Difference between revisions of "Prajnaparamita"
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− | '''Prajñāpāramitā''' ([[Sanskrit]]: प्रज्ञापारमिता) in [[Buddhism]], means "the Perfection of (Transcendent) [[Wisdom]]." The word Prajñāpāramitā combines the [[Sanskrit]] words prajñā ("[[Wisdom]]") with pāramitā ("perfection"). Prajñāpāramitā is a central concept in [[Mahāyāna]] [[Buddhism]] and its practice and understanding are taken to be indispensable elements of the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Path]]. The practice of [[Prajñā]]pāramitā is elucidated and described in the genre of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras, which vary widely in length and exhaustiveness. The Prajñāpāramitā [[Sutras]] suggest that all things are illusory. The earliest [[Mahayana]] [[Sutras]] were of the Prajñāpāramitā type. | + | '''[[Prajñāpāramitā]]''' ([[Sanskrit]]: प्रज्ञापारमिता) in [[Buddhism]], means "the [[Perfection]] of ([[Transcendent]]) [[Wisdom]]." The [[word]] [[Prajñāpāramitā]] combines the [[Sanskrit]] words [[prajñā]] ("[[Wisdom]]") with [[pāramitā]] ("[[perfection]]"). [[Prajñāpāramitā]] is a central {{Wiki|concept}} in [[Mahāyāna]] [[Buddhism]] and its practice and understanding are taken to be indispensable [[elements]] of the [[Bodhisattva]] [[Path]]. The practice of [[Prajñā]][[pāramitā]] is elucidated and described in the genre of the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtras]], which vary widely in length and exhaustiveness. The [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sutras]] suggest that all things are [[illusory]]. The earliest [[Mahayana]] [[Sutras]] were of the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] type. |
==History== | ==History== | ||
===Earliest texts=== | ===Earliest texts=== | ||
− | ====Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā==== | + | ====[[Aṣṭasāhasrikā]] Prajñāpāramitā==== |
− | Western scholars have traditionally considered the earliest [[Sūtra]] in the Prajñāpāramitā class to be the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]] or "Perfection of [[Wisdom]] in 8,000 Lines", which was probably put in [[Writing]] in the 1st century BCE. This chronology is based on the views of Edward Conze, who largely considered dates of translation into other languages. The first translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā into Chinese occurred in the 2nd century CE. This text also has a corresponding version in verse format, called the Ratnaguṇasaṃcaya Gāthā, which some believe to be slightly older because it is not written in standard literary [[Sanskrit]]. However, these findings rely on late-dating Indian texts, in which verses and mantras are often kept in more archaic forms. | + | Western [[scholars]] have [[traditionally]] considered the earliest [[Sūtra]] in the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] class to be the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]] or "[[Perfection]] of [[Wisdom]] in 8,000 Lines", which was probably put in [[Writing]] in the 1st century BCE. This chronology is based on the [[views]] of {{Wiki|Edward Conze}}, who largely considered dates of translation into other languages. The first translation of the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā]] into {{Wiki|Chinese}} occurred in the 2nd century CE. This text also has a corresponding version in verse format, called the Ratnaguṇasaṃcaya Gāthā, which some believe to be slightly older because it is not written in [[standard]] literary [[Sanskrit]]. However, these findings rely on late-dating [[Indian]] texts, in which verses and [[mantras]] are often kept in more archaic [[forms]]. |
− | Additionally, a number of scholars have proposed that the [[Mahāyāna]] Prajñāpāramitā teachings were first developed by the Caitika subsect of the Mahāsāṃghikas. They believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]] originated amongst the southern Mahāsaṃghika schools of the Āndhra region, along the Kṛṣṇa River. These Mahāsaṃghikas had two famous [[Monasteries]] near the Amarāvati and the Dhānyakataka, which gave their names to the schools of the Pūrvaśailas and the Aparaśailas. Each of these schools had a copy of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]] in prakrit. Guang Xing also assesses the view of [[The Buddha]] given in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]] as being that of the Mahāsaṃghikas. Edward Conze estimates that this [[Sūtra]] originated around 100 BCE. | + | Additionally, a number of [[scholars]] have proposed that the [[Mahāyāna]] [[Prajñāpāramitā]] teachings were first developed by the [[Caitika]] subsect of the [[Mahāsāṃghikas]]. They believe that the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]] originated amongst the southern [[Mahāsaṃghika]] schools of the Āndhra region, along the Kṛṣṇa [[River]]. These [[Mahāsaṃghikas]] had two famous [[Monasteries]] near the [[Amarāvati]] and the Dhānyakataka, which gave their names to the schools of the [[Pūrvaśailas]] and the [[Aparaśailas]]. Each of these schools had a copy of the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]] in prakrit. [[Guang Xing]] also assesses the [[view]] of [[The Buddha]] given in the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]] as [[being]] that of the [[Mahāsaṃghikas]]. {{Wiki|Edward Conze}} estimates that this [[Sūtra]] originated around 100 BCE. |
− | ====Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā==== | + | ====[[Vajracchedikā]] Prajñāpāramitā==== |
− | In contrast to western scholarship, Japanese scholars have traditionally considered the Diamond [[Sūtra]] (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]]) to be from a very early date in the development of Prajñāpāramitā literature.[ The usual reason for this relative chronology which places the Vajracchedikā earlier is not its date of translation, but rather a comparison of the contents and themes. Some western scholars also believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra was adapted from the earlier Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra. | + | In contrast to western {{Wiki|scholarship}}, {{Wiki|Japanese}} [[scholars]] have [[traditionally]] considered the [[Diamond]] [[Sūtra]] ([[Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]]) to be from a very early date in the development of [[Prajñāpāramitā]] {{Wiki|literature}}.[ The usual [[reason]] for this [[relative]] chronology which places the [[Vajracchedikā]] earlier is not its date of translation, but rather a [[comparison]] of the contents and themes. Some western [[scholars]] also believe that the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]] was adapted from the earlier [[Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]. |
− | Examining the language and phrases used in both the Aṣṭasāhasrikā and the Vajracchedikā, Gregory Schopen also sees the Vajracchedikā as being earlier than the Aṣṭasāhasrikā. This view is taken in part by examining parallels between the two works, in which the Aṣṭasāhasrikā seems to represent the later or more developed position. According to Schopen, these works also show a shift in emphasis from an oral tradition (Vajracchedikā) to a written tradition (Aṣṭasāhasrikā). | + | Examining the [[language]] and phrases used in both the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā]] and the [[Vajracchedikā]], Gregory Schopen also sees the [[Vajracchedikā]] as [[being]] earlier than the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā]]. This [[view]] is taken in part by examining parallels between the two works, in which the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā]] seems to represent the later or more developed position. According to Schopen, these works also show a shift in emphasis from an [[oral tradition]] ([[Vajracchedikā]]) to a written [[tradition]] ([[Aṣṭasāhasrikā]]). |
− | ===Overview of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras=== | + | ===Overview of the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] sūtras=== |
[[File:Prajnaparamita47.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:Prajnaparamita47.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | An Indian commentary on the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, entitled Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā, gives a classification of teachings according to the capabilities of the audience: | + | An [[Indian]] commentary on the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, entitled Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā, gives a classification of teachings according to the capabilities of the audience: |
− | : [A]ccording to disciples' grades, [[the Dharma]] is [classified as] inferior and superior. For example, the inferior was taught to the merchants Trapuṣa and Ballika because they were ordinary men; the middle was taught to the group of five because they were at the stage of saints; the eightfold [[Prajñāpāramitā]]s were taught to [[Bodhisattvas]], and [the Prajñāpāramitās] are superior in eliminating conceptually imagined forms. The eightfold [Prajñāpāramitās] are the teachings of the Prajñāpāramitā as follows: the Triśatikā, Pañcaśatikā, Saptaśatikā, Sārdhadvisāhasrikā, Aṣṭasāhasrikā, Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā, Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā, and Śatasāhasrikā. | + | : [A]ccording to [[disciples]]' grades, [[the Dharma]] is [classified as] inferior and superior. For [[example]], the inferior was taught to the merchants Trapuṣa and Ballika because they were [[ordinary]] men; the middle was taught to the group of five because they were at the stage of {{Wiki|saints}}; the eightfold [[Prajñāpāramitā]]s were taught to [[Bodhisattvas]], and [the Prajñāpāramitās] are superior in eliminating conceptually [[imagined]] [[forms]]. The eightfold [Prajñāpāramitās] are the teachings of the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] as follows: the Triśatikā, Pañcaśatikā, Saptaśatikā, Sārdhadvisāhasrikā, [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā]], Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā, Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā, and [[Śatasāhasrikā]]. |
− | The titles of these eight Prajñāpāramitā texts are given according to their length. The texts may have other [[Sanskrit]] titles as well, or different variations which may be more descriptive. The lengths specified by the titles are given below. | + | The titles of these eight [[Prajñāpāramitā]] texts are given according to their length. The texts may have other [[Sanskrit]] titles as well, or different variations which may be more descriptive. The lengths specified by the titles are given below. |
− | # Triśatikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]]: 300 lines, the Diamond [[Sūtra]], or Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]] | + | # Triśatikā [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]]: 300 lines, the [[Diamond]] [[Sūtra]], or [[Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]] |
− | # Pañcaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]]: 500 lines | + | # Pañcaśatikā [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]]: 500 lines |
− | # Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]]: 700 lines, the [[Bodhisattva]] Mañjuśrī's exposition of Prajñāpāramitā | + | # Saptaśatikā [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]]: 700 lines, the [[Bodhisattva]] Mañjuśrī's exposition of [[Prajñāpāramitā]] |
− | # Sārdhadvisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]]: 2500 lines, from the questions of Suvikrāntavikrāmin [[Bodhisattva]] | + | # Sārdhadvisāhasrikā [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]]: 2500 lines, from the questions of Suvikrāntavikrāmin [[Bodhisattva]] |
− | # Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]]: 8000 lines | + | # [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]]: 8000 lines |
− | # Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]]: 18,000 lines | + | # Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]]: 18,000 lines |
− | # Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]]: 25,000 lines | + | # Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]]: 25,000 lines |
− | # Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]]: 100,000 lines, also called the Mahaprajñapāramitā [[Sūtra]] | + | # [[Śatasāhasrikā]] [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]]: 100,000 lines, also called the Mahaprajñapāramitā [[Sūtra]] |
− | According to Joseph Walser, there is evidence that the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]] (25,000 lines) and the Śatasāhasrikā [[Prajñā]]pāramitā [[Sūtra]] (100,000 lines) have a connection with the Dharmaguptaka sect, while the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā [[Sūtra]] (8000 lines) does not. | + | According to Joseph Walser, there is evidence that the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]] (25,000 lines) and the [[Śatasāhasrikā]] [[Prajñā]][[pāramitā]] [[Sūtra]] (100,000 lines) have a connection with the [[Dharmaguptaka]] sect, while the [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Sūtra]] (8000 lines) does not. |
− | In addition to these, there are also other Prajñāpāramitā sūtras such as the [[Heart]] [[Sūtra]] (Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya), which exists in both 14-line and 25-line versions. Regarding the shorter texts, Edward Conze writes, "Two of these, the Diamond [[Sūtra]] and the [[Heart]] [[Sūtra]] are in a class by themselves and deservedly renowned throughout the [[World]] of [[Northern Buddhism]]. Both have been translated into many languages and have often been commented upon." | + | In addition to these, there are also other [[Prajñāpāramitā sūtras]] such as the [[Heart]] [[Sūtra]] ([[Prajñāpāramitā]] Hṛdaya), which [[exists]] in both 14-line and 25-line versions. Regarding the shorter texts, {{Wiki|Edward Conze}} writes, "Two of these, the [[Diamond]] [[Sūtra]] and the [[Heart]] [[Sūtra]] are in a class by themselves and deservedly renowned throughout the [[World]] of [[Northern Buddhism]]. Both have been translated into many languages and have often been commented upon." |
− | Tāntric versions of the Prajñāpāramitā literature were produced from the year 500 CE on. Additionally, Prajñāpāramitā [[Terma]] teachings are held by some Tibetan Buddhists to have been conferred upon [[Nāgārjuna]] by Nāgarāja, King of Nāgas, who had been guarding them at the bottom of the sea. | + | Tāntric versions of the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] {{Wiki|literature}} were produced from the year 500 CE on. Additionally, [[Prajñāpāramitā]] [[Terma]] teachings are held by some [[Tibetan]] [[Buddhists]] to have been conferred upon [[Nāgārjuna]] by Nāgarāja, [[King]] of [[Nāgas]], who had been guarding them at the bottom of the sea. |
− | ===Xuanzang and the Mahaprajñapāramitā=== | + | ===[[Xuanzang]] and the Mahaprajñapāramitā=== |
− | [[Xuanzang]] returned to China from [[India]] with three copies of the Mahaprajñapāramitā [[Sūtra]] which he had secured from his extensive travels.[18] [[Xuanzang]], with a team of [[Disciple]] translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE using the three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation.[18] [[Xuanzang]] was being encouraged by a number of the [[Disciple]] translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of [[Dreams]] quickened his decision, [[Xuanzang]] determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 fascicles. | + | [[Xuanzang]] returned to [[China]] from [[India]] with three copies of the Mahaprajñapāramitā [[Sūtra]] which he had secured from his extensive travels.[18] [[Xuanzang]], with a team of [[Disciple]] translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE using the three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation.[18] [[Xuanzang]] was [[being]] encouraged by a number of the [[Disciple]] translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of [[Dreams]] quickened his decision, [[Xuanzang]] determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 fascicles. |
− | ==Prajnaparamita in visual art== | + | ==[[Prajnaparamita]] in [[visual]] art== |
− | The [[Prajnaparamita]] is often personified as a bodhisattvadevi (female [[Bodhisattva]]). Artifacts from [[Nalanda]] depict the [[Prajnaparamita]] personified as a goddess. The depiction of [[Prajnaparamita]] statue as a goddess is also can be found in ancient Java and Cambodian [[Art]]. | + | The [[Prajnaparamita]] is often personified as a bodhisattvadevi ({{Wiki|female}} [[Bodhisattva]]). Artifacts from [[Nalanda]] depict the [[Prajnaparamita]] personified as a [[goddess]]. The depiction of [[Prajnaparamita]] statue as a [[goddess]] is also can be found in ancient Java and Cambodian [[Art]]. |
− | ===Prajnaparamita in Ancient Indonesia=== | + | ===[[Prajnaparamita]] in Ancient Indonesia=== |
− | [[Mahayana Buddhism]] took root in ancient Java Sailendra court in the 8th century CE. The [[Mahayana]] reverence of female buddhist deity started with the cult of [[Tara]] enshrined in the 8th century Kalasan temple in Central Java. Some of [[Prajnaparamita]]'s important functions and attributes can be traced to those of the goddess [[Tara]]. [[Tara]] and [[Prajnaparamita]] are both referred to as mothers of all [[Buddhas]], since [[Buddhas]] are born from [[Wisdom]]. The Sailendra dynasty was also the ruling family of Srivijaya buddhist empire in Sumatra. During the reign of the third Pala king Devapala (815-854) in [[India]], Srivijaya Maharaja Balaputra of Sailendras also constructed one of [[Nalanda]]’s main [[Monasteries]] in [[India]] itself. Thereafter manuscript editions of the Ashtasahasrika [[Prajnaparamita]] [[Sutra]] circulating in Sumatra and Java instigated the cult of the 'Goddess of Transcendent [[Wisdom]]'.[20] In 13th century, the [[Tantric Buddhism]] gained royal patronage of king Kertanegara of Singhasari, and thereafter some of [[Prajnaparamita]] statues were produced in the region, such as the [[Prajnaparamita]] of Singhasari in East Java and [[Prajnaparamita]] of Jambi, Sumatra. Both of East Java and Jambi Prajnaparamitas bear resemblance in style as they were produced in same period, however unfortunately [[Prajnaparamita]] of Jambi is headless and was discovered in poor condition. | + | [[Mahayana Buddhism]] took [[root]] in ancient Java Sailendra court in the 8th century CE. The [[Mahayana]] reverence of {{Wiki|female}} [[buddhist]] [[deity]] started with the [[cult]] of [[Tara]] enshrined in the 8th century Kalasan [[temple]] in Central Java. Some of [[Prajnaparamita]]'s important functions and attributes can be traced to those of the [[goddess]] [[Tara]]. [[Tara]] and [[Prajnaparamita]] are both referred to as mothers of all [[Buddhas]], since [[Buddhas]] are born from [[Wisdom]]. The Sailendra dynasty was also the ruling family of Srivijaya [[buddhist]] empire in Sumatra. During the reign of the third Pala [[king]] Devapala (815-854) in [[India]], Srivijaya Maharaja Balaputra of Sailendras also [[constructed]] one of [[Nalanda]]’s main [[Monasteries]] in [[India]] itself. Thereafter manuscript editions of the Ashtasahasrika [[Prajnaparamita]] [[Sutra]] circulating in Sumatra and Java instigated the [[cult]] of the '[[Goddess]] of [[Transcendent]] [[Wisdom]]'.[20] In 13th century, the [[Tantric Buddhism]] gained royal patronage of [[king]] Kertanegara of Singhasari, and thereafter some of [[Prajnaparamita]] [[statues]] were produced in the region, such as the [[Prajnaparamita]] of Singhasari in East Java and [[Prajnaparamita]] of Jambi, Sumatra. Both of East Java and Jambi Prajnaparamitas bear resemblance in style as they were produced in same period, however unfortunately [[Prajnaparamita]] of Jambi is headless and was discovered in poor [[condition]]. |
− | The statue of [[Prajnaparamita]] of East Java is probably the most famous depiction of the goddes of transcendental [[Wisdom]]. It was discovered in almost perfect condition in the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple, Malang, East Java. Local tradition links the statue to Queen Ken Dedes the first queen of Singhasari, probably as a deified portrayal of the queen. Another opinion links the statue with Queen Gayatri, the consort of Kertarajasa the first king of Majapahit. The statue was discovered in 1818 or 1819 by D. Monnereau, a Dutch East Indies official. In 1820 Monnereau gave the statue to C.G.C. Reinwardt, who later brought the statue to the Netherlands, where it became a prized possession of the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde in Leiden. In January 1978, the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde returned the statue to Indonesia, where it was placed in National Museum of Indonesia. Today the beautiful and serene statue is displayed on 2nd floor Gedung Arca, Indonesian National Museum, Jakarta. | + | The statue of [[Prajnaparamita]] of East Java is probably the most famous depiction of the goddes of [[transcendental]] [[Wisdom]]. It was discovered in almost perfect [[condition]] in the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari [[temple]], Malang, East Java. Local [[tradition]] links the statue to {{Wiki|Queen}} Ken Dedes the first {{Wiki|queen}} of Singhasari, probably as a deified portrayal of the {{Wiki|queen}}. Another opinion links the statue with {{Wiki|Queen}} [[Gayatri]], the [[consort]] of Kertarajasa the first [[king]] of Majapahit. The statue was discovered in 1818 or 1819 by D. Monnereau, a Dutch East Indies official. In 1820 Monnereau gave the statue to C.G.C. Reinwardt, who later brought the statue to the Netherlands, where it became a prized possession of the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde in Leiden. In January 1978, the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde returned the statue to {{Wiki|Indonesia}}, where it was placed in National Museum of {{Wiki|Indonesia}}. Today the [[beautiful]] and serene statue is displayed on 2nd floor Gedung Arca, {{Wiki|Indonesian}} National Museum, Jakarta. |
− | The statue of the goddess Prajnaparamita of East Java is considered the masterpiece of classical ancient Java Hindu-Buddhist art in Indonesia. The serene expression and meditative pose and gesture suggest peace and wisdom, in contrast with rich and intricate jewelry and decorations. The goddess wears her hair high arranged in Jatamakuta crown. The goddess is in a perfect lotus meditative position sitting on a padmasana (lotus throne) on a square pedestal. The goddess performs dharmachakra-mudra (the mudra symbolizing turning the wheel of dharma). Her left arm is placed around an utpala (blue lotus), on top of which sits the lontar palm leaf book Prajnaparamita-sutra. The statue stands before a carved stela, and behind her head radiates a halo or aura of light to suggest a divinity that has reached the highest wisdom. | + | The statue of the [[goddess]] [[Prajnaparamita]] of East Java is considered the masterpiece of classical ancient Java Hindu-Buddhist art in {{Wiki|Indonesia}}. The serene expression and [[meditative]] pose and gesture suggest [[peace]] and [[wisdom]], in contrast with rich and intricate jewelry and decorations. The [[goddess]] wears her [[hair]] high arranged in Jatamakuta crown. The [[goddess]] is in a perfect [[lotus]] [[meditative]] position sitting on a [[padmasana]] ([[lotus throne]]) on a square pedestal. The [[goddess]] performs dharmachakra-mudra (the [[mudra]] [[symbolizing]] turning the [[wheel]] of [[dharma]]). Her left arm is placed around an [[utpala]] ([[blue]] [[lotus]]), on top of which sits the lontar palm leaf [[book]] Prajnaparamita-sutra. The statue stands before a carved stela, and behind her head radiates a [[halo]] or [[aura]] of [[light]] to suggest a [[divinity]] that has reached the highest [[wisdom]]. |
{{W}} | {{W}} |
Revision as of 22:08, 2 September 2013
Prajñāpāramitā (Sanskrit: प्रज्ञापारमिता) in Buddhism, means "the Perfection of (Transcendent) Wisdom." The word Prajñāpāramitā combines the Sanskrit words prajñā ("Wisdom") with pāramitā ("perfection"). Prajñāpāramitā is a central concept in Mahāyāna Buddhism and its practice and understanding are taken to be indispensable elements of the Bodhisattva Path. The practice of Prajñāpāramitā is elucidated and described in the genre of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras, which vary widely in length and exhaustiveness. The Prajñāpāramitā Sutras suggest that all things are illusory. The earliest Mahayana Sutras were of the Prajñāpāramitā type.
History
Earliest texts
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā
Western scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Sūtra in the Prajñāpāramitā class to be the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra or "Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines", which was probably put in Writing in the 1st century BCE. This chronology is based on the views of Edward Conze, who largely considered dates of translation into other languages. The first translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā into Chinese occurred in the 2nd century CE. This text also has a corresponding version in verse format, called the Ratnaguṇasaṃcaya Gāthā, which some believe to be slightly older because it is not written in standard literary Sanskrit. However, these findings rely on late-dating Indian texts, in which verses and mantras are often kept in more archaic forms.
Additionally, a number of scholars have proposed that the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings were first developed by the Caitika subsect of the Mahāsāṃghikas. They believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra originated amongst the southern Mahāsaṃghika schools of the Āndhra region, along the Kṛṣṇa River. These Mahāsaṃghikas had two famous Monasteries near the Amarāvati and the Dhānyakataka, which gave their names to the schools of the Pūrvaśailas and the Aparaśailas. Each of these schools had a copy of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in prakrit. Guang Xing also assesses the view of The Buddha given in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra as being that of the Mahāsaṃghikas. Edward Conze estimates that this Sūtra originated around 100 BCE.
Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā
In contrast to western scholarship, Japanese scholars have traditionally considered the Diamond Sūtra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) to be from a very early date in the development of Prajñāpāramitā literature.[ The usual reason for this relative chronology which places the Vajracchedikā earlier is not its date of translation, but rather a comparison of the contents and themes. Some western scholars also believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra was adapted from the earlier Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
Examining the language and phrases used in both the Aṣṭasāhasrikā and the Vajracchedikā, Gregory Schopen also sees the Vajracchedikā as being earlier than the Aṣṭasāhasrikā. This view is taken in part by examining parallels between the two works, in which the Aṣṭasāhasrikā seems to represent the later or more developed position. According to Schopen, these works also show a shift in emphasis from an oral tradition (Vajracchedikā) to a written tradition (Aṣṭasāhasrikā).
Overview of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras
An Indian commentary on the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, entitled Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā, gives a classification of teachings according to the capabilities of the audience:
- [A]ccording to disciples' grades, the Dharma is [classified as] inferior and superior. For example, the inferior was taught to the merchants Trapuṣa and Ballika because they were ordinary men; the middle was taught to the group of five because they were at the stage of saints; the eightfold Prajñāpāramitās were taught to Bodhisattvas, and [the Prajñāpāramitās] are superior in eliminating conceptually imagined forms. The eightfold [Prajñāpāramitās] are the teachings of the Prajñāpāramitā as follows: the Triśatikā, Pañcaśatikā, Saptaśatikā, Sārdhadvisāhasrikā, Aṣṭasāhasrikā, Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā, Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā, and Śatasāhasrikā.
The titles of these eight Prajñāpāramitā texts are given according to their length. The texts may have other Sanskrit titles as well, or different variations which may be more descriptive. The lengths specified by the titles are given below.
- Triśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 300 lines, the Diamond Sūtra, or Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
- Pañcaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 500 lines
- Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 700 lines, the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī's exposition of Prajñāpāramitā
- Sārdhadvisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 2500 lines, from the questions of Suvikrāntavikrāmin Bodhisattva
- Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 8000 lines
- Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 18,000 lines
- Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 25,000 lines
- Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 100,000 lines, also called the Mahaprajñapāramitā Sūtra
According to Joseph Walser, there is evidence that the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (25,000 lines) and the Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (100,000 lines) have a connection with the Dharmaguptaka sect, while the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (8000 lines) does not.
In addition to these, there are also other Prajñāpāramitā sūtras such as the Heart Sūtra (Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya), which exists in both 14-line and 25-line versions. Regarding the shorter texts, Edward Conze writes, "Two of these, the Diamond Sūtra and the Heart Sūtra are in a class by themselves and deservedly renowned throughout the World of Northern Buddhism. Both have been translated into many languages and have often been commented upon."
Tāntric versions of the Prajñāpāramitā literature were produced from the year 500 CE on. Additionally, Prajñāpāramitā Terma teachings are held by some Tibetan Buddhists to have been conferred upon Nāgārjuna by Nāgarāja, King of Nāgas, who had been guarding them at the bottom of the sea.
Xuanzang and the Mahaprajñapāramitā
Xuanzang returned to China from India with three copies of the Mahaprajñapāramitā Sūtra which he had secured from his extensive travels.[18] Xuanzang, with a team of Disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE using the three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation.[18] Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of the Disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of Dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 fascicles.
Prajnaparamita in visual art
The Prajnaparamita is often personified as a bodhisattvadevi (female Bodhisattva). Artifacts from Nalanda depict the Prajnaparamita personified as a goddess. The depiction of Prajnaparamita statue as a goddess is also can be found in ancient Java and Cambodian Art.
Prajnaparamita in Ancient Indonesia
Mahayana Buddhism took root in ancient Java Sailendra court in the 8th century CE. The Mahayana reverence of female buddhist deity started with the cult of Tara enshrined in the 8th century Kalasan temple in Central Java. Some of Prajnaparamita's important functions and attributes can be traced to those of the goddess Tara. Tara and Prajnaparamita are both referred to as mothers of all Buddhas, since Buddhas are born from Wisdom. The Sailendra dynasty was also the ruling family of Srivijaya buddhist empire in Sumatra. During the reign of the third Pala king Devapala (815-854) in India, Srivijaya Maharaja Balaputra of Sailendras also constructed one of Nalanda’s main Monasteries in India itself. Thereafter manuscript editions of the Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra circulating in Sumatra and Java instigated the cult of the 'Goddess of Transcendent Wisdom'.[20] In 13th century, the Tantric Buddhism gained royal patronage of king Kertanegara of Singhasari, and thereafter some of Prajnaparamita statues were produced in the region, such as the Prajnaparamita of Singhasari in East Java and Prajnaparamita of Jambi, Sumatra. Both of East Java and Jambi Prajnaparamitas bear resemblance in style as they were produced in same period, however unfortunately Prajnaparamita of Jambi is headless and was discovered in poor condition.
The statue of Prajnaparamita of East Java is probably the most famous depiction of the goddes of transcendental Wisdom. It was discovered in almost perfect condition in the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple, Malang, East Java. Local tradition links the statue to Queen Ken Dedes the first queen of Singhasari, probably as a deified portrayal of the queen. Another opinion links the statue with Queen Gayatri, the consort of Kertarajasa the first king of Majapahit. The statue was discovered in 1818 or 1819 by D. Monnereau, a Dutch East Indies official. In 1820 Monnereau gave the statue to C.G.C. Reinwardt, who later brought the statue to the Netherlands, where it became a prized possession of the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde in Leiden. In January 1978, the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde returned the statue to Indonesia, where it was placed in National Museum of Indonesia. Today the beautiful and serene statue is displayed on 2nd floor Gedung Arca, Indonesian National Museum, Jakarta.
The statue of the goddess Prajnaparamita of East Java is considered the masterpiece of classical ancient Java Hindu-Buddhist art in Indonesia. The serene expression and meditative pose and gesture suggest peace and wisdom, in contrast with rich and intricate jewelry and decorations. The goddess wears her hair high arranged in Jatamakuta crown. The goddess is in a perfect lotus meditative position sitting on a padmasana (lotus throne) on a square pedestal. The goddess performs dharmachakra-mudra (the mudra symbolizing turning the wheel of dharma). Her left arm is placed around an utpala (blue lotus), on top of which sits the lontar palm leaf book Prajnaparamita-sutra. The statue stands before a carved stela, and behind her head radiates a halo or aura of light to suggest a divinity that has reached the highest wisdom.