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Difference between revisions of "The Two Truths: Vaibhashika and Sautrantika"

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Occasionally, we shall also indicate some of the major variants found in the non-Gelug [[Tibetan lineages]]. To represent the position of these [[lineages]], we shall rely primarily on the explanations given by the [[Sakya master]] [[Gorampa]] ([[Go-ram bSod-nams seng-ge]]).
 
Occasionally, we shall also indicate some of the major variants found in the non-Gelug [[Tibetan lineages]]. To represent the position of these [[lineages]], we shall rely primarily on the explanations given by the [[Sakya master]] [[Gorampa]] ([[Go-ram bSod-nams seng-ge]]).
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Study of the [[Two Truths]]
 
Study of the [[Two Truths]]
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All [[Hinayana]] and [[Mahayana]] [[tenet]] systems assert the [[two truths]] ([[bden-pa gnyis]]). Regardless of how the [[tenet]] systems define and [[delineate]] them, the [[two truths]] always constitute a {{Wiki|dichotomy}} ([[dngos-‘gal]]). All [[knowable phenomena]] must be members of the set of either one or the other true [[phenomena]], with nothing knowable that belongs to either both or neither of the sets. Consequently, [[understanding]] the [[two truths]] constitutes [[understanding]] all [[knowable phenomena]].
 
All [[Hinayana]] and [[Mahayana]] [[tenet]] systems assert the [[two truths]] ([[bden-pa gnyis]]). Regardless of how the [[tenet]] systems define and [[delineate]] them, the [[two truths]] always constitute a {{Wiki|dichotomy}} ([[dngos-‘gal]]). All [[knowable phenomena]] must be members of the set of either one or the other true [[phenomena]], with nothing knowable that belongs to either both or neither of the sets. Consequently, [[understanding]] the [[two truths]] constitutes [[understanding]] all [[knowable phenomena]].
  
Only the [[Mahayana schools]] assert [[cognitive obscurations]] ([[shes-sgrib]]) which prevent [[omniscience]] ([[kun-mkhyen]]). [[Omniscience]] means the simultaneous [[cognition]] of all [[knowable phenomena]]. Simultaneous [[cognition]] of all [[knowable phenomena]], in turn, requires full and accurate [[understanding]] of all [[knowable phenomena]] – in other words, full and accurate simultaneous [[understanding]] of the [[two truths]]. Thus, to rid ourselves of the [[cognitive obscurations]] and [[attain enlightenment]] requires full and accurate [[understanding]] of which [[phenomena]] constitute each of the [[two truths]] and the manners in which each of these constituent [[phenomena]] [[exist]] and do not [[exist]].
 
  
One of the [[methods]] followed by the various [[Tibetan Buddhist traditions]] for gaining this [[understanding]] is through an integrative study of the assertions of all [[four tenet systems]] concerning the [[two truths]]. This is because the [[Tibetan tradition]] regards these assertions as progressively more sophisticated. [[Understanding]] the assertions of the less sophisticated [[tenets]] provides the foundation for [[understanding]] those that are more complex. Thus, by studying all [[four tenet systems]], [[Mahayana]] practitioners narrow in on the deepest [[understanding]] of the [[two truths]], in order to help them rid themselves of their [[cognitive obscurations]] and attain the [[omniscient]] [[state of a Buddha]].
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Only the [[Mahayana schools]] assert [[cognitive obscurations]] ([[shes-sgrib]]) which prevent [[omniscience]] ([[kun-mkhyen]]). [[Omniscience]] means the simultaneous [[cognition]] of all [[knowable phenomena]]. Simultaneous [[cognition]] of all [[knowable phenomena]], in turn, requires full and accurate [[understanding]] of all [[knowable phenomena]] in other
  
My [[teacher]], [[Tsenzhab Serkong Rinpoche]], said that just because the more sophisticated [[tenet]] systems refute the less sophisticated ones, we must not think that the [[latter]] are senseless or useless. After all, according to [[tradition]], [[Buddha]] [[taught]] them all, with each intended not only for a specific audience, but also for a specific stage in a practitioner’s [[development]]. Significant [[spiritual]] progress follows from [[successively]] gaining discriminating [[awareness]] ([[shes-rab]], [[wisdom]]) of all [[phenomena]] in terms of each system, as when progressing through the three levels of graded [[lam-rim]] [[motivation]].
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words, full and accurate simultaneous [[understanding]] of the [[two truths]]. Thus, to rid ourselves of the [[cognitive obscurations]] and [[attain enlightenment]] requires full and accurate [[understanding]] of which [[phenomena]] constitute each of the [[two truths]] and the manners in which each of these constituent [[phenomena]] [[exist]] and do not [[exist]].
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One of the [[methods]] followed by the various [[Tibetan Buddhist traditions]] for gaining this [[understanding]] is through an integrative study of the assertions of all [[four tenet systems]] concerning the [[two truths]]. This is because the [[Tibetan tradition]] regards these assertions as progressively more sophisticated. [[Understanding]] the assertions of the
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less sophisticated [[tenets]] provides the foundation for [[understanding]] those that are more complex. Thus, by studying all [[four tenet systems]], [[Mahayana]] practitioners narrow in on the deepest [[understanding]] of the [[two truths]], in order to help them rid themselves of their [[cognitive obscurations]] and attain the [[omniscient]] [[state of a Buddha]].
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My [[teacher]], [[Tsenzhab Serkong Rinpoche]], said that just because the more sophisticated [[tenet]] systems refute the less sophisticated ones, we must not think that the [[latter]] are senseless or useless. After all, according to [[tradition]], [[Buddha]] [[taught]] them all, with each intended not only for a specific audience, but also for a specific  
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 +
stage in a practitioner’s [[development]]. Significant [[spiritual]] progress follows from [[successively]] gaining discriminating [[awareness]] ([[shes-rab]], [[wisdom]]) of all [[phenomena]] in terms of each system, as when progressing through the three levels of graded [[lam-rim]] [[motivation]].
  
  
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Everything is knowable. [[Existent phenomena]] ([[yod-pa]]) may be known by valid [[cognition]] ([[tshad-ma]]). Nonexistent [[phenomena]] (med-pa) – such as [[hallucinations]], turtle-hair, and impossible ways of [[existing]] – may be known by invalid, distorted [[cognition]] ([[log-shes]]). When known, [[Wikipedia:Nothing|nonexistent]] [[phenomena]] themselves do not appear to distorted [[cognition]], because they do not actually [[exist]]. According to [[Sautrantika]] and the [[Mahayana]] systems, the [[consciousness]] [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] them merely takes on or assumes a [[mental]] aspect ([[rnam-pa]]) that represents them, somewhat like a [[mental]] hologram.
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Everything is knowable. [[Existent phenomena]] ([[yod-pa]]) may be known by valid [[cognition]] ([[tshad-ma]]). Nonexistent [[phenomena]] (med-pa) – such as [[hallucinations]], turtle-hair, and impossible ways of [[existing]] – may be known by invalid, distorted [[cognition]] ([[log-shes]]). When known, [[Wikipedia:Nothing|nonexistent]] [[phenomena]] themselves do  
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not appear to distorted [[cognition]], because they do not actually [[exist]]. According to [[Sautrantika]] and the [[Mahayana]] systems, the [[consciousness]] [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] them merely takes on or assumes a [[mental]] aspect ([[rnam-pa]]) that represents them, somewhat like a [[mental]] hologram.
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#[See: The [[Appearance]] and [[Cognition]] of Nonexistent [[Phenomena]]]
 
#[See: The [[Appearance]] and [[Cognition]] of Nonexistent [[Phenomena]]]
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Both non static and static [[phenomena]] may have a beginning and an end, no beginning and no end, a beginning but no end, or no beginning but an end. Thus, the {{Wiki|distinction}} between non static and static [[phenomena]] has nothing to do with how long a [[phenomenon]] lasts. Rather, the {{Wiki|distinction}} is drawn in terms of whether or not something changes from [[moment]] to [[moment]] while it lasts. Non Static [[phenomena]] arise from [[causes and conditions]], are affected by other [[phenomena]], change from [[moment]] to [[moment]], and produce effects. Static [[phenomena]] do not arise from [[causes and conditions]], are not affected by other [[phenomena]], do not change from [[moment]] to [[moment]], and do not produce any effects.
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Both non static and static [[phenomena]] may have a beginning and an end, no beginning and no end, a beginning but no end, or no beginning but an end. Thus, the {{Wiki|distinction}} between non static and static [[phenomena]] has nothing to do with how long a [[phenomenon]] lasts. Rather, the {{Wiki|distinction}} is drawn in terms of whether or not something changes from [[moment]] to [[moment]] while it lasts. Non Static [[phenomena]] arise from [[causes and conditions]], are affected by  
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other [[phenomena]], change from [[moment]] to [[moment]], and produce effects. Static [[phenomena]] do not arise from [[causes and conditions]], are not affected by other [[phenomena]], do not change from [[moment]] to [[moment]], and do not produce any effects.
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#[See: Static and [[Nonstatic]] [[Phenomena]]]
 
#[See: Static and [[Nonstatic]] [[Phenomena]]]
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Non Congruent affecting variables ([[ldan-min ‘du-byed]], nonassociated [[compositional factors]]). In general, these are defined as non static [[phenomena]] that are neither [[forms]] of [[physical phenomena]] nor [[ways of being aware of something ]]– for example, acquirements (thob-pa), arisings (skye-ba), agings (rga-ba), and disintegrations (‘jig-pa). Non Congruent affecting variables do not share five things in common ([[mtshungs-ldan lnga]]) with the [[primary consciousness]] ([[rnam-shes]]) and [[subsidiary awarenesses]] ([[sems-byung]], [[mental factors]]) that they accompany.
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Non Congruent affecting variables ([[ldan-min ‘du-byed]], nonassociated [[compositional factors]]). In general, these are defined as non static [[phenomena]] that are neither [[forms]] of [[physical phenomena]] nor [[ways of being aware of something ]]– for example, acquirements (thob-pa), arisings (skye-ba), agings (rga-ba), and disintegrations (‘jig-pa). Non  
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Congruent affecting variables do not share five things in common ([[mtshungs-ldan lnga]]) with the [[primary consciousness]] ([[rnam-shes]]) and [[subsidiary awarenesses]] ([[sems-byung]], [[mental factors]]) that they accompany.
  
 
Although [[Vaibhashika]] mentions only fourteen noncongruent affecting variables, other non static [[phenomena]] also fall into this category, such as
 
Although [[Vaibhashika]] mentions only fourteen noncongruent affecting variables, other non static [[phenomena]] also fall into this category, such as
  
 
      
 
      
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#Time
 
#Time
 
      
 
      
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#Nonimplicative negations ([[med-dgag]], nonaffirming negations, [[absolute]] nullifications)
 
#Nonimplicative negations ([[med-dgag]], nonaffirming negations, [[absolute]] nullifications)
 
      
 
      
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{{Wiki|dimensions}}, but without being the [[cause]] for its occupying three {{Wiki|dimensions}}. [[Space]] is also a static fact about an in-between area ([[bar-snang]]) – an open area between two [[material objects]], such as the two sides of an open door. The [[space]] imputable on an in-between area  
 
{{Wiki|dimensions}}, but without being the [[cause]] for its occupying three {{Wiki|dimensions}}. [[Space]] is also a static fact about an in-between area ([[bar-snang]]) – an open area between two [[material objects]], such as the two sides of an open door. The [[space]] imputable on an in-between area  
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accounts for a material [[object]] either to be situated in the area or to pass through it. It does not produce, as its effect, an object’s sitting somewhere or moving elsewhere. [[Space]], then, does not refer to the [[space]] an [[object]] occupies, or to the [[space]] inside it, the [[space]] around it, or the open [[space]] between it and something else.
 
accounts for a material [[object]] either to be situated in the area or to pass through it. It does not produce, as its effect, an object’s sitting somewhere or moving elsewhere. [[Space]], then, does not refer to the [[space]] an [[object]] occupies, or to the [[space]] inside it, the [[space]] around it, or the open [[space]] between it and something else.
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A nonanalytical stopping is a static eternal parting from the occurrence of a result [[arising]] from a particular [[cause]], once that result has occurred from another [[cause]]. An example is the nonanalytical stopping of arriving at work today by car when you have arrived today by bus. Once you have arrived today by bus, your arriving today by car will never happen. The fact that it will never happen will never change, and cannot be affected by anything.
 
A nonanalytical stopping is a static eternal parting from the occurrence of a result [[arising]] from a particular [[cause]], once that result has occurred from another [[cause]]. An example is the nonanalytical stopping of arriving at work today by car when you have arrived today by bus. Once you have arrived today by bus, your arriving today by car will never happen. The fact that it will never happen will never change, and cannot be affected by anything.
  
A [[voidness]] is a static fact about some [[phenomenon]]. It is the static fact of a phenomenon’s total absence of [[existing]] in an impossible way. Although the term [[voidness]] appears primarily in the [[Mahayana]] systems, we may use the term loosely to refer to both the lack of an impossible [[soul]] of a [[person]] (gang-zag-gi [[bdag-med]], [[selflessness]] of a [[person]], identitylessness of a [[person]]) and the lack of an impossible [[soul]] of [[phenomena]] ([[chos-kyi bdag-med]], [[selflessness of phenomena]], [[identitylessness of phenomena]]), Each [[tenet]] system specifies, within the context of its [[own]] definitions, the ways of [[existing]] and “[[souls]]” that are impossible.
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A [[voidness]] is a static fact about some [[phenomenon]]. It is the static fact of a phenomenon’s total absence of [[existing]] in an impossible way. Although the term [[voidness]] appears primarily in the [[Mahayana]] systems, we may use the term loosely to refer to both the lack of an impossible [[soul]] of a [[person]] (gang-zag-gi [[bdag-med]],  
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[[selflessness]] of a [[person]], identitylessness of a [[person]]) and the lack of an impossible [[soul]] of [[phenomena]] ([[chos-kyi bdag-med]], [[selflessness of phenomena]], [[identitylessness of phenomena]]), Each [[tenet]] system specifies, within the context of its [[own]] definitions, the ways of [[existing]] and “[[souls]]” that are impossible.
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#Only the [[Mahayana]] [[tenet]] systems assert the lack of an impossible [[soul]] of [[phenomena]]
 
#Only the [[Mahayana]] [[tenet]] systems assert the lack of an impossible [[soul]] of [[phenomena]]
 
      
 
      
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Although the [[Vaibhashika]] system specifies only three static [[phenomena]], it would need to accept that the lack of an impossible [[soul]] of a [[person]] is a static [[phenomenon]]. As such, it would be included within the category of analytical stoppings, although not considered the same as an analytical stopping.
 
Although the [[Vaibhashika]] system specifies only three static [[phenomena]], it would need to accept that the lack of an impossible [[soul]] of a [[person]] is a static [[phenomenon]]. As such, it would be included within the category of analytical stoppings, although not considered the same as an analytical stopping.
 
      
 
      
One important {{Wiki|distinction}} to note is that a [[space]] is the absence of something that does [[exist]], while a [[voidness]] and the lack of an impossible [[soul]] are absences of something that does not [[exist]], never has existed, and never will [[exist]].
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One important {{Wiki|distinction}} to note is that a [[space]] is the absence of something that does [[exist]], while a [[voidness]] and the lack of an impossible [[soul]] are absences of something that does not [[exist]], never has existed, and never will [[exist]]
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.
  
 
A [[nonimplicative negation]] [[phenomenon]] is one in which, after the [[sound]] of the words of the {{Wiki|negation}} have eliminated the [[object]] to be negated ([[dgag-bya]]), no [[affirmation]] [[phenomena]] ([[sgrub-pa]]) are left behind or implied.
 
A [[nonimplicative negation]] [[phenomenon]] is one in which, after the [[sound]] of the words of the {{Wiki|negation}} have eliminated the [[object]] to be negated ([[dgag-bya]]), no [[affirmation]] [[phenomena]] ([[sgrub-pa]]) are left behind or implied.
  
 
      
 
      
Except for [[Vaibhashika]], all other [[tenet]] systems assert that both spaces, [[voidnesses]], and lacks of impossible [[souls]] are [[nonimplicative negation]] [[phenomena]]. [[Vaibhashika]] does not assert nonimplicative negations. According to [[Vaibhashika]], spaces and lacks of impossible [[souls]] are [[implicative negation]] [[phenomenon]] ([[ma-yin dgag]], [[affirming]] negations). An [[implicative negation]] [[phenomenon]] is one in which, after the [[sound]] of the words of the {{Wiki|negation}} have eliminated the [[object]] to be negated, both [[affirmation]] and {{Wiki|negation}} [[phenomena]] are left behind or implied.
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Except for [[Vaibhashika]], all other [[tenet]] systems assert that both spaces, [[voidnesses]], and lacks of impossible [[souls]] are [[nonimplicative negation]] [[phenomena]]. [[Vaibhashika]] does not assert nonimplicative negations. According to [[Vaibhashika]], spaces and lacks of impossible [[souls]] are [[implicative negation]] [[phenomenon]] ([[ma-yin dgag]],  
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[[affirming]] negations). An [[implicative negation]] [[phenomenon]] is one in which, after the [[sound]] of the words of the {{Wiki|negation}} have eliminated the [[object]] to be negated, both [[affirmation]] and {{Wiki|negation}} [[phenomena]] are left behind or implied.
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The {{Wiki|individual}} items that fit into an audio category are the {{Wiki|sounds}} of a [[word]], pronounced with any {{Wiki|voice}}, accent, or volume, but not necessarily having any meaning understood by the {{Wiki|sounds}}. When anyone says “table,” whether or not the [[person]] [[understands]] the meaning of this acoustic pattern, the [[person]] is saying {{Wiki|sounds}} that fit into the audio category of the [[word]] table.
 
The {{Wiki|individual}} items that fit into an audio category are the {{Wiki|sounds}} of a [[word]], pronounced with any {{Wiki|voice}}, accent, or volume, but not necessarily having any meaning understood by the {{Wiki|sounds}}. When anyone says “table,” whether or not the [[person]] [[understands]] the meaning of this acoustic pattern, the [[person]] is saying {{Wiki|sounds}} that fit into the audio category of the [[word]] table.
 
      
 
      
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The {{Wiki|individual}} items that fit into a meaning/object category are the [[objects]] meant or signified by the {{Wiki|sounds}} of a [[word]]. All {{Wiki|individual}} [[objects]] with a flat surface supported by {{Wiki|legs}} fit into the meaning/object category table.
 
The {{Wiki|individual}} items that fit into a meaning/object category are the [[objects]] meant or signified by the {{Wiki|sounds}} of a [[word]]. All {{Wiki|individual}} [[objects]] with a flat surface supported by {{Wiki|legs}} fit into the meaning/object category table.
  
Categories are formulated in terms of words, definitions, and [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]], but they are not created by words and so on. They do not grow from a [[word]] and a [[definition]] like a plant that grows from a seed, with the help of [[water]]. Moreover, categories do not change from [[moment]] to [[moment]]. A new category, such as the audio and meaning/object category {{Wiki|computer}} may have a beginning. But even as new {{Wiki|individual}} items (new models) are designed and built, they can still be included in the category {{Wiki|computer}}, so long as they fulfill the {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks agreed upon by convention as what specify a “{{Wiki|computer}}.” The category {{Wiki|computer}} itself does not change and does not do anything.
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Categories are formulated in terms of words, definitions, and [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]], but they are not created by words and so on. They do not grow from a [[word]] and a [[definition]] like a plant that grows from a seed, with the help of [[water]]. Moreover, categories do not change from [[moment]] to [[moment]]. A new category, such as the audio and meaning/object category {{Wiki|computer}} may have a beginning. But even as new {{Wiki|individual}} items (new models) are  
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designed and built, they can still be included in the category {{Wiki|computer}}, so long as they fulfill the {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks agreed upon by convention as what specify a “{{Wiki|computer}}.” The category {{Wiki|computer}} itself does not change and does not do anything.
  
 
      
 
      
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[[Vaibhashika]] does not accept that audio and meaning/object categories are static [[phenomena]]. According to [[Vaibhashika]], they are nonstatic [[phenomena]] – specifically, noncongruent affecting variables.
 
[[Vaibhashika]] does not accept that audio and meaning/object categories are static [[phenomena]]. According to [[Vaibhashika]], they are nonstatic [[phenomena]] – specifically, noncongruent affecting variables.
  
  
#The General [[Meaning of the Two Truths]]
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#[[The General Meaning of the Two Truths]]
  
  
The [[two truths]] (two true [[phenomena]]) are the [[superficial]] [[truth]] ([[kun-rdzob bden-pa]], Skt. [[samvrtisatya]], [[relative]], [[conventional truth]]) and the deepest [[truth]] ([[don-dam bden-pa]], Skt. [[paramarthasatya]], [[ultimate truth]]).
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The [[two truths]] ([[two true phenomena]]) are the [[superficial truth]] ([[kun-rdzob bden-pa]], Skt. [[samvrtisatya]], [[relative]], [[conventional truth]]) and the [[deepest truth]] ([[don-dam bden-pa]], Skt. [[paramarthasatya]], [[ultimate truth]]).
  
According to the [[Indian master]] [[Chandrakirti]], in his Clear Words (Tshig-gsal, Skt. [[Prasannapada]]), the term translated here as “[[superficial]]” ([[kun-rdzob]], Skt. [[samvrti]]) has three meanings:
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According to the [[Indian master]] [[Chandrakirti]], in his Clear Words ([[Tshig-gsal]], Skt. [[Prasannapada]]), the term translated here as “[[superficial]]” ([[kun-rdzob]], Skt. [[samvrti]]) has three meanings:
  
 
      
 
      
That which obstructs [[seeing]] the accordant [[nature of reality]] (de-bzhin-nyid, [[thusness]], [[suchness]]) – namely, [[seeing]] the [[reality]] of the [[four noble truths]]
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That which obstructs [[seeing]] the accordant [[nature of reality]] ([[de-bzhin-nyid]], [[thusness]], [[suchness]]) – namely, [[seeing]] the [[reality]] of the [[four noble truths]]
 
      
 
      
  
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The [[Vaibhashika]] system uses “[[superficial]]” in the second meaning, as referring to things that depend on parts or on a basis for [[imputation]] (gdags-gzhi). They lack a [[self-nature]] of being able to stand in their [[own]] place ([[rang-la tshugs-thub-kyi rang-bzhin med-pa]]) when analyzed with {{Wiki|scrutiny}}.
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The [[Vaibhashika]] system uses “[[superficial]]” in the second meaning, as referring to things that depend on parts or on a basis for [[imputation]] ([[gdags-gzhi]]). They lack a [[self-nature]] of being able to stand in their [[own]] place ([[rang-la tshugs-thub-kyi rang-bzhin med-pa]]) when analyzed with {{Wiki|scrutiny}}.
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The [[Sautrantika]] system tends to use “[[superficial]]” in the third [[sense]], as referring primarily to conventions – namely static [[metaphysical]] entities such as categories, designated with words and names – that are [[mentally]] labeled on the basis of [[objective]] entities.
 
The [[Sautrantika]] system tends to use “[[superficial]]” in the third [[sense]], as referring primarily to conventions – namely static [[metaphysical]] entities such as categories, designated with words and names – that are [[mentally]] labeled on the basis of [[objective]] entities.
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The [[Mahayana]] systems use “[[superficial]]” in the first [[sense]], as referring to a [[truth]] about some [[phenomenon]], which either partly veils or completely conceals something deeper about that [[phenomenon]]. The deepest [[truth]] about the [[phenomenon]] is what the former [[truth]] partly veils or completely conceals. In general, the [[superficial]] [[truth]] about something is its [[appearance]] – what it appears to be. Its deepest [[truth]] is how it actually [[exists]].
 
The [[Mahayana]] systems use “[[superficial]]” in the first [[sense]], as referring to a [[truth]] about some [[phenomenon]], which either partly veils or completely conceals something deeper about that [[phenomenon]]. The deepest [[truth]] about the [[phenomenon]] is what the former [[truth]] partly veils or completely conceals. In general, the [[superficial]] [[truth]] about something is its [[appearance]] – what it appears to be. Its deepest [[truth]] is how it actually [[exists]].
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In a [[sense]], one could say that even in the second and third meanings, [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] obscure deepest true [[phenomena]]. Anything that is dependent on parts obscures or veils the ultimately smallest parts on which it depends, and [[worldly]] conventions obscure the [[objective]] entities that are known through them.
 
In a [[sense]], one could say that even in the second and third meanings, [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] obscure deepest true [[phenomena]]. Anything that is dependent on parts obscures or veils the ultimately smallest parts on which it depends, and [[worldly]] conventions obscure the [[objective]] entities that are known through them.
  
None of the [[tenet]] systems, however, asserts one of the [[two truths]] as the [[absolute]] or actual [[truth]], truer than the other is. Rather, each is true to the valid [[cognition]] ([[tshad-ma]]) that takes it as one of its [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[objects]]. In other words, [[Buddhism]] does not {{Wiki|present}} [[two truths]] as extreme [[transcendental]] [[religions]] or [[philosophies]] do, with the two totally separate from each other. It does not share the [[philosophy]] of “deny this [[world]] and accept only the [[world]] beyond.” Nor does it assert levels of [[reality]] [[existing]] {{Wiki|independently}} of each other, as in the case of a [[transcendent]] [[God]] [[existing]] before the [[universe]] and then creating the [[universe]]. The [[two truths]] in [[Buddhism]] are [[interdependent]].
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None of the [[tenet]] systems, however, asserts one of the [[two truths]] as the [[absolute]] or actual [[truth]], truer than the other is. Rather, each is true to the valid [[cognition]] ([[tshad-ma]]) that takes it as one of its [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[objects]]. In other words, [[Buddhism]] does not {{Wiki|present}} [[two truths]] as  
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extreme [[transcendental]] [[religions]] or [[philosophies]] do, with the two totally separate from each other. It does not share the [[philosophy]] of “deny this [[world]] and accept only the [[world]] beyond.” Nor does it assert levels of [[reality]] [[existing]] {{Wiki|independently}} of each other, as in the case of a [[transcendent]] [[God]] [[existing]] before the [[universe]] and then creating the [[universe]]. The [[two truths]] in [[Buddhism]] are [[interdependent]].
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#Organizing the [[Hinayana]] and [[Mahayana]] Presentations into a Graded System
 
#Organizing the [[Hinayana]] and [[Mahayana]] Presentations into a Graded System
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In the [[Hinayana]] systems of [[Vaibhashika]] and [[Sautrantika]], the [[two truths]] are two sets of true [[phenomena]]. In technical terms, the two types of true [[phenomena]] have different [[essential]] natures ([[ngo-bo]] tha-dad): they are [[essentially]] two different types of things.
 
In the [[Hinayana]] systems of [[Vaibhashika]] and [[Sautrantika]], the [[two truths]] are two sets of true [[phenomena]]. In technical terms, the two types of true [[phenomena]] have different [[essential]] natures ([[ngo-bo]] tha-dad): they are [[essentially]] two different types of things.
 
      
 
      
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In the [[Mahayana]] systems of [[Chittamatra]] and [[Madhyamaka]], the [[two truths]] share the same [[essential nature]] ([[ngo-bo gcig]]). They are two true facts about the same aspect of a particular [[phenomenon]]: such as about the [[sight]] of something or about the [[sound]] of something.
 
In the [[Mahayana]] systems of [[Chittamatra]] and [[Madhyamaka]], the [[two truths]] share the same [[essential nature]] ([[ngo-bo gcig]]). They are two true facts about the same aspect of a particular [[phenomenon]]: such as about the [[sight]] of something or about the [[sound]] of something.
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Despite this fundamental difference, we can gain an introductory overview of the [[two truths]] that spans both the [[Hinayana]] and [[Mahayana]] systems by [[looking at]] the [[Hinayana]] presentation in terms of the [[Mahayana]] formulation. To do this, let us not look at all aspects of each system’s presentation of the [[two truths]], but simply examine how each presentation regards the [[cognition]] of one item – for instance [[forms]] of [[physical phenomena]], such as a hand.
 
Despite this fundamental difference, we can gain an introductory overview of the [[two truths]] that spans both the [[Hinayana]] and [[Mahayana]] systems by [[looking at]] the [[Hinayana]] presentation in terms of the [[Mahayana]] formulation. To do this, let us not look at all aspects of each system’s presentation of the [[two truths]], but simply examine how each presentation regards the [[cognition]] of one item – for instance [[forms]] of [[physical phenomena]], such as a hand.
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#In general:
 
#In general:
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In the [[Hinayana]] systems, when we examine a hand with a [[mind]] valid for [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} one type of [[phenomenon]]. When we examine with a [[mind]] valid for [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] deepest true [[phenomena]], we  
 
In the [[Hinayana]] systems, when we examine a hand with a [[mind]] valid for [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} one type of [[phenomenon]]. When we examine with a [[mind]] valid for [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] deepest true [[phenomena]], we  
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{{Wiki|cognize}} another type of [[phenomenon]]. In brief, according to [[Vaibhashika]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} either a material hand or the smallest {{Wiki|particles}} it is made of. According to [[Sautrantika]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} either the category “hand” or the material hand. The material hand obscures the {{Wiki|particles}}, and the category obscures the material hand.
 
{{Wiki|cognize}} another type of [[phenomenon]]. In brief, according to [[Vaibhashika]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} either a material hand or the smallest {{Wiki|particles}} it is made of. According to [[Sautrantika]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} either the category “hand” or the material hand. The material hand obscures the {{Wiki|particles}}, and the category obscures the material hand.
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In the [[Mahayana]] systems, when we examine a hand with a [[mind]] valid for [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] [[superficial]] [[truths]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} what an [[object]] appears to be and how it appears to [[exist]]. When we examine with a [[mind]] valid for  
 
In the [[Mahayana]] systems, when we examine a hand with a [[mind]] valid for [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] [[superficial]] [[truths]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} what an [[object]] appears to be and how it appears to [[exist]]. When we examine with a [[mind]] valid for  
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[[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] deepest [[truths]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} how an [[object]] actually [[exists]]. In brief, according to [[Chittamatra]] and [[Madhyamaka]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} a either a hand or its [[voidness]] of [[existing]] in an impossible way.
 
[[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] deepest [[truths]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} how an [[object]] actually [[exists]]. In brief, according to [[Chittamatra]] and [[Madhyamaka]], we {{Wiki|cognize}} a either a hand or its [[voidness]] of [[existing]] in an impossible way.
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What something appears to be – the [[sight]] of a hand – may be either accurate ([[tshul-bcas]]) or inaccurate ([[tshul-min]]), depending on whether or not it can be corroborated by further valid [[cognition]] of what things {{Wiki|conventionally}} are. Similarly, how something appears to [[exist]] may be either [[pure]] ([[dag-pa]]) or impure (ma-dag-pa), depending on whether or not the way that something appears to [[exist]] corresponds to the way in which it actually [[exists]].
 
What something appears to be – the [[sight]] of a hand – may be either accurate ([[tshul-bcas]]) or inaccurate ([[tshul-min]]), depending on whether or not it can be corroborated by further valid [[cognition]] of what things {{Wiki|conventionally}} are. Similarly, how something appears to [[exist]] may be either [[pure]] ([[dag-pa]]) or impure (ma-dag-pa), depending on whether or not the way that something appears to [[exist]] corresponds to the way in which it actually [[exists]].
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Many of the non-Gelug systems include among [[superficial]] [[truths]] only impure [[appearances]]. Because of their [[assertion]] of the {{Wiki|inseparability}} of [[voidness]] and [[appearance]], they include [[pure]] [[appearances]] as deepest [[truths]].
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Many of the [[non-Gelug]] systems include among [[superficial truths]] only impure [[appearances]]. Because of their [[assertion]] of the {{Wiki|inseparability}} of [[voidness]] and [[appearance]], they include [[pure]] [[appearances]] as deepest [[truths]].
  
Impure [[superficial]] [[truths]] appear to [[exist]] in impossible ways. The actual manner in which [[superficial]] [[truths]] [[exist]] is devoid of those impossible ways in which they impurely appear to [[exist]]. [[Chittamatra]] and [[Madhyamaka]] differ as to which are the impossible ways:
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[[Impure superficial truths]] appear to [[exist]] in impossible ways. The actual manner in which [[superficial truths]] [[exist]] is devoid of those impossible ways in which they impurely appear to [[exist]]. [[Chittamatra]] and [[Madhyamaka]] differ as to which are the impossible ways:
  
 
      
 
      
[[Chittamatra]] asserts two impure [[appearances]] for the hand. (1) The [[dualistic]] [[appearance]] ([[gnyis-snang]]) that the hand and the valid [[cognition]] of the hand derive from different natal sources ([[rdzas]]). In other words, the [[appearance]] that the hand [[exists]] as an [[external object]] ([[phyi-don]]). (2) The [[appearance]] in {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] that the hand has its [[existence]] as a “hand” established by an {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic mark]] ([[rang-mtshan]]), findable on the side of the hand, that serves as a foundation on which affixes the [[sound]] of the [[word]] “hand.”
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[[Chittamatra]] asserts two impure [[appearances]] for the hand.  
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 +
(1) The [[dualistic]] [[appearance]] ([[gnyis-snang]]) that the hand and the valid [[cognition]] of the hand derive from different natal sources ([[rdzas]]). In other words, the [[appearance]] that the hand [[exists]] as an [[external object]] ([[phyi-don]]).  
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 +
(2) The [[appearance]] in {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] that the hand has its [[existence]] as a “hand” established by an {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic mark]] ([[rang-mtshan]]), findable on the side of the hand, that serves as a foundation on which affixes the [[sound]] of the [[word]] “hand.”
 
      
 
      
 
[[Svatantrika-Madhyamaka]] asserts that the impure [[appearance]] of the hand is its [[appearance]] that it has its [[existence]] as a [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[object]] established by its [[own]] uncommon manner of abiding on the side of the hand, without it being set also by the power of something added by the [[mind]].
 
[[Svatantrika-Madhyamaka]] asserts that the impure [[appearance]] of the hand is its [[appearance]] that it has its [[existence]] as a [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[object]] established by its [[own]] uncommon manner of abiding on the side of the hand, without it being set also by the power of something added by the [[mind]].
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#[[Vaibhashika]] Presentation of the Two True [[Phenomena]]
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#[[Vaibhashika]] Presentation of the [[Two True Phenomena]]
  
 
#According to [[Vaibhashika]]:
 
#According to [[Vaibhashika]]:
  
 
      
 
      
[[Superficial]] true [[phenomena]] – things that we can no longer {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] {{Wiki|identities}} of ([[tha-snyad-du yod-pa’i[bdag]]) while we are dissecting them by [[physical]] means or analyzing them by [[mental]] {{Wiki|scrutiny}}.
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[[Superficial true phenomena]] – things that we can no longer {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] {{Wiki|identities}} of ([[tha-snyad-du yod-pa’i bdag]]) while we are dissecting them by [[physical]] means or analyzing them by [[mental]] {{Wiki|scrutiny}}.
 
      
 
      
 
Deepest true [[phenomena]] – things that we can still {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] {{Wiki|identities}} of while we are dissecting or analyzing them.
 
Deepest true [[phenomena]] – things that we can still {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] {{Wiki|identities}} of while we are dissecting or analyzing them.
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#[[Superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are of three varieties:
 
#[[Superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are of three varieties:
 
      
 
      
[[Forms]] of [[physical phenomena]] that depend on spatial and {{Wiki|temporal}} parts, such as a hand or the [[sound]] of someone talking. When we dissect a hand and look at the {{Wiki|muscles}}, veins, {{Wiki|nerves}}, and [[bones]], or even without dissecting it, while we think of the [[atoms]] of a hand, we no longer {{Wiki|perceive}} the [[Wikipedia:Identity (social science)|identity]] of the hand. When we dissect the [[sound]] of someone talking into the {{Wiki|sounds}} of its component {{Wiki|vowels}} and {{Wiki|consonants}}, or while we listen to each component [[sound]] individually, we no longer {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[Wikipedia:Identity (social science)|identity]] of the words or sentences they comprise. We no longer comprehend their meaning.
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 +
 
 +
[[Forms]] of [[physical phenomena]] that depend on spatial and {{Wiki|temporal}} parts, such as a hand or the [[sound]] of someone talking. When we dissect a hand and look at the {{Wiki|muscles}}, veins, {{Wiki|nerves}}, and [[bones]], or even without dissecting it, while we think of the [[atoms]] of a hand, we no longer {{Wiki|perceive}} the [[Wikipedia:Identity  
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 +
(social science)|identity]] of the hand. When we dissect the [[sound]] of someone talking into the {{Wiki|sounds}} of its component {{Wiki|vowels}} and {{Wiki|consonants}}, or while we listen to each component [[sound]] individually, we no longer {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[Wikipedia:Identity (social science)|identity]] of the words or sentences they comprise. We no longer comprehend their meaning.
 
      
 
      
 
[[Ways of being aware of something]] that depend on {{Wiki|temporal}} parts, such [[as a stream]] of [[verbal]] [[thought]]. While we think each microsecond of a {{Wiki|stream}} of [[thought]], we no longer {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[Wikipedia:Identity (social science)|identity]] (in other words, the [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] meaning) of the entire {{Wiki|stream}}.
 
[[Ways of being aware of something]] that depend on {{Wiki|temporal}} parts, such [[as a stream]] of [[verbal]] [[thought]]. While we think each microsecond of a {{Wiki|stream}} of [[thought]], we no longer {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[Wikipedia:Identity (social science)|identity]] (in other words, the [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] meaning) of the entire {{Wiki|stream}}.
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The partless microseconds (smallest units of change that can be known) that compose the [[experience]] of a way of being {{Wiki|aware}} of something
 
The partless microseconds (smallest units of change that can be known) that compose the [[experience]] of a way of being {{Wiki|aware}} of something
 
      
 
      
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 +
 
Static [[phenomena]], such as the [[space]] of something and a person’s lack of an impossible [[soul]].
 
Static [[phenomena]], such as the [[space]] of something and a person’s lack of an impossible [[soul]].
  
 
After {{Wiki|physically}} dissecting any of the [[elements]] or sensory [[objects]], or [[mentally]] dissecting any type of [[primary consciousness]] or [[mental factor]], the tiniest parts or tiniest moments of them still retain their [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] {{Wiki|identities}}. After all, the slightest {{Wiki|odor}} is still a {{Wiki|smell}} and the tiniest [[moment]] of [[love]] is still [[love]]. Further, while analyzing partless {{Wiki|particles}}, partless moments, and static [[phenomena]], we still {{Wiki|cognize}} their [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] {{Wiki|identities}}.
 
After {{Wiki|physically}} dissecting any of the [[elements]] or sensory [[objects]], or [[mentally]] dissecting any type of [[primary consciousness]] or [[mental factor]], the tiniest parts or tiniest moments of them still retain their [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] {{Wiki|identities}}. After all, the slightest {{Wiki|odor}} is still a {{Wiki|smell}} and the tiniest [[moment]] of [[love]] is still [[love]]. Further, while analyzing partless {{Wiki|particles}}, partless moments, and static [[phenomena]], we still {{Wiki|cognize}} their [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] {{Wiki|identities}}.
  
Thus, in a very general [[sense]], [[superficial]] [[truths]] ([[superficial]] true [[phenomena]]) are the commonsense everyday [[objects]] that appear to us, such as hands and the meaningful units of {{Wiki|speech}}. They completely conceal deeper [[truths]]: [[elements]], sensory [[information]], partless {{Wiki|particles}}, partless moments, [[consciousness]], [[mental factors]] and static facts such as [[space]]. Another example of a [[superficial]] [[truth]] is a [[person]]. A [[person]] completely conceals the deeper [[truth]] about him or her: the person’s not [[existing]] as an impossible [[soul]].
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 +
Thus, in a very general [[sense]], [[superficial]] [[truths]] ([[superficial]] true [[phenomena]]) are the commonsense everyday [[objects]] that appear to us, such as hands and the meaningful units of {{Wiki|speech}}. They completely conceal deeper [[truths]]: [[elements]], sensory [[information]], partless {{Wiki|particles}}, partless moments, [[consciousness]],  
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 +
[[mental factors]] and static facts such as [[space]]. Another example of a [[superficial]] [[truth]] is a [[person]]. A [[person]] completely conceals the deeper [[truth]] about him or her: the person’s not [[existing]] as an impossible [[soul]].
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Note that all [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are nonstatic, but not all nonstatic [[phenomena]] are [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]]. This is because partless {{Wiki|particles}} and partless microseconds are nonstatic [[phenomena]], but also deepest true [[phenomena]]. In other words, all static [[phenomena]] are deepest true [[phenomena]], but not all deepest true [[phenomena]] are static [[phenomena]] – for instance, partless {{Wiki|particles}} and partless microseconds.
 
Note that all [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are nonstatic, but not all nonstatic [[phenomena]] are [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]]. This is because partless {{Wiki|particles}} and partless microseconds are nonstatic [[phenomena]], but also deepest true [[phenomena]]. In other words, all static [[phenomena]] are deepest true [[phenomena]], but not all deepest true [[phenomena]] are static [[phenomena]] – for instance, partless {{Wiki|particles}} and partless microseconds.
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#Modes of [[Existence]] of the [[Two Truths]] in [[Vaibhashika]]
 
#Modes of [[Existence]] of the [[Two Truths]] in [[Vaibhashika]]
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Unlike the more sophisticated [[tenet]] systems, [[Vaibhashika]] does not assert that the [[two truths]] [[exist]] in different ways. According to [[Vaibhashika]], both [[superficial]] [[truths]] and deepest [[truths]] have substantially established [[existence]] ([[rdzas-su grub-pa]]).
 
Unlike the more sophisticated [[tenet]] systems, [[Vaibhashika]] does not assert that the [[two truths]] [[exist]] in different ways. According to [[Vaibhashika]], both [[superficial]] [[truths]] and deepest [[truths]] have substantially established [[existence]] ([[rdzas-su grub-pa]]).
  
Substantially established [[existence]] means [[existence]] established by the ability to perform a function (don-byed nus-pa). A phenomenon’s ability to perform a function arises from its being a substantial [[entity]] ([[rdzas]]). Because a hand, its constituent partless {{Wiki|particles}}, and its [[space]] all perform the functions of at least acting as the [[causal conditions]] for the valid [[cognitions]] of them – since they can all be validly known – [[Vaibhashika]] uniquely asserts that all [[existent phenomena]] have substantially established [[existence]]. Thus, nothing has [[existence]] established merely by its being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] ([[rtog-pas btags-pa-tsam-du grub-pa]]), because all [[existent phenomena]] are substantially established.
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 +
Substantially established [[existence]] means [[existence]] established by the ability to perform a function (don-byed nus-pa). A phenomenon’s ability to perform a function arises from its being a substantial [[entity]] ([[rdzas]]). Because a hand, its constituent partless {{Wiki|particles}}, and its [[space]] all perform the functions of at least acting as the  
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 +
[[causal conditions]] for the valid [[cognitions]] of them – since they can all be validly known – [[Vaibhashika]] uniquely asserts that all [[existent phenomena]] have substantially established [[existence]]. Thus, nothing has [[existence]] established merely by its being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] ([[rtog-pas btags-pa-tsam-du grub-pa]]), because all [[existent phenomena]] are substantially established.
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 +
 
  
 
Moreover, all [[existent phenomena]] also have truly established [[existence]] (bden-par grub-pa, [[true existence]]). This is because, according to [[Vaibhashika]], something has truly established [[existence]] if it has the ability to perform a function, and all [[existent phenomena]] have that ability.
 
Moreover, all [[existent phenomena]] also have truly established [[existence]] (bden-par grub-pa, [[true existence]]). This is because, according to [[Vaibhashika]], something has truly established [[existence]] if it has the ability to perform a function, and all [[existent phenomena]] have that ability.
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#Self-sufficiently [[Knowable Phenomena]] and Imputedly [[Knowable Phenomena]] According to [[Vaibhashika]]
 
#Self-sufficiently [[Knowable Phenomena]] and Imputedly [[Knowable Phenomena]] According to [[Vaibhashika]]
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Imputedly [[knowable phenomena]] (btags-yod, imputedly [[existent phenomena]]) are those validly [[knowable phenomena]] that, when actually [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]], rely on actual [[cognition]] of or by something else. [[Cognition]] of them requires [[cognition]] of the parts on which they rely.
 
Imputedly [[knowable phenomena]] (btags-yod, imputedly [[existent phenomena]]) are those validly [[knowable phenomena]] that, when actually [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]], rely on actual [[cognition]] of or by something else. [[Cognition]] of them requires [[cognition]] of the parts on which they rely.
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[[Superficial]] [[phenomena]] that are [[forms]] of [[physical phenomena]] or [[ways of being aware of something]] are imputedly knowable. [[Vaibhashika]] asserts sensory [[nonconceptual cognition]] of an [[object]] through direct [[contact]] with it, without the {{Wiki|medium}} of a [[mental]] aspect of the [[object]]. Because of that, when something made of parts is validly known, the [[cognition]] must simultaneously also take as its [[objects]] the parts on which the [[object]] depends.
 
[[Superficial]] [[phenomena]] that are [[forms]] of [[physical phenomena]] or [[ways of being aware of something]] are imputedly knowable. [[Vaibhashika]] asserts sensory [[nonconceptual cognition]] of an [[object]] through direct [[contact]] with it, without the {{Wiki|medium}} of a [[mental]] aspect of the [[object]]. Because of that, when something made of parts is validly known, the [[cognition]] must simultaneously also take as its [[objects]] the parts on which the [[object]] depends.
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[[Self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomena]] (rang-rkya thub-pa’i rdzas-yod, self-sufficiently substantially [[existent phenomena]]) are those validly [[knowable phenomena]] that, when actually [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]] (dngos-bzung), do not rely on actual [[cognition]] of something else. [[Cognition]] of them does not depend on [[cognition]] of parts or bases for [[imputation]].
 
[[Self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomena]] (rang-rkya thub-pa’i rdzas-yod, self-sufficiently substantially [[existent phenomena]]) are those validly [[knowable phenomena]] that, when actually [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]] (dngos-bzung), do not rely on actual [[cognition]] of something else. [[Cognition]] of them does not depend on [[cognition]] of parts or bases for [[imputation]].
  
Static [[phenomena]], partless {{Wiki|particles}}, partless moments and nonstatic noncongruent affecting variables are [[self-sufficiently knowable]]. For example, noncongruent affecting variables, such as acquisition of the new house, depend on a basis for [[imputation]] – the new house that is acquired. Moreover, both the acquisition of the new house and the new house that is acquired come into [[existence]] (arise) simultaneously. Nevertheless, [[Vaibhashika]] uniquely asserts that the acquisition itself is a separately [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]] substantial [[entity]] ([[rdzas]]). This is because, according to [[Vaibhashika]], acquisition is a separate substantially established [[phenomenon]] that [[causes]] the new house to be acquired. [[Cognition]] of the acquisition of the new house, then, does not rely on [[cognition]] of the new house that is acquired.
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Static [[phenomena]], partless {{Wiki|particles}}, partless moments and nonstatic noncongruent affecting variables are [[self-sufficiently knowable]]. For example, noncongruent affecting variables, such as acquisition of the new house, depend on a basis for [[imputation]] – the new house that is acquired. Moreover, both the acquisition of the new house and the new house that is acquired come into [[existence]] (arise) simultaneously. Nevertheless, [[Vaibhashika]] uniquely asserts that  
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 +
the acquisition itself is a separately [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]] substantial [[entity]] ([[rdzas]]). This is because, according to [[Vaibhashika]], acquisition is a separate substantially established [[phenomenon]] that [[causes]] the new house to be acquired. [[Cognition]] of the acquisition of the new house, then, does not rely on [[cognition]] of the new house that is acquired.
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Since a [[person]] is also a [[noncongruent affecting variable]], it too is [[self-sufficiently knowable]]. [[Vaibhashika]] asserts that a [[person]] is the mere collection (network) of the [[five aggregates]] upon which it is [[imputed]]. As such, a [[person]] is [[self-sufficiently knowable]] because,  
 
Since a [[person]] is also a [[noncongruent affecting variable]], it too is [[self-sufficiently knowable]]. [[Vaibhashika]] asserts that a [[person]] is the mere collection (network) of the [[five aggregates]] upon which it is [[imputed]]. As such, a [[person]] is [[self-sufficiently knowable]] because,  
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when you see a [[person]], you do not simultaneously see the entire collection of the [[five aggregates]] upon which he or she is [[imputed]]. More fully, [[Vaibhashika]] asserts [[direct cognition]] of [[phenomena]], which means [[cognition]] of an [[object]] requires direct [[contacting awareness]] of it and not [[cognition]] of it through the intermediary of a [[mental]] hologram ([[rnam-pa]], [[mental]] aspect) of the [[object]]. Thus, although a  
 
when you see a [[person]], you do not simultaneously see the entire collection of the [[five aggregates]] upon which he or she is [[imputed]]. More fully, [[Vaibhashika]] asserts [[direct cognition]] of [[phenomena]], which means [[cognition]] of an [[object]] requires direct [[contacting awareness]] of it and not [[cognition]] of it through the intermediary of a [[mental]] hologram ([[rnam-pa]], [[mental]] aspect) of the [[object]]. Thus, although a  
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[[person]] is [[imputed]] on the mere collection of the [[aggregates]], when you have [[cognition]] of a [[person]], the [[consciousness]] just has direct [[contacting awareness]] of the [[person]] and not of the entire collection of [[five aggregates]] that are the basis on which he or she is [[imputed]]. For this [[reason]], [[Vaibhashika]] asserts only one level of lack of an impossible [[soul]] of a [[person]]: a person’s absence of having [[existence]]  
 
[[person]] is [[imputed]] on the mere collection of the [[aggregates]], when you have [[cognition]] of a [[person]], the [[consciousness]] just has direct [[contacting awareness]] of the [[person]] and not of the entire collection of [[five aggregates]] that are the basis on which he or she is [[imputed]]. For this [[reason]], [[Vaibhashika]] asserts only one level of lack of an impossible [[soul]] of a [[person]]: a person’s absence of having [[existence]]  
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 +
  
 
established as a static, monolithic [[entity]], {{Wiki|independent}} from the [[aggregates]] on which it is [[imputed]] (rtag-cig rang-dbang-can-gyis grub-pa). [[Vaibhashika]] does not assert the {{Wiki|subtle}} lack of an impossible [[soul]] of a [[person]]: a person’s absence of having [[existence]] established substantially as a [[self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomenon]].
 
established as a static, monolithic [[entity]], {{Wiki|independent}} from the [[aggregates]] on which it is [[imputed]] (rtag-cig rang-dbang-can-gyis grub-pa). [[Vaibhashika]] does not assert the {{Wiki|subtle}} lack of an impossible [[soul]] of a [[person]]: a person’s absence of having [[existence]] established substantially as a [[self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomenon]].
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In short, all deepest true [[phenomena]] are [[self-sufficiently knowable]], whereas not all [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are imputedly knowable. Some [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]], namely noncongruent affecting variables, are also [[self-sufficiently knowable]].
 
In short, all deepest true [[phenomena]] are [[self-sufficiently knowable]], whereas not all [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are imputedly knowable. Some [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]], namely noncongruent affecting variables, are also [[self-sufficiently knowable]].
  
[See: Self-Sufficiently Knowable and Imputedly Knowable [[Objects]]]
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See: Self-Sufficiently Knowable and Imputedly Knowable [[Objects]]
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[[Sautrantika]] [[Division]] of the [[Two Truths]]: [[Objective]] Entities and [[Metaphysical]] Entities
 
[[Sautrantika]] [[Division]] of the [[Two Truths]]: [[Objective]] Entities and [[Metaphysical]] Entities
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[[Sautrantika]] has two divisions – [[Sautrantika]] Followers of [[Scriptures]] (lung-gi rjes-‘brang-gi [[mdo-sde-pa]]) and [[Sautrantika]] [[Followers of Logic]] (rigs-pa’i rjes-‘brang-gi [[mdo-sde-pa]]). The [[Sautrantika]] Followers of [[Scriptures]] assert the [[two truths]] in the same way as do the  
 
[[Sautrantika]] has two divisions – [[Sautrantika]] Followers of [[Scriptures]] (lung-gi rjes-‘brang-gi [[mdo-sde-pa]]) and [[Sautrantika]] [[Followers of Logic]] (rigs-pa’i rjes-‘brang-gi [[mdo-sde-pa]]). The [[Sautrantika]] Followers of [[Scriptures]] assert the [[two truths]] in the same way as do the  
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[[Vaibhashikas]]. The [[Sautrantika]] [[Followers of Logic]] refine the [[Vaibhashika]] definitions such that the [[two truths]] refer to different sets of [[phenomena]] than they do in the [[Vaibhashika]] system. Let us look at their presentation. For ease of [[discussion]], we shall refer to the [[Sautrantika]] [[Followers of Logic]] simply as [[Sautrantika]].
 
[[Vaibhashikas]]. The [[Sautrantika]] [[Followers of Logic]] refine the [[Vaibhashika]] definitions such that the [[two truths]] refer to different sets of [[phenomena]] than they do in the [[Vaibhashika]] system. Let us look at their presentation. For ease of [[discussion]], we shall refer to the [[Sautrantika]] [[Followers of Logic]] simply as [[Sautrantika]].
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#According to the [[Sautrantika]]:
 
#According to the [[Sautrantika]]:
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[[Superficial]] true [[phenomena]] have their [[existence]] established merely by their being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] ([[rtog-pas btags-pa-tsam-du grub-pa]]). They lack the ability to perform functions and thus lack substantially established [[existence]]. They include all static [[phenomena]].
 
[[Superficial]] true [[phenomena]] have their [[existence]] established merely by their being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] ([[rtog-pas btags-pa-tsam-du grub-pa]]). They lack the ability to perform functions and thus lack substantially established [[existence]]. They include all static [[phenomena]].
 
      
 
      
 +
 
Deepest true [[phenomena]] have their [[existence]] established from the side of their [[own]] {{Wiki|individual}} manner of abiding ([[rang-gi sdod-lugs-kyi ngos-nas grub-pa]]), without depending on being [[imputed]] by words or {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. They have the ability to perform functions and thus have substantially established [[existence]]. They include all nonstatic [[phenomena]].
 
Deepest true [[phenomena]] have their [[existence]] established from the side of their [[own]] {{Wiki|individual}} manner of abiding ([[rang-gi sdod-lugs-kyi ngos-nas grub-pa]]), without depending on being [[imputed]] by words or {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. They have the ability to perform functions and thus have substantially established [[existence]]. They include all nonstatic [[phenomena]].
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[[Superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are classified as [[metaphysical]] entities ([[spyi-mtshan]], [[generally characterized phenomena]]) – literally, [[phenomena]] with general [[defining characteristics]]. They are the appearing [[objects]] ([[snang-yul]]) of only [[conceptual cognitions]], although they are not the actual [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[appearances]] ([[snang-ba]]) in those [[cognitions]].
 
[[Superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are classified as [[metaphysical]] entities ([[spyi-mtshan]], [[generally characterized phenomena]]) – literally, [[phenomena]] with general [[defining characteristics]]. They are the appearing [[objects]] ([[snang-yul]]) of only [[conceptual cognitions]], although they are not the actual [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[appearances]] ([[snang-ba]]) in those [[cognitions]].
  
An [[appearing object]] of a [[cognition]] is the direct [[object]] (dngos-yul) that arises in a [[cognition]], as if it were directly in front of the [[consciousness]] (blo-ngor) that [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizes]] it. Categories, however, lack any shape or [[form]], and therefore cannot actually “appear.” They are like static {{Wiki|abstractions}}, which can only arise in a {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] when [[imputed]] ({{Wiki|projected}}, labeled) onto a basis for [[imputation]] that does have a shape or [[form]], such as a sensory [[object]]. The sensory [[object]] (a deepest true [[phenomenon]]), then, is what actually appears, through a fully transparent [[mental]] aspect ([[mental]] hologram) that represents it. The sensory [[object]], however, is partially [[veiled]] by the partially transparent category, since the category is the [[appearing object]] directly in front of the [[consciousness]].
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An [[appearing object]] of a [[cognition]] is the direct [[object]] (dngos-yul) that arises in a [[cognition]], as if it were directly in front of the [[consciousness]] (blo-ngor) that [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizes]] it. Categories, however, lack any shape or [[form]], and therefore cannot actually “appear.” They are like static {{Wiki|abstractions}}, which can only arise in a {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] when [[imputed]] ({{Wiki|projected}}, labeled) onto a basis for  
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 +
 
 +
[[imputation]] that does have a shape or [[form]], such as a sensory [[object]]. The sensory [[object]] (a deepest true [[phenomenon]]), then, is what actually appears, through a fully transparent [[mental]] aspect ([[mental]] hologram) that represents it. The sensory [[object]], however, is partially [[veiled]] by the partially transparent category, since the category is the [[appearing object]] directly in front of the [[consciousness]].
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Deepest true [[phenomena]] are [[objective]] entities ([[rang-mtshan]], individually characterized [[phenomena]]) – literally, [[phenomena]] with {{Wiki|individual}} [[defining characteristics]]. They are the appearing [[objects]] of only [[non-conceptual]] [[cognitions]], although they are what actually appears in both [[non-conceptual]] and {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]].
 
Deepest true [[phenomena]] are [[objective]] entities ([[rang-mtshan]], individually characterized [[phenomena]]) – literally, [[phenomena]] with {{Wiki|individual}} [[defining characteristics]]. They are the appearing [[objects]] of only [[non-conceptual]] [[cognitions]], although they are what actually appears in both [[non-conceptual]] and {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]].
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Moreover, [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are those items, the mode of [[existence]] of which does not withstand analysis by [[logic]]. For example, after analyzing with [[logic]] the categories with which we think about the place where we live – such as “my home,” “comfortable,” “beautiful,” “ expensive,” and so on – we discover that they are not findable, objectively [[existing]] outside the context of our {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[thinking]] process. Thus, analysis clears away our {{Wiki|projections}} and we no longer find these [[superficial]] [[truths]].
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Moreover, [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are those items, the mode of [[existence]] of which does not withstand analysis by [[logic]]. For example, after analyzing with [[logic]] the categories with which we think about the place where we live –  
 +
 
 +
such as “my home,” “comfortable,” “beautiful,” “ expensive,” and so on – we discover that they are not findable, objectively [[existing]] outside the context of our {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[thinking]] process. Thus, analysis clears away our {{Wiki|projections}} and we no longer find these [[superficial]] [[truths]].
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Deepest true [[phenomena]] are those items, the mode of [[existence]] of which does withstand analysis by [[logic]]. The place where we live itself, for example, withstands analysis. No {{Wiki|matter}} how much we analyze, our analysis does not destroy the actual place where we live. After analyzing with [[logic]], we discover that that place is still findable, objectively [[existing]] outside the context of our {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[thinking]] process.
 
Deepest true [[phenomena]] are those items, the mode of [[existence]] of which does withstand analysis by [[logic]]. The place where we live itself, for example, withstands analysis. No {{Wiki|matter}} how much we analyze, our analysis does not destroy the actual place where we live. After analyzing with [[logic]], we discover that that place is still findable, objectively [[existing]] outside the context of our {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[thinking]] process.
  
Moreover, deepest true [[phenomena]] include not only sensibilia (sensory [[objects]]) such as colored shapes, {{Wiki|smells}}, {{Wiki|tastes}}, and [[physical]] [[sensations]], but also commonsense [[objects]] (‘jig-rten-la grags-pa), such as hands, that extend over all their [[Wikipedia:Qualia|sensory data]]. Moreover, deepest true [[phenomena]] include not only single moments of sensibilia or the momentary {{Wiki|sounds}} of {{Wiki|vowels}} and {{Wiki|consonants}}; but also commonsense [[objects]] that extend over time, and words and sentences that extend over sequences of momentary {{Wiki|sounds}}.
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Moreover, deepest true [[phenomena]] include not only sensibilia (sensory [[objects]]) such as colored shapes, {{Wiki|smells}}, {{Wiki|tastes}}, and [[physical]] [[sensations]], but also commonsense [[objects]] (‘jig-rten-la grags-pa), such as hands, that extend over all their [[Wikipedia:Qualia|sensory data]]. Moreover, deepest true [[phenomena]] include  
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 +
 
 +
not only single moments of sensibilia or the momentary {{Wiki|sounds}} of {{Wiki|vowels}} and {{Wiki|consonants}}; but also commonsense [[objects]] that extend over time, and words and sentences that extend over sequences of momentary {{Wiki|sounds}}.
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According to non-Gelug, commonsense [[objects]] that extend over all their [[Wikipedia:Qualia|sensory data]] and over time are [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]].
 
According to non-Gelug, commonsense [[objects]] that extend over all their [[Wikipedia:Qualia|sensory data]] and over time are [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]].
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As we have seen, [[Sautrantika]] differentiates the two true [[phenomena]] according to whether or not their [[existence]] can be substantially established by their performing a function. Those that cannot perform a function have [[existence]] established merely by their being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. This [[division]] does not correspond, however, to the [[division]] made between [[self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomena]] and imputedly [[knowable phenomena]].
 
As we have seen, [[Sautrantika]] differentiates the two true [[phenomena]] according to whether or not their [[existence]] can be substantially established by their performing a function. Those that cannot perform a function have [[existence]] established merely by their being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. This [[division]] does not correspond, however, to the [[division]] made between [[self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomena]] and imputedly [[knowable phenomena]].
  
[[Sautrantika]] defines [[self-sufficiently knowable]] and imputedly [[knowable phenomena]] in the same way as [[Vaibhashika]] does, but interprets the definitions quite differently. Thus, [[self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomena]] are defined as validly [[knowable phenomena]] that, when actually [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]] ([[dngos-bzung]]), do not rely on actual [[cognition]] of or by something else. Imputedly [[knowable phenomena]] are those validly [[knowable phenomena]] that, when actually [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]], do rely on actual [[cognition]] of or by something else. [[Cognition]] of them requires immediately preceding and simultaneous [[cognition]] of their bases for [[imputation]].
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[[Sautrantika]] defines [[self-sufficiently knowable]] and imputedly [[knowable phenomena]] in the same way as [[Vaibhashika]] does, but interprets the definitions quite differently. Thus, [[self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomena]] are defined as validly [[knowable phenomena]] that, when actually [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]] ([[dngos-bzung]]), do not  
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 +
rely on actual [[cognition]] of or by something else. Imputedly [[knowable phenomena]] are those validly [[knowable phenomena]] that, when actually [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognized]], do rely on actual [[cognition]] of or by something else. [[Cognition]] of them requires immediately preceding and simultaneous [[cognition]] of their bases for [[imputation]].
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Actual [[cognition]]” refers to [[manifest]] (mngon-gyur) [[cognition]], whether with explicit apprehension (dngos-su [[rtogs-pa]]) or implicit apprehension (shugs-la [[rtogs-pa]]).
 
Actual [[cognition]]” refers to [[manifest]] (mngon-gyur) [[cognition]], whether with explicit apprehension (dngos-su [[rtogs-pa]]) or implicit apprehension (shugs-la [[rtogs-pa]]).
 
      
 
      
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In [[manifest]] [[cognition]] of a [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[object]], the [[consciousness]] of the [[manifest]] [[cognition]] gives rise to a [[mental]] aspect representing the [[object]]. The [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[object]] appears, through that aspect, both to the [[person]] and to the [[consciousness]] of the [[manifest]] [[cognition]]. Both the [[person]] and the [[manifest]] [[consciousness]] {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[object]].
 
In [[manifest]] [[cognition]] of a [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[object]], the [[consciousness]] of the [[manifest]] [[cognition]] gives rise to a [[mental]] aspect representing the [[object]]. The [[Wikipedia:cognition|cognitive]] [[object]] appears, through that aspect, both to the [[person]] and to the [[consciousness]] of the [[manifest]] [[cognition]]. Both the [[person]] and the [[manifest]] [[consciousness]] {{Wiki|cognize}} the [[object]].
 
      
 
      
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To “apprehend” an [[object]] means accurately and decisively to determine it ([[nges-pa]]) as “this” and not “that.” With explicit apprehension, a [[mental]] aspect representing the [[apprehended object]] appears in the [[cognition]]; with implicit apprehension, such a [[mental]] aspect does not  
 
To “apprehend” an [[object]] means accurately and decisively to determine it ([[nges-pa]]) as “this” and not “that.” With explicit apprehension, a [[mental]] aspect representing the [[apprehended object]] appears in the [[cognition]]; with implicit apprehension, such a [[mental]] aspect does not  
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appear. [[Vaibhashika]] does not assert a difference between explicit and implicit apprehension, because it asserts that [[cognition]] directly contacts and [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizes]] its [[object]]. [[Sautrantika]], however, asserts that [[cognition]] in which an [[object]] appears must occur through the {{Wiki|medium}} of a [[mental]] aspect of the [[object]] appearing, somewhat like a [[mental]] hologram of the [[object]].
 
appear. [[Vaibhashika]] does not assert a difference between explicit and implicit apprehension, because it asserts that [[cognition]] directly contacts and [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizes]] its [[object]]. [[Sautrantika]], however, asserts that [[cognition]] in which an [[object]] appears must occur through the {{Wiki|medium}} of a [[mental]] aspect of the [[object]] appearing, somewhat like a [[mental]] hologram of the [[object]].
 
      
 
      
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 +
 
“Actual [[cognition]] of something else” refers, for example, to actual [[cognition]] of the phenomenon’s basis for [[imputation]], both immediately prior and simultaneously with [[cognition]] of the [[phenomenon]].
 
“Actual [[cognition]] of something else” refers, for example, to actual [[cognition]] of the phenomenon’s basis for [[imputation]], both immediately prior and simultaneously with [[cognition]] of the [[phenomenon]].
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Because of this change in [[interpretation]] of the definitions of the two types of [[knowable phenomena]] and of the two true [[phenomena]], the [[phenomena]] assigned as [[self-sufficiently knowable]] by [[Vaibhashika]] and [[Sautrantika]] are nearly the reverse of each other.
 
Because of this change in [[interpretation]] of the definitions of the two types of [[knowable phenomena]] and of the two true [[phenomena]], the [[phenomena]] assigned as [[self-sufficiently knowable]] by [[Vaibhashika]] and [[Sautrantika]] are nearly the reverse of each other.
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[[Forms]] of [[physical phenomena]] and [[ways of being aware of something]] are [[self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomena]]. The [[cognitions]] that {{Wiki|cognize}} them do so without needing to rely on prior and simultaneous [[cognition]] of anything else. We can see or think of a hand, for example,  
 
[[Forms]] of [[physical phenomena]] and [[ways of being aware of something]] are [[self-sufficiently knowable]] [[phenomena]]. The [[cognitions]] that {{Wiki|cognize}} them do so without needing to rely on prior and simultaneous [[cognition]] of anything else. We can see or think of a hand, for example,  
  
without our [[non-conceptual]] [[visual cognition]] or {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[mental]] [[cognition]] of it first having to {{Wiki|cognize}} a colored shape before [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] a hand, or without first having to {{Wiki|cognize}} five fingers. This does not mean, however, that we can {{Wiki|cognize}} a hand without simultaneously [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] some sensory [[quality]] ([[yon-tan]]) or some [[physical]] parts, it just means that we do not need to {{Wiki|cognize}} some sensory [[quality]] or some [[physical]] parts first, before [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] a hand.
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without our [[non-conceptual]] [[visual cognition]] or {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[mental]] [[cognition]] of it first having to {{Wiki|cognize}} a colored shape before [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] a hand, or without first having to {{Wiki|cognize}} five fingers. This does not mean, however, that we can {{Wiki|cognize}} a hand without simultaneously  
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 +
[[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] some sensory [[quality]] ([[yon-tan]]) or some [[physical]] parts, it just means that we do not need to {{Wiki|cognize}} some sensory [[quality]] or some [[physical]] parts first, before [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] a hand.
  
 
      
 
      
 +
 
According to the [[Jetsunpa]] textbook [[tradition]], the whole, its parts, and its sensory qualities constituent separate, different substantial entities. If this were not the case and they were all the same substantial [[entity]], then the absurd conclusion would follow that one [[cognition]], for instance [
 
According to the [[Jetsunpa]] textbook [[tradition]], the whole, its parts, and its sensory qualities constituent separate, different substantial entities. If this were not the case and they were all the same substantial [[entity]], then the absurd conclusion would follow that one [[cognition]], for instance [
  
[visual cognition]], would have to {{Wiki|cognize}} the hand together with all its sensory qualities at the same time – not only a colored shape, but also a {{Wiki|texture}}, a {{Wiki|smell}}, a {{Wiki|taste}}, and a [[sound]]. Or, when we see a hand, we would have to see all its parts. If we saw only part of a hand, we would not be [[seeing]] a hand.
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[[[visual cognition]]]], would have to {{Wiki|cognize}} the hand together with all its sensory qualities at the same time – not only a colored shape, but also a {{Wiki|texture}}, a {{Wiki|smell}}, a {{Wiki|taste}}, and a [[sound]]. Or, when we see a hand, we would have to see all its parts. If we saw only part of a hand, we would not be [[seeing]] a hand.
 
      
 
      
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According to the [[Panchen]] textbook [[tradition]], the whole, its parts, and its sensory qualities are the same substantial [[entity]]. Otherwise, the absurd conclusion would follow that one could {{Wiki|cognize}} a hand on its [[own]], separately from [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] one of its sensory qualities or some of its parts.
 
According to the [[Panchen]] textbook [[tradition]], the whole, its parts, and its sensory qualities are the same substantial [[entity]]. Otherwise, the absurd conclusion would follow that one could {{Wiki|cognize}} a hand on its [[own]], separately from [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] one of its sensory qualities or some of its parts.
  
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We cannot see or think of the {{Wiki|movement}} of a hand, for example, without immediately preceding [[cognition]] of the hand in one position and then simultaneous [[cognition]] of the hand in a second position.
 
We cannot see or think of the {{Wiki|movement}} of a hand, for example, without immediately preceding [[cognition]] of the hand in one position and then simultaneous [[cognition]] of the hand in a second position.
 
      
 
      
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 +
 
We cannot think of an {{Wiki|individual}} substantially [[existing]] item with five fingers in terms of the static audio and meaning/object categories hand without first [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] the {{Wiki|individual}} item with five fingers and then [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] both the {{Wiki|individual}} item and the category hand.
 
We cannot think of an {{Wiki|individual}} substantially [[existing]] item with five fingers in terms of the static audio and meaning/object categories hand without first [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] the {{Wiki|individual}} item with five fingers and then [[Wikipedia:Cognition|cognizing]] both the {{Wiki|individual}} item and the category hand.
 
      
 
      
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The hand and the {{Wiki|movement}} of the hand are the same substantial [[entity]], whereas the audio and meaning/object categories are neither the same nor different substantial entities as the hand. This is because {{Wiki|movement}} has substantially established [[existence]]: it has the ability to perform a function. Categories have [[existence]] not established substantially: they lack the ability to perform a function.
 
The hand and the {{Wiki|movement}} of the hand are the same substantial [[entity]], whereas the audio and meaning/object categories are neither the same nor different substantial entities as the hand. This is because {{Wiki|movement}} has substantially established [[existence]]: it has the ability to perform a function. Categories have [[existence]] not established substantially: they lack the ability to perform a function.
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Thus, all [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are imputedly knowable, whereas not all deepest true [[phenomena]] are [[self-sufficiently knowable]]. Some deepest true [[phenomena]], namely noncongruent affecting variables, are also imputedly knowable.
 
Thus, all [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] are imputedly knowable, whereas not all deepest true [[phenomena]] are [[self-sufficiently knowable]]. Some deepest true [[phenomena]], namely noncongruent affecting variables, are also imputedly knowable.
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Modes of [[Existence]] of the [[Two Truths]] in [[Sautrantika]]
 
Modes of [[Existence]] of the [[Two Truths]] in [[Sautrantika]]
 
[[Existence]] Established by Something’s [[Self-Nature]] and [[Existence]] Established from Something’s [[Own]] Side
 
[[Existence]] Established by Something’s [[Self-Nature]] and [[Existence]] Established from Something’s [[Own]] Side
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[[Existence]] established by something’s [[self-nature]] ([[rang-bzhin-gyis grub-pa]], findably established [[existence]], [[inherent existence]]) and [[existence]] established from something’s [[own]] side ([[rang-ngos-nas grub-pa]]) are {{Wiki|synonymous}} terms ([[don-gcig]]). If a [[phenomenon]] has  
 
[[Existence]] established by something’s [[self-nature]] ([[rang-bzhin-gyis grub-pa]], findably established [[existence]], [[inherent existence]]) and [[existence]] established from something’s [[own]] side ([[rang-ngos-nas grub-pa]]) are {{Wiki|synonymous}} terms ([[don-gcig]]). If a [[phenomenon]] has  
  
one of the two types of [[existence]], it also has the other, and [[vice versa]]. Both modes of [[existence]] are defined as [[existence]] established by the fact that when one searches for the referent “thing” ([[btags-don]]) – the actual “thing” referred to by a [[name]] or {{Wiki|concept}}, [[corresponding]] to the names or [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] for something – that referent “thing” is findable. The referent “thing” is findable on the side of the [[object]] that is being named. This [[definition]] is accepted by all [[tenet]] systems.
 
  
According to [[Sautrantika]], all validly [[knowable phenomena]] – both [[superficial]] and deepest true ones – have their [[existence]] established by their self-natures and [[existence]] established from their [[own]] sides. When we search for the actual “thing” referred to by the [[name]] hand or by the [[name]] the category “hand,”we find an actual hand or the actual category “hand” on the side of the hand or on the side of the category that is being named, with its [[existence]] as a validly [[knowable phenomenon]] established there, from its [[own]] side.
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one of the two types of [[existence]], it also has the other, and [[vice versa]]. Both modes of [[existence]] are defined as [[existence]] established by the fact that when one searches for the referent “thing” ([[btags-don]]) – the actual “thing”
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 +
referred to by a [[name]] or {{Wiki|concept}}, [[corresponding]] to the names or [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] for something – that referent “thing” is findable. The referent “thing” is findable on the side of the [[object]] that is being named. This [[definition]] is accepted by all [[tenet]] systems.
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According to [[Sautrantika]], all validly [[knowable phenomena]] – both [[superficial]] and deepest true ones – have their [[existence]] established by their self-natures and [[existence]] established from their [[own]] sides. When we search for the actual “thing” referred to by the [[name]] hand or by the [[name]] the category “hand,”we find an actual hand or the  
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 +
actual category “hand” on the side of the hand or on the side of the category that is being named, with its [[existence]] as a validly [[knowable phenomenon]] established there, from its [[own]] side.
 
[[Existence]] Established by {{Wiki|Individual}} [[Defining Characteristics]]
 
[[Existence]] Established by {{Wiki|Individual}} [[Defining Characteristics]]
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Moreover, both [[superficial]] and deepest true [[phenomena]] have their [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks (rang-gi mtshan-nyid-kyis grub-pa), findable on their [[own]] side. These {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks serve as the basis for their being labeled by the names, words, and [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] for them, as well as for their qualities.
 
Moreover, both [[superficial]] and deepest true [[phenomena]] have their [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks (rang-gi mtshan-nyid-kyis grub-pa), findable on their [[own]] side. These {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks serve as the basis for their being labeled by the names, words, and [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] for them, as well as for their qualities.
  
Note that in the case of [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] ([[metaphysical]] entities), although they have [[existence]] established merely by their being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]], this does not exclude that they have [[existence]] established both by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks findable on their [[own]] side as well as by their being merely [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. “Merely” excludes only “not being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]].”
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Note that in the case of [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] ([[metaphysical]] entities), although they have [[existence]] established merely by their being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]], this does not exclude that they have [[existence]] established both by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks findable on their [[own]] side as  
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 +
well as by their being merely [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. “Merely” excludes only “not being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]].”
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[[Existence]] Established as Being Individually Characterized
 
[[Existence]] Established as Being Individually Characterized
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According to the [[Jetsunpa]] textbook [[tradition]], in the [[Sautrantika]] system, [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} [[defining characteristics]] is not {{Wiki|synonymous}} with [[existence]] established as being individually characterized (rang-mtshan-gyis grub-pa). The term individually characterized is the same term as the one translated above as “[[objective]] entities.” Only individually characterized [[phenomena]]  
 
According to the [[Jetsunpa]] textbook [[tradition]], in the [[Sautrantika]] system, [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} [[defining characteristics]] is not {{Wiki|synonymous}} with [[existence]] established as being individually characterized (rang-mtshan-gyis grub-pa). The term individually characterized is the same term as the one translated above as “[[objective]] entities.” Only individually characterized [[phenomena]]  
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([[objective]] entities, deepest true [[phenomena]]) have [[existence]] established as being individually characterized. Although [[metaphysical]] entities ([[superficial]] true [[phenomena]], [[generally characterized]] entities) have [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks, they do not have [[existence]] established as being individually characterized.
 
([[objective]] entities, deepest true [[phenomena]]) have [[existence]] established as being individually characterized. Although [[metaphysical]] entities ([[superficial]] true [[phenomena]], [[generally characterized]] entities) have [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks, they do not have [[existence]] established as being individually characterized.
  
According to the [[Panchen]] textbook [[tradition]], in the [[Sautrantika]] system, [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks is {{Wiki|synonymous}} with [[existence]] established as being individually characterized. Here, [[Panchen]] is using the term individually characterized in a more general [[sense]], not merely for [[objective]] entities (deepest true [[phenomena]]), but also for [[metaphysical]] entities ([[superficial]] true [[phenomena]], [[generally characterized]] entities).
+
 
 +
According to the [[Panchen]] textbook [[tradition]], in the [[Sautrantika]] system, [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks is {{Wiki|synonymous}} with [[existence]] established as being individually characterized. Here, [[Panchen]] is using the term individually characterized in a more general [[sense]], not  
 +
 
 +
 
 +
merely for [[objective]] entities (deepest true [[phenomena]]), but also for [[metaphysical]] entities ([[superficial]] true [[phenomena]], [[generally characterized]] entities).
 
Truly Established [[Existence]] and [[Existence]] Established as Being a Deepest [[Phenomenon]]
 
Truly Established [[Existence]] and [[Existence]] Established as Being a Deepest [[Phenomenon]]
  
Line 425: Line 616:
  
 
      
 
      
Truly established [[existence]] (bden-par grub-pa, [[true existence]]) is {{Wiki|synonymous}} with [[existence]] established as an [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[phenomena]] (don-dam-par grub-pa); and [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[phenomena]] (don-dam-pa) are {{Wiki|synonymous}} with deepest true [[phenomena]] ([[don-dam bden-pa]]). Thus, deepest true [[phenomena]] ([[objective]] entities, nonstatic [[phenomena]]) all have truly established [[existence]] ([[existence]] established as true [[phenomena]]). They all can perform a function.
+
Truly established [[existence]] (bden-par grub-pa, [[true existence]]) is {{Wiki|synonymous}} with [[existence]] established as an [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[phenomena]] (don-dam-par grub-pa); and [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[phenomena]] (don-dam-pa) are {{Wiki|synonymous}} with deepest true [[phenomena]] ([[don-dam bden-pa]]).  
 +
 
 +
Thus, deepest true [[phenomena]] ([[objective]] entities, nonstatic [[phenomena]]) all have truly established [[existence]] ([[existence]] established as true [[phenomena]]). They all can perform a function.
  
 
    
 
    
[[Superficial]] true [[phenomena]] ([[metaphysical]] entities, static [[phenomena]]), on the other hand, have [[existence]] not truly established (bden-par ma-grub-pa, non-true [[existence]]). They lack [[true existence]] because they are established as not [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[phenomena]] (don-dam-par ma-grub-pa). This is because they cannot perform a function and are merely [[imputed]] by words and [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]]. For this [[reason]], [[superficial]] [[phenomena]] have falsely established [[existence]] (rdzun-par grub-pa, false [[existence]]) – in other words, [[existence]] established as false [[phenomena]].
+
[[Superficial]] true [[phenomena]] ([[metaphysical]] entities, static [[phenomena]]), on the other hand, have [[existence]] not truly established (bden-par ma-grub-pa, non-true [[existence]]). They lack [[true existence]] because they are established as not [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[phenomena]] (don-dam-par ma-grub-pa). This is because they  
 +
 
 +
 
 +
cannot perform a function and are merely [[imputed]] by words and [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]]. For this [[reason]], [[superficial]] [[phenomena]] have falsely established [[existence]] (rdzun-par grub-pa, false [[existence]]) – in other words, [[existence]] established as false [[phenomena]].
 +
 
  
  
Line 435: Line 632:
 
      
 
      
 
Truly established [[existence]] is {{Wiki|synonymous}} with [[existence]] established from something’s [[own]] side. Thus, both [[superficial]] and deepest true [[phenomena]] have truly established [[existence]]. This is the same as the usage of “truly established [[existence]]” as in the [[Vaibhashika]] system.
 
Truly established [[existence]] is {{Wiki|synonymous}} with [[existence]] established from something’s [[own]] side. Thus, both [[superficial]] and deepest true [[phenomena]] have truly established [[existence]]. This is the same as the usage of “truly established [[existence]]” as in the [[Vaibhashika]] system.
 +
  
  
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As mentioned above, [[understanding]] the [[Vaibhashika]] and [[Sautrantika]] assertions of the [[two truths]] and the manner of [[existence]] that each type of true [[phenomenon]] has and lacks serves as a stepping-stone for [[understanding]] the assertions of the [[Mahayana]] [[tenet]] systems. Let us illustrate this point in terms of [[understanding]] [[existence]] established by being merely imputable by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] and, specifically, the meaning of the [[word]] merely in this context.
+
As mentioned above, [[understanding]] the [[Vaibhashika]] and [[Sautrantika]] assertions of the [[two truths]] and the manner of [[existence]] that each type of true [[phenomenon]] has and lacks serves as a stepping-stone for [[understanding]]  
 +
 
 +
the assertions of the [[Mahayana]] [[tenet]] systems. Let us illustrate this point in terms of [[understanding]] [[existence]] established by being merely imputable by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]] and, specifically, the meaning of the [[word]] merely in this context.
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
The terms [[existence]] established by something’s [[self-nature]], [[existence]] established from something’s [[own]] side, and [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks do not generally appear in the [[Vaibhashika]] presentation. However, it is consistent with the [[Vaibhashika]] assertions that both deepest and
 +
 
 +
[[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] have their [[existence]] established in these ways. [[Vaibhashika]] also asserts that nothing has [[existence]] established merely by being imputable, because everything has substantially established [[existence]].
 +
 
  
The terms [[existence]] established by something’s [[self-nature]], [[existence]] established from something’s [[own]] side, and [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks do not generally appear in the [[Vaibhashika]] presentation. However, it is consistent with the [[Vaibhashika]] assertions that both deepest and [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] have their [[existence]] established in these ways. [[Vaibhashika]] also asserts that nothing has [[existence]] established merely by being imputable, because everything has substantially established [[existence]].
 
  
 
[[Sautrantika]] asserts that both deepest and [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] have [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks findable on the side of the [[phenomena]]. It also asserts that [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] have [[existence]] established by being merely imputable by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. In [[Sautrantika]], “merely” excludes only “not being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]].”
 
[[Sautrantika]] asserts that both deepest and [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] have [[existence]] established by {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks findable on the side of the [[phenomena]]. It also asserts that [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] have [[existence]] established by being merely imputable by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. In [[Sautrantika]], “merely” excludes only “not being [[imputed]] by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]].”
Line 448: Line 654:
  
 
      
 
      
[#[Svatantrika]] agrees with [[Sautrantika]] regarding what “merely” excludes.
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[#[[[Svatantrika]]]] agrees with [[Sautrantika]] regarding what “merely” excludes.
  
 
      
 
      
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[[Chittamatra]] asserts [[phenomena]] that do not have (1), but have (2), namely [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] – referring to totally {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[phenomena]] ([[kun-brtags]]) in its system (all static [[phenomena]] other than [[voidnesses]]). [[Sautrantika]] asserts that not having (1) but having (2) is an impossible mode of [[existence]].
 
[[Chittamatra]] asserts [[phenomena]] that do not have (1), but have (2), namely [[superficial]] true [[phenomena]] – referring to totally {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[phenomena]] ([[kun-brtags]]) in its system (all static [[phenomena]] other than [[voidnesses]]). [[Sautrantika]] asserts that not having (1) but having (2) is an impossible mode of [[existence]].
 +
 +
  
 
[[Svatantrika]] asserts that all [[phenomena]] have both (1) and do not have (2). [[Vaibhashika]] asserts the same; however, [[Vaibhashika]] asserts that, in addition, nothing has [[existence]] established by being imputable by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. [[Svatantrika]], on the other hand, asserts that all [[existent phenomena]] have [[existence]] established by being imputable by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]].
 
[[Svatantrika]] asserts that all [[phenomena]] have both (1) and do not have (2). [[Vaibhashika]] asserts the same; however, [[Vaibhashika]] asserts that, in addition, nothing has [[existence]] established by being imputable by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]]. [[Svatantrika]], on the other hand, asserts that all [[existent phenomena]] have [[existence]] established by being imputable by {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[cognition]].
 +
 +
  
 
[[Prasangika]] asserts that all [[phenomena]] do not have (1), but have (2). Thus, [[Sautrantika]] agrees with [[Prasangika]] that if something does not have (2), it must have (1). It is impossible for anything to have (1) and also to have (2). [[Prasangika]], however, asserts that having (2) and also having (1) is an impossible mode of [[existence]], whereas [[Sautrantika]] asserts that deepest true [[phenomena]] have both (1) and (2).
 
[[Prasangika]] asserts that all [[phenomena]] do not have (1), but have (2). Thus, [[Sautrantika]] agrees with [[Prasangika]] that if something does not have (2), it must have (1). It is impossible for anything to have (1) and also to have (2). [[Prasangika]], however, asserts that having (2) and also having (1) is an impossible mode of [[existence]], whereas [[Sautrantika]] asserts that deepest true [[phenomena]] have both (1) and (2).
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In [[Prasangika]], nothing is findable like this. Everything is merely imputable. Nothing has [[existence]] established by the power of findable {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks on the side of an [[object]] – either by the power of those marks alone or by the power of them in {{Wiki|conjunction}} with the power of [[imputation]] – because such findable [[characteristic]] marks are [[Wikipedia:Nothing|nonexistent]].
 
In [[Prasangika]], nothing is findable like this. Everything is merely imputable. Nothing has [[existence]] established by the power of findable {{Wiki|individual}} defining [[characteristic]] marks on the side of an [[object]] – either by the power of those marks alone or by the power of them in {{Wiki|conjunction}} with the power of [[imputation]] – because such findable [[characteristic]] marks are [[Wikipedia:Nothing|nonexistent]].
 
</poem>
 
</poem>
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
  

Latest revision as of 20:26, 6 June 2024






Yamantakav44.jpg





Dr. Alexander Berzin





Origin of the Tenet Systems


Indian Buddhism, as transmitted to Tibet, had four main schools of philosophical tenets (grub-mtha’). According to tradition, Buddha is the source of them all. Various Indian masters wrote the major treatises presenting the views of the four.

Two of the tenet systems are Hinayana (theg-dman) – Vaibhashika (bye-brag smra-ba) and Sautrantaka (mdo-sde-pa) – and two are Mahayana (theg-chen) – Chittamatra (sems-tsam-pa) and Madhyamaka (dbu-ma-pa). Each has several subdivisions. Let us speak here of only the four in general.

Within the eighteen Hinayana schools, the Vaibhashika and Sautrantika belong to Sarvastivada (thams-cad yod-par smra-ba), a Sanskrit tradition, different from the Pali Theravada tradition (gnas-brtan smra-ba). The Tibetan lineage of monastic vows comes from another of its sub-schools, Mulasarvastivada (gzhi thams-cad yod-par smra-ba).

It is unclear which of the four schools actually existed as separate traditions in India with these names. Perhaps some did and were studied in separate monasteries where the main authors lived and taught, since the Chinese founded individual traditions based on Chittamatra and Madhyamaka. Probably in later times in India, at monastic universities like Nalanda, all were studied, as in Tibet.

Different Tibetan masters wrote commentaries on the major Indian texts and thus the different Tibetan lineages explain the tenet systems (grub-mtha’) of the four schools differently. Even within one Tibetan lineage, several authors have explained the tenet systems differently. Here, we shall present the Gelug version and, within Gelug, we shall rely primarily on the explanations that accord with the Jetsun textbook tradition (rJe-btsun yig-cha) of Jetsun Chokyi-gyeltsen (rJe-btsun Chos-kyi rgyal-mtshan), followed by Sera Jey (Se-ra Byes) and Ganden Jangtsey (dGa’-ldan Byang-rtse) Monasteries. Occasionally, we shall indicate some of the variant views from the Panchen textbook tradition (Pan-chen yig-cha) of Panchen Sonam-dragpa (Pan-chen bSod-nams grags-pa), followed by Drepung Loseling (‘Bras-dpungs Blo-gsal gling) and Ganden Shartsey (dGa’-ldan Shar-rtse) Monasteries.

Occasionally, we shall also indicate some of the major variants found in the non-Gelug Tibetan lineages. To represent the position of these lineages, we shall rely primarily on the explanations given by the Sakya master Gorampa (Go-ram bSod-nams seng-ge).


Study of the Two Truths


All Hinayana and Mahayana tenet systems assert the two truths (bden-pa gnyis). Regardless of how the tenet systems define and delineate them, the two truths always constitute a dichotomy (dngos-‘gal). All knowable phenomena must be members of the set of either one or the other true phenomena, with nothing knowable that belongs to either both or neither of the sets. Consequently, understanding the two truths constitutes understanding all knowable phenomena.


Only the Mahayana schools assert cognitive obscurations (shes-sgrib) which prevent omniscience (kun-mkhyen). Omniscience means the simultaneous cognition of all knowable phenomena. Simultaneous cognition of all knowable phenomena, in turn, requires full and accurate understanding of all knowable phenomena – in other

words, full and accurate simultaneous understanding of the two truths. Thus, to rid ourselves of the cognitive obscurations and attain enlightenment requires full and accurate understanding of which phenomena constitute each of the two truths and the manners in which each of these constituent phenomena exist and do not exist.


One of the methods followed by the various Tibetan Buddhist traditions for gaining this understanding is through an integrative study of the assertions of all four tenet systems concerning the two truths. This is because the Tibetan tradition regards these assertions as progressively more sophisticated. Understanding the assertions of the

less sophisticated tenets provides the foundation for understanding those that are more complex. Thus, by studying all four tenet systems, Mahayana practitioners narrow in on the deepest understanding of the two truths, in order to help them rid themselves of their cognitive obscurations and attain the omniscient state of a Buddha.



My teacher, Tsenzhab Serkong Rinpoche, said that just because the more sophisticated tenet systems refute the less sophisticated ones, we must not think that the latter are senseless or useless. After all, according to tradition, Buddha taught them all, with each intended not only for a specific audience, but also for a specific

stage in a practitioner’s development. Significant spiritual progress follows from successively gaining discriminating awareness (shes-rab, wisdom) of all phenomena in terms of each system, as when progressing through the three levels of graded lam-rim motivation.


  1. Buddhist Classification of Phenomena



  1. To understand the two truths, we need to understand the classification of phenomena in Buddhism



Everything is knowable. Existent phenomena (yod-pa) may be known by valid cognition (tshad-ma). Nonexistent phenomena (med-pa) – such as hallucinations, turtle-hair, and impossible ways of existing – may be known by invalid, distorted cognition (log-shes). When known, nonexistent phenomena themselves do

not appear to distorted cognition, because they do not actually exist. According to Sautrantika and the Mahayana systems, the consciousness cognizing them merely takes on or assumes a mental aspect (rnam-pa) that represents them, somewhat like a mental hologram.



  1. [See: The Appearance and Cognition of Nonexistent Phenomena]



  1. Existent phenomena are divided into:


    

  1. Non Static (impermanent) phenomena (mi-rtag-pa)

    

  1. Static (permanent) phenomena (rtag-pa)



Both non static and static phenomena may have a beginning and an end, no beginning and no end, a beginning but no end, or no beginning but an end. Thus, the distinction between non static and static phenomena has nothing to do with how long a phenomenon lasts. Rather, the distinction is drawn in terms of whether or not something changes from moment to moment while it lasts. Non Static phenomena arise from causes and conditions, are affected by

other phenomena, change from moment to moment, and produce effects. Static phenomena do not arise from causes and conditions, are not affected by other phenomena, do not change from moment to moment, and do not produce any effects.


  1. [See: Static and Nonstatic Phenomena]



  1. Nonstatic phenomena are divided into:


   

  1. Forms of physical phenomena (gzugs)

    

  1. Ways of being aware of something (shes-pa)

    


Non Congruent affecting variables (ldan-min ‘du-byed, nonassociated compositional factors). In general, these are defined as non static phenomena that are neither forms of physical phenomena nor ways of being aware of something – for example, acquirements (thob-pa), arisings (skye-ba), agings (rga-ba), and disintegrations (‘jig-pa). Non

Congruent affecting variables do not share five things in common (mtshungs-ldan lnga) with the primary consciousness (rnam-shes) and subsidiary awarenesses (sems-byung, mental factors) that they accompany.

Although Vaibhashika mentions only fourteen noncongruent affecting variables, other non static phenomena also fall into this category, such as

    

  1. Time

    

  1. Order

    

  1. Number

    

  1. Motion

    

  1. Nonstaticness

    

  1. Karmic tendencies (sa-bon, seeds)

    

  1. Habits (bag-chags)

    

  1. Persons (gang-zag).


  1. [See: Congruent and Noncongruent Affecting Variables]


  1. Static phenomena include


    

  1. Spaces (nam-mkha’)

    

  1. Analytical stoppings (so-sor brtags-pa’i ‘gog-pa)

   

  1. Nonanalytical stoppings ([[so-sor]brtags-pa min-pa’i ‘gog-pa]]).


  1. Although Vaibhashika mentions only the above three static phenomena, the other tenet systems accept as static:


    

  1. The lack of an impossible soul (bdag-med, selflessness, identitylessness)

    
Voidnesses (stong-nyid, Skt. shunyata, emptiness)

    


  1. Nonimplicative negations (med-dgag, nonaffirming negations, absolute nullifications)

    

  1. Audio categories (sgra-spyi, sound universals)

    

  1. Meaning/object categories (don-spyi, meaning/object universals).


A space is the absence of obstructive contact. In other words, it is the absence of any material object in a location that would obstruct something from occupying three dimensions there. It is a static fact about a material object that accounts for its existence in three

dimensions, but without being the cause for its occupying three dimensions. Space is also a static fact about an in-between area (bar-snang) – an open area between two material objects, such as the two sides of an open door. The space imputable on an in-between area



accounts for a material object either to be situated in the area or to pass through it. It does not produce, as its effect, an object’s sitting somewhere or moving elsewhere. Space, then, does not refer to the space an object occupies, or to the space inside it, the space around it, or the open space between it and something else.

An analytical stopping is a true stopping (‘gog-bden, true cessation) of a portion of either emotional obscuration (nyon-sgrib) or cognitive obscuration, such that that portion will never arise again. It is a static eternal parting (bral-ba) from that portion of obscuration and is attained through analytical cognition of the four noble truths.

A nonanalytical stopping is a static eternal parting from the occurrence of a result arising from a particular cause, once that result has occurred from another cause. An example is the nonanalytical stopping of arriving at work today by car when you have arrived today by bus. Once you have arrived today by bus, your arriving today by car will never happen. The fact that it will never happen will never change, and cannot be affected by anything.


A voidness is a static fact about some phenomenon. It is the static fact of a phenomenon’s total absence of existing in an impossible way. Although the term voidness appears primarily in the Mahayana systems, we may use the term loosely to refer to both the lack of an impossible soul of a person (gang-zag-gi bdag-med,

selflessness of a person, identitylessness of a person) and the lack of an impossible soul of phenomena (chos-kyi bdag-med, selflessness of phenomena, identitylessness of phenomena), Each tenet system specifies, within the context of its own definitions, the ways of existing and “souls” that are impossible.


    

  1. Only the Mahayana tenet systems assert the lack of an impossible soul of phenomena

    


Although the Vaibhashika system specifies only three static phenomena, it would need to accept that the lack of an impossible soul of a person is a static phenomenon. As such, it would be included within the category of analytical stoppings, although not considered the same as an analytical stopping.
    

One important distinction to note is that a space is the absence of something that does exist, while a voidness and the lack of an impossible soul are absences of something that does not exist, never has existed, and never will exist
.

A nonimplicative negation phenomenon is one in which, after the sound of the words of the negation have eliminated the object to be negated (dgag-bya), no affirmation phenomena (sgrub-pa) are left behind or implied.

    
Except for Vaibhashika, all other tenet systems assert that both spaces, voidnesses, and lacks of impossible souls are nonimplicative negation phenomena. Vaibhashika does not assert nonimplicative negations. According to Vaibhashika, spaces and lacks of impossible souls are implicative negation phenomenon (ma-yin dgag,

affirming negations). An implicative negation phenomenon is one in which, after the sound of the words of the negation have eliminated the object to be negated, both affirmation and negation phenomena are left behind or implied.



  1. [See: Negation Phenomena: Implicative and Non-implicative]



A conceptual category (spyi) is a universal imputed onto a set of individual items sharing a common feature, such that all the items in the set can be understood as being the same general type of thing.

The individual items that fit into an audio category are the sounds of a word, pronounced with any voice, accent, or volume, but not necessarily having any meaning understood by the sounds. When anyone says “table,” whether or not the person understands the meaning of this acoustic pattern, the person is saying sounds that fit into the audio category of the word table.
    

The individual items that fit into a meaning/object category are the objects meant or signified by the sounds of a word. All individual objects with a flat surface supported by legs fit into the meaning/object category table.



Categories are formulated in terms of words, definitions, and concepts, but they are not created by words and so on. They do not grow from a word and a definition like a plant that grows from a seed, with the help of water. Moreover, categories do not change from moment to moment. A new category, such as the audio and meaning/object category computer may have a beginning. But even as new individual items (new models) are


designed and built, they can still be included in the category computer, so long as they fulfill the individual defining characteristic marks agreed upon by convention as what specify a “computer.” The category computer itself does not change and does not do anything.

    

Vaibhashika does not accept that audio and meaning/object categories are static phenomena. According to Vaibhashika, they are nonstatic phenomena – specifically, noncongruent affecting variables.


  1. The General Meaning of the Two Truths



The two truths (two true phenomena) are the superficial truth (kun-rdzob bden-pa, Skt. samvrtisatya, relative, conventional truth) and the deepest truth (don-dam bden-pa, Skt. paramarthasatya, ultimate truth).


According to the Indian master Chandrakirti, in his Clear Words (Tshig-gsal, Skt. Prasannapada), the term translated here as “superficial” (kun-rdzob, Skt. samvrti) has three meanings:

    
That which obstructs seeing the accordant nature of reality (de-bzhin-nyid, thusness, suchness) – namely, seeing the reality of the four noble truths
    

  1. That which is dependent on something else (gzhan-la ltos-pa)

    

  1. That which is convention (tha-snyad-pa).



The Vaibhashika system uses “superficial” in the second meaning, as referring to things that depend on parts or on a basis for imputation (gdags-gzhi). They lack a self-nature of being able to stand in their own place (rang-la tshugs-thub-kyi rang-bzhin med-pa) when analyzed with scrutiny.


The Sautrantika system tends to use “superficial” in the third sense, as referring primarily to conventions – namely static metaphysical entities such as categories, designated with words and names – that are mentally labeled on the basis of objective entities.


The Mahayana systems use “superficial” in the first sense, as referring to a truth about some phenomenon, which either partly veils or completely conceals something deeper about that phenomenon. The deepest truth about the phenomenon is what the former truth partly veils or completely conceals. In general, the superficial truth about something is its appearance – what it appears to be. Its deepest truth is how it actually exists.



In a sense, one could say that even in the second and third meanings, superficial true phenomena obscure deepest true phenomena. Anything that is dependent on parts obscures or veils the ultimately smallest parts on which it depends, and worldly conventions obscure the objective entities that are known through them.


None of the tenet systems, however, asserts one of the two truths as the absolute or actual truth, truer than the other is. Rather, each is true to the valid cognition (tshad-ma) that takes it as one of its cognitive objects. In other words, Buddhism does not present two truths as


extreme transcendental religions or philosophies do, with the two totally separate from each other. It does not share the philosophy of “deny this world and accept only the world beyond.” Nor does it assert levels of reality existing independently of each other, as in the case of a transcendent God existing before the universe and then creating the universe. The two truths in Buddhism are interdependent.



  1. Organizing the Hinayana and Mahayana Presentations into a Graded System




The main difference between the Hinayana and Mahayana presentations of the two truths concerns whether or not the two truths share the same essential nature. An essential nature (ngo-bo) is the basic type of phenomenon that something is, such as something being a sight, a sound, or a way of being aware of something.

    
In the Hinayana systems of Vaibhashika and Sautrantika, the two truths are two sets of true phenomena. In technical terms, the two types of true phenomena have different essential natures (ngo-bo tha-dad): they are essentially two different types of things.
    

In the Mahayana systems of Chittamatra and Madhyamaka, the two truths share the same essential nature (ngo-bo gcig). They are two true facts about the same aspect of a particular phenomenon: such as about the sight of something or about the sound of something.


Despite this fundamental difference, we can gain an introductory overview of the two truths that spans both the Hinayana and Mahayana systems by looking at the Hinayana presentation in terms of the Mahayana formulation. To do this, let us not look at all aspects of each system’s presentation of the two truths, but simply examine how each presentation regards the cognition of one item – for instance forms of physical phenomena, such as a hand.



  1. In general:



    
In the Hinayana systems, when we examine a hand with a mind valid for cognizing superficial true phenomena, we cognize one type of phenomenon. When we examine with a mind valid for cognizing deepest true phenomena, we


cognize another type of phenomenon. In brief, according to Vaibhashika, we cognize either a material hand or the smallest particles it is made of. According to Sautrantika, we cognize either the category “hand” or the material hand. The material hand obscures the particles, and the category obscures the material hand.

    
In the Mahayana systems, when we examine a hand with a mind valid for cognizing superficial truths, we cognize what an object appears to be and how it appears to exist. When we examine with a mind valid for


cognizing deepest truths, we cognize how an object actually exists. In brief, according to Chittamatra and Madhyamaka, we cognize a either a hand or its voidness of existing in an impossible way.


What something appears to be – the sight of a hand – may be either accurate (tshul-bcas) or inaccurate (tshul-min), depending on whether or not it can be corroborated by further valid cognition of what things conventionally are. Similarly, how something appears to exist may be either pure (dag-pa) or impure (ma-dag-pa), depending on whether or not the way that something appears to exist corresponds to the way in which it actually exists.


    
Many of the non-Gelug systems include among superficial truths only impure appearances. Because of their assertion of the inseparability of voidness and appearance, they include pure appearances as deepest truths.

Impure superficial truths appear to exist in impossible ways. The actual manner in which superficial truths exist is devoid of those impossible ways in which they impurely appear to exist. Chittamatra and Madhyamaka differ as to which are the impossible ways:

    
Chittamatra asserts two impure appearances for the hand.

(1) The dualistic appearance (gnyis-snang) that the hand and the valid cognition of the hand derive from different natal sources (rdzas). In other words, the appearance that the hand exists as an external object (phyi-don).

(2) The appearance in conceptual cognition that the hand has its existence as a “hand” established by an individual defining characteristic mark (rang-mtshan), findable on the side of the hand, that serves as a foundation on which affixes the sound of the word “hand.”
    
Svatantrika-Madhyamaka asserts that the impure appearance of the hand is its appearance that it has its existence as a cognitive object established by its own uncommon manner of abiding on the side of the hand, without it being set also by the power of something added by the mind.
    
Prasangika-Madhyamaka asserts that the impure appearance of the hand is its appearance that it has its existence as a cognitive object established by the fact that when one searches for the referent “thing” (btags-don) corresponding to the name and concept “hand,” that referent “thing” is findable on the side of the hand.


  1. Vaibhashika Presentation of the Two True Phenomena


  1. According to Vaibhashika:


    
Superficial true phenomena – things that we can no longer cognize the conventional identities of (tha-snyad-du yod-pa’i bdag) while we are dissecting them by physical means or analyzing them by mental scrutiny.
    
Deepest true phenomena – things that we can still cognize the conventional identities of while we are dissecting or analyzing them.



  1. Superficial true phenomena are of three varieties:

    


Forms of physical phenomena that depend on spatial and temporal parts, such as a hand or the sound of someone talking. When we dissect a hand and look at the muscles, veins, nerves, and bones, or even without dissecting it, while we think of the atoms of a hand, we no longer perceive the [[Wikipedia:Identity

(social science)|identity]] of the hand. When we dissect the sound of someone talking into the sounds of its component vowels and consonants, or while we listen to each component sound individually, we no longer cognize the identity of the words or sentences they comprise. We no longer comprehend their meaning.
    
Ways of being aware of something that depend on temporal parts, such as a stream of verbal thought. While we think each microsecond of a stream of thought, we no longer cognize the identity (in other words, the conventional meaning) of the entire stream.
    
Nonstatic phenomena that are neither, such as acquisitions, arisings, and so on. All such phenomena depend on a basis for imputation. There can only be an acquisition dependent on the basis of something that is acquired; there can only be an arising dependent on the basis of something that arises, and so on. When we analyze an acquisition or an arising of something, the acquisition or arising falls apart and we are left with the phenomenon acquired or arisen.

When examined in minutest detail, superficial true phenomena or their bases for imputation are made from ultimately smallest parts, which themselves are partless. They are superficial truths in the sense that they completely conceal something deeper: their ultimately smallest parts.


  1. Deepest true phenomena include:



    
The four elements that are the building blocks of all physical objects, namely earth, water, fire and wind
    
The five types of sensory objects – sights, sounds, smells, tastes and physical sensations
    
The five types of primary consciousnesseye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mental
    
Mental factors such as happiness, concentration, love and anger
    
The partless particles (the smallest units of matter that can be known) that compose physical objects such as a hand
    
The partless microseconds (smallest units of change that can be known) that compose the experience of a way of being aware of something
    


Static phenomena, such as the space of something and a person’s lack of an impossible soul.

After physically dissecting any of the elements or sensory objects, or mentally dissecting any type of primary consciousness or mental factor, the tiniest parts or tiniest moments of them still retain their conventional identities. After all, the slightest odor is still a smell and the tiniest moment of love is still love. Further, while analyzing partless particles, partless moments, and static phenomena, we still cognize their conventional identities.



Thus, in a very general sense, superficial truths (superficial true phenomena) are the commonsense everyday objects that appear to us, such as hands and the meaningful units of speech. They completely conceal deeper truths: elements, sensory information, partless particles, partless moments, consciousness,

mental factors and static facts such as space. Another example of a superficial truth is a person. A person completely conceals the deeper truth about him or her: the person’s not existing as an impossible soul.


Note that all superficial true phenomena are nonstatic, but not all nonstatic phenomena are superficial true phenomena. This is because partless particles and partless microseconds are nonstatic phenomena, but also deepest true phenomena. In other words, all static phenomena are deepest true phenomena, but not all deepest true phenomena are static phenomena – for instance, partless particles and partless microseconds.


  1. Modes of Existence of the Two Truths in Vaibhashika




Unlike the more sophisticated tenet systems, Vaibhashika does not assert that the two truths exist in different ways. According to Vaibhashika, both superficial truths and deepest truths have substantially established existence (rdzas-su grub-pa).



Substantially established existence means existence established by the ability to perform a function (don-byed nus-pa). A phenomenon’s ability to perform a function arises from its being a substantial entity (rdzas). Because a hand, its constituent partless particles, and its space all perform the functions of at least acting as the

causal conditions for the valid cognitions of them – since they can all be validly known – Vaibhashika uniquely asserts that all existent phenomena have substantially established existence. Thus, nothing has existence established merely by its being imputed by conceptual cognition (rtog-pas btags-pa-tsam-du grub-pa), because all existent phenomena are substantially established.



Moreover, all existent phenomena also have truly established existence (bden-par grub-pa, true existence). This is because, according to Vaibhashika, something has truly established existence if it has the ability to perform a function, and all existent phenomena have that ability.



  1. Self-sufficiently Knowable Phenomena and Imputedly Knowable Phenomena According to Vaibhashika




Although both superficial and deepest true phenomena – and thus all nonstatic and static phenomena – have substantially established existence, another division can be made among them according to how they are knowable: imputedly knowable or self-sufficiently knowable.

Imputedly knowable phenomena (btags-yod, imputedly existent phenomena) are those validly knowable phenomena that, when actually cognized, rely on actual cognition of or by something else. Cognition of them requires cognition of the parts on which they rely.



Superficial phenomena that are forms of physical phenomena or ways of being aware of something are imputedly knowable. Vaibhashika asserts sensory nonconceptual cognition of an object through direct contact with it, without the medium of a mental aspect of the object. Because of that, when something made of parts is validly known, the cognition must simultaneously also take as its objects the parts on which the object depends.



Self-sufficiently knowable phenomena (rang-rkya thub-pa’i rdzas-yod, self-sufficiently substantially existent phenomena) are those validly knowable phenomena that, when actually cognized (dngos-bzung), do not rely on actual cognition of something else. Cognition of them does not depend on cognition of parts or bases for imputation.



Static phenomena, partless particles, partless moments and nonstatic noncongruent affecting variables are self-sufficiently knowable. For example, noncongruent affecting variables, such as acquisition of the new house, depend on a basis for imputation – the new house that is acquired. Moreover, both the acquisition of the new house and the new house that is acquired come into existence (arise) simultaneously. Nevertheless, Vaibhashika uniquely asserts that

the acquisition itself is a separately cognized substantial entity (rdzas). This is because, according to Vaibhashika, acquisition is a separate substantially established phenomenon that causes the new house to be acquired. Cognition of the acquisition of the new house, then, does not rely on cognition of the new house that is acquired.



Since a person is also a noncongruent affecting variable, it too is self-sufficiently knowable. Vaibhashika asserts that a person is the mere collection (network) of the five aggregates upon which it is imputed. As such, a person is self-sufficiently knowable because,



when you see a person, you do not simultaneously see the entire collection of the five aggregates upon which he or she is imputed. More fully, Vaibhashika asserts direct cognition of phenomena, which means cognition of an object requires direct contacting awareness of it and not cognition of it through the intermediary of a mental hologram (rnam-pa, mental aspect) of the object. Thus, although a



person is imputed on the mere collection of the aggregates, when you have cognition of a person, the consciousness just has direct contacting awareness of the person and not of the entire collection of five aggregates that are the basis on which he or she is imputed. For this reason, Vaibhashika asserts only one level of lack of an impossible soul of a person: a person’s absence of having existence



established as a static, monolithic entity, independent from the aggregates on which it is imputed (rtag-cig rang-dbang-can-gyis grub-pa). Vaibhashika does not assert the subtle lack of an impossible soul of a person: a person’s absence of having existence established substantially as a self-sufficiently knowable phenomenon.



In short, all deepest true phenomena are self-sufficiently knowable, whereas not all superficial true phenomena are imputedly knowable. Some superficial true phenomena, namely noncongruent affecting variables, are also self-sufficiently knowable.



See: Self-Sufficiently Knowable and Imputedly Knowable Objects


Sautrantika Division of the Two Truths: Objective Entities and Metaphysical Entities



Sautrantika has two divisions – Sautrantika Followers of Scriptures (lung-gi rjes-‘brang-gi mdo-sde-pa) and Sautrantika Followers of Logic (rigs-pa’i rjes-‘brang-gi mdo-sde-pa). The Sautrantika Followers of Scriptures assert the two truths in the same way as do the


Vaibhashikas. The Sautrantika Followers of Logic refine the Vaibhashika definitions such that the two truths refer to different sets of phenomena than they do in the Vaibhashika system. Let us look at their presentation. For ease of discussion, we shall refer to the Sautrantika Followers of Logic simply as Sautrantika.




  1. According to the Sautrantika:




    
Superficial true phenomena have their existence established merely by their being imputed by conceptual cognition (rtog-pas btags-pa-tsam-du grub-pa). They lack the ability to perform functions and thus lack substantially established existence. They include all static phenomena.
    

Deepest true phenomena have their existence established from the side of their own individual manner of abiding (rang-gi sdod-lugs-kyi ngos-nas grub-pa), without depending on being imputed by words or conceptual cognition. They have the ability to perform functions and thus have substantially established existence. They include all nonstatic phenomena.


Superficial true phenomena are classified as metaphysical entities (spyi-mtshan, generally characterized phenomena) – literally, phenomena with general defining characteristics. They are the appearing objects (snang-yul) of only conceptual cognitions, although they are not the actual cognitive appearances (snang-ba) in those cognitions.



An appearing object of a cognition is the direct object (dngos-yul) that arises in a cognition, as if it were directly in front of the consciousness (blo-ngor) that cognizes it. Categories, however, lack any shape or form, and therefore cannot actually “appear.” They are like static abstractions, which can only arise in a conceptual cognition when imputed (projected, labeled) onto a basis for


imputation that does have a shape or form, such as a sensory object. The sensory object (a deepest true phenomenon), then, is what actually appears, through a fully transparent mental aspect (mental hologram) that represents it. The sensory object, however, is partially veiled by the partially transparent category, since the category is the appearing object directly in front of the consciousness.


Deepest true phenomena are objective entities (rang-mtshan, individually characterized phenomena) – literally, phenomena with individual defining characteristics. They are the appearing objects of only non-conceptual cognitions, although they are what actually appears in both non-conceptual and conceptual cognition.


  1. [See: Objects of Cognition: Gelug Presentation]



Moreover, superficial true phenomena are those items, the mode of existence of which does not withstand analysis by logic. For example, after analyzing with logic the categories with which we think about the place where we live –

such as “my home,” “comfortable,” “beautiful,” “ expensive,” and so on – we discover that they are not findable, objectively existing outside the context of our conceptual thinking process. Thus, analysis clears away our projections and we no longer find these superficial truths.



Deepest true phenomena are those items, the mode of existence of which does withstand analysis by logic. The place where we live itself, for example, withstands analysis. No matter how much we analyze, our analysis does not destroy the actual place where we live. After analyzing with logic, we discover that that place is still findable, objectively existing outside the context of our conceptual thinking process.



Moreover, deepest true phenomena include not only sensibilia (sensory objects) such as colored shapes, smells, tastes, and physical sensations, but also commonsense objects (‘jig-rten-la grags-pa), such as hands, that extend over all their sensory data. Moreover, deepest true phenomena include


not only single moments of sensibilia or the momentary sounds of vowels and consonants; but also commonsense objects that extend over time, and words and sentences that extend over sequences of momentary sounds.


    
Although Sautrantika, like Vaibhashika, asserts partless particles and partless moments of ways of being aware of something, Sautrantika asserts them to be the same type of true phenomena as are the forms of physical phenomena and ways of being aware that they comprise – namely, deepest true phenomena.
    
According to non-Gelug, commonsense objects that extend over all their sensory data and over time are superficial true phenomena.



  1. Self-sufficiently Knowable Phenomena and Imputedly Knowable Phenomena According to Sautrantika



As we have seen, Sautrantika differentiates the two true phenomena according to whether or not their existence can be substantially established by their performing a function. Those that cannot perform a function have existence established merely by their being imputed by conceptual cognition. This division does not correspond, however, to the division made between self-sufficiently knowable phenomena and imputedly knowable phenomena.



Sautrantika defines self-sufficiently knowable and imputedly knowable phenomena in the same way as Vaibhashika does, but interprets the definitions quite differently. Thus, self-sufficiently knowable phenomena are defined as validly knowable phenomena that, when actually cognized (dngos-bzung), do not

rely on actual cognition of or by something else. Imputedly knowable phenomena are those validly knowable phenomena that, when actually cognized, do rely on actual cognition of or by something else. Cognition of them requires immediately preceding and simultaneous cognition of their bases for imputation.


    
Actual cognition” refers to manifest (mngon-gyur) cognition, whether with explicit apprehension (dngos-su rtogs-pa) or implicit apprehension (shugs-la rtogs-pa).
    

In manifest cognition of a cognitive object, the consciousness of the manifest cognition gives rise to a mental aspect representing the object. The cognitive object appears, through that aspect, both to the person and to the consciousness of the manifest cognition. Both the person and the manifest consciousness cognize the object.
    

To “apprehend” an object means accurately and decisively to determine it (nges-pa) as “this” and not “that.” With explicit apprehension, a mental aspect representing the apprehended object appears in the cognition; with implicit apprehension, such a mental aspect does not


appear. Vaibhashika does not assert a difference between explicit and implicit apprehension, because it asserts that cognition directly contacts and cognizes its object. Sautrantika, however, asserts that cognition in which an object appears must occur through the medium of a mental aspect of the object appearing, somewhat like a mental hologram of the object.
    


“Actual cognition of something else” refers, for example, to actual cognition of the phenomenon’s basis for imputation, both immediately prior and simultaneously with cognition of the phenomenon.


Because of this change in interpretation of the definitions of the two types of knowable phenomena and of the two true phenomena, the phenomena assigned as self-sufficiently knowable by Vaibhashika and Sautrantika are nearly the reverse of each other.


Forms of physical phenomena and ways of being aware of something are self-sufficiently knowable phenomena. The cognitions that cognize them do so without needing to rely on prior and simultaneous cognition of anything else. We can see or think of a hand, for example,



without our non-conceptual visual cognition or conceptual mental cognition of it first having to cognize a colored shape before cognizing a hand, or without first having to cognize five fingers. This does not mean, however, that we can cognize a hand without simultaneously

cognizing some sensory quality (yon-tan) or some physical parts, it just means that we do not need to cognize some sensory quality or some physical parts first, before cognizing a hand.

    

According to the Jetsunpa textbook tradition, the whole, its parts, and its sensory qualities constituent separate, different substantial entities. If this were not the case and they were all the same substantial entity, then the absurd conclusion would follow that one cognition, for instance [


[[[visual cognition]]]], would have to cognize the hand together with all its sensory qualities at the same time – not only a colored shape, but also a texture, a smell, a taste, and a sound. Or, when we see a hand, we would have to see all its parts. If we saw only part of a hand, we would not be seeing a hand.
    

According to the Panchen textbook tradition, the whole, its parts, and its sensory qualities are the same substantial entity. Otherwise, the absurd conclusion would follow that one could cognize a hand on its own, separately from cognizing one of its sensory qualities or some of its parts.


  1. Noncongruent affecting variables and static phenomena are imputedly knowable phenomena.


    

We cannot see or think of the movement of a hand, for example, without immediately preceding cognition of the hand in one position and then simultaneous cognition of the hand in a second position.
    


We cannot think of an individual substantially existing item with five fingers in terms of the static audio and meaning/object categories hand without first cognizing the individual item with five fingers and then cognizing both the individual item and the category hand.
    

The hand and the movement of the hand are the same substantial entity, whereas the audio and meaning/object categories are neither the same nor different substantial entities as the hand. This is because movement has substantially established existence: it has the ability to perform a function. Categories have existence not established substantially: they lack the ability to perform a function.



Thus, all superficial true phenomena are imputedly knowable, whereas not all deepest true phenomena are self-sufficiently knowable. Some deepest true phenomena, namely noncongruent affecting variables, are also imputedly knowable.


Modes of Existence of the Two Truths in Sautrantika
Existence Established by Something’s Self-Nature and Existence Established from Something’s Own Side



Existence established by something’s self-nature (rang-bzhin-gyis grub-pa, findably established existence, inherent existence) and existence established from something’s own side (rang-ngos-nas grub-pa) are synonymous terms (don-gcig). If a phenomenon has



one of the two types of existence, it also has the other, and vice versa. Both modes of existence are defined as existence established by the fact that when one searches for the referent “thing” (btags-don) – the actual “thing”

referred to by a name or concept, corresponding to the names or concepts for something – that referent “thing” is findable. The referent “thing” is findable on the side of the object that is being named. This definition is accepted by all tenet systems.



According to Sautrantika, all validly knowable phenomena – both superficial and deepest true ones – have their existence established by their self-natures and existence established from their own sides. When we search for the actual “thing” referred to by the name hand or by the name the category “hand,”we find an actual hand or the

actual category “hand” on the side of the hand or on the side of the category that is being named, with its existence as a validly knowable phenomenon established there, from its own side.
Existence Established by Individual Defining Characteristics



Moreover, both superficial and deepest true phenomena have their existence established by individual defining characteristic marks (rang-gi mtshan-nyid-kyis grub-pa), findable on their own side. These individual defining characteristic marks serve as the basis for their being labeled by the names, words, and concepts for them, as well as for their qualities.



Note that in the case of superficial true phenomena (metaphysical entities), although they have existence established merely by their being imputed by conceptual cognition, this does not exclude that they have existence established both by individual defining characteristic marks findable on their own side as

well as by their being merely imputed by conceptual cognition. “Merely” excludes only “not being imputed by conceptual cognition.”



Existence Established as Being Individually Characterized


According to the Jetsunpa textbook tradition, in the Sautrantika system, existence established by individual defining characteristics is not synonymous with existence established as being individually characterized (rang-mtshan-gyis grub-pa). The term individually characterized is the same term as the one translated above as “objective entities.” Only individually characterized phenomena


(objective entities, deepest true phenomena) have existence established as being individually characterized. Although metaphysical entities (superficial true phenomena, generally characterized entities) have existence established by individual defining characteristic marks, they do not have existence established as being individually characterized.


According to the Panchen textbook tradition, in the Sautrantika system, existence established by individual defining characteristic marks is synonymous with existence established as being individually characterized. Here, Panchen is using the term individually characterized in a more general sense, not


merely for objective entities (deepest true phenomena), but also for metaphysical entities (superficial true phenomena, generally characterized entities).
Truly Established Existence and Existence Established as Being a Deepest Phenomenon



  1. According to the Jetsunpa textbook tradition, in the Sautrantika system


    
Truly established existence (bden-par grub-pa, true existence) is synonymous with existence established as an ultimate phenomena (don-dam-par grub-pa); and ultimate phenomena (don-dam-pa) are synonymous with deepest true phenomena (don-dam bden-pa).

Thus, deepest true phenomena (objective entities, nonstatic phenomena) all have truly established existence (existence established as true phenomena). They all can perform a function.

   
Superficial true phenomena (metaphysical entities, static phenomena), on the other hand, have existence not truly established (bden-par ma-grub-pa, non-true existence). They lack true existence because they are established as not ultimate phenomena (don-dam-par ma-grub-pa). This is because they


cannot perform a function and are merely imputed by words and concepts. For this reason, superficial phenomena have falsely established existence (rdzun-par grub-pa, false existence) – in other words, existence established as false phenomena.



  1. According to the Panchen textbook tradition, in the Sautrantika system,


    
Truly established existence is synonymous with existence established from something’s own side. Thus, both superficial and deepest true phenomena have truly established existence. This is the same as the usage of “truly established existence” as in the Vaibhashika system.



  1. Comparison with the Mahayana Tenet Systems



As mentioned above, understanding the Vaibhashika and Sautrantika assertions of the two truths and the manner of existence that each type of true phenomenon has and lacks serves as a stepping-stone for understanding

the assertions of the Mahayana tenet systems. Let us illustrate this point in terms of understanding existence established by being merely imputable by conceptual cognition and, specifically, the meaning of the word merely in this context.



The terms existence established by something’s self-nature, existence established from something’s own side, and existence established by individual defining characteristic marks do not generally appear in the Vaibhashika presentation. However, it is consistent with the Vaibhashika assertions that both deepest and

superficial true phenomena have their existence established in these ways. Vaibhashika also asserts that nothing has existence established merely by being imputable, because everything has substantially established existence.



Sautrantika asserts that both deepest and superficial true phenomena have existence established by individual defining characteristic marks findable on the side of the phenomena. It also asserts that superficial true phenomena have existence established by being merely imputable by conceptual cognition. In Sautrantika, “merely” excludes only “not being imputed by conceptual cognition.”


    
[#[[[Svatantrika]]]] agrees with Sautrantika regarding what “merely” excludes.

    
In the Chittamatra and Prasangika systems, “merely” excludes also having existence established by individual defining characteristic marks.


Based on this distinction regarding the meaning of “merely,” let us examine the pervasions between (1) phenomena having existence established by individual defining characteristics findable on their own side and (2) phenomena having existence established by being merely imputable by conceptual cognition.

The Vaibhashika system asserts that all phenomena have (1) and do not have (2).


  1. The Sautrantika system asserts:


    
Phenomena having (1), but not having (2) – namely, deepest true phenomena (objective entities).
    
Phenomena having (1) and having (2) – namely, superficial true phenomena (metaphysical entities).
    
There are no phenomena that have do not have (1), but have (2).
    
There are no phenomena that do not have (1), and do not have (2).


Thus, Sautrantika asserts that all phenomena have (1). However, superficial true phenomena also have (2), whereas deepest true phenomena do not have (2).

Chittamatra asserts phenomena that do not have (1), but have (2), namely superficial true phenomena – referring to totally conceptual phenomena (kun-brtags) in its system (all static phenomena other than voidnesses). Sautrantika asserts that not having (1) but having (2) is an impossible mode of existence.



Svatantrika asserts that all phenomena have both (1) and do not have (2). Vaibhashika asserts the same; however, Vaibhashika asserts that, in addition, nothing has existence established by being imputable by conceptual cognition. Svatantrika, on the other hand, asserts that all existent phenomena have existence established by being imputable by conceptual cognition.



Prasangika asserts that all phenomena do not have (1), but have (2). Thus, Sautrantika agrees with Prasangika that if something does not have (2), it must have (1). It is impossible for anything to have (1) and also to have (2). Prasangika, however, asserts that having (2) and also having (1) is an impossible mode of existence, whereas Sautrantika asserts that deepest true phenomena have both (1) and (2).





  1. The progressive steps of understanding, then, are as follows:




    
All tenet systems agree that if something has existence established by its self-nature, it is findable on its own side as the referent “thing” for the name or concept for itself.

    
In Vaibhashika, if something is findable like this, it has individual defining characteristics on its own side that establish its existence by their own power. Nothing has its existence also established by its being merely imputable, or even by its being imputable.

    
In Sautrantika, if something is findable like this, it has individual defining characteristics on its own side that establish its existence by their own power, whether or not in conjunction with mere imputation also establishing its existence.

    
In Chittamatra, if something is findable like this, it does not necessarily have such individual defining characteristic marks. It only has such marks if its existence is not established by its being merely imputed. Moreover, those phenomena that have such marks only have findable marks that establish their existence as validly knowable phenomena. They lack findable marks that serve as the basis for labeling various names or qualities for the phenomenon.

    
In Svatantrika, if something is findable like this, it necessarily has such individual defining characteristic marks. Nothing is merely imputable, independently of such individual marks findable on the side of a basis for imputation. Nevertheless, the existence of everything is established by their being imputable.

    
In Prasangika, nothing is findable like this. Everything is merely imputable. Nothing has existence established by the power of findable individual defining characteristic marks on the side of an object – either by the power of those marks alone or by the power of them in conjunction with the power of imputation – because such findable characteristic marks are nonexistent.




Source

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