With Remainder ([[Buddhas]] first achieve [[enlightenment]] and then, at "[[death]]", [[Parinirvana|Mahāparinirvāṇa]]) and that [[Nirvāṇa]] Without Remainder is final; whereas the [[Mahāyāna]] [[traditions]] consider that [[Nirvāṇa]] Without Remainder is always followed by [[Nirvāṇa]] With Remainder — the state of [[attainment]] of [[arhat]] is not considered final, and should be succeeded by [[Bodhisattva]]hood. |
− | This distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the capability of a Buddha after [[Nirvāṇa]], which is identified by the early schools as being Nirvāṇa Without Remainder. Amongst the early schools, a [[Buddhahood|completely enlightened buddha]] (Skt. samyaksaṃbuddha) is not able to directly point the way to Nirvāṇa after death. Some[who?] Mahayana schools however, hold that once a completely enlightened Buddha (Skt. samyaksaṃbuddha) arises, he or she continues to directly and actively point the way to Nirvāṇa until there are no beings left in [[saṃsāra]]. Consequently, some Mahāyāna schools talk of a [[bodhisattva]] deliberately refraining from Buddhahood. The [[Lotus Sutra]] states that [[Gautama Buddha|Shakyamuni Buddha's]] parinirvana is an expedient, and that he actually remains in the world to teach and guide living beings. This is why [[Nichiren Buddhism]] regards [[Gautama Buddha|Shakyamuni]] as the [[Eternal Buddha]]. | + | This distinction is most evident regarding [[doctrinal]] concerns about the capability of a [[Buddha]] after [[Nirvāṇa]], which is identified by the [[early schools]] as being [[Nirvāṇa]] Without Remainder. Amongst the [[early schools]], a [[Buddhahood|completely enlightened buddha]] (Skt. [[samyaksaṃbuddha]]) is not able to directly point the way to [[Nirvāṇa]] after [[death]]. Some[who?] [[Mahayana]] schools however, hold that once a completely [[enlightened]] [[Buddha]] (Skt. [[samyaksaṃbuddha]]) arises, he or she continues to directly and actively point the way to [[Nirvāṇa]] until there are no [[beings]] left in [[saṃsāra]]. Consequently, some [[Mahāyāna]] schools talk of a [[bodhisattva]] deliberately refraining from [[Buddhahood]]. The [[Lotus Sutra]] states that [[Gautama Buddha|Shakyamuni Buddha's]] [[parinirvana]] is an expedient, and that he actually remains in the [[world]] to teach and guide [[living beings]]. This is why [[Nichiren Buddhism]] regards [[Gautama Buddha|Shakyamuni]] as the [[Eternal Buddha]]. |
− | The early schools held that Maitreya will be the next Buddha to rediscover the path to Nirvana, when teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] are forgotten. In contrast, some Mahāyāna schools hold that [[Maitreya]] will be the next buddha manifest in this world and will introduce the [[Dharma]] when it no longer exists, but when he dies (or enters Mahāparinirvāṇa), he will likewise continue to teach the [[Dharma]] for all time. Moreover, some Mahāyāna schools argue that although it is true that, for this world-system, [[Maitreya]] will be the next buddha to manifest, there are an infinite number of world-systems, many of which have currently active buddhas or bodhisattvas manifesting. | + | The [[early schools]] held that [[Maitreya]] will be the next [[Buddha]] to rediscover the [[path]] to [[Nirvana]], when teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] are forgotten. In contrast, some [[Mahāyāna]] schools hold that [[Maitreya]] will be the next [[buddha]] [[manifest]] in this [[world]] and will introduce the [[Dharma]] when it no longer [[exists]], but when he [[dies]] (or enters Mahāparinirvāṇa), he will likewise continue to teach the [[Dharma]] for all [[time]]. Moreover, some [[Mahāyāna]] schools argue that although it is true that, for this world-system, [[Maitreya]] will be the next [[buddha]] to [[manifest]], there are an [[infinite]] number of world-systems, many of which have currently active [[buddhas]] or [[bodhisattvas]] [[manifesting]]. |
− | Because the Mahāyāna traditions assert that eventually everyone will achieve [[Buddhahood|complete enlightenment]] (Skt. Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi), the Mahāyāna is labeled universalist, whereas the stance of the early scriptures is that attaining [[Nirvāṇa]] depends on effort and is not pre-determined. | + | Because the [[Mahāyāna]] [[traditions]] assert that eventually everyone will achieve [[Buddhahood|complete enlightenment]] (Skt. [[Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi]]), the [[Mahāyāna]] is labeled universalist, whereas the stance of the early [[scriptures]] is that [[attaining]] [[Nirvāṇa]] depends on [[effort]] and is not pre-determined. |
− | [[File:Bodhi Ajanta.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Avalokitesvara|Avalokiteśvara]], the bodhisattva of compassion. [[Ajanta Caves|Ajaṇṭā Caves]], Mahārāṣtra, India.]] | + | [[File:Bodhi Ajanta.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Avalokitesvara|Avalokiteśvara]], the [[bodhisattva of compassion]]. [[Ajanta Caves|Ajaṇṭā Caves]], Mahārāṣtra, [[India]].]] |
− | ===Bodhisattva=== | + | ===[[Bodhisattva]]=== |
− | The Mahāyāna tradition holds that pursuing only the release from suffering and attainment of [[Nirvāṇa]] is too narrow an aspiration, because it lacks the motivation of actively resolving to liberate all other sentient beings from [[Saṃsāra]]. One who engages in this path is called a [[bodhisattva]]. | + | The [[Mahāyāna tradition]] holds that pursuing only the release from [[suffering]] and [[attainment]] of [[Nirvāṇa]] is too narrow an [[aspiration]], because it lacks the [[motivation]] of actively resolving to liberate all other [[sentient beings]] from [[Saṃsāra]]. One who engages in this [[path]] is called a [[bodhisattva]]. |
− | The defining characteristic of a [[bodhisattva]] is [[bodhicitta]], the intention to achieve omniscient Buddhahood ([[Trikaya]]) as fast as possible, so that one may benefit infinite sentient beings. Sometimes the term bodhisattva is used more restrictively to refer to those sentient beings on the [[Ten Bodhisattva Bhūmi|grounds]]. As Ananda Coomaraswamy notes, "The most essential part of the Mahayana is its emphasis on the [[Bodhisattva]] ideal, which replaces that of the [[arhat]], or ranks before it." According to Mahāyāna teachings, being a high-level [[bodhisattva]] involves possessing a mind of great compassion and [[Wisdom in Buddhism|transcendent wisdom]] (Skt. prajñā) to realize the reality of inherent [[Shunyata|emptiness]] and [[Pratītyasamutpāda|dependent origination]]. Mahāyāna teaches that the practitioner will finally realize the attainment of [[Buddhahood]]. | + | The defining [[characteristic]] of a [[bodhisattva]] is [[bodhicitta]], the [[intention]] to achieve [[omniscient]] [[Buddhahood]] ([[Trikaya]]) as fast as possible, so that one may [[benefit]] [[infinite]] [[sentient beings]]. Sometimes the term [[bodhisattva]] is used more restrictively to refer to those [[sentient beings]] on the [[Ten Bodhisattva Bhūmi|grounds]]. As {{Wiki|Ananda Coomaraswamy}} notes, "The most [[essential]] part of the [[Mahayana]] is its emphasis on the [[Bodhisattva]] {{Wiki|ideal}}, which replaces that of the [[arhat]], or ranks before it." According to [[Mahāyāna]] teachings, being a high-level [[bodhisattva]] involves possessing a [[mind]] of [[great compassion]] and [[Wisdom in Buddhism|transcendent wisdom]] (Skt. [[prajñā]]) to realize the [[reality]] of inherent [[Shunyata|emptiness]] and [[Pratītyasamutpāda|dependent origination]]. [[Mahāyāna]] teaches that the [[practitioner]] will finally realize the [[attainment]] of [[Buddhahood]]. |
− | Six [[paramita|perfections]] (Skt. ''pāramitā'') are traditionally required for [[bodhisattva]]s: | + | Six [[paramita|perfections]] (Skt. ''[[pāramitā]]'') are [[traditionally]] required for [[bodhisattva]]s: |
− | #''[[ | + | #''[[dāna]]-[[pāramitā]]'': the [[perfection of giving]] |
− | #''[[śīla]]-pāramitā'': the perfection on behavior and discipline | + | #''[[śīla]]-[[pāramitā]]'': the [[perfection]] on {{Wiki|behavior}} and [[discipline]] |
− | #''[[ksanti|kṣānti]]-pāramitā | + | #''[[ksanti|kṣānti]]-[[pāramitā]]'': the [[perfection]] of [[forbearance]] |
− | #''[[virya|vīrya]]-pāramitā'': the perfection of vigor and diligence | + | #''[[virya|vīrya]]-[[pāramitā]]'': the [[perfection]] of [[vigor]] and [[diligence]] |
− | #''[[Dhyāna | + | #''[[Dhyāna|dhyāna]]-[[pāramitā]]'': the [[perfection]] of [[meditation]] |
− | #''[[prajna|prajñā]]-pāramitā'': the perfection of transcendent wisdom | + | #''[[prajna|prajñā]]-[[pāramitā]]'': the [[perfection]] of [[transcendent wisdom]] |
− | ===Expedient means=== | + | ===[[Expedient means]]=== |
''See also: [[Upaya]] <br/> | ''See also: [[Upaya]] <br/> | ||
− | [[upāya|Expedient means]] (Skt. ''upāya'') is found in the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', one of the earliest dated Mahāyāna sūtras, and is accepted in all Mahāyāna schools of thought. It is any effective method that aids awakening. It does not necessarily mean that some particular method is "untrue" but is simply any means or stratagem that is conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening and [[nirvana]]. Expedient means could thus be certain motivational words for a particular listener or even the noble [[Eightfold Path|eightfold path]] itself. Basic Buddhism (what Mahāyāna would term ''[[sravaka-yana|śravakayāna]]'' or ''[[pratyekabuddha-yana|pratyekabuddhayāna]]'') is an expedient method for helping people begin the noble Buddhist path and advance quite far. But the path is not wholly traversed, according to some Mahāyāna schools, until the practitioner has striven for and attained Buddhahood for the liberation of all other sentient beings from suffering. | + | [[upāya|Expedient means]] (Skt. ''[[upāya]]'') is found in the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', one of the earliest dated [[Mahāyāna sūtras]], and is accepted in all [[Mahāyāna]] schools of [[thought]]. It is any effective method that aids [[awakening]]. It does not necessarily mean that some particular method is "untrue" but is simply any means or stratagem that is conducive to [[spiritual]] growth and leads [[beings]] to [[awakening]] and [[nirvana]]. [[Expedient means]] could thus be certain motivational words for a particular listener or even the [[noble]] [[Eightfold Path|eightfold path]] itself. Basic [[Buddhism]] (what [[Mahāyāna]] would term ''[[sravaka-yana|śravakayāna]]'' or ''[[pratyekabuddha-yana|pratyekabuddhayāna]]'') is an expedient method for helping [[people]] begin the [[noble]] [[Buddhist path]] and advance quite far. But the [[path]] is not wholly traversed, according to some [[Mahāyāna]] schools, until the [[practitioner]] has striven for and attained [[Buddhahood]] for the [[liberation]] of all other [[sentient beings]] from [[suffering]]. |
− | Some scholars have stated that the exercise of expedient means, "the ability to adapt one's message to the audience, is also of enormous importance in the Pāli canon." In fact the Pāli term upāya-kosalla does occur in the Pāli Canon, in the Sangiti Sutta of the Digha Nikāya. | + | Some [[scholars]] have stated that the exercise of [[expedient means]], "the ability to adapt one's message to the audience, is also of enormous importance in the [[Pāli canon]]." In fact the [[Pāli]] term [[upāya-kosalla]] does occur in the [[Pāli Canon]], in the [[Sangiti Sutta]] of the [[Digha Nikāya]]. |
− | ===Liberation=== | + | ===[[Liberation]]=== |
− | “Devotional” Mahāyāna developed a rich cosmography, with various Buddhas and bodhisattvas residing in paradise realms. The concept of the three bodies ([[trikaya]]) supports these constructions, making the Buddha himself a transcendental figure. Dr. Guang Xing describes the Mahāyāna Buddha as "an omnipotent divinity endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities ...[He] is described almost as an omnipotent and almighty godhead." | + | “Devotional” [[Mahāyāna]] developed a rich cosmography, with various [[Buddhas]] and [[bodhisattvas]] residing in [[paradise]] [[realms]]. The {{Wiki|concept}} of the [[three bodies]] ([[trikaya]]) supports these constructions, making the [[Buddha]] himself a [[transcendental]] figure. Dr. [[Guang Xing]] describes the [[Mahāyāna]] [[Buddha]] as "an omnipotent [[divinity]] endowed with numerous [[supernatural]] [[attributes]] and qualities ...[He] is described almost as an omnipotent and almighty godhead." |
− | Under various conditions, the realms Buddha presides over could be attained by devotees after their death so, when reborn, they could strive towards [[buddhahood]] in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, this salvation to | + | Under various [[conditions]], the [[realms]] [[Buddha]] presides over could be attained by {{Wiki|devotees}} after their [[death]] so, when [[reborn]], they could strive towards [[buddhahood]] in the best possible [[conditions]]. Depending on the sect, this {{Wiki|salvation}} to “[[paradise]]” can be obtained by [[faith]], [[imaging]], or sometimes even by the simple invocation of the [[Buddha’s]] [[name]]. This approach to {{Wiki|salvation}} is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional [[Buddhism]], especially represented by the [[Pure Land]] ([[浄土宗]]). |
− | This rich cosmography also allowed Mahāyāna to be quite syncretic and accommodating of other faiths or deities. Various origins have been suggested to explain its emergence, such as “popular Hindu devotional cults (bhakti), and Persian and Greco-Roman theologies, which filtered into India from the | + | This rich cosmography also allowed [[Mahāyāna]] to be quite {{Wiki|syncretic}} and accommodating of other [[faiths]] or [[deities]]. Various origins have been suggested to explain its [[emergence]], such as “popular [[Hindu]] devotional cults ([[bhakti]]), and {{Wiki|Persian}} and {{Wiki|Greco-Roman}} theologies, which filtered into [[India]] from the [[northwest]]”. |
− | === Buddha nature === | + | === [[Buddha nature]] === |
− | [[File:Ajanta Ellora buddha statue aurangabad maharastra.jpg|thumb|The Buddha flanked by [[bodhisattva]]s. Cave 4, [[Ajanta Caves|Ajaṇṭā Caves]], Mahārāṣtra, India.]] | + | [[File:Ajanta Ellora buddha statue aurangabad maharastra.jpg|thumb|The Buddha flanked by [[bodhisattva]]s. {{Wiki|Cave}} 4, [[Ajanta Caves|Ajaṇṭā Caves]], Mahārāṣtra, [[India]].]] |
''See also: [[Buddha nature]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Buddha nature]]<br/> | ||
[[File:Javanese - The Buddhist Goddess Tara - Walters 572282.jpg|left|thumb|''The Buddhist Goddess Tara'' (9th Century). The Walters Art Museum.]] | [[File:Javanese - The Buddhist Goddess Tara - Walters 572282.jpg|left|thumb|''The Buddhist Goddess Tara'' (9th Century). The Walters Art Museum.]] | ||
− | The teaching of a "Buddha nature" (Skt. tathāgatagarbha) may be based on the "luminous mind" concept found in the Āgamas. The essential idea, articulated in the Buddha nature sūtras, but not accepted by all Mahāyānists, is that no being is without a concealed but indestructible interior link to the awakening of bodhi and that this link is an uncreated element (dhātu) or principle deep inside each being, which constitutes the deathless, diamond-like "essence of the self". The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra states: "The essence of the Self (ātman) is the subtle Buddha nature..." while the later Lankāvatāra Sūtra states that the Buddha nature might be taken to be self (ātman), but it is not. In the 'Sagathakam' section of that same sutra, however, the Tathagatagarbha as the Self is not denied, but affirmed: 'The Atma [Self] characterised with purity is the state of self-realization; this is the Tathagata's Womb (garbha), which does not belong to the realm of the theorisers'.[52] In the Buddha nature class of sūtras, the word "self" (ātman) is used in a way defined by and specific to these [[sūtras]]. (See [[Atman]].) | + | The [[teaching]] of a "[[Buddha nature]]" (Skt. [[tathāgatagarbha]]) may be based on the "[[luminous mind]]" {{Wiki|concept}} found in the [[Āgamas]]. The [[essential]] [[idea]], articulated in the [[Buddha nature]] [[sūtras]], but not accepted by all [[Mahāyānists]], is that no being is without a concealed but [[indestructible]] interior link to the [[awakening]] of [[bodhi]] and that this link is an uncreated [[element]] ([[dhātu]]) or [[principle]] deep inside each being, which constitutes the {{Wiki|deathless}}, diamond-like "[[essence]] of the [[self]]". The [[Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra]] states: "The [[essence]] of the [[Self]] ([[ātman]]) is the {{Wiki|subtle}} [[Buddha nature]]..." while the later Lankāvatāra [[Sūtra]] states that the [[Buddha nature]] might be taken to be [[self]] ([[ātman]]), but it is not. In the 'Sagathakam' section of that same [[sutra]], however, the [[Tathagatagarbha]] as the [[Self]] is not denied, but [[affirmed]]: 'The [[Atma]] [[[Self]]] characterised with [[purity]] is the state of [[self-realization]]; this is the [[Tathagata's]] [[Womb]] ([[garbha]]), which does not belong to the [[realm]] of the theorisers'.[52] In the [[Buddha nature]] class of [[sūtras]], the [[word]] "[[self]]" ([[ātman]]) is used in a way defined by and specific to these [[sūtras]]. (See [[Atman]].) |
− | According to some scholars, the Buddha nature discussed in some Mahāyāna sūtras does not represent a substantial self (ātman); rather, it is a positive language and expression of emptiness (śūnyatā) and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. It is the "true self" in representing the innate aspect of the individual that makes actualizing the ultimate personality possible. | + | According to some [[scholars]], the [[Buddha nature]] discussed in some [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] does not represent a substantial [[self]] ([[ātman]]); rather, it is a positive [[language]] and expression of [[emptiness]] ([[śūnyatā]]) and represents the potentiality to realize [[Buddhahood]] through [[Buddhist practices]]. It is the "[[true self]]" in representing the innate aspect of the {{Wiki|individual}} that makes actualizing the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[personality]] possible. |
− | The actual "seeing and knowing" of this Buddha essence (Buddha-dhātu, co-terminous with the Dharmakāya or self of Buddha) is said to usher in nirvanic liberation. This Buddha essence or "Buddha nature" is stated to be found in every single person, ghost, god and sentient being. In the Buddha nature sūtras, the Buddha is portrayed as describing the Buddha essence as uncreated, deathless and ultimately beyond rational grasping or conceptualisation. Yet, it is this already real and present, hidden internal element of awakeness (bodhi) that, according to the Buddha nature sūtras, prompts beings to seek liberation from worldly suffering, and lets them attain the spotless bliss that lies at the heart of their being. Once the veils of negative thoughts, feelings, and unwholesome behaviour (the kleśas) are eliminated from the mind and character, the indwelling Buddha principle (Buddha-dhātu: Buddha nature) can shine forth unimpededly and transform the seer into a Buddha. | + | The actual "[[seeing]] and [[knowing]]" of this [[Buddha]] [[essence]] ([[Buddha-dhātu]], co-terminous with the [[Dharmakāya]] or [[self]] of [[Buddha]]) is said to usher in [[nirvanic]] [[liberation]]. This [[Buddha]] [[essence]] or "[[Buddha nature]]" is stated to be found in every single [[person]], [[ghost]], [[god]] and [[sentient being]]. In the [[Buddha nature]] [[sūtras]], the [[Buddha]] is portrayed as describing the [[Buddha]] [[essence]] as uncreated, {{Wiki|deathless}} and ultimately [[beyond]] [[rational]] [[grasping]] or conceptualisation. Yet, it is this already {{Wiki|real}} and present, hidden internal [[element]] of awakeness ([[bodhi]]) that, according to the [[Buddha nature]] [[sūtras]], prompts [[beings]] to seek [[liberation]] from [[worldly]] [[suffering]], and lets them attain the spotless [[bliss]] that lies at the [[heart]] of their being. Once the veils of negative [[thoughts]], [[feelings]], and [[unwholesome]] {{Wiki|behaviour}} (the [[kleśas]]) are eliminated from the [[mind]] and [[character]], the indwelling [[Buddha]] [[principle]] ([[Buddha-dhātu]]: [[Buddha nature]]) can shine forth unimpededly and [[transform]] the seer into a [[Buddha]]. |
− | Prior to the period of these sūtras, Mahāyāna metaphysics was dominated by teachings on emptiness, in the form of Madhyamaka philosophy. The language used by this approach is primarily negative, and the Buddha nature genre of sūtras can be seen as an attempt to state orthodox Buddhist teachings of dependent origination and on the mysterious reality of nirvana using positive language instead, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism. In these sūtras the perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self; the ultimate goal of the path is then characterized using a range of positive language that had been used in Indian philosophy previously by essentialist philosophers, but was now transmuted into a new Buddhist vocabulary that described a being who has successfully completed the Buddhist path. | + | Prior to the period of these [[sūtras]], [[Mahāyāna]] [[metaphysics]] was dominated by teachings on [[emptiness]], in the [[form]] of [[Madhyamaka philosophy]]. The [[language]] used by this approach is primarily negative, and the [[Buddha nature]] genre of [[sūtras]] can be seen as an attempt to state {{Wiki|orthodox}} [[Buddhist teachings]] of [[dependent origination]] and on the mysterious [[reality]] of [[nirvana]] using positive [[language]] instead, to prevent [[people]] from being turned away from [[Buddhism]] by a false [[impression]] of [[nihilism]]. In these [[sūtras]] the [[perfection]] of the [[wisdom]] of {{Wiki|not-self}} is stated to be the [[true self]]; the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] goal of the [[path]] is then characterized using a range of positive [[language]] that had been used in [[Indian philosophy]] previously by essentialist [[philosophers]], but was now transmuted into a new [[Buddhist]] vocabulary that described a being who has successfully completed the [[Buddhist path]]. |
− | The Uttaratantra (an exegetical treatise on Buddha nature) sees Buddha nature not as caused and conditioned (saṃskṛta), but as eternal, uncaused, unconditioned, and incapable of being destroyed, although temporarily concealed within worldly beings by adventitious defilements. According to Buddhist scholar Dr. C. D. Sebastian, the Uttaratantra's reference to a transcendental self (ātma-pāramitā) should be understood as "the unique essence of the universe," thus the universal and immanent essence of Buddha nature is the same throughout time and space. | + | The [[Uttaratantra]] (an {{Wiki|exegetical}} treatise on [[Buddha nature]]) sees [[Buddha nature]] not as [[caused]] and [[conditioned]] ([[saṃskṛta]]), but as [[eternal]], uncaused, [[unconditioned]], and incapable of being destroyed, although temporarily concealed within [[worldly]] [[beings]] by adventitious [[defilements]]. According to [[Buddhist scholar]] Dr. C. D. Sebastian, the Uttaratantra's reference to a [[transcendental]] [[self]] (ātma-pāramitā) should be understood as "the unique [[essence]] of the [[universe]]," thus the [[universal]] and immanent [[essence]] of [[Buddha nature]] is the same throughout [[time]] and [[space]]. |
− | == Scriptures == | + | == [[Scriptures]] == |
− | [[File:Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|thumb|right|upright|Statue of the Buddha with [[Dharmacakra]] [[Mudra]], symbolizing his teaching of the Dharma. [[Sarnath]], Vārāṇasī.]] | + | [[File:Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|thumb|right|upright|Statue of the Buddha with [[Dharmacakra]] [[Mudra]], [[symbolizing]] his [[teaching]] of the [[Dharma]]. [[Sarnath]], [[Vārāṇasī]].]] |
− | ===Āgamas=== | + | ===[[Āgamas]]=== |
''See also: [[Mahayana sutras]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Mahayana sutras]]<br/> | ||
− | Mahāyāna Buddhism takes the basic teachings of the Buddha as recorded in early scriptures as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning karma and rebirth, anātman, emptiness, dependent origination, and the Four Noble Truths. Mahāyāna Buddhists in East Asia have traditionally studied these teachings in the Āgamas preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon. "Āgama" is the term used by those traditional Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon. These correspond to the Nikāyas used by the Theravāda school. The surviving Āgamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools, while most of the Āgamas teachings were never translated into Tibetan. | + | [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] takes the basic teachings of the [[Buddha]] as recorded in early [[scriptures]] as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning [[karma and rebirth]], [[anātman]], [[emptiness]], [[dependent origination]], and the [[Four Noble Truths]]. [[Mahāyāna]] [[Buddhists]] in {{Wiki|East Asia}} have [[traditionally]] studied these teachings in the [[Āgamas]] preserved in the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]]. "[[Āgama]]" is the term used by those [[traditional]] [[Buddhist]] schools in [[India]] who employed [[Sanskrit]] for their basic [[canon]]. These correspond to the [[Nikāyas]] used by the [[Theravāda]] school. The surviving [[Āgamas]] in {{Wiki|Chinese}} translation belong to at least two schools, while most of the [[Āgamas]] teachings were never translated into [[Tibetan]]. |
− | In addition to accepting the essential scriptures of the various early Buddhist schools as valid, Mahāyāna Buddhism also maintains large additional collections of sūtras that are not used or recognized by the Theravāda school. In the past, these were also not recognized by some individuals within the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities were divided along these doctrinal lines. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Mahāyāna sūtras are often given greater authority than the Āgamas. The first of these Mahāyāna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE. | + | In addition to accepting the [[essential]] [[scriptures]] of the various [[early Buddhist schools]] as valid, [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] also maintains large additional collections of [[sūtras]] that are not used or [[recognized]] by the [[Theravāda]] school. In the past, these were also not [[recognized]] by some {{Wiki|individuals}} within the [[early Buddhist schools]]. In other cases, [[Buddhist]] communities were divided along these [[doctrinal]] lines. In [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]], the [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] are often given greater authority than the [[Āgamas]]. The first of these Mahāyāna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE. |
− | === Turnings of the Dharma Wheel === | + | === Turnings of the [[Dharma Wheel]] === |
− | Dating back at least to the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into three categories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "Three Turnings of the Dharma Wheel". According to this view, there were three such "turnings": | + | Dating back at least to the [[Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra]] is a {{Wiki|classification}} of the corpus of [[Buddhism]] into [[three categories]], based on ways of [[understanding]] the [[nature]] of [[reality]], known as the "Three Turnings of the [[Dharma Wheel]]". According to this [[view]], there were three such "turnings": |
− | #In the first turning, the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths at Vārāṇasī for those in the śravaka vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy. The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in the Dharmacakra Pravartana Sūtra. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in the history of Buddhism. | + | #In the first turning, the [[Buddha]] taught the [[Four Noble Truths]] at [[Vārāṇasī]] for those in the śravaka [[vehicle]]. It is described as [[marvelous]] and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy. The [[doctrines]] of the first turning are exemplified in the [[Dharmacakra Pravartana Sūtra]]. This turning represents the earliest phase of the [[Buddhist teachings]] and the earliest period in the history of [[Buddhism]]. |
− | #In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahāyāna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching that all phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy. Doctrine of the second turning is established in the Prajñāpāramitā teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is exemplified by the [[Mādhyamaka]] school of [[Nāgārjuna]]. | + | #In the second turning, the [[Buddha]] taught the [[Mahāyāna]] teachings to the [[bodhisattvas]], [[teaching]] that all [[phenomena]] have no-essence, no [[arising]], no passing away, are originally quiescent, and [[essentially]] in [[cessation]]. This turning is also described as [[marvelous]] and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy. [[Doctrine]] of the second turning is established in the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] teachings, first put into [[writing]] around 100 BCE. In [[Indian]] [[philosophical]] schools, it is exemplified by the [[Mādhyamaka]] school of [[Nāgārjuna]]. |
− | #In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the three vehicles, including all the śravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be necessary, and controversy would not occur. These teachings were established by the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE. In the Indian philosophical schools, the third turning is exemplified by the Yogācāra school of Asaṅga and Vasubandhu. | + | #In the third turning, the [[Buddha]] taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the [[three vehicles]], including all the śravakas, [[pratyekabuddhas]], and [[bodhisattvas]]. These were meant to be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be necessary, and controversy would not occur. These teachings were established by the [[Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra]] as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE. In the [[Indian]] [[philosophical]] schools, the third turning is exemplified by the [[Yogācāra school]] of [[Asaṅga]] and [[Vasubandhu]]. |
− | Some traditions of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] consider the teachings of Esoteric Buddhism and [[Vajrayāna]] to be the third turning of the [[Dharma]] Wheel. Tibetan teachers, particularly of the Gelugpa school, regard the second turning as the highest teaching, due to their particular interpretation of Yogācāra doctrine. The Buddha Nature teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel. The Chinese tradition has a different scheme. | + | Some [[traditions]] of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] consider the teachings of [[Esoteric Buddhism]] and [[Vajrayāna]] to be the third turning of the [[Dharma]] [[Wheel]]. [[Tibetan]] [[teachers]], particularly of the [[Gelugpa school]], regard the second turning as the [[highest]] [[teaching]], due to their particular interpretation of [[Yogācāra]] [[doctrine]]. The [[Buddha Nature]] teachings are normally included in the third turning of the [[wheel]]. The {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[tradition]] has a different scheme. |
− | The Chinese scholar T'ien-T'ai believed the Buddha taught over Five Periods. These are: | + | The {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[scholar]] [[T'ien-T'ai]] believed the [[Buddha]] taught over Five Periods. These are: |
− | #The Flower Garland Period. | + | #The [[Flower Garland Period]]. |
− | #The Agama Period. | + | #The [[Agama Period]]. |
− | #The Correct and Equal Period (provisional Mahayana Sutras, including the Amida, Mahavairochana and Vimalakirti Sutras). | + | #The Correct and {{Wiki|Equal}} Period (provisional [[Mahayana Sutras]], including the [[Amida]], [[Mahavairochana]] and [[Vimalakirti]] [[Sutras]]). |
− | #The Wisdom Period (Perfection of Wisdom Sutras). | + | #The [[Wisdom Period]] ([[Perfection of Wisdom Sutras]]). |
− | #The Lotus and Nirvana Period (when Shakyamuni taught from the standpoint of his Enlightenment) | + | #The [[Lotus and Nirvana Period]] (when [[Shakyamuni]] taught from the standpoint of his [[Enlightenment]]) |
− | ===Early canon=== | + | ===Early [[canon]]=== |
− | Scholars have noted that many key Mahāyāna ideas are closely connected to the earliest texts of Buddhism. The seminal work of Mahāyāna philosophy, [[Nāgārjuna]]'s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, mentions the canon's Katyāyana Sūtra by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work. [[Nāgārjuna]] systematized the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna philosophy. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon. In his eyes the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system. [[Nāgārjuna]] also referred to a passage in the canon regarding "nirvanic consciousness" in two different works. | + | [[Scholars]] have noted that many key [[Mahāyāna]] [[ideas]] are closely connected to the earliest texts of [[Buddhism]]. The seminal work of [[Mahāyāna]] [[philosophy]], [[Nāgārjuna]]'s [[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā]], mentions the canon's [[Katyāyana]] [[Sūtra]] by [[name]], and may be an extended commentary on that work. [[Nāgārjuna]] systematized the [[Mādhyamaka school]] of [[Mahāyāna]] [[philosophy]]. He may have arrived at his positions from a [[desire]] to achieve a consistent {{Wiki|exegesis}} of the [[Buddha's]] [[doctrine]] as recorded in the [[canon]]. In his [[eyes]] the [[Buddha]] was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the [[Mādhyamaka]] system. [[Nāgārjuna]] also referred to a passage in the [[canon]] regarding "[[nirvanic]] [[consciousness]]" in two different works. |
− | Yogācāra, the other prominent Mahāyāna school in dialectic with the Mādhyamaka school, gave a special significance to the canon's Lesser Discourse on Emptiness . A passage there (which the discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogācāra texts as a true definition of emptiness. According to Walpola Rahula, the thought presented in the Yogācāra school's Abhidharma-samuccaya is undeniably closer to that of the Pali Nikayas than is that of the Theravadin Abhidhamma. | + | [[Yogācāra]], the other prominent [[Mahāyāna school]] in [[dialectic]] with the [[Mādhyamaka school]], gave a special significance to the canon's Lesser {{Wiki|Discourse}} on [[Emptiness]] . A passage there (which the {{Wiki|discourse}} itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later [[Yogācāra]] texts as a true definition of [[emptiness]]. According to [[Walpola Rahula]], the [[thought]] presented in the [[Yogācāra]] school's [[Abhidharma-samuccaya]] is undeniably closer to that of the [[Pali]] [[Nikayas]] than is that of the [[Theravadin]] [[Abhidhamma]]. |
− | Both the Mādhyamikas and the Yogācārins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing). The Yogācārins criticized the Mādhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mādhyamikas criticized the Yogācārins for tending towards substantialism. | + | Both the [[Mādhyamikas]] and the [[Yogācārins]] saw themselves as preserving the [[Buddhist]] [[Middle Way]] between the [[extremes]] of [[nihilism]] (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities [[existing]]). The [[Yogācārins]] criticized the [[Mādhyamikas]] for tending towards [[nihilism]], while the [[Mādhyamikas]] criticized the [[Yogācārins]] for tending towards substantialism. |
− | Key Mahāyāna texts introducing the concepts of bodhicitta and Buddha nature also use language parallel to passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "luminous mind" and may have been based on this idea. | + | Key [[Mahāyāna texts]] introducing the [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] of [[bodhicitta]] and [[Buddha nature]] also use [[language]] parallel to passages in the [[canon]] containing the [[Buddha's]] description of "[[luminous mind]]" and may have been based on this [[idea]]. |
− | ==Theravāda school== | + | ==[[Theravāda]] school== |
− | ===Role of the Bodhisattva=== | + | ===Role of the [[Bodhisattva]]=== |
− | In the early Buddhist texts, and as taught by the modern Theravada school, the goal of becoming a teaching Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for most practitioners to aspire to this goal. Theravada texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly virtuous goal. | + | In the early [[Buddhist texts]], and as taught by the {{Wiki|modern}} [[Theravada school]], the goal of becoming a [[teaching]] [[Buddha]] in a future [[life]] is viewed as the aim of a small group of {{Wiki|individuals}} striving to [[benefit]] future generations after the current [[Buddha's teachings]] have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for most practitioners to aspire to this goal. [[Theravada]] texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly [[virtuous]] goal. |
− | ===Theravāda and Hīnayāna=== | + | ===[[Theravāda]] and [[Hīnayāna]]=== |
− | Although the Theravāda school is usually described as belonging to Hīnayāna, some authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahāyāna perspective. Their view is based on a different understanding of the concept of Hīnayāna. Rather than regarding the term as referring to any school of Buddhism that hasn't accepted the Mahāyāna canon and doctrines, such as those pertaining to the role of the [[boddhisatva]], these authors argue that the classification of a school as "Hīnayāna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific phenomenological position. They point out that unlike the now-extinct Sarvāstivāda school, which was the primary object of Mahāyāna criticism, the Theravāda does not claim the existence of independent entities (dharmas); in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism. Adherents of Mahāyāna Buddhism disagreed with the substantialist thought of the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas, and in emphasizing the doctrine of emptiness, Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching. The Theravādins too refuted the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravāda arguments are preserved in the Kathāvatthu. Thus, according to this view, no form of real Hīnayāna Buddhism survives today. | + | Although the [[Theravāda]] school is usually described as belonging to [[Hīnayāna]], some authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the [[Mahāyāna]] {{Wiki|perspective}}. Their [[view]] is based on a different [[understanding]] of the {{Wiki|concept}} of [[Hīnayāna]]. Rather than regarding the term as referring to any school of [[Buddhism]] that hasn't accepted the [[Mahāyāna]] [[canon]] and [[doctrines]], such as those pertaining to the role of the [[boddhisatva]], these authors argue that the {{Wiki|classification}} of a school as "[[Hīnayāna]]" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific {{Wiki|phenomenological}} position. They point out that unlike the now-extinct [[Sarvāstivāda]] school, which was the primary [[object]] of [[Mahāyāna]] [[criticism]], the [[Theravāda]] does not claim the [[existence]] of independent entities ([[dharmas]]); in this it maintains the [[attitude]] of [[early Buddhism]]. {{Wiki|Adherents}} of [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] disagreed with the substantialist [[thought]] of the [[Sarvāstivādins]] and [[Sautrāntikas]], and in emphasizing the [[doctrine]] of [[emptiness]], [[Kalupahana]] holds that they endeavored to preserve the early [[teaching]]. The [[Theravādins]] too refuted the [[Sarvāstivādins]] and [[Sautrāntikas]] (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the [[canon]]. The [[Theravāda]] arguments are preserved in the [[Kathāvatthu]]. Thus, according to this [[view]], no [[form]] of {{Wiki|real}} [[Hīnayāna]] [[Buddhism]] survives today. |
− | Some contemporary Theravādin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahāyāna philosophy found in texts such as the Heart Sūtra (Skt. Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya) and [[Nāgārjuna]]'s Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way (Skt. Mūlamadhyamakakārikā). | + | Some contemporary [[Theravādin]] figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the [[Mahāyāna]] [[philosophy]] found in texts such as the [[Heart Sūtra]] (Skt. [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Hṛdaya]]) and [[Nāgārjuna]]'s Fundamental [[Stanzas]] on the [[Middle Way]] (Skt. [[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā]]). |
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Revision as of 04:59, 17 November 2013
Mahāyāna (Sanskrit: महायान mahāyāna, literally the "Great Vehicle") is one of the two main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophies and practice. Mahāyāna Buddhism originated in India, and is associated with the oldest historical sect of Buddhism, the Mahāsāṃghika.
The Mahāyāna tradition is the larger of the two major traditions of Buddhism existing today, the other being that of the Theravāda school. According to the teachings of Mahāyāna traditions, "Mahāyāna" also refers to the path of seeking complete enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, also called "Bodhisattvayāna", or the "Bodhisattva Vehicle".
In the course of its history, Mahāyāna Buddhism spread from India to various other Asian countries such as China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Major traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhism today include Zen/Chán, Pure Land, Tiantai, and Nichiren, as well as the Esoteric Buddhist traditions of Shingon, Tendai and Tibetan Buddhism.
Etymology
According to Jan Nattier, the term Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") was originally an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayāna ("Bodhisattva Vehicle") — the vehicle of a bodhisattva seeking buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. The term Mahāyāna was therefore formed independently at an early date as a synonym for the path and the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Since it was simply an honorary term for Bodhisattvayāna, the creation of the term Mahāyāna and its application to Bodhisattvayāna did not represent a significant turning point in the development of a Mahāyāna tradition.
The earliest Mahāyāna texts often use the term Mahāyāna as a synonym for Bodhisattvayāna, but the term Hīnayāna is comparatively rare in the earliest sources. The presumed dichotomy between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna can be deceptive, as the two terms were not actually formed in relation to one another in the same era.
Among the earliest and most important references to the term Mahāyāna are those that occur in the Lotus Sutra (Skt. Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra) dating between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. Seishi Karashima has suggested that the term first used in an earlier Gandhāri Prakrit version of the Lotus Sūtra was not the term mahāyāna but the Prakrit word mahājāna in the sense of mahājñāna (great knowing). At a later stage when the early Prakrit word was converted into Sanskrit, this mahājāna, being phonetically ambivalent, was mistakenly converted into mahāyāna, possibly due to what may have been a double meaning in the famous Parable of the Burning House, which talks of three vehicles or carts (Skt: yāna).
History
Origins
The origins of Mahāyāna are still not completely understood. The earliest views of Mahāyāna Buddhism in the West assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called "Hīnayāna" schools. Due to the veneration of buddhas and bodhisattvas, Mahāyāna was often interpreted as a more devotional, lay-inspired form of Buddhism, with supposed origins in stupa veneration, or by making parallels with the history of the European Protestant Reformation. These views have been largely dismissed in modern times in light of a much broader range of early texts that are now available. These earliest Mahāyāna texts often depict strict adherence to the path of a bodhisattva, and engagement in the ascetic ideal of a monastic life in the wilderness, akin to the ideas expressed in the Rhinoceros Sūtra. The old views of Mahāyāna as a separate lay-inspired and devotional sect are now largely dismissed as misguided and wrong on all counts.
The earliest textual evidence of "Mahāyāna" comes from sūtras originating around the beginning of the common era. Jan Nattier has noted that in some of the earliest Mahāyāna texts such as the Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra use the term "Mahāyāna", yet there is no doctrinal difference between Mahāyāna in this context and the early schools, and that "Mahāyāna" referred rather to the rigorous emulation of Gautama Buddha in the path of a bodhisattva seeking to become a fully enlightened buddha.
There is also no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas. Paul Williams has also noted that the Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to an early school. This continues today with the Dharmaguptaka ordination lineage in East Asia, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda ordination lineage in Tibetan Buddhism. Therefore Mahāyāna was never a separate rival sect of the early schools.
The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th century CE, distinguishes Mahāyāna from Hīnayāna as follows:
Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offences, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. Those who venerate the bodhisattvas and read the Mahayana sutras are called the Mahāyānists, while those who do not perform these are called the Hīnayānists.
Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts. These Mahāyāna teachings were first propagated into China by Lokaksema, the first translator of Mahāyāna sutras into Chinese during the 2nd century CE
Earliest Mahāyāna sūtras
Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the Prajñāpāramitā series, along with texts concerning Akṣobhya Buddha, which were probably written down in the 1st century BCE in the south of India. Some early Mahāyāna sūtras were translated by the Kuṣāṇa monk Lokakṣema, who came to China from the kingdom of Gandhāra. His first translations to Chinese were made in the Chinese capital of Luoyang between 178 and 189 CE. Some Mahāyāna sūtras translated during the 2nd century CE include the following:
- Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
- Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra
- Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra
- Akṣobhyatathāgatasyavyūha Sūtra
- Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra
- Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā Sūtra
- Drumakinnararājaparipṛcchā Sūtra
- Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra
- Bhadrapāla Sūtra
- Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana Sūtra
- Kāśyapaparivarta Sūtra
- Lokānuvartana Sūtra
- An early sūtra connected to the Avatamsaka Sutra
Some of these were probably composed in the north of India in the 1st century CE. Thus scholars generally think that the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras were mainly composed in the south of India, and later the activity of writing additional scriptures was continued in the north. However, the assumption that the presence of an evolving body of Mahāyāna scriptures implies the contemporaneous existence of distinct religious movement called "Mahāyāna", may be a serious misstep.
Earliest inscriptions
The earliest stone inscription containing a recognizably Mahāyāna formulation and a mention of the Buddha Amitabha was found in the Indian subcontinent in Mathura, and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear the Brahmi inscription: "Made in the year 28 of the reign of king Huvishka, ... for the Buddha Amitabha" (Mathura Museum).
However, this image was in itself extremely marginal and isolated in the overall context of Buddhism in India at the time, and had no lasting or long-term consequences. Evidence of the name "Mahāyāna" in Indian inscriptions in the period before the 5th century is very limited in comparison to the multiplicity of Mahāyāna writings transmitted from Central Asia to China at that time.
These views of a discrepancy between translated texts and epigraphical evidence assume the presence of Mahāyāna as distinct from the "Hīnayāna" schools. This view has been largely disproved in more recent scholarship[citation needed], as Mahāyāna is now recognized as a tradition working within the context of the early Buddhist schools rather than as a separate movement.
Early Mahāyāna Buddhism
During the period of early Mahāyāna Buddhism, four major types of thought developed: Mādhyamaka, Yogācāra, Buddha Nature (Tathāgatagarbha), and Buddhist Logic as the last and most recent. In India, the two main philosophical schools of the Mahāyāna were the Mādhyamaka and the later Yogācāra.
Legacy
Earlier stage forms of Mahāyāna such as the doctrines of Prajñāpāramitā, Yogācāra, Buddha Nature, and the Pure Land teachings are still popular in East Asia. In some cases these have spawned new developments, while in others they are treated in the more traditional syncretic manner. Paul Williams has noted that in this tradition in the Far East, primacy has always been given to study of the sūtras.
Late Mahāyāna Buddhism
Late stage forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India are found largely in the schools of Esoteric Buddhism. These were replaced in India and Central Asia after the early millennium by Islam (Sufism etc.) and Hinduism, and in south-east Asia by Theravāda Buddhism from Sri Lanka and Islam. They continue to exist in certain regions of the Himalayas. In contrast to the East Asian traditions, there has been a strong tendency in Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan traditions to approach the sūtras indirectly through the medium of exegetical treatises if at all.
Doctrine
Few things can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism, especially its early Indian form, other than that the Buddhism practiced in China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna can be described as a loosely bound collection of many teachings with large and expansive doctrines that are able to coexist simultaneously.
Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive tradition characterized by plurality and the adoption of new Mahāyāna sūtras in addition to the earlier Āgama texts. Mahāyāna sees itself as penetrating further and more profoundly into the Buddha's Dharma. There is a tendency in Mahāyāna sūtras to regard adherence to these sūtras as generating spiritual benefits greater than those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches to Dharma. Thus the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra claims that the Buddha said that devotion to Mahāyāna is inherently superior in its virtues to the following the śravaka or pratyekabuddha paths.
The fundamental principles of Mahāyāna doctrine were based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings (hence the "Great Vehicle") and the existence of buddhas and bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature. The Pure Land school of Mahāyāna simplify the expression of faith by allowing salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the Amitābha Buddha by having faith and devoting oneself to mindfulness of the Buddha. This devotional lifestyle of Buddhism has greatly contributed to the success of Mahāyāna in East Asia, where spiritual elements traditionally relied upon mindfulness of the Buddha, mantras and dhāraṇīs, and reading of Mahāyāna sūtras. In Chinese Buddhism, most monks, let alone lay people, practice Pure Land, some combining it with Chán (Zen).
Most Mahāyāna schools believe in supernatural bodhisattvas who devote themselves to the perfections (Skt. pāramitā), ultimate knowledge (Skt. sarvajñāna), and the liberation of all sentient beings. In Mahāyāna, the Buddha is seen as the ultimate, highest being, present in all times, in all beings, and in all places, and the bodhisattvas come to represent the universal ideal of altruistic excellence.
Universalism
Mahāyāna traditions generally consider that attainment of the level of arhat is not final. This is based on a subtle doctrinal distinction between the Mahāyāna and some views contained in the early Buddhist schools concerning the issues of Nirvāṇa With Remainder and Nirvāṇa Without Remainder. The Mahāyāna position here is similar to that of the early school of the Mahāsāṃghika.
Some of the early schools considered that Nirvāṇa Without Remainder always follows Nirvāṇa With Remainder (Buddhas first achieve enlightenment and then, at "death", Mahāparinirvāṇa) and that Nirvāṇa Without Remainder is final; whereas the Mahāyāna traditions consider that Nirvāṇa Without Remainder is always followed by Nirvāṇa With Remainder — the state of attainment of arhat is not considered final, and should be succeeded by Bodhisattvahood.
This distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the capability of a Buddha after Nirvāṇa, which is identified by the early schools as being Nirvāṇa Without Remainder. Amongst the early schools, a completely enlightened buddha (Skt. samyaksaṃbuddha) is not able to directly point the way to Nirvāṇa after death. Some[who?] Mahayana schools however, hold that once a completely enlightened Buddha (Skt. samyaksaṃbuddha) arises, he or she continues to directly and actively point the way to Nirvāṇa until there are no beings left in saṃsāra. Consequently, some Mahāyāna schools talk of a bodhisattva deliberately refraining from Buddhahood. The Lotus Sutra states that Shakyamuni Buddha's parinirvana is an expedient, and that he actually remains in the world to teach and guide living beings. This is why Nichiren Buddhism regards Shakyamuni as the Eternal Buddha.
The early schools held that Maitreya will be the next Buddha to rediscover the path to Nirvana, when teachings of Gautama Buddha are forgotten. In contrast, some Mahāyāna schools hold that Maitreya will be the next buddha manifest in this world and will introduce the Dharma when it no longer exists, but when he dies (or enters Mahāparinirvāṇa), he will likewise continue to teach the Dharma for all time. Moreover, some Mahāyāna schools argue that although it is true that, for this world-system, Maitreya will be the next buddha to manifest, there are an infinite number of world-systems, many of which have currently active buddhas or bodhisattvas manifesting.
Because the Mahāyāna traditions assert that eventually everyone will achieve complete enlightenment (Skt. Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi), the Mahāyāna is labeled universalist, whereas the stance of the early scriptures is that attaining Nirvāṇa depends on effort and is not pre-determined.
Bodhisattva
The Mahāyāna tradition holds that pursuing only the release from suffering and attainment of Nirvāṇa is too narrow an aspiration, because it lacks the motivation of actively resolving to liberate all other sentient beings from Saṃsāra. One who engages in this path is called a bodhisattva.
The defining characteristic of a bodhisattva is bodhicitta, the intention to achieve omniscient Buddhahood (Trikaya) as fast as possible, so that one may benefit infinite sentient beings. Sometimes the term bodhisattva is used more restrictively to refer to those sentient beings on the grounds. As Ananda Coomaraswamy notes, "The most essential part of the Mahayana is its emphasis on the Bodhisattva ideal, which replaces that of the arhat, or ranks before it." According to Mahāyāna teachings, being a high-level bodhisattva involves possessing a mind of great compassion and transcendent wisdom (Skt. prajñā) to realize the reality of inherent emptiness and dependent origination. Mahāyāna teaches that the practitioner will finally realize the attainment of Buddhahood.
Six perfections (Skt. pāramitā) are traditionally required for bodhisattvas:
- dāna-pāramitā: the perfection of giving
- śīla-pāramitā: the perfection on behavior and discipline
- kṣānti-pāramitā: the perfection of forbearance
- vīrya-pāramitā: the perfection of vigor and diligence
- dhyāna-pāramitā: the perfection of meditation
- prajñā-pāramitā: the perfection of transcendent wisdom
Expedient means
See also: Upaya
Expedient means (Skt. upāya) is found in the Lotus Sutra, one of the earliest dated Mahāyāna sūtras, and is accepted in all Mahāyāna schools of thought. It is any effective method that aids awakening. It does not necessarily mean that some particular method is "untrue" but is simply any means or stratagem that is conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening and nirvana. Expedient means could thus be certain motivational words for a particular listener or even the noble eightfold path itself. Basic Buddhism (what Mahāyāna would term śravakayāna or pratyekabuddhayāna) is an expedient method for helping people begin the noble Buddhist path and advance quite far. But the path is not wholly traversed, according to some Mahāyāna schools, until the practitioner has striven for and attained Buddhahood for the liberation of all other sentient beings from suffering.
Some scholars have stated that the exercise of expedient means, "the ability to adapt one's message to the audience, is also of enormous importance in the Pāli canon." In fact the Pāli term upāya-kosalla does occur in the Pāli Canon, in the Sangiti Sutta of the Digha Nikāya.
Liberation
“Devotional” Mahāyāna developed a rich cosmography, with various Buddhas and bodhisattvas residing in paradise realms. The concept of the three bodies (trikaya) supports these constructions, making the Buddha himself a transcendental figure. Dr. Guang Xing describes the Mahāyāna Buddha as "an omnipotent divinity endowed with numerous supernatural attributes and qualities ...[He] is described almost as an omnipotent and almighty godhead."
Under various conditions, the realms Buddha presides over could be attained by devotees after their death so, when reborn, they could strive towards buddhahood in the best possible conditions. Depending on the sect, this salvation to “paradise” can be obtained by faith, imaging, or sometimes even by the simple invocation of the Buddha’s name. This approach to salvation is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional Buddhism, especially represented by the Pure Land (浄土宗).
This rich cosmography also allowed Mahāyāna to be quite syncretic and accommodating of other faiths or deities. Various origins have been suggested to explain its emergence, such as “popular Hindu devotional cults (bhakti), and Persian and Greco-Roman theologies, which filtered into India from the northwest”.
Buddha nature
See also: Buddha nature
The teaching of a "Buddha nature" (Skt. tathāgatagarbha) may be based on the "luminous mind" concept found in the Āgamas. The essential idea, articulated in the Buddha nature sūtras, but not accepted by all Mahāyānists, is that no being is without a concealed but indestructible interior link to the awakening of bodhi and that this link is an uncreated element (dhātu) or principle deep inside each being, which constitutes the deathless, diamond-like "essence of the self". The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra states: "The essence of the Self (ātman) is the subtle Buddha nature..." while the later Lankāvatāra Sūtra states that the Buddha nature might be taken to be self (ātman), but it is not. In the 'Sagathakam' section of that same sutra, however, the Tathagatagarbha as the Self is not denied, but affirmed: 'The Atma [[[Self]]] characterised with purity is the state of self-realization; this is the Tathagata's Womb (garbha), which does not belong to the realm of the theorisers'.[52] In the Buddha nature class of sūtras, the word "self" (ātman) is used in a way defined by and specific to these sūtras. (See Atman.)
According to some scholars, the Buddha nature discussed in some Mahāyāna sūtras does not represent a substantial self (ātman); rather, it is a positive language and expression of emptiness (śūnyatā) and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. It is the "true self" in representing the innate aspect of the individual that makes actualizing the ultimate personality possible.
The actual "seeing and knowing" of this Buddha essence (Buddha-dhātu, co-terminous with the Dharmakāya or self of Buddha) is said to usher in nirvanic liberation. This Buddha essence or "Buddha nature" is stated to be found in every single person, ghost, god and sentient being. In the Buddha nature sūtras, the Buddha is portrayed as describing the Buddha essence as uncreated, deathless and ultimately beyond rational grasping or conceptualisation. Yet, it is this already real and present, hidden internal element of awakeness (bodhi) that, according to the Buddha nature sūtras, prompts beings to seek liberation from worldly suffering, and lets them attain the spotless bliss that lies at the heart of their being. Once the veils of negative thoughts, feelings, and unwholesome behaviour (the kleśas) are eliminated from the mind and character, the indwelling Buddha principle (Buddha-dhātu: Buddha nature) can shine forth unimpededly and transform the seer into a Buddha.
Prior to the period of these sūtras, Mahāyāna metaphysics was dominated by teachings on emptiness, in the form of Madhyamaka philosophy. The language used by this approach is primarily negative, and the Buddha nature genre of sūtras can be seen as an attempt to state orthodox Buddhist teachings of dependent origination and on the mysterious reality of nirvana using positive language instead, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism. In these sūtras the perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self; the ultimate goal of the path is then characterized using a range of positive language that had been used in Indian philosophy previously by essentialist philosophers, but was now transmuted into a new Buddhist vocabulary that described a being who has successfully completed the Buddhist path.
The Uttaratantra (an exegetical treatise on Buddha nature) sees Buddha nature not as caused and conditioned (saṃskṛta), but as eternal, uncaused, unconditioned, and incapable of being destroyed, although temporarily concealed within worldly beings by adventitious defilements. According to Buddhist scholar Dr. C. D. Sebastian, the Uttaratantra's reference to a transcendental self (ātma-pāramitā) should be understood as "the unique essence of the universe," thus the universal and immanent essence of Buddha nature is the same throughout time and space.
Scriptures
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Āgamas
See also: Mahayana sutras
Mahāyāna Buddhism takes the basic teachings of the Buddha as recorded in early scriptures as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning karma and rebirth, anātman, emptiness, dependent origination, and the Four Noble Truths. Mahāyāna Buddhists in East Asia have traditionally studied these teachings in the Āgamas preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon. "Āgama" is the term used by those traditional Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon. These correspond to the Nikāyas used by the Theravāda school. The surviving Āgamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools, while most of the Āgamas teachings were never translated into Tibetan.
In addition to accepting the essential scriptures of the various early Buddhist schools as valid, Mahāyāna Buddhism also maintains large additional collections of sūtras that are not used or recognized by the Theravāda school. In the past, these were also not recognized by some individuals within the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities were divided along these doctrinal lines. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Mahāyāna sūtras are often given greater authority than the Āgamas. The first of these Mahāyāna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE.
Turnings of the Dharma Wheel
Dating back at least to the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into three categories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "Three Turnings of the Dharma Wheel". According to this view, there were three such "turnings":
- In the first turning, the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths at Vārāṇasī for those in the śravaka vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy. The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in the Dharmacakra Pravartana Sūtra. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in the history of Buddhism.
- In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahāyāna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching that all phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy. Doctrine of the second turning is established in the Prajñāpāramitā teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is exemplified by the Mādhyamaka school of Nāgārjuna.
- In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the three vehicles, including all the śravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be necessary, and controversy would not occur. These teachings were established by the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE. In the Indian philosophical schools, the third turning is exemplified by the Yogācāra school of Asaṅga and Vasubandhu.
Some traditions of Tibetan Buddhism consider the teachings of Esoteric Buddhism and Vajrayāna to be the third turning of the Dharma Wheel. Tibetan teachers, particularly of the Gelugpa school, regard the second turning as the highest teaching, due to their particular interpretation of Yogācāra doctrine. The Buddha Nature teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel. The Chinese tradition has a different scheme.
The Chinese scholar T'ien-T'ai believed the Buddha taught over Five Periods. These are:
- The Flower Garland Period.
- The Agama Period.
- The Correct and Equal Period (provisional Mahayana Sutras, including the Amida, Mahavairochana and Vimalakirti Sutras).
- The Wisdom Period (Perfection of Wisdom Sutras).
- The Lotus and Nirvana Period (when Shakyamuni taught from the standpoint of his Enlightenment)
Early canon
Scholars have noted that many key Mahāyāna ideas are closely connected to the earliest texts of Buddhism. The seminal work of Mahāyāna philosophy, Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, mentions the canon's Katyāyana Sūtra by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work. Nāgārjuna systematized the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna philosophy. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon. In his eyes the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system. Nāgārjuna also referred to a passage in the canon regarding "nirvanic consciousness" in two different works.
Yogācāra, the other prominent Mahāyāna school in dialectic with the Mādhyamaka school, gave a special significance to the canon's Lesser Discourse on Emptiness . A passage there (which the discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogācāra texts as a true definition of emptiness. According to Walpola Rahula, the thought presented in the Yogācāra school's Abhidharma-samuccaya is undeniably closer to that of the Pali Nikayas than is that of the Theravadin Abhidhamma.
Both the Mādhyamikas and the Yogācārins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing). The Yogācārins criticized the Mādhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mādhyamikas criticized the Yogācārins for tending towards substantialism.
Key Mahāyāna texts introducing the concepts of bodhicitta and Buddha nature also use language parallel to passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "luminous mind" and may have been based on this idea.
Theravāda school
Role of the Bodhisattva
In the early Buddhist texts, and as taught by the modern Theravada school, the goal of becoming a teaching Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for most practitioners to aspire to this goal. Theravada texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly virtuous goal.
Theravāda and Hīnayāna
Although the Theravāda school is usually described as belonging to Hīnayāna, some authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahāyāna perspective. Their view is based on a different understanding of the concept of Hīnayāna. Rather than regarding the term as referring to any school of Buddhism that hasn't accepted the Mahāyāna canon and doctrines, such as those pertaining to the role of the boddhisatva, these authors argue that the classification of a school as "Hīnayāna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific phenomenological position. They point out that unlike the now-extinct Sarvāstivāda school, which was the primary object of Mahāyāna criticism, the Theravāda does not claim the existence of independent entities (dharmas); in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism. Adherents of Mahāyāna Buddhism disagreed with the substantialist thought of the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas, and in emphasizing the doctrine of emptiness, Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching. The Theravādins too refuted the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravāda arguments are preserved in the Kathāvatthu. Thus, according to this view, no form of real Hīnayāna Buddhism survives today.
Some contemporary Theravādin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahāyāna philosophy found in texts such as the Heart Sūtra (Skt. Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya) and Nāgārjuna's Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way (Skt. Mūlamadhyamakakārikā).