Ancient History,
Medieval History
&
Art and Culture
Author: Team Unique Shiksha
Published & Solely Distributed by:
Preface
Why is this book important for your preparation?
T
here are several books in the market pertaining to the Ancient History, Medieval
History and Art and Culture, but none of them deals with the current pattern of the
examination. Hence, there is an urgent need to cater to the requirements of the aspirants
of lAS, State Public Services, as well as other competitive examinations.
This book has been designed keeping in mind the pattern of Civil Services examination.
Since there is a major change in the pattern of the questions of different examinations,
especially UPSC, this book serves as an elixir to the aspirants.
This material is very comprehensive and covers all aspects of Ancient History, Medieval
History and Indian Art and Culture alongwith the objective and subjective practice questions.
The content has been designed in point format and in lucid language covering length
and breadth of each topic.
Though it is a factual topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages
which help in constructing a time-line of events through ages.
Thus, this book will enable students to understand the finer points as well the multi-dimensional perspective of the subject.
Last but not the least; I would like to thank my parents, who supported me with love
and understanding, my committee members, each one of them has provided patient advice
and guidance throughout the research process.
Suggestions for improvement in the book are welcome.
Best Wishes
Amrit Singh Chopra
Chief Educator
Unique Shiksha
About the Book
Thought behind the Book
The ever-changing pattern of Civil Services Examination and the evolving needs of aspirants drove
us to create a new series of reference books following a Unique Pattern.
This has been designed to meet two basic needs of every Civil Services Aspirant:
•
Content Retention Management (Understanding of basic concepts and retention of facts); and
•
Time Management (saving time by avoiding reading from different sources).
Pedagogical Assistance to be Found in the Book
The book covers – Ancient History, Medieval History and Art and Culture material
comprehensively. The team comprising of the author, editors and publishing experts have
followed the below mentioned concepts to ensure this book meets requirements like no other.
Salient features are:
•
Each chapter is broken into units to signify how much content an aspirant must cover daily.
•
Though it is a factual topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages. All
topics and key points are broken down into bullet points to help with lucid and concise learning.
•
The materials have been designed to give student a time-line of historical events so that the
connection can be established.
•
Every unit ends with Prelims and Mains oriented questions to ensure that the aspirants test
themselves on what they have studied to ensure clarity of concepts.
How this book is One-Stop reference
•
The book is the amalgamation of different sources, edited by experts to provide one stop
solution for Ancient History, Medieval History and Art and Culture.
•
The content has been designed by taking assistance of NCERT, NIOS and other standard
books. Further deep analysis of previous year papers have also been done to add more
relevant topics.
•
Hence it will act as a complete self-study material.
UNIQUE SHIKSHA MASTER SERIES vs. Other Books
Specifications
MASTER SERIES
OTHER BOOKS
Standard content referred from different sources
Yes
Yes
Crisp and Concise concept with indepth analysis
Yes
No
Practice Questions
Yes
No
Pictorial representation of content for easy retention Yes
No
Trend Analysis of Ancient History
•
Ancient History forms an important part of the Civil Services Examination. The weightage of
questions asked in Prelims are generally 4-5.
•
According to the trend, the questions related to Ancient History asked in the UPSC IAS prelims
exam were moderate to tough in their difficulty level.
•
Hence, Ancient history is an important portion of prelims paper which can’t be ignored.
•
Year
No. of questions
2018
2
2017
1
2016
8
2015
2
2014
5
If we analyse the previous year questions, certain sub-sections are frequently asked in the
paper such as – Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic and Later Vedic Society, administrative
aspects of different empires, etc.
Trend Analysis of Medieval History
•
•
Though in UPSC less questions are asked from Medieval India but the questions are
direct and factual in nature. Thus a student can easily score in that.
Year
No. of questions
2018
1
2017
1
2016
3
2015
4
2014
1
If we analyse the previous year questions, certain sub-sections are frequently asked in the paper
such as – Administrative system of Mughals, Vijayanagar empire, Bhakti Movement.
Trend Analysis of Art and Culture
In Prelims Examination
•
The UPSC does not specify the detailed syllabus related to the Art and Culture in Prelims (it
comes under History of India) and in Mains it is described as “Indian Culture will cover the
salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times”.
•
Due to this, student many a times are not able to identify the areas to be prepared and end up
losing marks in the examination.
•
However, Indian Art and Culture form an important part of the Civil Services Examination.
The weightage of questions asked in Prelims are increasing year by year. Though it is a factual
topic but it includes many underlined concepts and inter-linkages which help in constructing a
time-line of events through ages.
•
Similarly atleast two questions are asked from this section in Mains examination.
•
Yet year by year the numbers of questions in the examination related to it are increasing. The
trend is as follows:
•
Year
No. of questions
2018
7
2017
5
2016
5
2015
7
2014
14
If we go through the questions, certain sub-sections are frequently asked in the paper such as–
Buddhism, Jainism, Architecture, Vedic literature and Classical dance. Hence, student
should study above stated topics thoroughly.
In Main Examination
•
The questions asked in the Main examination are analytical in nature thus it require
thorough understanding of concepts. Year by year the marks of questions in the examination
are increasing. The trend is as follows:
Year
No. of Marks
2018
35
2017
10
2016
25
2015
25
2014
40
Important Notes:
1. A student should focus on understanding the chronology of events for retaining the facts
in the history. He/She should read each chapter minutely, jot down the important
points as designing Self study notes are very important for the revision.
2. The Topics and sub-topics related to Previous Year Questions have been catered
in the book.
What makes this book special?
ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 1
Pre-Historic
AGE
Day-wise self study plan to
achieve reasonable targets with
respect to different demensions of
the subject.
The Division of Stone Age
● In earlier studies of History, the
division was made into three groups
based on the material of manufacture
of these weapons and implements,
recognized as three ages of stone,
bronze and iron.
● The Stone Age was initially divided
into an earlier period of chipped stone
tools and a later period of ground
or polished stone tools by, and is
called as Palaeolithic and Neolithic,
respectively.
Bullet format material for easy
reading and high retention
of facts
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
Neolithic Age in India is characterized by
1.
(a) domestication of cattles
(b) crop agriculture
Chapter end prelims questions
for immediate practice and
progressive learning.
(c) Both
(d) None
Subjective type questions for
Main Examination
1.
Throw light on elements of change and
the continuity in pattern of life in Indian
subcontinent during Stone Age.
2.
Trace the evolution of life in Indian
subcontinent during Stone Age on the
basis of archaeological evidences till
date.
Chapter end Subjective
questions for enhancing the Art
of Answer Writing
How a Unique Shiksha foundation student should use this Book?
•
Chapters and Content are in sync with the class to help in achieving desired daily progress.
Thus student can use the material for daily revision and practicing of questions.
•
Class Tests are drawn from the book to test a student for progressive learning.
•
The subjective type questions can be given for checking to teachers once in a while, this may
help in improving Answer Writing Skill.
Contents
Part A - Ancient History
Unit 1: Pre-historic Age
1.1 The Evolution of Man
1.2 Division of Stone Age
1.2.1 Paleolithic Age
1.2.2 Mesolithic Period
1.2.3 Neolithic Period
1.2.4 Chalcolithic Period
1.3 Iron Age
Unit 2: Indus Valley Civilization
2.1 Ancient Civilization of India – At Harappa
2.2 Pre-Harappan Phase
2.3 Phases of Harappan civilization
2.4 Cities of Indus Valley Civilisation
2.5 Town Planning in Indus Valley Civilisation
2.5.1 Houses in Harappa Towns
2.5.2 Granaries
2.5.3 Great Bath
2.5.4 Dockyard at Lothal
2.5.5 Water Management
2.6 Society of Indus Valley Civilisation
2.7 Culture of Indus Valley Civilisation
2.7.1 Script and Language
2.7.2 Burials
2.7.3 Pottery
2.7.4 Seals
2.7.5 Beads
2.7.6 Stone Sculptures
2.7.7 Bronze Figures
2.7.8 Terracotta Figurines
2.8 Science and Technology in Indus Valley Civilisation
2.9 Trade and Transportation
2.10 Agriculture
2.11 Religious Practices
2.12 Decline of the Great Indus Civilisation
2.13 Legacy of Indus Valley Civilisation
1-15
16-27
Unit 3: The Vedic Age
3.1 The origins of Aryans
3.2
Early Aryan Settlements in India
3.3
The Vedic Literature
3.4
The Rig Vedic Period
3.5
3.4.1
Rig Vedic Economy
3.4.2
Rig Vedic Society
3.4.3
Varna System
3.4.4
Position of Women
3.4.5
Rig Vedic Society
3.4.6
Rig Vedic Religion
Later Vedic Period
3.5.1
Later Vedic Economy
3.5.2
Later Vedic Society
3.5.3
Varna System
3.5.4
Position of Women
3.5.5
Later Vedic Polity
3.5.6
Later Vedic Religion
Unit 4: Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire
4.1 Age of Mahajanpadas
4.2 Rise of Magadha
4.3 Haryanka Dynasty
4.4 Sisunga Dynasty
4.5 Nanda Dynasty
4.6 Mauryan Empire
4.6.1 Chandragupta Maurya
4.6.2
Bindusara
4.6.3
Ashoka
4.6.4
Mauryan Administration
4.6.5
Local Administration
4.6.6
City Administration
4.6.7
Classes of Society
4.6.8
Mauryan Economy
4.6.9
Art and Architecture
4.6.10 Decline of Mauryas
4.7
28-38
Sunga
4.7.1
4.7.2
4.7.3
4.7.4
Dyansty
Administration
Sunga Art
Society
Economy
39-59
4.8
Foreign Dynasties
4.8.1 Indo-Greeks
4.8.2 Sakas
4.8.3 Parthians
4.8.4 Kushans
4.8.5 Impact of Foreign dynasties
Unit 5: Gupta and Post-Gupta Age
5.1 Gupta Age
5.1.1 The Gupta administration
5.1.2 Decline of Guptas
5.1.3 Governance during Guptas
5.1.4 Literature of Gupta Period
5.1.5 Description of Gupta Age through Foreigners
5.1.6 Economy during Gupta Period
5.1.7 Trade and Commerce
5.1.8 Science and Technology
5.1.9 Art and Architecture during Guptas
5.1.10 Society and Religion during Guptas
5.2 Post-Gupta Age
5.2.1 Guptas of Magadha
5.2.2 Maukharis
5.2.3 Maitraka
5.2.4 Pushyabhutis
5.2.5 Harsha
5.3 Kingdoms of Eastern, Central and South India
5.4 India After Harsha
5.4.1 Yashovarman
5.4.2 Gurjara Pratiharas
5.4.3 Palas
5.4.4 Literature
5.4.5 Economy
5.4.6 Art and Architecture
5.4.7 Religion
Unit 6: Rise
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
of Heterodox Sects: Jainism and Buddhism
Reasons for emergence of Heterodox Sects
Rise of Various Heterodox Sects
Six systems of Philosophy
Buddhism
6.4.1 Philosophy of Buddhism
6.4.2 Buddhist Literature
6.4.3 Sects of Buddhism
60-88
89-101
6.5
6.4.4 Buddhist Architecture
6.4.5 Buddhist Councils
Jainism
6.5.1 Mahavira
6.5.2 Teachings of Jainism
6.5.3 Triratnas of Jainism
6.5.4 Philosophy of Jainism
6.5.5 Jain Literature
6.5.6 Jain Councils
6.5.7 Architecture
Unit 7: Southern Kingdoms during Ancient India
7.1 Megalithic Phase
7.1.1 Megalithic Burials
7.1.2 Megalithic Tools
7.2 Sangam Period
7.2.1 Sangam Administration
7.2.2 Sangam Economy
7.2.3 Sangam Society
7.2.4 Sangam Literature
7.2.5 Sangam Polity
7.2.5.1 Chola
7.2.5.2 Chera
7.2.5.3 Pandyas
7.3 Satvahanas of Deccan
102-115
Part B - Medieval History
Unit 1: Early Medieval India
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Struggle for Kannauj
1.2.1 Rashtrakutas
1.2.2 Pratiharas
1.2.3 Palas
1.3
Rajput Clans
1.4
Administration during Early Medieval India
Unit 2: Delhi Sultanate
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mahmud of Ghazni
2.3 Mohammad Ghori
1-10
11-26
2.4
2.5
2.6
Slave Sultans
2.4.1
Qutb-ud-din Aibak
2.4.2
Iltutmish
2.4.3
Raziya
2.4.4
Ghiyasuddin Balban
2.4.5
Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad
Khalji Dynasty
2.5.1
Jalal-ud-din Khalji
2.5.2
Alauddin Khalji
Tughlaq Dynasty
2.6.1
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
2.6.2
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
2.6.3
Firoz Shah Tughlaq
2.7
Sayyid Dynasty
2.8
Lodhi Dynasty
2.9
2.8.1
Bahlul Lodhi
2.8.2
Sikander Lodhi
2.8.3
Ibrahim Lodhi
Sultanate Administration
2.10 Society
2.11 Economy
2.12 Architecture
2.13 Literature
Unit 3: Mughal Dynasty
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Babur
3.3. Humayun
3.4. Sur dynasty
3.4.1 Administration under Sher Shah Sur
3.4.2 Adminsitrative Division
3.4.3 Economic developments
3.5 Akbar
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Bairam Khan’s Regency
3.5.3 Akbar’s Theory of Kingship
3.5.4 Administration
3.5.5 Relation with Rajputs
3.5.6 Deccan policy
3.5.7 Religious policies
3.6 Jahangir
27-67
3.7
Shah Jahan
3.8
Aurangzeb
3.9
3.8.1
Aurangzeb’s Rajput Policy
3.8.2
Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy
3.8.3
Religious Policy
3.8.4
Popular Revolts during Aurangzeb
Mughal’s Foreign policy
3.10 Conquest of South by Mughals
3.11 Mughal Army and Mansabdari System
3.12 Social Life under Mughals
3.13 Trade and Commerce
3.14 Downfall of Mughals
Unit 4: Rise of Marathas
4.1
Early Career of Shivaji
4.2
Shivaji and the Mughals
4.3
Treaty of Purandar
4.4
Administration of Shivaji
4.5
Shivaji’s Achievements
Unit 5: Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdom
5.1
5.2
5.3
6.2
6.3
73-84
Vijayanar Empire
5.1.1
Sources
5.1.2
Political history
5.1.3
Administration
5.1.4
Social life
5.1.5
Economic condition
5.1.6
Cultural contribution
Bahamani Kingdom
5.2.1
Administration
5.2.2
Downfall of Bahamani Kingdom
Conflicts between Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom
Unit 6: Bhakti and Sufi Movements
6.1
68-72
Sufism
6.1.1
Growth of Sufism in Islamic World
6.1.2
Sufi Movement in India
6.1.3
Silsilah
Bhakti Movement
6.2.1
Sankaracharya
6.2.2
Monotheistic Bhakti
6.2.3
Vaishnava BHakti
Guru Nanak
85-96
Part C - Art and Culture
Unit 1: Characteristics of Indian Culture
1.1 What is Culture?
1.2 Salient features of Indian Culture
1.3 Culture and its Determinants
Unit 2: History and Culture of India through Ages
2.1 Evolution of Humankind
2.2 Quaternary Period
2.3 Stone Age
2.3.1 Paleolithic Age
2.3.2 Mesolithic Age
2.3.3 Neolithic Age
2.3.4 Chalcolithic Age
2.4 Iron Age
1-4
5-18
Unit 3: Indian Architecture
3.1 Art and Architecture
3.1.1 Indus Valley Civilisation
3.1.2 Cave Architecture
3.1.3 Art and Architecture during Mauryan Period
3.1.4 Temple Architecture
3.1.4.1 Nagara Style
3.1.4.2 Dravidian Style
3.1.4.3 Vesara Style
3.1.5 Indo-Islamic Architecture
3.2 Indian Sculpture
3.2.1 Indus Valley Civilisation
3.2.2 Buddhist Sculptures
3.2.3 School of Arts
3.2.4 Gupta Sculpture
3.2.5 Medieval School of Sculpture
3.2.6 Colonial Sculptures in India
3.2.7 British Architecture Styles
19-38
Unit 4: Languages and Literature
4.1 Vedas
4.2 Buddhist and Jain Literature
4.3 Dravidian Literature
4.4 Sangam Literature
4.5 Regional Literature
4.6 Tribal Literature
39-47
Unit 5: Religions and Schools of Philosophy
5.1 Religions in India
5.1.1 Hinduism
5.1.2 Buddhism
5.1.3 Jainism
5.1.4 Christianity
5.1.5 Sikhism
5.1.6 Zoroastrianism
5.1.7 Islam
5.1.8 Judaism
5.2 Sufi Movement
5.3 Bhakti Movement
5.4 Vaishnavite Movement
5.5 Shaivite Movement
5.6 Schools of Philosphy
5.6.1 Samkhya System
5.6.2 Yoga
5.6.3 Nyaya
5.6.4 Vaisheshika
5.6.5 Mimansa
5.6.6 Vedanta
5.6.7 Charvaka
48-59
Unit 6: Paintings and Performing Arts
6.1 Paintings in India
6.1.1 Paintings in Ancient India
6.1.2 Paintings in Medieval India
6.1.3 Paintings in Modern India
6.2 Regional Paintings
6.3 Indian Handicrafts
6.4 Classical Dances in India
6.5 Folk Dances of India
6.5.1 North India
6.5.2 South India
6.5.3 East India
6.5.4 West India
6.6 Indian Music and Instruments
6.6.1 Carnatic Music
6.6.2 Hindustani Music
6.6.3 Types of Musical Instruments
6.7 Puppetry in India
6.8 Theatre forms of India
60-96
Unit 7: History of Indian Coins through Ages
7.1 Ancient Indian Coinage
7.2 Medieval Indian Coinage
7.3 British Indian Coinage
7.4 Republic India Coinage
Unit 8: Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture
8.1 Science and Technological Developments
8.2 Cultural Institutions in India
8.3 National Symbols of India
8.4 Classical Languages of India
8.5 National Calendar
8.6 Festivals in India
8.7 Martial arts of India
8.8 Sarees and styles
8.9 Foreign travelers in India
8.10 Cultural awards
8.11 World Heritage Sites of India
8.12 Geographical Indication Tag
97-102
103-128
Part - A
Ancient History
Pre-Historic Age 1
ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 1
Pre-Historic
AGE
From Palaeolithic To Iron Age
What is Pre-history?
Pre-history is the period of human existence, after inclear which written records are availble about the existence of
humans. It is the study of pre-literate societies of our earliest hunter-gatherer ancestors and the progress, technological
and otherwise, as they domesticated animals, gradually mastered agriculture, and settled down in the earliest
settlements, villages and towns. It follows the development of some of these settlements into differentiated and
centralised human societies and the emergence of the first great civilisation of the world. The story of the progress
from the earliest hunter-gatherer lifestyle to the diversity of human activity today encompasses a vast span of time,
and is not uniform in the different parts of world.
The Evolution of Man
It is believed that the genus Homo evolved in
Africa roughly 2.5 million years ago. The Homo
Habilis species that emerged were the first members
of the Homo Lineage, and is definitely known to
have made and used stone tools and artefacts. It is
known that Homo Erectus populations, which had
appeared around 1.8 million years ago, had spread
out of Africa and occupied large regions of Eastern
and Southeast Asia half a million years ago. (Refer
Fig. 1.1)
Fully modern man or Homo sapiens appears in
the period between 100,000 BP (before present) and
60,000 BP, initially in South Africa and the Near
East. In the Indian context, the oldest fossils of
the Homo lineage have been found in Tamil Nadu
and have been dated to 1.5 million years ago.
India is one of the oldest inhabited regions
on the planet. The Hominid activity in the subcontinent dates back to over 250,000 years.
Significant human activity was underway in
India by the Holocene Period some 10,000 years
ago. Before delving into the ancient history of
India, one of the vital thing to understand is the
Geological timeframe for better understanding
of continuity and cultural pattern of the Indian
history.
2 Master Series : Ancient India
Fig. 1.1. The Evolution of Man Through Ages
The Quaternary Period
The Quaternary Period is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time
scale. It spans from 2.588 million years ago to the present. The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs, the
Pleistocene (2.588 million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago) and the Holocene (11.7 thousand years ago to today).
Pleistocene Epoch
● Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th
parallel in some places.
● It is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earth's surface was covered by ice. The mean annual
temperature at the edge of the ice was −6°C (21°F), and at the edge of the permafrost, 0°C (32°F).
● The evolution of anatomically modern humans took place during the Pleistocene. In the beginning of the
Pleistocene, Paranthropus species are still present, as well as early human ancestors, but during the lower
Palaeolithic they disappeared, and the only hominine species found in fossil records is Homo erectus for much
of the Pleistocene.
● The Middle Palaeolithic saw more varied speciation within Homo, including the appearance of Homo sapiens
about 200,000 years ago. Modern humans migrated from Africa, spreading all over the ice-free world during the
late Pleistocene.
Holocene Epoch
The Holocene also encompasses the growth and impacts of the human species worldwide, including all its written
history, development of major civilizations, and overall significant transition toward urban living in the present.
The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the Mesolithic age in majority areas. The Late
Holocene brought advancements such as the bow and arrow (at some places) and saw new methods of warfare. Spear
throwers and their large points were replaced by the bow and arrow with its small narrow points beginning. Villages
built on defensive bluffs indicate increased warfare, leading to food gathering in communal groups for protection rather
than individual hunting.
Contd..
Pre-Historic Age 3
Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used by people then.
1. Palaeolithic Period: 2 million BC–10,000 BC
2. Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BC–8000 BC
3. Neolithic Period: 8000 BC–4000 BC
4. Chalcolithic Period: 4000 BC–1500 BC
5. Iron Age: 1500 BC–200 BC
The Division of Stone Age
● In earlier studies of History, the division was
made into three groups based on the material
of manufacture of these weapons and implements, recognized as three ages of stone,
bronze and iron.
● The Stone Age was initially divided into an
earlier period of chipped stone tools and a
later period of ground or polished stone tools
by, and is called as Palaeolithic and Neolithic,
respectively.
● Later, in the course of the discovery and
study of several sites, it emerged that the
Palaeolithic was not a single homogeneous
period, but a sequence of prehistoric phases
marked by faunal changes, and the changes in
the lithic industries (lithic means stone). The
Stone Age was thus divided into the Upper,
Middle, and the Lower Palaeolithic.
● Stone tools smaller than the trademark
Palaeoliths, known as microliths, were
increasingly found in many deposits overlying
Palaeolithic stone assemblages, which
were ascribed to a period between the late
Palaeolithic and early Neolithic. This period
was given the term Mesolithic (Middle Stone
Age). Therefore, the Mesolithic age was the
transitional period from hunting-gathering to
food-producing cultures.
General Transitions through the
Stone Age
● The time span of the Lower Palaeolithic was
the maximum covering the whole of Lower
Pleistocene and bulk of the Middle Pleistocene
epoch. During this span many river valleys
and terraces were formed. Earlier, people
preferred to live near the water supply, as the
stone tools are found mainly in or adjacent
to the river valleys. Evidence of the earliest
stone tools in Western Europe has appeared
from the deposits of first inter-glacial phase
in the Lower Pleistocene.
● The Upper Palaeolithic is marked by a lot
of technological advances such as profusion
in the variety of stone and bone tools and
artefacts, constructing dwellings, sewing
clothes with bone needles, etc. This is also the
earliest occurrence of art–painting on walls of
cave-sand dwellings, carving of human and
animal figurines from stones and ivory and
decorating bodies of the living and the dead
with beads and pendants.
● The Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic is
a brief period of transition between the
Palaeolithic and the food-producing stage
of the Neolithic in most parts of the world,
and is characterised by the appearance of
microliths (tiny stone artefacts, often a few
centimetres in size), in the archaeological
record. It is characteristically a few thousand
years in duration after the last stages of the
Upper Palaeolithic and ends with the advent
of agriculture.
● The onset of the Neolithic varies between
10,000BC to 3,000 or 2500BC in different
parts of the world. The Neolithic marked
the beginning of settled life for humankind,
though sections of the population still lived
as nomadic or semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers
or agro-pastoralists.
What is Proto-history?
Protohistory is a period between prehistory and history,
during which a culture or civilisation has not yet
developed writing skills..
● The Stone Age (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and
Neolithic) was followed by the Bronze Age
in most parts of the world, and later the Iron
Age. Script or writing makes an appearance
in the Bronze Age in many parts of the world,
4 Master Series : Ancient India
and by the end of the Iron Age, prehistory
merges into recorded history in most parts
of the world. Some researchers prefer the
term ‘proto-history’ to refer to those periods
when literature was available, but little used
or little evidence for literature survives but
other cultures have already noted its exisence
in their own writings. Roman-Britain or early
days of literate civilizations in Mesopotamia
and Egypt may be called proto-historic, as
possibly the Neolithic-Chalcolithic, and the
Iron Age in south India.
● The periods following the Iron Age is in
written part in most parts of the world, and
hence the start of recorded history in these
regions begins.
The Palaeolithic Age
● Palaeolithic is the first stage of Stone Age.
During this period, man relied on hunting
and had no knowledge of cultivation and
house-building.
● During the Paleolithic Age or Old Stone
Age man used crude implements for hunting
wild animals or for the purpose of cutting
and boring. The chief implements used
were consisted of darts, scrapers, axes, and
throwing the stones. (Refer Fig. 1.3)
● Tips of stones sharpened were used as heads
of spears, lances or daggers. Most of the
Paleolithic remains in India were made of a
peculiar kind of rock called quartzite.
● According to the nature of tools and the
change in the climate, the Paleolithic Age in
India is divided into three phases;
1. Lower Paleolithic (500,000 BC to 50,000
BC),
2. Middle Paleolithic (50,000 BC to 40,000
BC), and
3. Upper Paleolithic (40,000 BC to 10,000
BC).
A. Lower Palaeolithic Age
● They were mainly hunters and food gatherers;
tools used were axes, choppers and cleavers.
● Earliest lower Palaeolithic site is Bori in
Maharashtra.
● Limestone was also used to make tools.
Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age
Soan valley (in present Pakistan), sites in the Thar
Desert, Kashmir, Mewar plains, Saurashtra, Gujarat,
Central India, Deccan Plateau, Chotanagpur plateau,
North of the Cauvery River, Belan valley in UP.
● There are also habitation sites including caves
and rock shelters.
● The Early or Lower Stone Age in India may
be associated with the people of the Homo
sapiens group.
B. Middle Palaeolithic Age
● Tools used were blades, pointers, scrapers
and borers.
● The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
Important middle Palaeolithic age sites
Belan valley in UP, Luni valley (Rajasthan), Son and
Narmada rivers, Bhimbetka.
C. Upper Palaeolithic Age
● Emergence of Homo sapiens.
● Lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons,
blades, fishing tools and burin tools.
Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age
Belan, Son, Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar), Maharashtra, Orissa and Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters
● Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen
District of Madhya Pradesh, 45 km south of Bhopal
at the southern edge of the Vindhyachal hills.
● These served as shelters for Paleolithic age man for
over more than 1 lakh years.
● This is the most exclusive Paleolithic site in India
which contains the rock carvings and paintings.
● These paintings belong to the Paleolithic, and
Mesolithic ages, Chalcolithic, early-historic and
even medieval times
● It was excavated by VN Mishra and it has many
rock shelters and caves and is considered as richest
haul of such dwelling.
Conti...
Pre-Historic Age 5
● Quarzite were used in Bhimbetka and is the earliest
example of rock painting. Various colours were
used in the paintings, i.e., Green and Dark Red
colour. These colours were prepared by combining
manganese, hematite, wooden coal, soft red stone,
plant leaves. Sometimes animal fat and extracts of
leaves were used as well. Brushes were made of
the fiber of plants.
● It depicted animals, hunting scenes, birds and
humans. Main animals depicted are: Elephant, Tiger,
Lion, Bison, Rhinoceros, Bear.
● Bhimbetka is a World heritage Site. Earlier it was
considered to be a Buddhist site and was later
recognized as Paleolithic site. Bhimbetka Rock shelters
were included in the world heritage list in 2003.
Fig. 1.2. The Bhimbetka Dwellings
● Nearly all of our knowledge of Palaeolithic
human culture and way of life comes from
archaeology and ethnographic comparisons to
modern hunter-gatherer cultures.
● The economy of a typical Palaeolithic society
was a hunter-gatherer economy. Humans
hunted wild animals for meat and gathered
food, firewood, and materials for their tools,
clothes, or shelters. Human population density
was very low, around only one person per
square mile.
● This was most likely due to low body fat,
infanticide, women regularly engaging in
intense endurance exercise and a nomadic
lifestyle. At the end of the Palaeolithic,
specifically the Middle and or Upper
Palaeolithic, humans began to produce works
of art such as cave paintings, rock art and
jewellery and began to engage in religious
behaviour such as burial and ritual.
Palaeolithic Tools
● Palaeolithic humans made tools of stone,
bone, and wood. Evidence shows these
early hominids intentionally selected raw
materials with good flaking qualities and
chose appropriate sized stones for their
needs to produce sharp-edged tools for
cutting.
● The earliest Palaeolithic stone tool industry
began around 2.6 million years ago. It
contained tools such as choppers, burins and
awls. The most recent Lower Palaeolithic
implements completely vanished from the
archaeological record around 100,000 years
ago, and were replaced by more complex
Middle Palaeolithic tool kits.
● Lower Palaeolithic humans used a variety
of stone tools, including hand axes and
choppers. Although they appear to have used
hand axes often for various purposes of attack
and defence.
● Choppers and scrappers were likely used for
skinning and butchering scavenged animals
and sharp ended sticks were often obtained
for digging up edible roots. Presumably, early
humans used wooden spears as early as five
million years ago to hunt small animals, much
as their relatives, chimpanzees.
● The Lower Palaeolithic hominid Homo
erectus possibly invented rafts to travel
over large bodies of water, which may have
allowed a group of Homo erectus to reach
the distant islands. Around 200,000 BP,
Middle Palaeolithic Stone tool manufacturing
spawned a tool making technique.
● This technique increased efficiency by
allowing the creation of more controlled
and consistent flakes. It allowed Middle
Palaeolithic humans to create stone tipped
spears, which were the earliest composite
tools, by hafting sharp, pointy stone flakes
onto wooden shafts.
Microliths or small stone tools or points were
invented around 70,000 or 65,000 BP and were
essential to the invention of bows and spear
throwers in the following Upper Palaeolithic
period. The invention of these devices brought
many additional foods like fish into the human
diets, which provided a hedge against starvation
and a more abundant food supply (the period of
appearance of microliths in India is still an issue
of debate).
6 Master Series : Ancient India
Fig. 1.3. Palaeolithic Sites in India
Pre-Historic Age 7
● Fire was used by the Lower Palaeolithic
hominid as early as 300,000 or 1.5 million
years ago, and possibly even earlier.
● However, the use of fire only became common in
the societies of the following Middle Palaeolithic
Period. Use of fire reduced mortality rates and
provided protection against predators.
● Early hominids may have begun to cook their
food as early as the Lower Palaeolithic or
at the latest in the early Middle Palaeolithic.
● Some scientists have hypothesized that
Hominids began cooking food to defrost
frozen meat, which would help ensure their
survival in cold regions.
Paleolithic: The Info-Sheet
1. The Paleolithic infers to a time-period in history
from approximately 2.6 million years ago to roughly
10,000 years ago.
2. In 1865, the archeologist lohn Lubbock coined the
term Paleolithic which is derived from Greek words
palaios meaning 'old', and lithos meaning 'stone'.
3. Paleolithic age is also called as Old Stone Age.
4. During Paleolitrhic many human cultures had emerged,
and community living became a way of life.
5. In Paleolithic itself, the man began to use fire for
cooking, develop early religions, and started creating
art farms as can be seen in cave paintings dating
back to this time.
6. Food items of the period included meat from animals,
fish, fruit wild vegetables, insects nuts and legumes.
7. The Paleolithic tools included hand axes, stonetipped spears, harpoons, and bow and arrows.
8. Animals such as dogs were perhaps first domesticated
during the Paleolithic Age.
9. Calendars were devised during the Upper Paleolithic
to track migration of animals.
10. The Paleolithic population was about 10 Lakhs.
11. Climate Change during the Paleolithic led to glacial
cycles.
12. The end of Paleolithic means end of last ice age,
and warming up of the Earth.
Palaeolithic Society
The social organization of the Lower Palaeolithic
societies remains largely unknown to scientists,
though Lower Palaeolithic hominids were likely to
have had more complex social structures than the so
called chimpanzee societies.
Later Homo erectus may have been the first
people to invent home bases and incorporate them
into their foraging and hunting strategies like
contemporary hunter-gatherers, possibly as early as
1.7 million years ago.
● However, the earliest strong evidence for the
existence of home bases among humans only
dates back to 500,000 years ago.
● Human societies from the Palaeolithic to the
early Neolithic farming tribes lived without
states and organized governments. By the
end of the Palaeolithic era, about 10,000 BP
people began to settle down into permanent
locations, and began to rely on agriculture for
sustenance in many locations.
● Much evidence exists that humans took part in
long-distance trade between ‘bands’ for rare
commodities such as ochre, which was often
used for religious purposes such as ritual and
raw materials, as early as 120,000 years ago
in the Middle Palaeolithic.
● Some sources claim that most Middle and
Upper Palaeolithic societies were possibly
fundamentally egalitarian and may have
rarely or never engaged in organized violence
between groups (war).
● Nor was there a formal division of labour
during the Palaeolithic. Each member of the
group was skilled at all tasks essential to
survival, regardless of individual abilities.
Mesolithic Period
(Middle Stone Age)
The Middle Stone Age
● Continuing from the end of Paleolithic,
in early Mesolithic, major climate change
happened. The climate became warmer, and
more humid.
● Humans began to live in groups and started
switching towards the sedentary life style. The
increase in the group size created the need of
more food for the survival of all members of
the family, this lead to improvements of the
tools and weapons.
● The Mesolithic Era also brought modifications
in the clothing and food style of those times.
People started wearing clothes made of
animal’s skin as well eating cooked food
8 Master Series : Ancient India
●
●
●
●
●
through use of fire. Primitive people were
also fond of art and paintings as depicted
by the popular cave paintings present at the
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
Rainfall increased, and so more availability
of flora and fauna.
Domestication of animals and plants has been
found for the first time, started 12000 years
ago.
First animal to be domesticated was the wild
ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats were the
most common domesticated animals. Hunting
and food gathering continued.
The Mesolithic sites in distribution cover
almost the entire country except a few areas
like Indo- gangetic plain, Assam and most of
the Western coast of India. In Indo-gangetic
plain, their absence can be explained by the
lack of primary raw material (stones) for
making tools.
Assam and Western coast were probably left
uninhabited due to very high rainfall and
dense vegetation in this area.
Mesolithic: The Info Sheet
1. Transitional Phase between Paleolithic & Neolithic
Age
2. Characteristic tools of this Age: Microliths
3. Tools were very small made of stone, probably stuck
to stones to be used as saws and sickles.
4. Major Sites: Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada,
Vindhya, Gujarat, UP, Sojat (Rajasthan), Bhimbetka,
Godavari Basin, Sarai Nahar Rai.
5. Prominent Mesolithic tools used were blades,
crescents, triangles, trapezes, spearheads, knives,
arrowheads, sickles, harpoons and daggers.
6. It seems that the Mesolithic people preferred the
particular dwellings like Sand-dunes, Rock-shelters,
Alluvial plains, Rocky plains, Lake-shore, Coastal
environment
Mesolithic Tools
● The Mesolithic people perhaps produced a
variety of implements and weapons such as
arrows, spears, knives, sickles, etc.
● The unique features of these composite
tools was that, being made of a number of
micro-lithic components, one of the broken
●
●
●
●
components could easily be replaced without
discarding the whole tool. Meso-tools are
characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out
from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert,
crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate, etc.
In India, Microlith tools are associated with
only Mesolithc period (whereas in many other
parts of the world microliths are also found
during Palaeolithic period).
Numerous types among the microliths have
been excavated such as blunted back blades,
obliquely truncated blades, points, lunates,
triangles, crescents, trapezes etc. Size of these
tools varies between 1cm and 3cm.
Some of the microliths were used as
components of spearheads, arrowheads,
knives, sickles, harpoons and daggers. They
were fitted into grooves in bone, wood and
reed shafts, and joined together by natural
adhesives like gum and resin.
It can be inferred that the Mesolithic people
enjoyed a little material culture. Later, in
contact with the metalworking and farming
people, they acquired a few items of material
culture like, pottery, metal tools, and stone
beads for ornaments.
Mesolithic Society
● It seems to be certain that this period
experienced the arrival of new people in India,
possibly from the west. This is the reason for
which the Upper Palaeolithic blade industry
was non-existent in Indian context.
● The process of disposing off the dead was also
unspecialized amongst Mesolithic people. The
bodies used to be buried within the habitation
area, whether it is a rock-shelter or an openair site.
● At the site Sarai Nahar Rai in the District
Pratapgarh in Uttar Pradesh all the skeletons
are found to be placed in West-east direction
keeping the right forehand diagonally across
the abdomen.
● In fact, we are not sure whether the microlith
makers of India were the hunters and foodgatherers of Palaeolithic tradition or they
were the agriculturists.
Pre-Historic Age 9
This new subsistence economy based on food
production had a lasting impact on the evolution of
human society and the environment.
● Agriculture had not fully developed till this
period.
● The earliest evidence of domestication of
animals has been provided by Adamagarh in
Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan.
● The Pachpadra basin and Sojat Area of
Rajasthan is a rich Mesolithic sites and lot
of microliths have been discovered.
● Bagor in Rajasthan is the almost largest
Mesolithic site in India. Another major
Mesolithic site is in Rajasthan, at Tilwara.
● In Gujarat, some places on the banks of
River Sabarmati are Mesolithic sites which
include the Akhaj, Valsana, Hirpur, Langhanj
etc. Sarai Nahar Rai in Allahabad-Pratapgarh
of Uttar Pradesh is a Mesolithic site. Other
sites in Uttar Pradesh are Morhana Pahar and
Lekkahia.
● In Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka along with
Adamgarh are major Mesolithic sites. In
Jharkhand Chhota Nagpur plateau is a
major Mesolithic site of India. In Orissa,
Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh are
the major Mesolithic sites found in India.
● In south India Godavari basin is rich in
microliths.
● The rock painting of Mesolithic period is
found in Adamgarh, Bhimbetka of Uttar
Pradesh and Pratapgarh, Mirzapur of
Rajasthan.
● Apart from the animals, hunting scenes, the
Mesolithic sites have also painting of social
life, sexual activity, child birth, rearing of
children and burial ceremony, which makes
it clear that Mesolithic man had developed
an aesthetic sense.
Neolithic Period
(New Stone Age)
The human settlements in the Mesolithic era
got more sedentary and this was the beginning of
establishment of villages. Moving from nomadic to
settled life, the man now could domesticate cattle,
sheep and goats and protect crops from pests.
Onset of Food Production Economy
● In due course, as the efficiency of agricultural
production improved, some farmers were
able to generate the surplus food. As a
consequence, a section of the population were
freed from the task of food production and
their talents and energies were diverted to
tasks such as the production of pots, baskets,
quarrying of stone, making of bricks, masonry
and carpentry. This was the beginning of
the new occupations such as the oil presser,
washer man, barber, musician, dancers etc.
This transition from hunting-gathering to food
production is called the Neolithic revolution.
● Wheel was discovered. Ragi, wheat and horse
gram were cultivated. Neolithic people knew
to make fire.
Around 6000 BC, the smelting of metals such as copper
began which was used for raw material to be used in tool
production. Later, tin was mixed with bronze appeared
which stronger metal than both tin and copper was.
● Use of bronze for tools led to the invention of
wheel which revolutionized transport and pottery production. Art was seen in cave paintings
of dance, evidence of well-designed houses,
also show first intentional disposal of the dead.
Important Neolithic Sites Inamgaon, Burzahom
(Kasmir), Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Daojali Hading (Tripura/
Assam), Hallur (AP), Paiyampalli (AP), Chirand (Bihar).
In north India, Burzahom site in Kashmir is located
in a cave inside Mahadeva hills on famous Kashmir
Valley. The other twin sites, Gurfkral & Martand, are
close to it.
● The unique evidence of pit-dwellings with
wooden super-structures, coarse grey or black
polished pottery frequently with ‘mat-bases’,
large number of bone tools in the shape
of points, awls, needles, harpoon heads,
stone-axes, ring-stones, a type of specialized
choppers (pierced, rectangular), knife with
razor-like blade, are the characteristics of the
Burzahom Period. Burzahom cave site has
another interesting point to note—an engraved
hunting scene which strongly suggests hunting
economy of the Neolithic.
● Most of the Neolithic sites of Central and
South India lie in the zone between river
Tapti in the north-west and Tungabhadra
10 Master Series : Ancient India
and lower Krishna Rivers in the south-east.
Most of these sites may be declared as
Neo-chalcolithic sites, excepting Brahmagiri
and Sanganakallu which are referred to as
orthodox Neolithic sites occurring in this part
of this sub-continent.
● The significant zones of eastern India
includes
Assam,
Bengal-Bihar-Orissa
cultural sites. In Assam Neolithic sites, a
type of small ground cells with rounded
contour, shouldered cells, etc which are
conspicuously lacking in the Neolithic
sites of north and central India are found.
These Neolithic finds are associated with
the common occurrence of ‘Megalithic
monuments’, widely distributed in entire
hill areas of Assam. The raw materials for
such tools are flat slabs of chert, sandstone and slate. Brahmaputra valley, Khasi,
Garo and Kachar hills are the prominent
Neolithic sites of Assam. In some places,
tanged axes, grooved hammer-stones could
be noticed in addition to other common
tools. The districts of Midnapur, Bankura,
Burdwan, Birbhum and Purulia in West
Bengal together form a triangular zonal
shape which offers significant Neolithic
cultural tools. Polished elongated Celts,
rectangular polished chisels, black coloured
polished pottery, etc have been discovered
from these Neolithic sites
The Neolithic culture had been established in India at a
stage when a far more advanced urban culture exhibiting Chalcolithic features flourished in the extreme north
centring round Indus valley.
This urban culture as found in Indus valley might
have positive influence of Western Asiatic Neolithic-cum-Chalcolithic mixed cultural thrust.
● The Western Indian and Malwa forms of
Neolithic tradition may better be termed
as Neo-Chalcolithic, have had, their origin
from a ‘self-evolved’ microlithic base. Thus,
it is safer to say that the Neolithic culture
developed in different parts of India, but not
from a single source.
● Philological researches have established a
definite link between these Neolithic peoples
of India and the primitive tribes that lived in
Indo-China, the Malayan Peninsula and the
Indian Archipelago.
Neolithic Tools
● The tools and implements of the Neolithic
Age were very different from those of the
preceding ages, i.e., the Palaeolithic and
Mesolithic. The people of this age used
stones other than quartzite and the tools
and implements they made were far better
grooved, grounded and polished.
● For different types of work, the Neolithic
people had different types of highly finished
tools and these can be very easily distinguished
from the rough, crude tools of the erstwhile
Palaeolithic Age.
● As the name Neolithic suggests, it was the
New Stone Age, metals except gold being
then unknown. Neolithic people were skilled
farmers, manufacturing a range of tools
necessary for the tending, harvesting and
processing of crops (such as sickle blades
and grinding stones) and food production
(e.g. pottery, bone implements).
● They were also skilled manufacturers of
a range of other types of stone tools and
ornaments, including projectile points, beads,
and statuettes. The tools and implements left
by the Neolithic people of India have been
found all over India.
● A stone factory of the time has been discovered
in the Bellary district of Madras where
traces of the various stages of the making of
the tools and implements can be still seen.
Neolithic Society
● The life and living of the Neolithic men
showed a distinct advance from those of the
previous ages. Agriculture became known to
them, domestication of animals like ox, goat
etc, production of fire by friction of bamboos
or pieces of wood or flint, making of painted
pottery were all known, to them.
● They lived in caves, decorated these by
painting scenes of hunting, dancing, etc. They
knew spinning and weaving, as also making
of boats. Some tombs of the Neolithic men
which have been discovered show that they
used to bury their dead in large earthen urns.
There were also tombs with stone-slab roof
on stone pillars.
Pre-Historic Age 11
● The domestication of large animals (c. 8000
BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social
inequality in most of the areas where it
occurred. Possession of livestock allowed
competition between households and resulted
in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic
pastoralists who controlled large herds
gradually acquired more livestock, and this
made economic inequalities more pronounced.
● Families and households were still largely
independent economically, and the household
was probably the centre of life. Whether a
non-hierarchical system of organization
existed is debatable, and there is no evidence
that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies
functioned under any dominating class or
individual, as was the case in the later
chiefdoms of the Bronze Age.
Neolithic Revolution
● Between 10,000 and 3000 BCE, people in several areas around the Earth developed new agricultural methods
and machines, such as the plough pulled by horses or oxen. During this time, people also began domestication and
development of both crops and animals.
● The results of these changes made agricultural production much more productive. Food output increased. More
land could be farmed by fewer people or in fewer hours. This resulted in greatly improved production and the
increased availability of food.
● Most importantly, the agricultural surplus and techniques also brought about deep social divisions and in particular
encouraged inequalities between the sexes (male and female).
The change from hunting/gathering to primitive farming appears so sudden and fast that this technological change is
often characterized as the Neolithic Revolution. The revolution resulted in the discovery of smelting and the creation
of bronze tools led to the Bronze Age (name given to Late Neolithic period).
● Agricultural innovation greatly increased the food production output and created a surplus beyond what was
needed for survival.
● Producing more food freed people’s time from agricultural work. Some people continued to work in agriculture,
while others did other forms of work in large numbers (artisans, clerks, and priests etc).
● People could specialize in different works other than agriculture. The amount of non-agricultural goods produced
had increased.
● With more food and temporarily better nutrition, the population increased. Often, a population increased at a
faster rate than an area’s resources were capable of sustaining it, and nutrition per person returned to its original level.
● As families and the number of potential workers grew, food production could increase even more.
These developments provided the basis for densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, trading
economies, the development of non-portable art and architecture, centralized administrations and political structures,
hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (writing), and property ownership. Personal land and
private property ownership led to hierarchical society, class struggle and armies.
Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age/Bronze Age)
● About 5,000 years ago the man started
using bronze along with the stone. Now the
man had developed to a great extent. The
population was mainly urban, including the
priests, writers and clerks at this stage.
● Though the tools excavated suggest that there
was over-lapping in use of stone and the
metal, the similarity in the shape and types
of stone and bronze tools shows simultaneous
use of the bronze and stone. Tin mixed with
copper was the major material used. That is
why, the period is called as the Bronze age.
● The specialists were needed to manufacture
goods with the metal, like smiths, miners and
the smelters. During this period, the discovery
of wheel revolutionized the whole system.
The transportation was improved which
eventually brought about the complexities
in life of people. The initial commerce was
developed.
12 Master Series : Ancient India
● There was surplus production, the people
could now sell it away for luxuries.
This gave rise to capitalism. The person
with more resources was able to control
the power. The status of rich and poor
developed and along with this came the
exploitation. This age is witnessed in
Indus Valley Civilization that spread to
long belt along the western India.
Chalcolithic : The Info Sheet
1. Cultivation & cattle rearing along with crop rotation
use of irrigation & harvesting.
2. Excavation reveals structures like granaries,
embankment & fortification, mud houses made of
mud in circular & rectangular pattern along with
mud chulha.
3. Famous Pottery of this age Black on Red ware.
4. Some other Chalcolithic settlements were Brahmagiri,
Navada Toli (Narmada region), Chirand (Ganga
region), and Mahishadal (West Bengal).
Chalcolithic Tools
● The Chalcolithic people used tiny tools and
weapons of stone in which the stone-blades
and blade-lets occupied an important role. In
certain settlements, copper objects are found
in good numbers, e.g., at Ahar and Gilund
in Rajasthan.
● The Chalcolithic people made tools, weapons
and bangles of copper, manufactured beads
of semi-precious stones such as carnelian,
steatite, and quartz because spindle whorls
have been discovered in Malwa. Discovery
of cotton, flax and silk threads shows that
they knew well the manufacture of cloth.
Painted pottery is one of the distinguishing feature of
the Chalcolithic period, most prominent being ‘Black
and Red ware’. They used both Iota and thali. No
plough or hoe has been found at Chalcolithic sites.
● Though copper and bronze came to be used,
their usage was limited due to the scarcity
of the material, and the dependence on stone
tool equipment did not changed much. The
Neolithic trend of using polished stone tools
continued in this period also. Copper and its
alloys were used in making axes, chisels,
knives, fishhooks, pins, rods, etc.
Chalcolithic Society
● People domesticated animals and practised agriculture widely. Occasionally
their houses were made of mud bricks,
but mostly they were constructed with
wattle and daub, and seem to have been
thatched. However, the people in Ahar
lived in stone-built houses.
● Though the Chalcolithic people of Harappa
made extensive use of bricks, the Chalcolithic
people in the rest of India did not use any
such material. The walls were constructed
out of mud or mud and wattle. The houses
were either circular or rectangular on plan,
plastered with cow dung and lime. They had
some light roof supported on wooden posts as
post-holes were encountered in large number
in all the Chalcolithic sites.
● The Chalcolithic people subsisted on farming
and hunting-fishing, reared cattle, sheep, goat,
buffalo and pig. The principal cereal was
barley, though wheat was also cultivated.
Neither plough nor hoe has been attested to at
Chalcolithic sites, but perforated stone discs,
which were used as weights for the digging
sticks, do abound.
● Fish and animal flesh formed an important part
of the diet of the Chalcolithic people. Fish
bones and fishhooks attest to active fishing.
Hunting also was an important occupation
for bones of wild animals like wild pig, deer,
stage, sambhar, cheetah, etc were found in the
excavations. Cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig
and rarely horse were among the domesticated
animals.
● Regional differences in regard to cereals,
pottery, etc, appear in this phase. The dead
were buried. Terracotta figurines of women
suggest that the Chalcolithic people venerated
the mother goddess. Probably, the bull was
the symbol of a religious cult. Both the
settlements and burial practices suggest
existence of social inequalities. The rate of
infant mortality was very high. Although
most Chalcolithic cultures those existed in the
Pre-Historic Age 13
major part of the country are younger than the
Indus Valley civilization, they did not derive
any substantial benefit from the advanced
technological knowledge of the Indus people.
● The rural life pattern, started in Neolithic
period has been perfected in the Chalcolithic
period, and this period forms the transition
from stone age to pure metal age.
Chalcolithic Culture
● Chronologically, there are several series of Chalcolithic settlements in India. Some are pre-Harappan, others are
contemporaries of the Harappan culture and still others are post-Harappan. Pre-Harappan strata on some sites in
the Harappan zone are also called early Harappan to distinguish them from the mature urban Indus civilization.
Thus the pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan in Rajasthan and Banwali in Haryana are distinctly Chalcolithic. So
is the case with Kot Diji in Sind. The Kayatha culture in Madhya Pradesh (2000-1800 BC) is a contemporary of
the Harappan culture. It has some pre-Harappan elements in pottery, but it also shows Harappan influence. Several
post-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures in these areas are influenced by the post-urban phase of the Harappan culture.
● Several other Chalcolithic cultures, though younger in age than the mature Harappan culture, are not connected
with the Indus Civilization. The Malwa culture (1700-1200BC) found in Navadatoli, Eran and Nagda is considered
to be nonHarappan. So is the case with the Jorwe culture (1400-700 BC) which covers the whole of Maharashtra
except parts of Vidarbha and Konkan.
● In the southern and eastern parts of India, Chalcolithic settlements existed independently of the Harappan culture.
In south India they are found invariably in continuation of the various Neolithic settlements. The Chalcolithic settlement
of the Vindhyan region, Bihar and Bengal Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures spread farming communities in Sind,
Baluchistan, Rajasthan, etc., and created conditions for the rise of the ‘new’ urban civilization.
● In Western India, these cultures disappeared by 1200 BC or so. Only the Jorwe culture continued until 700
BC. However, in several parts of the country, the Chalcolithic ‘black and red ware’ continued till the second
century BC.
● The eclipse of the Chalcolithic habitation could be attributed to a decline in rainfall from about 1200 BC onwards.
In fact, the Chalcolithic people could not continue for long with the digging stick in the black soil area which
is difficult to break in the dry season. In the red soil areas, especially in eastern India, however, the chalcolithic
phase was immediately followed, without any gap, by the iron phase which gradually transformed the people
into full-fledged agriculturists. Similarly, at several sites in southern India Chalcolithic culture was transformed
into megalithic culture using iron.
● In South India, the Neolithic phase imperceptibly faded into the Chalcolithic phase, and so these cultures are
called Neolithic-Chalcolithic. The Chalcolithic communities founded the first large villages in peninsular India and
cultivated far more cereals than is known in the case of the Neolithic communities. The settlements at Kayatha
and Eran in Madhya Pradesh and Inamgaon in western Maharashtra were fortified.
Iron Age
● The Iron Age was a period found at different
points around the world where societies
recovered from the collapse of Bronze-Age
civilization, developed new tools, and built
bigger, more complex civilizations than ever
before. This is the era that gave Europe
Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. It’s the time
in which China developed Confucianism and
Taoism. India, of course, was not to be left
out of this.
● India’s Iron Age laid religious, philosophical,
social, and political foundations that would
go on to influence people across the world.
● India’s Iron Age emerged in an era of
transition known as the Vedic period (ca.
1,500-600 BCE). The Vedic period covers
both the end of the Bronze Age following the
collapse of the Harappan civilization around
1,400 CE and the start of the Iron Age.
● The Harappan civilization of the Indus
River Valley had been complex and highly
urbanized. The societies of the Vedic period
were smaller, most only about the size of a
14 Master Series : Ancient India
village, recovering from the changes in the
regional economy as well as drought, the
likely culprit that collapsed India’s BronzeAge stability.
● This was a time of re-organization, but also
religious growth. The Vedic period is named
for the Vedas, foundational religious texts of
Hinduism. The oldest, written in the ancient
script of Vedic Sanskrit, was likely created
between 1,500 and 1,200 BCE.
● Thriving from about 1,200 to 600 BCE
along the Indus and Ganges river valleys,
the Painted Grey Ware people started using
iron for agricultural tools, domesticate horses,
and started re-organizing into more complex
social and political units.
● This is the first period in Indian history to
show clear evidence of social and political
hierarchies, as well as true governments.
(a) The upper Ganges valley and its peripheries
(b) Malwa plateau and Tapti valley
(c) South and Central Indian megalithic areas
(d) Baluchistan plains
(e) Middle and Lower Ganges valleys
(f) North west mainly Peshawar region.
Pre-Historic Age 15
1
Ancient India Master Exercise
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
Neolithic Age in India is characterized by
(c) 2 and 3
(a) domestication of cattles
(d) 1 and 3
(b) crop agriculture
2.
(c) Both
Subjective type questions for Main
(d) None
Examination
Men started cave paintings in the
1.
Throw light on elements of change and the
continuity in pattern of life in Indian subcontinent
during Stone Age.
2.
Trace the evolution of life in Indian subcontinent
during Stone Age on the basis of archaeological
evidences till date.
Which of the following statement is true?
3.
(a) Mesolithic Technology is based on
microblades which were mass produced.
Highlight the changes witnessed by Human life
in Mesolithic period.
4.
The Indian subcontinent witnessed revolution
during Neolithic age. Comment.
5.
Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not
only reflects the cultural life of the times but
also a fine aesthetic sense comparable to modern
painting. Critically evaluate this comment.
UPSC 2015 (GS-I)
6.
Underline the factors behind the social changes
of pre-historic people.
7.
Discuss how Neolithic Age was an age of
revolution which pushed the society so it could
achieve so much in next few millenniums.
8.
The prehistoric man was concentrated in the few
pockets of the Indian subcontinent and unlike
modern man did not inhabit all of it. Elucidate.
9.
Underline the basic principles of the division of
the pre-historic time period.
(a) Palaeolithic period
(b) Mesolithic period
(c) Chalcolithic period
(d) Megalithic period
3.
(b) First animal to be domesticated was sheep.
(c) Both
(d) None
4.
Which of the following statements are true about
Mesolithic culture?
(a) People knew stock breeding.
(b) People cooked on fire.
(c) Both
(d) None
5.
Which of the following periods belongs to proto
historic periods?
1. Neolithic Culture
2. Chalcolithic Culture
3. Vedic Age
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2
Answers to MCQs
1.
(c)
2.
(a)
3.
(a)
4.
(c)
5.
(b)
16 Master Series : Ancient India
ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 2
The Indus Valley
CIVILIZATION
The ‘Discovery’ of Harappa in 1920s
With the discovery of Harappa (in 1920s), nearly thousand settlements having similar traits, have been discovered till now. Historians named it the ‘Indus Valley Civilization’ because initially most of the settlements
were discovered in the plains of the river Indus and its tributaries. Archaeologists however prefer, to call it
the ‘Harappan Civilization’.
The Ancient Civilisation of India –
At Harappa
● “The term ‘Harappan Civilization’
refers to a large number of cities, towns
and villages which flourished in the 3rd
millennium BC. This geographical space
would roughly cover the areas of modernday Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat, Pakistan
and some of the surrounding areas. The
areas of present day Pakistan and NorthWestern India formed the core region of
the Harappan civilization.”
● These areas are characterised by dry weather
and scanty rainfall. However, there are some
important variations among these areas. The
areas of Punjab and Sind are dominated by
the alluvial plains of the Indus river system,
the areas of Baluchistan are characterised
by steep craggy hills. In North-Eastern
Baluchistan the valley floors might provide
some possibilities of agriculture. This area
has been inhabited by another set of people
also, namely pastoral nomads. These pastoral
nomads with their herds of sheep, goat and
cattle kept shifting from uplands to lowlands
in search of pastures for their herd.
Naming of Harappa Civilisation
In archaeology there is a convention that when an
ancient culture is described, it is named after the name
of the site which first revealed the existence of this
culture. We do not know what those people called
themselves because we have not been able to read their
writing. Thus, we call them Harappans after the modern
place Harappa where the evidence of this forgotten
civilization was first unearthed in our times.
The Early Beginning
● The earliest evidence for the emergence
of agricultural communities comes from a
place called Mehargarh, in the Baluchistan
province of Pakistan. Beginning as a seasonal
camp the place turned into a settled village
in the 5th millennium BC itself. People of
Mehargarh lived in mud houses which could
sometimes have five to six rooms. By the
middle of the 3rd millennium BC, many small
and large villages had sprung up around the
Indus, Baluchistan and Afghanistan area.
● Once these agriculturists learnt to exploit
the highly fertile flood plains of the Indus
there was a sudden expansion in the size
and numbers of villages. These agriculturists
gradually learnt to exploit the Indus plains
and to control the flooding of the Indus.
Richer returns per acre planted, resulted in
larger surpluses. This led to an increase in the
The Indus Valley Civilization 17
Timeline of the Indus Valley Civilisation with respect to the other Civilizations
Name
Period
Area
Occupations
Writing
Religion
Indus Valley
3000-1503 BC
Northwest India,
Potter’s wheel,
Pictographic
Unknown
Civilization-Hasppa/
Pakistan
Agriculture, dams,
Mohenjo-daro
city planning, seals
Mesopotamian
3000-750 BC
Sumer, Babylonia,
Dairyfarming,
Cuneiform
Polytheistic
Assyric Highlands
textile, metal
working, potter’s
wheel, sexagesimal
sysem
Egyptian
3000–8000 BC
North Eastern
Egyptian Pyramids, Hieroglyphic
Polytheistic
Africa along River
Mummification,
Nile
Decimal system,
Sdar calendar
Chinese
1600 BC–1AD
China
Silk, Pottery,
Chinese
Taoism
Chinaware, Metals,
Confuoanism
Great Wall, Paper
Persian
700 BC
Greaer Persia
Agricultuie,
Cuneiform, Zoroastrianism
architecture,
Pahlavi
landscaping, postal
service
Greek
2700 BC–1500
Greece (PeloAgricultuie,
Greek
Polytheistic
BC (Cycladic
ponnese, Epirus,
winemaking,
and Minoan
Central Greece,
architecture poetry,
civilisation 1600
Western Greece,
drama, philosophy,
BC–1100 BC
Macedon), later
history, rhetoric
(Mycenaean
Alexandria
mathematics,
Greece), 800 BC
political science,
(Ancient Greece)
astronomy, physics
chemistry, medicine
number of settlements in Sindh, Rajasthan,
Baluchistan and other adjoining areas. They
also managed to exploit stone quarries and
mines useful to them.
● There are indications of the existence of
pastoral nomadic communities in this period
in the form of seasonal settlements. The
interactions with these groups seem to have
helped agriculturists exploit resources from
other regions as the pastoral nomads are
known to engage in trading activities over
the areas they cover during their travels. All
this led to the development of small towns.
Pre-Harappan Phase (5500 BC3500 BC)
● The representative site of the era include
Mehargarh and Killi Ghul Mohammad. It
practiced pastoralism and limited agriculture
and had temporary villages. Later on, the
villages became permanent. They had mud
houses and people domesticated cattle, sheep
and goat. They also had the knowledge of
wheat, rice, barley and dates. Pottery tradition
and craft production started in this era.
Three Main Phases of the Harappan
Civilization (Ref. Fig. 2.1)
Early Harappan Phase
● The Early Harappan Phase lasted from 3300
BC to 2800 BC. It is related to the Hakra
Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River
Valley. The earliest examples of the Indus
script dates back to 3000 BC. This phase
stands characterized by centralized authority
and an increasingly urban quality of life.
Trade networks had been established and
18 Master Series : Ancient India
Fig. 2.1. Indus Valley Civilisation
there was also domestication of crops. Peas,
sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc were grown
during that time. Kot Diji represents the phase
leading up to Mature Harappan Phase.
● The representative site of the early Harappa
era include Amri, Kot Diji and Kalibangan.
The phase marked the phenomenal rise in
settlements and knowledge about copper
was discovered. The potteries also showed
regional traditions. Defensive walls along
the cities were built and long distance trade
got started. It also led to the emergence of
unifying traditions in the pottery. Motifs such
as ‘Horned Deity, Pipal, and Humped Bull’
were widely used.
Mature Harappan Phase
● By 2600 BC, Indus Valley Civilization
had entered into a mature stage. The early
Harappan communities were turning into large
urban centres, like Harappa and Mohenjodaro
(in Pakistan now), and Dholavira, Kalibangan,
Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal, etc.
● The representative sites of Mature Harappan
phase includes Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
This phase marks the rise of cities, planned
The Indus Valley Civilization 19
township, and uniformity in bricks size,
uniformity in tools and weapons, uniformity
in seals, beads, pottery, long distance trade,
craft specialization and script evolved.
Late Harappan Phase
● The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus
River Valley Civilization are believed to have
started around 1800 BC. By 1700 BC, most
of the cities were abandoned. However, one
can see the various element of the Ancient
Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures.
Archaeological data indicates the persistence
of the Late Harappan culture till as late as
1000-900 BC. The major reasons of the
decline of the civilization are believed to
be connected with climate change. Not only
did the climate become much cooler and
drier than before, but substantial portions
of the Ghaggar Hakra river system also
disappeared.
Lothal – The City of Dead
● Lothal, is regarded as prominent city of not just
Indus Valley Civilization,but of all other ancient
civilizations of the world.
● It is located in the Bhal region of modem day
Gujarat.
● Lothal, which means ‘The City of Dead’, is an old
city dating back to the 4,400-year-old Harappan
civilization.
● In the year 1955, archeologists discovered the remnants of an ancient city in Lothal.
● Lothal was originally the site for the lustrous Red
Ware culture, associated with the post-Rigvedic
Vedic civilization, and named for its mica-related
pottery.
● The people of Lothal worshipped a fire god, that
could be the homed deity depicted on ancient seals.
● Lothal was a great centre of the bead industry, gems
and valuable ornaments that flourished until 1900
BC.
● Lothal had had trade relations with as far as West
Asia and Africa.
● The massive dockyard of Lothal, the world’s earliest
known dock found anywhere in the world, was fully
equipped to berth and service ships.
● The representative site of the late Harappan
phase includes Lothal. The phase marks the
abandonment of many cities, resulting in end
of urban phase. Elite and literate tradition
ceased to exist along with tradition of script
and uniform weights & measures. It also
marks the end of trade.
Cities of Indus Valley Civilisation
● Approximately 1052 cities and settlements
belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization
have been excavated till date, mainly in the
general region of the Ghaggar and Indus Rivers
and their tributaries. The artefacts discovered
in these cities suggest a sophisticated and
technologically advanced urban culture.
● The concept of urban planning is also widely
evident. There is also the existence of the first
urban sanitation systems in the world in the
Harappa. The sewerage and drainage system
found in each and every city of Indus Valley
comes across as even more efficient than those
in some areas of India, even till today.
● Dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick
platforms, wide streets, public and private
wells, drains, bathing platforms, reservoirs
and protective walls have been found in
almost all the cities of the Indus Valley
Civilization. The evidence suggests that
most city dwellers were traders or artisans,
who lived with others belonging to the same
occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods.
Social equality seems to be widely prevalent
in the cities of Indus Valley, though there
were some houses that are bigger than the
others. The cities used the same sized bricks
and standardized weights.
● There were other highly developed cultures in
adjacent regions of Baluchistan, Central Asia
and peninsular India. Material culture and
the skeletons from the Harappa cemetery and
other sites testify to a continual intermingling of
communities from both the west and the east.
● The purpose of the "Citadel" remains
debated. In sharp contrast to this civilization's
contemporaries, Mesopotamia and ancient
Egypt, no large monumental or imperial
structures were built. There is no conclusive
evidence of palaces or temples or kings,
armies, or priests. Some structures are thought
to have been granaries. Found at one city is
20 Master Series : Ancient India
Major cities in Harappan Civilization
City
Harappa
Mohejo-daro
Chanhu-daro
Lothal
Kalibangan
Banawali
River
Bank
Ravi
Indus
Indus
Bhogavo
Ghapcar
Ghaggar
Current Day
Location
Punjab, Pakistan
Sindh, Pakistan
Sindh, Pakistan
Gujarat, India
Rajasthan, India
Haryana, India
Starting of
Excavation
1921
1922
1930
1955
I960
1973
an enormous well-built bath, which may have
been a public bath. Although the "Citadels"
are walled, it is far from clear that these
structures were defensive. They may have
been built to divert flood waters.
● Most city dwellers appear to have been
traders or artisans, who lived with others,
pursuing the same occupation in well-defined
neighbourhoods. The seals have images of
animals, gods, etc., and inscriptions. Some of
the seals were used to stamp clay on trade
goods, but they probably had other uses.
Although some houses were larger than others,
Indus civilization cities were remarkable for
their apparent egalitarianism. For example,
all houses had access to water and drainage
facilities. One gets the impression of a vast
middle-class society.
Town Planning in Indus Valley
Civilisation
● A great uniformity in town planning, the
fundamental lay-out of prominent urban settlements exhibits apparent similarities. Based
on the grid-pattern, streets and lanes cutting
across one another at right angles, dividing the
city into a number of rectangular blocks. Main
Street ran from North to South and were as wide
as 30 feet. Street and lanes were not paved.
● Entire city complex was bifurcated into two
distinct parts: the Citadel–a fortified area
which housed important civic and religious
public buildings including granaries and
residences of the ruling class and the Lower
Town, somewhat bigger in area and invariably located east of the Citadel, meant for
commoners. Evidence of fortification of the
lower towns as well from a few urban centres
Lead Excavator
Daya Ram Sahni
RD Banerji
NG Majumdar
SR Rao
Amlanand Ghosh – Marker, BB Lal – Excavator
RS Bisht
like Surkotda and Kalibangan and evidence of
division of the city into three parts instead of
two from Dholavira can also be sighted.
● Use of standardized burnt bricks on massive
scale in almost all types of construction (an
extraordinary feature of the contemporary
civilizations). There is a complete absence
of stone structures.
● Elaborate and planned underground drainage
system was the hallmark of Harappa. Houses
were connected to the main drain equipped
with manholes, mostly made up of bricks with
mud mortar. With use of gypsum and lime to
make it watertight. Cesspits were there inside
the houses to deposit solid wastes. Brick
culverts meant for carrying rain and storm
water have also been found.
Houses in Harappa Towns
● The houses were plain and did not exhibit
any refinement and beauty. So far as the
decorative value of the houses was concerned,
they lacked it completely. In general, they
exhibited a plain and un-decorative look.
● An average house comprised of courtyard
and four to six living rooms, a bedroom, a
kitchen and a well. Presence of staircase gives
indication of the second storey. Houses had
side-entrances and windows were conspicuously absent.
● Houses varied from a single-roomed tenement
to houses with a number of rooms and even
having a second storey. Floors were generally
of beaten, earth coated with cow dung. Fireplaces are common in rooms. Walls were
thick and square holes in them suggests use
of wooden beams.
● Every house was separated by another by a
The Indus Valley Civilization 21
narrow space of ‘no-man’s land’. The staircases were usually wooden, but some made
up of burnt bricks have been found too.
● Roofs were flat. Doors were set in wooden
frames and the average width of a door was
one metre. Square and rectangular pillars
of burnt bricks were used in larger rooms,
the round pillars were absent. Kitchen was
small in size. A round oven meant for baking
chapattis has been also discovered.
Granaries
● The largest building found at Mohenjo-Daro
is a granary, running 150 feet long, 75 feet
wide and 15 feet high. The granary was
divided into 27 compartments in three rows.
It was well ventilated and it was possible to
fill grain in from outside. The large size of the
granary probably indicates a highly developed
agricultural civilization.
Great Bath
● The Great bath at Mohenjo-Daro is about 179
feet long and 107 feet wide. The complex has
a large quadrangle in the centre with galleries
and rooms on all sides. In the centre of this
quadrangle there is a large swimming enclosure, that is 39 feet long, 23 feet wide and 8
feet deep. The entire complex is connected to
an elaborate water supply and sewer system.
The Great Bath was most probably used for
religious or ritualistic purposes.
Dockyard at Lothal
● Lothal had a large structure that has been
identified as a tidal dock for sea-faring ships.
There is a great deal of evidence that Indus
Valley cities traded extensively with other
civilisations of that period. Mesopotamian
records mention trade with cities of Indus,
and objects from the Indus region have been
found in West Asian cities. Lothal’s dock—
the world’s earliest known, connected the city
to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river
on the trade route between Harappan cities in
Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when
the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a
part of the Arabian Sea.
Water Management
● Water management is a unique feature of the
IVC. The excavation site at Dholavira suggests
that river water was stored in gigantic reservoirs around the city walls. Sixteen reservoirs
have been discovered at Dholavira, seven of
which are still intact and can be entered via
brick stairs along the walls.
Lessons of Urban Planning from Indus
Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization displayed remarkable
planning in its urban towns, especially in the area of
sanitation and drainage. To a great extent, it can provide
vital inputs to the present day urbanization. One of the
major challenges of urban planning, in India, has been
dealing with the haphazard construction of buildings.
In the IVC, the streets were built on grid-like patterns,
which allowed for methodical and planned growth. In
modern times, Le Corbusier’s plans for Chandigarh
provided for a rectangular shape with grid iron pattern,
which enabled fast movement of traffic and reduced
the area. In the IVC, the town was also demarcated
clearly between residential areas and common/public
areas. The granaries of IVC are also an example of
intelligent design, with their strategically placed air
ducts and the platforms being divided into units. The
houses in the IVC were constructed in such a manner
that it didn’t disturb the layout of the roads in any
way. The houses had doors that opened out into the
lanes instead of the roads. The warehouse in Lothal
is an exemplary instance of designing with precision.
The drains in the IVC connected each and every house,
and enabled them to dump their waste directly. These
drains were covered, and they directly connected to the
larger sewerage outlets. There were inspection holes
on the drains for maintenance purposes and there were
manholes on the streets. Thus, urban planning of the
IVC has extensively helped us learn from it.
Society of Indus Valley Civilisation
Presence of various classes–priests, merchants,
craftsmen, peasants, labourers (social status is
reflected in different forms of dwellings). Out of
these, the peasants, the labourers and the traders
formed the majority.
● A good number of toy-clay carts, rattles, bulls
with mobile head, monkey with movable
arms, dices, chess-boards etc. were used for
amusement purposes. Other than playing, the
other activities included hunting, fishing and
cock fighting.
22 Master Series : Ancient India
● Females were scantily dressed and they wore
short skirts. They used cosmetics such as –
tweezers, ear-scoops, piercer, antimony rods,
ivory combs, mirrors, hair-pins, round buttons
for clothes, minor razors, kohl pots and sticks
too were used by the women’s.
● The male wore a robe which were embroidered
sometimes. Cotton was used, but, there is no
evidence of use of linen and wool. Footwears
too have not been discovered. Special care of
hair is evident from the reference of pony-tail,
plait, bun and coiled hair. Curly hairs were
in fashion (Evidence from a clay figure from
Mohenjo-Daro). Beards (not very long) and
the trend of shaven upper lips was in vogue.
Besides above mentioned dresses and ornaments, other fashionable items of the time
included – Necklaces, beads, girdle, bracelet,
fillets, finger-rings, bangles, nose-ornaments
and anklets.
Script & Language
● The Indus script has yet not been deciphered.
It was pictographic and approximately 396
signs have been listed, written from right to
left and left to right in alternate lines, i.e;
boustrophedon style.
Burials
● Cemeteries at Harappa, Mohanjo-Daro,
Lothal, Kalibangan and Ropar were located at
the outskirts of the city. The evidence clearly
suggests that a separate land for the burials
of the dead were used. Generally, three forms
of burials were practiced – complete burial,
fractional burials and post-cremation burials.
● There is an evidence of various other types
of burials such as – Coffin burial at Harappa,
Joint burial of male and female from Lothal,
Pit burial from Kalibangan. Generally, the
dead body was lying on its back and head
was pointed towards the north direction.
Pottery
It comprised of two types – Plain Pottery and
Red & Black Pottery with decoration, majority
being the former. There was widespread use of
potter’s wheel made up of wood. Fire technique
and kiln were used for the permanent shape of the
pottery.
● A variety of pleasing designs were usedhorizontal strips, checks, chess-board pattern,
intersecting circles (pattern exclusively found),
leaves & petals. Natural motifs of various
animals were also used such as – birds, fish,
plants, human figures were rare (a man &
child found from Harappa) and triangles.
● The potteries had plain bases, few ring bases
have also been found. Polychrome pottery was
rare (discovered at Nal, Baluchistan and Amri
of pre-Harappan period). Spouted pottery of
Babylonia was absent. Large jars for grains
have been found. Pots from Lothal show high
skill. Plain and un-decorated pottery were
more common in Mohanjo-Daro. Harappan
& Mohanjo-Daro pottery were monochrome.
Seals
● Seals are the greatest artistic creation of
the Harappan people – Cutting & polishing
craftsmanship is excellent. Number of seals
discovered is approximately 2000. It was
made of steatite (soft-stone). Sometimes it was
made up of copper, shell, agate, ivory, faience
and terracotta. The size of these seals varied
from ½ inch to 2½ inch. (Refer Fig. 2.2)
● It came in various shapes–square, rectangular,
button, cubical, cylindrical and round. The
two main types were square (carved animal
& inscription, small boss at the back) and
rectangular (inscription only, hold on the back
to take a cord).
● The seals had dead white appearance and the
display symbols included – circles, crosses,
dots, swastiks, leaves of pipal tree. Most frequently depicted animal was unicorn. Other
animals included on seals were of elephant,
tiger, rhinoceros, antelope, and crocodiles.
● The purpose was to show marked ownership
of the property. It was also used in applying
to bales of merchandise (discovery of such
seals from beside the dockyard of Lothal),
and also as amulets. Chahnudaro had only
yielded square stamp seals.
The famous Pasupati Seal has been found from
Mohanjo-Daro. It depicts Siva seated on a stool flanked
by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, a buffalo and two
antelopes and goats. Marshall identified it with ProtoSiva. Persian Gulf Seals have also been discovered from
Lothal.
The Indus Valley Civilization 23
Bronze Figures
Fig.2.2. Harappan seals
● They are few in numbers and employed
cast bronze. It was mainly found in Mohanjo-Daro. The specimens discovered exhibit
remarkable skill and craftsmanship. Some of
the exquisite figures are of the Dancing Girl
from Mohanjo-Daro, animal motifs of buffalo
and ram from Mohanjo-Daro, Bullock-cart
and Ikkas from Harappa and Chahnudaro.
Daimabad have also yielded four marvellous
pieces. (Refer Fig. 2.3)
Terracotta Figurines
● It was less sophisticated and refined in artistic
skill than the seals & bronze sculptures. It has
been discovered in good numbers from almost
all the settlements of Harappa. Majority of
them were cult objects and toys, animals
and birds being predominant. Red colourings
were used for the decoration.
Fig.2.3. Harappan Artefacts
Beads
● Beads were abundant and varied. They were
made up of gold, silver, copper, bronze
faience, steatite, shells and semi-precious
stones. It was mainly made up of steatite,
such beads were barrel shaped. Bead-maker’s
shop have been found from Chahnudaro and
Lothal.
Stone Sculptures
● Soft stones such as steatite, limestone and
alabasters were used for the creation of stone
sculptures. Size was always moderate and no
life-size sculptures have been found. They
served as cult objects and icons. Carvings
of animals are rare, not found in plenty. A
few pieces have been discovered in mutilated
and fragmentary conditions. Most of sculptures have been found from Mohanjo-Daro
and a few from Harappa. The master-piece
are the Bearded Priest of Mohanjo-Daro and
two male figures, a dancer and a youth with
muscular body from Harappa.
Terracotta figurines are classified into Animal and
Human figures. The most frequently depicted animal is
unicorn and others being rhinoceros, elephant, monkey,
turtle, dog and sheep. The human figures mainly comprised of females. Some master-pieces include Horned
figure and a Man from Mohanjo-Daro, models of Carts
and a Bull with moving head.
Science and Technology in Indus
Valley Civilisation
● The people of the Indus Civilization achieved
greater accuracy in measuring length, mass,
and time. They were among the first to
develop a system of uniform weights and
measures. Their smallest division, which is
marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal,
was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest
division ever recorded on a scale of the
Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed
the decimal division of measurement for all
practical purposes, including the measurement
of mass as revealed by their hexahedron
weights.
● Weights were made up of variety of materialslate, jasper, cherts, alabaster, limestone and
quartzite. It was mainly made up of polished
chert. For larger weights, the decimal system
was used and for smaller ones, the binary
24 Master Series : Ancient India
system was followed. The unit weight had the
calculated value of 0.875 gms and the largest
weight was 10970 gms.
● The brick weights were in a perfect ratio
of 4:2:1. The numerous inventions of the
Indus River Valley Civilization include an
instrument used for measuring whole sections
of the horizon and the tidal dock. The
people of Harappa evolved new techniques
in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze,
lead and tin. They also had the knowledge of
proto-dentistry and the touchstone technique
of gold testing.
As in other cultures of the ancient, actual weights
were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and
measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra are the
same as those used in Lothal. The engineering skill of the
Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks.
Trade and Transportation
● Trade seems to the major occupation of the
people of the Harappan Civilization. The
main forms of transport included bullock
carts and boats. Archaeologists have also
discovered an enormous, dredged canal and
docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal.
The pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc
of the civilization show great similarities with
those of Central Asia and the Iranian plateau,
indicating wide-trade with them. Then, there are
signs of maritime trade network between the
Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations also.
The “Meluha” of Mesopotamia People
Ancient Mesopotamian texts speak of trading with
seafaring civilizations of ‘Meluha’. This trade was
conducted with real financial sophistication in amounts
that could involve tons of copper. The Mesopotamians
speak of Meluha as a land of exotic commodities. A
wide variety of objects produced in the Indus region have
been found at sites in Mesopotamia.
Agriculture
● The nature of the Indus civilization's
agricultural system is still largely a matter
of conjecture due to the limited amount
of information surviving through the ages.
Food production was largely indigenous to
the Indus Valley. Already, the Mehargarh
people used domesticated wheat and barley.
The agriculture in Indus civilization must
have been highly productive, after all, it was
capable of generating surpluses sufficient to
support tens of thousands of urban residents
who were not primarily engaged in agriculture.
It relied on the considerable technological
achievements of the pre-Harappan culture,
including the plough. There is no evidence of
irrigation, but such evidence could have been
obliterated by repeated, catastrophic floods.
● The main crops were wheat and barley. Other
crops were peas, rye, and sesames, mustard,
cotton and dates. There is no evidence of
sugarcane and rice was rare (evidence from
Rangpur & Lothal). The major cultivated
cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop
derived from two-row barley.
● In addition, it is also known that people
practiced rainfall harvesting, a powerful
technology that was brought to fruition
by classical Indian civilization but nearly
forgotten in the 20th century. At a recently
discovered Indus civilization city in western
India, archaeologists discovered a series of
massive reservoirs, hewn from solid rock
and designed to collect rainfall, that would
have been capable of meeting the city's needs
during the dry season.
Religious Practices
● In the absence of definite decipherment of
Harappan script the artefacts recovered from
various excavations at the sites are the only
source of information about Harappan religion.
No buildings, which could be identified as
temples or places of worships have so far
been discovered in any site. SR Rao, however,
has identified a few low structures found in
the excavation sites at Lothal and Kalibangan
as fire altars, and it is assumed that animals
were scarified at those altars. A major debate is
centred on whether Harappan religion belonged
to Vedic or non-Vedic traditions.
● From the archaeological findings, it may be
presumed that the most important feature
of the Indus Valley religion was the cult of
Mother Goddess or Nature Goddess. There
are quite a few figurines of terracotta or other
material which display a standing female
figure, with minimum clothing but profusely
The Indus Valley Civilization 25
ornamented, with head-dress, collar, etc.,
wearing a girdle or band round her loins. Also
the representation of a figure standing in a
bifurcated tree, may be interpreted to identify
the Mother Goddess with the Nature Goddess.
Among male deities Siva can be identified
easily as a principal deity in Harappan
religion. Most remarkable representation of
this deity is a three-faced figure wearing a
three-horned head-dress, surrounded by a
variety of animals. Also, the Indus Valley
people might have been worshipping various
animals. Though some of the animal figures
might have been used as toys, others were
used for religious purposes.
● The Indus Valley people also worshipped
natural objects like water, fire, trees, etc.
Various trees, plants and foliage have been
found depicted on a number of seals. Fire
must have been worshipped (evidence from
Lothal & Kalibangan). Evidence of Male
Deity – Pasupati Siva; Animal worship –
Unicorn; Tree worship-Pipal, Fertility CultPhallic Worship; Amulets and Talisman have
also been found.
Decline of the Great Indus
Civilization
● Around 1900 BCE, signs of a gradual decline
begin to emerge. People started to leave the
cities. Those who remained were poorly nourished. By around 1700 BCE, most of the cities
were abandoned.
● In 1953, Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed
that the decline of the Indus Civilization was
caused by the invasion of an Indo-European
tribe from Central Asia called the "Aryans".
As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons
found in various parts of Mohenjo-Daro, and
passages in the Vedas referring to battles and
forts. However, scholars soon started to reject
Wheeler's theory, since the skeletons belonged
to a period after the city's abandonment and
none were found near the citadel. Subsequent
examinations of the skeletons by Kenneth
Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on
the skulls were caused by erosion, and not of
any violent aggression.
● Many scholars believe that the collapse
of the Indus Civilization was caused by
drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and
Mesopotamia. It has also been suggested that
immigration by new peoples, deforestation,
floods, or changes in the course of the river
may have contributed to the collapse of the
IVC. Alternatively, a crucial factor may
have been the disappearance of substantial
portions of the Ghaggar–Hakra river system.
According to their theory, the slow eastward
migration of the monsoons across Asia
initially allowed the civilization to develop.
The monsoon-supported farming led to large
agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported
the development of multitude of cities. The
IVC residents did not develop irrigation
capabilities, unaware, they relied mainly on
the seasonal monsoons. As the monsoons kept
shifting eastward, the water supply for the
agricultural activities dried up. The residents
then migrated towards the Ganges basin
to the east, where they established smaller
villages and isolated farms. The small surplus
produced in these small communities did not
allow development of trade, and the cities
died out in the due course of time.
● A tectonic event may have diverted the
system's sources toward the Ganges Plain,
though there is complete uncertainty about
the date of this event, as most settlements
inside Ghaggar–Hakra river beds have not
yet been dated.The actual reason for decline
might be any combination of these factors.
Legacy of Indus Valley Civilisation
● Previously, it was also believed that the
decline of the Harappan civilization led to
an interruption of urban life in the Indian
subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley
Civilization did not disappear suddenly, and
many elements of the Indus Civilization
could be found in later cultures also. Current
archaeological data suggests that material
culture classified as Late Harappan may
have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE
and was partially contemporaneous with the
Painted Grey Ware culture. Archaeologist
Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan
settlement of Pirak, which thrived continuously
from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of
Alexander the Great in 325 BCE.
26 Master Series : Ancient India
Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the
decline of Harappa drove people eastward. After 1900
BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218
to 853. Excavations in the Gangetic plain show that
urban settlement began around 1200 BCE, only a few
centuries after the decline of Harappa and much earlier
than previously expected. Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there
was a continuous series of cultural developments. These
link “the so-called two major phases of urbanization in
South Asia”.
● In the aftermath of the Indus Civilization's
collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying
degrees, showing the influence of the Indus
Civilization. In the formerly great city of
Harappa, burials have been found that correspond
to a regional culture called the Cemetery H
culture. At the same time, the Ochre Colored
Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into
the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has
the earliest evidence for cremation, a practice
dominant in Hinduism today.
The Indus Valley Civilization 27
Ancient India Master Exercise
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Which of the following was/were the features of
Indus Valley Civilizations?
1. Town Planning 2. Drainage systems
3. Postal System
4. Cantonment System
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 1, 2 and 4
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Indus Valley Civilization belonged to:
(a) Mesolithic Age
(b) Neolithic Age
(c) Megalithic Age
(d) Chalcolithic Age
Which of the following statements are True
about the Indus Valley Civilization?
1. The town planning followed a grid system.
2. Many cities of the civilization were walled.
3. They had trading relations with the South
East Asia.
4. Harappa and Mohenjodero were twin
capitals of the civilization.
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 3 and 4
Which was the ancient port of Indus Civilization?
(a) Harappa
(b) Lothal
(c) Dholavira
(d) Surkotada
Which of the following statements about Indus
Valley Civilization are true?
1. They were mostly farmers and herders.
2. They were mostly traders.
3. Cattle remained absent.
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 2 and 3
2
Subjective type questions for Main
Examination
Harappan civilization had an abrupt end but
Harappan culture continued to survive. Discuss
this statement.
2. Discuss the nature and character of religions,
social life and occupational systems of Harappan
civilization on the basis of archaeological
evidences.
3. Discuss the salient features of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
4. Discuss the water management and its
conservation planning in cities of Indus Valley.
5. Discuss the factors responsible for the decline of
Indus civilization in the light of recent researches.
6. The ancient civilization in Indian Sub-continent
differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and
Greece in that its culture and traditions have been
preserved without the present day. Comment.
UPSC 2015 (GS-I)
7. To what extent has the urban planning and culture
of the Indus Valley Civilization provided inputs
to the present day Urbanization? Discuss.
UPSC 2014 (GS-I)
8. The Urbanisation of the Indus Valley Civilization
was an spontaneous process. Examine.
9. Discuss the probable administrative structure
of the Indus Valley Civilization. Support your
arguments with logical examples.
10. The Indus Valley Civilization had a monotheistic
religions devoid of priests, sacrifices and rituals.
Examine.
11. The Indus Valley Civilization disappeared
without leaving a trace. For Indians of later
times it seems as alien a civilization as in any
distant continent. Critically comment.
1.
Answers to MCQs
1.
(b) 2.
(d) 3.
(b) 4.
(b) 5.
(b)
28 Master Series : Ancient India
ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 3
The Vedic
AGE
The Vedic Civilisation
Indus Valley was start of great civilisational march of India. After decline of Indus valley, another great civilisation
flourished in this part of earth, this civilisation is called Vedic civilisation. The people who were responsible for the
evolution of this civilization called themselves Aryas or Aryans. ‘Arya’ literally means the man of ‘noble character’,
and the “free-born”. They spoke the Indo-European languages from which modern languages like Sanskrit, Persian,
Latin, Greek, Celtic, and Gothic have developed.
The origin of Aryans
There are various hypotheses about the origin of
Aryans and their appearance in India.
● Aryan Invasion Theory: The Aryans
invaded the Indus Valley Settlements at their
point of decline and superimposed their own
civilization over them, leading to prominence
of Vedic civilization as well as loss of prominence of Indus Valley.
● Aryan Migration Theory: The Aryans were
not one single group but multiple groups
who gradually migrated from Central Asia
to Gangetic plains. There was no "war"
involved, rather they "settled in" peacefully
with a rich cultural interaction with Dravidians and Mundas.
● Indigenous Aryan Theory: The Aryans
were exclusively Indo-Gangetic and were
either Indus-Valley residents or co-existed with
them.
● Out-of-India Theory: The Aryans are not
exclusively from Indo-Gangetic. Rather the
direction of migration was reverse, i.e., it
started in India and went westwards.
According to Giles, Balkan countries were the
original home of the Aryans. The flora and fauna
and the animals with which the early Aryans were
familiar could be found in the Balkan countries at
that time. Some historians believe that the Aryans
migrated from Lithuania (Europe) into Caucasus and
from there they entered into Iran. Some historians
held the view that the Aryans entered into India
from the region of South Russia. Brandenstein has
suggested that the Aryans migrated to India from
Steppes of Russia.
Some historians held the view that Aryans
belonged to India. The Rig Veda refers to ‘Sapta
Sindhu’ land (of seven rivers) which was the name
of Punjab. Subsequently, it was called “Panchanada”
(land of five rivers). The flora and fauna with which
the Aryans were familiar are not found in Punjab.
Again the fertility of Punjab must have attracted
immigration. From the linguistic viewpoint Greek
and Latin belong to Aryan group of Languages.
These considerations led the historians to believe
that Aryans do not originally belong to India.
The general assumption is that Aryans migrated from
the Central Asia/Steppes region. Those who migrated
to West were Greeks and Latins. Another part migrated
to Anatolia (Turkey) and gave birth to a political
system known as Hittites (1900-1700 BC). Some of
them migrated to Iran (related to India). Out of Iran,
one part moved to Iraq known as Kassites (1600 BC).
Another part migrated to Syria known as Mittanis (1400
BC). Another part migrated to India, known as Aryans.
Linguistic similarities do provide some clues to their
original homeland.
The Vedic Age 29
● Racial characteristic of the Aryans were tall
stature, long head, white skinned, sharp nose
who were hefty and sturdy than the general
Indus people. Other trademarks of the Aryans include use of spoked wheels, use of
horse, powerful swords and arrows, cult of
fire, soma, animal sacrifice, and possessing
distinct language.
● Rig Veda has many things in common with
‘Avesta’ Iranian text. The ‘Rig Veda’ and
‘Avesta’ use the same names for several gods
and even for several classes. Some Aryan
names engraved in the Kassite inscriptions of
1600 BC and the Mittani inscriptions of the
fourteenth century BC found in Iraq proves
that from Iran a branch of the Aryans did
really moved towards the west.
Important Inscriptions
● Tel-el-amaran Inscription (1400 BC): It deals
with the names of Mittani princes
● Hittite Inscription (1900-1700 BC): Found in
Anatolia, it gives some specimen of Indo-European
languages.
● Kassite Inscription (1600 BC): Found in Iraq, it
provides some Aryan names.
● Boghazkoi Inscription (Capital of Mittanis):
Information about treaty between Hittites and
Mittanis are discovered along with the names of
four Vedic Deities, i.e; Indra, Varuna, Mitra and
Aswin/Nasatyas
Early Aryan settlements in India
● The Aryans appeared in India a little earlier
than 1500 BC. The earliest Aryans settled
down in eastern Afghanistan, Punjab, and
on outskirts of present day of Uttar Pradesh.
Though they were confined mainly in Punjab,
yet their outer settlements reached to the
banks of the Ganges and the Yamuna. They
named that region Madhya Desa. Gradually,
they occupied the whole of Uttarapatha, the
land between Himalayas and the Vindhyas
and from the western seas to the east, the
whole landmass called as Aryavarta.
The Vedic Age can be divided into two phases.
1. Rig Vedic Age
2. Later Vedic Age
The Vedic Literature
The Vedas were probably authored during 1500
BC and 600 BC. Rig Veda is one of the earliest
specimen of Indo-European literature. The word Rig
is derived from the Sanskrit meaning ‘to know’.
Originally, Vedas were not in a written form. In the
early days, they were chanted orally. For centuries
together, they were transmitted orally to the successive
generations. The Vedas acquired the written form
hundreds of centuries later. Vedas are also called
‘apaurusheya’ (not made by man), ‘nitya’ (existing
in all eternity), and shruti (handed down from one
generation to another). The ‘Rishis’ to whom they
are ascribed are known as ‘Mantradrasta’ (Those
who received the mantra by sight directly from the
Supreme Creator).
The entire Vedic literature can be divided into
four parts: The Veda/Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the
Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The Veda/Samhitas
and the Brahmanas form the Karma-Kanda segment
of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with
the ceremonial rites and rituals. The Aranyakas and
the Upanishads form the Gyan-Kanda segment of
the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy
and spiritualism.
1. The Vedas/Samhitas
The Samhitas form the first part of each of the
Vedas. A Samhita is a collection of mantras,
so the Samhitas are sometimes also referred
to as the ‘mantras’. Most of the mantras or
hymns were concerned with the nature and
the deities. The ancient man worshipped the
elements of nature as deities. The Vedic man
used the mantras in sacrificial ceremonies, and
for performing mystic rituals.
The Samhitas are named after the Vedas they belong
to. For example, the Samhita of the Rig Veda is called
the Rig-Veda-Samhita or the Rig-Samhita. The RigSamhita contains the mantras or the hymns known as
‘richas’. These hymns are metered verses. The SamSamhita contains mantras in the form of songs meant
for liturgy or public worship. The Yajur-Samhita
contains mantras composed in the poetical and the prose
forms. The Atharva-Samhita contains mantras meant
for routine rites and rituals.
30 Master Series : Ancient India
Four Vedas/Samhitas are
(a) The Rig Veda: It is a collection of hymns.
and it is the oldest of all Vedas and belongs
to ‘Sakala’ school and Hotays sages were
associated with it. It has ten Mandalas &
eight Ashtakas, with a total of 1028 ‘Suktas’
or ‘stutis’ for the worship of gods like Indra,
Surya, Agni, Yama, Varuna, Ashwini, Usha
etc. The oldest Mandal are II, III, IV, V, VI
and VII, known as family books on account
of their composition being ascribed to various
families of the sages. The Mandalas II to
VII are ascribed to Gritsamada, Viswamitra,
Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaja and Vasistha. The
latest Mandalas are I, VIII, IX and X. The IX
Mandala is completely devoted to the Vedic
God Soma.
(b) Sama Veda: A collection of songs mostly
taken from Rig Veda of which only 75 hymns
are the original. It is also known as ‘Book of
chants’. The hymns were meant for singing at
the Soma sacrifice. It contained 1549 stutis.
Udgataris sages were associated with it.
Earliest evidence of music comes from this
text – Saman (melody/singing). It is available
in three versions viz. the Jaiminiya in Carnatic,
the Kauthuma in Gujarati and Ranayaniya in
Marathi.
(c) Yajur Veda: A collection of rituals for
performing different sacrifices. It is recited
by the priests known as Adhavaru. This is the
only Veda in prose. It has 40 Mandals. There
are two distinct forms of Yajur Veda namely,
“Sukla Yajur Veda” and “Krishna Yajur Veda”.
The “Sukla Yajur Veda” contains the genesis
while the “Krishna Yajur Veda” describes the
“Vasya” or the philosophy.
(d) Atharva Veda: A collection of charms, magic
and spells. It preserves many popular cults and
superstitions and contains non-Aryans elements
(folk elements). It has twenty Mandalas with
731 ‘stutis’. It contains 20 Kandas or Books.
The Kandas 18, 19 and 20 are the later
additions. It deals with magic, hypnotism,
enslavement through mantra. The hymns were
meant for warding off evils & demons, winning
over friends and to gain material success. It is
regarded on a lower level than the other three
Vedas. Gopath Brahmana belong to Atharva
Veda and Mundaka and Prasara Upanishad is
related to it.
2. The Brahmanas
The Brahmanas constitute the second part
of the Vedas. With the passage of time, the
newer generations found the mantras of the
Samhitas difficult to understand. An elaborate
explanation of the mantras became necessary.
The result was the Brahmanas. The Brahmanas
are explanatory in nature. The Brahmanas
are concerned with the religious rites and
rituals, basically it was kind of Theology and
Philosophy of the Brahamanas (Priestly class).
The Rig Veda has two Brahmanas, Aitereya Brahmana
and Shankhayana Brahmana. The Aitereya Brahmana
deals with Soma sacrifice and various ceremonies
of royal inagurations. The Yajur Veda has also two
Brahamanas, Tattiriya and Shatpath Brahmana. The
Shatpatha Brahmana of Yajur Veda is the largest of
all the Brahmanas of all the Vedas. The Brahamanas
associated with Sama Veda are Tandya Maha Brahmana/
Panchvimsa, Shadvimsa and Jaiminiya and Gopath
Brahmana belongs to Atharva Veda.
3. The Aranyakas
● The Sanskrit word ‘aranya’ means a forest.
The Aranyakas form the third part of the
Vedas. However, it should be noted that the
Aranyakas are sometimes considered as parts
of the Brahmanas. It deals with mysticism,
moral-values and philosophical doctrines. It
gives emphasis on meditation.
● The Aranyakas were developed by the
hermits, living in the forests. Due to the
limited resources in the forests, they could
not perform the conventional sacrifices, nor
could they adhere to the rituals. It was then
that the Aranyakas were developed. With the
advent of the Aranyakas, the emphasis on the
sacrificial rites seems to be diluting. The shift
towards philosophic and spiritual interpretation
of the rituals and ceremonials is evident.
● The Aranyakas reflect an explicit transition
in the philosophy of life of a person. The
speculative and intuitive thinking seems
to be developing. Meditative thinking is
conspicuous. The Vedic person seems to be
The Vedic Age 31
turning from the gross to the subtle. His quest
for knowledge seems to be intensified.
Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta
(explanation of words i.e etymology).
Terminologies for Territorial Divisions
4. The Upanishads
● The Upanishads are the concluding portions
of the Vedas. Literally, it means a ‘session’, in
which the mentor imparts esoteric teachings.
It deals with Philosophy and Metaphysics.
The Upanishads are at the end of the Vedas,
therefore are referred to as the Vedanta. They
are 108 in numbers. The Vedanta essentially
refers to the philosophy pronounced in the
Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas. Some
scholars treat the Vedas and the Upanishads
altogether separately.
● Most of the Upanishads are in forms of
dialogues between a master and a disciple.
In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and
the enlightened guru satisfies the query aptly
and convincingly. Thus, the Upanishads
contain the sublime knowledge that deals
with the topic at great depth. The Upanishads
discuss an enormous amount of topics like
the Brahman, the atman, the existence, life
and death, moksha (mukti), the jagat, the
knowledge and its various types, the Brahma
gyana, the Atmagyana and many other related
issues elaborately.
● It is not known how many Upanishads existed
originally. We do not know who composed
them. Some of the Upanishads are in the
prose form and some others in the verse form.
Some of them are partly composed in prose
and partly in verse. Some of the Upanishads
have been composed in recent times. It is
difficult to ascertain the precise number of
the original, ancient Upanishads. It is believed
that the Rig Veda has 10 Upanishads. The
number of Upanishads for Shukla Yajur
Veda is 19, for Krishna Yajur Veda 32 and
for Sama Veda it is 16. Atharva Veda has
31 Upanishads.
1.
Brahmavarta
2.
Dhruvmadhyamandis
3.
4.
5.
6.
Aryavarta
Madhyadesha
Dakshinapath
Parvatasrayin
7.
Brahmarshi Desa
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Uttarpatha (Udichya)
Aparanta (Pratichya)
Purvadesa (Prachya)
Tamilakam
Parvaasrayin
Rivers and Their Ancient Names
1.
2.
3.
Jhelum
Chenab
Ravi
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Beas
Sutluj
Gomal
Sohan
Kurram
Kabul
Gandak
Ghaggar/Rakshi/Chitang
Swat
5. Vedangas
● Besides the Vedas, there is another class
of works whose authorship is ascribed to
human beings. They are known as Sutras
or Vedangas. There are six Vedangas. They
are six subjects. These are Shiksha (deals
with sound and pronunciation), Chhandas
(rhyme and metre) Jyotisha (astronomy),
Region between Sutlej
and Yamuna (area of
earliest Aryan settlement)
Region between the
Saraswati and the Ganga,
literally means ‘firm
middle country’ (Later
Vedic settlement area)
Northern India
Central India
Southern India
The hill country of the
north stretching from the
jungles of Tarai to the
crest of the Himalayas
The Western part of
Central India
North-West India
Western India
Eastern India
Tamil country
Himalayan tract
Vitasta
Asikini
Parushini/Iravati/
Yavjavati
Vipasa
Suturdi
Gomati
Sushoma
Krumu
Kubha
Sadanira
Saraswati/Drishadati
Suvastu
Types of Deities
1.
2.
3.
Terrestrial Deities
Agni, Soma, Prithvi
Atmospheric Deities Indra,
Vayu,
Marut,
Prajanya, Rudra
Celestial Deities
Surya, Usha, Vishnu,
Varuna, Savitr, Dyaus,
Asvins, Mitra, Pushan
32 Master Series : Ancient India
The Rig Vedic Period
The Rig Vedic migrations may have been
accompanied with violent clashes with the people
who already inhabited the regions of North-Western
India. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts
between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. The
Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people
who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the
commandments of gods (avrata).
Rig Vedic Economy
According to some scholars when the Rig Vedic
Aryans first entered India, they were a tribal-pastoral
economy. Cattle rearing, particularly cow keeping
was their principal occupation. Gradually, they look
to agriculture and it became one of their principal
occupations. Ultimately agriculture and cattle rearing
became two principal occupations of the Rig Vedic
Aryans. The Rig Vedic Aryans regarded cows and
bullocks as their most valuable possessions. Cow
was the measure of value. It was called “Godhana”
or wealth of cow.
The Rig Vedic economy was not very advanced. Trade
was carried by barter. The gold coin Nishka could never
be used as a medium of daily exchange. There was
no copper coin for daily use. The means of transport
was chariot and cart. Though a section of Aryans made
surplus agricultural production by using the Sudras as
slaves, the surplus was anything but impressive. There
was still a trend of tribal economy type. Aryan tribes
fought with each other for possession of cattle and
water. There was still no such surplus production and its
exploitation by any dominant class. Slavery and caste
system was now in nebulous stage.
● The chief means of transport by land were
Rathas (chariots) and wagons drawn by
horses and oxen. The principal media of trade
was barter. The banks of the Yamuna and
the Indus tributaries were dotted with Aryan
villages. Perhaps trade between them was
carried along the river route. Trade by land
route was also carried. Gradually pieces of
gold called “nishka” were used as means of
exchange. Commerce was generally managed
by a class of people called Pani.
We do not know definitely whether the Aryans had
overseas trade with the West-Asian countries. The
Harappans had an extensive trade with West-Asia.
Whether the Aryans were able to continue it, is not
certain. As the Aryan civilization in the Rig Vedic
Age was less industrial and less urban than that of the
Harappans, it may be presumed that the Aryan trade
was wholly local in character.
● Yava (Barley) was the main crop and they
used fire to burn down the forest cover and
make land cultivable. Bali (voluntary offering)
and war booty played an important part in the
economy.
The Rig Vedic Society
● The Rig Vedic society of the Early Vedic
Civilization was patriarchal in nature. The
foundations of society was the family. Kinship
was the basis of social structure. The families
or Kulas were ruled by male members. The
head of the family or kula was called as
kulapa. The eldest male member of the family
was usually the kulapa. The families were
generally joint, and were large.
● Varna system was prevalent during the age.
Marriage was a sacrament and was not
dissoluble, though Inter-Varna marriages were
allowed. Widow-remarriage was allowed, but it
was not common. Dowry was also prevalent and
Bride-price was in practice. Inter-dining among
the Varnas was not prohibited and Monogamy
was the established pattern of the society. There
were references of polygamy and polyandry
but, it was not in vogue. Practice of Niyoga
or levirate was practiced. Art of writing was
absent. Practice of slavery and prostitution were
present. Women slaves were used for domestic
purposes. In general, the position of women
was high and respectable. They had the right
to attend religious ceremonies and assemblies.
The Rig Vedic houses of Early Vedic Civilization were
usually thatched roofs and mud built walls made the
houses. There were fortified places called Puras. People
used to take shelter in these places during danger of
invasion. Pura did not necessarily mean a town or a city
in the Rig Vedic Period. Cities and towns were very few in
this age. The daily food of the Rig Vedic people consisted
of barley, rice, beans, vegetables, milk, milk-products and
cakes. They also ate non-vegetarian foods. The Rig Vedic
Aryans drank intoxicating liquor called Sura made of corn
and Soma was prepared from the juice of some plant.
The Vedic Age 33
● The Aryans used many musical instruments
like the drum, flute, harp and cymbals. They
had minute knowledge of sound, tana, and
raga. The Aryans did not develop a script
till about 700 BC. The Early Vedic Aryans
preferred the oral learning.
Varna System
● According to orthodox view Varna system
existed even in the Rig Vedic Age. The
Purusha Sukta hymn of Rig Veda gave
birth of the four Varnas. But many eminent
scholars rejected the theory that Varna system
existed in the Rig Vedic Age. They hold that
the Purusha Sukta is a late hymn. According
to this school, in the Rig Vedic Age, Varna
system was never very rigid and it was not
probably hereditary too. There is a hymn in
Rig Veda where the composer of a hymn says
that he was a bard, his father was a physician
and his mother was a grinder of corn. Thus,
there was no hereditary profession.
● There are some instances which show that
even priesthood was not hereditary in this
period. Though there was no clear cut Varna
division in the Rig Vedic Society, class
division and division according to colour of
skin were in vogue.
Position of Women
● The Rig Vedic families being patrilineal,
birth of a male child was always desired. A
couple without son was deplored like poverty.
Female child had no right to perform funeral
rite of the father. But when female child was
born, she was by no means neglected, nor was
her education denied.
● Female scholars like Ghosha, Vishwavara and
Apala were known in the Rig Vedic Society
Age. Few Vedic hymns were composed by
them. The wife could take part in the religious
rites with the husband during the Rig Vedic
Period. There was no Purdah system. Girls
were usually married after attaining the age of
puberty. But child marriage was not unknown.
Free choice on the part of both the bride
and bridegroom was permitted. Undesirable
son-in-law had to pay the bride’s price. Both
dowry and bride-price were recognized.
● Polygamy was practiced but polyandry was very
rare. But monogamy was the general rule during
the Early Vedic Period. Widow Remarriage was
permitted. The custom of marrying the brother’s
widow (Niyoga) was prevalent.
Varnashrama Dharma
During later part of the Rig Vedic Age the ideal
of Four Ashramas developed.
Ashrama
Resting
Place
Main Duty
Supporting
Organ
Parts of
Vedas
Type of
Chanting
Brahmacarya
Gurukula
Study
Mind and
senses
Samhitas
Prastava
Grihasta
Svagriha
Sacrifice
Intelligence
Brahmanas
Udgitha
Vanaprastha
Forest
dwelling
Contemplation
Breath
Aranyakas
Pratihara
Sanyasa
The world
Renunciation
Self
Upanishads
Nidhana
Rig Vedic Polity
● The administrative machinery of the Aryans
in the Rig Vedic period worked with a tribal
chief in the centre. He was called Rajana.
Although his post was not always hereditary,
as we have also some traces of election by the
tribal assembly called the Samiti. He protected
its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers
to gods on its behalf. The basic unit was Kula
(family). The political unit in ascending order
was Kula, Grama, Vis, Jana and Rashtra.
● Several tribal assemblies, such as Sabha,
Samiti, Vidatha, and Gana mentioned in the
Rig Veda exercised deliberative, military and
religious functions. Even women attended the
Sabha and Vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But
from the political point of view the important
assemblies were only the Sabha and Samiti.
The king did not maintain any regular
or standing army, but in times of war he
mustered a militia whose military functions
were performed by different tribal groups
called Vrata, Gana, Grama, Sardha.
● In the day-to-day administration, the king
was assisted by a few functionaries. The most
important functionary seems to have been
the Purohita. The two priests who played
a major part in the time of Rig Veda were
Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important
functionary seems to be the Senani.
● The Rajan could not have an elaborate
administrative machinery because of the nature
of the Rig Vedic economy. An economy in
which the surplus was very small, the Rajan
received only Bali, i.e. offering to a prince or
34 Master Series : Ancient India
to a god from the conquered people. However, these tributes were neither regular and nor stipulated
and hence cannot be called a tax. There was no system of taxation as there was no machinery for it
and there was dearth of network of ‘collector’ officials.
Literature Diary of Vedic Age
Sl.No.
Literature
1.
Rig Veda
2.
Yajur Veda
3.
Sama Veda
4.
Atharva Veda
5.
Brahmanas
6.
7.
Aranyaka
Upanishad
Facts
Oldest of all the Vedas
Has 1028 hymns
Contains the Gayatri mantra.
Has 10 Mandalas and 8 Akhtaks
10th mandala was added later.
Contains procedures for sacrifices and rituals for yajnas
It is a prose Veda
It is divided into two groups – Black (Krishna) Yajurveda and White (Shukla)
Yajuryeda.
● It a Veda of Chants and melodies
● Dance and Music is rooted from this veda
● The youngest veda
● Was added later in the vedic literature
● Contains the procedures for everyday life
● Contains mantras for Magic spell
● Regarded as one of the oldest text of Indian Medicine
Rigveda – Aitereya, Kaushitaki; YajurVeda – Tattiriya., Satpatha; SamVeda – Tandya,
Daiminiya; Atharva Veda – Gopatha
Describe the philosophies of the Vedas.
● Discuseses the philosophical ideas of Brahman and the path of Moksha.
● Almost there 200 Upanishadas.
● Only 12-14 are considered as important, such as Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka,
Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brhadaranyaka, Svetasvatara Kausitaki,
Mahanarayana and the Maitri.
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Rig Vedic Religion
● The Rig Vedic religion personified the forces
of nature and there was predominance of male
deities. Few Goddesses find mention here. The
aim of the worship was material gains, such
as, progeny, cattle, longevity, victory in wars,
increase in cattle wealth’s, etc.
● There was a cult of domestic hearth and its
functions were performed by the Kulapa.
Concept of life after death was vague–reference
of ‘World of Father’ ruled by Yama, a place
for blessed ones after death and ‘House of
Clay’, a place for sinned has been mentioned.
● Sacrifice was the pivot of Aryan religion. It
incorporated the use of formulas, performance
of rituals, active role of priestly class and
large scale slaughter of animals and there is
absence of clearly defined Creator – the-God.
The Later Vedic Period
● The Aryans further moved towards east in the
Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana
refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern
Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and
kingdoms are mentioned in the later Vedic
literature. One important development during
this period is the growth of large kingdoms.
Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in
the beginning. After the fall of Kurus and
Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi
and Videha came into prominence. Magadha,
Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost
tribal kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer
to India as union of three region – Aryavarta
(Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India)
and Dakshinapatha (Southern India).
The Vedic Age 35
Later Vedic Economy
● The Later Vedic economy had been marked
by a transition from a pastoral economy to a
sedentary agrarian economy.
● Iron was used extensively in this period
and this enabled the people to clear forests
and to bring more land under cultivation.
Agriculture became the chief occupation.
Improved types of implements were used for
cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat
were grown and Cotton growing became a
profitable occupation.
● Knowledge of manure was another
improvement. Besides Agriculture, people
started to opt for several new occupations
to make their living. Industrial activity
became more varied and there was greater
specialization.
● Cattle still continued to be the chief source
of wealth. Bull was regarded as useful for
ploughing. Besides goat, sheep, horse were
also domesticated. Buffalo was domesticated
and harnessed to plough in the Age. In spite
of deep ploughing and intensive cultivation
there was not enough surplus food. Villages
were just self-sufficient in food.
● The knowledge of writing probably developed
in this period. Specialization in industry
developed. With the growing complexities of
the society, various new occupations like that
of Charioteer, Carpenter, Rathakara, Ferryman, Bow-maker etc attracted the people.
Metal work, leather work, carpentry and
pottery made great progress.
● With the progress of civilization the volume
of trade and commerce increased in the Later
Vedic Age. Inland and maritime trade both
developed in this Age. The people became
familiar with the navigation of the seas. The
Later Vedic people were familiar with the sea
and they traded with countries like Babylon.
● The Vaishyas were hereditarily engaged in
trade and the rich merchants were known as
Shresthins. Trade in textile, leather, leather
goods, and dress materials were profitable.
Internal trade was spread over land and
river routes from Punjab to Bihar and Nepal.
Sravasti, Mathura, Taxila were trading centres.
The merchants used to form guilds. Besides
nishka (gold coin) of the Rig Vedic period,
gold and silver coins like satamana and
krishnala were used as media of exchange.
Usury and money-lending also developed in
the Later Vedic Society Period.
Later Vedic Society
● The period marks the beginning of the practice
of Primogeniture–eldest son succeeding the
father, practice of worshipping of the male
ancestors and increase in the position and
status of two higher Varnas – Brahmins &
Kshatriyas. It also gave rise to various functional groups as distinct castes. Gotra-system
evolved during the period and gave rise to
tribal exogamy.
● Varna System was slowly gaining its
momentum. The four divisions of society
(Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras)
was thoroughly established during the Later
Vedic period. Sudras were devoid of any
rights, such as no right to approach sacred
fire, perform sacrifices and read sacred texts.
A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a
Kshatriya but sometimes Kshatriyas claimed
a higher status over the Brahmins. Many
sub-castes on the basis of their occupation
appeared in this period and change of one’s
own caste became unusual.
● Education became more general among the
higher classes. The ideal of four Ashramas
became more regularized than in the Rig Vedic
Age. Students had to learn the knowledge of
philosophy, Vedas, scriptures, ethics etc. in
the house of the Gurus (teachers). The upper
classes particularly observed the cult of four
Ashramas.
Varna System in Later Vedic Period
● The Later Vedic Society and Civilization
witnessed far-reaching changes in the sphere
of Varna system. The Brahmins and the
36 Master Series : Ancient India
Kshatriyas (warrior class) now enjoyed the
highest privileges in the Later Vedic Society.
The status and power of the Kshatriyas
greatly increased due to constant war with
the non-Aryans. They became masters of
land and leaders of the Later Vedic society.
The Kshatriya kings claimed divine sanction
behind them. The Brahmins and the Kshatriyas
jointly governed the Later Vedic Society.
The Brahmins assumed highest privileges.
Assumption of power and prestige by the
Brahmins was on the account of growing cult
of sacrifices and rituals. Vaishyas who were
engaged in agriculture and trade were looked
as inferior class during the period of Later
Vedic Society. They lost their earlier status in
the society. From time to time the Vaishyas
organized themselves into guilds to protect
their eroding rights and status.
● Professions were not strictly hereditary. But
there is a marked tendency to maintain the
purity of descent. Hereditary caste was well
now the rule. The term “Varna” was now
used in the sense of caste, not in the sense
of colour during this period.
● The concept of untouchability was germinating in the Later Vedic Society.
Position of Women in Later Vedic
Period
● As regards the condition of women in the
Later Vedic Age, we find that the high position
occupied by them in the Age of the Rig Veda
was no longer prevalent in this age. They lost
their right of Upanayana Sanskar and the
right to perform religious rites and the
right to join in political affairs. The position
of women was degrading and evil practices
such as dowry came into practice. Women
also lost their political rights of attending
assemblies. Child marriages had become
common. According the Aitreya Brahmana
a daughter has been described as a source
of misery. However, the women in the royal
household enjoyed certain privileges. They
lost their right to property and could not own
any property.
Forms of Marriage in Later Vedic Period
Marriage Type
Brahma Vivah
Daiva Vivah
Arsa Vivah
Prajapati Vivah
Gandharva Vivah
Asura Vivah
Paisach Vivah
Rakshasha Vivah
Description
Marriage of a girl with the boy
of same Varna with Vedic rites
and rituals
When father donated his daughter
to a priest as a part of Dakshina.
A token bride-price of a Cow and
a Bull was given
Marriage without dowry
It was a kind of love marriage or
swyamavara type
Marriage by Purchase
Seduction of a girl while sleeping
or mentally unstable due to a
drink.
Marriage by abduction
● Though we hear the names of Gargi and
Maitreyi whose scholarship was recognized by
the society as whole women lost their earlier
status, political and economic rights and
were deprived from inheritance to properties.
The marriage rules became discriminating
towards the bride. The women lost their
earlier freedom and equality which they
enjoyed in domestic life. Polygamy became
more prevalent. Polyandry also appeared in
a restricted way.
Later Vedic Polity
● A more complex political development surfaced during the Later Vedic period. Many
Jana or tribes were amalgamated to form
Janapadas or Rashtras. Hence the royal
power had increased along with the increase
in size of the kingdom. The king performed
various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his
position. These include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice)
and Vajpeya (chariot race for kingship). The
kings also assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan,
Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat
and Samrat (sole ruler). Divine attributes
were given to the King.
● In the later Vedic period, rudimentary system
of modern administration germinated, a large
number of new officials were involved in
the administration in addition to the existing
purohita, senani and gramani. They include
The Vedic Age 37
the treasury officer, tax collector, royal
messenger, Bhagaduha, Sangrihtri and
Akshvapa. This also gave rise to rudimentary
form of taxation system. At the lower levels,
the administration was carried on by the
village assemblies. The importance of the
Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during
the later Vedic period.
● The formulae for sacrifices were invented and
elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore,
towards the end of this period there was a
strong reaction against priestly domination
and against sacrifices and rituals. The rise of
Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of
these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of
the Upanishads turned away from these heavy
rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana)
for peace and salvation.
Later Vedic Religion
● The age marks the rise of new Gods into
prominence – Vishnu, Rudra, Prajapati. Older
gods of Rig Vedic times like Indra, Varuna
lost much of their importance.
● Sacrifice became more elaborate and complex,
gained the pre-eminence over prayers. Due to
these sacrificial tendencies the importance and
prestige of priestly class increased greatly.
● New Philosophical concepts emerged, such
as, Metaphysics, Samsara, and Karma. There
was growth of pessimistic ideas leading to
philosophical speculation, meditation, penance
and ascetism.
● It also marked a beginning in the rise of
Upanishadic thoughts – concept of Brahm,
salvation by means of knowledge and realisation.
38 Master Series : Ancient India
Ancient India Master Exercise
3
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
2.
3.
4.
Which of the following statements are True about
Vedic corpus?
1. Each Veda has a Brahmana appended to it.
2. Brahmana explains the mantras and rituals
for the performance of Vedic sacrifices.
3. Aranyaka contains the mystical teachings
meant for meditation in forests.
4. Upanishads describe the category of priests
suitable for each sacrifice and an elaborate
list of precautions he must take.
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 2 and 3
Which among the following holds true for Rig
Vedic society?
1. Trade was not a substantial part of the
economy.
2. Yajna and sacrifices were largely the
methods of worship.
3. It was largely a tribal society.
4. The coinage system was not known to them.
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
(a) The Sutras were compiled to serve as aids to
memorize teacher’s explanations.
(b) Each of the Veda has a Sutra literature of its
own.
(c) Both of the above
(d) None of the above
Which one of the following usages was a postVedic development?
(a) Dharma-Artha-Kama-Moksha
(b) Brahmana-Kshatriya-Vaishya-Shudra
(c) Brahmacharya-Grihasthashrama-Vanaprastha
-Sanyasa
(d) Indra-Surya-Rudra-Marut
5.
The term ‘nishka’ which meant an ornament in the
Vedic period was used in later times to denote:
(a) Weapon
(b) Agricultural implement
(c) Script
(d) Coin
Subjective type questions for Main
Examination
Why do the historians generally consider
the Harappan civilization and Vedic culture
representing two different societies?
2. Bring out the elements of continuity and change
between Early Vedic and Later Vedic cultures.
3. Throw light on the democratic elements of
political life in Vedic age.
4. Discuss the position of women during the Vedic
age.
5. Varna system leads to genesis of Caste system in
India. Comment.
6. Give a detailed description of Vedic Literature.
7. The Vedic Literatures is the primary source to
recreate the history, polity, society, economy and
religion of the Rig Vedic people. Elucidate.
8. Underline the changes in Society and Economy
that underwent from Rig Vedic to Later Vedic
period.
9. The position of Women in the Vedic age was
exactly on par with men and they enjoyed equal
social and ritual rights. Examine.
10. Underline the features of the Varna system in
the Vedic age and discuss the reasons behind the
changes in Varna system from Rig Vedic to post
Vedic age.
11. The Vedic religion was pagan in rituals and
doctrines. However, one cannot rule out the
undercurrents of the monotheism present during
the time. Comment.
1.
Answers to MCQs
1.
(b) 2.
(a)
3.
(a)
4.
(c)
5.
(d)
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 39
ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 4
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha
EMPIRE
The Magadha is considered as one of sixteen Mahajanapadas of the Ancient India.
The Age of “Mahajanpadas”
2. Kosala
Mahajanapadas literally mean “Great Kingdoms”.
Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttra Nikaya (which is
a part of Sutta Pitaka) and Jainism text Bhagvati Sutra
make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and
republics (the 16 Mahajanapadas) which had evolved
and flourished in the northern and north western part
of Indian subcontinent. These 16 territories were called
as Shodasha Mahajanapads.
3. Anga
Imperialistic outlook of rulers had resulted in
territorial expansion as a result of which Janapadas
of Later Vedic age transformed into Mahajanapadas.
Economic progress created a solid material base for
emergence of big political entities. Social factors
like growth in population also contributed to rise
of Mahajanapadas, as size of settlements increased.
Most of Mahajanapadas were monarchical in
character, only Malla and Vajji were republicans,
in which the Head of state was elected one.
There were sixteen of such Mahajanapadas: Kasi,
Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa,
Kuru, Panchala, Machcha, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti,
Gandhara and Kamboja.
1. Kasi
● Kasi is the region around modern Varanasi. It
has a predominant position among the sixteen
Mahajanapadas. Matsya Purana and Alberuni
talk immensely about Kasi read as Kausika
and Kaushika there. Also we come to know
much about Kasi from the folklores of the
Jatakas.
● Kosala comprises of Shravasti, Kushavati,
Saket and Ayodhya. Also it constituted of the
modern regions of Oudh (Awadh), now Uttar
Pradesh. Ayodhya was under the control of
the Kosala king Prosenjit. A neighboring state
was the famous Magadha.
● Anga was one of the earliest of all. This was
centred around the Gangetic plains. This state
was known by various names such as Malini,
Champapuri, Kala malini, Champa malini,
etc. It was in the Atharva Veda that the Angas
were first mentioned.
4. Magadha
● Magadha was a powerful kingdom and was
run by Bimbisara and Ajatshatru, his son. As
per the Vedas, Magadha is the 'semi Brahman'
state. In the later Vedic scriptures and texts it
was referred to as Kikata. Also it is popular
by various names as Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, etc.
5. Vajji
● Vajji comprised of many different social
groups and villages. It was a confederation
of many clans such as the Licchavis, the
Vedehans, the Jnatrikas and most importantly the Vajjis. Its capital was located at
Vaishali.
40 Master Series : Ancient India
6. Malla
● Malla has been mentioned in the Buddhist and
the Jain works. It existed in a republic of nine
territories. The Mallas were known for their
bravery and warlike temperament. They were
conquered by Magadha after Buddha's death.
7. Chedis
● Chedis people existed on the southern part of
the Yamuna River. The capital of Chedis was
Suktimati and the Rigveda gives details of this
Mahajanapada. It was ruled by Sisupala and
it was in this city where the Pandavas (from
Mahabharata) chose to spend the thirteenth
year of their exile.
8. Vatsa
● Vatsa or also Vamsa followed a monarchial
form of government. The capital of this
Mahajanapada was located at Kausambi. It
became a hub of all the economical activities,
business and trade.
9. Kuru
● Kurus basically belonged to the Puru-Bharata
family. These were the people who originated
from Kurukshetra. They are believed to have
shifted to the republic form of government in
the fifth or the sixth century BCE.
13. Assaka
● Assaka, also known as Ashmaka, this was
situated in the southern part of the country.
Its capital was located at Potali.
14. Avanti
● Avanti lay in the western India. This kingdom
nurtured Buddhism immensely. Its capital
was known as Ujjaini. Initially its capital
was Mahissati which later was integrated into
Ujjaini. Avanti later dissolved in the Magadha
Empire.
15. Gandhara
● Gandhara comprised of the Gandharas who
were believed to be excellently trained in the
art of war and have been mentioned in the
Atharva Veda. The Gandhara are included in
the Uttarapatha by the Puranic and Buddhist
traditions.
16. Kamboja
● Kamboja was believed to have consisted of
the areas around the Hindukush. It is mentioned in the great epic Mahabharata in many
excerpts.
10. Panchala
● Panchala was divided into two parts: Uttara
Panchala and Dakhsina Panchala with Chhatravati and Kampilya there capitals respectively.
11. Machcha
● Machcha was located to the south of Kuru
and west to the river of Yamuna. As per the
Pali literature the Machchas are generally
linked with the Surasena. Its capital was
Viratanagara.
12. Surasena
● Surasena as witnessed great metamorphism
in religion. Their capital was at Mathura.
Earlier Lord Krishna was worshipped here,
later the disciples of Buddha took over this
Mahajanapada.
Fig. 4.1. The 16 Mahajanpadas of Ancient India
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 41
Rise of Magadha
● Magadha was one of the 16 Mahajanapadas,
in 4th Century BC. It got transformed into a
great empire. The rise of Magadha Empire
was the outcome of long process of gradual
evolution going on since 2nd millennium BC
(with Aryans). There were Janas during Vedic
age,which transformed into Mahajanapadas
and this process leads to rise of the Magadha
Empire.
Why and How Magadha Rose?
● Magadha was located in the heart of extensive
alluvial fertile plains, number of perennial rivers passing through Magadha; Magadha climate
was highly conducive to agriculture. That’s why
Magadha agriculture was the most advanced
one, and the rulers had huge resources.
● Arts and Crafts were highly developed in
Magadha region because of local availability
of iron and other mineral resources. The
abundant natural resources in the form of Iron
also helped them in weapon-making.
● Magadha trade and commerce was also
highly developed because most important
trade routes of India such as Uttar Patha was
passing through Magadha.
● Magadhan capital enjoys natural defense
as Rajgir (earlier capital) was surrounded
by 5 hills and Patliputra (later capital) was
surrounded by 3 rivers because of which
Magadhan rulers need not to worry about
safety of their capital. Hence they could
concentrate on territorial expansion.
● Elephants were found only in forests of
eastern India and Magadhan rulers could use
powerful elephant force.
● Magadha was lucky enough to have many
powerful and ambitious rulers.They had
strong standing armies and the availability
of iron enabled them to develop advanced
weaponry. These major kings also developed
a good administrative system.
● Magadhan society was unorthodox and liberal
in nature. It had a good mix of Aryan and
non-Aryan peoples. Society was not so much
dominated by the Brahmanas and many kings
of Magadha were of ‘low’ in origin.
Haryanka Dynasty
A. Bimbisara (558BC–491BC)
● The first dynasty ever ruled Magadha was
Haryanka dynasty. Bimbisara ruled over
Magadha from 544 BC to 493 BC. He was
contemporary and follower of the Buddha and
he was also said to be an admirer of Mahavira.
● He located his capital at Girivraja (Rajgir).
He was the first king to have a standing army.
He started the practice of using matrimonial
alliances to strengthen his political position.
● He had three wives: Kosaladevi (King of
Kosala’s daughter and the sister of Prasanjit),
Chellana (daughter of the Lichchavi chief of
Vaishali) and Khema (daughter of the king
of Modra, Punjab).
● He followed a policy of conquest and
expansion. He captured Anga which was
situated in the east of Magadha.He had an
effective and excellent administrative system.
The officers occupying high posts were divided
into three – executive, military and judicial.
B. Ajatshatru (492 BC–460 BC)
● He was the son of Bimbisara and Chellana. He
killed his father and became the ruler.He was
the inventor of two weapons used in war called
Rathamusala (blade chariot) and Mahshilakantaka
(engine for ejecting big stones).
● He embraced Buddhism and patronized the first
Buddhist council at Rajgir just after the death
of Buddha in 483 BC. He fought war against
Kosala, defeated Prasanjit and compelled him
to marry his daughter. He defeated republic
Mahajanpad Vaishali in the span of 16 years.
He built Dhatu Chaityas around his capital.
C. Udayin
● He was the son of Ajatshatru and last ruler
of Haryanka dynasty.
Sisunaga Dynasty
A. Sisunaga
● He was the viceroy of Kasi before becoming
king of Magadha. His capital was at Girivaraja
but later shifted the capital to Vaishali. His
biggest achievement was the destruction of
42 Master Series : Ancient India
power of Avanti with its capital at Ujjain and
brought an end to the long rivalry between
Magadha and Avanti.
B. Kalasoka
● He was the son of Sisunaga. He conducted the
Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali which
was presided by Sabakami. He was killed in
a palace revolution that brought the Nanda
dynasty to the throne.
Nanda Dynasty
● This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty
and most powerful dynasty that ruled over
Magadha. The first ruler was Mahapadma
Nanda who usurped the throne of Kalasoka.
A. Mahapadma Nanda
● He is called the “first historical emperor of
India”. His origins are not clear. As per the
Puranas, he was the son of the last Sisunaga
king from a Sudra woman. As per some Jain
texts and Greek writer Curtius, he was the son
of a barber and a courtesan. His reign lasted
for twenty eight years from 367 BC to 338 BC.
● He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka”
(destroyer of all the kshatriyas) and “Ekrat”.
The empire grew under his reign. It ran from
the Kuru country in the north to the Godavari
Valley in the south and from Magadha in the
east to Narmada on the west. He conquered
many kingdoms including Kalinga.
B. Dhana Nanda
● He was the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty.
Alexander invaded North-Western India
during his reign; but he could not proceed
towards the Gangetic plains because of his
army’s refusal. He inherited a huge empire
from his father. He possessed a standing army
of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 3000
elephants and 2000 chariots. Hence, he was
a powerful ruler.
● He became unpopular with his subjects owing
to an oppressive way of collection of taxes.
Also, his Sudra origins and an anti-Kshatriya
policy led to a large number of enemies.
Finally he was overthrown by Chandragupta
Maurya under the guidance of Chanakya in
321 BC, which led to the foundations of the
Mauryan Empire in Magadha.
Mauryan Empire
Chandragupta Maurya
● With the help of an intelligent and politically
astute Brahmin, Chanakya, Chandragupta
usurped the throne by defeating Dhana Nanda
in 321 BC. Greek accounts mention him as
“Sandrokotus”. Chanakya wrote Arthashastra
which is a book on statecraft, economics, and
military strategy.
● Alexander had abandoned India’s conquest
in 324 BC and within a year, Chandragupta
had defeated some of the Greek-ruled cities in
the north-western part of the country. Under
the Kautilya’s strategy, Chandragupta Maurya
raised a mercenary army of their own.Then,
they moved eastward into Magadha.
● In 305 BC, he entered into a treaty with
Selucus Nicator (a general of Alexander
who ruled over northwest India) in which
Chandragupta acquired Baluchistan, eastern
Afghanistan and the region to the west of Indus.
He also married Selucus Nicator’s daughter
Helena. In return, Selucus Nicator got 500
elephants. Selucus Nicator avoided a war with
the mighty Chandragupta. Megasthenes was the
Greek ambassador at Chandragupta’s court.
● Chandragupta led a policy of expansion and
brought under his control almost the whole
of present India except of few places like
Kalinga and the extreme South.His reign
lasted from 321 BC to 297 BC.
● He abdicated the throne in favour of his
son; Bindusara went to Karnataka with Jain
monk Bhadrabahu. He had embraced Jainism
and is said to have starved himself to death
(which is called Santhara) according to the
Jain tradition at Shravanabelagola.
Bindusara
● He was the son of Chandragupta Maurya.
He ruled from 297 BC to 273 BC. He was
called as Amitraghata (Slayer of Foes) or
Amitrochates in Greek sources. He was
known as the king of two oceans.
● Deimachus was a Greek ambassador at
his court. Greek sources tells that Bindusara
asked the Syrian-King Antiochus I (of Syria)
“to send him sweet wine, dried figs and a
philosopher”. But, the Syrian King replied "we
shall send you figs and wine, but the Greece
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 43
laws forbid a philosopher to be sold”. He had
appointed his son, Ashoka as the governor of
Ujjain and elder son Susima as the governor
of Taxila. The first ever revolt that erupted at
Taxila, was suppressed by Ashoka. Bindusara
is believed to have extended the Mauryan
Empire to Mysore as well.
Ashoka – The Great
● He was the first great emperor of not only
India, but of the whole world. Even today, no
ruler of the world anywhere near his persona.
He was not the eldest son of Bindusara
and hence, Susima is to be crowned as the
next king but in the war of succession that
followed after Bindusara’s death in 272 BC,
Ashoka emerged victorious, aided by his
father’s ministers. The name of his mother
was Subhadrangi or Janpad Kalyani. He was
the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. He was
the first king who left his records engraved on the
stones and pillars like Darius I, the King of Iran.
● His other names were Devanampiya (Sanskrit
Devanampriya meaning Beloved of the Gods)
and Piyadasi. He was the first Chakarvarti
ruler. At its zenith, Ashoka’s empire stretched
from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh
in the east. It covered almost the whole Indian
subcontinent except present day Kerala and
Tamil Nadu, and modern-day Sri Lanka. His
capital was at Pataliputra (Patna) and had
provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.
● In the ninth year of his rule he waged a war
with Kalinga in 261 BC, in which more than
hundred thousand people were killed in the
war. The horrors of war disturbed him so
much that he decided to shun violence for
the rest of his life and turned to Buddhism.
Ashoka’s 13th Rock Edict describes the
horrors of Kalinga war.
● He now became Dharmashoka (the pious
Ashoka) from Chandashoka and he adopted
the policy of Dhamma, abjuring Bherighosa
policy for the whole life.
● In about 263 BC Ashoka converted to
Buddhism. Ashoka even conducted the
third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra under
Moggaliputta Tissa’s presidency. He became
the first king to sent missionaries abroad for
the spread of Buddhism. He sent his son
(Mahendra) and daughter (Sanghamitra) to
Ceylon to propagate Buddhism.
● Most of his edicts are written in Pali and
Prakrit in Brahmi script. Some are written
in the Kharoshti and Aramaic scripts also.
There are some edicts written in Greek as
well. The language depends on the location
of the pillar. He erected pillars and edicts all
over the subcontinent and even in modern-day
Afghanistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan
to spread the Buddha’s teachings. James Princep
in 1837 deciphered the Ashoka’s edicts.
● These inscriptions were kept in public places
and along trade routes so that maximum
number of people would read them. More
than religious discourses, they talked about
moral duties of the people, duties of king, how
to conduct life, Ashoka’s desire to be a good
and benevolent ruler and about Ashoka’s work.
Inscriptions are in the form of Rock edicts and
Pillar edicts. However Rock edicts further divided
into major and minor, depending on the content.
Major Rock Edicts
Major Rock edict 7 & 12 Talks about religious tolerance
Major Rock edict 2 Talks about the south India
kingdoms
Major Rock edict 13 Talks about Kalinga war.
Minor rock edicts Minor rock edicts are found on 15
rocks across the country and in Afghanistan also.
Ashoka uses his name only in four of these places
namely, Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP)
and Nettur (AP). After reading these inscriptions we
came to know that Devnampiya is Ashoka.
Pillar edicts There are seven pillar edicts.
Two types of stones are used in the Pillars Spotted
white sandstone (from Mathura) and buff coloured
sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati). All the
pillars are monoliths (carved out of from stone).
They have been found from different places like Kandhar
(Afghanistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar),
Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati
(Andhra Pradesh), and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).
● Fragments of the same edict are found in different
places.
● Many pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh
as much as 50 tons.
● The pillars depict animals like lions, elephants, and
lotus and wheel which are all important symbols in
Buddha’s life.
Pillar edict 5 Mentions the list of birds and animals
that should not be killed, even in the royal kitchen.
Pillar edict 7 Mentions the Ashoka’s work for
fulfilling Dhamma and tolerance for all sects.
44 Master Series : Ancient India
Mauryan Administration
● The Arthashastra written by Kautilya, aslo
called Chanakya, contains the detailed
description about the administrative system
of the Mauryan Empire. Kautilya was the
Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya.
He was considered as the real architect of the
Mauryan Empire.
The Arthashastra
The Arthashastra is the most important and authoritative
source to the history of the Mauryas and is divided
into 15 Adhikarnas or sections and 180 Prakaranas or
subdivisions. It has about 6,000 slokas.
It is a treatise on statecraft and public administration.
Despite the controversy over its date and authorship,
its importance lies in the fact that it gives a clear and
methodological analysis of economic and political
conditions of the Mauryan period.
● The similarities between the administrative
terms used in the Arthashastra and in the
Asokan edicts certainly suggests that the
Mauryan rulers were acquainted with this
work. Arthashastra provides useful and
reliable information regarding the social and
political conditions as well as the Mauryan
administration.
● Megasthenese came in the court of
Chandragupta Maurya as an ambassador
of the Seleucus (the king of Greek).
Megasthenese has given detailed accounts
of India and Indian people in his book
‘Indica’. Though, the original book is lost;
however, historians extracted Megasthenese’s
description through the quotations in the
works about the later Greek writers.
● The Indica of Megasthenes gives a vivid
description of the Mauryan society under
the rule of Chandragupta. Megasthenes
described the glory of the Mauryan capital of
Pataliputra. He also talked about the lifestyle
in the cities and villages and the prosperity
of the Mauryan cities.
● The inscriptions of the great Ashoka are
the most important and authentic source for
the history of Mauryan period.The Mauryan
Empire had an efficient and centralised
administrative system.
● Inscriptions of Ashoka found at Girnar hills
in Junagarh district in Gujarat and at
Sopara, in Thane district in Maharashtra
reflect that these areas were under the rule
of Mauryan Empire. In south India, Ashoka's
inscriptions have been found at Maski,
Yerragudi, and Chitaldurga in Karnataka.
Rock Edict II and XIII of Ashoka explain
that Chandragupta’s immediate neighboring
states (in the south) were Cholas, Pandyas,
Satyaputras, and Keralaputras.
Mauryan Central Government
● Mauryan administration was highly centralised one. The king had the supreme
power and source of all authority.He was
assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was
called ‘Mantriparishad’. The ministers were
called ‘Mantris.’ The council was headed
by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ akin to the
Prime Minister of today.
● The king was the head of the state. The king
used to issue ordinances known as ‘Sasana.’
He possessed the judicial, the legislative, and
the executive powers.Sasanas are available in
the form of ‘Edicts of Ashoka’.
● The Mauryas king had to follow the law
of the country given by law givers and had
to govern according to the customs of the
land. He could not do whatever he liked.The
civil courts were called ‘Dharmasthiya’ and
criminal courts were called ‘Kantakshodhana’.
● The Mauryan Empire was divided into
provinces. Pradeshikas was another officer
of the Mauryan administration. He was the
provincial governor.
● Bindusara appointed his son Ashoka as
Governor of the Avanti region and posted
him at Ujjain.Asoka’s elder brother Susima
was posted at Taxila as the Governor of
the northwestern provinces. The important
provinces were directly under Kumaras
(Princes); however, the total number of
provinces is not known.
● Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman
mentions that Saurashtra (Kathiawar) was
governed by Vaisya Pushyagupta at the time
of Chandragupta Maurya and by Yavana-raia
Tushaspa at the time of Ashoka, both were
the provincial governors.
● The Mauryan kingdom was divided into
different provinces, which were subdivided
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 45
into the districts and each district was further
divided into groups of five to ten villages.
Officials in Mauryan Kingdom
● Tirthas: Highest category of officials in the administration. There were 18 Tirthas.
● Adhyakshya: Ranked next only to Tirthas. There
were 20 Adhyakshyas. They had economic and
military functions.
● Mahamattas: Higher ranking officials.
● Amatyas: High ranking officials almost like
present-day secretaries. They had administrative and
judicial roles.
The Adhyakshyas were formed into a secretariat,
which was divided into many departments.Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyas for commerce,
store houses, gold, ships, agriculture, cows, horses,
city, chariots, mint, infantry, etc.
The Arthashastra mentions the highest salary being
48,000 Panas and the lowest 60 Panas. There was
a wide range of scales in salary.
● Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the
king’s revenue.
● Rajjukas: Officers in charge of land measurement
and boundary-fixing.They were also given power to
punish the guilty and set free the innocents.
● Sansthadhyasksha: Superintendent of mint
● Samasthadhyasksha: Superintendent of markets
● Sulkaadhyaksha: Superintendent of tolls
● Sitaadhyaksha: Superintendent of agriculture
● Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships
● Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of iron
● Pauthavadhyakhsa: Superintendent of weights and
measures
● Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines
● Vyavharika Mahamatta: Judiciary officers
● Pulisanj: Public relations officers
Registration of births and deaths, foreigners, industries,
trade, manufacture and sale of goods, sales tax collection were under the administration’s control.
Local Administration During
Mauryan Period
Head of a village was known as Gramika.
The villages, during this time, enjoyed substantial
autonomy. Most of the disputes of the village were
settled by Gramika with the help of village assembly.
It was the smallest unit of Mauryan administration.
Some Important Posts of Mauryan
Kingdom
● Pradeshika: He was the provincial governors or
district magistrates.He used to tour the entire district
every five years to inspect the administration of
areas under his control. A group of officials worked
in each district under him.
● Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas.
● Durgapala: Governors of forts.
● Antapala: Governors of frontiers.
● Akshapatala: Accountant General
● Lipikaras: Scribes
City Administration During Mauryan
Period
● The Arthashashtra has a full chapter on the
administration of cities.
● The Edicts of Ashoka also describe name of the
cities such as Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali,
Suvarnagiri, Samapa, Isila, and Kausambi.
● Megasthenese had described the administration
of Pataliputra in detail.Megasthenese described
that Pataliputra city was administered by a
city council comprising 30 members. These
30 members were divided into a board of 5
members each.
● Each of the 5 member boards had specific
responsibilities towards the administration of
the city. For example
1. One such board was concerned with the
industrial and artistic produce. Its duties
included fixing of wages, and to check
the adulteration, etc.
2. The second board dealt with the affairs
of the visitors, especially foreigners who
used to come to Pataliputra.
3. The third board was concerned with the
registration of birth and death.
4. The fourth board regulated trade and commerce, kept a vigil on the manufactured
goods and sales of commodities.
5. The fifth board was responsible for the
supervision of manufacturing of goods.
6. The sixth board collected taxes as per the
value of sold goods.
● The tax was normally one-tenth of the sold
goods. Officers were appointed by the ‘City
46 Master Series : Ancient India
council’ and were accountable for the public
welfare such as maintenance and repairs of
roads, markets, hospitals, temples, educational institutions, sanitation, water supplies,
harbors, etc.
Nagaraka was the officer in-charge of the city. There
were numerous departments that regulated and controlled
the activities of the state. Kautilya mentions several
important departments such as accounts, revenue, mines
and minerals, chariots, customs, and taxation.
Other Important Aspects of
Mauryan Kingdom
Military
● The commander-in-chief of the entire military
was called Senapati and his position was next
to the king. He was appointed by the king.
The military was divided into five sectors
namely, infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant
forces, navy and transport & provisions.The
army’s salary was paid in cash.
Revenue
● The revenue department chief was called
Samharta. Another important official was
Sannidhata (treasurer).
● Revenue was collected on land, irrigation,
shops, customs, forests, ferry, mines and
pastures. License fees were collected from
artisans and fines were charged in the law
courts. Most of the land revenue was onesixth of the produce.
Police
● All the main centres had police headquarters.
Jail was called Bandhangara and lock-up was
known as Charaka.
Espionage
● The espionage system of the Mauryas
was well-developed.There were spies who
informed the king about the bureaucracy and
markets.
● There were two types of spies: Sansthana
(stationary) and Sanchari (wanderer).
Gudhapurushas were the detectives or secret
agents.
● They
were
controlled
by
the
Mahamatyapasarpa. These agents were
picked from different segments of society.
There were also agents called Vishakanyas
(poisonous girls).
Transport
● The transport department fixed the width of
the chariots, cattle tracks and pedestrians.
Ashoka's Dhamma
● Ashoka's personal religion was Buddhism.
In Bhabru rock edict, he says that he had
full faith in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha.
Ashoka accepted Buddhism as his main faith,
but he never forced Buddhist ideals on his
subjects.
● Ashoka believed in unity among ethical and
moral values of all sects. He showed great
respect to all sects and faiths. In Rock Edict
XII Ashoka says, “I honour all sects and
both ascetics and laymen, with gifts and
various forms of recognition”. He pronounced
his policy of equal respect to all religious
sects very clearly. After the Kalinga War,
the propagation of Dhamma became the
utmost objective for Ashoka.
● Ashoka's edicts explained Dhamma as a
'Moral Law', a 'Common Code of Conduct,’
or an 'Ethical Order'. Further, he says that it
is not a religion or a religious system.In Pillar
Edict II, Ashoka puts a question to himself:
“What is Dhamma?” Then he mentioned the
two basic constituents of Dhamma as less evil
and many good deeds. Ashoka explains evils
as rage, cruelty, anger, pride, and envy that
are to be avoided.
● Ashoka explains many good deeds as kindness,
liberty, truthfulness, gentleness, self-control,
purity of heart, attachment to morality, inner
and outer purity. These good qualities are to
be pursued ardently.
Ashoka, in his Rock Edict XII, prescribes the some
codes to be followed.
1. Obedience to mother and father, elders, teachers
and other respectable persons.
2. Respect towards teachers.
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 47
3. Proper treatment towards ascetics, relations,
slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and
miserable, friends, acquaintances, and companions.
4. Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades,
relatives, and the aged.
5. Abstention from killing of living beings.
6. Non-injury to all living creatures.
7. Spending little and accumulating little wealth.
8. Mildness in a case of all living creatures.
9. Truthfulness.
10. Attachment to morality.
11. Purity of the heart.
Dhamma – A Code of Moral and
Virtuous Life
Dhamma is a code for moral and virtuous life. It never
discussed god or soul or religion.Ashoka implanted a
moral law i.e. Dhamma as the governing principle
in every sphere of life. Ashoka practiced all these
principles of Dhamma and asked his countrymen to
1. have control over their passion;
2. cultivate purity of life and character in innermost
thoughts;
3. learn other religions;
4. abstain from killing or injuring animals;
5. have regard for them;
6. be charitable to all;
7. be respectful to parents, teachers, relatives, friends,
and ascetics;
8. treat slaves and servant kindly; and
9. tell the truth.
● Ashoka not only preached, but had actually
practiced his dhamma principles. He gave
up hunting and killing of animals.Ashoka
made liberal donations to the Brahmans and
ascetics of different religious sects.Ashoka
established hospitals for humans and animals
and constructed rest-houses. He also ordered
wells to be dug and trees to be planted along
the roads for welfare of the people.
● Ashoka adopted Buddhism after observing
the brutality of the Kalinga war.Nonviolence and non-injury to living beings
is the cardinal doctrines of Buddhism.
Ashoka appointed a special class of officials
called ‘Dharmamahamatras’ whose sole
responsibility was to propagate Dhamma
among the people.
● Ashoka conducted ‘Dharmayatras’ (religious
journey) and instructed his officials to do
the same.To propagate Dhamma, he sends
his missionaries to western Asia, Egypt, and
Eastern Europe. Some of the foreign kings
from whom Ashoka received the message of
Buddhism were:
1. Antiochus Theos of Syria
2. Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt
3. Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia
4. Megas of Cyrene
5. Alexander of Epirus
● Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to propagate Buddhism in
Sri Lanka.
Classes of Society
Megasthenese mentioned that during this period, the
society was comprising seven castes, namely
1. Philosophers
2. Farmers
3. Soldiers
4. Herdsmen
5. Artisans
6. Magistrates and
7. Councilors.
● Megasthenese, however, failed to comprehend
the Indian society properly and confused among
the terms Jati, Varna, and the occupation.
● Chaturvarna system continued to govern the
society.
● The urban way of life developed and the
craftsmen enjoyed a high place in the society.
● Teaching continued to be the main job
of the Brahmans.Buddhist monasteries
were developed as important educational
institutions. Taxila, Ujjayini, and Varanasi
were famous educational centers.Technical
education was generally provided through
guilds, where pupils learnt the crafts from
the early age.
● The joint family system was the norm in
the domestic life. A married woman had
48 Master Series : Ancient India
her own property in the form of bride-gift
(stree-dhana). The widows had given respect
in the society. All stree-dhana (bride-gift
and jewelry) belongs to her. Offences against
women were severely dealt with.
● Kautilya also laid down penalties against
officials, in charge of workshops and prisons
who misbehaved with women.Megasthenese
mentioned that slavery did not exist in India.
Mauryan Economy
● Largely, the population was agriculturists and
lived in villages. The state helped people to
bring new areas under cultivation by cleaning
the forest. But certain types of forests were
protected by law.
● A number of crops like rice, coarse grains
(kodrava), sesame, pepper, and saffron,
pulses, wheat, linseed, mustard, vegetable and
fruits of various kinds and sugarcane were
grown.
● The state also owned agricultural farms, cattle
farms, dairy farms, etc.Water reservoirs and
dams were built by the state for irrigation.
Steps were taken to distribute and measure
this water for irrigation.
● The Mauryans enforced the rules and
regulations in respect of agriculture, industry,
commerce, animal husbandry, etc. Special
measures were undertaken for the promotion of
the economy gave great impetus to economic
development during this period.Megasthenese
mentioned about the extraordinary skill of
craftsmen.
● Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman mentions
that Pushyagupta (Chandragupta's governors)
was responsible for building a dam on
Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawad.
Skandagupta’s inscription of the later period
mentioned that the dam (on Sudarshana Lake)
was repaired during his reign, almost 800
years after its construction.
● Mauryans had extensive foreign trade with the
western countries. The main items of trade
were indigo, various medicinal substances,
cotton, and silk. The foreign trade was carried
on by the land as well as by the sea.
● Special arrangements were made for
facilitation of the trade like security of traderoutes, provisions of warehouses, go-downs,
and other means of transport.
● The trade was regulated by the state and the
trader had to get a license to trade.The state
also had the machinery to control and regulate
the weights and measures.
● The land tax was one-fourth to one-sixth of
the produce. The tax was also levied on all
the manufactured goods.
● The toll tax was levied on all items, which
were brought for sale in the market.Strabo
mentions that craftsmen, herdsmen, traders,
and farmers, all paid taxes. Those who could
not pay the tax in cash or kind were to
contribute their dues in the form of labor.
● Revenue was that main subject of
Arthashashtra. It describes revenue at great
length.Sources of revenue were increased
from the income of mines, forests, pasture
lands, trade, forts, etc. The income from the
king's own land or estate was known as
‘sita.’ Brahmans, children, and handicapped
people were exempted from paying the taxes.
● Tax evasion was considered a very serious
crime and offenders were severely punished.
The artisans and craftsmen were given special
protection by the state and offences against
them were severely punished.
● The main industries during this period were
textile, mining and metallurgy, ship-building,
jewelry making, metal working, pot making,
etc.The industries were organized in various
guilds. Jesthaka was the chief of a guild. The
guilds were powerful institutions. It gave
craftsmen great support and protection.The
guilds settled the disputes of their members.
A few guilds issued their own coins.
● The Sanchi Stupa inscription mentions that
one of the carved gateways was donated by
the guilds of ivory workers.Similarly, the
Nasik cave inscription mentions that two
weaver's guilds gave permanent endowments
for the maintenance of a temple.The guilds
also made donations to educational institutions
and learned Brahmans.
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 49
Art and Architecture During
Mauryan Period
● Art and architecture had developed
substantially during the Mauryan period.
The main examples of the Mauryan art and
architecture are:
1. Remains of the royal palace and the city
of Pataliputra;
2. Ashokan pillars and capitals;
3. Rock cut Chaitya caves in the Barabar and
Nagarjuni hills; and
4. Individual Mauryan sculptures and
terracotta figurines; etc.
● Megasthenese had described in details about
the famous city of Pataliputra (the modern
Patna). He describes it stretched along the
river Ganga in the form of a parallelogram.
It was enclosed by a wooden wall and had
64 gates.Excavations have brought to light
remains of palaces and the wooden palisade.
● The Mauryan wooden palace survived for
about 700 years.Fa-Hien also saw it at the
end of the 4th century A.D. The palace and
also the wooden palisade had been destroyed
by the fire. The burnt wooden structure and
ashes have been found from Kumrahar.
● Seven rock-cut caves in the Barabar and
Nagarjuni hills were built during this period.
● The inscription says that after having received
his training in writing, mathematics, law, and
finance, Kharavela ascended the throne of
Kalinga in his 24th year.Kharavela spent the
first year in rebuilding the capital of Kalinga.
Kharavela invaded the kingdom of Magadha
in the 8th and 12th years of his reign.The
inscription mentions the achievements of
Kharavela only up to the 13th year of his
reign.
Decline of the Mauryas
● After the death of Emperor Ashoka, the
Mauryan Empire collapsed within five
decades. There are many reasons given by
historians for this disintegration of a once
mighty empire. At its zenith, the Mauryan
Empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west
to Bangladesh in the east. It covered almost
the whole Indian subcontinent except present
Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and modern-day Sri
Lanka. A few years after Ashoka’s death, the
weakening of the empire started.The various
reasons for the fall of the Mauryan Empire:
1. The Partition of the Empire
● After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan
Empire split into two halves – western and
eastern parts.This weakened the empire.
● Kalhana, author of the work Rajatarangini
which is an account of Kashmir’s history says
that after Ashoka’s death, his son Jalauka
ruled over Kashmir as an independent ruler.
● This partition resulted in invasions from the
northwest.
2. Highly Centralised Administration
● Historian Romila Thapar is of the view that
the highly centralised administration under
the Mauryas became a problem with the later
Mauryan kings who were not as efficient
administrators as their predecessors.
● Powerful kings like Chandragupta Maurya
and Ashoka could control the administration
well. But weak rulers led to a weakening of
the administration and ultimately led to the
empire’s disintegration.
● Also, the sheer vastness of the Mauryan
Empire meant that there had to be a very
effective ruler at the centre who could keep
coherent all the regions.
● A weakening of the central administration
coupled with a large distance to communicate
also led to the rise of independent kingdoms.
3. Weak Monarchs after Ashoka
● The successors of Ashoka were weak kings
who could not carry the burden of the huge
empire that was bequeathed to them.
● After Ashoka, only six kings could rule over
the kingdom for a mere 52 years.
● The last Maurya king, Brihadratha was
overthrown by his own army commander,
Pushyamitra.
50 Master Series : Ancient India
● Only the first three kings of the Mauryan
Empire were men of exceptional abilities and
character. The later kings were no match in
quality to their illustrious ancestors.
4. Independence of the Provinces
● After Ashoka, under the later kings, the
centre’s hold over the vast empire began to
disintegrate. This led to the emergence to
various kingdoms.
● It is already mentioned that Jalauka ruled over
Kashmir independently.
● Kalinga became independent.
● According to Tibetan sources, Virasena ruled
over Gandhara independently.
● Vidarbha broke away from Magadha. As per
Greek sources, a king named Subhagasena
(Sophagasanus) began to rule over the northwestern provinces independently.
5. Internal Revolt
● During the rule of Brihadratha, there was
an internal revolt led by his army chief
Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185 or 186 BC.
● Bana describes in Harshacharita how Shunga
killed Brihadratha during an army parade.
● This ended the rule of the Mauryas over
Magadha and thence started the Shunga
dynasty’s rule.
6. Foreign Invasions
● During the reign of the first three Mauryan
kings, no foreign power tried to attack India
from the north-west as there was a fear of the
mighty Mauryan army.
● But after Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split
up into two. This led to the Greek king
Antiochus to attack India unsuccessfully.
● But in time, foreign tribes attacked and
established their kingdoms on Indian soil. The
notable ones were the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas
and the Kushanas.
7. Ashoka’s Policies
● Some scholars suggest that Ashoka’s policies
of non-violence and pacifism led to the
weakening of the empire.
● Since he stopped waging wars, foreign powers were once again tempted to attack the
kingdom.
● Also, he gave a lot of importance and efforts
to the propagation of Buddhism.
8. Brahminical Reaction
● According to some historians, the Brahmins
were unhappy with Ashoka’s unabashed
patronage of Buddhism.
● He had banned animal slaughter which was a
sacrifice conducted by the Brahmins.
● But this theory is refuted because many of
Ashoka’s inscriptions talk about respecting
Brahmins.
● Also, Pushyamitra Shunga, a general in the
Mauryan army was a Brahmin which proves
that they had powerful posts under the Mauryas.
Sunga Dynasty
Pushyamitra Sunga
● Pushyamitra Sunga, he was a Brahmin army
chief of Brihadratha, the last king of the
Mauryas. He was the founder of this dynasty.
● During a military parade, while Brihadratha
(Last Mauryan King) was receiving guard of
honour, he killed Brihadratha and established
himself on the throne in 185 or 186 BC. His
capital was at Pataliputra. He successfully
countered attacks from two Bacterian kings
namely, Menander and Demetrius. He also
thwarted an attack from the Kalinga king
Kharavela.He conquered Vidarbha.
● He followed Brahminism. Some accounts
portray him as a persecutor of Buddhists and
a destroyer of stupas but there has been no
authoritative evidence to this claim.During
his reign, the Stupas at Sanchi and Barhut
were renovated. He built the sculptured
stone gateway at Sanchi. Pushyamitra
Sunga patronised the Sanskrit grammarian
Patanjali and he performed Ashvamedha
Yajna for Pushyamita Sunga. According to
the Puranas, his reign lasted for 36 years. He
died in 151 BC.
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 51
Agnimitra
● Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son
Agnimitra, who was the hero of Kalidasa’s
drama “Malvikagnimitram”. His reign
lasted from about 149 BC to 141 BC.
● By this time, Vidarbha broke away from the
empire. His son Vasumitra succeeded him
as king. Puranas talks of ten kings of Sunga
dynasty.
● Vasumitra’s successors are not clearly known.
One of the rulers among the later kings was
Bhagvata, in whose court Heliodorous, The
ambassador of bacterian king Antialkidas
came. Heliodorous and Bhagvata erected the
Besnagar pillar. The last king was Devbhutti.
Effects of Sunga Rule
● Hinduism was revived under the Sungas.
● The caste system was also revived with the
rise of the Brahmanas.
● Another important development during the
Sunga reign was the emergence of various
mixed castes and the integration of
foreigners into Indian society.
● The language of Sanskrit gained more
prominence during this time. Even some
Buddhist works of this time were composed
in Sanskrit.
● The Sungas patronised art and architecture.
There was an increase in the usage of human
figures and symbols in art during this period.
Sunga Art
● Standing sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshis,
discovered from Gwalior and Mathura.
● Dwarfish Yaksha from the Pithalkhora
caves in Central India.
Society in Post-Mauryan Period
● During the post-Mauryan period some
changes took place in the social structure of
the country. In place of four Varnas, some
new mixed Varnas came into existence. Two
factors were responsible for it.
1. First, some foreign elements or invaders
entered India. After sometime they were
absorbed into the vast Hindu society. This
brought important changes to the social
structure.
2. Secondly, some non-Aryan elements like
Lichchavi, Malla, etc adopted Hinduism.
Because of their courage and valor, they
became Kshatriyas.
● But after taking everything in consideration
perhaps it can be said that the appearance of
these new sub-castes made no fundamental
change in the Hindu society. The incorporation
of foreign elements, however, gave new
vigor to Indian civilization and culture. This
is evident in the areas of art, literature and
religion of the period. During this period
women lost many of the privileges which
they enjoy before. In the Dharmasastras
and the Smritisastras, the women were
considered inferior to men.
● Polygamy was practiced then. According
to Greek sources, burning of widow or
sati was in vogue. Smritisastras say that a
woman would always be guided by a male
member of the family – by her father during
her childhood, by husband in the middle ages
and by her son in case she become a widow.
Economy in Post-Mauryan Period
● One of the most important elements in the
society was the village community. To a
certain extent the village community was
independent of outside control as far as its
internal affairs were concerned. In spite
of preponderance of villages, some towns,
big and small, came into existence. The
emergence of towns made some impact on
both the social and economic life.
● Agriculture still played a major role in the
economic life of the people. Abundance of
rainfall ensured production of adequate crops.
Irrigation facilities were also provided.
● From the Junagarh inscription, we come
to know that even the remotes areas of the
Mauryan Empire enjoyed irrigation facilities.
● Trade and commerce thrived in this period.
The unification of a large part of India under
the Mauryas into a closely-knitted empire and
opening of new trade routes led to a great
expansion of both trade and commerce.
Establishment of Indo-Greek rule and the
emergence of Kushan Empire gave new fillip
to these trends.
52 Master Series : Ancient India
● From the Mauryan period state took upon
itself the responsibility of minting coins.
That helped in the development of monetary
economy which promoted trade. At first
copper, silver or lead coins were used.
● Craftsmanship in different spheres like
weaving, metal-working and jeweller, etc.
achieved a high level of proficiency. The
Greek writers praised the extra-ordinary
skill of the Indian craftsmen. Among Indian
industries textile manufacture was the most
important. The finest fabrics were woven
in Bengal, Karnataka, Kasi and Konkan.
Large quantities of fabrics were exported
from India, muslin had a good market in the
Roman Empire.
Kanva Dynasty
Devabhuti was killed by his own minister, Vasudeva
Kanva in around 73 BC. This established the Kanva
dynasty at Magadha from 73 to 28 BC.
Foreign Dynasties
The Indo Greeks or Bacterian
Greeks
● Some important Indo-Greek rulers were
Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides and
Menander. The Indo-Greek kingdom was
ruled by over 30 Greek kings in northwest
and north India from the 2nd century BC to
the beginning of the first century AD. The
kingdom started when Graeco-Bactrian king
Demetrius (son of Euthydemus I) invaded
India around 180 BC. He conquered southern
Afghanistan and parts of Punjab.
● The Indo-Greek kings imbibed Indian culture
very well. Many coins have been unearthed
of these kings and most of the information
we get about them is from these coins. Coins
have been found with Indian and Greek
inscriptions. Many coins have been found
with images of Indian deities also. The
Indo-Greek kings were the first rulers
who issued coins along with the name and
image of king. They were the first rulers
to issue gold coins. They influenced the
Indian Science and Astronomy.
● The civil wars among the many Bactrian kings
after the death of Demetrius facilitated the
independent kingdom of Apollodotus I who,
in this way, can be regarded as the first proper
Indo-Greek king (whose rule was not from
Bactria). His kingdom included Gandhara and
western Punjab. Most of the Indo-Greek kings
were Buddhists and Buddhism flourished
under their rule. Greek influence is mostly
seen in art and sculpture, particularly the
Gandhara School of art which developed
under their patronage.
Menander (165 BC-145 BC)
● He ruled from his capital Sakala (modern
Sialkot) in Pakistan. His empire extended
from Kabul river valley in the west to
the Ravi River in the east; and from Swat
valley in the north to Arachosia (Helmand
in Afghanistan). Milindpanho is a book
which contains the questions of king
Menander and answers of Buddhist
monk Nagasena. In the work, Milinda is
described as a wise, learned and able king.
At the end of it, Milinda accepts Buddhism.
Indo Greek Kingdom ended with the
invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Sakas).
Importance of the Indo-Greek Rule
The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins which can
be definitely attributed to the kings. They were the first
to issue gold coins in India which increased in number
under the Kushanas.
The Greeks also introduced the practice of military
governorship called strategos for maintaining the power
of the new rulers over the conquered people.
The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in
the North-west frontier of India. The Gandhara art was
largely Hellenistic in the beginning, but as time passed
the style became more and more Indian and less and
less Greek. The idea of representing the Buddha as a
human being (idol worship) originated with the Greeks.
The Greeks contributed to the development of the Indian
theatre by the use of curtains (known as Yavanika,
Sutradhara (stage manager), Nepathya (back stage, etc.)
Indian astrology came to be influenced by Greek ideas,
and from the Greek term horoscope was derived the
term horasastra used for astrology in Sanskrit.
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 53
Fig. 4.2. The Foreign Dynasties in Post-Mauryan period
Sakas/Scythians
● Scythians were the nomadic tribe of Central
Asia. They destroyed the Indo-Greek rule
in North Western India. They entered India
through Bolan Pass. They ruled from 1st
century B.C to 4th century A.D. The Sakas
were divided themselves in five branches and
settled in various parts of India.
● First branch settled in Afghanistan, Second
settled in Punjab with Taxila as its capital.
Third branch in Mathura, Fourth branch
established its hold over western India where
Sakas continued to rule until 4th century
A.D. Fifth branch settled in Upper Deccan.
● The Sakas had an Indian kingdom larger than
the Indo-Greeks. The Sakas fought a war with
a king who called himself Vikramaditya.
Vikramaditya emerged victorious in this
war and an era called Vikram Samvat is
reckoned from this event in 57 BC.
Rudradaman I
● He is considered as the greatest of the Saka ruler.
He was the grandson of Chastana. His kingdom
included Narmada valley, Kathiawar, other
parts of Gujarat and Malwa.
● He issued the first ever insription in chaste
Sanskrit which reveals that he conducted
the repair work of the Sudarshana Lake at
Kathiawar. This inscription is known as
Junagarh Rock inscription. He married
a Hindu woman and had converted
to Hinduism. He took up the title of
Makakshatrapa after becoming king. He
maintained marital relationships with the
Satavahanas. Vashishtiputra Satakarni was
his son-in-law. But he also fought numerous
wars with them. He supported Sanskrit
literature and cultural arts. It was during
Rudradaman’s reign that Yavaneshwara, the
Greek writer lived in India and translated the
Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit.
54 Master Series : Ancient India
● The Saka Empire started declining after
their defeat at the hands of the Satavahana
Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni. The Saka
rule in northwest India and Pakistan came to
an end after the death of Azes II (12 BC)
when the region came under the Kushanas.
● In western India, their rule came to an end in
the 4th century AD when the last Saka ruler
Rudrasimha III was defeated by Chandragupta
II of the Gupta dynasty in 390 A.D and after
the victory over Sakas Chandragupta adopted
the title Vikramaditya.
Satrapa system and Western
Kshatrapas
● The Achaemenid conquerors of north-western
India were the first to introduce the Satrapa
system of government in the country. The
title Satrap or Kshatrapa is the Hellenized
form of the Old Persian Kshatrapavan which
means ‘protector of the kingdom’.
● The Satrap form of government received a
fresh impetus during the Scythian rule in
India, the chief feature of which was the
system of joint rule of a Mahakshatrapa and
a Satrapa.
● The two groups of satraps are known from the
inscriptions and coins. The earlier group consists
of two persons only, Bhumaka and Nahapana
belonging to the Kshaharata race while the latter
group comprises a large number of satraps
known to have descended from Chashtana.
Parthians
● Parthians also known as Pahalavas. They
were the Iranian people. They ruled from
Peshawar. The earliest King of this dynasty
was vonones who adopted the title of Great
King of Kings.
● Gondophernes was the greatest king of the
Parthian kingdom. St Thomas a Christian
missionary visited India during the reign
of Gondophernes.
The Kushanas or Yuechis
● The Kushanas were the most powerful of
all the foreign invaders who came to India.
Kushanas are considered to be one of the five
clans among Yuechis tribe was divided.
A. Kujala Kadphises/Kadphises I
● Kujula Kadphises was the first king to lay the
foundation of the Kushana Empire in India.
He established his supremacy over Kabul,
Kandhar and Afghanistan.He was succeeded
by his son Vima Kadphises or Kadphises II or
Sadashkana (80 A.D- 95 A.D) who expanded
the empire into northwest India.
B. Vima Kadphises
● An inscription found at Rabatak in Afghanistan
mentions that he was the father of Kanishka.
He has issued a large number of gold and
copper coins. He was a devotee of Shiva,
clear from coins issued by him, as his coins
showed Shiva holding Trident and Bull. The
large number of Roman gold coins found
from this era which shows the prosperity of
India at that time and also the growing trade
with the Romans.
C. Kanishka
● Kanishka succeeded Kadphises II. Kanishka
was most well-known and greatest king
among all Kushana Kings. He is also known
as second Ashoka. He ruled from Purushpur,
modern day Peshawar. He started the Saka
era in 78 A.D. He also sent the missionaries outside India to spread Buddhism.
He constructed the Peshawar Stupa (relic
stupa). The scholars in his court included
Parsva, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna,
Charaka. Ashvaghosa wrote famous book
Buddhacharita in Sanskrit. He also patronised the Greek engineer Agesilaus.
● Kanishka patronised the fourth Buddhist
Council at Kundalvana in Kashmir which
was presided by Vasumitra. He patronised
Buddhism although he was very tolerant in
his religious views. His coins contain a mix of
Indian, Greek and Zoroastrian deities. He was
also a patron of art and architecture. The Gandhara
School of art flourished under him. He was the
patron of Mahayana sect of Buddhism and he was
largely responsible for propagating it in China. It
is not known how he died.
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 55
Fig. 4.3. The Kushan Empire
Major Aspects of Rule of Foreign
Dynasties
(a) Growth of Urban Centers
● During this period, there is seen a growth of
urban centres because this phase registered
a distinct advance in building activities. We
find the use of burnt bricks for flooring and
roofing, construction of brick kilns, use of
script files, and use of red pottery.
(b) Economy and Coinage of the Period
● This age of foreign rule had the best impact
on Indian trade and commerce. Unlike other
ages of foreign rule, Sakas and Kushanas
introduced better cavalry, use of reins, toe
stirrups, turban, tunic, trousers and heavy
long coat. India received a good deal of gold
from Altai Mountains in central Asia.
● The Kushanas controlled the silk route which
started from China and passed through their
empire in central Asia and with the help of
tolls levied from the traders, Kushanas built
a large empire. It is significant that the Kushanas were the first rulers in India to issue
gold coins on a wide scale.
(c) Development of Religion
● Some of the foreign rulers were converted
to Vaishanavism. The Greek ambassador
Heliodoros set up a pillar in honour of
Vishnu near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. The
famous Greek ruler Menander was converted
to Buddhism. The Kushan rulers worshipped
both Shiva, and Buddha and the images of
these two gods appeared on the Kushan coins.
● The Buddha was regarded as a god and
images of the Buddha and Budhisatvas were
made and worshipped. The goal of life also
was changed from ‘Nirvana’ to the attainment
of ‘Swarga’ or heaven. The old language Pali
was also discarded in favour of the Sanskrit
and faith took the place of logic. As a result of
56 Master Series : Ancient India
these changes, the Buddhism gained immense
popularity and it spread not only in India but
also in several foreign countries like China,
Japan, Tibet and Central Asia.
(d) Hinduism
Vaishnavism: There were 3 streams centered
around worship of Vishnu or Bhagawat.
1. Vishnu as a minor god in Vedic times was
worshipped as the Sun and fertility cult.
2. Narayana was a non-vedic tribal god. He was
also called bhagavat.
3. Vishnu came to be identified as the hero of the
vrishni tribe known as Krishna-Vasudeva.
By 200 BC all these 3 streams merged into one
and led to the creation of Bhagvatism. By the end of
late Gupta Period, it’s assimilated into Vaishnavism
and was commonly referred by the latter.
(e) Buddhism
● Buddhism continued to receive royal patronage.
Many kings of this era were Buddhists.
Kanishka’s court was adorned by the presence
of such scholars as Parsva, Vasumitra,
Ashvaghosha, Charaka, and Nagarjuna.
● A major development in Buddhism was its
splitting up in to two sects – The Hinayana
and the Mahayana. Kanishka organized the
4th Buddhist council where this split happened.
Hinayana
Also known as Lesser
Vehicle
Treat Buddha has a guide
(Since Buddha never said
he was God)
Worshipped only in form
of symbols that represent
various stages in the life
of Buddha
Literature only in Pali
Mahayana
Greater Vehicle
Treat Buddha as a God
Worshipped in human
form, Bodhisattvas.
Art. The Gandhara artists built beautiful
large-size images of the Buddha, Budhisatvas
and the Kushan rulers.
● They depicted scenes from the life of the
Buddha on stone. Most of the specimens of
the Ghandhara Art relating to this period are
executed in stone. But some of the specimens
founded at Taxila are in stucco (lime), cement,
terracota (baked clay) and clay. The Gandhara
Art greatly influenced other schools of Indian
sculpture.
● The Greek influence is discernible even in the
field of temple and palace architecture. Some
of the walls and pillars of the Sun Temple at
Taxila are executed in the Greek Style. The
Indians also learnt the art of cutting rock caves.
In Maharashtra, there are several rock-cut caves.
Difference Between Gandhara and
Mathura Art
Gandhara
Strong Greek influence and
was based on Greco-Roman
norms encapsulating foreign
techniques and an alien spirit.
It is also known as GraecoBuddhist School of art.
Assimilating various traits
of Acamenian, Parthian and
Bactrian traditions into the
local tradition is a hallmark
of the Gandhara style.
Blue-grey Mica/Grey
Sandstone.
Rendering of drapery with
sharp flowing folds similar to
those shown in Roman togas.
Finer details and realistic
images. Buddha carved out
in various Mudras.
Wavy curled hair.
Sanskrit
The Gandhara School of Art
● Before the Kushanas, the Gandhara School of
Art was developed as a result of interaction
between the Greeks and the Indians. But
during the Kushan rule, the Gandhara Art
reached its zenith. This art had developed
on the north-western regions of India known
as Gandhara. It was therefore called the
Gandhara School of Art or the Indo-Greek
Mathura
No foreign Influence,
however, later it cross
fertilized with the
Gandhara School. Its
development took place
indigenously. Initially
inspired by Yaksha
Images
Spotted Red Sandstone
Early
period: Light
volume having fleshy
body.
Later Period: Flashiness
reduced. Not much attention
to detailed sculpting.
Halo not decorated. Images The halo around the head
of Buddha was profusely
are very expressive.
decorated. Images less
expressive.
Mainly Buddhism
All religions – Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 57
Society, Education and Culture
● Though the Indians knew about the Greeks
even before Alexander’s invasion, their
active contact started only after Alexander’s
invasion. Alexander came to India like a
storm and went back like a whirlwind, so
there was no apparent impact of his invasion.
● After his death came the Indo-Bactrians,
Indo-Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas and other
alien tribes who founded their kingdoms on
the Indian soil. Thereafter, India established
contacts with these people for quite a long
time. It was during this period that the
Indians learnt from them in such fields as
administration, coinage, astronomy, art,
literature, religion and science, etc.
Political Life and Administration
● The Kushanas and the Saka rulers assumed
the title of ‘Devputra’ or the son of God.
They thus strengthened the concept of the
divine origin of kingship. The Kushanas
defeated several of the Indian rulers, but
restored the kingdoms if they acknowledged
their over-lordships. It was the beginning of
the feudal system in India.
● The Kushan Empire was divided into smaller
units which were governed by the Kshatraps or
Satraps. It was the beginning of the Kshatrapa
system. They also started the curious practice
of hereditary dual rule where both father and
the son ruled the same kingdom at the same
time. This practice of military governorship
was also started during this period as these
military governors were quite necessary to
control the rebellious people.
Social Life – New Elements in
Indian Social Life
● The Bactrian’s, the Parthians, the Sakas and
the Kushanas came into India and settled
there permanently, thus becoming an integral
part of the Indian society. Thus they lost
their separate social identity and they became
completely Indianized. Being brave and bold
conquerors, they were admitted into the
Indian social system as member of the
Kshatriya caste.
Astronomy During Foreign
Dynasties
● The Indians also learnt a lot from the Greeks
in the field of astronomy. The Indians too
honoured the learned Greek astronomers
and were impressed by their knowledge in
this field. The renowned Indian treatise on
astronomy ‘Gargi Samhita’ asserts, “The
Yavanas are barbarians yet the science of
astronomy originated with them and for this
they must be reverenced like Gods”. Of the
different principles of astronomy, the Indians
borrowed many from the contemporary
Greeks. Several of the Greek terms are still
prevalent in Indian astronomy. Some scholars
even believe that the Indians learnt from the
Greeks the science of casting horoscopes.
Coinage of Foreign Dynasties
● Before the Greeks, the Indian coins were
rough and punch-marked. These coins were
not cast in moulds and only one side bore
any inscription. The Indians learnt from
the Greeks the art of moulding coins and
they now struck beautiful coins bearing
inscriptions on both the sides. The gold
coins of Kanishka were also beautiful and
attractive with artistic images of Gods and
Goddesses on them.
Literature and Learning
● The foreign rulers patronised Sanskrit and
consequently the Sanskrit scholars wrote
several books of greater quality. The Kushan
rulers were great lovers of knowledge and
they patronised several scholars which led to
the creation of high quality Sanskrit literature
particularly, during the reign of Kanishka.
● Among the notable Sanskrit scholars of this
period were Asvaghosha, Vasumitra and
Nagarjuna. Asvaghosha wrote the ‘Buddha
Charita’, ‘Saundrananda’and ‘Sahputra’.
Vasumitra wrote ‘Prajnaparmita’, ‘Sutra
Shastra’ and ‘Mahavibhasha’.
● The rise of the Mahayana sect led to the
composition of dramas. The Indian drama
58 Master Series : Ancient India
was also influenced by the Greece drama. It is
on the Greek model that in the Indian dramas
too the character of a clown (Vidushaka) was
introduced and the use of curtain, which is
called ‘Yavanika’ in Sanskrit, was started.
Botany and Medicine During Foreign
Dynasties
● In the field of botany, chemistry and medicine the
foreign contribution to India is insignificant as
India in these fields, had already made sufficient
progress. Charka, the great Indian physician of
Work
Inscriptions and Literature of Era of Foreign Dynasties
Author
Theme
Junagarh Rock inscription
Milindapanho
Saundarananda,
Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi
Charaka-Samhita
Sushruta-Samhita
this time, wrote ‘Charka Samhita’ which deals
with various diseases and the effective herbs
(aushadhis) to cure them.
● The above account would suffice to conclude
that the Indians learnt many things from the
foreigners. But they never followed them
blindly. They adopted the new knowledge
in the context of the indigenous conditions.
Whatever influences did the Indians acquired,
the foreign elements were so assimilated with
their own life that it would hardly be possible
to distinguish them.
Patronage
Rudradaman I from the He’s credited to have issued the 1st long Rudradaman I
Western Kshatrapa
inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
It mentions the repairs he undertook to
improve the Sudershana Lake.
Junagarh Rock also contains inscriptions
from Ashoka and Skandgupta (from the
Gupta Period almost 800 years later).
Nagasena
Menander asked Nagasena many questions Milinda
related to philosophy and Buddhism,
which together with Nagasena’s answers
are recorded in Milindapanho or the
Questions of Milinda.
Ashvaghosh
● Buddhacharita is a complete life Kanishka
of Buddha written in the form of
Mahakavya.
● It is the first Buddist book written
in Sanskrit.
Charaka
Extends Ayurveda, and lays down the
concept of balance of 3 doshas called
Vata, Pitta and Kapha.
Sushruta (Father of Surgery) He mentions more than 120 instruments
Mahajanpadas and the Magadha Empire 59
Ancient India Master Exercise
4
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
Which of the following inscriptions refers to
the three generation of Chera rulers of the first
century AD?
3. Violation of varna endogamous rules.
4. Violation of gotra exogamous rules.
Select the correct answer from the codes given
below.
(a) Cave inscriptions found in the vicinity of
Tanjore.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) Pugalar inscriptions in the Malabar Coast.
(b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) Marandai Inscription in the Malabar Coast.
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) Korkoi inscription in the Pandya country.
2.
(d) All of them
The first Sangam was presided over by:
(a) Skanda
Subjective type questions for Main
(b) Tolkapipiyar
Examination
(c) Vasistha
1.
Examine the nature and character of Mauryan
State system.
2.
Discuss the different views about Dhamma.
3.
Bring out the elements of change and continuity
of domestic and foreign policies of Ashoka.
(b) The desire to control coastal region.
4.
(c) The need for access to important trading
Centers.
Discuss about the dynasties that ruled over
Magadha before Mauryans.
5.
Mention and explain the factors responsible for
the growth of Magadh into an Empire.
6.
The matrimonial alliances were one of the vital
strategies of the Magadh rulers. How far do you
agree with the statement?
7.
(c) There were regular Varnas of Kshatriya and
Vaishyas.
Post-Maurayan Period witnessed a rise in living
of standard. Corroborate the statements with
examples.
8.
(d) The ruling class could come from only the
Kashtriyas.
Post-Mauryan phase was the phase of
development for Towns and cities. Elucidate
9.
What were the reasons for the downfall of the
Mauryas?
(d) Agastya
3.
The main cause of conflict between the Cheras,
Cholas, and Pandyas during the sangam age was:
(a) The desires to control the fertile deltas.
(d) None of these.
4.
Which of the following statements about the
society of Sangam age is not true?
(a) Brahmins emerged as a regular varna.
(b) They abstained from eating meat and
drinking wine.
5.
Which of the following factors were responsible
for the rise of mixed castes?
1. Emergence of specialised occupational
groups.
2. Assimilation of new tribes into Arya Society.
Answers to MCQs
1.
(b) 2.
(d) 3.
(a)
4.
(d) 5.
(a)
60 Master Series : Ancient India
ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 5
Gupta and Post-Gupta
AGE
Gupta Kings – The ‘Remarkable’ History
The Gupta period marks the important phase in the history of ancient India. The long and efficient rule of the
Guptas made a huge impact on the socio-politico and cultural life of ancient India. Though the Gupta Empire was
not widespread as the Maurya Empire, but it was quite successful in creating an empire that is significant in the
history of India.
Gupta Age
● The Gupta period is known as the “golden
age” because of great progress in literature,
culture, art, architecture as well as trade
and commerce. After the downfall of Kushans,
Guptas emerged and kept north India united for
more than a century. (Refer Fig. 5.1)
● North India came under the rule of several
foreign people, such as the Yavanas,
Kushans, Sakas, Parthians, etc. They began
to settle in north-west India from the first
century BC onwards. Foreign rulers came to
India due to the turbulent condition in central
Asia.They adjusted themselves with Indian
culture, and introduced some new elements
in socio-polical and cultural life of India.
● Three big political powers emerged in India
between the 1st century BC and 3rd century
AD, which played an important stabilising
factor over large regions. They were
1. Satavahanas in the Deccan,
2. Kushanas in the North, and
3. Sakas in the West.
● In the mid of 3rd century AD, the empires
of the Satavahanas and Kushanas came to an
end.
● A new dynasty, known as Gupta, emerged in
the northern India. They made a permanent
●
●
●
●
●
●
impact on Indian history by building up
meticulously a large empire. They have firmly
established several trends of Indian culture
like the Mauryans a few centuries earlier.
Apart from political might and strength, the
Gupta kings were also known for their great
achievements in the field of art, science,
literature and culture.
The Allahabad pillar inscription of
Samudragupta mentions Maharaja Srigupta
and Maharaja Ghatotkacha as his ancestors.
But we do not know much about the early
Guptas.
I-tsing, a Chineses traveller, came to India
between AD 671 and 695. He mentioned
Srigupta as the builder of a temple at Gaya for
the Chinese pilgrims about 500 years before
his time.
The king, Srigupta, has been identified as the
first Gupta king mentioned in the Allahabad
pillar inscription.
Puranas also mention that the early Guptas
controlled the area along the Ganga (the
middle Gangetic basin), Prayag (Allahabad
and surrounding region), Saketa (Ayodhya
region), and Magadha.
Ghatotkacha succeeded his father Srigupta.
He was also referred as the Maharaja in
Gupta records.
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 61
The Gupta Empire
Chandragupta–I
● Chandragupta-I succeeded his father Ghatotkacha in AD 320.Chandragupta–I was considered to have laid the foundations of the great
Gupta Empire, to prosper. He was married
to a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. The
Lichchhavis were related to Gautama Buddha.
The Lichchhavis were an old and established Ganarajya
and quite powerful and still being respected in north
India.The marriage alliance of Chandragupta–I was
important for his political career as is proved by the
coins Chandragupta I. These coins portray the figures
of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi with the name of the
Lichchhavis.
● In the Allahabad inscription, Samudragupta
son of Chandragupta–I and Kumaradevi,
proudly called himself Lichchhavis ‘Dauhitra’
i.e., son of the daughter of Lichchhavis.
● The Gupta era was started with a coronation of
Chandragupta–I in AD 320. He was the first
Gupta king to adopt the title ‘Maharajadhiraja’
and issued gold coins. Chandragupta–I
introduced a new era called Gupta era.
Samudragupta
● Samudragupta succeeded his father Chandragupta–I about AD 340. He earned a
reputation as one of the greatest kings and
conquerors. He was chosen by his father as
his successor because of his qualities that
would make him into a good king.
● The Allahabad pillar inscription gives a
detailed account of the career and personality
of Samudragupta. Harishena, one of
the officials composed the inscription
and engraved on the Ashoka's pillar at
Allahabad.
Samudragupta was a great military general. He had
a long list of the kings and rulers whom he defeated
and subdued as a part of his military achievements. He
uprooted nine kings and princes from the Aryavarta and
annexed their kingdoms.
● Campaign of Southern India was the most
important campaign of Samudragupta.
Altogether, twelve kings and princes of
the south (Dakshinapatha) are listed in the
inscription.
● During the campaign of southern India, he
adopted the policy of first capturing the
kings, then releasing them from captivity,
and then reinstalling them as kings in their
territories. By showing royal mercy, he won
their allegiance.
● Samudragupta proceeded for his south Indian
campaign, through the eastern and southern
parts of Madhyadesha to Orissa and then
advanced along the eastern coast and reached
Kanchi and beyond and returned to his capital
by way of Maharashtra and Khandesh.
● Samudragupta performed ‘Ashvamedhayajna’
after his several conquests and issued gold
coins depicting the sacrificial horse and
bearing the legend, which conveyed that he
performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.
● The Allahabad pillar inscription also lists
fourteen kingdoms bordering the kingdom
of Samudragupta. All these rulers paid
tributes, followed his orders and showed their
obedience by attending his the Samudra court.
● These subservient kingdoms were located in
eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya Pradesh,
Assam, and Nepal. Further, some forest kings
(atavika-rajas) are mentioned whom Samudragupta had made his ‘Paricharaka’ (helpers).
● Other political powers listed in the inscription
are as Kushanas, Sakas, Murundas as well
as Simhalas (Sri Lanka) and inhabitants of
other islands. These rulers sent embassies
to the Samudragupta's court.
● Meghavarna, the king of Sri Lanka, sent an
embassy to Samudragupta for his permission
to build a monastery and a guest house for
Buddhist pilgrims at Bodh Gaya.
● Samudragupta was a versatile genius. He was
called as ‘Kaviraja’ i.e., the king of poets.
He was proficient in war and sastras as well.
● The Allahabad pillar inscription brads him a
great musician. This is also confirmed by his
lyricist type of coins, which shows him playing veena (lute). Samudragupta patronized
learned men in his court and appointed
them as his ministers. Samudragupta died
in about AD 380, and was succeeded by his
son Chandragupta II.
62 Master Series : Ancient India
Timeline of Gupta Empire
AD 320
AD 335
AD 337
AD 380
AD 380
AD 395
AD 415
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
455
455
467
476
500
AD 510
AD 528
AD 550
Chandragupta I takes over the power.
Samudragupta succeeds as next Gupta
ruler.
Birth of Faxian,a famed Chinese scholar,
who later recorded and published many
of the intellectual advances of the golden
Gupta period.
Chandragupta II becomes the Gupta
King,after Samudragupta.
Kalidasa, revered as the greatest Sanskrit
poet and dramatist, produces his great
work.
Rudrasimha III, Chandragupta II’s main
opponent, is defeated.
Kumaragupta I succeeds as the Gupta
ruler.
Skandagupta succeeds as Gupta ruler.
Skandagupta defeats the Huna.
Purugupta succeeds as Gupta ruler.
Aryabhatta is born.
The Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh is
built.
Bhanugupta repels the Hun invasion.
The Hun are driven out of India.
The Gupta Empire ends.
Chandragupta II
● Chandragupta II was the son of Samudragupta
and Dattadevi and he was chosen by his
father as his successor. The Gupta Empire
reached its highest glory, both in terms of
territorial expansion and cultural excellence
under Chandragupta II.
● Chandragupta II had inherited a strong
and consolidated empire from his father
Samudragupta.
● Chandragupta II had established a matrimonial
alliance with Vakatakas by marrying his
daughter Prabhavatigupta with Rudrasena II
of the Vakataka dynasty. Chandragupta II
made an alliance with the Vakatakas before
attacking the Sakas so as to be sure of
having a friendly power to back him up in
Deccan.Prabhavatigupta acted as a regent
on behalf of her two minor sons after the
death of her husband Rudrasena II.
Chandragupta II’s victory over the mighty Sakas
dynasty was his foremost success. The annexation of
Sakas’s kingdom comprising Gujarat and part of Malwa
strengthened the Gupta Empire, but also brought it into
direct touch with western seaports. This gave a great
motivation to foreign trade and commerce.
● Ujjain, a major centre of trade, religion, and
culture became the second capital of the
Gupta Empire after the conquest.After the
victory over Sakas, Chandragupta II adopted
the title of ‘Vikramaditya.’ Chandragupta II
issued dated silver coins to commemorate his
victory over Saka kshatrapas.
● The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription
records portray a king named Chandra.
This king Chandra is generally identified
as Chandragupta II. This would mean his
kingdom extended from Bengal to the NorthWest Frontiers.
● Chandragupta II's reign is remembered for
his patronage of literature and arts and for
the high standard of artistic and cultural life.
Kalidas, the great Sanskrit poet was a member
of Chandragupta II’s court. Fa-Hien, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited India between
AD 405 and AD 411. He visited for collecting
Buddhist manuscripts and texts, and studied
at Indian monasteries.
Kumaragupta I
● Chandragupta II died in about AD 413. His
son Kumaragupta became the next king.
Kumaragupta ruled for more than forty years.
He performed an Ashvamedha sacrifice;
though his military achievements are not
known.
● Kumaragupta issued Ashvamedha type of
coins like his grandfather, Samudragupta.The
epigraphic records show that he organised the
administration of vast empire and maintained
its peace, prosperity, and security for a long
period of forty years.
● The Gupta Empire was challenged by the
Pushyamitras at the end of Kumaragupta's reign.Pushyamitras were living on the
banks of the Narmada.
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 63
Fig.5.1. The Gupta Empire
Skandgupta
● Skandagupta was the son of Kumaragupta I.
● Kumaragupta-I died in AD 455. His
son Skandagupta became the next king.
Skandagupta's reign seems to have been
full of wars. He struggled with his brother
Purugupta.
● Hunas were the greatest enemies of Gupta’s
empire during this period. Hunas were a
ferocious barbarian hordes. They lived in
central Asia. Skandagupta successfully
defeated the Hunas. So they did not dare
to disturb the Gupta Empire for next half a
century. Though they continue to disconcert
Persia during this period.
● The important event of Skandagupta's reign
was the restoration and repair of the dam on
Sudarsana Lake after 8 hundred years of
construction. It was built during Chandragupta
Maurya's reign.
● Sudarsana Lake was also repaired
previously during the reign of Saka
kshatrapa Rudradaman I.
Decline of Guptas
● The Gupta dynasty continued to be in
existence for more than 100 years after the
death of Skandagupta in AD 467.
● Skandagupta was succeeded by his brother
Purugupta. Nothing is known about his
achievements.
● Budhagupta was the only Gupta ruler who
continued to rule over a large part of the empire.
● Budhagupta inscriptions have been found
from Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and
Madhya Pradesh.
● Huna’s leader, Toramana attacked Gupta
Empire in AD 512. He conquered a large
part of north India up to Gwalior and Malwa.
64 Master Series : Ancient India
● Toramana was succeeded by his son
Mihira kula. He founded his capital at Sakala
(Sialkot). Huna ruled in India for a very short
period, but the Gupta Empire suffered much
from it. Huna rule was one of the shortest
instances of foreign rule over India.
● Hiuen-Tsang describes that Mihirkula invaded
Magadha. He was defeated and captured by the
Gupta king Baladitya. It is also mentioned that
Mihirkula’s life was saved at the intervention
of the queen mother of Magadha.
● Inscription from Malwa mentioned that
Yasovarman was a powerful local ruler of
Malwa. He also defeated Mihirakula (Huna
Ruler).
Governance During Guptas
● During the period from Guptas to Harsha,
polity, religion, society, economic life, literature, art, and architecture and technology
were in the highest state of glory. Because of
this reason, this period is popular as ‘a golden
period’ of Indian history.
Structure of Administration
● Set-up of the government was well organized
during the Gupta period, which provided a
strong base for them to hold together their
extensive territories for such a longer period.
● In spite of intermittent wars amongst them,
the reigns of the Guptas survived for two
hundred years; the Chalukyas lasted for four
hundred years; and Pallavas lasted for about
six hundred years.
● The basic (governance) functionalities of
the different dynasties were almost the same
except some differences in their terminology.
● The kingdom (Rajya) was divided into a
number of provinces and they were known
as ‘Bhukti’ in the north and ‘Mandala’ or
‘Mandalam’ in the south.
● The provinces were sub-divided as ‘Vishaya’
or ‘Bhoga’ in the north and ‘Kottams’ or
‘Valanadu’ in the south.
● Some other units of administration were the districts, which were called as ‘Adhis,’ ‘Thana,’ or
‘Pattana’ in the north and ‘Nadu’ in the south.
● The group of villages (i.e. modern tehsil) was
known as ‘Vithis’ in the north and ‘Pattala’
and ‘Kurram’ in the south.
● The villages were the lowest administrative
units. There was a number of central,
provincial, and local officials to carry on the
administration.
● The administration under Gupta Empire was
largely dependent upon the old bureaucratic
form of administration; however, they organized
it much systematically and elaborately.
● The governor of ‘Bhukti’ was appointed by
the king and known as ‘Uparika.’
Gupta Empire: Factsheet
● The Gupta Empire was founded by Maharaja Sri
Gupta.
● The first ruler of the empire was Chandra Gupta
I, who was succeeded by hfe son, the celebrated
Samudragupta.
● Great and marked prosperity in the Gupta Empire
heralded a period known as the Golden Age of India,
marked by extensive inventions and discoveries
in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic,
literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion,
and philosophy.
● Skandagupta, son of Kumaragupta, succeeded his
father as ruler of the Gupta empire, and is considered the last of the great Gupta rulers.
● Gupta Empire at its peak, covered 21 kingdoms both
inside and outside Indian subcontinent
● Gupta age was an age of “scholarship”. Some of
the most prominent scholars of the era include Vatsyayana, Vishnu Sharma, Varahamihira, Kalidasa
and Aryabhatta.
● Ayodhya, Nasik and Pataliputra became famous for
their educational centers.
● Takshila and Nalanda were the two universities that
were established during the Gupta Empire.
● The world famous Ajanta Paintings happened during
the Gupta Empire.
● Gupta Empire existed about 230 years from AD 320
to AD 550.
● During Guptas,the socio-economic situation of
shudras improved very much.
● The most negative drawback of Gupta period was
that the position of women in society deteriorated
the most. It believed the first Sati was occurred
during this time only.
● Gold coins and silver coins were used as currency.
Gold coins were called Dinars and Silver coins were
referred as Rupyakas
● Sanskrit language reached its glory during this time,
raised to pedestals of the court language.
Conti...
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 65
● The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited during the
reign of Chandragupta II.
● Notable temples of the era are Dashavatara Temple
of Deogarh, Vishnu Temple of Tigawa, Parvati
Temple of Nachna Kuthara, Dhammekh Temple of
Sarnath. Gandhara and Mathura were the two main
centers of Sculptures.
● Ramayana and Mahabharata reached their peak in
this time, in their popularity.
● Puranas and Smritis were developed in Gupta era.
● The administrative work was undertaken
by a Board of Advisors, consisting of four
members representing the various important
sections, namely
♦ The ‘Nagarsresthis,’ were the chief of
the guild of traders and bankers. They
represented the guilds in particular and the
urban population in general.
♦ The ‘Sarthavaha,’ were the head of guild
of traders and represented the various
trading communities.
♦ The ‘Prathamakulika’ (the chief of artisan)
represented various artisan classes.
♦ The ‘Prathamakayastha’ might have
represented the government official like
the Chief Secretary of the present day. This
body was known as ‘Adhisthanadhikarana.’
● Each city administration had a council
body.The village administration was under
the control of rural bodies consisting of a
headman and the village elders.
● During Gupta period, there was a remarkable
growth of the local self-governing institutions
such as the village committees and district
committees.
● Inscriptions and literature records describe the
existence of local bodies since the very early
period. They describe about the nature and
the activities of these local bodies and testify
to the most wonderful organization that the
ancient Indian had evolved.
● Two New classes of officers were introduced
by the Guptas, namely
1. Sandhivigrahika: He was the minister
of peace and war i.e. modern foreign
minister
2. Kumaramatyas: He was a body of top
ranking officials attached not only to the
king, but also to the crown-prince, and
sometimes placed as in-charge of districts.
● Ayuktas were another important official,
they were same as Yuktas mentioned in
the Ashokan inscriptions and in Kautilya's
Arthasastra.
● During the Gupta period, many known
officials – such as Mahapratihara,
Mahabaladhikrita, and Mahadandanayaka,
etc. used their title prefixed with ‘Maha.’
The powers of all these officials and officers
emanated from the king. Gupta rulers assumed
several titles such as ‘Maharajadhiraja,’
‘Parambhattaraka,’ ‘Parmesvara,’ etc.
● In Allahabad pillar inscription, Samudragupta
is described as equal to the Gods Indra,
Varuna, Kuvera, and Varna and also as a
‘God dwelling on the earth’. Such titles were
used by the rulers of foreign origin such as
the Greeks, or the Kushanas, but never by a
king of an Indian origin.
● Guptas were the first who adopted high
sounding titles in the history of India.
Literature of this period mentions the ideals
of the popular government of the period. The
Smritis explain that "the ruler has been made
by Brahma, a servant of the people, getting
his revenue as remuneration".
● During the Gupta’s period, the powers of the
king were more restricted and he was advised
to rule with the help of ministers and to
respect the decision of guilds and corporate
bodies.
● The Gupta kings are usually represented on
their coins. They have been described as an
excellent and unrivalled chariot warriors and
horsemen.
In the early history of India, Gupta period is considered
as a landmark in the field of administration of law
and justice. The legal literature, developed during this
period, reflects a distinct advancement in the legal
system.
● Lawmakers drew a clear line between civil
and criminal law for the first time during
the Gupta period. The Brihaspatismriti
66 Master Series : Ancient India
●
●
●
●
enumerates eighteen titles of land and adds
that fourteen of these have their origin in
property (Dhanamula) and four in injury
(Himsamula).
During the Gupta period, the land became
private property that could be sold for money.
Detailed law about partition, sale, mortgage,
and lease of land were mentioned in the lawbooks and in the inscriptions of this period.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra enumerated a bigger
list of taxes than those were found in the
Gupta inscriptions.The burden of taxation
was decreased in Gupta period because of
the prosperity of state.
Land taxes were collected both in cash and
kind. It was varying from one-fourth to onesixth of the produce.
Special officers are mentioned in the
inscriptions to make proper records of
assessment and collection of revenues, land
transactions, etc.
Literature of Gupta Period
● Gupta period was considered as the golden
phase of Indian literature. The wonderful
literature was produced in prose, poetry,
drama, and grammar. It is the noticeable
product of the system of education and
learning.
The Puranas and Smiritis
The Puranas preserved the traditions, legends, moral
codes, religious, and philosophical principles. They are
eighteen in number.
The Smritis are metrical texts containing the rules and
regulations and laws for the guidance and governance
of the society. Smritis are based on dharmasutras and
grihyasutras of Vedic literature. They are written in
verse. Some additions and alterations have been done
to make Smritis suitable to the changing conditions of
society.
The commentaries on the Smritis were written after
the Gupta period. The compilation of Ramayana and
Mahabharata was completed by the 4th century AD.
● Kalidas has written the best works in
poetry, drama as well as in prose. His
kavyas such as Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa,
and Kumarasambhava, and dramas such as
Abhijnashakuntalam are the best literary
works of this time and it is considered as
the best even today. These works have been
translated into many languages.
● Kalidas adorned the court of Chandragupta-II,
the king of Ujjayini, who was popular as
Vikramaditya.
Inscriptions as Source of Gupta
Literature
A few inscriptions of the period are:
1. The Allahabad pillar inscription composed by
Harisen;
2. Mandsor inscription composed by Vatsabhatt;
and
3. Junagarh rock inscription, Mehrauli Pillar
inscription, Aihole inscription composed by
Ravikriti.
● These all inscriptions (listed above) consist
mostly of the characteristic features of
Sanskrit kavyas.
● The most notable in the field of drama were
Bhasa, Sudraka, Kalidas, and Bhavabhuti.
● Mrichchakatika (written by Sudraka), is
considered one of the best plays of ancient
India. This play is about the love of a Brahman
with the beautiful daughter of a courtesan.
● Vishakhadatta had written two plays, namely
Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.
● Famous plays written by Kalidas are
Malavikagnimitram, Abhijnanashakuntalam,
and Vikramorvasiyam.
● Uttararama-charita and Malati-Madhava
were written by Bhavabhuti.
● Panchatantra, written by Vishnu Sharma, is
one of the most famous works of the period.
It was translated into Persian and Arabic in
the 8th century AD and has been translated
into almost all European languages now.The
popular work Hitopadesa is based on the
Panchatantra.
● Harshacharita is the biography of Harsha
written by Banabhatta. It is an outstanding
work of the period.The development of
Sanskrit grammar (based on Panini and
Patanjali) was also seen in this period.
● Bhartrihari composed three Shatakas. He had
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 67
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
also written a commentary on the Mahabhasya
of Patanjali.
The compilation of the Amarakosha by
Amarasimha is memorable work of this period.
Amarasimha was a popular personality in the
court of Chandragupta II.
The Prakrit was popular language of the
Gupta period (as it was earlier).
The Svetambara Jain canon have been written
in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit.
The religious texts of the Digambara Jain (of
south India) were written in the Maharashtri
and Sauraseni Prakrits.
The commentaries on Buddhist texts were
written in Pali.
‘Prakritaprakasha’ written by Vararuchi and
‘Prakritalakshana’ written by Chanda are the
well-known grammar works on Prakrit and
Pali language.
‘Katyayanaprakarna’ is a Pali grammar book.
Description of Gupta Age –
Through Foreigners
● Fa-Hien, the Chinese pilgrim with four
other monks, came to India during the reign
of Chandragupta II. Fa-Hien came to India
through land route via central Asia and
Kashmir and travelled across north India.
Fa-Hien stayed three years at Patliputra
and here he learned the Sanskrit language.
Fa-Hien was interested only in Buddhism;
however he gave an idea of general peace
and welfare during Gupta’s court.
● Hiuen-Tsang, another Chinese traveller,
visited India during Harsha's reign. He spent
thirteen years in India, in which eight years,
he stayed in Harsha's kingdom. HiuenTsang had studied at Nalanda University.
He visited various Indian kingdoms and
mentioned about their conditions. His book
“Si-yu-ki” is a precious source of ancient
Indian history. Hiuen-Tsang was honoured by
Harshavardhana of Kanauj and Bhaskarvarma
of Assam.
● I-tsing, a Chinese traveler, came to India via
sea route. He spent many years in Sumatra
and Sri Vijaya and learned Buddhism. I-tsing
stayed at Nalanda for ten years and studied
and translated Buddhist texts. I-tsing compiled
a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary and translated a
number of Sanskrit texts. I-tsing mentioned
about Buddhist religion as practised in India.
He gave a detailed account of Buddhism and
general condition of India and Malaya.
Economy During Gupta Period
● India had developed an advanced system of
agriculture, industry, and trade long before
the rise of the imperial Guptas. The economic
stability and prosperity facilitates all-round
cultural progress made during this period.
● The agriculture system was well developed
and scientific methods were used to increase
agricultural production. The Amarakosha and
the Brihat Samhita contain special chapters
on the study of plants and gardens, forest,
crops, manure, etc.
● Various branches of industry had developed
because of the abundance of raw materials
and the skill and enterprise of the artisans
and the craftsmen.
● The literary works also describe a large
variety of clothing such as cotton, silk,
wool, and linen. Hiuen-Tsang described the
classification of Indian clothing materials
under the heads as – silk, cotton, linen, wool,
and goat hair.
● Amarakosha mentions various terms used
for the finer and coarser varieties of cloth
as well as for unbleached and bleached silk.
Ajanta wall paintings also exposed different
techniques of weaving. The major centres of
textiles production were Banaras, Mathura,
Dashapura, and Kamarupa.
● The Mandsor inscription gives detail about
the guilds of silk weaver and corporate
activities of the period. Ivory work flourished
during Guptas. A seal found in the excavation
at Bhita reveals about the guilds of ivory
workers.
● The leather industry also flourished during
Guptas. Leather boots and shoes were shown
in the contemporary sculptures and paintings.
● The art of the jewelery was in the advanced
condition. The Brihat Samhita describes
twenty-two jewels. Jewels were used at this
68 Master Series : Ancient India
●
●
●
●
●
●
period for a large variety of purposes. Ratna
pariksha mentioned the science of testing
gems. Technical sciences were utilised for
the manufacture of metals.
Vatsyayana mentions about Ruparatnapariksha,
Dhatuveda, and Maniragakarajnanam i.e.,
testing of precious stones, the smelting
of metals, and the technology of jewels
accordingly. Hiuen-Tsang also mentioned
that brass, gold, and silver were produced in
abundance.
The Mehrauli iron pillar (of Gupta period) is
the best example of metal workmanships. The
seals, gold, and silver coins of this period also
reflect the advance stage of the metal industry.
The ship building industry was also well
developed in Gupta period that facilitated
trade and communication activities.
Smritis described in detail the laws of
partnership, contract, right and duties of the
individual members of the guild, and structure
of guild that corroborated by contemporary
literature and inscriptions.
The seals and inscriptions mention about
the legends Sreshthi-kulika-nigama and
Sreshthisarthavaha-kulika-nigama.
These
permanent endowments reveal the function of
the guilds in the capacity of banks as well
as confirm their stable position in terms of
business stability.
Public works were undertaken and executed
by the state as well as by the guilds.The
repairs of Sudarshana lake dam and the
connected irrigation canal in the province
of Saurashtra were carried out by provincial
governor Parnadatta and his son Chakrapalita
during the rule of Skandagupta.
Trade and Commerce During Guptas
● Trade was carried on both through the land
as well as the coastal routes. India had trade
relations with both the eastern and the western countries.
● India maintained regular maritime relations
with Sri Lanka, Persia, Arabia, Byzantine
Empire, Africa, and even further west. India
also developed commercial relations with
China, Burma, and South East Asia.
● The important trade items were silk, spices
of various kind, textiles, metals, ivory, sea
produce, etc.
Some important sea ports of the Gupta period were:
1. Tamralipti
2. Arikamedu
3. Kaveripattnam
4. Barbaricum
5. Muziris
6. Pratishthana
7. Sopara and
8. Brighukachchha.
● All these ports (enumerated above) were well
connected through inland routes from all parts
of India.
● According to Fa-Hien, people of the 'Middle
Kingdom' were prosperous and happy in the
beginning of the 5th century, and he also
mentions the similar account of prosperity
and peace in India.People were maintaining
a high standard of living and were enjoying
the luxury of the town life.
● The land grants were given to Brahmans,
temples, viharas, mathas to run the educational
institutions and other social welfare activities.
The tradition of land grants for the charitable
purposes continued into the medieval period
as well. These were known as Madad-i-mash,
Suyarghal, etc.
Science and Technology During
Gupta Period
● India had much advanced knowledge in
the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and
medicine during this period in comparison to
any other country in the world.
● Arabs borrowed Indian knowledge of science
and technology then it was taken by the
western world from them.
● The mathematics and astronomy originated
in Vedic period itself.Aryabhata, a great
mathematics, wrote the book ‘Aryabhatiya’
in Kusumpura (Pataliputra) at the age of 23
years.
● Aryabhatiya is divided into four parts and
the most important features of Aryabhata's
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 69
●
●
●
●
●
mathematical system was the unique system
of notation. It is based on the decimal placevalue system unknown to other ancient people.
Aryabhata explained various principals of
geometry, an area of a triangle, the area of
circle and the theorem relating to rectangles.
Brahmagupta
was
also
a
famous
mathematician. He wrote ‘Brahmsiddhanta’
in AD 628. He developed rules for operating
with negative qualities and with zero. He
began to apply Algebra to astronomical
problems.
Jyotisa was an ancient term used for
astronomy and astrology. Varahamihira wrote
‘Panchasiddhantika’ in AD 505. He was á
popular person in the court of Chandragupta II.
Panchasiddhantika consisted five works
(siddhantas), which is popular as Paitamaha,
Romaka, Paulisa, Vasishtha, and Surya.
The Suryasiddhanta is the most important and
complete work on the astronomy works of
the period.
Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. This
is considered as an encyclopedic work on
astrology.Varahamihira's son, Prithuyashas
also wrote a book on astronomy in about AD
600, named as Harashatpanchashika.
Advances in Medicine
● Ayurveda, literally means ‘science of
longevity.’ This is the name of Indian medical
sciences. It originated during the Vedic period.
● Vedic literature, particularly, Atharvanaveda
consisted of more than seven hundred hymns
on the topics related to Ayurveda.
● Hastayurveda is a guide book that describes
(elaborately) the ‘animal diseases’ particularly
about elephants.
● Asvasastra was written by sage Salihotra. It
is a treatise on the horse.
Practice of Metallurgy
● Chemistry was another science that developed
along with the medicine that helped in the
development of metallurgy.
● Nagarjuna, the great Mahayanist, was also
genus in chemistry.
● The Mehrauli iron pillar is a living memorial of
this period. It portrays the progress in metallurgy
achieved 1,500 years ago by the Indians. It
has been surviving without rusting since its
establishment (i.e. for over 1,500 years).
Art and Architecture During Guptas
● The economic prosperity of the country
during the Gupta period led to all-round
development in the field of sculptural art,
architecture, and painting.
● In the Deccan, rock-cut caves were excavated.
There are nine caves at Udaygiri near Vidisha.
These are partly rock-cut and partly stone-built.
● Ajanta caves were built on the new line
of architecture by the great beauty of their
pillars of varied design and size and the
fine paintings with which the inner wall and
ceiling are decorated.
● Ellora’s rock-cut monasteries and chaitya
halls are other piece of architecture. The
Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain caves portray
the final phase of development.
● Monasteries and stupas were also built during
this period. These Monasteries were also the
famous centers of education.
● The famous education centres were at
Bodhgaya, Sarnatha, Kusinagara, Srayasti,
Kanchi, and Nalanda.
● The Nalanda University grew into the most
prestigious establishment during the 5th
century AD.
● Hiuen-Tsang mentioned in detail about the great
temples, monasteries, and library buildings of
Nalanda mahavihara.
● Dharmarajaratha at Mamallapuram is the earliest
examples of the rock-cut temples of Dravidian styles.
● The structural temples at Kanchi, known as Kailasanatha and Vaikuntha Perumal were all built by
the Allava Kings.
● Kailash temple is a magnificent monolithic temple
with a spacious hall and finely carved pillars. It was
carved into a block of hill.
● The seven monolithic temples and number of pillared
halls at Mamallapuram were carved by the Pallava
kings Mahendravarman and Narasimhavarman in
the 7th century AD.
● These monolithic temples were popularly called as
‘Rathas.’ These massive structural temples were
completely cut outs of rock.
70 Master Series : Ancient India
Styles of Architecture, North and South
● Style – a second storey (Vimana - South Indian
style )
● Nagara Style – Shikhara (North Indian style)
● Vesara Style – Mixed North and South Indian style.
Society and Religion During Guptas
● The societal structure was basically the same
as mentioned in the Hindu Dharmashastra.
The period marked the revival of Hinduism
under the patronage of the Gupta rulers.
● Brahmins were given land as in charity or
kind known as Agrahar or brahmadeya
which weakened the position of later Gupta
rulers.
● Vaisyas community was most productive but
had to pay most of the taxes.
● Remarkable impact of Ahimsa and
vegetarianism on society.
● Shudras were mostly engaged in labour and
crafts as well as agriculture.
● Even below shudras there were people who
were untouchables and outcasts.
● Women were accorded lower status and their
equality was greater inequalty. Polygamy
was widely prevalent.
● Widow Remarriage was banned. Basic
education was also denied to them. Sati system
came into existence as information obtained
from “Eran Inscription” of MP in 510 AD.
● Devadasi systemwas also in vogue during
this period.
Post Gupta Age
The decline of Gupta dynasty after AD 550
triggered the process of political fragmentation in
Indian subcontinent. Feudatories and other smaller
kingdoms start detaching themselves from the main
and powerful Gupta Empire. Due to all this, a
competition and rivalry had gained momentum for
supremacy and from the decline of Gupta’s and the
rise of Harsha four major kingdoms flourished in
North India.
1. Guptas of Magadha
2. Maukharis of Kanauj
3. Maitrakas of Valabhi (Saurashtra) and
4. Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar.
The above four kingdoms (enlisted above) were
in copetition with each other to succeed to the past
glory of the Guptas.
Guptas of Magadha
● The Guptas of Magadha were different from
the main imperial Gupta dynasty. It was a
minor dynasty of Magadha. It could not be
determined whether they were connected
in any way with the imperial Guptas. But
some of the kings of this Gupta family were
very powerful and ruled up to as far as the
Brahmaputra River.
Maukharis
● The Maukharis occupied the region of western
Uttar Pradesh around Kanauj. They
captured a part of Magadha. Isanavarman
and his son Sarvavarman were powerful
Maukhari kings. They have adopted the title of
“Maharajadhiraja.” Isanavarman successfully
restrained the Hunas who had once again
attempted to move towards the heart of India.
Maitraka
● The Maitraka clan founded a kingdom in
Saurashtra in the west. They made their
capital at Valabhi. Valabhi developed as
a seat of learning and culture along with
a centre of trade and commerce. The
Maitrakas survived the longest, and ruled
until the middle of the 8th century. However,
they were defeated by the Arabs.
Pushyabhutis
● The Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar was the
fourth Kingdom. It was destined to play
a distinguished part in Indian history.The
Pushyabhuti family became known after the
Huna invasion. Prabhakarvardhana became
a powerful king of this kingdom. He played
an important role in the history of India.
Prabhakarvardhana assumed the title of
‘Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja.’
Banabhatta described Prabhakarvardhana as “a lion to
the Huna deer, a burning fever to the king of Sindhu,
a troubler of sleep of Gurjara king, a bilious fever to
that scent-elephant, the lord of Gandhara, a destroyer
of the skill of the Latas, an axe to the creeper, which
is the goddess of fortune of Malwa."
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 71
● Prabhakarvardhana’s sovereign kingdom was
extended to the whole of Punjab in the northwest and part of Malwa in the south.There
was a Huna invasion in the last phase of
Prabhakarvardhana’s rule. Prabhakarvardhana
had
two
sons,
Rajyavardhana
and
Harshavardhana and a daughter Rajyasri. He
married his daughter to the Maukhari king
Grahavarman.
● Prabhakaravardhana had been rapidly
extending the boundaries of his kingdom
towards the west and south. During this period,
two powerful kingdoms were established in
Bengal and Assam.
Gaudas
● In about AD 525, one independent kingdom was
established in Bengal. Gauda kingdom comprise
western and northern parts of Bengal. They declared
their independence; however, the Maukharis defeated
them.Sasanka became the king of Gauda kingdom
about half a century later. He founded his capital
at Karnasuvarna (near Murshidabad). He occupied
the whole of Bengal. He captured Orissa and then
advanced towards Kanauj in the west against the
Maukharis.
● The Maukhari king Grahavarman was married to
Rajyasri, daughter of Prabhakaravardhana. This
marriage alliance strengthened the position of the
two families. Sasanka (Gauda), with the help of
Malwa king, invaded Kanauj after the death of Prabhakaravardhana. The King Grahavarman of Kanauj,
was killed and the queen Rajyasri was thrown into
prison.
● Hearing the news of Kanauj defeat, Rajyavardhana
(brother of Harsha) started campaign to suppress
the kings of Gauda and Malwa. But he was
deceitfully killed by Sasanka.Rajyavardhana was
killed by Gauda king Sasanka. Harshavardhana
(younger brother of Rajyavardhana) was ascended
the Pushyabhuti throne in AD. 606 at the age of
sixteen. He was also known as ‘Siladitya.’ He ruled
for forty-one years.After Grahavarman's death, the
Councilors of Maukhari state offered the throne to
Harsha.
Harsha
● History of the Harsha period is welldocumented by Banabhatta. He was a poet
and he had written ‘Harshacharita.’ It is a
detailed account of the events of the reign
of Harsha.
● Hiuen Tsang (the Chinese pilgrim) also had
written in great detail about Harsha and India
(of Harsha's time).
● Harsha proceeded towards the east against
Sasanka with a view to avenge the death of
his brother, Rajyavardhana and brother-inlaw, Grahavarman. (Refer Fig. 5.2)
● Harsha did not get success in his first
expedition against Gauda. But after the
death of Sasanka, in his second expedition,
he conquered Magadha and Sasanka's empire.
Gauda kingdom was divided between Harsha
and Bhaskaravarman. Bhaskaravarman was
the king of Kamarupa. He was an ally of
Harsha against Gauda Kingdom.
● Harsh was successful in his military enterprise,
and conquered a large part of the northern
India. Harsha also launched a campaign to
extend his empire beyond the Narmada,
but he failed to do so.Aihole inscription
mentions that Harsha was defeated by
Pulakesin-II (Pulakesin-II was a Chalukya
king of Badami). Hiuen-Tsang also
mentioned that Harsha could not defeat
the Chalukya king.
● Harsha's empire was extended from the Punjab
to northern Orissa and from Himalayas to
the banks of Narmada. Harsh made military
coalition with Dhruvabhatta II, the Maitraka
king of Valabhi and Bhaskaravarman, the
king of kings, Kamarupa.Harsha earned an
undying reputation in the history of India for
his peaceful activities as described by HiuenTsang and by his biographer Banabhatta.
● Harsha, as a great emperor, was a great
patron of learning. He was himself a talented
author. He wrote three Sanskrit plays, namely
Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarsika.
Banabhatta had written Harshacharita
and Kadambari. He was a learned poet.
● Harsha was an efficient administrator. He
personally looked into the affairs of the state,
and constantly travelled over different parts
of his empire to see things with his own eyes.
He was also a tolerant king. He was a Saiva
by faith; however, he give equal respect to
other religious sects as well. Hiuen Tsang
describes him as a liberal Buddhist who also
honoured gods of others sects.
72 Master Series : Ancient India
Fig. 5.2. The Harsha Period
● Harsh’s charitable acts benefitted all the
communities, sects, and religions. Harsha
built rest houses, hospitals, and endowed
numerous Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain
establishments.
● The two most celebrated events of Harsha's
reign were the assemblies at Kanauj and at
Prayaga. The Kanauj assembly was held
in honor of Hiuen-Tsang for whom he had
great affection and regard.Kanauj assembly
was attended by 24,000 Buddhist monks, and
about 3,000 Jains and Brahmans.
● After the ceremony at Kanuaj, Harsha
along with Hiuen-Tsang went to Prayaga
(Allahabad), at the confluence of the rivers
Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati. Here he
used to celebrate religious festivals at the end
of every five years.
● Harsha performed the ceremony of ‘dana’
(donation), which lasted for about three
months. During these three months, he
donated all his accumulated wealth of five
years. He even gave his clothes and jewelry
and once begged from his sister an ordinary
garment to put on.
● Harsha attended six such assemblies at
Prayaga in his life time and donated all he
had. In AD 641, Harsha sent an embassy
with Hiuen-Tsang to the Chinese emperor
and received the Chinese embassy in return.
Harsha did not have any heir to his throne.
Therefore, after his death in AD 647, his
empire was grabbed by his minister.
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 73
Limitations of Harsha
● Harsha failed to wipeout proto feudal forces
because of this these centrifugal elements
emerged with much greater strength
immediately after Harsha’s death in AD 647.
● Harsha failed to reverse the ongoing
process of economic decline. The process of
De-Urbanization gained momentum during
Harsha’s reign and he could do nothing to stop
it. The literary references and archaeological
evidences have confirmed that cities like
Kaushambi were abandoned in 7th Century
AD.
● The socio-cultural life was also marked
by downhill trend. The feudal values were
becoming dominant; evils like child marriage and sati were wide-spread. The status
of Vaishyas and women declined sharply.
South India Kingdom
● The Satavahana’s rule ended in the first
half of the 3rd century AD from Deccan
and south India. In the second half of the
3rd century AD, the Vakatakas came into
power. However, much is not known about
the founder of the Vakatakas dynasty.
● Pravarasena was the (known) founder of the
Vakataka Empire in western and central India.
Vindhyasakti was the father of Pravarasena.
He played an important role in establishing
Vakataka Empire.
● Pravarasena is the only Vakataka ruler to whom
the title ‘Samrat’ was accorded. He performed
‘Vajapeya’ and four ‘Ashvamedhayajnas.’
● The successors of Pravarsena divided the
Vakataka Empire into two parts. The main
branch was known as Vatsagulma branch.
● Chandragupta II raised the importance of
the Vakatakas as a political power in western
and central Deccan. He married his daughter
Prabhavati Gupta into the Vakataka family.
● After this matrimonial alliance, the Vakatakas
and the Guptas remained friendly for a longtime.
Kingdoms of Eastern, Central
and South India
After the Vakatakas, three major kingdoms
(listed below) dominated the Deccan and south India
for about 300 years.
Fig. 5.3. The Western and Southern Kingdoms
74 Master Series : Ancient India
1. Chalukyas of Badami,
2. Pallavas of Kanchipuram, and
3. Pandyas of Madurai.
● The Vakatakas in the Deccan were
followed by the Chalukyas of Badami. The
Chalukyas develop their bases at Vatapi or
Badami and Aihole. They moved northwards
and captured the areas around Nasik and the
upper Godavari region.
● Pulakesin II was the greatest king of
‘Chalukya dynasty.’ He ruled from AD 610
to 642. Pulakesin II was the contemporary
of Harshavardhana of Kanauj.The Aihole
inscription mentioned the detailed account
of Pulakesin II‘s victories as well as early
history of the Chalukyas. This inscription
was composed by Ravikirti.
● Vishnuvardhan, son of Pulakesin II,
founded the eastern branch of the Chalukyas
with its capital first at Pishtapuri. Later Vengi
developed as a capital of the east Chalukyas
kingdom.This branch remained independent
of the main western branch and exercised
uninterrupted authority over the kingdom up
to the 12th century.
● The Rashtrakutas succeeded the Chalukyas
of Badami and built a vast empire in
the Deccan. Dantidurga I was the first
known ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
He defeated the Chalukyas and conquered
Badami in AD 752. The Chalukyas and the
Pallavas were contemporaries of the Gangas
and the Kadambas in the Deccan.
● The Western Gangas were distinguished
from the eastern Gangas of Kalinga. The
Chalukyas and the Pallavas were ruled over
a large part of modern Mysore.This region
was called after them as Gangavadi.
● Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja was
the founder. He ruled in the second half of the
4th century AD and had his capital at Kolar.
He ruled independently from AD 350-550.
Durvinita was a prominent Ganga king. He was
a scholar of Kannada and Sanskrit literature.
● Sripurusha was another important ruler
of (western Ganga) dynasty. He shifted his
capital to Manyapura (Manne near Bangalore).
His kingdom was known as Srirajya on
account of its prosperity.
Kadamba Dynasty
● Mayurasharma established the Kadamba
dynasty. He was a learned Brahman. It is
said that Mayurasharma came to receive
education at Kanchi, but he was insulted by
some Pallava officials. To avenge his insult,
he took up a military profession, defeated
Pallava officials and then Pallavas recognized
the independence of Mayursharma.
● The Mayurasharma ruled from Banavasi from
A.D. 345 to 365. Kakusthavarman (A.D.
435-455) was the most powerful king and
administrator of the Kadamba dynasty.
Kakusthavarman established matrimonial
relations with the Gangas and the Guptas
(dynasties). He also extended his territory.
(Refer Fig. 5.4)
● After the death of Kakusthavarman, the
Kadamba family split into two branches.
One of the branches continued to rule
from Banavasi and the other branch ruled
from Triparvata.Krishnavarma-I, the ruler
from Triparvata, united the family. But
around AD 540, the Chalukyas of Badami
defeated the Kadambas and captured
their kingdom.
● In the southern Peninsula, three dynasties
namely the Pallavas, Pandyas, and the Cholas
were the major powers during this period.
Pallavas
● The Pallavas became prominent after the
fall of Satavahanas from the 3rd century
until the rise of Cholas in the 9th century
AD. However, the origin of Pallava is under
debate.The Pallava kings were divided into
two groups namely the early Pallavas and
greater Pallavas.
● The Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions tell about
the early Pallavas. It is mentioned that they
performed sacrifices and ruled over a wellorganized territory that covered the northern
part of the peninsula extending from the
eastern sea to the western sea. Simhavishnu
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 75
Fig. 5.4. The Kadamba Dynasty
was the famous Pallava king ruling in the
6th century A.D. He increased the influence
and prestige of his family.
● Simhavishnu’s
son
and
successor
Mahendravarman I (AD 600-630) was a
versatile genius. He was both a poet and a
singer. Mahendravarman I composed a play
‘Mattavilas Prahasana’ (the Delight of the
Drunkards) in Sanskrit. During this period,
the practice of scooping entire temples out
of solid rock was introduced.
● The ‘Rathas’ of Mahabalipuram are
fine examples of rock cutting temple.
Mahendravarman I was the contemporary
of the Chalukya king, Pulakesin II and
Harshavardhan of Kanauj. During this period,
Pulakesin II had struggled with Harsha on the
one hand and with Mahendravarman-I on the
other. In both Pulakesin II emerged victorious.
● Pulakesin II captured the northern
provinces of Pallava’s kingdom after
defeating Mahendravarman I. Later
on, Pulakesin II was defeated by
Narsimhavarman. He was son and successor
of Mahendravarman I. Narasimhavarman
●
●
●
●
conquered Badami and adopted the title of
‘Vatapikonda.’
Narasimhavarman had also defeated the
Cholas, the Cheras, the Pandyas, and the
Kalabhas. Narasimhavarman gave political
refuge to a Ceylonese prince Manavarman
and sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon to
help him to secure the throne again.
Narasimhavarman was one of the most powerful rulers of south India and raised the power
and prestige of the Pallavas as far as Ceylon
and South East Asia.Narasimhavarman-II
ruled peacefully during the AD 695-722.
During this period, a particular style of
temple architecture was developed. This is
popularly known as the ‘Dravidian’ style of
temple architecture.
Pallavas faced attacks from the Chalukya
king Vikramaditya II (AD 733-745) during
the first half of the 8th century. He is said
to have overrun Kanchi thrice.The Pallavas
had also been condemned of Pandyas and
Rashtrakutas during the reign of Dantivarman
(around AD 796-840).
76 Master Series : Ancient India
● Because of the continuous struggles, the
power of the Pallavas began to decline.The
Pallavas were succeeded by the Cholas. They
also developed as the greatest imperial power
in the south. They had influence over Ceylon
and the South East Asian countries.
Kamarupa
● The modern Assam was known as Kamarupa
and Pragjotish during the ancient times.
Pragjotish was the capital of Kamarupa.
The Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta
mentioned about the Davaka kingdom as
the border state along with Kamarupa in
this region. The kingdom of Kamarupa
was extended up to northern and western
Bengal, and bordering lands of China as
well as Davaka. This region was ruled by a
single dynasty from the time of Mahabharata
up to the middle of the 7th century, till
Bhaskaravarma. (Refer Fig. 5.5)
● The Kamarupa dynasty claims its descent
from the Asura Naraka. This Kamarupa
dynasty is also known as ‘Bhauma’ (i. e.
the son of Bhumi). Asura Naraka had a son
namely Bhagadatta who had taken part in
the Mahabharata War.
● The inscriptions of the dynasty proved that
the king Bhagadatta and his successors ruled
for about 3,000 years in Kamarupa prior to
king Pushyavarma. The king Pushyavarma
was a contemporary of Samudragupta.
The 8th king, Bhutivarma had ruled in the
middle of the 6th century is known for his
own records.The time period of the first
king Pushyavarma had been fixed A.D. 350
approximately. He had acknowledged the
supremacy of Samudragupta. Pushyavarma
assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’ and
the ‘lord of Pragjotish’ as mentioned in the
Nalanda seal.
● The 7th king, Narayanavarma, performed
horse sacrifices, which shows that he become
independent of the Gupta Empire during
the first half of the 6th century.The 8th
king Bhutivarma or Mahabhutivarma was a
powerful king. He ruled in the middle of the
6th century AD. Kamarupa became a powerful
kingdom during the reign of Bhutivarma.
● During Bhutivarma’s reign Kamrupa included
the whole of the Brahmaputra valley and
Sylhet and extended upto the Karatoya River
in the west. It remained to be the traditional
boundary of Kamarupa for a long time.
Fig. 5.5. The Kamarupa Dynasty
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 77
● Chandramukhavarma, son of Bhutivarma,
was not so known. However, his son
Sthitavarma (grandson of Bhutivarma)
had performed a horse sacrifice. The king
Susthitavarma mentioned in the Aphsada
inscription of the later Gupta King Adityasen.
Mahasenagupta had defeated Susthitavarma
on the banks of river Lauhitya (Brahmaputra).
● Sasanka may be identified with the same
Gauda king who defeated and imprisoned
Supratisthitavarma and Bhaskaravarma soon
after the death of their father Susthitavarma.
Supratishthitavarma had not yet ascended
the throne. Both of them managed to escape
from the prison of the Gauda king and
Supratishthitavarma ruled for a short period.
His brother, Bhaskaravarma, succeeded him.
Bhaskaravarma
Bhaskaravarma had been described in
Harshacharita of Banabhatta. He was an ally of
the king Harshavardhana.Bhaskaravarma sent his
ambassador Hamsavega with presents to have a
coalition with Harsha.
● The king of Kamarupa had been earlier
defeated and imprisoned along with his elder
brother by the king of Gauda. Therefore, this
coalition was a good diplomatic move by the
king of Kamarupa.
● Rajyavardhana, the elder brother of Harsh
was killed deceitfully by the same king of
Gauda and Harsha had declared to destroy
them. Therefore, this was a coalition between
the two kings against their common enemy.
● Banabhatta’s account has disturbed the
chronological sequence of the events and
therefore some confusion has cropped up
about the history of the time. The coalition
force of Harsha and Bhaskaravarma defeated
the Sasanka, king of Bengal and as a result of
this Bhaskaravarma succeeded in occupying a
large portion of Bengal.
● Hiuen-Tsang mentioned in his account that
Bhaskaravarma had great influence over the
Buddhist monastery of Nalanda. Hiuen-Tsang
mentioned that King Bhaskaravarma sent a
messenger to Silabhadra, the head of Nalanda
monastery, to send the 'great pilgrim from
China' to him. But this request was compiled
only after a threat.
● On the invitation, Hiuen-Tsang visited
Kamarupa and stayed there for about a month.
Thereafter, Harsha demanded from the king of
Kamarupa to send back the Chinese pilgrim
to his court. This also complied after a threat
to Bhaskaravarma.
● Bhaskaravarma met Harsha in person
along with Hiuen-Tsang at Kajangala.
Bhaskaravarma also attended the great
religious assembly called by Harsha at Kanauj
and Prayaga. Hiuen-Tsang’s account shows
that Bhaskaravarma had control over north
Bengal and also had influence over Nalanda
in Bihar. After the death of Bhaskaravarma,
this ancient dynasty came to an end.
● Later on, the Kamarupa kingdom was occupied
by a Mlechchha ruler named Salastambha.
Names of a few successors of Salastambha
are known, but no details are available about
them.
India after Harsha
Harsha died in the mid of 7th century AD (AD
647). Delhi Sultanate founded in the 12th century
AD. The intervening period span was of 600 years
and evidenced an array events.
Major Events of 600 Years After
Harsha
1. The rise of important kingdoms in eastern,
central, and southern India.
2. The cultural traditions of these kingdoms
remained stable even though they often fought
among themselves.
3. The economy, social structure, ideas, and
beliefs were hardly changed rather followed
the previous system. The changes in these
fields had taken place more gradually than the
changes in political structure.
4. The spread of Muslim rule over the major part
of northern India at the end of 12th century.
78 Master Series : Ancient India
Yashovarman
● Kanauj became the seat of power in north
India since the days of Maukharis equally as
Pataliputra (Patna) enjoyed before. HiuenTsang described Kanauj as a prosperous
center of Buddhism along with Hinduism.
Kanauj was a well-fortified city extending
about four miles on the bank of the Ganges.
● Kanauj lost its status as the capital city after
the death of Harsha. But during Yashovarman
time (i.e. in the beginning of the 8th century
AD) Kanauj became a centre of power again
in north India.
● Yashovarman ruled over a huge empire,
which included almost the whole of northern
India. Gaudavaho written by Vakpatiraja,
is a kavya literature, which describes the
victory of king Yashovarman over Bengal.
Yashovarman sent an embassy to China in
AD 731. Famous dramatist Bhavabhuti
and famous poet Vakpatiraja adorned his
court. Malati-Madhava, Uttara Rama-charita,
and Mahavira-charita all were written by
Bhavabhuti. Yashovarman ruled till about
AD 740.
● Kanauj, from the 6th century AD till the
period of Mohammad Ghori, in 1194 AD,
played an important role in the history of the
north India.
Gurjara Pratiharas
● The early history of Gurjara Pratiharas is not
known. Historians believe that after the Gupta
period, Gurjara Pratiharas came to India
from the central Asian region and settled in
Rajasthan. Gradually, they gained political
importance.
● The bardic tradition of Rajasthan claims that
the Gurjara Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Parmaras, and Chahmanas were born out of
a yajna done at Mount Abu. Therefore, these
four dynasties are also known as agnikulas
(fire-clans).
● The four dynasties of Rajputs were created
for the protection of the country from external
aggressions. The literary meaning of Pratihara
is ‘door keeper.’ It is believed that their
ancestor Lakshmana served as a door keeper
to his brother Rama. Therefore, they were
called as Pratihara. The geographical name
of Gujarat is supposed to be derived from
Gurjara.
Rulers of Gurjara Pratiharas
● The Gwalior inscription mentioned the early
history of the family. The inscription was
founded by King Bhoja in the 7th century.
He was the most famous king of the Gurjara Pratiharas dynasty.
● Nagabhatta I was the real founder of the
fame of family. He defeated the Muslim
forces from the Arabs.
● During AD 775-800, Vatsaraja followed
an aggressive imperial policy. He defeated
Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal. The Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated Vatsaraja and
took away the political benefit of the defeat
of Pala king. Dharmapala took advantage
of the defeat of Vatsaraja and installed his
own nominee Chakrayudba on the throne of
Kanauj.
● Vatsaraja’s son, Nagabhatta II (AD 815)
made an alliance with Andhra, Vidharbha,
and Kalinga. He made extensive preparation
to fight against his rivals. Nagabhatta II first
defeated Chakrayudha and captured Kanauj.
Then he defeated Dharmapala and fought with
Govinda III, the Rashtrakuta king. Nagabhatta
also defeated Sultan Vega who was the son
of the governor of Sind under the Caliph l
Mamun. Nagabhatta II was succeeded by his
son Ramabhadra. Ramabhadra was succeeded
by his son Bhoja I about AD 836.
● Bhoja I restored the falling prosperities
and reputation of his dynasty. A golden
opportunity to the king Bhoja I was provided
by the death of Devapala of Bengal and
Rashtrakuta's invasion of Bengal thereafter.
The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II was
involved in the struggle with the Eastern
Chalukyas. Bhoja I defeated Krishna II and
captured the region of Malwa and Gujarat.
After victory over two great rivals, Bhoja
I founded his sovereignty over the Punjab,
Avadh, and other territories of north India
and consolidated his empire.
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 79
● Bhoja I was a devotee of Vishnu, and
adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha.’ It has
been inscribed in some of his coins. He
is also known by other names as 'Mihir',
'Prabhasa,' etc.Bhoja-I was succeeded by his
son Mahendrapala-I about AD 885.
● Mahendrapala-I also extended the boundaries
of his empire. During his reign, the Pratihara
Empire stretched almost from the Himalayas
in the north to the Vindhyas in the south
and from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in
the west.Mahendrapala I was also known as
'Mahendrayudha', and 'Nirbhayanarendra.' He
was a liberal patron of learned men.
● Rajashehara was learned man of his court.
He had written Karpuramanjari, BalaRamayana, Bala Bharata, Kavyamimansa,
Bhuvana Kosha, and Haravilasa. The
Pratiharas dynasty dominated north India for
over two hundred years from the 8th century
to the 10th century AD.
● Arab scholar, Al-Masudi, visited India in AD
915-916. Al-Masudi mentioned about the
great powers and prestige of the Pratihara
rulers and the vastness of their empire.
Al-Masudi says that empire of AI-Juzr
(Gurjara) had 1,800,000 villages, the cities
and rural areas were about 2,000 km in length
and 2,000 km in breadth.
● The Rashtrakuta king, Indra II again attacked
Kanauj between AD 915 and AD 918 and
completely destroyed it. This weakened the
Pratihara Empire.
● Krishna III was other Rashtrakuta ruler
invaded north India in about AD 963. He
defeated the Pratihara rulers. This led to
decline of Pratihara Empire.
● The Pratiharas were patrons of learning and
literature.Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet) lived
at the court of Mahendrapala I. The Pratihara
kings were followers of Hinduism. They build
with many fine buildings and temples at Kanauj.
● The epigraphic records show that the building
of temples and the educational institutions
attached with them, formed community
projects, in which the entire village community
participated.
● Many Indian scholars went to the court of
the Caliph at Baghdad along with embassies.
However, the names of the Indian kings are
not known who sent these embassies. This
interaction between India and Arab led to
the spread of Indian culture, literature, and
science, especially mathematics, algebra, and
medicine to the Arab world from where these
were further transmitted to Europe.
● Although the Pratiharas were well known for
their aggression to the Arab rulers of Sindh.
Despite all this, the movement of scholars and
trade between India and west Asia remained
uninterrupted.
Palas
● After the death of Harsha and up to the rise
of the Palas, the history of Bengal is not clear.
During this time, West Bengal was known
as Gauda and East Bengal as Vanga. Bengal was subject to internal disorder, which has
been termed as Matsyanyaya.
● Gopala was the elected king by the people
in a revolution to end the Matsyanyaya. The
history of Gopala’s early life is not known.
Gopala introduced peace in the kingdom and
laid the foundation for the Pala dynasty.
● Dharmapala became ruler after Gopala in
about AD 780. He undertakes the expansion of
his empire. Dharmapala defeated Indrayudha,
the king of Kanauj and installed his nominee
Chakrayudha to the throne of Kanauj.Dharmapala held a grand darbar at Kanauj, which
was attended by several kings. However, he
could not consolidate his position.
● Rashtrakuta
king,
Dhruva
defeated
Dharmapala near Monghyr (Bihar) in a battle.
Meanwhile Nagabhatta II, Pratihara king
became more powerful. After Dharmapala,
his son Devapala became the ruler. He was
the mightiest Pala king. He conquered –
Pragjotishpur (Assam) and Utkala (Orissa).
● The Palas dynasty ruled over Bihar, Bengal,
and parts of Orissa and Assam with many
ups and downs for over four centuries. Arab
merchant Sulaiman testifies their power. He calls
80 Master Series : Ancient India
the Pala kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma), short for
Dharmapala. Sulaiman mentioned that the Pala
rulers were at war with their neighbors – the
Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, but his troops
were more in number than his adversaries.
Sulaiman also mentioned that ‘it was usual for
the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of
50,000 elephants.’
● The Tibetan chronicles also provide detailed
information about the Palas dynasties.
According to Tibetan historians, Pala rulers
were great patrons of Buddhist learning and
religion. Dharmapala founded the famous
Buddhist monastery at Vikramashila. It
became eminent as Nalanda (in fame).
During Pala reign, Nalanda University
became famous all over the world.
During the Pala’s reign, Nalanda had more than 10,000
students and teachers coming not only from different
parts of India, but also from central Asia, China, South
East Asia, and Sri Lanka.
● Nalanda University was considered as one of
the biggest educational institutions of its time.
It imparted education in various branches
of knowledge. Dharmapala donated the
royal income from two hundred surrounding
villages to meet the expenses of Nalanda
University. Devapala also donated income
from five villages.
● The king of Suvarnadvipa (modern Malaya
Peninsula, Java and Sumatra), Maharaja
Balaputradeva erected a monastery in Nalanda
and requested Devapala to donate five villages
for the maintenance of that monastery.
● The Pala kings patronized Hinduism as
well. Vinayakapala built one thousand
temples in honour of the Lord Saiva. They
also gave donations to Brahmans to settle in
their country and run gurukuls. The powerful
Sailendra dynasty of South East Asia sent
many embassies to the Pala kings. They ruled
over Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and neighboring
islands.
● The Palas had close trade contacts and
cultural links with South East Asia and China.
The trade with South East Asia and China
was very profitable and added greatly to the
prosperity of the Pala Empire.
Rashtrakutas
● The Pala kings ruled in the eastern India,
the Pratiharas ruled in the north India,
and Rashtrakutas ruled in the Deccan.The
term ‘Rashtrakuts’ literarily means officers
in-charge of territorial divisions (known
as Rashtras). The Rashtrakuts were the
officers of Rashtra (province) under the
early Chalukyas of Badami.
● Dantivarman or Dantidurga was the
founder of the Rashtrakuts dynasty. He
made his capital at Manyakhet or Malkhed
near modern Sholapur. Dantivarman was
succeeded by his uncle Krishna I about AD
758. Krishna I extended his kingdom from
Maharashtra to Karnataka.
● Dhruva became king in about AD 779.
It was the opening of a new era in the
history of Rashtrakutas. Dhruva was the
first Rashtrakuta ruler from Deccan who
had intervene in the tripartite struggle of
supremacy in north India. He had defeated
two powers of the North India i.e the Pratihara
king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala
of Bengal. Dhruva added the emblem of
Ganga and Yamuna to his imperial emblem
after his successful campaigns in north India.
● Dhruva was succeeded by Govinda III (AD
793-813). Govinda III also made invasions into
north India and fought successfully against
the Pala king Dharmapala and Chakrayudha
the ruler of Kanauj. Govinda III shattered
the union of the Ganga, Chera, Pandya, and
Pallava rulers in south India.
● Govind III was succeeded by his son
Amoghavarsha I (AD 814-878). Amoghavarsha
I had been ruled for 60 years. He is better
known for his leanings towards religion
and literature. Amoghavarsha supported
Jainism. He was a patron of literature and
patronized as the men of letter. Amoghavarsha
wrote Kavirajamarga. It was earliest
Kannada work on poetics. Amoghavarsha
was a great builder. He built the capital city
Manyakhet.
● The successor of Amoghavarsha were Indra
III (AD 915-927) and Krishna III (939- 965).
Both were the great Rashtrakuta rulers. Indra
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 81
III had defeated the Pratihara king Mahipala
I and ransacked his capital Kanauj.Arab
traveler, Al-Masudi, calls the Rashtrakuta
king as the greatest king of India.
● Krishna III was the last famous king
of Rashtrakuta. He struggled against the
Paramaras of Malwa and eastern Chalukya
of Vengi.Krishna III also struggled against
the Chola ruler of Tanjore. He reached up to
Rameshwaram and built a pillar of victory
and a temple there.
● The dominance of the Rashtrakutas in the
Deccan is the remarkable period in the history
of India. Rashtrakuta ruled more than three
hundred years. They patronized Saivism and
Vaishnavism. In addition, they also protected
Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam.The Rashtrakuta
rulers permitted the Muslim merchants to settle
in their kingdom, build mosques, and preach
their religion. Rashtrakuta rulers equally
support Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada
along with Apabhramsa languages.
Rock-cut cave temples excavated at Ellora are the
symbols of Rashtrakuta’s religious toleration. They are
one of the splendors of Indian arts.The Kailash temple
was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. It is a
supreme piece of art.
The Tripartite Struggle
There were three great powers in India in the early
phase of 8th century AD, namely
1. The Gurjara Pratihara in the north,
2. The Palas in the east, and
3. The Rasthrakutas in the Deccan.
Fig. 5.6. The Tripartite Struggle
82 Master Series : Ancient India
● The tripartite struggle for the supremacy
between the Palas, the Gurjara Pratiharas,
and the Rashtrakutas was the important
event of these centuries. The main cause of
this struggle was the desire to possess the
city of Kanauj, which was then a symbol
of sovereignty. And, some other cause of
this struggle was to have control over the
intermediate fertile regions.
● The shifting of the power among these three
was determined both by the internal strength
of the respective region and the inability of
the rulers to extend their control beyond their
respective regions for a longer duration.All
of the three dynasties (enlisted above) were
having more or less same military equipment,
administrative machinery, and the strategic
concepts.The Arab travelers also affirmed
that these three powers were equal in strength.
● Because of the balance of power, there was
a great political stability within the regions,
which nurtured the development of culture
and education.
● The first encounter took place among the
Pratihara king Vatsaraja, the Pala king
Dharmapala, and Rashtrakuta king
Dhruva.Rashtrakutas achieved a complete
victory in the first phase. But the unfortunate
death of Dhruva was a great set back to
Rashtrakutas.
● Pala king Devapala (AD 821-860) was the
most prominent in the second phase because
his contemporary Pratihara and Rashtrakuta
kings were weak rulers.
● Pratihara kings Bhoja (AD 836-885) and
Mahendrapala (AD 885-910) proved to be
more powerful in the third phase (during
the 9th century).
● Each of the three kingdoms Pratiharas,
Pala, and Rashtrakutas declined almost
simultaneously around the end of the 10th
century AD. The end of these three dynasties
marked the end of the glorious era of more
than 300 years.
Literature of the period post–Harsha
● Sanskrit remained the main language of the
literature. Pali and Prakrit were used for
writing the Buddhist and Jain religious
literature.
● Vakapati's Gaudavaho was the biography
of Yashovarman of Kanauj. It was the last
major work in the older tradition of Prakrit.
Apabhramsha represented the last stage
of Prakrit languages. This was considered
as an important development in the field of
literature because the modern languages, such
as Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, and Bangla have
all evolved from it.A number of kavyas with
great significance constitutes a special feature
of this period.
● The Ramacharita of Sandhyakara Nandi
written during the reign of king Mahipal of
the Pala kingdom, represents both the story
of Rama and the life of king Ramapala
of Bengal. The Raghavaphandavija of
Dhananjaya Shrutokriti describes the stories
of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata at the
same time. The marriage of Siva and Parvati;
and Krishna and Rukmini are described in the
Parvati-Rukminiya written by Vidyamadhava.
Vidyamadhava was the court poet of the
Chalukya king Somadeva.
● Hemachandra composed a work entitled as
Saptasandhana (having seven alternative
interpretations). The style of writing in the
intricate patterns of double, triple or even
more meanings is found in the literature
of this period. Shatarthakavya written by
Somaprabhacharya, is an example of literary
climax in which every verse was meant for
being interpreted in a hundred ways.
Jaina Literature
A large number of Jaina narratives dealing with the
lives of Jain teachers were composed during the period.
The significant of them are
1. Adinathacharita by Vardhamana
2. Shantinathacharita by Devachandra
3. Prithvichandracharita by Shantisuri
4. Parshvanathacharita by Devabhadra
5. Kuarapalacharita
and
Neminathacharita
by
Hemachandra
6. Sukumalachariu by Shrihara
7. Neminathacharita by Haribhadra
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 83
Other Literary Works of the Period
● The Neminathacharita by Haribhadra and
Sukumalachariu by Shrihara have been
entirely written in Apabhramsa.
● Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana, is the most
remarkable historical texts in the kavya form.
It is the only known attempt to write history
in the modern sense.
● Rajendra Karnapura is a eulogy of king
Harsha of Kashmir written by Shambu.
Other literary works of this category are:
1. Prithviraja Vijay of Jayanka
2. Dvayashraya Mahakavya by Hemachandra
3. Kirtikaumndi by Someshvara
4. Vikramankadevacharita of Bilhana
5. Navasahasankacharita of Padmagupta
6. Kirti Kaumudi by Somadeva
The most important among the treatises were the
poetic works. Some such works are:
1. Kavyamimamsa by Rajashekhara
2. Dasharupa by Dhananjaya
3. Saraswati Kanthabharana by Bhoja
4. Kavyanushasana of Hemachandra
5. Kavikanthabharana by Kshemendra
The famous work in the field of prose literature are:
1. Brihatkathamanjari by Kshemendra
2. Kathasaritasagara by Somadeva
3. Kathakoshaprakarana by Jineshvara Suri
The famous dramas are:
1. Lalitavigraharaja nataka by Somadeva,
2. Harikeli nataka by Visaladeva
3. Prasannaraghava by Jayadeva
4. Karnasundari by Bilhana
5. Abhidhana
Chintamani,
Deshinamamala,
Anekarthasamgraha,
Nighantushesha,
all
written by Hemachandra.
● The famous mathematician Bhaskaracharya
also belonged to the 12th century AD.
Siddhanta-Shiromani,
comprises
in
four parts, namely Lilavati, Vijaganita,
Grahaganita, and Gola. Gola deals
with astronomy. Siddhanta Shiromani
propounded the principle of ‘Perpetual
Motion.’ It was transmitted by Islam about AD
1200 to Europe. This led to the development
of the concept of power technology.
● Rajmariganka is the work on astronomy
written by King Bhoja of Paramara
dynasty.
● Madhava wrote several works on medicine.
Nidana or Riguimshchana is his best known
work on Pathalogy. It was translated into
Arabic under the guidance of Harunal Rashid.
Chikitsa Kutamudgara and Yogavyakhya
were also written by Madhava.
● Chikitsakalika or Yoga-mala written
by
Vagabhata
II's
son
Tisata.
Yogaratnasamuchchhaya was written by
Chandratha. He was the son of Tisata. Brinda
of Bengal wrote his Siddhayoga between AD
975 and 1,000.
Some commentaries compiled during this period are:
1. Krityakalpataru written by Lakshmidhara
2. Chaturvarga Chintamani written by Hemadri
3. Mitakasara written by Vijnaneshvara
4. Dayabhaga (Law of inheritance) written by
Jimutavahana
5. Vyavaharamatrika and Kalaviveka Manuvritti
by Govindaraja
6. Smrityarthasara written by Shridhara
7. A commentary on the Yajnavalkyasmriti
written by Apararka
8. A commentary on the Yajnavalkyasmriti was
also written by Vijnaneshvara
9. Smritichandrika written by Devanna Bhatta are
other outstanding creations of this period.
Important works on polity are:
1. Nitishastra written by Mathara
2. Nitisara written by Kamandaka
3. Nitivakyamrita by Somadeva suri
Society During Post–Harsha Period
Two important trends continuing in society since the
7th century AD and onwards were:
1. The continuity of the assimilation of foreign
elements, and
2. The segregation of jati system.
84 Master Series : Ancient India
The Caste System
● There were four original Varnas with several
jatis, which were further subdivided into
numerous subsections.Law of this period
accepted birth, profession, and residence as
the deciding factor in the determination of
jati system.
● By the time, Brahmans came to be identified
by their gotra, ancestor, and branch of Vedic
learning, original home, and village. The
Kshatriyas also multiplied as a result of the
assimilation of foreigners and other local people.
Two important factors that raise the number of
mixed jatis were:
1. Transformation of a specific profession into
jati, and
2. Increasing phenomenon of hypergamous unions
between different jatis.
● Jatis were also formed on the basis of
religious sects such as Lingayats, Virasaivas,
Svetambaras, and Digambaras, etc.
● Chandalas were the most important
representatives of Antyajatis, which were the
lowest of all Jatis.
● The traditional professions related to four
‘Varnas’ were not rigorously followed during
this period.
● There were Brahmans, who did not habitually
confine their activity to studying, teaching,
worshipping, and the performance of priestly
functions. Vaisya Brahman lived by engaging
himself in agriculture and trade.Sudra
Brahman sells lac, salt, milk, ghee, honey etc.
● The Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras deviated
from their traditional professions and formed
several mixed castes.
● Kayasthas was an important class emerged
as a jati during this period. Kayasthas were
engaged as clerks of the administration, they
were responsible for writing documents and
maintaining records.Kayasthas emerges from
the Mauryan period itself, but by the 7th century, they came to be regarded as distinct jati.
● The marriages were often arranged by parents or other guardians of the parties and
sometimes girls chose their husbands. But
generally, in marriage old rules as mentioned
in the Smritis were followed.
● New ideas and practices regarding the
remarriages were also seen. The words like
‘punarbhu’ and ‘didhishu’ were frequently
used in the literature. This means, remarriage
of a woman was permitted.
● The women's right to inherit property was
accepted by the authorities. The widow was
entitled to succeed to the whole estate of her
issueless and/or deceased husband.
Economy During Post–Harsha
Period
● The literary and inscriptional evidences of the
post–Harsha period illustrate the advanced
state of agriculture, trade, and economy.
Agriculture
● Medhatithi (who was is one of the oldest
and most famous commentators on the
Manusmriti) included a group of seventeen
articles in the category of grain (dhanya).
● Abhidhanaratnamala
mentioned
the
scientific knowledge of agriculture. A large
variety of cereals and other food grains with
their synonyms are mentioned.
● Classification of soil as fertile, barren, fallow
desert, excellent as well as those green
with grass or abounding in needs are also
mentioned along with the types of soil such
as black or yellow soil.
● Different kinds of fields were selected for
different classes of crops.Irrigation by the
arahata (Persian wheel) and by leather buckets
is mentioned.The inscriptions show that the
Persian wheel was present in India much prior
to the arrival of Muslim rulers.
● It is mentioned by Medhatithi that the
agriculturist should be expected to know
about what seed was to be sown thickly
and what sparsely, what soil was fit for a
particular kind of seed and what soil was not
so fit, and what harvest was expected from a
special variety of seed.
Textile During Post-Harsha Period
● Textile was the oldest industry. The progress
of Gupta period continued during this period.
A number of variety and qualities of textiles
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 85
such as woolen and hempen yarns, garments
made of silk, deer's hair, and sheep and goats’
wool are find mentioned in the contemporary
literature.
● The contemporary literature of this period also
mentioned about the professions of weavers,
dyers, and the tailors.
Metal Industry – Use of Metals
● Various metals namely copper, brass, iron,
lead, tin, silver, and gold were used during
this period. Some centers of metal industry
were developed, for example, Saurashtra for
bell industry and Vanga for the tin industry
were known.
Trade and Commerce
● Indian, Chinese, and Arab sources mentioned
the flow of trade between east and west
through India.
● The Arab traveler, Ibn Khordadbah in
the end of the 9th century, mentioned
about Indian exports consisting of diverse
products including sandal wood, camphor,
and camphor water, nutmeg, clove pink,
coconut, precious, and semiprecious stones,
pearls, fisheries, textiles of cotton, and silk
and variety of metal products.
● The best breeds of horses were imported from
central and western Asia. Foreign merchants
were gradually settled in India. They were
attracted by the prosperity of coastal towns
of Gujarat, Malabar, and Tamil.
● Arab geographers mentioned some of the India
ports located on the west coast namely Debal
(in Indus delta), Cambay Jhana, Sopara, and
Quilon. The Arab travellers gave descriptive
details about the prosperity of Sailendra
kings. He established political, cultural, and
economic relations with Indian kings.
● The guilds continued to play an important
part as in the previous centuries. Medhatithi
mentions about both the industrial and
mercantile guilds. Guilds consisted of
people following common profession such as
tradesmen, artisans, money lenders, etc.
● South Indian inscriptions mention about the
working of two famous trading corporations.
Manigramam was the first trading corporations.
It was known since the 9th century to the 13th
century. It carried on in the coastal as well
as inland towns of south India.
Art and Architecture During Post–
Harsh Period
● This phase was undoubtedly a fruitful age for
the art and architecture, which are apparent
from the numerous temples standing for
the 1,200 years. These temples are among
the most beautiful structures of that era and
famous for their styles of architecture.
● Bhubaneshwar temple of Orissa is an excellent
example of the Nagar style or north Indian style.
● The great Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneshwar
and Sun temple of Konark are the
monumental examples of architecture.
Fig. 5.7 Lingaraja Temple of Bhubaneshwar
● Khajuraho temples in Bundelkhand are
excellent Nagar style temples built by the
Chandelas. They were built on raised plinth and
known for their carving and erotic sculptures.
Fi.g. 5.8. Khajuraho temples in Bundelkhand
● Kandarya Mahadeva temple is another
example of excellent architecture.
● The Sun temple in Kashmir, also called as
the Martanda temple was built by Lalitaditya
Muktapida around the 8th century AD, It is the
best example of Kashmir style of architecture.
86 Master Series : Ancient India
● The Jains temples generally have the
octagonal dome and are decorated with
subjects drawn from the Jain mythology.
● The famous temples of Dilwara (Mt. Abu) and
Satrunjaya (Palitana) are the best examples of
Jain architecture. These temples are famous for
their elegant carvings and rich design.
● 57 feet high Jainis sculpture of Gommatesvara
at Sravanabelagola in Hasan, Mysore is one of
the largest free standing images in the world.
● In the Deccan, the temples of Vatapi
(Badami) and Pattadakal (Bijapur) are
stylistically different. Further, Hoysalesvara
temples (Halebid), though are incomplete, but
distinct for its structural and decorative features.
● Pallavas built several temples in south
India. Important among them are Dalavanur
temple at (Arcot district) Pallavaram, Vallam
(in Chinglepeet district), and Rathas.
● The Kailash temple at Ellora is an example
of solid rock temple, dedicated to Siva. It
was excavated during the reign of Krishna I
of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. It is one of the
architectural marvels of this period.
Fig.5.9. Kailash Temple, Ellora
● Meenakshi temple of Madurai is the specimen of the Dravidian style of temples.
Fig. 5.10. Meenakshi temple of Madurai
● The older tradition of wall painting continued
to be used to decorate the walls of temples
and palaces.
Religious Activities
Harsha Period
During
Post–
● The fundamental features of religion
characterized during the previous period
continued during this period. Buddhism
and Jainism developed some similarity
with Saivism and Vaishnavism on theistic
tendencies.
● Buddhism witnessed deprivity of pure
Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism during this
period. Buddha's teachings, which were earlier
free from rituals gradually gave way to new
ethical and devotional attitude in which Buddha
had begun to be worshiped as a god.This
worship became more elaborate with devotional
songs accompanied by rites and ceremonies.
● Vajrayana Buddhism (the vehicle of
thunderbolt) shows the influence of Tantric
ideas on Buddhism. Kanchi was the great
center of Buddhism in south India. The Chola
kings also gave donations to Buddhists.
● During this period, Buddhism began to
decline because:
1. It did not get the royal patronage;
2. Attacks on monasteries and killing of
monks resulted in migration of Buddhists
from eastern India; and
3. The coming of Islam
● Jainism gained popularity among the trading
classes in north and west India.It received
extensive royal patronage in south India.
It was honored by the Gangas, Chalukyas,
and by Rastrakuta rulers in the Deccan. Jain
doctrines of the four gi fts (learning, food,
medicine, and shelter) helped to make Jainism
popular among the people.
● Hinduism became popular in the forms of
Saivism and Vaishnavism. In Vaishnavism,
the incarnation of Vishnu became more
popular. The most popular incarnation was
Krishna. Krishna and Radha were worshiped
and their love was interpreted as attachment
of the human soul for the universal soul.
Gupta and Post-Gupta Age 87
● Alvars, in the south, represented the
emotional side of Tamilian Vaishnavism.
Acharyas represented the intellectual and
philosophical sides of Vaishnavism.
● Saivism attained a dominant position in
the society. The main principles remained the
same, though there were local variations and
consequent doctrinal differences.
● The bhakti movement became popular
during the 9th and 10th century AD. The
bhakti movement led by Nayanars (Saiva
saint) and Alvars (Vaishnav saint) spread all
over the country. Lingayats or Virasaivas
were another popular movement spread in
south India during this time.
Tantricism
● Tantricism had originated in the 6th century, but
became popular from the 8th century onwards. It
was very popular in north eastern India and Tibet.
Some of its rituals came from the Tibetan practices.
● Tantricism was open to all castes as well as to women.
It is propagated that Tantricism is the simplification
of the Vedic worships.Tantric practice centered on
prayers, mystical formulae, magical diagrams, and
symbols and the worship of a particular deity.
● Mother image was accorded great worship, as the life
is created in the mother's womb. In this way, it is
connected with the Sakti worships.The guru had the
highest place in Tantricism.
Philosophical Ideas of Post–Harsha
Period
● Sankara was the greatest intellectuals and
philosophers of this period. He was also
known as Adi-Sankaracharya. Sankara took
●
●
●
●
birth in the family of Yajurvedin Brahman in
Kerala around AD 788. His father Shivaguru
died when he was only three years old. At
the early age of 8 years, Sankara chose an
ascetic life. He studied at Kasi and he died
at the early age of 32.
The philosophy of Sankara is known as
‘Advaita’ meaning 'non-dual'. He believed
that absolute reality is called Brahma is nondual. Sankara upheld the Vedas as the source
of true knowledge and written many works,
for example
1. Brahmasutra-bhashya,
2. Commentaries on the Upanishads, and
3. Commentaries on Bhagavad-Gita
Sankara organized the ten branches
of Advaita school of Saivism known as
Dashanamis.Sankara founded four mathas in
the four corners of the country for the purpose
of better interaction, namely
1. Badrinath in the north;
2. Sharadapitha at Dvaravati (Dwaraka) in
the west;
3. Govardhanamatha at Puri in the east; and
4. Shringeriinatha in the south
Each matha had presiding deities called ‘Gotra’.
Ramanuja, who was a Tamil Brahman,
was a great philosopher and intellectual.
He was born at Tirupati around AD 1017.
Ramanuja disagreed with Sankara on the
idea of knowledge being the primary means
of salvation. He assimilates Bhakti to the
custom of Vedas.Ramanuja tried to build
a bridge between the bhakti and the
knowledge of Vedas.
88 Master Series : Ancient India
Ancient India Master Exercise
5
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
2.
A majority of the Gupta emperors patronised:
3.
Which of the following is the most appropriate
statement about the Gupta period?
(a) The internal trade expanded around India.
The Gupta period stands at the centre of Indian
history. Discuss the development of arts and
literature in Gupta period in the light of this
statement.
4.
Discuss the salient features of the Gupta art and
how it differs from the Mauryan art.
(b) The position of King was elevated.
5.
(c) The position of women of all classes
deteriorated.
How far it is correct to say that Harsha was a
Great Ruler?
6.
Harsha was himself great but he has been made
greatest by the writings of Hiuen Tsang and
Bana Bhatta. Critically Examine this statement.
7.
Harsha is described as lord of whole of North
India. Determine extent of his empire and
discuss his political relations with Shashank,
Bhaskarvarman and Pulkesin II.
8.
Harsha combined in himself the qualities of both
Ashoka and Samudragupta. Do you think so?
Why?
9.
Trace the development of religion in the PostGupta Age.
(a) Buddhism
(b) Jainism
(c) Vaishnavism
(d) Shaivism
(d) The number of people with claims on a
single piece of land increased.
3.
Which of the following is not truly matched?
(a) Varahamihira – Brihatsamhita
(b) Aryabhata – Suryasiddhanta
(c) Kalidasa – Raghuvansha
(d) Bhartrihari – Malavikagnimitram
4.
5.
Which of the Universities flourished during the
time of Guptas?
(a) Takshila
(b) Nalanda
(c) Both
(d) None
Which of the following are reasons for the
decline of Gupta Empire?
1. Attacks of Huns
2. The decline in revenues
3. The reaction against Brahmanical excesses
4. Subinfeudation
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
Subjective type questions for Main
Examination
1.
Discuss the factors responsible for the rise and
fall of Gupta Empire.
2.
Describe the expansion of the Gupta Empire
under Samudragupta with the help of the Prayag
Prashasti.
10. Trace the development of Art and Architecture in
the Post-Gupta Age.
11. The battle for Kanauj invariably weakened India.
How far do you agree with the statement?
12. Trace the development of Kamrupa Dynasty.
13. How far the Pallava Art and Architecture were
different from the Rashtrakutas?
14. Was Gupta period a really golden age in Indian
history? Substatiate your answer.
15. The Gupta Empire could never reach the level of
centralisation attained by the Mauryan Empire.
Elucidate.
16. The Gupta period was the time when the Modern
Hindu religion started taking its shape. Examine.
17. Examine the policies of the Gupta state which
led to the disintegration of the Kingdom.
Answers to MCQs
1.
(c)
2.
(d) 3.
(d) 4.
(b) 5.
(c)
Rise of Heterodox Sects 89
ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 6
Rise of Heterodox Sects
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM
“The Era of Intellectual Revolution”
Sixth century BC was the age of intellectual revolution in Indian history, during this period 62 heterodox sects
emerged,prominent amongst them are Buddhism and Jainism. The emergence of these sects marked the beginning
of new phase in Indian socio cultural history. These heterodox sects were response and reaction to the limitation of
Brahmanical order, because by 6th century BC the simple, liberal and progressive Vedic socio-religious system had
got replaced by a complex and rigid Brahmanical order, which were characterized by costly, complex and elaborate
rituals and ceremonies.
Reasons for the emergence of
Heterodox Sects
1. The Brahmanical religious system was
characterized by complex, costly rituals and
ceremonies was very much demanding, and
the wasteful expenditure of resources, whereas
groups involved in secondary economic
activities wanted to invest their resources for
economic progress. This contradiction between
Brahmanical ideas and needs of people forced
the masses to look for new religion, free from
rituals and ceremonies.This urge played an
important role in the rise of heterodox sects
like Buddhism and Jainism.
2. Brahmanical order was against the practice of
Usury (lending money at high rate), but it was
a necessity for new economy emerging in 6th
century BC.
3. The Brahmanical religion was emphasizing
on killing animals in rituals and ceremonies,
whereas peasants wanted to use their Bull in
agriculture activities. By this time agriculture
expansion had taken place and hence animal
power required to pull the plough and carts,
etc.
4. Sixth Century BC was the age of 2nd urbanization
but Brahmins were against community (group
eating houses). Without such facilities urban
life can’t sustain and because of this, growing
urban population was looking for new religion
that could appreciate their needs.
5. The progress in secondary economic activities
had resulted in economically rich class of
merchants, traders, artisans and craftsmen. This
class was aspiring for higher status in the society.
By 6th century BC there was hardly any social
mobility because in Brahmanical system the status
of individual was based on Birth. These dis-satisfied
groups had started looking for new socio-religious
systems in which they could have higher status.
Rise of Various Heterodox Sects
(600-300 BC)
A. Niyativada
● It was established by Nanda Vachcha,
second religious chief was Kisa Sankichcha
and third chief was Makhaki Gosala (Real
founder who popularized it). The followers
of the sect were known as Ajivikas/Sudra
Sanyasins. The philosophy of the sect is based
on Niyati (Destiny) which means everything
in this world is pre-determined. It denied the
theory of Karma – did not believe in human
efforts. It held that all creatures were helpless
against destiny.
90 Master Series : Ancient India
● Makhali Gosala was a companion of
Mahavira and the sect had lot in common
with Jainism. It practiced complete nudity
and rigorous practices. It flourished during
the Mauryan age and prospered till AD 1400
in parts of eastern Mysore and Madras.
B. Materialism
● It was established by Brihaspati or Charvakas.
The followers were known as Lokyatas or
Charvakas. The word ‘Charvaka’ means one
who believes in ‘eat, drink and make merry’.
They are also known as Nastika Shiromani.
● They believed that nothing existed which
could not be understood by five senses, and
the earth, water, fire and air are the only
elements. They believed that the death was
ultimate and everything ended after death.
There was no soul, no god, no rebirth, and
no Karma. They believed in Pratyaksha, i.e;
perceptions was the only means of valid
knowledge and enjoyment should be the
only aim of the life, by whatever means
possible. It rejected the authority of Vedas
and the only existing text of this philosophy
is Tattvopapilavasimha of Layarshi Bhatt.
C. Akriyavad/Antinomism
● The founder was Purana Kasyapa (Brahmin
of Kasyapa gotra). They believed that soul was
distinct from body, unaffected by anything
that happened to the body-doctrine of nonaction. It believed that action did not lead
to either merit or demerit. It merged with
the Ajivikas. Sankhya school of philosophy
emerged from it.
D. Akrittavada/Asasvatavad/Anunada
● The founder was Pakuda Katyayana. The
sect believed in the existence of seven Nikayas
(elements) viz., earth, water, air, light, sorrow,
happiness and life-these elements could not
be created nor be destroyed. Life as per them
was born out of these elements and would
dissolve with these seven elements. Out of
these seven elements, the four viz., earth,
water, air and light were primary elements
to which Katyayana added three more, viz.
happiness, sorrow and life. It was merged
with the Ajivikas. Vaisheshika School of
philosophy emerged out of it.
E. Anichchitvada
● The founder was Sanjay Veitiputta. The sect
believed in the doctrine of ‘Not approval and
nor denial’ of the existence of anything. It
believed in the theory of uncertainty.
F. Uchchedvada/Jarvada/
Annihilationism
● It was founded by Ajita Keshakamblin
(Hairs like blanket). The sect believed in
materialistic philosophy. He was the earliest
propounder of materialism. He believed that
all ended with death and there was no sin in
doing anything and believed in the pleasure
of the world. Charvaka/Lokyata Schools
emerged from it.
Six Systems of Philosophy
A. Sankhya
It is the oldest school of philosophy and was
founded by Kapila. The earliest text is Sankhyakarika
of Isavarakrsna (AD 400). It has been mentioned
in Gita, and is atheistic in nature. It believed that
the world was created by Prakriti (nature) and
salvation was possible through real knowledge and
isolation of soul from matter. Knowledge could
be gained through perception, inference and
hearing. It was dualistic in nature – admitted two
entities, namely, matter and soul. It also believed
in three constituents causing Sattva (virtue), Rajas
(passion), and Yomas (dullness).
B. Nyaya
The founder was Akhapada Gautama and
it was School of logic and analysis. As per the
philosophy of the School, salvation could be attained
through older thinking and logic. It recognized four
sources of true knowledge – Pratayksha, Anumana,
Upmana and Sabda. It does not mention God
and basic texts related to School is Nyayasutra
of Gautama. Kusumanjali of Udayancharya
developed the philosophical principles of this school
in AD 1200.
Rise of Heterodox Sects 91
C. Yoga
The founder was Patanjali and the main text
is Yogasutras of Patanjali. It gave the concept of
God as ‘exalted soul’. Salvation could be attained
through meditation and physical training. The course
of training is divided into eight stages. Bhagvad
Gita is called as Yogasastra. Various forms of Yoga
are – Rajyoga (Royal Yoga), Mantrayoga (Spells),
Hathayoga (Force), and Layayoga (Dissolution).
D. Vaisheshika
The founder was Uluka Kannada (eater of
atoms). Its doctrine was of atomism material objects
are made up of atoms. It gave importance to Dravya
(material elements). It believed that atoms were
different from soul – a dualistic approach. Salvation
depended on fully recognizing the atomic nature of
the universe and its difference from the soul. It marks
the beginning of Physics. It believed that the world
originated from Anu, Parmanu, and Kana.
●
●
E. Mimamsa
Literally, it means art of reasoning and
interpretation. The main text associated with it
is Sutras of Jamini. It provides explanation of
the Vedas and as per the philosophy, salvation is
possible through performance of rituals. According
to it, the Vedas are the eternal truth, and it
advocates the ritual authority of the Brahamanas
and the social hierarchy based on Brahmanism.
Famous philosophers associated with the School are
Sabaravamin and Kumarila Bhatt.
●
●
F. Vedanta
Literally, it means the end of the Vedas. Basic
text associated with it is Brahmasutra of Badaryana
(200 BC). It is associated with the philosophy of
Upanishads and advocates the concept of Brahma
as the only reality and views the whole world
as unreal. It believed in the theory of Karma and
Rebirth. Two lengthy commentaries have been
written on it by Shankaracharya and Ramanuja.
Vivekanand, Aurbindo Ghosh and S Radhakrishnan
were Vedantists. It is also known as Uttar Mimasa.
Buddhism
Life of Buddha
● Siddhartha was born in 563 BC in a
Shakya Kshatriya family in Lumbini near
●
●
Kapilvastu (Nepal). He belonged to Shakya
clan hence called “Shakyamuni” which
means sage of Shakya clan. His father name
was Shuddhodhana who was the chief
of the Shakya clan. His mother name was
Mahamaya or Mayadevi who was a princess
of Koshlan dynasty; she died after seven
days of his birth. Then he was raised by his
foster mother Prajapati Gautami. Hence, he
was known as Gautam Buddha.
He was married to Yashodhara (Koliyan
dynasty) and son Rahul was born to them.
Despite having all luxuries he was in the
search of complete bliss.
Once while travelling, he witnessed four
events: Old man, Sick man, Corpse and
Ascetic. Hence noticed ascetic to be happier
one and decided to leave all comforts and
luxuries. At the age of 29 he left his home
secretly in the middle of night with horse
(kanthak) and charioteer (channa). This
event of renouncing his palace in the middle
of night is to known as “Mahabhinishkarman.”
He wandered in the region of Magadha for 6
years and learned the meditation from Alara
Kalma. At the age of 35 he got enlightenment
at Bodhgaya under Pipal/Banyaan tree on
the bank Niranjana River. Hence, he was
called Buddha, who has got enlightenment.
He delivered his first sermon at Deer
Park in Sarnath. This event is called
Dharamchakraprivartana which means
setting in motion the wheel of law. His five
disciples were Assaji, Moglana, sarriputta,
Anada, Upali. He delivered most of his
sermons at Shravasti.
Four important events in the life of Buddha
were
Mahabhinishkarman,
Nirvana,
Chakra parivartana, Mahaparinirvana.
He passed away at the age of 80 years in
483 BC at Kusinagar (UP). He died of food
poisoning after having pork at the house of
Chunda. After cremation his ashes were
distributed among eight tribes. These ashes
were kept in caskets and stupas were built
over them, example: the Sanchi Stupa.
92 Master Series : Ancient India
Teachings of Buddhism
Budhhism teaches the Middle Path renouncing
extreme step like indulgence and strict abstinence.
The fundamental principles of Buddha’s teachings
are represented by four noble truths:
1. The world is full of sorrow.
2. Desire is the root cause of all sorrow.
3. Sorrow can be conquered by conquering desire.
4. Desire can be conquered by following the
eight-fold paths (Ashtangirka Marga).
These eight-fold paths are as follows:
1. Right understanding
2. Right resolve
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right living
6. Right efforts
7. Right thought
8. Right self-concentration.
The Tri Ratnas of Buddhism also called as three
jewels are: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
● Buddha: The highest spiritual potential in
every one.
● Dhamma: The teachings of Buddha (Pali for
Sanskrit Dharma or righteousness)
● Sangha: Order of monks who follow Buddhism.
Buddha did not believe in god or soul. He
stressed on Karma and Ahimsa. He was against the
Varna system. Buddha taught in Pali because that
was the language of common masses. Buddhism
spread to several countries outside India. China
adopted Buddhism in the 1st century AD.
Philosophy of Buddhism
● Doctrine of Karma is the essential part
of the teachings of Buddha and Nirvana is
the ultimate goal of life. He emphasized
on the moral life of an individual and did
not believed in the existence of the soul. He
also emphasized on Ahimsa and advocated
the observance of middle path, and to avoid
luxurious life. He opposed the caste system,
the Vedas and the Vedic rituals, as well as
condemned sacrifices.
● He did not acknowledge a permanent existence
of anything or an immortal soul. He believed
in the philosophy of Paticca Samuppada,
according to it there is chain of twelve causes
and one produces the another – the first being
ignorance and the twelfth being cycle of birth
and death. The root cause of all desire is
Anjana (ignorance). It is a religion without
God and Soul–every object of the creation is
mortal and short-lived.
● Nirvana is the ultimate goal of life – it is
a state of supreme bliss, neither of being nor
of annihilation – can be attained even when,
still in body. As per him, the world is full
of sorrow and man is unhappy – suffering is
due to desire/craving – end of desire leads
to Nirvana – band this can be achieved by
following Eight-fold path.
Provisions of the Membership of
Buddhist Sect
● There was no caste restriction. Slaves,
soldiers, debtors and other persons under
obligation were not entitled to enter it
without the permission of their superior. In
a way, it protected the interests of the business
class and shrenis (guilds). Criminals, lepers
and persons affected by infectious diseases
were not given admission into it. Novices
were given entry from the age of eight, but,
qualified for full membership at the minimum
age of twenty.
● Buddha’s foster-mother Gautami became
the first women to join the Sangha. On
the repeated requests of the Chief disciple
Ananda, she was admitted into the Sangha.
● During four months of the rainy season, the
monks took up a fixed abode and meditated.
The Sangha also promoted education among
the people. It was governed by democratic
principles and was empowered to enforce
discipline among its members. It had powers
to punish the erring members. The rites of
admission were:
1. Putting on the three yellow or orange
robes.
2. Ceremonial shaving of the head.
3. Pronouncing the Three Jewels and the Ten
Precepts.
Rise of Heterodox Sects 93
The
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Ten Precepts of Buddhism were:
Not to harm living beings
Not to take, what is not given
Abstain from false speech
Abstain from evil behavior
Abstain from alcoholic drinks
Abstain from eating at forbidden times
Abstain from dancing/singing/music/dramatic
performances
8. Abstain from use of jewellery/perfumes/
garlands
9. Abstain from receiving gold/silver
10. Abstain from use of high or broad bed
Buddhist Literature
● Buddhist scriptures are Pitakas, which were
written in Pali language, hence it is also
called Pali Literature – Sutta Pitaka, Vinay
Pittaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka are known
as Tripitakas (three baskets) of Buddhism.
These are the most important holy books of
Buddhism.
● Sutta Pitaka consists of sermons and
teachings of Buddha, Vinay Pitaka is the
collection of rules governing the Sangha and
monks (this book is also called as discipline
book) and Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with
philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism.
● Sutta Pitaka is divided into five groups
(Nikayas). These are:
(a) Digha (long) Nikaya: It is a collection
of long sermons ascribed to Buddha with
accounts of the circumstances in which he
preached them.
(b) Majjhima (medium) Nikaya: Shorter
sermons
(c) Samyutta (connected) Nikaya:
Collection of brief pronouncements
(d) Anguttar (graduated) Nikaya:
Collection of over 2,000 brief statements
arranged in eleven sections
(e) Khuddaka (minor) Nikaya: Contains
miscellaneous works in prose and verse. It
contents are associated with Dhammapada
(verses on virtues) – it contains the summary of Buddha’s Universal teachings,
●
●
●
●
Theragatha (Hymns of the elder monks),
Therigatha (Hymns of the elder Nuns) and
Jatakas.
Jataka Stories deals with the previous birth of
Buddha, there are around 550 stories. It is in
poem form and many of these poems about
Buddha is in Animal form.
Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa are the
Ceylonese books. Ashoka sent his son and
daughter to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism.
These books were written over there.
Milindpanho is basically a question answer
book, in which Bactrian King Menander
asks questions and Buddhist monk Nagasena
replied his queries.
Buddha Charita is an epic style work by
Ashvaghosa.
Sects of Buddhism
● Sarvastivadin: It believed in the philosophy
of constituent of phenomenon, i.e; phenomenon are not completely short-lived but exist
forever in latent form. It was strong in the
region of Mathura and the Kashmir. In Fourth
Council, Sarvastivadin doctrines were codified in a summary- Mahavibhasa. Later, they
were known as Vaibhashikas.
● Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle): It was an
orthodox group which followed Buddha and
his teachings strictly. It emphasized on the
individual salvation. They worshipped Buddha through symbols, idol worship was not
allowed. It became popular in Ceylon, Burma,
Thailand, Combodia, Laos and in other countries, but lost popularity in India. Its minor
sects include Sautantrikas and Sammittiya. It
is associated with the concept of Sravakayana,
Arhatayana and Pratyeka-Budhayana. This sect
does not believe in soul and god. Salvation can
be attained through self-discipline and meditation. Meditation puts emphasis on monastic and
spiritual life. It adopted Pali as the language
for teaching and texts.
● Mahayana (Greater Vehicle): It was a
group with the broader outlook and followed
the spirit of Buddha. They emphasized on
the group salvation. They believed in semi
divine identity called Boddhisattvas. They
94 Master Series : Ancient India
started worshipping Buddha through idols.
Kanishka was the patron of Mahayana sect
of Buddhism. It had two chief philosophical
Schools – Madhyamika and Yogacharya. It
became popular in many parts of India and
spread to Central Asia, China and Japan. It
arose out of Mahasanghikas. It gave prominent place to Boddhisattavas, who were being
of great kindness and helped the humanity
through their own suffering. Sukhavati is
considered as the Mahayana Heaven. It
is also associated with concept of divine
Buddha – Amitabha or Amida or Amitayas.
Sanskrit became the official language of the
sect. Buddhist scholars such as Asvaghosha,
Asanga and Vashubandhu were Mahayanists.
● Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thunderbolt): It
believed in super human powers, they had
faith in miracles and tantras. It became popular in eastern India by 10th century AD.
Palas were the last patrons of Vajrayana sect
of Buddhism. As per the Sect beliefs, salvation could be attained by acquiring magical
powers and the chief divinities were Taras,
wives of Buddhas and Bodhisattavas. There
were also a number of lesser divinities called
by the names of demons, such as Matangis,
Pisachis, Yoginis and Dakinis. Basically, it was
Yogic and magical in character.
● Yogacharya/Vijnanavadin: It was founded
by Maitreyanath around AD 400. The greatest exponents were Asanga and Vasubandhu
besides Dignaga and Dharmkirti. It looks
upon the world as an illusion – this illusion
is the product of mind or consciousness – the
entire world originates from a kind of cosmic
consciousness. The only reality is Tathata/
Suchness/Thusness or Dharmadhatu which is
equivalent to Sunyata of Madhyamika School.
An important text is Sutralankara by Asanga.
● Madhyamika: It was founded by Nagarjuna/
Nagasena around AD 150. Aryadeva, the disciple of Nagarjuna was a great exponent of
this School. It believed in the philosophy of
Sunyavada/Sunyata/Void/Emptiness, as per it,
everything around us is emptiness and whatever we perceive is just illusion. It is associated
with the theory of Relativity, as per it, Samsara
does not exist and Nirvana too is not real.
● Samitiyas: It rejected the doctrine of Soullessness and postulated existence of a kind of
soul in the pudgalaor person, i.e; the soul passes
from life to life.
Buddhist Architecture
(a) Stupas
These are the semi dominical structure built by
simply collecting the earth. Ashoka constructed the
most important stupa at Sanchi (MP).
(b) Chaityas
These were the Buddhist temples constructed
inside the caves, simply by cutting the cave. Example
is Chaitya’s at Karle near Nasik (Maharashtra).
(c) Vihara
These are the buildings constructed where monks
and nuns use to live. The first Vihara was erected by
Kumargupta I at Nalanda, which was called Nalanda
Mahavihar.
Buddhist Councils
First Buddhist Council–5th century
BC
● 483 BC, it was held right after the death of
Buddha.
● First Buddhist council was held at Sattaparni
caves Rajgriha.
● It was under the patronage of King Ajatashatru
● 1st Buddhist Council was presided by Monk
Mahakasyapa.
● Purpose was to compile the Buddhist
Scriptures.
● Sutta Piataka and Vinay Pitaka were
compiled. Vinaya Pitaka was established
under the leadership of Upali, while Sutta
Pitaka was settled under the leadership of
Ananda.
Second Buddhist Council–383 BC
● The second Buddhist council was held at
Vaishali
● It was under the patronage of Kalasoka
Rise of Heterodox Sects 95
● 2nd Buddhist Council was presided by
Sabakami
● The Motive of second Buddhist council
was to settle the disagreements of different
subdivisions, between the monks of Vaishali
and Patliputra and monks of Kaushambi and
Avatika regarding the code of discipline
● The Council failed to bring about a compromise
between the two opposing groups and it ended
in a permanent split of the Buddhist order into
Sthaviravadins and Mahasangikas.
Third Buddhist Council–251 BC
● The third Buddhist council was held at
Patliputra.
● It was under the patronage of Ashoka.
● 3rd Buddhist Council was presided by
Moggaliputta Tissa.
● The Agenda of third Buddhist council was to
analyze the different schools of Buddhism and
to purify them. Ashoka sent several groups
to different parts of country and around the
world to spread Buddhism.
● It resulted in the collection of philosophical
interpretation of the doctrine of Buddha in the
form of third Pitaka – Abhidhamma Pitaka
and heretical monks numbering sixty thousands were expelled from the order.
Fourth Buddhist Council–78 AD
● The fourth Buddhist council was held at
Kundalvan (Kashmir).
● It was under the patronage of Kanishka
(Kushan King).
● 4th Buddhist Council was presided by
Vasumitra and Asvaghosha.
● The Agenda of fourth Buddhist council was
to reserve and remedy various conflicts. In
this council Buddhism got divided into
Hinayana and Mahayana.
Jainism
● Jainas believed that origin of Jainism goes
back to very ancient times. They believe in
24 Tirthankars (great teachers or leaders of
their religion), among them Rishabhdeva
is considered to be the first Tirthankar. He
is also known as Adinath. He was born in
Ayodhya. His symbol was Bull (Vrishaba).
● 23rd Tirthankar credit goes to Parsavnath,
born in Varanasi, his symbol was snake.
Rishabdev and Arishtnemi are mentioned
in Rigveda. Vayu Purana and Bhagwat
Purana mention Rishabhdeva as the incarnation of Naryan.
● Vardhman Mahavir was the 24thTirthankar.All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas
by birth.
Life of Mahavira
● He is considered as the last Tirthankara. He
was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali in 540
BC.
● His parents were Kshatriyas. Father –
Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan); Mother –
Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka).
(Later Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka
King Bimbisara). He was married to Yasoda
and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
His son in law was Jamali. Jamali became
his first disciple. His brother was Nandi
Vardhan.
● At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his
home after taking permission from his brother
and became a wandering ascetic. He also
observed self-mortification.
● After 13 years of penance, he attained the
highest spiritual knowledge called Kaivalya,
i.e., the supreme knowledge and final
deliverance from the bonds of pleasure and
pain. Hence he was called Kevalin. He
attained this at the age of 42 at Jimbhika
Grama village near Vaishali under a sal tree
on the bank of Rijupalika River. Thereafter,
he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one
who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free
from all bonds) and Kevalin.He preached his
teachings for 30 years and died at Pavapuri
(near Rajagriha) aged 72.
Teachings of Jainism
● Mahavira rejected Vedic principles and
Brahmanical customs and beliefs. He did
not believe in God’s existence. According
to him, the universe is a product of the
96 Master Series : Ancient India
●
●
●
●
natural phenomenon of cause and effect. He
believed in Karma and transmigration of
the soul. The body dies but soul does not.
He believed that soul is ubiquitous, even
in stones.
According to him, one will be punished or
rewarded as per one’s karma. He advocated
a life of austerity and non-violence.
Mahavira stressed on equality, but did not
reject the caste system unlike Buddhism. But
he also said that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’
as per his actions, and not birth.
Asceticism was taken to a great length.
Starvation, nudity and self-mortification were
expounded.
As per Mahavira, there are two elements
of the world: Jiva (conscious), and Atma
(unconscious).
Triratnas of Jainism
● Right faith
● Right knowledge
● Right conduct (observance of five vows)
● Cardinal Principles of Jainism
● Ahimsa (non-violence)
● Satya (truth)
● Asteya (no stealing)
● Aparigraha (no acquiring property)
● Brahmacharya (abstinence)
The last principle was added by Mahavira
whereas former four principles were advocated by
Parsavnath (23rd Tirthankar). Jainism believe in
theory of may be, which is called as Syadvad. They
consider their Tirthankars are supreme.
Philosophy of Jainism
● It rejected the authority of the Vedas and the
Vedic rituals and advocated an austre and
simple life. It did not believe in the existence
of the God. In fact, it believed in Karma and
the transmigration of the soul. It opposed the
caste system and Gods were considered lower
than the Jinas.
● According to its philosophy, world was
not created, maintained and destroyed by a
personal God, but it was done by Universal
law. The cycle of births and deaths was due
to Karma and there was an atomic layer on
the soul because of the past actions. The
annihilation of Karma could be achieved by
practicing extreme asceticism and prevention
of influx and fixation of Karma by disciplined
conduct. Soul, thus liberated, rises to the top
of the universe and stays in bliss.
● As per the philosophy, monastic life is
essential for salvation and they practiced
extreme non-violence.
The basic philosophy are:
(a) Anekantwad: The doctrine which suggests that
an object of knowledge is of infinite characteristics.
(b) Nyayavada: The philosophy which postulates
that an individual understands an object of
knowledge through a particular point of view.
(c) Saptbhangi Nyaya: According to it there are
seven point of view to understand an object
of knowledge. These seven Nayayas are: Aasti-exists, Nasti-exists not, Astica Nastica-exists
& exists not, Avaktvyam–cannot be described,
Nastica Avaktvyam–exists not and cannot be
described, Astica Nastica Avaktvyam-exists
and exists not and cannot be described.
(d) Syadvada: According to it, understanding of
an object of knowledge is conditional and true
in a way, so, one should be cautious and use
Syad before any statement.
Sects in Jainism
● After the death of Mahavira, severe famine
broke out in Magadh which lasted for 12
years. Chandragupta Maurya was the king and
Bhadrabahu was the chief of Jaina community that time. Chandragupta and Bhadrabahu
along with their followers went to South India
to get some relief, leaving behind Sthulbhadra
as the head of Jaina community. Sthulabahadra changed the code of conduct resulting in
the schism of Jainism.
(a) Swetambaras: The founder was Sthulbhadra and the followers were known as
Yati, Sadhu, and Acharya. They accepted
Rise of Heterodox Sects 97
clothes and wore white clothes, they did
not consider clothes as an impediment in
salvation. They believed that women could
attain salvation in this birth. They accepted
12 Angas, Upangas etc and considered
19th Tirthankar (Mallinath) as woman and
Mahavira as married. They also believed
that an ideal Monk can take meal after the
attainment of salvation.
(b) Digambaras: It was founded by Bhadrabahu
and its followers were known as Kshullak,
Aillak and Nigranathas. They discarded clothes
(sky clad). Clothes were considered as an
impediment in attainment of salvation. They
believed that women could not attain salvation
in this birth and accepted 14 Purvas. They did
not accept Angas, Upangas etc. They considered the 19th Tirthankar as Man and considered
Mahavira maintained Brahmacharya. They also
believed that an ideal monk should not take
meal after the attainment of salvation.
(c) Yapaniya: It emerged out of Swetambaras in
about AD 200 and consolidated in about 5th
Century AD, mainly in the northern regions
of Karanataka. It was Tantric in character
and accorded high status to women. It finds
mention in inscription of Vikramaditya VI
(Chalukyas of Kalyani). It declined in 13-14th
century AD.
(d) Dravida Sangh: It was an off-shoot of Mula
Sangh and gained prominence in Tamil Nadu
areas. It was Tantric in character.
Jaina Literature
● Jaina literature was first written in Prakrit
and later in Sanskrit. Purvas literature is
almost lost, later literature consists of Angas,
Upangas, Prakirnas.
● Kalpa Sutra was written by Bhadrabahu.
It contains the biographies of the Jain
Tirthankaras, most notably Parshvanath and
Mahavira, including the latter’s Nirvana. Since,
Bhadrabahu was a teacher of Chandragupta
Maurya, we can say that it was compiled in
Mauryan Era.
● 14 Purvas: Text-Book of old Jaina scriptures.
● 12 Angas: Jaina doctrines/rules of conducts and
history of Mahavira.
● 12 Upangas: Associated with each Angas, myths
and dogmas.
● 10 Prakirnas: Doctrinal matters in verse form.
● 6 Chedasutras: Rules for monks/nuns.
● 4 Mulsutras: Valuable rules on the basis of maxims/dialouges/parables.
● Niryuktis: Commentaries on Angas prepared in AD
100.
● Kalpasutra: History of Jainism from its birth,
written by Bhadrabahu.
● Acharang Sutras: Oldest Jaina text containing
monastic rules.
Jaina Councils
The First Council
● Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC.
● Presided by Sthulabahadra.
● Resulted in the compilation of the sacred
teachings of Mahavira into 12 Angas to
replace the lost 14 Purvasa.
The Second Council
● Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in the 5th
century AD.
● Presided over by Devardi Kshemasharmana.
● The purpose of the Council was to collect the
sacred texts and write them down systematically.
● 12 Angas compiled in the First Council was
lost, and all the remaining Angas were written
in Ardhamagadhi.
Jaina Architecture
● Rock-cut caves at Badami: It has the
images of Jaina Tirthankars, which belong
to early Chalukya period.
● Rock-cut caves at Aihole: This cave too
contains the images of Jain Tirthankars which
belong to ealy Chalukya period.
● Hathigumpha cave of Kharvel.
● Khandagiri caves of Odisha.
● Udaigiri caves of Odisha.
● Shravanabelagola in Karnataka: It contains the huge statue of Bahubali called
Gomatesvara.
98 Master Series : Ancient India
●
●
●
●
●
●
Temple at Ranakpur in Rajasthan.
Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu (Rajasthan).
Jaina Tower in the fort of Chittor.
Karakal Temple in South India.
Moodbidri Temple in South India.
Palithana Temple of Gujarat.
Believed
in
rigorous Discarded it
asceticism.
Approved
of
self- Condemned by it
mortification.
Atheistic – God was lower Agnostic in nature
than the Jina.
Differences between Jainism & Buddhism
Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism
Jainism
Method
of
attaining
salvation was extreme.
Gave prominence to lay
followers.
Confined to India
1. Both gave no importance to God.
2. Protested against some of Vedic rituals of
Brahmanism.
3. Opposed the Caste System.
4. Accepted the doctrine of Karma and Rebirth.
5. The founders belonged to the Kshatriya class.
6. Both preached their religion in the common language
of the people.
7. Emphasised on making efforts to attain salvation.
Buddhism
It was moderate and based
on middle path.
Relied mainly on the
Sangha & its monks.
Spread rapidly to foreign
lands, but died in India.
Nirvana was escape from Escape from existence
the body.
Conti...
Rise of Heterodox Sects 99
Ancient India Master Exercise
6
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
Which of the following factors were responsible
for the rise of different religious sects during the
6th century BC?
2. Jain religious literature was written in
Ardhamagadhi
3. Mahavira admitted women into the order of
his followers.
1. The domineering attitude of the brahmanas
towards the common people.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
2. Growth of untouchability and rigidity of the
caste system.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
3. The people from the lower strata were
becoming influential.
(b) 1 and 2
4. The indiscriminate killing of cattle was
ruining the concept of new agriculture.
(d) 2 and 3
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(c) Only 3
5.
Match the following.
A. Fourth Buddhist Council 1. Vasumitra
B. Third Buddhist Council
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3
2.
3.
(c) 1, 2 and 4
C. Second Buddhist Council 3. Sabakami
(d) 2 and 3
D. First Buddhist Council
The meaning of 'Buddha' is:
Below options are given in A B C D order.
(a) anything beyond God
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) life after death
(b) 2 1 4 3
(c) the Enlightened one
(c) 1 2 4 3
(d) the ultimate Path for moksha
(d) 3 2 4 1
Consider the following statements:
1. Parshvanatha preached the Jin ideas of
Satya, Ahimsa, Asateya and Aparigraha.
2. Mahavira introduced brahmacharya.
3. Mahavira's teachings were first collected in
the third century BC.
Which of these statements are correct?
6.
4. Mahakassapa
Which of the following features are common to
both Jainism and Buddhism?
1. Denial of the authority of Vedas
2. Condemnation of animal sacrifice
3. Pursuing severe ascetism
4. Existence of a soul
(a) 1 and 2
5. Rejection of existence of God
(b) 1 and 3
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below.
(c) 2 and 3
4.
2. Moggaliputa
Tissa
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Consider the following statements.
(b) 1 and 2
1. Jainism in ancient India condemned the
varna system.
(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(d) 1, 4 and 5
100 Master Series : Ancient India
7.
Buddha has been described as 'an ocean of
wisdom and compassion' in:
(b) Kanishka
(a) Jataka tales
(d) Chandragupta Vikramaditya
(b) Amarakosa
(c) Buddhacharita
8.
14. During the time of Harshavardhana, a great
Buddhist assembly was held at:
(d) The Light of Asia
(a) Patliputra
The crux of early Buddhism was:
(b) Nalanda
(a) renunciation of desire
(c) Prayag
(b) rigorous penance
(d) Purushapura
(c) belief in fatalism
(d) idol worship
9.
(c) Harshavardhana
15. The introduction of Buddhism into China is
traditionally attributed to:
Buddhism split up into the Hinayana and
Mahayana sects of the Buddhism Council held
during the reign of:
(a) Nagarjuna
(a) Harsha
(d) None of these
(b) Kanishka
(c) Ashoka
(d) Chandragupta Maurya
10. Jainism was divided into two sects known as:
(b) Samprati
(c) Kashyapa Matanga
16. Which one of the following is the most
fundamental difference between Mahayana
Buddhism and Hinyana Buddhism?
(a) Emphasis on ahimsa
(a) Kapalika and Kalamukha
(b) Casteless society
(b) Mahayana and Hinayana
(c) Worship of gods and goddesses
(c) Ajivika nad Nyaya Vaisesika
(d) Worship of Stupa
(d) Svetambara and Digambara
11. Ashoka was much influenced by a Buddhist
monk called:
(a) Upagupta
17. Which of the following statements about
Mahavira is/are correct?
1. Mahavira's doctrines include observance of
continence.
(c) Asvaghosha
2. The division of Jainism into Svetambara
and digambara sects took place during
Mahavira's time.
(d) Ambhi
3. Mahavira condemned the Varna system.
(b) Vasubandhu
12. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held by:
(a) Ashoka
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(b) Kanishka
(a) 1 and 2
(c) Chandragupta
(b) 1 and 3
(d) Bindusara
(c) 2 and 3
13. Who among the following rulers held a religious
assembly at Prayag every five years?
(a) Ashoka
(d) Only 1
18. Who, according to Jains, was the founder of
Jainism?
Rise of Heterodox Sects 101
(a) Rishaba
Subjective type questions for Main
(b) Mahavira
Examination
(c) Arishtanemi
1.
Critically analyze the Upanishadic, Buddhist and
Jaina Philosophy.
2.
Discuss the various factors responsible for the
rise and decline of Buddhism.
3.
Write a short note on Buddhist teachings and
literature.
4.
The 6th century BC witnessed a sudden spurt in
the rise of heterodox sects. Analyze and explain
the reasons for it.
5.
6th century BC was a period of amalgamation
of religions across India and the world. Various
religions thrived and spread on the principles
of non-violence in the era. In the light of above
statement, explain the present circumstances
India is facing and suggest ways to overcome it.
(d) Parsavanatha
19. Buddha did not recognize:
1. Idol worship
2. Existence of soul after death
3. Sacrifice
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 1 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3
20. With which religion is kaivvalay associated?
Answers to MCQs
(a) Buddhism
(b) Jainism
(c) Hinduism
(d) Sikhism
1.
6.
11.
16.
(c)
(b)
(a)
(c)
2.
7.
12.
17.
(c)
(b)
(b)
(d)
3.
8.
13.
18.
(d)
(a)
(c)
(a)
4.
9.
14.
19.
(d)
(b)
(c)
(d)
5.
10.
15.
20.
(a)
(d)
(c)
(b)
102 Master Series : Ancient India
ANCIENT INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 7
Southern Kingdoms During
ANCIENT INDIA
“The History of South India”
The History of South spreads over 5000 years.Various cultures in archaeological perspectives have confirmed of
the Megalithic phase, have been discovered, which provide an insight into history of southern India. Asoka Empire
Inscription describes about three powerful dynasty down south (Chera, Chola, and Pandya). We even have the
evidence of South India, trading with the Roman Emperor Augustus as early as 300 BC. Until AD 1000 Tamil and
Tamil emperors dominated the South.
Early History of The South
● During the 1,000 BC, the present states of
Tamil Nadu and Kerala (in southern India)
were inhabited by the megalithic people.
● The important phase of the ancient history of
south India is from the Megalithic period to
about AD 300.
●
Megalithic Phase
● The literary meaning of the term megaliths is
‘big stones’ i.e., ‘mega’ means big and ‘lith’
means stones. But, the big stones are not
associated with the megalith culture.
● The megalithic culture is known for its
burials.
● The abundance of iron tools and a Blackand-Red pottery with the burials is the main
identifying features of the megalithic culture.
● The megalithic culture suggests that there was
an abrupt change from the Neolithic stage into
the Iron Age. And, they did not experience
the intermediate Chalcolithic or Bronze Age.
Types of Megalithic Burials
The following are the major types of Megalithic
burial: (Refer Fig. 7.1)
● Pit Circle Graves: In this type of burial,
the body was first excoriated and then buried.
●
●
●
●
Pots and iron artifacts were placed in a grave.
A stone circle is erected around the pit.
Cists: These graves have a variety of forms.
Cists which is stone coffin were made out
of granite slabs with one or more capstones,
with or without portholes. Cists are fully buried, half buried, or even on the bare rocks.
They may contain single or multiple burials.
A single or multiple stone circles erected
around the cists.
Laterite Chambers: In Malabar region, the
grave-chambers excavated into laterite instead
of granite slabs.
Alignments: It is a different kind of burial
in which a large number of standing stones
called ‘Menhirs’ were arranged in squares or
diagonals shape. They have been found in
Gulbarga district, and in south of Hyderabad.
However, in Kashmir, Menhirs have been
found arranged in a semi-circle.
Sacrophagi: These were legged urns of
terracotta sometimes have animal heads and
are not very common.
Urns: The practice of burying excoriated
bones in urns seems to be taken from the
Neolithic past. They are marked by capstones
or stone circles, found mainly on the eastern
coast.
Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 103
Dolmen
Ground Plan of Dolmen
Forms of Stonehenge
Ground Plan of Different Stonehenge
Cromlech
Ground Plan of Cromlech
Ground Plan of Menhir
A Few Menhir Clustered Together
Fig. 7.1. Types of Megalithic Burials
104 Master Series : Ancient India
Megalithic Tools
● Undoubtedly, there was a wide range of
variety in Megalithic construction, but the
typical identity was a Black-and-Red ware and
distinctive iron tools. They have uniformity
all over the peninsula.
● The pottery shapes include conical or looped
lids, carinated vases, pedestalled bowls,
spouted dishes, etc.
● The iron tool includes axes with crossed
straps, sickles, tripods, tridents, spearheads,
swords, lamp hangers, arrowheads, and lamps.
● Horse-harness bits and bells are also the
common finds.
● Iron Age, in the history of India, is a period
when the use of iron for tools and weapons
became quite common, but during this time,
the dated literature also began to be written.
Therefore, the period of Megalithics marked
a point in time where prehistory ends, and
the history begins.
● The builders of these Megalithics remain
unknown to northern people because no
reference to these monuments has been traced
in Sanskrit or Prakrit literature, though the
early Tamil literature does contain descriptions
of these burial practices.
Sources of Megalithic Period
The earliest account about the people and kingdoms
of the era are preserved in three forms.
1. Ashokan inscriptions;
2. Sangam literature; and
3. Megasthenese's accounts.
● The Rock Edict II and XIII of Ashoka described
the southern kingdoms of Chola, Pandya,
Satyaputra, Keralaputra, and Tambapanni.
● Ashoka's kindness to these neighboring states
has been very much proved by the fact that he
made provisions for medicines and food items
etc. for animals and humans of these kingdoms.
● In the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela,
it has been found that Ashoka was credited
for defeating a confederacy of Tamil states.
Sangam Place of Organisation
Chairman
Thenmadurai
Agastya
First
Second
Kapatapuram
Third
Madurai
Sangam Period
● The Sangam Age in the South is a landmark in
Indian history. The word sangam is the Tamil
form of the Sanskrit word Sangha which
means a group of persons or an association.
The Tamil Sangam was an academy of poets
and bards who flourished in three different
periods and in different places under the
patronage of the Pandyan kings. It is believed
that the first Sangam was attended by gods
and legendary sages, and its seat was Ten
Madurai. All the works of the first Sangam
have perished.
● The seat of the second Sangam was
Kapatpuram, another capital of the Pandyas. It
was attended by several poets and produced a
large mass of literature, but only Tolkappiyam
(the early Tamil grammar) has survived.
● The seat of the third Sangam was the present
Madurai. It has also produced a vast literature,
but only a fraction of it has survived. It is this
fraction which constitutes the extant body of
Sangam literature. The Age of the Sangam
is the age to which the Sangam literature
belonged. The Sangam literature constitutes
a mine of information on conditions of life
around the beginning of the Christian era.
● A detailed description of south Indian states
is found in Sangam literature belonging to the
first four centuries of the Christian era.The
period 1st century BC to 2nd century AD is
known as the Sangam age. The first detailed
description about the south Indian dynasties
found in the Sangam Literature.
● The Tamil language is the oldest amongst
the spoken and literary languages of the
south. Sangam literature was written in this
language. Sangam literature consisted the
collection of verses, lyrics, and idylls, which
were composed by poets and scholars.Sangam
literature preserves folk memory about the
society and life in the South.
Kingdom
Books
Pandiya
No books survived
Earlier- Agastya Later- Pandiya
Tolkappiyar (a disciple
of Agastaya)
Nakkirar
Pandiya
Tolkappiyam (author - Tolkappiyar)
covers entire corpus of Sangam Literature
Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 105
The Sangam Administration
● The king was the very centre and embodiment
of administration. He was called Ko, Mannam,
Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan. Though
hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form
of government, disputed successions and civil
wars were not unknown. The court of the
crowned monarch was called avai.
● The ideal of the ‘conquering king’ (Vijigishu)
was accepted and acted upon. The King’s
birthday (Perunal) was celebrated every year.
Kings assumed several titles. For example, the
Pandyas were known as Minavar, Kavuriyar,
Panchavar, Tennar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi.
etc the Cholas called themselves Sennis,
Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi, and the Cheras
had titles like Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar,
Kuttuvar, Poraiyar and so on.
● The royal emblem of the Pandyas was the
carp (fish), the bow of the Cheras and of
the Cholas was the tiger. The Sabha or
Manram of the king in the capital was
the highest court of justice. The king was
assisted by a large body of officials, who were
divided into five assemblies.
1. Amaichchar or ministers,
2. Purohitas or priests,
3. Senapati or military commanders,
4. Dutar or envoys and
5. Arrar or spies.
Provincial and Local Administration
During ‘Sangam’
● The entire kingdom was called Mandalam.
The Chola Mandalam, Pandya Mandalam and
the Chera Mandalam were the original major
Mandalam. Below the Mandalam was a
major division, Nadu (province). The ur was
a town which was variously described as a
big village (Perar), a small village (Sirur)
or an old village (Mudur). Pattinam was the
name for a coastal town and Puharwas the
harbour area.
● The administration of nadus was generally
carried on by the hereditary chiefs. The village
was the fundamental unit of administration
which was administered by local assemblies
called Manrams.
Revenue Administration During
‘Sangam’
● The widely prevalent and possibly the largest
source of revenue was land-tax called Karai,
but the share of the agricultural produce,
claimed and collected by the king,is not
specified. The Ma and Veli were the measures
of land and Kalam as measure of grain. A
well-known unit of territory yielding tax was
a Variyam (Vari meant tax) and an officer
in-charge of collecting the tax from that unit
of land was called a Variyar.
● Tributes paid by the feudatories and war
booty (Irai) constituted a considerable part
of royal resources. Trade local and longdistance, constituted a very important source
of royal revenue. Tolls and custom duties
were Ulgu or Sungum. The duties to be paid
to the king were generally known as Kadamai
or Paduvadu.
Military Administration During
‘Sangam’
● Perhaps out of the taxes collected from the
peasantry, the state maintained a rudimentary
army which comprised of chariots drawn by
oxen, of elephants, cavalry and infantry.
Elephants played an important part in war.
Horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan
kingdom.
● The institution of virakkal or nadukul (herostone), a practice of erecting monuments
for the dead soldiers and worshiping them,
was prevalent during the Sangam time. The
institution of Kavalmaram or Kadimaram was
also there. Under it, each ruler had a great tree
in his palace as a symbol of his majestic power.
Sangam Economy
● The Sangam economy was simple and mostly
of self-sufficient type. Agriculture was the
main occupation of people and the chief crops
were rice, cotton, ragi, sugarcane pepper,
ginger, turmeric, cardamom, cinnamon
etc. Weaving, ship-building, metal working,
carpentry, rope-making, ornament-making,
making of ivory products, tanning etc. were
some of the handicrafts, which were common.
106 Master Series : Ancient India
● The name of market place was Avanam.
Sangam period also witnessed the emergence
of various towns such as Puhar, Uraiyur,
Vanji, Tondi, Muzuris, Madurai, Kanchi,
etc. Industry and crafts got a fillip by a rising
demand in the foreign markets.
● Commerce and trade, both inland and foreign,
was well organised and briskly carried our
throughout the period. Internal trade was
brisk, caravans of merchants with carts and
pack-animals carried their merchandise from
place to place, Barter played a large part in
all transactions and salt was an important
commodity of trade. The Sangam period
witnessed the rise of great maritime activity.
● External trading activities were carried out
between the South and Hellenistic kingdom
of Egypt and Arabia as well as the Malay
Archipelago. The author of the Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea (AD 75) gives the most
valuable information about the trade between
India and the Roman Empire. He mentions the
ports of Naura (Cannanore), Tyndis (Tondi),
Muzuris (Musiri, Cranganore), and Nelcynda
as the leading ones on the western coast.
● Other popular ports of the South were Balita
(Varkalai), Comari, Colchi, Puhar (Khaberis
of Ptolemy), Saliyur, Poduca (Arikamedu)
and Sopatma (Markanam). A milestone in
the development of communications was the
discovery of the monsoon winds by the Greek
sailor Hippalus in around AD 46-47.
● The discovery of monsoon led to the increase
in volume of trade. Large vessels made up
of single logs called Sangara and very large
vessels, called Colondia made routine voyages.
The Periplus of the Erythraen Sea, written by
an anonymous Greek navigator, gives details
of Indian exports to the Roman Empire. The
main exports were: pepper, pearls, ivory, silk,
spike-nard, malabathrum, diamonds, saffron,
precious stone and tortoise shell. It also
mentions Argaru (Uraiyur) as the place to
which were sent all the pearls gathered on the
coast and from which were exported muslins
called Agraritic. Silk, which was supplied
by Indian merchants to the Roman Empire,
was considered so important that the Roman
emperor Aurelian declared it to be worth its
weight in gold.
● The Roman demand for spices could not be
met entirely by local supply; this brought
Indian traders into contact with south-east
Asia. In return for her exports, India imported
from the Roman empire like commodities
as topaz, tin cloth, linen, antimony, crude
glass, copper, tin, lead, wine, orpiment and
wheat. The Romans also exported to India
wine amphorae and red glazed Arretine ware
which have been found at Arikamedu near
Puducherry. They also sent to India a large
number of gold and silver coins.
● Connected with the phenomenon of trade
was the growth of money economy in the
early centuries. The imported coins were
mostly used as bullions. The large quantities of gold and silver coins struck by all the
Roman emperors beginning from the reign of
Augustus (and that of Tiberius) down to Nero
(AD 54-58) found in the interior of Tamil
land, testify to the extent of the trade and
the presence of Roman settlers in the Tamil
country.
Sangam Society and Religion
● The society in the southern kingdoms chiefly
consisted of agriculturists or those who
depended indirectly on the land. Besides,
the peasants, there were landless labourers,
carpenters, gold-smiths, hunters and fishermen.
● The Brahmanas came there much later from
the north. But in the ancient times, they
followed neither the Varna system nor the
Ashram system. Broadly speaking, there were
chiefly two classes of people in the early
Tamil society – those who tilled the land
themselves and those who got it tilled by
others. The latter were wealthier and this very
fact introduced inequalities in the social system.
Gradually, the Varna System also started.
● The people lived chiefly in villages. Mostly,
they were poor who lived in huts and humbler
structures. The forest tribals were very poor.
The rich lived in houses of bricks and mortar.
The town-people were generally rich and they
led a very happy and prosperous life. The
Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 107
towns were surrounded by a wall for protection
from invaders. Forts were also built.
● The women in the Tamil society were free.
Polygamy was practiced, though on a limited
scale. Prostitutes and dancing girls lived in
towns. Dhoti and turban were the chief attire.
Women were fond of ornaments. The chief
diet consisted of meat and rice. They also
drank wine.
● In the beginning, Brahamanism grew popular
in these kingdoms, though its influence was
limited. The kings performed Vedic Yajnas
and the Brahmanas held discourses with the
Jain and the Buddhist scholars. The four
chief deities worshipped by them were Shiva,
Vishnu, Balram and Krishna. Marugan
was the local God.
● During Chandragupta’s reign, Jainism
spread in the South. In this period, the
Buddhism was on the decline. The growing
popularity of Shaivism and Vaishnavism,
however, caused a setback to Jainism. The
people were tolerant and the followers of the
various religions lived together peacefully. The
practice of cremating the dead had started.
Sangam Literature
The Sangam literature can be roughly divided
into two groups i.e., Narrative and Didactic.
Sangam was the assembly of Tamil poets held
under royal patronage. We do not have exact data
on number of Sangams and their period for which
they were held. Available Sangam literature which
was produced by these assemblies, was probably
compiled in AD 300-600.
● Sangam literature is divided into Melkannakku (Narrative) – eighteen major works,
and Kelkanakku (Didactic) – eighteen minor
works.
to public and social activity like government, war
charity, trade, worship, agriculture, etc.
Contributions in Sangam Age
Among the poets and thinkers of the Sangam
age Tolkappiyar, Tiruvalluvar, lllango Adigal,
Sittalai Sattanar, Nakkirar, Kapilar, Paranar,
Auvaiyar, Mangudi Marudanar and a few others are
outstanding. Sangam literature consists of the earliest
Tamil works (such as the Tolkappiyam), the ten
poems (Pattupattu), the eight anthologies (Ettutogai)
and the eighteen minor works (Padinenkilkanakku),
and the three epics. The chief merits of the sangam
works is their absolute devotion to standards and
adherence to literary conventions.
The Earliest Tamil Work
Tolkappiyam is the oldest extant Tamil grammar
written by Tokkappiyar (one of the 12 disciples of
Saint Agastya.) It is divided into three major parts,
each consisting of nine iyals (sub-parts) and has
a total of 1612 sutras. Other earliest Tamil works
were the Agattiyam (a work on grammar of letters
and life) by Saint Agattiyar, Pannirupadalam and the
Kakkipadiniyam.
Ten Poems (Pattupattu)
● Murugarruppadai (by Nakkirar), Sirupanarruppadai (by Nattattanar), Perumbanarruppadai, Maduraikkanji (by Mangudi Marudam),
Pattinappalai (by Kannan), and other works,
fall in this category.
● The poetry in the Pattupattu was divided into
two main groups: Aham (deals with matters
strictly limited to one aspect of subjective
experience viz., love) and Puram (deals
with matters capable of externalization or
objectification).
Eight Anthologies (Ettutogai)
Tolkkapiyam
1. Aingurunuru, compiled by Gudalur Kilar, consists of 500 erotic poems.
Tolkkapiyam is the earliest surviving Tamil
literature work, written by Tolkappiyar. It’s a Tamil
grammar text. Tolkkapiyam
2. Agananuru, compiled by Rudrasarman, consists
of love poems.
Tirukkural
4. Kurunttogai has 400 love poems.
Most important of the Tamil literatureis
Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvara.It is called as Bible of
Tamil Land. It deals with secular matter relating
5. Purananuru consists of 400 poems in praise of
kings. The Nandas and Mauryas are referred in
one of the poems.
3. Narrinai comprises 400 short poems on love.
108 Master Series : Ancient India
6. Kalittogaicomprises love poems.
7. Paripadal has 24 poems in praise of gods.
8. Padirrupattu is a short collection of 8 poems in
praise of the Chera Kings.
● The eight anthologies (Ettutogai) also are in
two groups, the Aham and the Puram.
Eighteen Minor Works (Padinenkilkanakku)
These works are called ‘minor works’ because the poems
in these are shorter in form than those in the Ettutogai
and Pattuppattu. The most important among these are
the Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar, it is a compound of the
Dharmasastra, the Arthasastra and the Kamasutra), the
Naladiyar, the Palamoliby Munnururai Araiyar, and the
Acharakkovai etc.
The Epics
● The epics Silappadikaram (The Jewelled
Anklet) and Manimekalai belong to the early
centuries of the Christian era.
● Silappadikaram was written by Mango
Adigal (grandson of Karikala, the great Chola
King) in the second century AD. It is a tragic
story of a merchant, Kovalan of Puhar who falls
in love with a dancer Madhavi, neglecting his
own wife, Kannagi, who in the end revenges
the death of her husband at the hands of the
Pandyan King and becomes a goddess.
● It marks the beginning of Kannagi cult or
Pattini cult that is worship of Kannagi as
the ideal wife. There is also a reference to the
Ceylonese king Gajabahu being present on
the occasion of the installation of a Kannagi
temple, the Goddess of Chastity, by Chera
king Senguttuvan.
● Manimekalai was written by poet Sattanar.
It is the story of Manimekalai, the daughter
of Kovalan, and Madhavi of the earlier epic.
The main aim of this epic seems to be to
expound the excellence of the Buddhist religion through the medium of the travails of
Manimekalai, consequent on the loss of the
city of Puhar when the sea eroded into the
coast. This epic is the only important ancient
work which gives glimpse of the development
of the fine arts in the Sangam age.
● In both these epics, a good deal of social and
historical information is found.
● Sivaga Sindamani, written by Tiruttakkadevar
a Jaina ascetic, is the story of Sivaga or Jivaka.
Sangam Polity
● From the earliest times Tamilham had known
only three major kingdoms – the Cheras, the
Cholas and the Pandyas. The Pandyas were
first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says
that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls.
● Megasthenes also speaks of its being ruled
by a woman, which may suggest some
matriarchal influence in the Pandya society.
In the Major Rock Edict II Asoka mentions
of the three kingdoms – Pandyas, Cholas and
Cheras as neighbours.
● The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavelea
contains the early epigraphic reference to the
kingdoms of the Tamil country, where he is
said to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil
states – Tramiradesa Sanghatam. However,
the chief source for the Sangam period is the
Sangam literature.
Cholas
● The Cholas have occupied the region of
Kaveri delta and its adjoining area. The
region of Kanchi was also part of the Cholas
kingdom.
● The Kingdom was situated towards the northeast of Pandya kingdom, and it was also called
as Chola Mandalam in early medieval times.
● In the beginning, its capital was Uraiyur in
Tiruchirapalli, but subsequently shifted to
Kaveripattanam. It was called as ‘Puhar’ at
that time. Puhar was also the main seaport.
Tiger was their symbol.
● A Chola king, known as Elara, conquered Sri
Lanka and ruled over it for about 50 years
during the middle of the 2nd century BC.
● Karikala was a famous Chola king of the
ancient period. He was credited because of
his two achievements:
1. He had defeated the joint forces of Chera
and Pandya kings, and
2. He successfully invaded Sri Lanka and
ruled there.
Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 109
● Karikala was defeated in a great battle at
Venni near Tanjore by a confederacy of
(about) a dozen rulers headed by Chera and
Pandya kings.
● Karikala maintained a powerful navy and
conquered Sri Lanka. Karikala built big
irrigation channels and embankment about
a 160 km along the river Kaveri. Karikala
fortified the town and the famous seaport of
Puhar at the mouth of the Kaveri. Karikala
was a great patron of literature and education.
He was a follower of Vedic religion and
performed many Vedic sacrifices.
● The successors of Karikala were quite weak
and family members squabbled for power and
position, therefore the Chola kingdom faced
confusion and chaos after Karikala.
● Illanjetcenni was the only king after Karikala
who is known now. He had captured two
fortresses from the Cheras. However, after
Karikala, the Chola Empire declined and the
Cheras and Pandyas extended their territories.
● The Cholas were reduced to a small ruling
family from about the 4th to the 9th century
AD. Ultimately, Cholas suffered a defeat
from Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
Fig. 7.2. The Chola Kingdom
Pandyas
● The Pandya kingdom was the second important
kingdom in south during sangam period. It
occupied the region of modern districts of
Tirunelveli, Ramnad, and Madurai in Tamil
Nadu.
● The capital of Pandya kingdom was Madurai.
Fish was on their emblem. The Pandyan
●
●
●
●
●
●
kingdom was very wealthy and prosperous.
The Sangam literature gives information and
names of a few kings.
Nedunjeliyan was a great Pandya king. He
defeated the combined forces of Chera, Chola,
and five other minor states in a war against
him at Madurai.
The Pandyan kings assembled literary
assemblies called as ‘Sangam’.
Nedunjeliyan had performed several Vedic
sacrifices. He may be taken to have ruled
around AD 210.
The capital Madurai and the port city Korkai
were the great centres of trade and commerce
during the Pandyas’ reign.
The traders profited from trade with the
Roman Empire. Pandya kings even sent
embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus
and Trojan.
Pandya Kingdom was first mentioned by
Megasthenese, the ambassador of Selucus
Nicator, former mentioned that Pandya
kingdom was famous for pearls.
Chera
The Cheras were also known as ‘Keralaputras’
in the history. The Chera kingdom occupied the
region of a narrow strip between the sea and the
mountains of Konkan range.
● The Chera rulers also occupied high position
in the history of south India. Nedunjeral
Adan was a famous Chera king. He conquered
Kadambas with his capital at Vanavasi (near
Goa). He also defeated the Yavanas. Muziris
was the main seaport. Bow and Arrow on
their emblem. Romans setup two regiments
at Muziris in Chera country to protect
their interests. Romans also built temple of
Augustus at Muziris.
● Nedunjeral Adan had a good relation with
the Greeks and Romans who came in large
numbers as traders and set up large colonies in
south India. Nedunjeral Adan fought a battle
with the father of the Chola king Karikala. In
this battle, both the kings were killed.
● Nedunjeral
Adan
was
called
as
Imayavaramban. The literary meaning of
the term Imayavaramban is “one who had
110 Master Series : Ancient India
the Himalaya Mountains as the boundary of
his kingdom.” However, it seems to be mere
exaggeration.
● Senguttuvan was the greatest king of the
Chera dynasty as mentioned in the Chera
tradition. He had defeated the Chola and the
Pandya kings. Senguttuvan also known as
Red Chera. Senguttuvan was also the founder
of famous Pattini Cult, related to worship of
Kannagi as the ideal wife. He was the first king
to send ambassador to China from South India.
● The Chera power declined at the end of the
3rd century AD. They again acquired power
in the 8th century AD.
The important facts about the three early
kingdoms of south India are:
1. They constantly fought with each other;
2. They made new alliances against the ones who
became powerful; and
3. They also fought regularly with Sri Lanka and ruled
there at some point of time.
Fig. 7.3. The Chera Kingdom
Age of Smaller Dynasties
● Apart from some important dynasties ruling
in the post-Mauryan period in north India,
there were a number of republics ruling
smaller states. The information about these
small dynasties is extracted from their coins
on which their names were written.
Following are some of the important small dynasties.
1. Arjunayanas,
2. Malavas,
3. Audumbaras,
4. Kunindas,
5. Yaudheyas, etc.
● Most of these dynasties (enumerated above),
later on, became tributaries of the Gupta
Dynasty and vanished altogether after the
fourth century AD.
Satavahanas of Deccan
● Before the emergence of the Satavahanas in
Maharashtra and Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas
dynasties ruled the southern, the region was
settled by megalithic people.
● The Satavahanas, also known as ‘Andhras’
(in Deccan region) covering the parts of
Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra was the
powerful dynasty.The Andhras were ancient
people and were mentioned in the Aitareya
Brahmana also.
● The Greek writer Pliny mentions that the
Andhras were powerful people who possessed
a large number of villages and thirty towns,
an army of one lakh infantry, two thousand
cavalries and one thousand elephants.
● During the Mauryan age, they were part
of the Mauryan Empire, but it appears that
immediately after the fall of the dynasty, the
Andhras declared themselves free.
● Simuka dynasty ruled from 235 BC to 213
BC and established Simuka dynasty. Simuka
was succeeded by his brother Krishna.
● Satakarni I was the third king. He made
extensive conquests and performed two
Ashvamedhayajna. The Nanaghat inscription
described his achievements in details. He
conquered western Malwa, Vidarbha, and
Anupa (Narmada Valley). He is also referred
to as the lord of ‘Dakshinapatha.’
● Satakarni-I’s name also occurs on one of the
gateways of Sanchi stupa because substantial
donations were made by the Satavahanas
for the renovation and decoration of Sanchi
stupas and monasteries.
● Satakarni II ruled for about 56 years.
Gautamiputra Satakarni gained Malwa from
the Sungas. Nahapana had conquered the
part of Satavahana territory after Satakarni
II. A large number of coins of Nahapana has
been found in Nasik area.
Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 111
● The Satavahanas became powerful again
during the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni.
His achievements are recorded in glowing
terms in the Nasik inscription of Queen-mother,
Gautami Balasri. This inscription was engraved
after his death and in the nineteenth year of the
reign of his son and successor Pulmavi II.
● In Nasik inscription, Gautamiputra Satakarni
has been described as one who destroyed
the Sakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas. He
overthrew Nahapana and restricted a large
number of his silver coins. He also recovered
northern Maharashtra, Konkan, Vidarbha,
Saurashtra, and Malwa from the Sakas.
● Satakarni dedicated a cave in Nasik in the
eighteenth year of his reign and granted some
land to ascetics in the twenty-fourth year.
Gautamiputra Satakarni is the first king
bearing matronymic and this practice was
followed by nearly all his successors.
● Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son
Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi in about AD 130
and ruled for about twenty-four years.The
coins and inscription of Pulmavi have been
found in Andhra Pradesh. This shows that
Andhra was the part of Satavahana Empire
in the second century AD. Perhaps, in order
to save the Satavahana Empire from the
onslaught of the Sakas, Pulmavi married the
daughter of Saka ruler Rudradaman. But this
Saka king defeated the next Satavahana ruler
twice.
● Sri Yajna Satakarni (AD 165-195) was
perhaps the last of the great Satavahana
rulers. His inscriptions have been found
in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and
Madhya Pradesh. From the distribution of
his coins, it appears that he ruled over a large
kingdom extending from the Bay of Bengal
in the east to the Arabian Sea in the west.
Thus, he regained the land that the Sakas had
conquered from his predecessors.
● Maritime trade and activities during his reign
had been proved by the depiction of ship with
a fish on his coins. The successors of Yajna
were weak and unworthy to govern such a
large empire. Hence, the Satavahana Empire
collapsed especially when Abhiras seized
Maharashtra and Ikshvakus and Pallavas
appropriated the eastern provinces.
Fig. 7.4. The Satavahana Period
Literature of Satavahana Period
● There was political instability between the era
of 500 years after the fall of the Mauryan
Empire and before the rise of the Gupta
Empire. This period had been marked as
the development of Dravidian languages and
literature in the South India.
● The Sanskrit language and various forms
of Prakrit language developed and some
distinctive literature was written in these
languages.
● The two great Epics, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, were compiled. Besides, some
of the Dharmasastra were also composed in
this period.
Smritis
● The Smritis have continued to play a very
important role in Hindu life as it were playing
since the last two thousand years.The Smritis
explained the religious duties, usage, laws,
and social customs.
● The Smritis are the expanded version of the
Dharmasutras, which covered the period from
(about) sixth century to third century BC. The
Smritis compiled almost in the period of eight
hundred years or even more.
● Manusmriti is the oldest among all. It was
composed in about the 1st century BC. Other
important Smritis are:
1. Naradasmriti,
2. Vishnusmriti,
112 Master Series : Ancient India
3. Yajnavalkyasmriti,
4. Brihaspatismriti, and
5. Katyayanasmriti.
● These Smritis (discussed above) are very
important sources of law and social customs
of the contemporary society and hence,
declared to be of divine origin.
● Mahabhasya, written by Patanjali, was
the most outstanding work in the field of
grammar during the period of 2nd century
BC. The center of Sanskrit grammar learning
shifted to the Deccan after Patanjali.
● In Deccan, the Katantra School developed in
the first century AD. Sarvavarman composed
the grammar of Katantra. He was a great
scholar in the court of Hala (Satavahana King).
Katantra’s grammar was short and handy to
help the learning of Sanskrit in about six
months.Hala, the King of Satavahana wrote a
great poetical work, namely ‘Gathasaptasati’
in Prakrit language.
● Asvaghosha was an important literary
figure of this period. He was a great Buddhist
philosopher. He had written many poetry, plays,
etc. Important of them are − Saundarananda,
Buddhacharita,Vajrasuchi, etc.
● ‘Buddhacharita’ was written in the form of
Mahakavya. It is a complete life of Buddha.
It has been translated into many languages
of the world. Remains of Asvaghosha’s plays
have been recovered from Turfan (in central
Asia).
● ‘Svapnavasavadatta’ was written by Bhasa.
It is famous Sanskrit play of the period.
● The art of dance and drama had already been
codified by Panini's time and mentioned by
Kautilya and Patanjali.
● Natyashastra was written by Bharata in the
same period.
● ‘Milindapanho’ was written in Pali language. It explains the Buddhist doctrines in
the form of a dialogue between Milinda and
his teacher (the great Buddhist philosopher
Nagasena). Milinda is generally identified
with the Indo-Greek king Menander.
Administration of Satvahanas
● The district was called as Ahara. The officials
were known as Amatyas and Mahamatyas.
The administration of rural areas was placed
in the handa of Gaulmika. The term Kataka
and Skandhavaras were used for their
military camps. They started the practice of
granting tax free villages to Brahamanas and
Buddhist monks.
Religion of Satvahanas
● They were the followers of Brahaminism
and they worshipped vaishnava gods. The
famous Chaityas of Karle near Nashik was
constructed during Satvahanas. They built
Amravati Stupa which is full of sculptures,
which depict scenes about the life of Buddha. They supported both Buddhism and
Brahaminism.
Society of Satavahana Period
● Major system of society of Satavahana and
other contemporary dynasties is largely followed from its predecessors.
Social Classes
● Varna and Ashrama systems continued to
govern the society. The society consisted of
four Varnas, namely − Brahman, Kshatriya,
Vaishya, and Sudra. Dharmasastras described
the duties, status, and occupations of all the
four Varnas.
● Over a period of time, there was great
increase in the number of mixed Jatis (castes).
Manusmriti defines the origin of the numerous
mixed (sankara) Varnas. Anuloma was the
marriage between the male of higher Varna
and the female of lower Varna.Pratiloma
was the marriage between the male of lower
Varna and the female of higher Varna.The
social status of a person born of Anuloma
was higher than Partiloma and they followed
their father's occupation.
● According to the Buddhist texts, mixed castes
resulted from organizations like guilds of
people following different arts and crafts.
The Buddhist texts described that a Kshatriya
working successively as a potter, basketmaker, reed-worker, garland-maker, and
Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 113
cook. Setthi (Vaisya) working as a tailor and
a potter without loss of prestige in both cases.
● Kshatriyas of the Sakya and Koliya clans
cultivated their fields. The Vasettha Sutta
refers to Brahmans working as cultivators,
craftsmen, messengers, and landlords.The
Jatakas mentioned that Brahman pursuing
tillage, tending cattle, trade, hunting, carpentry,
weaving, policing of caravans, archery, driving
of carriages, and even snake charming. Jatakas
story tells that a Brahman peasant as a supremely
pious man and even a Bodhisattva.
● The gradual absorption of foreigners like
Indo-Greek, Sakas, Yavanas, Kushanas, and
Parthians into the Indian society was the most
important development of this period. The life
of an individual man was divided into four
stages. The stages are called as Ashramas.
●
●
Stages of Life
The four stages of an individual life as
mentioned in Dharmasutras are:
1. Brahmacharya: In this ashrama, a person lives a
celibate life as a student at the home of his teacher.
●
2. Grihastha: After learning the Vedas, a student
returns back to his home, gets married, and becomes
a Grihastha (householder). Grihastha has manifold
duties broadly marked out as (i) yajna (ii) adhyayana
(iii) dana
3. Vanaprastha: In the middle age, after seeing his
grandchildren; he leaves home for the forest to
become a hermit.
●
4. Sanyas: Sanyas ashrama is the time meditation and
penance; one frees his soul from material things. He
leaves hermitage and becomes a homeless wanderer
and thus, earthly ties are broken.
Family Life
● The joint family system was the main
characteristics of the society.The family was
considered as the unit of the social system
and not the individual.Obedience to parents
and elders was held as the highest duty for
the children.
● Marriage between the same Jatis was also
preferred though intermarriage between
different Jatis was prevalent.The marriage in
the same ‘gotra’ and ‘pravara’ is restricted.
Dharmasastras explained eight forms of
marriage, namely
●
1. Brahma Vivah,
2. Daiva Vivah,
3. Arsha Vivah,
4. Prajapatya Vivah,
5. Asura Vivah,
6. Gandharva Vivah,
7. Rakshasa Vivah, and
8. Paisacha Vivah.
Among all these eight (as discussed above),
Paisacha Vivah is condemned by all the
Dharmasatras. Ideal marriage is one in
which the father and guardian of the girls
selected the bridegroom on an account of his
qualifications.
The women hold an honorable position in the
society and household. Two classes of women
students are mentioned as:
1. Brahmavadin or lifelong students of
sacred texts and
2. Sadyodvaha who pursued their studies till
their marriage.
Women not only attained good education,
but also received training in fine arts like
music, dancing, and painting. Dharmasastras
described that in the family property, all the
sons had equal share, but a large number of
Dharmasastras rejected the right of women
to inherit.
Yajnavalkya lays down a list of priority
in inheritance, which places the sequences
as son, wife, and daughter. The right of a
wife to inherit if no sons were living, has
been accepted by most of the ancient Indian
authorities. Women were allowed to have
some personal property known as Stree-dhana
in the form of jewelry, clothing, etc.
The Arthashastra mentioned that a woman
can own money up to 2,000 silver panas
and amount above this could be held by her
husband in trust on her behalf.
Economy of Satavahana Period
Major economic system of Satavahana and other
contemporary dynasties was well organized and
systematic. There was allround development in the
field of agriculture, industry, and trade during this
period.
114 Master Series : Ancient India
● Agriculture was the main occupation of a
large section of the people. The land was held
by the individuals as well as by the state.The
gramakshetra was protected area by fences
and field-watchmen against pests like birds
and beasts.
● Usually, the land holdings were small enough
that could be cultivated by the individual
family. But sometimes, the land holdings were
big enough consisting of up to 1,000 acres.
● The land outside the village is called arable
land.Beyond the arable land of the village
lay its pastures, which were common for the
grazing of cattle. The arid land also belonged
to the state.The forest was located on the
boundary of the village.Kautilya gives a
complete scheme of village plan.
Land Classification
● According to Kautilya, the land of the
village was divided into − Cultivated land,
uncultivated land, grove, Forest, pastures,
etc.
● The main crops were rice of different varieties,
coarse grains, sesame, saffron, pulses, wheat,
linseed, sugarcane, and mustard. Besides, a
large number of vegetables and fruits were
also grown.
● Every village had artisans like carpenter,
potter, blacksmith, barber, rope maker, washer
man, etc.
Major Guilds
● Eighteen types of ‘guilds’ were mentioned
in the literature.Guilds became an important
institution in the economy.
● The guilds implemented and defined rules of
work and controlled the quality of the finished
product and its prices to safeguard both the
artisans and the customers.The disputes of the
guild members were resolved through a guild
court.
● Guilds also acted as a banker, financier, and
a trustee. Such functions were carried out
by a different category of merchants known
as ‘Sresthies’ in north India and ‘Chettis’ in
south.
● Loans were given on security of gold and
other things. Money was lent for interest on
promising rates to be renewed every year.
Nasik cave inscription mentioned that the
interest rates on money deposited to guilds.
The common rate of interest was between
12% and 15% per annum
● Both internal and external trade was practiced
in most of the parts of India since Mauryan
period.All the internal cities and ports were
interconnected with a well-knit road system.
● A large number of modern national highways
were developed during this period including
Grand Trunk road. The same road was further
maintained and developed by Sher Shah Suri.
● The discovery of monsoon winds in the first
century facilitated foreign trade with Egypt as
it reduced the distance between the western
ports of India to the ports of Alexanderia
in Egypt. Now the whole distance could be
covered in forty days.
● India's trade with Rome also increased
enormously by sea as well as by land route,
which is generally known as the silk route.
The account of the author of Periplus of
Erythean Sea and Roman historians like
Pliny and Ptolemy mentioned about the
trading commodities.
● Indian literature, both in Tamil and Sanskrit
mentioned common items of trade were
Indian spices, sandalwood, and other variety
of woods, pearls, textiles of various types,
sea products, metals, semi-precious stones,
and animals.
● Arikamedu was an important Roman
settlement and trading station. It was
located close to a port, which was excavated
in 1945.Romans paid for the goods mainly in
gold currency. A number of hordes of Roman
coins found in the Deccan and south India
indicates the volume of this trade (which was
in favor of India). Pliny, Roman historian
mentioned that Indian trade was a serious
drain on the wealth of Rome.
● The technological advancement (in terms
of art & architecture as well as science &
technology) of Satavahana period was pretty
advanced.
Southern Kingdoms During Ancient India 115
Ancient India Master Exercise
7
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
Which of the following Pandya king is mentioned
in Silappadikaram?
8.
(a) Mandara
(a) Nedujeliyan
(b) Kochi
(b) Karikala
(c) Mahabalipuram
(c) Vasishthiputra Pulumayi
(d) Sivaga Sindamani
2.
Which of the following is a Tamil text and the
earliest surviving Tamil literature work?
(d) Kanchipuram
9.
(a) Silappadikaram
(b) Tolkkappiyam
(c) Aitareya Brahmana
(d) Gatha Saptashati
3.
4.
5.
Which of the following dynasty issued maximum
number of lead coins?
(a) Pandays
(b) Cheras
(c) Satavahanas
(d) Chalukyas
(b) Tolkkappiyam
(c) Tolkkappiyam
(d) Tirukkural
(b) Tolkappiyar
(c) Tiruvalluvara
(d) Yajna Satakarni
(b) Kirtivarman II
(c) Pulakeshin I
(d) Pulakeshin II
Subjective type questions for Main
Who was the first Chalukyan king?
Examination
(a) Pulakeshini-II
1.
(c) Vasishthiputra Pulumayi
(d) None of the above
2.
3.
Who was the founder of Pallava dynasty?
(a) Mahendravarman I
4.
(b) Simhavishnu
(c) Aparjit
(d) Aditya Chola
7.
(a) Dandin
(a) Mahendravarman I
Which Tamil text is called Bible of Tamil land?
(a) Silappadikaram
Which of the following scholar who was
court poet of Narsimhavarman I wrote
Dasakumaracharitam in Sanskrit?
10. Who among the following Chalukyas of Badami
king was killed Dantidurga (founder of
Rashtrakutas dynasty)?
(b) Narsimhavarman I
6.
Where is the Vaikuntha Perumal temple location?
5.
6.
Who among the following Pallava ruler assumed
the title of Rajsimha?
Answers to MCQs
(a) Mahendravarman I
(b) Narasimhavarman I
(c) Narasimhavarman II
(d) Aparjit
Discuss the major stages in the evolution of
architecture during the ancient period.
Discuss about the socio cultural life during
Sangam age.
Trace the journey from rock cut temples to stone
carved temples.
Discuss the pros and consequences of
Aryanisation of South India, which commenced
during the Sangam Age.
Discuss the administration of Sangam Age.
Discuss the Narratives and Didactic Sangam
Literature.
1.
6.
(a) 2.
(b) 7.
(b) 3.
(c) 8.
(c) 4.
(d) 9.
(d) 5. (a)
(a) 10. (b)
Part - B
Medieval History
Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 1
MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 1
Early Medieval
INDIA
● Medieval period is an important period in the
history of India because of the developments
in the field of art and languages, culture and
religion. Also the period has witnessed the
impact of other religions on the Indian culture.
Beginning of Medieval period is marked by
the rise of the Rajput clan.
● This period is also referred to as Post-classical
Era. Medieval period lasted from the 8th to
the 18th century CE with early medieval
period from the 8th to the 13th century and
the late medieval period from the 13th to the
18th century.
● Early Medieval period witnessed wars among
regional kingdoms from North and South
India whereas late medieval period saw the
number of Muslim invasions by Mughals,
Afghans and Turks.
● By the end of the fifteenth century, European
traders started doing trade and around mideighteenth century they became a political
force in India marking the end of medieval
period. But some scholars believe that start of
Mughal Empire is the end of medieval period
in India.
● For a period that has come to be so strongly
associated with the Islamic influence and
rule in India, Medieval Indian history went
for almost three whole centuries under the
so-called indigenous rulers, that included the
Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the
Rashtrakutas, the Muslims rulers and finally
the Mughal Empire. The most important
dynasty to emerge in the middle of the 9th
century was that of the Cholas.
● In northern India, the post-Gupta age largely
comprised of an age of various small kingdoms.
However, among these small kingdoms, there
were three big kingdoms (between A.D. 750
and 1,000), namely −
1. Rashtrakutas,
2. Pratiharas, and
3. Palas
● All these kingdoms recurrently fought with
each other and tried to gain control over
northern India; however, none of them
succeeded for any length of time.
Struggle for Kannauj
● Kannauj was the capital of Harsha and was an
important city; hence, many of the campaigns
in northern India were fought over the city
of Kannauj.
● Kannauj was geographically located in the
northern plain; a strategic point from where
it was easy to control the Ganga valley.
● Three major kingdoms were involved in
this struggle to control Kannauj; Modern
Historians prefer to call them ‘tripartite (i.e.
three parties) struggle for Kannauj.’ The
three kingdoms were the Rashtrakutas, the
Pratiharas, and the Palas.
Palas
● After the death of Harsha and up to the rise
of the Palas, the history of Bengal is not clear.
During this time, West Bengal was known as
Gauda and East Bengal as Vanga. Bengal was
subject to internal disorder, which has been
termed as Matsyanyaya.
2 Master Series : Medieval India
● Gopala was the elected king by the people
in a revolution to end the Matsyanyaya.
The history of Gopala’s early life is not
known. Gopala introduced peace in the
kingdom and laid the foundation for the
Pala dynasty.
● Dharmapala became ruler after Gopala
in about A.D. 780. He undertakes the
expansion of his empire. Dharmapala
defeated Indrayudha, the king of Kanauj
and installed his nominee Chakrayudha to
the throne of Kanauj. Dharmapala held a
grand darbar at Kanauj, which was attended
by several kings. However, he could not
consolidate his position.
● Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva defeated
Dharmapala near Monghyr (Bihar) in a
battle. Meanwhile Nagabhatta II, Pratihara
king became more powerful.
● After Dharmapala, his son Devapala
became the ruler. He was the mightiest Pala
king. He conquered–Pragjotishpur (Assam)
and Utkala (Orissa).
● The kings Palas dynasty ruled over Bihar,
Bengal, and parts of Orissa and Assam with
many ups and downs for over four centuries.
Arab merchant Sulaiman testifies their
power. He calls the Pala kingdom Ruhma
(or Dharma), short for Dharmapala. Sulaiman
mentioned that the Pala rulers were at war
with their neighbors – the Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more in
number than his adversaries. Sulaiman also
mentioned that ‘it was usual for the Pala
king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000
elephants.’
● The Tibetan chronicles also provide detailed
information about the Palas dynasties.
According to Tibetan historians, Pala rulers
were great patrons of Buddhist learning and
religion. Dharmapala founded the famous
Buddhist monastery at Vikramashila. It
became eminent as Nalanda (in fame).
During Pala reign, Nalanda University
became famous all over the world.
● During this period, Nalanda had more than
●
●
●
●
10,000 students and teachers coming not only
from different parts of India, but also from
central Asia, China, South East Asia, and Sri
Lanka.
Nalanda University was considered as one
of the biggest educational institutions of
its time. It imparted education in various
branches of knowledge. Dharmapala
donated the royal income from two
hundred surrounding villages to meet the
expenses of Nalanda University. Devapala
also donated income from five villages.
The king of Suvarnadvipa (modern Malaya
Peninsula, Java and Sumatra), Maharaja
Balaputradeva erected a monastery in
Nalanda and requested Devapala to donate
five villages for the maintenance of that
monastery.
The Pala kings patronized Hinduism as well.
Vinayakapala built one thousand temples in
honor of the Lord Saiva. They also gave
donations to Brahmans to settle in their
country and run gurukuls. The powerful
Sailendra dynasty of South East Asia sent
many embassies to the Pala kings. They ruled
over Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and neighboring
islands.
The Palas had close trade contacts and
cultural links with South East Asia and China.
The trade with South East Asia and China
was very profitable and added greatly to the
prosperity of the Pala Empire.
Gurjara Pratiharas
● The early history of Gurjara Pratiharas is not
known. Historians believe that after the Gupta
period, Gurjara Pratiharas came to India
from the central Asian region and settled in
Rajasthan. Gradually, they gained political
importance.
Rulers of Gurjara Pratiharas
● The Gwalior inscription mentioned the early
history of the family. The inscription was
founded by King Bhoja in the 7th century.
He was the most famous king of the Gurjara
Pratiharas dynasty.
Early Medieval India 3
● Nagabhatta-I was the real founder of the
fame of family. He defeated the Muslim
forces from the Arabs.
● During A.D. 775-800, Vatsaraja followed
an aggressive imperial policy. He defeated
Pala King Dharmapala of Bengal. The
Rashtrakuta
King
Dhruva
defeated
Vatsaraja and took away the political benefit
of the defeat of Pala king. Dharmapala took
advantage of the defeat of Vatsaraja and
installed his own nominee Chakrayudba on
the throne of Kanauj.
● Vatsaraja’s son, Nagabhatta II (A.D.815)
made an alliance with Andhra, Vidharbha,
and Kalinga. He made extensive preparation
to fight against his rivals. Nagabhatta II first
defeated Chakrayudha and captured Kanauj.
Then he defeated Dharmapala and fought with
Govinda-III, the Rashtrakuta king. Nagabhatta
also defeated Sultan Vega who was the son
of the governor of Sind under the Caliph-l
Mamun. Nagabhatta-II was succeeded by his
son Ramabhadra. Ramabhadra was succeeded
by his son Bhoja-I about A.D. 836.
● Bhoja-I restored the falling prosperities and
reputation of his dynasty. A golden opportunity
to the King Bhoja-I was provided by the death
of Devapala of Bengal and Rashtrakuta’s
invasion of Bengal thereafter. The Rashtrakuta
King, Krishna II was involved in the struggle
with the Eastern Chalukyas. Bhoja-I defeated
Krishna-II and captured the region of Malwa
and Gujarat. After victory over two great
rivals, Bhoja-I founded his sovereignty over
the Punjab, Avadh, and other territories of
north India and consolidated his empire.
● Bhoja-I was a devotee of Vishnu, and
adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha.’ It has
been inscribed in some of his coins. He
is also known by other names as ‘Mihir’,
‘Prabhasa,’ etc. Bhoja-I was succeeded by
his son Mahendrapala-I about A.D. 885.
● Mahendrapala-I also extended the boundaries
of his empire. During his reign, the Pratihara
Empire stretched almost from the Himalayas
in the north to the Vindhyas in the south
and from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in
the west. Mahendrapala-I was also known as
‘Mahendrayudha’, and ‘Nirbhayanarendra.’
He was a liberal patron of learned men.
● Arab scholar, Al-Masudi, visited India in
A.D. 915-916.Al-Masudi mentioned about
the great powers and prestige of the
Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their
empire. Al-Masudi says that empire of
AI-Juzr (Gurjara) had 1,800,000 villages, the
cities and rural areas were about 2,000 km in
length and 2,000 km in breadth.
● The Rashtrakuta king, Indra-II again attacked
Kanauj between A.D. 915 and A.D. 918 and
completely destroyed it. This weakened the
Pratihara Empire.
● Krishna-III was other Rashtrakuta ruler
invaded north India in about A.D. 963. He
defeated the Pratihara rulers. This led to
decline of Pratihara Empire.
Rashtrakutas
● The Pala kings ruled in the eastern India,
the Pratiharas ruled in the north India,
and Rashtrakutas ruled in the Deccan. The
term ‘Rashtrakuts’ literarily means officers
in-charge of territorial divisions (known
as Rashtras). The Rashtrakutas were the
officers of Rashtra (province) under the early
Chalukyas of Badami.
● Dantivarman or Dantidurga was the founder
of the Rashtrakutas dynasty. He made his
capital at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modern
Sholapur. Dantivarman was succeeded by his
uncle Krishna I about A.D. 758. Krishna-I
extended his kingdom from Maharashtra to
Karnataka.
● Dhruva became king in about A.D. 779.
It was the opening of a new era in the
history of Rashtrakutas. Dhruva was the
first Rashtrakuta ruler from Deccan who
had intervene in the tripartite struggle of
supremacy in north India. He had defeated
two powers of the North India i.e. the
Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king
Dharmapala of Bengal.
● Dhruva added the emblem of Ganga and
Yamuna to his imperial emblem after his
successful campaigns in north India.
4 Master Series : Medieval India
● Dhruva was succeeded by Govinda-III (A.D.
793-813). Govinda-III also made invasions into
north India and fought successfully against
the Pala king Dharmapala and Chakrayudha
the ruler of Kanauj. Govinda-III shattered
the union of the Ganga, Chera, Pandya, and
Pallava rulers in south India.
● Govind-III was succeeded by his son
Amoghavarsha-I
(A.D.
814-878).
Amoghavarsha-I had been ruled for 60 years.
He is better known for his leanings towards
religion and literature. Amoghavarsha
supported Jainism. He was a patron of
literature and patronized as the men of
letter. Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamarga.
It was earliest Kannada work on poetics.
Amoghavarsha was a great builder. He built
the capital city Manyakhet.
● The successor of Amoghavarsha were
Indra-III (A.D. 915-927) and Krishna-III
(939- 965). Both were the great Rashtrakuta
rulers. Indra-III had defeated the Pratihara
king Mahipala-I and ransacked his capital
Kanauj. Arab traveler, Al-Masudi, calls the
Rashtrakuta king as the greatest king of India.
● Krishna-III was the last famous king of
Rashtrakuta. He struggled against the
Paramaras of Malwa and eastern Chalukya
of Vengi.Krishna-III also struggled against
the Chola ruler of Tanjore. He reached up to
Rameshwaram and built a pillar of victory
and a temple there.
● The dominance of the Rashtrakutas in the
Deccan is the remarkable period in the
history of India.Rashtrakuta ruled more
than three hundred years. They patronized
Saivism and Vaishnavism. In addition, they
also protected Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam.
The Rashtrakuta rulers permitted the Muslim
merchants to settle in their kingdom, build
mosques, and preach their religion.Rashtrakuta
rulers equally support Sanskrit, Prakrit, and
Kannada along with Apabhramsa languages.
● Rock-cut cave temples excavated at Ellora
are the symbols of Rashtrakuta’s religious
toleration. They are one of the splendors of
Indian arts. The Kailash temple was built
by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna-I. It is a
supreme piece of art.
Impact of Tripartite Struggle
● This struggle exhausted all the energy and
resources of the parties who involved into it.
As a result a situation of vacuum developed in
north India, which facilitated for the success
of Turkish invasions.
● Tripartite struggle was responsible for decline
of Pala’s and Rashtrakuta’s.
● No Central Authority could develop in North
India for long time, so when Turks starts
attacking India, there was no strong challenger
and regional entities were defeated by Turks
without much effort.
● An atmosphere of mutual animosity was
created by Tripartite struggle among Indian
rulers and they couldn’t come together even
against foreign invaders.
● This struggle resulted in immense loss of
men and material which adversely affected
the process of socio cultural advancement.
The Rajputs
● The Rajputs always insisted that they were of
the Kshatriya caste and they were divided into
clans.The Rajput kings belonged to ordered
family, which connected them with either
Early Medieval India 5
the sun-family (Suryavanshi) or the moonfamily (Chandravanshi) of ancient Indian
kings. However, there were four clans who
claimed that they had not descended from
either of these two families, but rather from
the fire-family (Agnikula).
Agnikula Theory
● The poet Chand Bardai in his poetical work
‘Prithviraj Raso’ has recorded a legend that the
Rajputs of Parmar, Chauhan, Pratihara and
Chalukya clans sprang from Vasishta’s sacrificial
fire pit at Mount Abu. This is known as the theory
of Agnikula origin. Some Rajputs firmly advocate
even now their ‘Agnikula origin’.
Theory of Kshatriya Origin of the Rajputs
● Ethnology and tradition point to Aryan origin of the
Rajputs. Although there are some similarities in the
manners and customs of the Rajputs with that of the
Sakas and other foreigners, these are not conclusive
proofs of their foreign origin. The Asvamedha
sacrifice, the practice of Sati, and the worship of
Sun practice by the Rajputs are not clear marks
of foreign heritage. These practices were ingrained
in Hindu society. The theory of Kshatriya origin of
Rajput clan has more acceptability.
Theory of Foreign Origin of the Rajputs
● Some historians have suggested that the Rajputs
were descendants of the Sakas, Huns, Kushanas
and the Gurjaras, who became hinduized. Smith
has further suggested that the invasion of the Huns
and other associate foreign tribes in the fifth and
sixth centuries shook the Indian society in the North
to its foundation. It brought about a rearrangement
of castes and ruling families. When the equilibrium
was reached it was found that people belonging
to many diverse races were lumped together and
were called Rajputs. However, the theory of foreign
origin of the Rajputs has less acceptability.
Rajput Clans
● The four clans, namely −
1. Pratiharas, (or Pariharas),
2. Chauhans (or Chahamanas),
3. Solankis (or Chaulukyas), and
4. Pawars (or Paramaras).
● These four agni-kula clans established their
power in western India and parts of central
India.
1. The Pratiharas ruled in the region of
Kanauj;
2. The Chauhans were strong in central
Rajasthan;
3. Solanki power rose in the region of
Kathiawar and the surrounding areas,
and
4. The Pawars established themselves in
the region of Malwa with their capital at
Dhar near Indore.
● Rajput dynasty
1. Tomaras (early 12th century – 1165)
2. Ananga Pala (1130–1145)
3. Chauchans (1165–1192)
4. Prithviraj Chauhan (1175–1192)
Principal Rajput Kingdoms
● At the time of Muslim invasions the whole
of Northern India was divided into a large
number of Rajput Kingdoms. The major
Rajput Kingdoms were Delhi, Mewar,
Kanauj, Ajmer, Bihar, Bengal, Bundelkhand,
Malwa and Chedi. These Kingdoms have
been discussed below in brief.
Rajput Kingdom of Delhi
● At the time of Muslim invasion of India, Delhi
was under the domination of the Chauhan
Dynasty of the Rajputs. Formerly this state
was under the rule of the Tomar dynasty,
but in about 1163 A.D. the Chauhan ruler
Vigraharaja conquered it from the Tomar
chief. Under Vigraharaja’s successor, i.e.,
Prithviraj Chauhan, this state of Delhi made
a rapid progress. However, in 1192 A.D. this
state was conquered by Muhammad Ghori
when he defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, in the
Second Battle of Tarain.
Mewar Kingdom
● Mewar was under the domination of the
Sisodia dynasty, which continued to rule
over this territory up to 1647 A.D. Its capital
was Chittor. The founder of this dynasty was
Bappa Rawal. However, under Rana Kumbha
and his grandson Rana Sanga, Mewar made
6 Master Series : Medieval India
a great progress. The former defeated the
Muslim rulers of Malwa and to commemorate
this conquest he built a splendid tower, known
as “Vijaya Stambha” at Chittor. He was also
a great scholar, musician and mighty builder.
He is said to have built a large number of forts
in Mewar. His grandson Rana Sanga, and
Maharana Pratap (Rana Sanga’s grandson)
gave a tough fight to the Mughals and taught
them wisdom.
Kannauj Kingdom
● In the beginning of the 9th century A.D.
Kannauj came under the domination of the
Pratiharas. The most important ruler of this
dynasty was Mihir Bhoja (840-90 A.D.) under
whose able administration Kanauj became
the premier city of India. This dynasty of
the Pratiharas received a great setback when
Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked their empire and
conquered Kanauj in 1018-19, A.D. After the
retreat of the invader the Pratiharas no doubt,
reoccupied Kanauj, but much of their name
and fame vanished away. In about 1090 the
Rathore Rajputs conquered Kanauj and thus
disappeared the great Rajput dynasty of the
Pratiharas.
● For about a century (1090-1194) the Rathors
ruled over this great city of Kanauj. The last
great ruler of this dynasty was Jai Chand
Rathore who had a great enmity with his
neighbour Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer.
Their enmity gave a long sought opportunity
to Muhammad Ghori to invade India. In
1191 Muhammad Ghori was defeated, but
the very next year he defeated and killed
Prithvi Raj Chauhan. In none of these two
battles Jai Chand extended a helping hand to
Prithviraj Chauhan. But he was not spared.
Two years later (in 1194 A.D.) Muhammad
Ghori attacked him and killed him in a battle.
Thus, Jai Chand paid for his treachery.
Kingdom of Ajmer
● Ajmer was under the domination of the
famous Chauhan dynasty of the Rajputs.
The most famous ruler of this dynasty was
Prithvi Raj Chauhan, who greatly extended
the boundaries of his small kingdom by his
conquests. From the powerful Chandellas he
conquered the territory of Bundelkhand and
annexed it to his empire. His military exploits
are graphically described by his court-poet,
Chand Bardai in his famous book “Prithvi
Raj Raso.”
● Prithvi Raj Chauhan was a very powerful and
brave ruler. It is because of his chivalry and
great merit that Sanyukta, the daughter of his
rival Jaichand, the ruler of Kanauj, began to
love him. In 1911 A.D., when Muhammad
Ghori invaded India, Prithvi Raj gave him a
crushing defeat at the battle of Tarain and
forced him to take to his heels. Next year
another battle was fought on the same battle
field but this time the Rajput army was
completely routed and its leader Prithviraj
was captured and murdered.
First Battle of Tarain
● The First Battle of Tarain (Taraori) was
fought between Sultan Mohammad Ghori
and Prithviraj Chauhan in 1191 near the
town of Tarain in Haryana. The army of
Mohammad Ghori was defeated by the Rajput
army of Chauhan.
● The Western Punjab was already annexed by
Mohammad Ghori. The provinces of Eastern
Punjab were within the control of Prithviraj
Chauhan. As an initial step, Mohammad Ghori
stormed the strategic fortress of Bathinda,
which was situated within the dominion of
Prithviraj Chauhan.
● The fall of the fortress of Bathinda awakened
Prithviraj to the gravity of the strong
Mohammad’s invasion. He promised revenge
and set out with an army against Mohammad.
The Rajput army completely dominated the
battle. In the first battle of Tarain in 1191
A.D, Prithviraj routed the Ghorid army by the
prowess of his arms.
● Mohammad Ghori was badly injured and fled
from the battleground. The victory at Tarain
was the last flicker of the extinguishing lamp
of Hindu valor. Prithviraj followed up his
success by taking possession of the fort of
Bathinda from the invaders.
Early Medieval India 7
Second Battle of Tarain
● The Second Battle of Tarian (Taraori)
was again fought between Ghurid army
of Mohammad Ghori and Rajput army of
Prithviraj Chauhan. The battle took place in
1192 A.D near Tarain. In this battle, Prithviraj
Chauhan was defeated by Mohammad Ghori.
● In the First Battle of Tarian, Mohammad
Ghori had lost the battle. After the defeat,
Mohammad Ghori further prepared to
strengthen his position. He reappeared in
1192 A.D. in Punjab at the head of an army
of one hundred and twenty thousand men, for
the conquest of Hindustan.
● This time, Mohammad Ghori had prepared
his plans and strategy in advance. Mohammad
recaptured Bathinda and reached the field of
Tarain without meeting any serious opposition
on the way. Meanwhile, Prithviraj formed a
confederacy of several Hindu kings. He was
aware that this time his Turkish adversary
came well prepared to win victory.
● Prithviraj Chauhan blocked the passage of
Mohammad Ghori in the field of Tarain.
Skanda, the veteran general of Prithviraj and
the hero of the first battle of Tarain was
engaged in warfare elsewhere and failed to
lend support to his master. In the battle that
followed, Mohammad entirely routed the
Hindu army by his superior generalship and
tactics.
● Prithviraj Chauhan was imprisoned and
executed.The Second Battle of Tarain 1192
A.D. destroyed the imperial power of the
Chauhan Dynasty. The subsequent attempts
of the Hindu kings to resist the Muslim tide
proved futile. Muslim power was strongly
founded in Northern India after the battle.
Thus the Second battle of Tarain 1192 A.D.
may be regarded as a turning point in India’s
history.
Kingdoms of Bihar and Bengal
● At the time of Muhammedan invasion of
India, Bihar was ruled by the Pala dynasty,
while Bengal was under the rule of the
Senas. Earlier, both Bihar and Bengal were
under the domination of the Pala dynasty
but in the beginning of the 12th century (in
about 1119 A.D.) the Senas under their ruler
Vijayasena declared themselves independent
in Bengal. The Pala rulers were Buddhist
in their faith while the, Sena kings were
orthodox Hindus. Towards the end of the
12th century A.D. (1199 A.D.) one of the
generals of Muhammad Ghori, Muhammad
Bin Baktiyar Khilji invaded Bengal and Bihar
and annexed them to the Muslim empire.
Bundelkhand Kingdom
● The Chendella dynasty of the Rajputs ruled
over Bundelkhand, which was situated
between the Jamuna and the Narbada. Its
capital was Mahoba, while Kalinjar was its
important fort. Kirtivarman was one of the
greatest rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler
of the Chandellas submitted to Prithviraj
Chauhan and then (1203 A.D.) to Muhammad
Ghori.
Malwa Kingdom
● Malwa was under the rule of the Parmara
dynasty of the Rajputs. Its capital was Dhara
and important ruler of this dynasty was Munja
(974-95 A.D.) who was a great patron of
learning and was himself a poet of the
highest order. But the most famous ruler of
this dynasty was Bhoja (1018-60), who is up
to this time remembered as the famous Raja
Bhoja of Dhara. He was a great scholar and
writer of many books on poetry, architecture
and astronomy. He is said to have constructed
a beautiful lake near Bhopal and founded a
famous Sanskrit-college in his capital, Dhara.
He is a great-figure both in history arid in
fables. With his death the greatness of the
Paramaras was also gone.
Chedi (Chedi Dynasty)
● The state of Chedi was situated between the
Narmada and Godavari rivers, and was ruled
by the Kalachuri dynasty. The capital of this
state was Tripuri, near modern Jubbulpore.
Like the Chandellas, the Kalachuris were
formerly subordinate to the Pratiharas but
about the middle of the 10th century A.D.
they asserted their independence. Towards the
8 Master Series : Medieval India
beginning of the 12th century A.D. the Chedi
possessions were lost to the rising dynasties
of the Ganpatis of Warangal, the Yadavas of
Devagiri and the Vaghela Rajputs.
Feudalism in Early Medievel India
● Feudalism became an important feature of
the political system of North India between
750 and 1200 AD. This was because the
authority of the rulers had been limited in
many ways. The ministers were appointed on
the hereditary basis and became all powerful.
There were numerous feudal chiefs who had
ties with ruling class.
● In the local and central government these
feudal chiefs had special privileges and
powers which no ruler could ignore. This
also led to the limited authority of the kings.
The rulers were under the obligation to rule
according to holy Sastras and Smirtis could
not enact or amend the laws at will. Thus,
rulers of this period were basically feudal
lords with limited overall power.
● The basis of the sovereignty during this period
was a mixture of Divine Right theory and
contract theory. On the one hand the authors
of treaties on polity regarded the ruler as an
incarnation of Lord Vishnu. On the other
hand they also held that it the people who
conferred sovereignty on the ruler. So the
natural duty of the ruler was to rule in the
interests of the people while the duty of the
people was to be loyal to him.
● A king was usually succeeded by his elder
son. If a king dies without an heir the kingdom
passed to the head of next in king to the ruling
dynasty. There was little scope for disputed
succession in this period. The powers of the
king were limited in practice due to privileges
and prerogatives of the feudal lords. Since he
had the theoretical ownership of all the lands,
the feudal lords needed his recognition but
then this prerogative of the kings was limited
as the feudal lords had hereditary rights.
● The king was helped in the administration by
a council of ministers besides crown prince.
The chief priest and the court astrologer
were recruited from Brahmin while all over
posts were held by feudal lords. They usually
belonged to Kshatriya caste.Shudras or lower
caste had no place in the political set up of
the king.
Administration
● The kingdom was divided into a central
region directly ruled by the king and many
areas or fiefs were governed by feudal lords.
The central region was divided into Bhuktis
or Rashtras which were under Viceroys,
Vishayas under Vishayapatis and finally
villages under Gramapatis. The village selfgovernment weakened during this period due
to the domination of the feudal chiefs while
at the same time it was best under the Cholas
in the south India.
● The army consisted of royal retainers or the
personal army of the king and the contingents
supplied by feudal lords. This was the main
reason for the lack of unity in the armies of
the rulers of this period. The military service
became the monopoly of Rajputs. Taxation
during this period was heavier compared to
earlier times. This was mainly due to heavy
expenditure over the royal household and
the court. There was also fighting all around
for suzerainty. The burden was laid on the
general public.
● There was no clear instructions for
maintain justice. In the Bhuktis there was a
Dandanayaka who was in charge of justice,
police and prison. There is no mention of any
other officer. It is likely that most of the cases
were settled by caste and village panchayats.
● Some feudal chiefs were government officers
who were increasingly paid not in cash
but by assigning to them revenue-bearing
villages. Others were defeated kings and
their supporters who continued to enjoy the
revenues of limited areas. Some were tribal
chiefs.
● Some of them were village chiefs who had
dominated the entire region. There was a
definite hierarchy among these chiefs. They
constantly fought against each other for
supremacy.
Early Medieval India 9
Medieval India Master Exercise
MCQs
1.
for Preliminary Examination
Which empire lasted the longest among the
following?
(a) The Palas
(c) Parantaka I
(d) Govinda III
7.
(b) The Pratiharas
Who founded the Rashtrakuta dynasty?
(a) Dantidurga
(c) The Rashtrakutas
(b) Dhruva
(d) The Senas
2.
1
(c) Govinda III
Who founded the Pala empire?
(d) Indira III
(a) Devapala
3.
(b) Dharmapala
Subjectve type questions for
(c) Dhruva
Main Examination
(d) Gopala
1.
How far it is correct to say that during the period
from 500 A.D to 750 A.D, the strength and vigor
of India lay behind Vindhya’s?
2.
Why tripartite struggle was fought and assess its
impact on the Indian history?
3.
Write a short note on:
Who founded the Vikramashila University?
(a) Devapala
(b) Dharmapala
(c) Dhruva
(d) Gopala
4.
(a) Kannauj
Who was the founder of the Sena dynasty?
(b)Origin of the Rajputs
(a) Ballal Sena
Answers to MCQs
(b) Hemanta Sen
(c) Lakshman Sen
(d) Vijay Sen
5.
Who laid the foundations of the Pratihara
empire?
1.
6.
(b)
4.
(b)
5.
(a)
2.
The Pala Empire originated from 8th to 12th
century. It was a dynasty which controlled Bihar
and Bengal regions of South Asia. Gopala ruled
from 750-770 AD.
3.
Vikramashila University was one of the two
most important centres of Buddhist learning in
Who defeated the Pratihara empire?
(b) Krishna III
3.
The Rashtrakutas (755-975 AD) were of
Kannada origin and Kannada language was their
mother tongue.
(d) Krishna III
(a) Aditya I
(d)
(a)
1.
(b) Mahendrapala
6.
2.
7.
Hints:
(a) Bhoja
(c) Mahipala
(c)
(b)
10 Master Series : Medieval India
India during the Pala empire, along with Nalanda
University.
4.
Hemanta Sen titled himself king in 1095 AD.
5.
The Pratiharas was also known as GurjaraPratiharas. Bhoja was a king of medieval India,
who ruled the kingdom of Malwa in central
India.
6.
The Pratihara empire declined after Mahipala
who was the grandson of Bhoja. This empire
was defeated by the Rashtrakuta King Krishna
III in 915 AD.
7.
Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta
Empire of Manyakheta. His capital was based in
Gulbarga region of Karnataka.
Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 11
MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 2
Delhi
SULTANATE
● The real founder of the Muslim Empire in
India was Shihabuddin Muhmmad Ghori
or Muhammad of Ghur. It is true that
Muhammad Bin Qasim was the first Muslim
invader of India but he failed to carve out
a Muslim empire in India on account of his
premature death. Mahmud of Ghazni also
failed to set up a Muslim Empire in India
and the only permanent effect of his invasion
was the annexation of the Punjab. It was left
to Muhammad Ghori to build up a Muslim
empire in India on a secure footing.
Mahmud of Ghazni
● In 998 AD, the Turkish conqueror, Mahmud of
Ghazni, succeeded his father, and established
a huge empire in Central Asia, with capital
at Ghazni, the present-day South Kabul in
Afghanistan. For 17 times, he attacked India
during the period between 1000 and 1027
AD, a significant event in the history of India.
● Mahmud of Ghazni had started his invasions
in India during the period when the Rajput
power had declined. The main reason that led
to the conquest of India by Mahmud Ghazni
was, to accumulate the vast amount of wealth
that existed in India.
● In 1001 Mahmud defeated Jayapala, a
Hindushahi king who ruled from Peshawar and
in 1008-09 Mahmud defeated Anandapala,
son of Jayapala in Battle of Waihind. In
1027 AD, he invaded the Somnath temple
of Gujarat, on the coast of Saurashtra or
Kathiwar. This was supposed to be his biggest
invasion as he had looted all treasures and
precious items of the fortified temple. He had
completely destroyed the Somnath temple.
● Though Mahmud was destructor for the
Indians, but in his own country, he was a
builder of a beautiful mosque and a large
library. Al-Baruni accompanied Mahmud to
India with his army and Firdausi was a poet
in the court of Mahmud. Al-Baruni wrote
Kitab-ul-hind and Firdausi wrote Shahnama.
Mahmud Ghazni died in 1030 A.D.
Mohammad Ghori
● His real name was Muizuddin Mohammad
bin Sam. In 1173, he ascended the throne
at Ghazni and started moving towards India
around 1175. He entered into India through
Gomal pass and conquered Multan and
Uchch.
● Ghori was more ambitious than Mahmud, as
he was not only interested in robbing wealth
of India, but also intended in conquering
northern India and adding it to his kingdom.
● In 1191 A.D Mohammad Ghori met Prithvi
Raj Chauhan III in the first battle of Tarain.
Mohammad Ghori was severely wounded and
outnumbered. He was defeated and left the
battlefield. In the very next year in 1192 AD
both the armies met again at Tarain. This time
Mohammad defeated Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
● According to some sources then Prithvi Raj
Chauhan III ruled as subordinate ruler over
Ajmer for some time but after some time
executed in conspiracy charge. In 1194 A.D
Mohammad Ghori defeated Jaichand, ruler of
Kannauj in Battle of Chandawar and killed
12 Master Series : Medieval India
him. He deputed Qutub-ud-din Aibak as
in-charge of Indian possessions’. Mohammad
Ghori died in 1206AD.
The Slave Sultans (AD. 1206-1290)
● After Muhammad Ghori’s death, Slave Sultans
were ruled India. Mamluks were the earliest
rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. They are also
known as the Slave Kings because many of
them were either slaves or were the sons of
slaves and became Sultans. It is wrong to call
the dynasty as slave because out of the nine
rulers of this dynasty only three Qutubuddin
Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban had governed
long before assuming sovereign powers.
The term Mameluq signifies a slave born of
free parents but the connotation of slavery,
nevertheless persists. They all belonged to
except Qutubuddin Aibak belonged to the
Ilbari tribe of Turks.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210)
● The first of the slave kings was Qutb-ud-din
Aibak, who was the general of Muhammad
Ghori. After the death of Ghori, Qutb-ud-din
stayed in India and established his kingdom.
Fig. 2.1. Slave Dynasty
● Qutubbudin began his reign with the modest
title Malik and Siphasalar that had been
conferred upon him by Muhammad Ghori.
During his brief reign of 4 years he did not
make any fresh conquests because his entire
attention was devoted to the establishment of
law and order and strengthening of his army
of occupation. Aibak died in 1210 AD.He
earned the title of Lakh Baksh.
Iltutmish (1210-1236)
● Real founder of Delhi Sultanate Iltutmish
was the greatest of the slave kings. He was
the real founder of the Sultanate. At the time
of Qutubbudin’s death he was the governor
of Badaun. He made Delhi the capital of his
empire. He devoted the first 10 years of his
reign to securing his throne from rivals. He
defeated other nobles in 1216-17 AD and thus
made his position secure.
● The reign of Iltutmish saw the decline of
Lahore and the rise of Delhi. Delhi gradually
became the greatest centre of learning and
culture in India.
● The Delhi Sultanate owes the outlines
of its administrative system to Iltutmish.
He organized the Revenue and Finance
departments. He got completed the famous
Qutub Minar near Mehrauli in Delhi in the
year 1231-32 AD. A magnificent mosque
was also built by the orders of the Sultan.
Although Iltutmish had many sons but all of
them were incompetent. He appointed his
daughter Raziya as his successor.
● In 1221, he saved Delhi Sultanate from the
wrath of Mongol leader Changez Khan, by
refusing shelter to Khwarizm Shah, whom
Changez Khan was chasing. Iltutmish was
the first sultan of Delhi to get a Letter of
Investiture (Mansur) from the Abassid
Caliph of Baghdad, the significance of this
letter was quite big i.e. the region is ruled
by Caliph himself and no one is authorized
to attack.
● He completed the construction of Qutub
Minar and issued silver Tanka and copper
Jittal coins. He devised Iqtadari sysyem
and head of Iqta was Muqti. He patronized
Minhaj-us-siraj, the author of Tabaqat-iNasiri. Iltutmish deviated from the normal
Delhi Sultanate 13
practice of choosing his eldest surviving son
as successor and declared Raziya as the next
Sultan of Delhi.
Raziya (1236-1240)
● Raziya is the first and the last woman ruler
of medieval India. She assumed the title of
sultan and did her best to play the part of
a man. Her reign lasted for 3 years and six
months. She aimed at removing the uncalled
for interference and influence of Turkish
chiefs on administration. She discarded
Purdah and began to adorn the attire of the
male. Raziya tried to concentrate power in
her own hands and succeeded. This provoked
serious opposition that took the shape of a
protest against her.
● Alauddin Masud Shah also met the same fate of
Bahram Shah who succeeded Raziya’s successor.
Bahram Shah was weak and incompetent ruler and
was overthrown by the nobles after a brief reign
of 2 years.
● In 1246 AD Nasiruddin Mahmud the grandson of
Iltutmish ascended the throne. He owed his throne
to the Turkish aristocracy and the latter was bound
to have tremendous influence in the administration.
He placed all his powers in the hands of Prime
Minister Balban and In 1249, he conferred Balban
the title of Ulugkhan. In 1266 Nasiruddin Mahmud
died.
Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287)
● Balban sat on the throne of Delhi in 1266
AD and adopted the name of Ghiyasuddin
Balban. With his accession the line of rulers
of the family of Iltutmish ended. He started
the era of strong centralized government.
He increased the power and position of
sultan. He introduced Persian ceremonies
and etiquettes in his court and allowed no
manner of levity here.
● Balban fought against the local rulers who
troubled him. His biggest problem was the
nobles who had become very powerful and
were threatening the position of the Sultan.
Slowly but firmly, Balban broke their power
and finally the position of the Sultan became
all-important. Balban’s success was integrated
into his strategic administrative policy. He
successfully changed the organization of the
army and curbed the revolt of the nobles.
Kingship Theory of Balban
● The main elements of this theory include:
1. He broke the power of Chahalgani and
restored the prestige of crown.
2. He organized the spy system and created
a strong centralized army to deal with
internal as well as external disturbances.
3. He laid the great stress on genealogy and
claiming himself as the descendent of
mythical Turkish hero Afrasiyab.
4. He assumed the title of Zill-i-illahi
(shadow of god) and Niyabat-i-Khudai
(god’s vice regent on earth.
5. He introduced the Persian etiquettes like
Sijda (prostration before the monarch)
and Paibos (Kissing the feet of king).
Sijdah, horrified the orthodox Muslims.
According to Muslims belief, “all men
are equal, and therefore, no one should
do the sijdah before anyone else except
God”.
6. He established the military department
Diwan-i-Arz.
7. He also started the Nauroj (Persian New
Year) festival and became the first Indian
ruler to do so.
● Balban did not try to extend his empire
although he had a strong army. He instead
concentrated on consolidating the territory
already in possession. He suppressed the
revolts in the Doab and Oudh and tracked down
elements in Rohilkhand.The Mongols invaded
again in 1279 and 1285 but were defeated and
driven away. In 1286 the Mongols reappeared
and this time Prince Muhammad was killed.
Balban could not recover from this tragedy
and died in 1286 AD.
Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad
● He was succeeded by his grandson Qaiqabad.
He was inefficient and incapable. Jalaluddin
Khilji placed himself at the head of a powerful
14 Master Series : Medieval India
faction and routed the Turkish amirs. He
eventually murdered him and seized the
throne.
● During the Sultanate period, there was the
problem of the local Indian rulers who had
been conquered. Sultans had taken territories
of some rulers and some others were allowed
to keep it.The rulers who were allowed to
keep their territories paid a sum of money as
a tribute and agreed to help the Sultan with
military support when required.
● Sultanate had also problems from the northwest, for example, the rulers of Afghanistan
were quiet, but the Mongol people of Central
Asia, led by Chenghiz Khan, made fresh
conquests.
Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-1296)
coming of the Khaljis to power was more than
a dynastic change. Their ascendency is known
as the Khalji Imperialism/Revolution because
with the accession of Jalaluddin Khalji on the
throne of Delhi the supremacy of the Turks
ended in India.
● Rise of Khalji is known as Khalji Revolution.
Revolution refers to large scale sudden
changes often accompanied with violence
i.e. violent changes. Khalji were considered
to be low origin people, they came to power
in 1290 by killing descendants of Balban, so
situation was violent. Principle of aristocracy
established by Balban shattered, idea of Divine
origin was no more. Khalji said that crown
must be based on ability not by descendancy.
● Jalaluddin ascended the throne at the age of
70 years and the weakness of the old age
affected his attitude and activities. He was
lenient in his treatment of rebels. He even
adopted a conciliatory policy towards the
Mongols. He allowed some of the Mongols
to settle in India.
● Jalaluddin’s ambitious nephew Alauddin who
succeeded Malik Chajju at Kara began to
establish an independent kingdom for himself.
In 1292 AD he attacked Bhilsa and Malwa.
On his return he was made the governor of
Avadh in addition to that of Kara. In 1294
AD he defeated Ram Chandra Deva the ruler
of Devagiri. He invited Jalaluddin to Kara
where he was murdered by Alauddin Khalji.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)
Fig. 2.2. Khalji Dynasty
● Jalal-ud-din Khalji was the founder of the
Khalji Dynasty. He came to power after the
over throw of the Slave dynasty. Thus, the
● In 1296 AD, Alauddin was proclaimed
sultan in his camp. He marched to Delhi
from Kara and assumed power at Delhi. His
first task after assuming power at Delhi was
the elimination of the surviving members of
the former sultan’s family including his son
Arkhali Khan. He also exterminated the old
Balbani and Jalali nobles.
● He was the first Turkish sultan of Delhi
who separated religion from politics. His
theory was known as “Kingship knows no
Kinship”. Jalaluddin policies were benevolent
and basesd on non-expansionist, so many
provincial rulers freed themselves.
Delhi Sultanate 15
● Thus, it became important for Alauddin to
win those areas back. In Deccan Alauddin
army was led by his slave Malik Kafur and
defeated Yadva’s of Devagiri, Kakitya’s of
Warangal and Pandya’s of Madurai during
1306-1311 AD. Somnath temple was again
ransacked by Alauddin Khalji.
● He was the only sultan who went into the
causes of revolts and rebellion such as:
1. The inefficiency of Spy system.
2. General practice of consumption of
liquor.
3. Matrimonial alliances among the nobles.
4. Excess of wealth in the hands of people.
● So, to curb all these and make administration
system efficient, he gave certain directions/
ordinances:
He believed that defense, expansion and
consolidation could all go together.
● By the end of 1305 AD the whole of northern
India fell into the hands of Alauddin and
he directed his energies to the conquest of
Deccan. Between 1307 and 1312 he began
the southward expansion of his empire. He
invaded Devagiri in 1306-07. The immediate
causes for this was unduly long delay in
sending the annual tribute.
● In 1309 the Kakatiya kingdom was attacked.
The next expedition was against Vira Ballala
III the Hoysala ruler in 1311. Alauddin had
to face more than dozen invasions. These
invasions started from the end of 1296 AD
and continued up to 1308 AD.
3. Prohibition on alcohol consumption.
● The Mongols threatened Punjab, Multan and
Sindh but also the Ganga Yamuna Doab. This
grave crisis compelled him to take strong
measures for the protection of the northwest
frontier. The twenty years rule of Alauddin
came to an end with his death in 1316 AD.
4. Nobles should not have social gathering
and they will not inter marry without
Sultan’s assent.
● He was the first Sultan of Delhi to have
a central standing army. He introduced
the practice of Huliya (description of the
soldiers) and Dagh (branding of horses). He
established the market control department
under a minister Diwan-i-Riyasat. He fixed
the prices of grains, clothes and common
commodities much below the market rate.
The markets were looked individually by
Shahana-i-Mandi.
● Hindu’s were required to pay Jizya. He
introduced the measurement of land with a
view to ascertaining the amount of land in
possession of each cultivator. He declared
himself as Sikande-i-Sani, second Alexander.
The reign of Alauddin Khalji marks the zenith
of the power of the Delhi Sultanate. Since
the death of Iltutmish no serious attempts
had been made to annex new territories to
the Sultanate. He broke this tradition and
inaugurated a whirlwind period of conquests.
● On the death of Alauddin Khalji his general
Malik Kafur (1315 AD) set aside the claims
of the heir apparent Khizr Khan and crowned
the infant son of late Sultan Shihabuddin
Umar (1316 AD) and himself became
his regent. Soon another son of the sultan
murdered Kafur and ascended the throne as
Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji (13161320 AD). He tried to win the goodwill of the
people after ascending the throne. He repealed
Alauddin’s economic regulations. The lands
that were confiscated were given back to their
legitimate owners. Taxes were lowered. He
was murdered by his Wazir Khusro. Khusro
(1320 AD) ascended the throne in 1320 and
took the title of Nasiruddin Khusro Shah.
He was killed by Ghazikhan, governor of
Dipalpur. Thus, Khalji dynasty came to an
end.
1. Confiscation of the religious endowments
and land free from grants.
2. Re-organisation of the spy system.
● Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan resided
in his court. Amir Khusrau is also known
as parrot of India. He constructed the Alai
Darwaza, Siri fort and Hazar situn (palace
of thousand pillars).
16 Master Series : Medieval India
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1324)
● Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation of
the Tughlaq dynasty. The Tughlaq was the
personal name of the Ghiyasuddin. According
to some scholars the Tughlaqs belonged to the
race of Qarauna Turks.
for the assessment of land revenue. He
attempted to improve the finances of the state
and pursued a policy to encourage agriculture.
His twin object was to increase land under
cultivation and improve economic condition
of the cultivators. He took keen interest in
the construction of canal for irrigation and
formulated famine policy to provide relief to
peasants in time of drought. The state demand
of revenue was fixed between 1/5th and 1/3rd
of the produce. He further instructed that the
land revenue should not be enhanced more
than 1/11th of the estimated produce.
● He put down revolts of Hindus in the Doab
and in the neighborhood of Delhi while those
who had offered opposition to Khusru were
taken in the state service and granted jagirs.
In 1321 he dispatched crowned prince Jauna
Khan to re-establish Sultan’s authority
in the south. In 1325 when Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq was returning after concluding his
military campaign in Bengal, Prince Jauna
Khan raised a wooden pavilion at Afghanpur
village near Delhi to welcome the Sultan. The
pavilion, under which the sultan was received,
collapsed suddenly crushing the sultan under
its debris.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1324-1351)
Fig. 2.3. Tughlaq Dynasty
● Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq had to face numerous
problems as the sultan. There were riots in
various parts of the empire and the royal
treasury was empty. He pursued a policy
of reconciliation with the nobles and the
people who were severely restricted under
Alauddin. He liberalized administration in
certain respects. He attempted to improve the
finances of the state and perused a policy to
encourage agriculture.
● He liberalized administration in certain
respects. He gave up the practice of physical
torture in case of economic offences and
recovery of debts. He also discarded
Alauddin’s system of measurement of land
● Jauna Khan ascended the throne in 1325 with
the title of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. He
ruled up to 1351.He was the most remarkable
sultans of Delhi. He was a profound scholar
of Persian, a critic, a litterateur of repute and
master of rhetoric.
● He preferred to depend on his own intellect
rather than on traditional interpretation of
the Ullema. Thus he offended the orthodox
Muslim ullema by curbing their political
influence. Different Scholars have divergent
estimates of his character.
● During Muhammad Bin Tughlaq reign
rebellions, famines and epidemics followed
in such intermittent succession as they
conformed to a pre-determined plan to subject
him to trial and ultimate failure.
● To promote public welfare he sought to
introduce many reforms. But some of them
Delhi Sultanate 17
were so novel and revolutionary in character
that the people failed to realize their
significance so that instead of helping them to
make them success they offered a determined
opposition.
● He imparted new orientation to state system
through his ideas, innovations and reforms.
Monarchical despotism reached its climax,
nobody dare to challenge the Sultan. State
assumed secular nature under his rule, even
Holi celebrated in his court. Nobles were
appointed on the basis of merit not by
descendancy. Infact, potpourri nobility was
created by him for the first time.
● He was the most learned Sultan of Delhi, but
he lacked practical judgments. He created
agricultural department called Diwan-i-Kohi.
He initiated a number of reforms and some
projects undertaken by him are as follows:
1. Transfer of Capital in 1327-28 from Delhi
to Daultabad, according to Ibn Batuta
(Moroccan Traveller) Sultan wanted to
punish people of Delhi because they use
to write him offensive letters, Capital was
retransferred to Delhi in 1335-36. The
transfer was attempted primarily due to
two reasons -for its central location and
secondly its close proximity to the south
which was a newly conquered region. The
transfer of capital involved the shifting of
the army, officials, servants, tradesmen,
court and shift of population. There was a
widespread resentment against the Sultan
who decided to retransfer the capital to
Delhi. The order of going back to the
old capital caused much distress to the
people.
2. Introduction of Token Currency in
1329, this project failed because design
of coins was simple and duplicate coins
start emerging.The main reason for this
measure was the scarcity of silver. This
measure proved useful in the beginning
but later on it caused serious problems.
People soon began to manufacture
counterfeits of bronze in large numbers.
There was a surfeit of coins in circulation.
This naturally led to its depreciation and
most people began to prefer copper tankas
for payments and silver or gold issues for
receipts. The Sultan was compelled to
withdraw the token currency. He offered
to exchange all the token coins for the
silver coins resulting in huge losses to the
treasury.
3. Abandoning Khurasan Expedition in
1332-1333. He raised an army of 3,70,000
soldiers and gave it a whole year’s salary
in advance. But the army did not leave
for the expedition and was disbanded.
The scheme was abandoned when the
Sultan learnt that the conditions in Iraq
had improved and was not conducive to
an expedition.
4. Qarachil Expedition in the next year,
it was successful campaign, but soldiers
while returning to Delhi, died due to
many reasons.
5. Taxation was increased in doab region
upto 50% of the produce in 1333-1334.
He decided to enhance the land tax in
the doab because of richness of its soil.
Doab was facing total famine which
was followed by plague. The Sultan
raised the tax from 5 to 10%. Therefore
the peasants instead of paying the taxes
abandoned their lands and adopted
highway robbery. The tax collectors
continued to collect taxes by oppression.
It resulted in extensive revolts.
● He issued maximum number of coins among
the Delhi Sultans, so called as Prince of
Moneyers. He faced maximum number of
rebellions among Delhi sultans, out of them
two are important which led to the formation
of Vijayanagar Kingdom (1336) and Bahamani
Kingdom (1349).
● Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had to face a
number of revolts. The first rebellion took
place in 1326 and by 1351when the Sultan
died in pursuit of a rebel he had to deal with
as many as 34 rebellions, 27 of them in the
south alone. The areas affected ranged from
Multan in the northwest to Bengal in the
18 Master Series : Medieval India
east and Malabar in the south. While going
to Thatta in Sindh to punish Taghi the rebel,
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq died in 1351.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388)
● Firoz Shah Tughlaq succeeded Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq. He lacked the temperament and
courage of a successful ruler. He failed to
recover the areas that had been lost to the
sultanate. He started his reign with liberal
ideas. He tried to please the nobles and
set to ameliorate the distress caused to the
people during the long and troubled reign of
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. Therefore, Firoz
first established a friendly relation with them
and made them happy by giving them, grants
or revenue.
● Firoz extended the principal of heredity to
the army. Soldiers were allowed to rest in
peace and to send in their place their sons.
The soldiers were not paid in cash but by
assignments on land revenue of villages. This
novel technique of payment led to many
abuses. He declared that whenever a Noble
dies, his son should be allowed to succeed.
● Firoz, further, allowed the orthodox ulema
to influence state policy in certain matters.
Thus, Firoz improved his relationship with
the powerful groups at the court; however,
in spite of all these, the power of the Sultan
decreased.
● He tried to ban practices with the orthodox
theologians considered un-Islamic. Thus, he
prohibited the practice of Muslim women
going out to the tombs.He tried to win over
the theologians proclaiming that he was a true
Muslim king and the state under him was
truly Islamic.He imposed Jizya on Brahmans
for the first time.
● He erected canals for the irrigartion
purpose. He established employment as well
as charity bureau. He createdDiwan-i-Khairat
(Department for poor and needy people) and
Diwan-i-Bundagan (Department of slaves).
Firoz was interested in improving the general
welfare of his subjects.
● He improved parts of the kingdom by starting
new irrigation schemes. The Yamuna Canal
●
●
●
●
was one of his schemes. Firoz also established
a few new towns, such as Ferozpur, Ferozabad,
Hissar-Firoza, and Jaunpur.
Firoz also constructed many educational
centers and hospitals. He was interested in
the ancient culture of India. Firoz order to
translate a number of Sanskrit books into
Persian and Arabic languages.Firoz also
owned two of the pillars of the emperor
Ashoka and one of them was placed on the
roof of his palace.He wrote his autobiography
Futuhut-i-Firojshahi.
In September 1388, Firoz died, after which
there was a civil war among his descendants.
Because of the political instability, the
governors of many provinces became
independent kings and finally only a small
area around Delhi remained in the hands of
the Tughluq Sultans.
He led two campaigns into Bengal but was
unsuccessful in both. Bengal was thus lost
to the Sultanate. He also led a campaign
against the ruler of Jajnagar in Orissa. He also
dealt with rebellions in Gujarat and Thatta.
Although the rebellions were crushed the
army suffered great hardship due to losing
its way in the Rann of Kutch.
But, his reign was a period of peace and
quiet development. When Firoz Tughlaq
died in 1388 a civil war broke out among
his successors. His grandson took up the
title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq II succeeding
Firoz Tughlaq. Within a year he fell victim
to intrigue and beheaded in 1389.For next
five years 3 sultans Abu Bakr, Muhammad
Shah and Alauddin Sikander ruled. In 1390
Nasiruddin enthroned himself. He was the
last sultan of the dynasty and ruled from 1390
to 1412.During his reign Timur the great
Mongol leader of Central Asia invaded India.
Timur’s invasion dealt a fatal blow to the
Tughlaq dynasty and the Sultanate of Delhi.
Nasiruddin died in 1412.
Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)
● By 1413, the Tughlaq dynasty ended
completely and local governor occupied Delhi
Delhi Sultanate 19
and given way to Sayyid Dynasty.In 1398,
Timur, the Turkish chief invaded India and
robbed Indian wealth. While returning back,
he appointed Khizr Khan as the governor
of Delhi.
Khizr Khan (1414-1421)
● Khizr Khan had taken Delhi from Daulat
Khan Lodhi and founded Sayyid dynasty in
1414. Sayyid dynasty ruled Delhi until 1451.
He claimed himself as the descendent of
Prophet Muhammad.
Mubarrak Khan
● In 1421, Khizr Khan died, hence, his son
Mubarrak Khan succeeded. Mubarrak
Khan represented himself as ‘Muizz-ud-Din
Mubarak Shah’ on his coins.Mubarak Shah
crushed the local chiefs of the Doab region
and the Khokhars. He is first Sultan ruler to
appoint Hindu nobles in the court of Delhi.
He constructed “Mubarakbad” City on the
banks of the river Jamuna.
● Mubarrak Khan ruled till 1434 and he was succeeded
by his nephew Muhammad Shah. Muhammad
Shah ruled till 1445. He conferred Bahlul Lodhi
with the title Khan-i-Khanan for helping in defeating
the ruler of Malwa.
● Muhammad succeeded by Ala-ud-din Alam Sham,
who ruled till 1451. In 1451, Bahlul Lodhi became
the Sultan and founded the Lodhi dynasty.
Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)
Bahlul Lodhi (1451-1489)
● Bahlul Lodhi was the founder of Lodhi
Dynasty.The Lodhi Dynasty is the last ruling
dynasties of the Sultanate period.He was a
wise statesman who knew his limits.He took
various measures to gratify his nobles.
● He conquered Etawa, Gwalior, Mewat, Sakit,
and Samthal. He died in 1489 A.D.Bahlul
Lodhi was a wise ruler, he never sat on the
throne and he used to sit on the carpet in
front of the throne with his nobles to gain
their recognition and support.
Fig. 2.4. Lodhi Dynasty
Sikandar Lodhi
● Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517 AD) was the son
of Bahlul Lodhi. He swore the title Sikandar
Shah and ascended the throne. He set up a
well-organized spy system. He developed
agriculture and industry.
● It was Sikandar Lodhi who founded Agra
city in 1504 and moved capital from Delhi
to Agra. Sikandar Lodhi, further, abolished
the corn duties and patronized trade and
commerce in his kingdom.
● He was an orthodox Muslim. He put severe
restrictions on the Hindus. Sikandar Shah
enjoyed “Shehnai” Music. A work on music
names “Lahjati-Sikandar Shahi” was created
during his reign.
Ibrahim Lodhi
● Ibrahim Lodhi succeeded Sikandar Lodhi.
He was an intolerant and adamant ruler. He
had humiliated many nobles and killed some
nobles cruelly. He also treated his son Dilwar
Khan Lodhi cruelly.
● Daulat Khan, the most powerful noble of
Punjab, who was discontented with Ibrahim
Lodhi, invited Babur the ruler of Kabul to
20 Master Series : Medieval India
invade India.Babur invaded India and defeated
Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat in
1526 A.D.
The Sultanate Administration
● Administration was based on Islamic laws.
A Theocratic and a Military State. The
government established by the Turks was a
compromise between Islamic political ideas
and institutions on the one hand and the
existing Rajput system of government on
the other. Consequently many elements of
the Rajput political system with or without
changes became part and parcel of the Turkish
administration in India. Most of the Sultans
kept up the pretense of regarding the caliph
as the legal sovereign while they themselves
were the caliph’s representatives.
● Most of them included the name of the caliph
in the Khutba and the Sikka and adopted
titles indicative of their subordination to
the caliph. Three rulers emphasised their own
importance. Balban used to say that after the
Prophet the most important office was that of
the sovereign and called himself the Shadow
of God.
● Muhmmad bin Tughlaq assumed this style
during the early years of his reign and
although Balban had retained the name of the
caliph in the Khutba and Sikka, he made no
mention of caliph anywhere. Despite all this
neither of them had the power to call himself
the caliph.
● The only person who had done this was
Qutubuddin Mubarak Khalji. Only three
Sultans sought and secured a mansur or
letter of investiture from the caliph. The first
among them was Iltutmish. Next Muhmmad
bin Tughlaq tried to pacify the ulema by
securing an investiture from the Abbasid
Caliph in Egypt.
● After him Firoz also sought and secured it
twice. According to Islamic ideals essential
attributes of a sovereign required that he
should be a male adult suffering from no
physical disability, a freeborn Muslim having
faith in Islam and acquainted with its doctrines
and he should be elected by the people.
● There were several violations of the prescribed
criteria as Raziya was raised to throne despite
her being a woman. Minority proved no bar in
the case of Mohammad bin Tughluq. Alauddin
Khalji admitted his ignorance of the Sharia
but nobody questioned him. In the framing of
new rules and regulations the authority of the
Sultan was circumscribed and every ruler could
not govern the kingdom in complete disregard
of the advice of the ulema or theologians as
Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq had
been able to do.
● The power of the nobility also blunted their
authority to some extent. When there was a
weak ruler on the throne the nobles and the
ulema particularly dominated him but during
the reign of Balban, Alauddin Khalji and
Muhammad Tughluq these checks proved
ineffective. The sultans were not powerful
enough to rule the land in complete disregard
of the sentiments of the Hindus.
● Local Administration: The village was the
smallest unit of administration.The village
administration was carried out by local
hereditary officers and the Panchayats. The
Panchayat looked after education, sanitation,
justice, revenue etc.The Central Government
did not interfere in the village administration.
● Revenue Administration: Land revenue
was the main source of income. The Wazir
was the most important minister in Sultanate
administration, initially he dealt with the
finance matters only but later he became
in-charge of every branch of administration.
Turks after conquering the country divided it
into number of tracts called Iqtas, which were
given to nobles. The holders of the office were
called Walis. It were these which later became
province or Subas.
Sultanate of Delhi charged many taxes, some of the
important are as follows:
1. Zakat: The religious taxes were collectively
called as Zakat. Muslims were charged1/40th of
one’s property.
2. Jizya: This was the tax levied on Non- Muslims
in return for the protection of their life and
property.
Delhi Sultanate 21
3. Kharaj: It was the land tax levied from NonMuslims.
● Judicial Administration: The Sultan was the
highest judicial authority.Qazi-ul-quzar – the
Chief Judicial officer.A Quazi was appointed
in every town.Criminals were punished
severely. Diwan-i-risalat was presided by
chief qazi and it dealt with religious matters.
● Military Administration: The Sultan was
the Commander of the army. Amir was
the in-charge of royal guards of sultan and
commander of army.Arz-i-Mamalik was the
head of military department.Barids were the
intelligence agents appointed by rulers in
different parts of empire to keep themselves
aware about each and every activity.
The four divisions of the army were:
1. The Royal army
2. Provincial or Governor’s army
3. Feudal army and
4. War Time army
● Province were followed by the Shiqs and
below them were the Pargan. It was headed
by Amil, most important people of village
were called as Muqaddam.
Nobles
● During the sultanate period, the nobles
played a powerful role. Sometimes, they
even influenced state policy and sometimes
(as governors), they revolted and became
independent rulers or else usurped the throne
of Delhi.
● Many of these nobles were Turkish or
Afghani, who had settled in India. Some of
the nobles were men who came to India only
in search of their fortune and worked for the
Sultan.
● After Ala-ud-din Khilji, Indian Muslims
and Hindus were also appointed as officers
(nobles). The Sultan followed the earlier
system of granting the revenue from a piece
of land or a village to the (noble) officer
instead of paying them salary.
Society
● The caste system formed the basis of the
society as in earlier periods but now the
kshatriyas and the Brahmins were given
more privileges while more and more social
and religious disabilities were placed on the
sudras and other lower castes.
● A large number of sub castes such as
potters, weavers, goldsmiths, musicians etc
proliferated. They were classified as jatis
now. Most of the workers were classified as
untouchables.
● Women continued to be denied the right to
education. The age of marriage for girls was
further lowered. They were kept in seclusion
and their lives were regulated by the male
relations –fathers, brothers and husbands. The
practice of sati seems to have spread widely
and was made even obligatory at some places.
The custom of sati was widespread in the
higher castes.
● The attitude of higher classes became very
rigid. They tended to isolate themselves
from all scientific thought. Buddhism almost
disappeared from the land of its origin.
There was a marked revival and expansion
of Hindusim.
● There was a growing popularity of Shiva
and Vishnu cults. A number of popular
movements arose around the worship of
these gods. In the eastern India, a new form
of worship arose. This was the worship of
Sakti or female creator of the universe.
Economy
● A very important development of the period
was the rise of a self-sufficient village
economy where production was according to
the local requirements with little attempts at
producing a surplus to be used for trade or
exchange.
● This existing system led to accepting the
standard of minimum production since
the incentive to improve production was
absent. As a result pressure on peasantry
was increased and production remained at a
subsistence level only.
22 Master Series : Medieval India
● The subsistence economy of the village led to
decline in trade. Trade was further hampered
by the emergence of wide range of local
weights and measures making long distance
trade more difficult. The unstable political
conditions and internal fighting in India only
helped this process of decline in trade.
● This decline in trade affected the growth of
towns. In coastal areas and Bengal towns
however prospered because they continued to
trade with West Asia and South East Asia.
The only prosperous class in north India
during this period was feudal lords. But the
surplus wealth was not invested in trade or
craft production. It was on the other hand
used for conspicuous consumption. The huge
amounts were given to temples also thus
attracting outsiders.
● The people were mainly involved in
agriculture and industry. Textile industry was
the primary industry. Paper Industry, metal
work, pearl diving, ivory and sandal works,
stone cutting, Sugar industry were the other
industries of this period. Indian textiles were
in great demand in foreign countries. Bengal
and Gujarat were famous for their quality
fabrics. Cotton, woollen and silk of different
varieties was produced in large quantities.
The clothes had gold, diamonds, pearls, silver
and stone works.
Architecture under the
Sultanate
● The Turkish rulers utilized the services of
the local designers and craftsmen who were
among the most skilful in the world. The new
fusion that started to take place avoided the
extreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture
and the lavish decoration of the earlier Indian
architecture.
● Among the first buildings to be erected
were the mosques at Delhi and Ajmer by
Qutbddin Aibak. The mosque built in Delhi
was called the Quwwatul Islam mosque
(Refer Fig 2.5 (a)). It measured about 70x30
meters. The central arch of this mosque
which is decorated with beautiful sculptured
●
●
●
●
calligraphy still stands and is about 17 meters
high and about 7 metres wide.
The successor of Qutbuddin, Iltutmish was a
great builder. He extended the mosque. He
also completed the building of the Qutb
Minar (Refer Fig 2.5 (b)) which had been
started by Qutbuddin and now stood in the
extended courtyard of the mosque.This is a
tower rising to a height of about 70 meters
and is one of the most renowned monuments
of India.
The next important buildings belong to the
reign of Alauddin Khalji. He enlarged the
Quwwatul Islam mosque still further and built
a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque,
the Alai Darwaza. Decorative element was
introduced to beautify the building. He also
started building a minar which was designed
to be double the height of Qutb Minar but
the project remained unfulfilled.
The Tughlaqs concentrated on the building
of new cities in Delhi like Tughlaqabad,
Jahanpanah and Ferozabad. A number of
buildings was erected which differed in their
style from the earlier buildings. Massive and
strong structures like the Tomb of Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq and the walls of Tughlaqabad were
built. The buildings of the Tughlaq period
were significant from the point of view of the
development of architecture. They were not
beautiful but massive and very impressive.
Delhi Sultans had a great taste for architecture.
Architectures were a blend of Indian and
Islamic styles. The three well developed
styles were:
1. Delhi or Imperial Style
2. Provincial Style
3. Hindu architectural style
(a)
Cont...
Delhi Sultanate 23
by Mahmud of Ghazni. He learnt Sanskrit
and translated two Sanskrit works into
Arabic. He was impressed by the Upanishads
and Bhagavat Gita. In his work Tarikh-ulHind, he had mentioned the socio-economic
conditions of India.
Amir Khusrau
(b)
Fig. 2.5. (a)
Quwwatul Islam mosque (b) Qutb Minar
Literature
● The Sultanate of Delhi period witnessed some
great scholars and some are:Alberuni, Amir
Khusrau, Zia-ul-Barani, etc.
● Many Sanskrit works were translated into
Arabic and Urdu language originated during
the Sultanate period.
Alberuni
● An Arabic and Persian Scholar patronized
● He was a great Persian poet. He is said to
have written four lakh couplets. He was a
great singer and was given the title ‘Parrot
of India’.
Impact of Turkish Conquest
● The Turkish conquest of India had its impact
on various fields. It paved way to a centralized
political organization.It re-established relations
with the rest of Asia and parts of Africa. A
permanent army was established.
● Trade was established due to the uniform legal
system, tariff regulations and currency. Persian
became the court language and brought
uniformity in the administration.
24 Master Series : Medieval India
Key Terms in Medieval Indian History
Term
Amils
Bargir
Dam
Dhimmis
Din
Diwan
Diwan-i-Arz
Diwan-i-Insha
Diwan-i-Kul
Meaning
Revenue
Cavalrymen
Coin
Non-Muslims people
Religion
Function of finance
Ministry of Military affairs
Ministry of Royal correspondence
Wazir or Chief imperial fiscal
minister
Diwan-i-Risalat Religious Affairs
Diwan-i-Wizarat Department of Finance
Faujdar
In charge of Sarkar
Ganj
A grain market
Gomashta
Commercial agent
Hun
A gold coin
Hundis
Bills of Exchange
Ibadat Khana
House of Worship
Khalisa
Land revenue directly for imperial
treasury
Khots
Village head
Khums
Tax on plunder
Khutba
A sermon made in Friday mosque
Madad-i-Massh Tax free grants of land
Malfuzat
Saying of Sufi saint
Mamluk
White slaves
Mir Bhakshi
Military department
Mir Saman
Supply department
Misl
Sikh regions
Term
Muquaddam
Nagaram
Nankar
Pargana
Qanungos
Sabha
Sadr Us Sadur
Sarkar
Shaikhzadas
Sharia
Shiqdar
Sondhar
Subhas
Tankah
Umara
Ummah
Ur
Vimans
Waqf
Watandar
Wilayat
Wujuhat
Zabt
Zawabit
Meaning
Village head
Assembly of Merchants in Chola
Period
Portion of revenue given to Zamindar
Around hundred village
Caretaker of revenue records
Assembly of Brahmins in Chola
period
Ecclesiastical affairs
Administrative unit or Units of
Paragana
Indian Muslims nobility
Muslim law
Head of Administrative unit
Loans
Provinces
Silver coin
Collective term of nobility
Muslim believer
Common village assembly in Chola
Period
Towers of Temple
Grants
to
Muslim
religious
establishments
Desais and Deskmukh
Spiritual territory of a Sufi
Taxes on cattle
Revenue based on land measurement
Non-Shariat State laws
Delhi Sultanate 25
Medieval India Master Exercise
MCQs
1.
for Preliminary Examination
Consider the following statements:
4.
1. Qutub-ud-Din Aibak was the first Sultan and
Ibrahim Lodhi, the last Sultan.
(b) It was a religious tax on Muslims for their
development.
(c) It was an agriculture tax on Peasants.
Which of the above statements are/is correct?
(a) Only 1
(d) None of these
5.
Consider the following features:
(b) Only 2
1. Feudal state;
(c) Both 1 and 2
2. Military state;
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
3. Islamic laws;
Consider the following match:
Which of the above are features of Delhi sultanate
administration?
1. Diwan-i-Bandagan
2. Diwan-i-Kohi
3. Diwan-i-Insha
Department of
slaves
Department of
agriculture
Department of
correspondence
Which of the above match are correct?
(a) Only1
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3
(d) All of these
Subjectve type questions for
Main Examination
(b) Only 2
(c) 1 and 3
1.
Discuss the features of Politico administration
system during Turko-Afghan period.
2.
What were the problems faced by Balban
and how far did he succeed in solving them
with his Theory of Kingship?
3.
Present a critical and comparative account of
nature of Kingship under Sultan Balban and
Alauddin Khalji.
4.
Alauddin Khalji was a typical despot.
Discuss.
5.
Mohammad Bin Tughlaq contradictory
qualities were beyond the knowledge grasp
and common sense. Evaluate the significance
of his administrative measures and policies
in light of this statement.
(d) All of the above
3.
What is meant by Jaziyah in Medieval times?
(a) It was a religious tax on Non-Muslims.
2. The Sultans of Delhi ruled over India from
1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D.
2.
2
Consider the following match:
1. Diwan-i-bandagan
2. Diwan-imustakharaj
3. Diwan- i-kohi
Firuz shah Tughluq
Alauddin Khiiji
Muhammad bin
Tughluq
Which of the above match are correct?
(a) Only1
(b) Only 2
(c) 1 and 3
(d) All of the above
26 Master Series : Medieval India
6.
Discuss the features
administration.
of
Delhi
7.
How far can you say that Delhi Sultanate was
centralized authority? Throw the light on its
departments.
8.
Discuss
Delhi
administration.
Sultanates
Sultanate
9.
How was the administration of Delhi Sultanate
organised?
10. Examine the features of Provincial administration
of Delhi Sultanate.
Answers to MCQs
local
1.
(c)
2.
(d)
3.
(d)
4.
(a)
5.
(d)
Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 27
MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 3
Mughal
DYNASTY
● Mughal is deformed version of Mongol;
these were the Mongol’s who later became
Mughal’s. Mughals belonged to a branch of
the Turks called Chaghtai, which is named
after the second son of Chingez Khan, the
famous Mongol Leader.
intentions, he wanted to become Badshah of
India.
● Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin ruled
most of northern India from the early 16th
to the mid-18th century and it continued to
exist as a considerably reduced and powerless
entity until the mid-19th century.
● The Mughal dynasty was known for its more
than two centuries of effective rule over much
of India, for the ability of its rulers, who
through seven generations maintained a record
of unusual talent, and for its administrative
organization. Another notable work of
Mughal’s is their attempt to integrate Hindus
and Muslims into a united Indian state.
● The dynasty was founded by Babur after
his victory over Lodi’s in the first Battle of
Panipat. Babur feel proud in calling himself
a Turk, than Mongol because Turkish culture
was far superior and better in many ways than
Mongol culture. He claimed himself as the
descendent of Timur from his father’s side
and Changez Khan from his mother’s side.
Babur (1526-1530)
● He was the founder of Mughal dynasty in
India. He was invited to attack India by
Daulat Khan Lodi (Subedar of Punjab),
Ibrahim Lodi’s Uncle Alam Khan Lodi and
Rana Sanga of Mewar but he had some other
Fig. 3.1. Area under Babur
● He attacked India and defeated Ibrahim
Lodi in First Battle of Panipat on April 21,
1526. He was the first one to entitle himself
as ‘Padshah’. He took keen interest in
development of gardens. He wrote Tuzuk-iBabri or Babarnama in Turkish, later it was
translated into Persian during Akbar’s reign
by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
● He died in 1530 first buried in Arambagh
at Agra, roughly nine years later his body
was taken to Kabul and buried there
simultaneously.
● Babur fought four battles:
1. First Battle of Panipat in 21 April 1526,
in which Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi.
28 Master Series : Medieval India
2. Battle of Khanwa in 1527, in which
Babur defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar.
3. Battle of Chanderi in 1528, in which
Babur defeated Medini Rai.
4. Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, in which
Babur defeated joint forces of Afghans
and Sultan of Bengal.
(a) First Battle of Panipat
● On 20th April 1526, the First Battle of
Panipat, was fought between Babur and
the Ibrahim Lodi Empire (ruler of Delhi).
The battle took place in north India (Panipat)
and marked as the beginning of the Mughal
Empire.
● The first battle of Panipat was one of the
earliest battles in which gunpowder firearms
and field artillery were used. However, Babur
said that he used it for the first time in his
attack on the Bhira fortress. Ibrahim Lodi met
Babur at Panipat with the force estimated at
100,000 men and 1,000 elephants.
● Babur had crossed the Indus with a force of
merely 12,000; however, in India, a large
number of Hindustani nobles and soldiers
joined Babur in Punjab. In spite of Indian
army support, Babur’s army was numerically
inferior.
● Babur made a master plan and strengthened
his position. He ordered one of his army
wings to rest in the city of Panipat, which
had a large number of houses. Further, he
protected another wing by means of a ditch
filled with branches of trees.
● On the front side, Babur lashed with a
large number of cans, to act as a defending
wall. Between two carts, breastworks were
erected so that soldiers could rest their guns
and fire. Babur used the Ottoman (Rumi)
device technique, which had been used by
the Ottomans in their well-known battle
against Shah Ismail of Iran.
● Babur had also invited two Ottoman mastergunners namely Ustad Ali and Mustafa.
Ibrahim Lodi, however, with huge army
men, could not assume the strongly defended
position of Babur. Ibrahim Lodi had apparently
expected Babur to fight a mobile mode of
warfare, which was common with the Central
Asians. Babur’s gunners used their guns
strategically with good effect from the front;
however, Babur gave a large part of the credit
of his victory to his bowmen.
● After the seven or eight days fight, Ibrahim
Lodi realized Babur’s strong position. Further,
Lodi’s forces were also hesitant to fight
with Babur’s modern technological warfare.
Ibrahim Lodi battled to the last with a group
of 5,000 to 6,000 forces, but he (Lodi) had
been killed in the battle field. It is estimated
that more than 15,000 men (of Lodi kingdom)
were killed in the first battle of Panipat.
(b) Battle of Khanwa
● On March 17, 1527, the Battle of Khanwa
was fought near the village of Khanwa
(about 60 km west of Agra). It was fought
between the first Mughal Emperor Babur
and Rajput ruler Rana Sanga. The Rajput
ruler, Rana Sanga, was the great threat for
Babur to establish a strong Mughal empire in
the Indo-Gangetic Valley, as Sanga planned
to expel Babur from India or else confined
him at Punjab.
● Babur had an authentic reason to accuse Rana
Sanga i.e. of breach of an agreement. In fact,
Sanga invited him (Babur) to India with a
promise to fight with him against Ibrahim
Lodi, but he (Rana) refused. The battle of
Khanwa was aggressively fought. As Babur
reported, Sanga had more than 200,000
men including 10,000 Afghan cavalrymen,
supported with an equal force fielded by
Hasan Khan Mewati.
● Babur’s strategy, in the battle ground, was
highly technical; he ordered his soldiers (who
had been sheltering behind their tripods) to
attack in the center. Thus, Sanga’s forces were
hemmed in, and finally defeated. Rana Sanga
escaped from the battle field. Later he (Rana)
wanted to renew the conflict with Babur, but
he was poisoned by his own nobles.
Mughal Dynasty 29
● The Battle of Khanwa strengthened Babur’s
position in the Delhi-Agra region. Later,
Babur conquered the chain of forts including
Gwalior, Dholpur, east of Agra, etc. Babur
also conquered Alwar from Hasan Khan
Mewati and Chanderi (Malwa) from Medini
Rai. Chanderi was captured after killing
almost all the Rajput defenders men and their
women performed jauhar (it was the custom
of self-immolation of queens and royal female
of the Rajput kingdoms).
(c) Battle of Ghaghra
● Eastern Uttar Pradesh, which was under
the domination of the Afghan chiefs had
submitted their allegiance to Babur, but
internally planned to throw it off at any time.
● Nusrat Shah, the ruler of Bengal, who had
married a daughter of Ibrahim Lodi, had
supported the Afghan sardars.
● The Afghans had ousted the Mughal officials
in eastern Uttar Pradesh and reached up to
Kanauj many times, but their major weakness
was the lack of a competent leader.
● Afghan leaders invited Mahmud Lodi. He
(Mahmud Lodi) was a brother of Ibrahim
Lodi and also had fought against Babur at
Khanwa. The Afghan leaders welcomed him
as their ruler, and congregated strength under
his leadership.
● The Afghans, under Mahmud Lodi’s
leadership, was a great threat for Babur,
which he (Babur) could not ignore. At the
beginning of 1529, Babur left Agra for the
east and he faced the combined forces of the
Afghans and Nusrat Shah of Bengal at the
crossing of the Ghagra River.
● While Babur was fighting with the Afghans
(in the east), he received a message i.e. crisis
situation in Central Asia. Thus Babur decided
to conclude the war with an agreement with
the Afghans. He made a vague claim for the
suzerainty over Bihar, and left the large parts
in the Afghan’s hands.
● On 26 December, 1530, when Babur was
returning to Kabul (Afghanistan) died near
Lahore.
Significance of Babur’s Conquest
The significance of Babur’s advent into India are
as follows:
(a) Geo-strategic Significance
● Kabul and Qandhar had always acted as
staging places for an invasion in India,
Babur’s advent made Kabul and Qandhar the
integral parts of an empire comprising north
India. Babur and his successors strengthen
the India security from an external invasion,
which were persistent from the last 200 years.
(b) Economic Significance
● Geographically Kabul and Qandhar positioned
in the trade route; therefore, the control of
these two regions strengthened India’s foreign
trade. Babar attempted to re-establish the
prestige of the Crown, which had been eroded
after the death of Firuz Tughlaq.
Reasons of India Conquest
● Abul Fazl, the contemporary historian said that
“Babur ruled over Badakhshan, Qandhar, and
Kabul which did not yield sufficient income
for the requirements of his army; in fact, in
some of the border territories, the expense on
controlling the armies and administration was
greater than the income”.
● Babur was also always remained apprehensive
about an Uzbek attack on his territory Kabul,
and hence, considered India to be a safe
place of refuge, as well as a suitable base
for operations against the Uzbeks.
● Babur was a great statesman and a man of solid
achievements. He was also a great scholar in Arabic
and Persian languages. Turki was his mother tongue.
He wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki
language.
● Babur groomed himself to his begs by his personal
qualities. He was always prepared to share the
hardships with his soldiers. Babur was fond of wine
and good company and was a good and cheerful
companion. At the same time, he was a strict
disciplinarian and a hard taskmaster.
● Babur took good care of his army and other
employees, and was prepared to excuse many of
their faults as long as they were not disloyal.
Cont...
30 Master Series : Medieval India
●
●
●
●
Though Babur was an orthodox Sunni, but he was
not prejudiced or led by the religious divines. Once,
there was a bitter sectarian conflict between the
Shias and the Sunnis in Iran and Turan; however,
in such a condition, Babur’s court was free from
theological and sectarian conflicts.
Though Babur declared the battle against Rana
Sanga a jihad and assumed the title of ‘ghazi’ after
the victory, but the reasons were noticeably political.
Babur was master of Persian and Arabic languages,
and is regarded as one of the most famous writers
in the Turkish language (which was his mother
tongue).
Babur’s famous memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Baburi is
considered as one of the classics of world literature.
His other popular works are Masnavi and the Turkish
translation of a well-known Sufi work.
Babur was a keen naturalist, as he described the
flora and fauna of India in considerable details.
Babur introduced a new concept of the state, which
was to be based on −
1. The strength and prestige of the Crown;
2. The absence of religious and sectarian bigotry;
and
3. The careful fostering of culture and the fine arts.
● Babur, with all these three features (discussed
above), provided a precedent and a direction for
his successors.
Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556)
● Humayun succeeded his father Zahir-ud-din
Mohammad Babur, but as per the Timurid
tradition he was forced to share power with
his brothers. Thus, Sulaiman was given to
Badakshan, Qamran inherited Kandhar and
Kabul while Askari received Sindh. At the
age of 23, Humayun was an inexperienced
ruler when he came to power.
● Humayun faced a formidable opponent Sher
Shah Suri and lost the Mughal territories to
this Pashtun Noble, after having the taste of
two defeats, in Battle of Chausa in 1539 and
in Battle of Bilgram(Kannauj) in 1540.
● Defeat at Kannauj compelled Humayun to
leave India. He fled to the refuge of Safavid
Empire in Persia, where Persian King Shah
Tahmasp welcomed him and treated him like
a royal visitor. After the death of Sher Shah
Suri in 1545, Humayun conquered Qandhar
and re-established his control over Kabul with
the help of Shah Tahmasp.
● He defeated the forces of Sikander Sur and
occupied Agra and Delhi in 1555. Thus,
Humayun regained his Empire 15 years later
with Safavid aid. Humayun’s return from
Persia was accompanied by a large number of
Persian noblemen and signaled an important
change in Mughal court administration, art
and culture.
● The Central Asian dynasty, hence was largely
overshadowed by the influences of Persian
art, architecture, language and literature.
There are many stone carvings and thousands
of Persian manuscripts in India dating from
the time of Humayun. Humayun constructed
a citadel at Delhi, named Din-Panah.
● His sister Gulbadan Bano Begum wrote his
biography Humayun-nama. His wife Hamida
Banu Begum built his tomb at Delhi, which
is known as Humayun tomb after his death
in 1556. He fell from the stairs of his library
(Sher mandal) and succumbed to injuries. It
is double arched tomb, inner arch to provide
strength to structure and outer arched to
provide aesthetic look.
Sur Dynasty (1540-1555)
● Sher Shah was the founder of Sur Dynasty.
His original name was Farid. He was the
son of Hasan Khan, a Jagirdar of Sasaram
in Bihar. He was given the title Sher Khan
for his bravery under the Afghan Rule of
Bihar.
Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545)
● Sher Shah spent his childhood with his father
and remained actively involved in the affairs
of his father’s Jagir. Because of this, he
learned rich administrative knowledge and
experience.
● Sher Shah was very intelligent, as he never
let any opportunity to go in vain. The
Mughal Dynasty 31
defeat and death of Ibrahim Lodi and the
misunderstanding in Afghan affairs let Sher
Shah emerge as the most important Afghan
sardars (of that time).
● In the course of the conflict, the Maldeo was
killed after a courageous resistance. His sons,
Kalyan Das and Bhim, took shelter at the
court of Sher Shah.
● In 1544, the Rajput and Afghan forces
clashed at Samel (located between Ajmer
and Jodhpur). While invading different Jagirs
of Rajasthan, Sher Shah had taken the great
precautions; at every step, he would throw
up entrenchments to guard against a surprise
attack. After the battle of Samel, Sher Shah
besieged and conquered Ajmer and Jodhpur,
forced Maldeo into the desert.
● Merely in 10 months of ruling period, Sher
Shah overran almost the entire Rajasthan. His
last campaign was against Kalinjar; it was a
strong fort and the key to Bundelkhand.
● During the Kalinjar campaign (1545), a gun
burst and severely injured Sher Shah; the
incident took, Sher Shah’s life. Sher Shah was
succeeded by Islam Shah (his second son),
who ruled till 1553.
Fig. 3.2. Sher Shah Suri Empire
● Because of his smart skill set and administrative
quality, Sher Shah became as the right hand
of the ruler of Bihar. After killing a tiger, the
patron of Sher Shah adorned him the title of
‘Sher Khan.’
● As a ruler, Sher Shah ruled the mightiest
empire, which had come into existence (in
north India) since the time of Muhammad bin
Tughlaq. Sher Shah’s empire was extended
from Bengal to the Indus River (excluding
Kashmir). In the west, he conquered Malwa,
and almost the entire Rajasthan.
● Maldeo, the ruler of Marwar, ascended the
gaddi (kingdom) in 1532, and in a short span
of time, took the control of whole of western
and northern Rajasthan. He further expanded
his territories during Humayun’s conflict with
Sher Shah.
● Islam Shah was a competent ruler and
general, but most of his energies were lost in
controlling the rebels raised by his brothers.
Besides, rebels of tribal feuds also pulled
Islam Shah’s attention.
● Islam Shah’s death (November 1554) led to a
civil war among his successors. The civil war
created a vacuum that ultimately provided an
opportunity to Humayun to recover empire
of India. In 1555, Humayun defeated the
Afghans, and recovered Delhi and Agra.
● Sher Shah Sur’s conquests include
Bundelkhand, Malwa, Multan, Punjab, and
Sind. His empire occupied the whole of North
India except Assam, Gujarat, Kashmir, and
Nepal.
Administrative Works
● Sher Shah re-established law and order
across the length and breadth of his empire.
Sher Shah placed considerable emphasis on
justice, as he used to say, “Justice is the
most excellent of religious rites, and it is
32 Master Series : Medieval India
approved alike by the king of infidels and of
the faithful”.
● Sher Shah did not spare oppressors whether
they were high nobles, men of his own tribe
or near relations. Qazis were appointed at
different places for justice, but as before, the
village panchayats and zamindars also dealt
with civil and criminal cases at the local level.
● Sher Shah dealt strictly with robbers and
dacoits. Sher Shah was very strict with
zamindars who refused to pay land revenue
or disobeyed the orders of the government.
Economic and Development Works
● Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding
of horses from Alauddin Khalji. Sher Shah
had also developed the communications by
laying four important highways:
1. Sonargaon to Sind
2. Agra to Burhampur
3. Jodhpur to Chittor
4. Lahore to Multan
● Sher Shah paid great attention for the
promotion of trade and commerce and also
the improvement of communications in his
kingdom. He reinstated the old imperial road
known as the Grand Trunk Road, from
the river Indus in the west to Sonargaon in
Bengal.
● He also built a road from Agra to Jodhpur
and Chittoor, noticeably linking up with
the road to the Gujarat seaports. He built a
separate road from Lahore to Multan. At that
time, Multan was one of the central points
for the caravans going to West and Central
Asia. For the convenience of travelers, Sher
Shah built a number of sarai at a distance of
every two kos (about eight km) on all the
major roads.
● The sarai was a fortified lodging or inn
where travelers could pass the night and also
keep their goods in safe custody. Facility of
separate lodgings for Hindus and Muslims
were provided in the sarai. Brahmanas were
appointed for providing bed and food to the
Hindu travelers, and grains for their horses.
● Abbas Khan Sarwani (who had written
‘Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi’ or history of Sher Shah)
says, “It was a rule in the sarai that whoever
entered there, received provision suitable to
his rank, and food and litter for his cattle,
from the government.”
● Sher Shah also made efforts to settle down
villages around the sarai, and the land was
set apart in these villages for the expenses
of the sarai. Sher Shah built about 1,700
sarai; some of them are still existing, which
reflect how strong these sarai were. Over a
period of time, many of the sarai developed
into qasbas (market-towns) where peasants
flocked to sell their produce. Sher Shah’s
roads and sarai have been called as “the
arteries of the empire.” These development
works strengthened and fasten the trade and
commerce in the country.
● In Sher Shah’s entire empire, customs duty
was paid only at two places: the goods
produced in Bengal or imported from outside
paid customs duty at the border of Bengal and
Bihar at Sikrigali and goods coming, from
West and Central Asia paid custom duty at
the Indus. No one was allowed to levy custom
duty at roads, ferries, or town. The duty was
paid a second time at the time of sale.
● Sher Shah instructed his governors to compel
the people to treat merchants and travelers
well and not to harm them in any way. If
a merchant died, no one to seize his goods.
● Depending on the territoriality, Sher
Shah made the local village headmen and
zamindars responsible for any loss that the
merchant suffered on the roads. If the goods
of a merchant were stolen, the headmen and/
or the zamindars had to produce them, or to
trace the haunts of the thieves or highway
robbers, failing which they had to undergo the
punishment meant for the thieves and robbers.
● Sher Shah’s currency reforms also promoted
the growth of commerce and handicrafts. For
the trade and commerce purpose, Sher Shah
made an attempt to fix standard weights and
measures across his empire.
Mughal Dynasty 33
Administrative Division
Though his rule lasted for only 5 years, he has
organized an excellent administrative system. The
king was aided by four important ministers:
1.
Diwan –i- Wizarat or Wazir – in charge of
Revenue and Finance
2.
Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army
3.
Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister
4.
Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications
● Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty
seven Sarkars. Each Sarkars was further
divided into various Parganas and in charge
of various officers.
1. Shiqdar – Military Officer
2. Amin – Land Revenue
3. Fotedar – Treasurer
4. Karkuns – Accountants
●
●
●
●
●
5. Iqtas – various administrative units
Under Sher Shah, the land revenue
administration was well organized.Land
survey was sensibly done. All cultivable lands
were classified into three classes – good,
middle and bad. The state’s share was one
third of the average produce and it was paid
in cash or crop.
Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called
“Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835.
Police was competently restructured and
crime was less during his regime.
A number of villages comprised a Pargana.
The Pargana was under the charge of the
Shiqdar, who looked after law and order
and general administration, and the Munsif
or Amil looked after the collection of Land
revenue.
Above the Pargana, there was the Shiq or
Sarkar under the charge of the Shiqdar-iShiqdran and a Munsif-i-Munsifan.
Accounts were maintained both in the Persian
and the local languages (Hindavi).Sher Shah
apparently continued the central machinery
of administration, which had been developed
during the Sultanate period. Most likely, Sher
Shah did not favor leaving too much authority
in the hands of ministers.
● Sher Shah worked exceptionally hard, devoting
himself to the affairs of the state from early
morning to late at night. He also toured the
country regularly to know the condition of
the people.
● Sher Shah’s excessive centralization of
authority, in his hands, has later become a
source of weakness, and its harmful effects
became apparent when a masterful sovereign
(like him) ceased to sit on the throne.
● The produce of land was no longer to be
based on the guess work, or by dividing the
crops in the fields, or on the threshing floor
rather Sher Shah insisted on measurement of
the sown land.
● Schedule of rates (called ray) was drawn up,
laying down the state’s share of the different
types of crops. This could then be converted
into cash on the basis of the prevailing market
rates in different areas. Normally, the share of
the state was one-third of the produce.
● Sher Shah’s measurement system let peasants
to know how much they had to pay to the
state only after sowing the crops.
● The extent of area sown, the type of crops
cultivated, and the amount each peasant had
to pay was written down on a paper called
patta and each peasant was informed of it.
● No one was permitted to charge from the
peasants anything extra. The rates which the
members of the measuring party were to get
for their work were laid down.
● In order to guard against famine and other
natural calamities, a cess at the rate of two
and half seers per bigha was also levied.
● Sher Shah was very solicitous for the welfare
of the peasantry, as he used to say, “The
cultivators are blameless, they submit to those
in power, and if I oppress them they will
abandon their villages, and the country will
be ruined and deserted, and it will be a long
time before it again becomes prosperous”.
● Sher Shah developed a strong army in order
to administer his vast empire. He dispensed
with tribal levies under tribal chiefs, and
recruited soldiers directly after verifying their
character.
34 Master Series : Medieval India
● The strength of Sher Shah’s personal army
was recorded as:
1. 150,000 cavalry;
Akbar married Hira Kunwari, who was a
Kachhwaha princess, later she took the name
Jodha Bai.
2. 25,000 infantry armed with matchlocks
or bows;
3. 5,000 elephants; and
4. A park of artillery.
● Sher Shah set up cantonments in different
parts of his empire; besides, a strong garrison
was posted in each of them.
● Sher Shah also developed a new city on the
bank of the Yamuna River near Delhi. The
sole survivor of this city is the Old Fort
(Purana Qila) and the fine mosque within it.
● One of the finest nobles, Malik Muhammad
Jaisi (who had written Padmavat in Hindi)
was the patron of Sher Shah’s reign.
Religious View
● Sher Shah did not, however, initiate any
new liberal policies. Jizyah continued to
be collected from the Hindus. Sher Shah’s
nobility was drawn exclusively from the
Afghans.
Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally
tolerant towards other religions.He also employed
Hindus in important offices.The old fort called Purana
Qila and its mosque was built during his period.
He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is
considered as one of the master pieces of Indian
architecture.The famous Hindi work Padmavat by
Malik Muhammad Jayasi was written during his reign.
In 1545, Sher Shah died and his successors ruled till
1555 later which Humayun reconquered India.
Akbar (1556-1605)
● Jalal-ud-din Muhamad Akbar popularly known
as Akbar was the third Mughal Emperor who
ruled from 1556 to 1605. He was crowned at
the age of 14 at Kalanaur(Punjab) in 1556.
He ruled for the next 4 years under regent
Bairam Khan, who helped the young emperor
to expand and consolidate Mughal domains
in India.
● He defeated the Hemu, wazir of Adil Shah
Suri in Second Battle of Panipat in 1556.
Fig. 3.3. Area under Akbar
● Akbar sent Raja Man Singh of Amber to
confront Maharana Pratap of Mewar in
historic Battle of Haldighati in 1576, in which
Akbar was victorious. At the time of Akbar
there were five leading states of Deccan i.e.
Khandesh, Bijapur, Golconda,Bidar, Berar.
He faced rebellion in Gujarat in 1572, which
was crushed.
● He built Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikri,
in memory of victory over Gujarat. His last
campaign was against Asirgarh (Khandesh).
Second Battle of Panipat
● Hemu first seized Agra, and with an army of
50,000 cavalry, 500 elephants and a strong
park of artillery marched towards Delhi.In
a well-contested battle, Hemu defeated the
Mughals near Delhi and captured the city. But
Bairam Khan took an energetic and smart step
to meet the critical situation. Bairam Khan
strengthened his army marched towards Delhi
before Hemu could have time to consolidate
his position again.
Mughal Dynasty 35
● On 5 November, 1556, the battle between
the Mughals (led by Bairam Khan) and the
Afghan forces (led by Hemu), took place once
again at Panipat. Though Hemu’s artillery had
been captured by a Mughal force, the tide of
battle was in favor of Hemu. Meanwhile, an
arrow hit in the eye of Hemu and he fainted.
Hemu was arrested and executed. Akbar had
virtually reconquered his empire.
Bairam Khan’s Regency
● Bairam Khan remained at the helm of affairs
of the Mughal Empire for almost next four
years and during this period, he kept the
nobility fully under control. The territories
of the Mughal Empire were extended from
Kabul (in the north) to Jaunpur (in the east)
and Ajmer (in the west). Mughal forces
captured Gwalior and vigorous efforts were
made to conquer Ranthambhor and Malwa.
● Over a period of time, Akbar was approaching
the age of maturity. On the other hand, Bairam
Khan became arrogant and had offended
many powerful persons and nobles of Mughal
court (as he held supreme power). Many of
the nobles complained to Akbar that Bairam
Khan was a Shia, and that he was appointing
his own supporters and Shias to high offices,
while neglecting the old nobles.
● The charges against Bairam Khan were not
much serious in themselves, but he (Bairam
Khan) became egoistical, and hence failed to
realize that Akbar was growing up. In fact,
there was friction on a petty matter, which
made Akbar realize that he could not leave
the state affairs in someone else’s hands for
any more.
● To control Bairam Khan, Akbar played his
cards cleverly. He left Agra on the pretext of
hunting, and came Delhi. From Delhi, Akbar
issued a farman (summon) dismissed Bairam
Khan from his office, and ordered all the
nobles to come and submit to him personally.
● The farman made Bairam Khan realize that
Akbar wanted to take power in his own
hands; so, he was prepared to submit, but
his opponents were keen to ruin him. They
heaped humiliation upon him until he was
goaded to rebel.
● The rebellion distracted the empire for almost
six months. Finally, Bairam Khan was forced
to submit in Akbar’s court; Akbar received
him cordially, and gave him the option of
serving at the court (anywhere), or retiring to
Mecca. Bairam Khan chose to retire to Mecca.
On his way to Mecca, he was assassinated at
Patan near Ahmadabad by an Afghan who
bore him a personal grudge.
● Bairam Khan’s wife and a young child were
brought to Akbar at Agra. Akbar married
Bairam Khan’s widow (who was also his
cousin), and brought up the child as his
own son. Bairam Khan’s child later became
popular as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan
and held some of the most significant offices
and commands in the Mughal Empire.
Akbar’s Theory of Kingship
● Divine origin of monarchy was the important
element of Akbar’s theory of kingship. The
Emperor was considered as the representative
of God on earth. He adopted the title Zill-iillahi to emphasize the same.
● Monarchial despotism of very high order was
also an important feature. The power and
prestige of crown was so high that no one
could dare to challenge the authority of King.
● Hereditary succession was emphasized by
Akbar, and this practice was established to
such a level that even during weak rulers, no
noble could dare to sit on the throne.
● The doctrine of Sulh-i-Kul was another
feature. It has been interpreted as the ideas
of universal peace and tolerance.
● Impartial justice to all without any
discrimination. Every section of population
was treated equally.
● Welfare outlook of state and progress
of people was considered as important
responsibility of State by Akbar.
● Secular State System was another feature
under Akbar’s reign.
36 Master Series : Medieval India
Akbar’s Administrative System
● Though Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s
administrative system, he did not find it that
much beneficial hence he had started his
own administrative system.In 1573, just after
returning from Gujarat expedition, Akbar
paid personal attention to the land revenue
system. Officials called as ‘Karoris’ were
appointed throughout the north India. Karoris
were responsible for the collection of a crore
of dams (i.e. Rs. 250,000).
● In 1580, Akbar instituted a new system called
the Dahsala; under this system, the average
produce of different crops along with the
average prices prevailing over the last ten
(dah) years were calculated. However, the
state demand was stated in cash. This was
done by converting the state share into money
on the basis of a schedule of average prices
over the past ten years.
● Akbar introduced a new land measurement
system (known as the Zabti system) covering
from Lahore to Allahabad, including Malwa
and Gujarat. Under the Zabti system, the
shown area was measured by means of
the bamboos attached with iron rings. The
Zabtisystem, originally, is associated with
Raja Todar Mal (one of the nobles of Akbar),
therefore, sometimes, it is called as Todar
Mal’s Bandobast.
Todar Mal was a brilliant revenue officer of
his time. He first served on Sher Shah’s court,
but later joined Akbar. Besides Zabti system,
a number of other systems of assessment were
also introduced by Akbar. The most common
and, perhaps the oldest one was ‘Batai’ or
‘Ghalla-Bakshi.’
● Under Batai system, the produce was divided
between the peasants and the state in a fixed
proportion. The peasants were allowed to
choose between Zabti and Batai under certain
conditions. However, such a choice was given
when the crops had been ruined by natural
calamity. Under Batai system, the peasants
were given the choice of paying in cash or in
kind, though the state preferred cash.
●
●
●
●
In the case of crops such as cotton, indigo, oilseeds, sugarcane, etc., the state demand was
customarily in cash. Therefore, these crops
were called as cash-crops. The third type of
system, which was widely used (particularly
in Bengal) in Akbar’s time was Nasaq.
Most likely (but not confirmed), under the
Nasaq system, a rough calculation was made
on the basis of the past revenue receipts paid
by the peasants. This system required no
actual measurement, however, the area was
ascertained from the records.
The land which remained under cultivation
almost every year was called ‘Polaj’. When
the land left uncultivated, it was called ‘Parati’
(fallow). Cess on Parati land was at the full
(polaj) rate when it was cultivated. The land
which had been fallow for two to three years
was called ‘Chachar,’ and if longer than that,
it was known as ‘Banjar.’
The land was also classified as good,
middling, and bad. Though one-third of the
average produce was the state demand, it
varied according to the productivity of the
land, the method of assessment, etc.
Akbar was deeply interested in the
development and extension of cultivation;
therefore, he offered Taccavi (loans) to the
peasants for seeds, equipment, animals, etc.
Akbar made policy to recover the loans in
easy installments.
Administrative Units
● Akbar followed the system of the Subhah,
the Pargana, and the Sarkar as his major
administrative units. Subhah was the top
most administrative unit, which was further
sub-divided into Sarkar. Sarkar (equivalent
to district) was constituted of certain number
of Parganas and Pargana was the collective
administrative unit of a few villages.
● The chief officer of Subhah was Subedar.
The chief officers of the Sarkar were the
Faujdar and the Amalguzar. The Faujdar
was in-charge of law and order, and the
amalguzar was responsible for the assessment
and collection of the land revenue.
Mughal Dynasty 37
● The territories of the empire were classified
into Jagir, Khalisa and Inam. Income from
Khalisa villages went directly to the royal
exchequer. The Inam lands were those
property, which were given to learned and
religious men. The Jagir lands were allotted
to the nobles and members of the Royal
family including the queens.
● The Amalguzar was assigned to exercise a
general supervision over all types of lands for
the purpose of imperial rules and regulations
and the assessment and collection of land
revenue uniformly.
● Akbar reorganized the central machinery of
administration on the basis of the division of
power among various departments. During the
Sultanate period, the role of wazir, the chief
adviser of the ruler, was very important, but
Akbar reduced the responsibilities of wazir
by creating separate departments.
● Akbar assigned Wazir as head of the
revenue department. Thus, he was no longer
the principal adviser to the ruler, but an
expert in revenue affairs (only). However,
to emphasize on Wazir’s importance, Akbar
generally used the title of Diwan or Diwan-iala (in preference to the title Wazir).
● The Diwan was held responsible for all
income and expenditure, and held control
over Khalisa, Jagir and Inam lands.
● The head of the military department was
known as the Mir Bakshi. It was the Mir
Bakshi (and not the Diwan) who was considered
as the head of the nobility. Recommendations
for the appointments to Mansabs or for the
promotions, etc., were made to the emperor
through the Mir Bakshi.
The Mir Bakshi was also the head of the
intelligence and information agencies of
the empire. Intelligence officers and news
reporters (Waqia-Navis) were posted in all
regions of the empire and their reports were
presented to the emperor’s court through the
Mir Bakshi.
● The Mir Samanwas the third important
officer of Mughal Empire. He was in-charge
of the imperial household, including the
supply of all the provisions and articles for
the use of the inmates of the harem or the
female apartments.
● The judicial department was headed by
the chief Qazi. This post was sometimes
clubbed with that of the chief Sadr who was
responsible for all charitable and religious
endowments.
● To make himself accessible to the people as
well as to the ministers, Akbar judiciously
divided his time. The day started with the
emperor’s appearance at the jharoka of the
palace where large numbers of people used to
assemble daily to have a glimpse of the ruler,
and to present petitions to him if required so.
Akbar’s Provinces
● In 1580, Akbar classified his empire into twelve
subas (provinces) namely:
1. Bengal
2. Bihar
3. Allahabad
4. Awadh
5. Agra
6. Delhi
7. Lahore
8. Multan
9. Kabul
10. Ajmer
11. Malwa and
12. Gujarat
● Each of these subah consisted of a governor
(subadar), a Diwan, a bakhshi, a sadr, a qazi, and
a Waqia-Navis.
Relation with Rajputs
● When Humayun conquered India, for the
second time, he embarked upon a deliberate
and diplomatic policy to win over these
elements. Abul Fazl has written in his work
as “to soothe the minds of the zamindars, he
(Humayun) entered into matrimonial relations
with them.”
● When Jamal Khan Mewati (one of the
greatest zamindars of India), submitted to
Humayun, he married one of his (Humayun’s)
38 Master Series : Medieval India
beautiful daughters and married his younger
sister to Bairam Khan. Over a period of a
time, Akbar also followed this policy.
● Before the Akbar period, the girl once
married, normally, was lost to her family,
and never came back after her marriage.
But, Akbar abandoned this policy. He gave
religious freedom to his Hindu wives and
gave an honored place to their parents and
relations in the nobility.
(a) Relation with Amber State
● Bhara Mal, the ruler of Amber cemented
the alliance (with Akbar) by marrying his
younger daughter, Harka Bai, to Akbar.
Bhara Mal was given a high dignitary. His
son, Bhagwan Das, rose to the rank of 5,000
and his grandson, Man Singh, to the rank of
7,000, which was accorded by Akbar to only
one other noble, namely Aziz Khan Kuka (his
foster-brother).
● In 1572, when Akbar went on Gujarat
expedition, Bhara Mal was placed as the
in-charge of Agra where all the royal ladies
were residing; it was a signal honor usually
given only to nobles who were either relations
or close confidants of the emperor.
● Akbar had abolished the pilgrim-tax, and the
practice of forcible conversion of prisoners of
war. In 1564, Akbar also abolished the jizyah,
which was (sometimes) used by the ulama to
humiliate non-Muslims.
(b) Relation with Mewar State
● Mewar was the only state which had stubbornly
refused to accept Mughal suzerainty. In 1572,
Rana Pratap succeeded Rana Udai Singh to
the ‘gaddi’ (throne) of Chittoor. Akbar sent a
series of embassies to Rana Pratap asking to
accept Mughal suzerainty and to do personal
homage. All these embassies, including the
one led by Man Singh, were courteously
received by Rana Pratap. In return, Rana
Pratap also sent Amar Singh (his son) with
Bhagwan Das to do homage to Akbar and
accept his service. But Rana never accepted
or made any final agreement.
Rana Pratap
● In 1576, Akbar went Ajmer, and deputed Raja
Man Singh with a force of 5,000 to lead a
campaign against Rana. In anticipation of
this campaign, Rana had devastated the entire
territory up to Chittoor so that the Mughal
forces might get no food or fodder and
fortified all the passes in the hills. The battle
between Rana Pratap and Mughal force (led
by Man Singh) was fought at Haldighati in
June 1576.
Battle of Haldighati
● The powerful attack by the Rajputs, which
was supported by the Afghans threw the
Mughal force into disarray. However, because
of the fresh reinforcements in Mughal’s
forces, the tide of battle turned against the
Rajputs. The Mughal forces were advanced
through the pass and occupied Gogunda, a
strong point which had been evacuated by the
Rana earlier. Rana Pratap somehow managed
to escape from the battle field.
● The Battle of Haldighati was the last battle
that Rana engaged in a pitched battle with
the Mughals; afterward, he relied upon the
methods of guerilla warfare.
● In 1585, Akbar moved to Lahore to observe
the situation in the north-west which had
become dangerous by that time. Because of
the critical situation, he (Akbar) remained
there for the next 12 years. Therefore, after
1585, no Mughal expedition was sent against
Rana Pratap.
● Akbar’s absence gave an opportunity to Rana
Pratap and hence, he recovered many of his
territories, including Kumbhalgarh and the
areas nearby Chittoor. Rana Pratap built a
new capital, namely Chavand, near modern
Dungarpur.
● In 1597, Rana Pratap died at the age of 51,
due to an internal injury incurred (by himself)
while trying to draw a stiff bow.
(c) Relation with Marwar State
● In 1562, after the death of Maldeo of Marwar,
there was a dispute between his sons for
Mughal Dynasty 39
succession. However, the younger son of
Maldeo, Chandrasen, (son of the favorite
queen of Maldeo), succeeded to the gaddi
(throne).
● Chandrasen opposed the Akbar’s policy;
hence, Akbar took Marwar under direct
Mughal administration. Chandrasen fought
bravely and also waged a guerilla warfare,
but after some time, he forced to escape. In
1581, Chandrasen died.
(d) Relation with Jodhpur State
● Akbar conferred Jodhpur to Udai Singh, the
elder brother of Chandrasen. To strengthen
his position, Udai Singh married his daughter,
Jagat Gosain or Jodha Bai with Akbar. Jodha
Bai is the mother of Akbar’s eldest son Salim
(Jahangir).
● In 1593, when the son-in-law of Rai Singh
of Bikaner died due to a fall from his palki,
Akbar went to the raja’s house to console
him, and discouraged his daughter from
performing sati (self-immolation) as her
children were young.
● Akbar’s policy towards Rajput was continued
by his successions, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
Jahangir, whose mother was a Rajput princess
(Jodha Bai), had married with a Kachhawaha
princess as well as a Jodhpur princess.
● The Rana Pratap’s son, Karan Singh, who
was deputed to proceed to Jahangir’s court
was diplomatically received. Jahangir got
up from the throne, embraced him in darbar
and gave him gifts. Prince Karan Singh was
accorded the rank of 5,000, which had been
earlier accorded to the rulers of ‘Jodhpur,
Bikaner, and Amber.
Social Reforms
● Akbar introduced a number of social and
educational reforms. He stopped Sati (the
burning of a widow), unless she herself, of
her own free will, determinedly desired it.
Further, Akbar made a strict rule that widows
of tender age who had not shared the bed
with their husbands were not to be burnt at
all. Akbar also legalized Widow Remarriage.
● Akbar was not in favor of second marriage
(having two wives at the same time) unless
the first wife was barren. Akbar raised the
marriage age, 14 for girls and 16 for boys.
Akbar restricted the sale of wines and spirits.
● Akbar revised the educational syllabus,
emphasizing more on moral education
and mathematics, and on secular subjects
including agriculture, geometry, astronomy,
rules of government, logic, history, etc.
● Akbar gave patronage to artists, poets,
painters, and musicians, as his court was
infused with famous and scholar people, more
popularly known as the ‘navaratna.’
● Akbar’s empire (as many historians claim) was
essentially secular, liberal, and a promoter of
cultural integration. It was enlightened with
social and cultural matters.
Foreign Power
● Akbar was apprehensive because of the
growing power of the Portuguese, as they
had been interfering the pilgrim traffic (to
Mecca), not sparing even the royal ladies.
● In their territories, Portuguese were practicing
the proselytizing activities, which Akbar
disliked. Akbar apparently felt that the
coordination and pooling of the resources of the
Deccani states under Mughal supervision would
check, if not eliminate, the Portuguese danger.
Akbar’s Deccan Policy
● Till 1591 he completed his conquest of
Northern Indian states, then he look towards
Deccan and sent his representatives to Deccan.
Only Khandesh accepted over lordship of
Mughal Empire.
● Akbar was a pragmatic ruler, he was aware of
geo-political challenges which were prevailing
in Deccan. So he targeted them one by one.
● After elaborate preparations a military
campaign was launched against Ahmednagar
in 1593. Hence, in 1596 Ahmednagar accepted
suzerainty.
Akbar’s Religious Policies
● Akbar was a pious Muslim but after marrying
Jodha Bai of Amber. He allowed his Hindu
wives to worship their own gods.
40 Master Series : Medieval India
● He built an Ibadat Khana (House of Worship)
at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 to discuss religious
matters of faith. Scholars invited in Ibadat
Khana included Brahmin, Jain, Christians,
Zoroastrians etc.
● He abolished the pilgrimage tax on Hindus
in 1563 and Jizya in 1579.
● He adopted title of Imam-i-Adil (supreme
priest of Adil) and Mujtahid (final interpreter
of Islamic law).He started leading Friday
Prayers himself, Ulema’s was pushed aside.
He did not like the intrusion of the Muslim
Ulemas in political matters. In 1579, he
delivered the “Infallibility Decree” and
proclaimed his religious powers.
● In 1581 a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi was
issued by Akbar. It combined good elements
of different religions.In 1603 he allowed
Christian Missionaries to convert even the
members of royal family.
Din-i- Ilahi
●
●
●
●
●
The new religion believed in one God.
It had all the good points of every religion.
Its foundation was balanced.
It didn’t endorse any philosophy.
It aimed at bridging the gap that separated different
religions.
● The new religion had only 15 followers including
Birbal.
● Akbar did not compel anyone to join his new
religion.
● However, the new religion proved to be a failure,
after Akbar’s death.
Jahangir (1605-1627)
● Like Akbar, Jahangir also realized that the
conquest could be lasting on the basis not of
force, but rather of winning the goodwill of
the people. He, therefore, treated the defeated
Afghan chief and their followers with great
sympathy.
● Jahangir, by following his diplomatic policy
and released many of the princes and
zamindars of Bengal who were detained at
the court and allowed to return to Bengal.
Musa Khan was released and his estates were
restored.
● To continue the policy, the Afghans also
began to be welcomed into the Mughal
nobility. The leading Afghan noble under
Jahangir was Khan-i-Jahan Lodi who served
the distinguished service in the Deccan.
● Jahangir, however, had to begin a long era of
peace, but the situation was changed radically
by two incidents:
1. The Persian conquest of Qandhar, which
was a misfortune to Mughal prestige and
2. Deteriorating health of Jahangir.
● These two incidents unleashed the latent
struggle for the succession among the
princes as well as among the nobles (who
were also competing for power). Further,
the deteriorating health of Jahangir also
introduced Nur Jahan into the political affairs.
Nur Jahan
● Nur Jahan first married to an Iranian, Sher
Afghan, and after his death (in a clash with
the Mughal governor of Bengal), she married
to Jahangir in 1611. After marrying with
Nur Jahan, Jahangir appointed her father
Itimadud daula as joint diwan and later he
had been promoted to chief diwan. Besides,
other members of her (Nur Jahan) family also
benefited.
● In ten years of his service, Itimaduddaula
proved his loyalty, competency, and acumen.
He made a considerable influence in the
affairs of the state until his death.
● Asaf Khan, Nur Jahan’s brother, was also a
learned and deserving man. He was appointed
as the ‘khan-i-saman;’ it was the post reserved
for the highly trustworthy nobles.Asaf Khan
married his daughter with Khurram (later
Shah Jahan). Khurram was favorite of
Jahangir particularly after the rebellion and
imprisonment of Khusrau.
● Over a period of time, Nur Jahan became
ambitious and tried to dominate, which
resulted in a breach between her and Shah
Jahan, and that this drove Shah Jahan into
rebellion against his father in 1622. It was
the time when Shah Jahan felt that Jahangir
was completely under Nur Jahan’s influence.
Mughal Dynasty 41
However, some other historians are not agreed
with this view.
Shah Jahan’s Rebel
● Khusrau (elder brother) was the potential
contender of Shah Jahan; therefore, as long as
he (Khusrau) was alive, he was a great hurdle
(for Shah Jahan). In 1621, Shah Jahan killed
Khusrau (who had been kept in his custody)
and spread the news that he died due to colic
(abdomen pain).
● Shahriyar, a younger brother of Shah Jahan,
married to Nur Jahan’s daughter (from her
former husband) and taken an important
command that mentally disturbed Shah Jahan;
hence, he (Shah Jahan) rebelled.
● The immediate cause of Shah Jahan’s rebel
was the order that given to him to proceed
Qandhar, which had been besieged by the
Persians, but he refused.Shah Jahan was
afraid that the Qandhar campaign would be a
long and difficult one and that might intrigue
against him (i.e. during his absence from the
court). Hence, he demanded full authority
such as full command of the army, which
included the veterans of the Deccan, complete
control over Punjab, control over a number of
important forts, etc.
● Jahangir was enraged because of strange
demands of Shah Jahan. Further, Jahangir
had been also convinced that the prince was
meditating rebellion; hence, he wrote harsh
letters and took punitive steps, which only
made the situation worse and resulted in an
open breach.
● From Mandu (where he was stationed),
Shah Jahan moved to attack Agra in order to
capture the treasures lodged there.The Mughal
commander, posted at Agra, was vigilant and
he foiled Shah Jahan’s move. After failing
at Agra, Shah Jahan moved to Delhi; by the
time, Jahangir had assembled a large army
under the command of Mahabat Khan.
● Mahabat Khan was ordered to move on to
Mandu (Malwa), Prince Parvez appointed the
nominal commander of the army. Another
army was sent to Gujarat.Shah Jahan was
●
●
●
●
●
forced out of the Mughal territories and
compelled to take shelter nearby the Deccani
rulers, his erstwhile enemies. Further, he
crossed the Deccan into Orissa, controlled the
governor by surprise, and then he also took
the control of Bengal and Bihar.
Mahabat Khan was again deputed against
Shah Jahan and he successfully forced Shah
Jahan to retreat to the Deccan again. This
time, Shah Jahan made an alliance with Malik
Amber who was once again at war with the
Mughals. But the by time, Shah Jahan failed
to success in his expedition and hence he
wrote a humble letter his father Jahangir.
Jahangir realized that time came to pardon and
conciliate his brightest and most energetic son.
However, in 1626, as part of the agreement,
two of Shah Jahan’s sons, namely Dara and
Aurangzeb, were sent to the Jahangir’s court
as a hostage, and II tract in the Deccan was
assigned for Shah Jahan’s expenses.
Jahangir’s health was gradually deteriorating,
however, he was still mentally alert, and did
allow to make any decisions without his
consensus.Jahangir’s illness increased the
vulnerability that an ambitious noble might
try to use the situation to take supreme power
in his hands.Mahabat Khan who had played
a leading role in controlling Shah Jahan’s
rebellion, had been feeling disgruntled
because certain elements at the court were
eager to clip his wings after the end of the
prince’s rebellion.
Mahabat Khan’s alliance with Prince Parvez
was also a threat. Summoned by the court to
render accounts, Mababat Khan came with a
trusted body of Rajput and seized the emperor
at an appropriate moment when the royal
camp was crossing the river Jhelum on its
way to Kabul. Nur Jahan, who had not been
apprehended, escaped.
Nur Jahan played a trick and hence, she
surrendered herself to Mahabat Khan in order
to be close to Jahangir, and tried to pause the
suspicions of Mahabat Khan; however, she
was secretly trying her best to weaken his
(Mahabat Khan) position.
42 Master Series : Medieval India
● Over a period of time, Nur Jahan took
advantage of the mistakes and weakness of
Mahabat Khan (who was actually a soldier,
and not a diplomat or an administrator), she
managed to wean away most of the nobles from
Mahabat Khan’s side. Further, Rajput soldiers
were also not in support of Mahabat Khan.
● Soon Mahabat Khan realized his precarious
position, and hence, he fled from the
Jahangir’s court. Later, he joined Shah Jahan.
Nur Jahan’s victory over Mahabat Khan was
her greatest victory and a true reflection of
her cool courage and sagacity. However,
she could not enjoy her victory for long, as
Jahangir died (in 1627).
● After Jahangir’s death, Asaf Khan, supported
by the divan, the chief nobles, and the army,
arrested Nur Jahan and sent an urgent summons
to Shah Jahan. In the meantime, Asaf Khan
appointed Khusrau’s son as puppet emperor.
● Shah Jahan’s younger brother, Shahriyar,
made a feeble effort for the throne, but he
was easily defeated and thrown into prison
(and blinded). Shah Jahan’s reign effectively
from 1628 to 1658), which was full of distinct
activities (as discussed above).
● Jahangir wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian.
Sir Thomas Roe and John Hawkins’s came
to Jahangir court. Jahangir died in 1627 in
Kashmir and was buried to Lahore.
Conquest of Jahangir
● In 1615, the Rana of Mewar was forced to
submit to the Emperor. Jahangir followed a
conciliatory policy.
● Jahangir was trying to establish direct and
good relations between the Mughal’s and the
East India Company, and he succeeded to
make the relation.
● He obtained for the English merchants the
privileges to trade in Gujarat including
the right to set up factories at Agra and
Ahmadabad.
Art and Architecture
● He had adroitness in painting. He prided
himself, and his quote was that he could
●
●
●
●
●
●
plainly identify, who painted the paintings
from the joint labors of some artists. It was
the great talent of him.
He was interested in the architecture, and he
took part for contributing his art to develop
the painting interest.
Several buildings erected by him. e.g; Akbar’s
Tomb at Sikandra. He makes the great design
and partly rebuilt it.
Itimad-ud-Daulah was the finest building,
which constructed under the direction of Nur
Jahan. This tomb is located near Agra.
In the Lahore, the grand mosque constructed
under the Jahangir, he was quite good in the
field of art and architecture
Jahangir painting was also famous for the
gardens, and his paintings shows the gardens
of Kashmir and Lahore.
He also tried to make the currency with little
calligraphic designs, and he beautifully made
medals and coins with his portraits stamp.
Shah Jahan (1628-1658)
● Shah Jahan took the charge of the Mughal
Empire after the death of his father in 1628.
It is said that kingdom was founded by Babur,
nurtured by Akbar, consolidated by Jahangir
and reached to apex during the reign of Shah
Jahan.
● The first thing Shah Jahan had to face was the
revolts in Bundelkhand and Deccan. In 1612
he married to Arzumand Banu Begum who
became famous as Mumtaz Mahal.
● In 1632 he defeated Portuguese and annexed
Ahmadnagar in 1636. He sent his armies
to Balkhan and Badakshan in Central Asia
in order to secure the defence of NorthWest India. Shah Jahan who had recovered
Kandhar from Iranians in 1638 again lost in
1649, despite of three campaigns under the
leadership of Prince Murad, Aurangzeb and
Dara respectively.
● His Deccan policy was more successful. He
defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and seized
it. Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty
Mughal Dynasty 43
with the emperor. Shah Jahan engraved four
Mughal provinces in the Deccan – Khandesh,
Berar, Telungana and Daulatabad.
● Shah Jahan built Moti Masjid (Agra), Red Fort
(Delhi), Jama Masjid (Delhi) and Taj Mahal
(Agra). The Taj Mahal is the masterpiece of
his reign and was erected in memory of the
favourite of his three queens, Mumtaz Mahal
(the mother of Aurangzeb).
● After the sickness of Shah Jahan in 1657, war
of succession begun for the crown. In 1657
Shah Jahan’s eldest son Dara was with him at
Agra. Suja was governor in Bengal, Aurangzeb
was viceroy in Deccan and youngest son
Murad was governor in Gujarat. During war
of succession Shah Jahan’s two daughters
Jahan Ara and Roshan Ara supported his
two sons Dara and Aurangzeb respectively.
Aurangzeb defeated the Mughal forces lead
by Dara in the Battle at Samugarh near Agra.
● War of Succession Battles and outcomes:
1. Battle of Dharmat - Aurangzeb defeated
Dara’s Army.
2. Battle of Samugarh - Aurangzeb defeated
Dara Shikoh.
3. Battle of Rupnagar- Aurangzed defeated
Murad.
4. Battle of Khajwa - Aurangzeb defeated
the Shuja.
5. Battle of Devrai – Aurangzeb finally
defeated Dara Shikoh.
● Till 1661 Aurangzeb either killed or executed
his all brothers. Shah Jahan spent his remaining
life till 1666 in the captivity of Aurangzeb.
French traveler Bernier and Tavernier and the
Italian traveler Manucci visited during Shah
Jahan’s reign.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
● Aurangzeb crowned himself as emperor at
Delhi in 1658 and took the title of Alamgir,
but his second and formal coronation took
place when he defeated Dara in 1659.
Aurangzeb was one of the ablest kings of
the Mughal. He assumed the title Alamgir,
World Conqueror.
● Aurangzeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
In his private life, Aurangzeb was diligent
and disciplined.He was very simple in food
and dress. He earned money for his personal
expenses by copying Quran and selling those
copies. He did not consume wine.
● He was proficient in Arabic and Persian
languages. He was devoted to his religion
and conducted prayers five times a day. He
strictly observed the Ramzan fasting. He
misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha
movement and provoked them.
● Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem
and left an open sore. His policy towards Shia
Deccan Sultanates also proved to be wrong.
His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims
did not help him to rally the Muslims to his
side and strengthened political enemies of the
Mughal Empire.
● In his first ten years of reign, his military
campaigns were a great success.But in the
latter part of his reign, he faced serious
difficulties. The Jats and Satnamis and also
the Sikhs revolted against him due to his
harsh religious policy.
● Inscription of Kalma seen on the coins of
Aurangzeb. He re-imposed Jizya in 1679. He
ended the celebration of Nauroj festival. He
prohibited intoxicating drugs and he destroyed
the Vishwanath temple of Varanasi.
● He appointed Muhtasibs (moral conduct
regulator) to censor the public morals as
per Quranic law. He forbade music in his
court. He ended the Jharokha darshan and
weighing the emperor on his birthday was
also abolished by him. Guru Teg Bahadur,
ninth Sikh guru was besieged and taken to
Delhi where he was beheaded in 1679.
● According to the treaty of Purandar between
Shivaji and Jai Singh (Viceroy of Agra) in
1666. Shivaji ceded some forts to Mughals
and agreed to pay a visit to Mughal court at
Agra. But, when Shivaji went to Agra he was
dis-satisfied with the reception and he secretly
escaped from Agra. In 1689 Sambhaji, eldest
son of Shivaji was captured and beheaded
by Aurangzeb. He destroyed several Hindu
44 Master Series : Medieval India
temples e.g. Keshav Rai temple built by Raja
Bir Singh in Mathura, Vishwanath temple
built by Raja Man Singh in Banaras.
● Aurangzeb died in 1707 in Ahmadnagar and
was buried near Daultabad. During his reign
Mughal Empire reached to the territorial
climax.
●
Aurangzeb’s Rajput Policy
● Jahangir continued Akbar’s policy of giving
favors to the leading Rajput rajas and of
entering into matrimonial relations with them.
● Shah Jahan also maintained the alliance with
the Rajputs, but he did not appoint any Rajput
raja as the governor of a province, and no
further matrimonial relations were made with
the leading Rajput rajas. In spite of the fact
that he (Shah Jahan) himself was the son of
a Rajput princess.
● Perhaps, the alliances with the Rajputs had
become so consolidated, that it was felt that
matrimonial relations with the leading rajas
were no longer necessary. However, Shah
Jahan accorded high honor to the heads of the
two leading Rajput houses, namely Jodhpur
and Amber.
● Raja Jaswant Singh, the ruler of Marwar, was
in Shah Jahan’s favor. Both he and Jai Singh
held the ranks of 7000/7000 at the time of
Aurangzeb’s accession. Aurangzeb secured
the active support of the Maharana of Mewar
and raised his mansab from 5000/5000 to
6000/6000.
● Jaswant Singh who had been deputed to look
after the affairs of the Afghans in the northwest died by the end of 1678. In November
1679, Aurangzeb attacked Mewar. A strong
Mughal detachment reached Udaipur and
raided the camp of the Rana who had retreated
deep into the hills to conduct a harassing
warfare against the Mughals.
● The war Between the Mughals and Rajputs
soon reached at a stalemate as the Mughals
could neither penetrate the hills, nor deal
with the guerilla tactics of the Rajputs. Over
a period of time, the war became highly
●
●
●
●
unpopular. Prince Akbar, the eldest son of
Aurangzeb, tried to take advantage of the
situation and he went against his father.
In January, 1681, Prince Akbar, in alliance
with Durgadas, the Rathor chief, marched
towards Ajmer where Aurangzeb was helpless,
as all his best troops were being engaged
elsewhere.Prince Akbar, however, delayed
and Aurangzeb was able to stir up dissensions
in his camp by false letters. Resultantly,
Prince Akbar had to flee to Maharashtra.
Aurangzeb patched up a treaty with Rana
Jagat Singh (the successor of Rana Raj
Singh).The new Rana was forced to surrender
some of his parganas in lieu of iazyah and
was granted a mansab of 5,000 on a promise
of loyalty and not supporting Ajit Singh, but
it did not benefit much.
Aurangzeb’s policy towards Marwar and
Mewar was clumsy and blundering, which
brought no advantage of any kind to the
Mughals. On the other hand, Mughal failure
against these Rajput states damaged Mughal
military prestige. The breach with Marwar
and Mewar weakened the Mughal alliance
with the Rajputs at a crucial period.
First phase (1658-1667): During this phase
Mughal –Rajput relations represented the
continuation from period of Akbar to Shah
Jahan. Important responsibilities were given
to Rajput nobles, Jaisingh was the Mughal
commander in fight with Marathas. Rajput’s
continued to serve Mughal Empire with
full commitment as was the case under
Aurangzeb’s predecessors.
Second phase (1667-1678): During this
phase relation between duo lost their warmth
to some extent. This was the outcome of some
incidents that took place during previous
phase. In 1660 Rana Raj Singh of Mewar
attacked his neighbor state Kishangarh, this
high handed behavior of Rana Raj Singh was
disliked by Aurangzeb.
● In 1666 Shivaji escaped from Mughal captivity
at Agra, Kunwar Ram Singh was responsible
for security of Shivaji. Aurangzeb felt that
Mughal Dynasty 45
Ram Singh deliberately turned his face away,
so that Shivaji could escape. Aurangzeb was
the person of suspicious mindset, he never
trusted even his family members. In this
phase relation between them did not witnessed
much changed.
● Third phase (1679-1707): During this phase
suspicion and distrust within heart and mind
of Aurangzeb came out in open, Mughal
Empire had to face open rebellion from
Mewar and Marwar. In this phase MughalRajput relations were at nadir.
Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy
threatened with extinction. Golconda had to
pay a huge indemnity, and Bijapur had to
agree to the surrender of the Nizam Shah’
territories granted in 1636.
● After becoming emperor, Aurangzeb had to
face two problems viz −
1. The rising power of Shivaji, and
●
●
● The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from
the reign of Akbar. Aurangzeb, as governor of
Deccan, followed a belligerent Deccan policy.
He concentrated on the northwest frontier in
his first 25 years as the Mughal emperor
●
● In the same time, Shivaji, the Maratha Ruler
carved out an independent Maratha kingdom
in the territories of north and south Konkan.
Aurangzeb decided to invade Bijapur and
Golkonda to hold the spread of the Marathas.
He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and
seized his kingdom.
●
● Relations of Aurangzeb with the Deccani
states can be categorized into three phase as −
1. The First Phase between 1658 and 1668;
●
2. The Second Phase between 1668 and
1681;
3. The Third Phase between 1681 and 1687;
and
●
4. The Fourth Phase (between 1687 and
1707).
First Phase (1658–68)
● The treaty of 1636, by which Shah Jahan
had given one-third of the territories of
Ahmednagar state as a bribe for withdrawing
support to the Marathas, and promised that
the Mughals would “never never” conquer
Bijapur and Golconda, had been abandoned
by Shah Jahan himself.
● In 1657-58, Golconda and Bijapur were
●
2. Persuading Bijapur to part with the
territories ceded to it by the treaty of
1636.
In 1657, Kalyani and Bider had been secured.
Parenda was secured by bribe in 1660.
Angered by Adil Shah’s attitude of noncooperation, Aurangzeb ordered Jai Singh to
punish both Shivaji and Adil Shah.
Jai Singh was an astute politician. He told
Aurangzeb, “It would be unwise to attack
both these fools at the same time”.Jai Singh
had suggested that the Maratha problem could
not be solved without a forward policy in the
Deccan — a conclusion to which Aurangzeb
finally came 20 years later.
The campaign for the conquest of the Deccan
would be long and arduous and would need
the presence of the emperor himself with
large armies. But as long as Shah Jahan was
alive, Aurangzeb couldn’t afford to go away
on a distant campaign.
With his limited resources, in 1665, Jai
Singh’s Bijapur campaign was bound to fail.
The campaign recreated the united front of the
Deccani states against the Mughals, for the
Qutb Shah sent a large force to aid Bijapur.
The Deccanis adopted guerilla tactics, luring
Jat Singh on to Bijapur while devastating the
countryside so that the Mughals could get
no supplies. Jai Singh found that he had no
means to assault the city, since he had not
brought siege guns, and to invest the city was
impossible.
In the Deccani campaign, no additional
territory was gained by Jai Singh. The
disappointment of failure and the censures
of Aurangzeb hastened Jai Singh’s death and
he died in 1667.In 1668, the Mughals secured
the surrender of Sholapur by bribery.
46 Master Series : Medieval India
Second Phase (1668–81)
● During the period of 1668 to 1676, the power
of Madanna and Akhanna (two brothers of
Golconda) had increased. They had virtually
ruled Golconda from 1672 to almost till the
extinction of the state in 1687.
● The brothers had attempted to establish a
policy of tripartite alliance among Golconda,
Bijapur, and Shivaji. However, this policy
was periodically disturbed by faction fights
at the Bijapur court, and by the over-weening
ambition of Shivaji.
● In 1676, Mughals attacked Bijapur and
overthrown the Khawas Khan (the regent of
Bijapur).Aurangzeb, further, invited Bahadur
Khan and Diler Khan who had good relations
with the Afghan faction in Bijapur was
placed in command. Diler Khan persuaded
the Afghan leader Bahlol Khan to join in an
expedition against Golconda.
● In 1677, the failure of the Mughal-Bijapur
attack was in no small measure due to the
firm leadership of Madanna and Akhanna.In
1679-80, Diler Khan again attempted to seize
Bijapur, but failed; probably, because of lack
of equipment and forces to fight against the
united forces of the Deccani states.
Third Phase (1681–87)
● In 1681, when Aurangzeb went Deccan in
pursuit of his rebel son, Prince Akbar, he first
ordered his forces to fight against Sambhaji
(the son and successor of Shivaji), meanwhile
making renewed efforts to separate Bijapur
and Golconda from the side of the Marathas.
● Aurangzeb’s dividing policy could not bring
any beneficial result. The Marathas were the
only shield against the Mughals, and the
Deccani states were not prepared to throw it
away.
● Failure of Aurangzeb made him anxious and
he decided to force the issue. He invited
Adil Shah and asked to supply a vassal to
the imperial army and facilitate the Mughal
army a free passage through his territory and
also to supply a contingent of 5,000 to 6,000
cavalry for the war against the Marathas.
● Adil Shah, on the other hand, appealed for
help from both Golconda and Sambhaji,
which was promptly given. However, even the
combined forces of the Deccani states could
not withstand against the full strength of the
Mughal army, particularly when commanded
by the Mughal emperor or an energetic prince,
as had been demonstrated earlier. In spite of
being the presence of Emperor Aurangzeb
and prince, it took 18 months to siege.
● The success of Mughals, provided replenishing
justification for the earlier failure of Jai Singh
(1665), and Diler Khan (1679-80).Following
the downfall of Bijapur, a campaign against
Golconda was inevitable.
● In 1685, despite stiff resistance, the Mughals
had occupied Golconda. The emperor had
agreed to pardon Qutb Shah in return of a
huge subsidy, the ceding of some areas, and
the ousting of two brothers Madanna and
Akhanna.
● In 1688, Qutb Shah accepted Mughals
conditions and subsequently, Madanna and
Akhanna were dragged out on the streets and
murdered. In spite of this acceptance, Qutb
Shah could not protect his monarchy.
● Aurangzeb had triumphed but he soon found
that the extinction of Bijapur and Golconda
was only the beginning of his difficulties.
The last and the most difficult phase of
Aurangzeb’s life began now.
Fourth Phase (1687–1707)
● After the downfall of Bijapur and Golconda,
Aurangzeb was able to concentrate all his
forces against the Marathas.Apart from
invading Burhanpur and Aurangabad, the new
Maratha king, Sambhaji (son of Shivaji) had
thrown a challenge to Aurangzeb by giving
shelter to his rebel son, Prince Akbar.
● Sambhaji took a peculiarly passive attitude
towards Prince Akbar, spending his energies
in a futile war with the Sidis on the coast and
with the Portuguese.In 1686, prince dashed
into the Mughal territory, but repulsed.
Discouraged, Prince Akbar escaped by sea to
Iran, and sought shelter with the Iranian king.
Mughal Dynasty 47
● In 1689, Sambhaji was surprised at his
secret hideout at Sangameshwar by a Mughal
force. He was paraded before Aurangzeb and
executed as a rebel and an infidel.As historians
observed that this was undoubtedly a major
political mistake on the part of Aurangzeb.
He could have set a seal on his conquest of
Bijapur and Golconda by coming to terms
with the Marathas.
● By executing Sambhaji, he not only threw
away this chance, but provided the Marathas
a cause. In the absence of a single rallying
point, the Maratha sardars were left free to
plunder the Mughal territories.
● Rajaram, the younger brother of Sambhaji,
was crowned as king, but he had to escape
when the Mughals attacked his capital.Rajaram
sought shelter at Jinji on the east coast and
continued the fight against the Mughals from
there. Likewise, Maratha resistance spread
from the west to the east coast.
● Aurangzeb, after 1690, concentrated on
annexing to the empire of the rich and extensive
Karnataka tract.During the period between
1690 and 1703, Aurangzeb stubbornly refused
to negotiate with the Marathas. Rajaram was
besieged at Jinji, but the siege proved to be
long drawn out.
● Jinji fell in 1698, but the chief prince,
Rajaram, escaped. Maratha resistance grew
and the Mughals suffered a number of serious
reverses. The Marathas recaptured many of
their forts and Rajaram also managed to come
back to Satara.
● From 1700 to 1705, Aurangzeb dragged his
exhausted and ailing body from the siege of
one fort to another. On the other hand, floods,
disease, and the Maratha rambling bands took
fearful toll of the Mughal army. All these
gradually lead to apathy and disaffection
among the nobles and the army.
● Many of the jagirdars made secret pacts with
the Marathas and agreed to pay chauth if the
Marathas did not disturb their jagirs.In 1703,
Aurangzeb opened negotiations with the
Marathas. He was prepared to release Shahu
(the son of Sambhaji), who had been captured
at Satara along with his mother.
● Aurangzeb was prepared to grant Shivaji’s
swarajya to Shahu and the right of
sardeshmukhi over the Deccan, thus
recognizing his special position.Over 70
Maratha sardars actually assembled to receive
Shahu. However, Aurangzeb cancelled the
arrangements at the last minute, as he was
uncertain about the intentions of the Maratha.
● By 1706, Aurangzeb was convinced of the
futility of his effort to capture all the Maratha
forts. He slowly retreated to Aurangabad
while as exulting Maratha army hovered
around and attacked the stragglers.
● In 1707, when Aurangzeb breathed his last at
Aurangabad, he left behind an empire, which
was deeply distracted, and in which all the
various internal problems of the empire were
coming to a head; later led to decline of the
Mughal Empire.
Aurangzeb Religious Policy
● Aurangzeb entirely reversed the policy of
religious tolerance followed by Akbar during
his reign and it resulted in serious revolts
among the Hindus. He was fully awareof the
dangerous path he was pursuing, and well
aware against every Hindu sentiments.
● It is generally accepted that Aurangzeb was a
fanatic Sunni Muslim. His main aim was to
convert India (the country of Kafirs) to Darul-Islam (country of Islam). He was intolerant
towards other faiths, especially Hindus. He
was also against Shia Muslims too.
● His policy had two aspects1. To promote the tenets of Islam and to
ensure that the people led their lives
accordingly.
2. To adopt anti-Hindu measures like
destruction of temples and idols reimposition of Jizya.
● While taking his stand on the Hanafi school
of Muslim law, which had been traditionally
followed in India, Aurangzeb did not hesitate
in issuing secular decrees, called ‘zawabit.’ A
48 Master Series : Medieval India
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
collection of his decrees had been collected in
a work known as Zawabit-i-Alamgiri.
The religious fanaticism of Aurangzeb
overshadowed his virtues. His reversal of
Akbar’s policy of religious toleration resulted
in weakening the entire structure of the
Mughal Empire. It led to several conflicts
and wars in different parts of the country
like conflict with the Jats, Satnamis, Sikhs,
Rajputs, and Marathas.
At the beginning of his reign, Aurangzeb
prohibited the kalma being inscribed on coins,
as it trampled underfoot or be defiled while
passing from one hand to another. Aurangzeb
banned the festival of Nauroz, as it was
considered as Zoroastrian practice favored
by the Safavid rulers of Iran.
Aurangzeb appointed Muhtasibs in all the
provinces. Their major work was to see that
people lived their lives in accordance with the
shara. Muhtasibs were responsible for ensuring
that the things, which were forbidden (such
as intoxicants and gambling dens, etc) by the
shara and the zawabits (secular decrees) were,
as far as possible, not disobeyed openly.
While appointing Muhtasibs, though,
Aurangzeb emphasized that the state was
also responsible for the moral welfare of the
citizens. But these officials were instructed
not to interfere in the private lives of citizens.
In 1669, Aurangzeb took a number of measures,
which have been called puritanical, but many
of them were of an economic and social
character, and against superstitious beliefs.
Likewise, he prohibited singing in the court
and the official musicians were pensioned off.
The instrumental music and naubat (the royal
band) were, however, continued.
Singing also continued to be patronized by
the ladies in the harem, and also by individual
nobles. It is interesting to note that the largest
number of Persian works on classical Indian
music were written during Aurangzeb’s reign.
Aurangzeb himself was proficient in playing
the Veena.
Aurangzeb withdrawn the practice of jharoka
darshan or showing himself to the public
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
from the balcony (initiated by Akbar). He
considered it a superstitious practice and
against Islam.
Aurangzeb banned the ceremony of weighing
the emperor against gold and silver and other
articles on his birthdays. However, because of
majority of social demand, Aurangzeb had to
permit this ceremony for his sons when they
recovered from illness.
Aurangzeb prohibited astrologers from
preparing almanacs. But the order was
disobeyed by everybody including members
of the royal family.
To promote trade among the Muslims who
depended (almost) exclusively on state support,
Aurangzeb exempted Muslim traders from the
payment of cess. However, Aurangzeb found
that the Muslim traders were taking undue
advantages of this and cheating the state;
therefore, he reinstated it, but kept it at half
of what was charged from others.
Some evidences suggest that Aurangzeb
wanted to have the clergy on his side, as the
clergy exercised a powerful hold on the minds
of men.
Aurangzeb restated the position of the shara
regarding the temples, synagogues, churches,
etc., that “long standing temple should not be
demolished but no new temples allowed to
be built.” He also allowed that the old places
of worship could be repaired “since buildings
cannot last forever.”
When he was governor of Gujarat, Aurangzeb,
ordered a number of temples in Gujarat to be
destroyed, which often meant merely breaking
the enrages and closing down the temples at
the outset of his reign. However, Aurangzeb
found that images of these temples had been
restored and idol-worship had been resumed.
In 1665, Aurangzeb again ordered to destroy
these temples. The famous temple of Somnath,
which he ordered to be destroyed, was earlier
in his reign.
Aurangzeb encountered political opposition
from a number of quarters, such as the
Marathas, Jats, etc., as they had adopted a
new stance. Therefore, while dealing with the
Mughal Dynasty 49
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
conflicts (with the local elements), Aurangzeb
considered it legitimate to destroy even long
standing Hindu temples as a major punishment
and as a warning.
Aurangzeb looked upon temples as the centers
of spreading rebellious ideas, i.e. ideas which
were not acceptable to the orthodox elements.
Therefore, in 1669, he took strict action
especially when he learnt that in some of the
temples in Thatta, Multan and especially at
Banaras, both Hindus and Muslims used to
come from great distances to learn from the
Brahmans.
Aurangzeb issued orders to the governors of
all provinces to prohibit such practices and to
destroy all those temples where such practices
took place.
As a result of these orders, a number of temples
such as the famous temples of Vishwanath
at Banaras and the temple of Keshava Rai
at Mathura built by Bir Singh Deo Bundela
during the reign of Jahangir were destroyed
and a mosque; erected in their place.
Mustaid Khan, author of the Maasir-iAlamgiri mentioned that with reference to
the destruction of the temple of Keshava
Rai at Mathura, “On seeing this instance of
the strength of the Emperor’s faith and the
grandeur of his devotion to God, the proud
rajas were subdued, and in amazement they
stood like images facing the wall.” Thereupon,
many temples built in Orissa during the last
ten to twelve years were also destroyed.
During 1679-80, when there was a state of
hostility with the Rathors of Marwar and
the Rana of Udaipur, many temples of old
standing were destroyed at Jodhpur and its
parganas, and at Udaipur.
After 1679, it seems that Aurangzeb’s zeal
to destroy temples decreased, as after this,
there was no evidence of any large-scale
destruction of temples in the south (between
1681 and his death in 1707).
Aurangzeb again introduced the jizyah (or
the poll tax) (it was abolished by Akbar).
According to the shara, in a Muslim state,
the payment of jizyah was obligatory, for the
non-Muslims.
● Aurangzeb, in fact, did not try to change
the nature of the state, but reasserted its
fundamentally Islamic character. Aurangzeb’s
religious beliefs cannot be considered as the
basis of his political policies.
● Aurangzeb’s religious ideas and beliefs on the
one hand, and his political or public policies
on the other, however, clashed on many
occasions and he faced difficult choices.
Sometimes this led him to adopt contradictory
policies which damaged the empire.
Popular Revolts and Movements
● During his reign, Aurangzeb had to deal with
a number of political issues, such as −
1. The Marathas in the Deccan,
2. The Jats and Rajputs in north India,
3. The Afghans and Sikhs in the north-west.
● The nature of these problems was different
from each other, for example −
1. In the case of the Rajputs, it was basically
a problem of succession.
2. In the case of the Marathas, it was the
issue of independence.
3. In the case of Jats, it was the clash of
peasant-agrarian background.
4. In the case of Afghans, it was a tribal
issue.
● The only movement in which religion played a
role was the Sikh movement. However, later,
the Jat and the Sikh movements concluded in
attempts to set up the independent regional
states.It has been sometimes argued that
all these movements, excluding the Afghan
one, represented a Hindu reaction against
Aurangzeb’s narrow religious policies.
(a) Jats
● The first section to come into conflict with
the Mughal Empire was the Jats of the AgraDelhi region who were living on both sides
of the river Yamuna. The Jats were mostly
peasant cultivators, only a few of them being
zamindars. With a strong sense of brotherhood
50 Master Series : Medieval India
●
●
●
●
●
and justice, the Jats had often come into
conflict with the Mughals.
The conflict with the Jats had taken place
during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan
on the issue of collection of land revenue.
All the imperial road to the Deccan and the
western seaports passed through Jats’ area;
therefore, the Mughals had to take a serious
action against the Jat rebellions.
In 1669, under the leadership of local
Zamindar Gokla, the Jats (of Mathura) were
rebelled, which spread rapidly among the
peasants of the area. This rebel compelled
Aurangzeb to take serious action in person.
Resultantly, the Jats were defeated and Gokla
was captured and executed.
In 1685, under the leadership of Rajaram,
there was a second rebel of the Jats. This
time, Jats were better organized and adopted
the methods of guerilla warfare, combining
it with plunder.
The rebels were continued to 1691, when their
leader Rajaram and his successor, Churaman,
were compelled to surrender. In spite of this,
unrest among the Jat peasants were remained
persistent and their plundering activities made
the Delhi-Agra road unsafe for travelers.
During the 18th century, taking advantage of
Mughal civil wars and weakness Churaman
carved out a separate Jat principality in the
area and to oust the Rajput zamindars.
(b) Satnamis
● In 1672, at Narnaul (nearby Mathura), another
armed conflict occurred between the peasants
and the Mughals. This time, the conflict was
with a religious body known as ‘Satnamis.’
● The Satnamis were mostly peasants, artisans,
and lower caste people, such as Goldsmiths,
Carpenters, Sweepers, Tanners, and other
ignoble beings.
(c) Afghans
● The conflicts with Afghans (who lived in
mountain region) were continued and most of
the Mughal Emperors fought with Afghans.
Akbar fought against the Afghans and in the
war, he lost the life of his close friend and
very intelligent and loyal noble, Raja Birbal.
● The conflicts with Afghans were partly
economic and partly political and religious
in character. To clear the Khyber Pass and
crush the uprising, Aurangzeb deputed the
Chief Bakhshi, Amir Khan. After the hard
battles, the Afghan resistance was broken.
● In 1672, there was a second Afghan uprising.
Akmal Khan was the leader, who proclaimed
himself king and struck khutba and sikka in
his name. Near Khyber Pass, the Afghans
suffered a disastrous defeat; however, Khan
managed to escape.
● In 1674, Shujaat Khan, a Mughal noble
suffered a disastrous defeat in the Khyber.
However, he was rescued by a heroic band of
Rathors sent by Jaswant Singh. In the middle
of 1674, Aurangzeb himself went to Peshawar
and stayed there till the end of 1675. Slowly,
by force and diplomacy, the Afghan united
front was broken, and peace was restored.
(d) Sikhs
● The Sikhs were the last to come into military
conflict with Aurangzeb; however, the reasons
for the conflict were political and personal
rather than religious. The Gurus had started
living in style, with an armed following, and
assumed the title of sachha padshah (the true
sovereign).
● There was no conflict with the Sikh Guru
and Aurangzeb, upto 1675 until Guru Tegh
Bahadur was arrested along with his five
followers, brought to Delhi, and executed.
The cause of Tegh Bahadur’s execution was
not clear. Some Persian accounted that Tegh
Bahadur had joined hands with Hafiz Adam
(a Pathan) and created nuisance in Punjab. On
the other hand, according to Sikh tradition,
the execution was due to intrigues (against
the Guru) by some members of his family
who disputed his succession.
● Some of the historians had written that
Aurangzeb was annoyed because of the Tegh
Bahadur’s act of converting a few Muslims
into Sikh and raised a protest against religious
Mughal Dynasty 51
●
●
●
●
●
persecution in Kashmir by the local governor.
Whatever the reasons, Aurangzeb’s action
was unjustified from any point of view and
betrayed a narrow approach. Further, the
execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur compelled
the Sikhs to go back to the Punjab hills.
It also led to the Sikh movement (led by
Guru Govind Sindh) gradually turning into a
military brotherhood.
Guru Govind Singh had a considerable
organizational ability. By using his skill, in
1699, he founded the military brotherhood
popularly known as the “Khalsa.” Guru
Govind Singh had made his headquarters
at Makhowal or Anandpur located in the
foothills of the Punjab. In given period of
time, the Guru became too powerful.
Guru Govind fought a series of wars against
the hill rajas and won. The organization of the
khalsa further strengthened the hands of the
Guru in this conflict. In 1704, an open breach
between the Guru and the hill rajas took place,
as the combined forces of a number of hill
rajas attacked the Guru at Anandpur.
The rajas had again to retreat and forced
the Mughal government to intervene against
the Guru on their behalf. Aurangzeb was
concerned with the growing power of the
Guru and had asked the Mughal faujdar to
punish the Guru. The Mughal forces attacked
at Anandpur, but the Sikhs fought bravely
and beat off all assaults and they were taken
shelter inside the fort.
The Mughals and their allies now captured
the fort closely that closed all sorts of
movements. Resultantly, starvation began
inside the fort and the Guru was forced to
open the gate apparently on a promise of safe
conduct by Wazir Khan. But when the forces
of the Guru were crossing a swollen stream,
Wazir Khan’s forces suddenly attacked.
Two of the Guru’s sons were captured, and
on their refusal to embrace Islam, they were
beheaded at Sirhind. Further, the Guru lost
two of his remaining sons in another battle.
After this, the Guru retired to Talwandi.
(e) North-East India
● After becoming emperor officially, Aurangzeb
embarked upon an era of strong rule. In
some regions, such as the north-east and the
Deccan, the imperial frontier was advanced.
Aurangzeb’s first attempt immediately after
his succession was to restate imperial authority
and prestige, which included recovery of the
regions, which had been lost during the war
of succession and to which the Mughals felt
that they had the legal claim.
(f) Assam
● The kingdom of Kamata (Kamrup) declined
by the end of the fifteenth century and was
replaced by the kingdom of Kuch (Cooch
Bihar), which dominated north Bengal and
western Assam and continued the policy of
conflict with the Ahoms.
● In 1612, the Mughals defeated and occupied
the western Assam valley up to Bar Nadi
with the help of Kuch armies. The Kuch
ruler became a Mughal vassal. Likewise, he
Mughals came into contact with the Ahoms
who ruled eastern Assam across the Bar Nadi.
● After a long war with the Ahoms who had
harbored a prince of the defeated dynasty, in
1638, a treaty was made with them, which
fixed the Bar Nadi as the boundary between
them and the Mughals. Thus Gauhati (Assam)
came under Mughal control.
● Mir Jumla, who had been appointed as the
governor of Bengal by Aurangzeb, wanted
to bring Cooch Bihar and the entire Assam
under Mughal control.Mir Jumla first
attacked Cooch Bihar (which had rejected
Mughal suzerainty) and annexed the entire
kingdom to the Mughal empire. Next Jumla
invaded on the Ahom kingdom and occupied
its capital Garhgaon. Likewise, the Mughal
boundary was extended from the Bar Nadi to
the Bharali River.
● Mir Jumla died soon after his victory. Later,
the Ahom regained its power, which had
not been broken, and also it was beyond the
Mughal power to enforce the treaty. In 1667,
the Ahoms renewed the contest. They not only
52 Master Series : Medieval India
●
●
●
●
recovered the areas ceded to the Mughals, but
also occupied Gauhati (Assam).
Over a period of time, the Mughal forces
had also been expelled from Cooch Bihar.
Likewise, all the won territories of Mir Jumla
were rapidly lost. But later the shock of the
Mughal invasion and the subsequent warfare
damaged the strength of the Ahom kingdom
and led to the decline and disintegration of
the Ahom Empire.
Shaista Khan succeeded Mir Jumla as the
governor of Bengal after his death. He gave
personal attention to the problem of south
Bengal, where the Magh (Arakanese) pirates,
in conjunction with Portuguese pirates,
had been terrorizing the area up to Dacca
(capital of Bengal) from their headquarters
at Chittagong. The land up to Dacca had
become deserted and trade and industry had
suffered a setback.
Shaista Khan strategically built up a flotilla
to meet the Arakanese pirates and captured
the island of Sondip as a base of operations
against Chittagong.
The Arakan navy near Chittagong was routed
out and many of the ships captured. In
1666, Shaista Khan attacked Chittagong and
captured. The destruction of Arakanese navy
opened the seas for free trade and commerce.
● Aurangzeb was not interested in philosophical
debates or in mysticism; however, he did not prohibit
his sons from experimenting in Sufism. Apart from
being an orthodox Muslim, Aurangzeb was also a
ruler. He could hardly forget the political reality that
the overwhelming population of India was Hindu,
and that they were deeply attached to their faith.
Mughals’ Foreign Policy
● Because of being responsible for the expulsion
of Babur and the other Timurid princes from
Samarkand and the adjoining area (including
Khorasan), the Uzbeks were the natural
enemies of the Mughals.
● The Khorasanian plateau linked Iran with
Central Asia, and was an important trade route
to China and India. The Uzbeks clashed with
the rising power of the Safavids who claimed
Khorasan. The Uzbeks tried to exploit the
sectarian differences with the Safavid rulers
of Iran who had ruthlessly persecuted the
Sunnis. By considering an ambitious attitude
of the Uzbeks, it was natural for the Safavids
and the Mughals to ally (against the Uzbek).
The Ottoman (Turkish Sultan) threat from the
west, compelled the Persians to be friend with
the Mughals, particularly when they had to
face an aggressive Uzbek power in the east.
Akbar and Uzbeks
Estimate of Aurangzeb
● Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. During his
long reign period, the Mughal Empire reached its
territorial climax. Aurangzeb stretched his territory
from Kashmir (in the north) to Jinji (in the south),
and from the Hindukush (in the west) to Chittagong
(in the east).
● Aurangzeb letters reflected the close attention that
he paid to all affairs of the state and governance. He
was a strict disciplinarian who did not spare even
his own sons. In 1686, Aurangzeb imprisoned prince
Muazzam on a charge of intriguing with the ruler
of Golconda, and kept him in prison for 12 long
years. His other sons also had to face his wrath on
various occasions.
● Aurangzeb’s personal life was marked by simplicity.
He had the reputation of being orthodox, God fearing
Muslim. In a course of time, he began to be regarded
as a zinda pir, or “a living saint.”
Cont...
● In 1511, when Safavids defeated Shaibani
Khan (the Uzbek chief), Babur had regained
Samarkand; however, it was only for the short
period. Further, Babur had to leave the city,
as the Uzbeks had defeated the Persians.
● Later, Shah Tahmasp, the Safavids monarch
also helped Humayun, when he (Humayun)
had defeated and ousted from India by Sher
Shah. The territorial power of the Uzbeks
grew rapidly in the seventies under Abdullah
Khan Uzbek.
● In 1572-73, Abdullah Khan Uzbek seized
Balkh which, along with Badakhshan, had
served as a kind of buffer between the
Mughals and the Uzbeks. After the death of
Shah Tahmasp (in 1576), there was political
instability in Iran; hence, by understanding the
Mughal Dynasty 53
●
●
●
●
●
●
situation, in 1577, Abdullah Khan II (Uzbek
ruler) sent an embassy to Akbar proposing
partition of Iran.
Akbar ignored this appeal (because of
sectarian narrowness). A strong Iran was
essential to keep the restless Uzbeks in their
place. At the same time, Akbar had no desire
to get embroiled with the Uzbeks, unless
they directly threatened Kabul or the Indian
possessions, which was the key to Akbar’s
foreign policy.
Akbar sent a return embassy to Abdullah
Uzbek in which he asserted that differences
in law and religion could not be considered
as sufficient ground for conquest. Abul Fazl
mentioned that the Khyber Pass was built in
such a way that a wheeled traffic can also
pass through. It was done due to fear of the
Mughals, the gates were usually kept closed.
Speculating an invasion from Badakhshan,
Abdullah Uzbek created trouble among the
tribesmen of the north-west frontier, which
was executed by one of his trustworthy agents,
Jalala who was a religious fanatic.
Because of Abdullah Uzbek’s action, the
situation became very serious; therefore,
Akbar had to action. It was during this
expedition, Akbar lost one of his best
friends, Raja Birbal. In 1585, Abdullah Uzbek
suddenly conquered Badakhshan; both Mirza
Hakim (his half-brother) and his grandson
sought refuge at Akbar’s court and were
given suitable mansabs.
Immediately after the Uzbek’s attack, Mirza
Hakim died and then Akbar annexed Kabul
and made his dominion. Abdullah Khan Uzbek
sent another embassy to the Akbar’s court;
however, at this time, Akbar was at Attock
(on the river Indus). Abdullah Khan revived
the earlier proposal for a joint campaign
against the Safavid power, and for opening
the way for pilgrims to Mecca.
The Ottoman (Turkish) sultan had invaded
northern Iran, and the Uzbeks were threatening
Herat in Khorasan. Akbar sent a long letter
in reply to Abdullah Uzbek’s proposal. He
disapproved the Turkish action, and proposed
to dispatch an army to Iran led by one of the
royal princes to help.
● Akbar, however, made no serious preparations
to support the threat of a campaign in Iran.
Abdullah Uzbek had invaded Khorasan
even before Akbar’s letter reached him and
captured most of the areas be claimed.
● Most likely, an agreement was made that
defined the Hindukush as the boundary.
Further, the Mughals gave their interest in
Badakhshan and Balkh, which had been ruled
by Timurid princes till 1585. After conquering
Qandhar in 1595, Akbar accomplished his
objective of establishing a scientific defensible
frontier.
● Akbar remained in Lahore until 1598, and
left for Agra only after the death of Abdullah
Khan Uzbek. After the death of Abdullah, the
Uzbeks broke up into contending principalities,
and ceased to be a threat to the Mughals for
a considerable time.
Mughal-Persian Relations
● In 1649, the setback in Balkh region led to a
revival of Uzbek hostility in the Kabul region
and Afghan tribal unrest in the Khyber-Ghazni
region emboldened the Persians to attack
and conquer Qandhar. Collectively, all these
were great threat for Shah Jahan; therefore,
he launched three major campaigns, led by
princes (of blood) to recover Qandhar.
● The first attack was launched by Aurangzeb
(popular as the hero of Balkh), with an army
of 50,000. Though the Mughals defeated
the Persians outside the fort, they could not
conquer it in the face of determined Persian
opposition.
● After three years, Aurangzeb made another
attempt, but again failed. However, in 1653,
the most grandiloquent effort was made by
Dara Shikoh, the favorite son of Shah Jahan.
Dara Shikoh had made a great attempt and
even maintained his strong position, but
ultimately, it was of no avail.
● Because of the repeated attacks and subsequent
failures, Mughals lost much more than the
54 Master Series : Medieval India
loss of Qandhar as a whole. Failure also
stained Mughals’ prestige.
● In 1680, the proud Ottoman (Turkish) sultan
sent an embassy to Aurangzeb’s court and
asked for support. This time, Aurangzeb
decided not to repeat the futile contest on
Qandhar issue, and hence, agreed for the
diplomatic relations with Iran.
● The basic foreign policy of Mughals was
based on the defence of India, which was
further strengthened by the diplomatic means.
In spite of the fact that there were (temporary)
obstructions over the question of Qandhar;
friendship with Persia was Mughals’ keynote.
● Further, the Mughals had also emphasized
on relations of equality with leading Asian
nations with both −
1. The Safavids, who claimed a special
position by virtue of their relationship
with the Prophet and
2. The Ottoman sultans who had assumed
the title of Padshah-i-Islam and claimed
to be the successors of the Caliph of
Baghdad.
● The Mughals also used their diplomatic
foreign policy to promote India’s commercial
interests. Kabul and Qandhar were the twin
gateways of India’s trade with Central Asia.
● From the discussion above given, it is clear
that the Mughals succeeded in maintaining a
controlled frontier in the north-west, based
on the Hindukush, on the one side, and the
Kabul-Ghazni line, on the other. However,
Qandhar remained as its outer bastion.
Conquest of South by Mughals
● In 1591, Akbar sent embassies to all the
Deccani states inviting them to accept Mughal
suzerainty. None of the states accepted this.
The Mughal invasion on Ahmednagar was
led by prince Murad, who was the governor
of Gujarat (at that time), and reinforced by
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
● Chand Bibi shut herself up in the fort (of
Ahmednagar) with the boy-king, Bahadur.
After a close siege of four months in which
Chand Bibi played a heroic role, the two
sides (Mughals and Ahmednagar) agreed for
an agreement and in 1596, Mughal suzerainty
was accepted.
● The Mughal annexation of Berar alarmed
other Deccani states a combined force of
Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmednagar led by
a Bijapur commander invaded Berar. In 1597,
the Mughals defeated the Deccani forces. As a
result of this defeat, the Bijapur and Golconda
forces withdrew and left Chand Bibi to meet
the situation alone. Likewise, Mughal had
sieged Ahmednagar, for the second time.
● In the absence of any external help from
outside, Chand Bibi had agreed for the
negotiations with the Mughals, but she was
accused of treachery by a hostile faction and
hence was killed. The Mughals now assaulted
and captured Ahmednagar and the boy-king,
Bahadur, was sent to the fortress of Gwalior.
● In 1601, Khandesh was unified in the Mughal
Empire. After the capture of Asirgarh, Akbar
returned to the north to deal with the rebellion
of his son, Salim. Akbar was conscious that no
lasting solution to the Deccan problem could
be arrived without an agreement with Bijapur.
To assure himself, Akbar sent the messages to
Ibrahim Adil Shah II; as a result of which he
(Adil Shah II) married his daughter to prince
Daniyal (the youngest son of Akbar).
● In 1602 prince Daniyal (immediately after his
marriage) died because of excessive drinking.
Thus the situation in the Deccan remained
vague.
Rise of Malik Amber
● Malik Ambar was an Abyssinian (born in
Ethiopia). There is little known about his
early life; however, probably, he was from
a poor family and his parents sold him in
a slave market in Baghdad. Later, he was
purchased by a merchant who treated him
well and brought him to the Deccan.
● When the Mughals invaded Ahmednagar,
Ambar at first went to Bijapur to try his luck
Mughal Dynasty 55
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
there. But he soon returned back and joined
himself in the powerful Habshi (Abyssinian)
party, which was opposed to Chand Bibi.
After the fall of Ahmednagar, Malik Ambar
with the implied support of the ruler of
Bijapur, received the title of Peshwa (a title
which had been common in Ahmednagar
those days).
Malik Ambar gathered around him a large
band of Maratha troopers (or bargis). The
Marathas were adept in rapid movements, and
in plundering and cutting off the supplies of
the enemy troops.
Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana was the Mughal
commander in the Deccan; he was a shrewd
and wily politician and an intelligent soldier.
In 1601, he (Abdul Rahim) inflicted a crushing
defeat on Ambar at a place called Nander (in
Telangana). However, the war ended with a
friendship agreement between Abdul Rahim
and Amber.
In October 1605, Akbar died. After his
death, there were differences among the
Mughal commanders in Deccan regions; this
situation gave an opportunity to Amber and
hence he unleashed an aggressive campaign
to expel the Mughals from Berar, Balaghat,
and Ahmednagar.
Amber’s campaign was actively supported
by Ibrahim Adil Shah (the ruler of Bijapur).
Adil Shah considered it essential because he
thought that the Nizam Shahi state should
continue as a buffer between Bijapur and the
Mughals.
Adil Shah gave Amber the powerful fort of
Qandhar in Telangana for the residence of his
family and stowing treasures, provisions, etc.
Father, Adil Shah also sent 10,000 horsemen
to support Amber.
In 1609, the treaty was cemented by a marriage
alliance between the daughters of one of the
leading Ethiopian nobles of Bijapur with
Malik Ambar. Adil Shah gave a handsome
dowry to the bride and spent about Rs. 80,000
on fireworks. Likewise, by 1610, most of the
territories (in south) won by Akbar were lost.
Jahangir
● Jahangir sent prince Parvez with a large army
to conquest Deccan, but he could not meet
the challenges posed by Malik Ambar. Lastly,
Ahmednagar was also lost, and Parvez had to
conclude with a disgraceful peace agreement
with Ambar.
● Over a period of time, Malik Ambar became
arrogant and separated his allies. The
Khan-i-Khana, who had been posted as the
Mughal viceroy of the Deccan once again,
took advantage of the situation and won over
to his side a number of Habshis as well as
Maratha nobles, including Jagdev Rai, Babaji
Kate, Udaji Ram, etc.
● In 1616, with the help of the Maratha sardars,
Khan-i-Khana defeated the combined forces
of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, and Golconda. This
defeat shook the Deccani alliance against the
Mughals. However, Ambar did not relax his
efforts.
● Jahangir, however, was not interested to
extend Mughal commitments in the Deccan,
or even become too deeply involved in its
affairs. He had belief that his moderation
would enable the Deccani states to settle
down, and live in peace with the Mughals.
● Despite Jahangir’s diplomatic policy, Ambar
continued to lead the Deccan’ resistance
against the Mughals. After two years, the
combined Deccani forces were again defeated
by the Mughals. The credit for these victories
was given to Prince Shah Jahan.
● After the defeat, the Deccani states had to
pay an indemnity of Rs. 5,000,000. Later,
Amber conducted a series of campaigns
against Bijapur for the recovery of Sholapur,
which was a bone of contention between the
two states.
● Ambar had shown a remarkable military skill,
energy, and determination. His achievements
were short-lived due to his inability or
reluctance to accept Mughal’s terms and
conditions.
● Malik Ambar attempted to improve the
administrative system of Nizam Shahi state
56 Master Series : Medieval India
by introducing Todar mal’s land revenue
system. He abolished the old system of giving
land on contract.
● After 1622, in a situation, when Deccan was
in turmoil due to the rebellion of Prince
Shah Jahan against his father Jahangir, Malik
Ambar once again managed to recover many
of the old territories, which had been ceded
by the Mughals. However, he could not live
much long after this and died in 1626 at the
age of 80.
Shah Jahan
● Shah Jahan ascended the throne in 1627. At
the same time, Ahmednagar lost badly and
Bijapur and Golconda accepted the Mughal
Suzerainty.
● Shah Jahan came to a conclusion that there
could be no peace for the Mughals in the
Deccan as long as Ahmednagar continued as
an independent state. This conclusion was a
major departure from the policy, which had
been followed by Akbar and Jahangir.
● Shah Jahan was not much interested to extend
Mughal territories in the Deccan beyond what
was necessary. He, therefore, sent a message
to Bijapur ruler and offered to cede to him
roughly one-third of the Ahmednagar state.
● The demand of one-third territory from
Ahmednagar was a shrewd move on the
part of Shah Jahan with the intent to isolate
Ahmednagar diplomatically and militarily.
Jahangir also offered services to the various
Maratha sardars.
Adil Shah
● Adil Shah also was anxious because of Malik
Ambar’s humiliation and the annexation
of Sholapur. He, therefore, accepted Shah
Jahan’s proposal, and deputed an army at
the Nizam Shahi border to cooperate with
the Mughals.
● In 1629, Shah Jahan strategically deputed a
large army against Ahmednagar; one group
sent to operate in the Balaghat region (in the
west), and the other in the Telangana region
(in the east).
● The Mughals, on their part, had refused to
hand over to the Adil Shah the areas allotted
to him under the agreement. As a result of
this, Adil decided to help Nizam Shah who
agreed to surrender Sholapur to him.
● Adil Shah sent a large army under Randaula
Khan (Bijapur General) and Murari Pandit
for the surrender of Daulatabad and for
provisioning its garrison.
● Shahji Bhonsle also was joined in Bijapur’s
service to harass the Mughals and cut off
their supplies. But the combined operations
of the Bijapuri forces and Shahji’s forces
were failed.
● In 1633, Mahabat Khan (Mughal general) was
closely interested in Daulatabad, and forced
the garrison to surrender.After the defeat,
Nizam Shah was sent to prison in Gwalior
(Madhya Pradesh). This war marked as the
end of the Nizam Shahi dynasty.
● By following the path of Malik Ambar, Shahji
nurtured a Nizam Shahi prince, and raised
him up as ruler.Adil Shah sent a force of
seven to eight thousand horsemen to support
Shahji, and encouraged many of the Nizam
Shahi nobles to surrender their forts to Shahji.
● Many scattered Nizam Shahi soldiers joined
Shahji whose force swelled to 20,000 horse.
With these, he harassed the Mughals and took
control of large portions of the Ahmednagar
state. By understanding the critical situation,
Shah Jahan deputed a large army to invade
Bijapur. Further, the policy of carrot and stick
and the advance of Shah Jahan to the Deccan
changed the Bijapur politics.
● The leaders of the anti-Mughal group
including Murari Pandit were displaced and
killed and a new agreement was made with
Shah Jahan. According to this treaty, Adil
Shah agreed to −
1. Recognize Mughal suzerainty,
2. Pay an indemnity of twenty lakhs of
rupees, and
3. Not to interfere in the affairs of Golconda,
which was brought under Mughal
protection.
Mughal Dynasty 57
● Adil Shah also agreed to operate with the
Mughals for reducing Shahji to submission,
and if he agreed to join Bijapuri service,
to depute him in the south, away from the
Mughal frontier.Shah Jahan also sent to Adil
Shah a solemn Farman (summon) impressed
with the mark of the emperor’s palm that the
terms of this treaty would never be violated.
● A peace agreement with the Mughals enabled
the Deccani states to expand their territories
towards the further south and to strengthen
their power and prosperity.
● Soon after the treaties of 1636, Bijapur
and Golconda overran the rich and fertile
Karnataka area from the river Krishna to
Tanjore and beyond. A series of campaigns
were conducted by Bijapur and Golconda
against the southern states.
● Over a period of time, rapid expansion
weakened internal cohesion of these southern
states. Ambitious nobles such as Shahji, and
his son Shivaji in Bijapur, and Mir Jumla,
the leading noble of Golconda, started carving
out spheres of influence for themselves.
● In the south, however, the development came
to an end in 1656 after the death of Muhammad
Adil Shah, and arrival of Aurangzeb as the
Mughal viceroy of the Deccan.
Deccan’s Cultural Contribution
● Adil Shah II was very fond of music; he
composed a book namely Kitab-e-Navras
(Book of Nine Rasas). In this book, he
set various musical modes or togas. In his
songs, he freely prayed the goddess of music
and learning, Saraswati. Due to his broad
approach, he came to be called as Jagat Guru.
● Adil Shah II, further, built a new capital,
Nauraspur; where he invited a large number
of musicians (to settle). He offered patronage
to all, including Hindu saints and temples.
This included grants to Pandharpur, the
center of the worship of Vithoba, which
became the center of the Bhakti movement
in Maharashtra.
● Qutb Shah employed both Hindus and Muslims
people in his military, administrative, and
diplomatic departments.
● Golconda was the popular intellectual resort
for the literary men. Sultan Muhammad Qutb
Shah (who was a contemporary of Akbar) was
very fond of both literature and architecture.
● Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah wrote in
Dakhini Urdu, Persian, and Telugu and left
an extensive collection. He was the first who
introduced a secular note in poetry.
● Qutb Shah not only wrote about God and the
Prophet (their praise), but he also wrote about
nature, love, and the social life of his time.
● The Deccani states had a number of cultural
contributions to their credit. Adil Shah was
very fond of organizing discussions with
Hindu and Muslim saints.
● The successors of Qutb Shah and many other
poets and writers of his time adopted Urdu
as a literary language. In addition to Urdu
language, Persian, Hindi, and Telugu were
also significant for the idioms and vocabulary.
● Adil Shah invited Catholic missionaries to his
court, much before Akbar had done so. He
had an excellent library to which he appointed
the well-known Sanskrit scholar, Vaman
pandit. Patronage of Sanskrit and Marathi was
continued by his successors.
● Urdu gradually percolate to north India
from the Deccan by the eighteenth century.
In 1591-92, Quli Qutb Shah founded the
city Hyderabad, he also constructed many
buildings, the most famous of which is the
Char Minar.
● Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580-1627), the
successor of Adil Shah, ascended the throne
(of Bijapur) at the age of nine. He was very
attentive of the poor, and had the title of abla
baba, or Friend of the Poor.
● The Gol Gumbaz (the mausoleum of
Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur)
which was built in 1656 has the largest single
dome ever constructed. The architect of Gol
Gumbaz was Yaqut of Dabul.
58 Master Series : Medieval India
Adarsh Smarak Yojana
The Ministry of Culture has launched Adarsh
Smarak Yojana and chosen Hampi, Bellary among
25 monuments in the country to be granted ‘Adarsha
Smaraks’ tag. The Union government has awarded the
tag to monuments which record the highest number
of tourists. They would be given special attention to
boost international tourism under the Adarsh Smarak
Yojana by ASI in form of – wash rooms, drinking
water, cafeteria, audio-visual centres, interpretation
centres, Wi-Fi connectivity, audio guide facility, land
scaping, parking, e-ticketing illumination, Braille
signage, facilities for people with disabilities.
Virupaksha Temple at Pattadkal in Karnataka will be
covered in the scheme. Krishnadevaraya, one of the
famous kings of the Vijayanagara Empire was a major
patron of this temple. The Virupaksha Temple (for
Lord Shiva), which existed prior to the Vijayanagar
empire and is considered as the ‘Kashi of the South’.
Hampi is also a world heritage site. The Vittala Temple
complex has stone chariot and musical pillars among
other monuments are considered as “architectural
marvel of human genius” having “outstanding universal
values”.
Mansabdari System
● Akbar had developed a new administrative
machinery and revenue system, which
were maintained by the subsequent Mughal
Emperors (with minor modifications).The
Mansabdari System, as it developed under
the Mughals, was a distinctive and unique
system.
● The origins of the Mansabdari system,
however, can be traced back to Changez
Khan. Changez Khan organized his army on
a decimal basis, the lowest unit of his army
was ten, and the highest ten thousand (toman)
whose commander was known as ‘Khan.’
● There is, however, a controversy regarding
the Mansabdari system i.e. when it started
precisely. From the available evidence, it
appears that this system had been initiated
by Akbar (in 1577). Along with Mansabdari
system, Akbar also reformed the revenue
system and introduced two new concepts
namely ‘Zat’ and ‘Sawar.’
● The Zat rank signified the personal status of
an individual in the imperial hierarchy. Zat
had fixed salary.
Features of Mansabdan System
● Characteristic features of Mansabdari System
were1. It was based on merit because meritorious
candidates were given this rank.
2. It was centralized in nature because all
appointments were made by king himself
3. This system was secular in nature because
Muslims as well as non-Muslims were
given ranks.
4. The system was non-hereditary because
ranks were conferred to a person only for
lifetime.
5. Transferring of Mansabdar’s was the
important feature.
Classification of Mansab
● There were sixty-six grades or Mansabs from
ten to ten thousand. However, ranks above
five thousand were reserved for princes.
● Persons holding ranks below 500 Zat were
called ‘Mansabdars;’
● Persons holding ranks somewhere between
500 and 2,500 were known as ‘Amirs:’ and
● Persons holding ranks of 2,500 and above
were known as ‘Amir-i-umda’ or ‘Amir-iazam.’
● A person with a rank of 5,000 could have
under him a Mansabdar up to a rank of 500
Zat and one with a rank of 4,000 could have a
Mansabdar up to a rank of 400 Zat, and so on.
● The categories, however, were not rigid;
persons were generally appointed at a low
mansab, but gradually (because of his skills
and loyalty) promoted. A person could also
be demoted if he became incompetent or
disloyal (as a mark of punishment).
● All employees of these ranks were expected
to maintain a stipulated quota of horses,
elephants, beasts of burden (camels and
mules), and carts from their own salary.
● A Mansabdar holding the rank of 5,000 Zat
had to maintain 340 horses, 100 elephants,
Mughal Dynasty 59
400 camels, 100 mules, and 160 carts. Over
a period of time, these were maintained
centrally; however, the expenses still were
taken from the salary of respective Mansabdar.
● Depending upon the quality, the horses were
classified into six categories and the elephants
were categorized into five categories. It was
practiced because horses and elephants of
high breed were greatly prized and were
considered indispensable for an efficient
military machine.
● For meeting the financial requirements of all
levels of Mansabdars, they were paid very
handsomely:
1. A Mansabdar with a rank of 5,000 could
get a salary of Rs. 30,000/month;
2. A Mansabdar with a rank of 3,000
received Rs. 17,000/month; and
3. A Mansabdar with a rank of 1,000,
received Rs. 8,200/month.
● A Mansabdar was allowed to retain 5% of
the total salary of the sawars in order to meet
various contingent expenses. In addition to
this, he (a Mansabdar) had been given two
rupees for every sawar that he maintained.
This amount had been given to compensate
him for his efforts and the larger responsibility
(integrated into this work).
● By the end of Akbar’s reign, the highest rank
a noble could attain was raised from 5,000 to
7,000, which had been given to Mirza Aziz
Koka and Raja Man Singh.
● A number of other modifications were,
however, carried out, but the Mansabdari
system was maintained until the end of
Aurangzeb’s reign.
● Depending upon the situation, Mughals also
practiced to reduce salaries. For example, the
average salary paid to a sawar was reduced
by Jahangir.Jahangir also introduced a system
whereby the selected nobles could be allowed
to maintain a larger quota of troopers, without
raising their Zat rank. The system was popular
as ‘du-aspah’ (a trooper with two horses) or ‘sihaspah’ (a trooper with three horses) system.
● The salaries of the Mansabdars were given
in rupees, but over a period of time, they
were normally not paid in cash, but rather
by assigning them a ‘jagir.’Mansabdars also
preferred a jagir because cash payments were
likely to be delayed and sometimes even
entailed a lot of harassment.
● The salaries of the Mansabdars were put on
a month scale i.e. 10 months, 8 months, 6
months or even less than that. Besides, their
obligations for the maintenance of a quota of
sawars were also brought down accordingly.
● Most of the Marathas who were employed in
the Mughal service, were assigned Mansabs
on a 5 monthly basis or even less than that.
Likewise, they were given a high rank in the
hierarchy, but the actual number of horses and
effective sawars was much lower – according
to their rank (as discussed above).
● Under the Shah Jahan’s administration, the
Mansabdari system worked properly, as he
had paid personal and meticulous attention
to administration.
Mughal Army
● The cavalry was the principal arm of the
Mughal army and the ‘Mansabdars’ provided
the overwhelming proportion of it. In addition
to the mansabdars, the Mughal emperors had
also employed individual troopers, namely
‘Ahadis.’
● The Ahadis had been more popular as
gentlemen-troopers and received much higher
salaries than other troopers of the same rank.
● The Ahadis were a highly trustworthy corps,
and they were directly recruited by the
emperors. An Ahadi mustered up to five
horses; however, sometimes two of them
shared one horse. The duties of Ahadis were
of miscellaneous type such as clerical jobs of
the imperial offices, the painters of the court,
the foremen in the royal karkhanas (factories),
etc.
● During the Shah Jahan’s reign, Ahadis
were numbered about 7,000 and were well
distributed over the different parts of the army.
60 Master Series : Medieval India
Many of them worked as skilled musketeers
(baraq-andaz) and bowmen (tir-andaz).
● In addition to the Ahadis, the emperors had
also maintained a crop of royal bodyguards
(wala-shuhis) and armed palace guards. They
were actually cavalrymen, but served on foot
in the citadel and the palace.
● There were a large number of the footmen
(piyadgan). Many of them consisted of
matchlock-bearers (banduqchi). Their salaries
were ranging between three and seven rupees
a month.
● The foot-soldiers also included porters,
servants, news-runners, swordsmen, wrestlers,
and slaves.
● The Mughal emperors had a large stable of
war elephants, and also a well-organized park
of artillery.
● The artillery was comprised of two sections −
1. Heavy guns, which were used for
defending or assaulting forts; these were
often clumsy and difficult to move and
2. The light artillery, which was highly
mobile and moved with the emperors
whenever needed.
● Under the Shah Jahan reign, the Mughal
army consisted of about 200,000, excluding
the men working in the districts and with
faujdars. However, this number increased to
240,000 during the Aurangzeb period.
Social Life under the Mughals
● The economic, social, and cultural conditions
during the first half of the seventeenth century
were flourishing like anything.
● Ralph Fitch (a British traveler) had written
about Patna (Bihar) as, “Here the women
bedecked with silver and copper that it is
strange to see, they use no shoes by reason
of the rings of silver and copper they wear
on their toes.”
● The houses of the mass of the people were
made up of mud (which still can be seen in
many remote parts of the country).
● Regarding the food, rice, millets, and pulses
were the staple diet; besides, fish in Bengal
and in the coastal regions, and meat in the
south of the peninsula were also common.
● Ghee and oil were much cheaper than the
staple food grains and hence were a staple
part of the poor man’s food. However, salt
and sugar were more expensive.
● The village artisans were paid for their
services by means of commodities, which
were fixed by custom.
● In spite of having so much prosperity, some
historians also mentioned that there were
inequality and disparity, especially in the
villages. The peasant who did not have his
own ploughs and bullocks often tilled the land
of zamindars or the upper castes, and could
make out a bare existence. These peasants
were popular as ‘pahis.’
● Whenever there was a famine (which was
frequent in those days), it was the lower class
Peasants and the village artisans who suffered
the most. Tulsidas, the sixteenth century Hindi
poet, had said (about these people) that this
type of cultivation was a source of misery.
● The peasants who owned the land tilled their
own land were known as “Khudkasht.” These
peasants had to pay their land revenue at
customary rates.
● It has been estimated that the population in
India at the beginning of the seventeenth
century was about 125 million. Hence, there
was an abundance of cultivable land.
● All classes of the peasants probably had more
fuel at their disposal because of the abundance
of forests.
● During this time, a peasant cannot be
dispossessed off from his land until he had
been paying the land revenue. Secondly, a
peasant can also sell his land. Children of a
peasant had the right to inherit his father’s
land (after his death).
● Cities were largely comprised of the poor
i.e. the artisans, the servants, and slaves, the
soldiers, petty shopkeepers, etc.
● The salary of the lowest grade servant (as
per the record of the European travelers), was
Mughal Dynasty 61
less than two rupees a month. The bulk of the
menials and foot soldiers were given less than
three rupees a month.
● During this period, it has been calculated that
a man could maintain his family and other
personal requirements merely in two rupees
(for a whole month).
●
Nobles
● The nobles, along with the zamindars, formed
the ruling class in medieval India. Socially
and economically, the Mughal nobility was
the privileged class.
● Ideally, the doors of the Mughal nobility were
open to everyone, but in practice, the persons
who were related to aristocratic families
(irrespective of their background – either they
were Indians or foreigners), had been given
privilege.
● To begin with, the bulk of the Mughal
nobles were invited from the homeland of the
Mughals, i.e. Turan, and from its neighboring
areas, such as Tajikistan, Khorasan, Iran, etc.
● Indian Muslims who were popular as
Shaikhzadas or Hindustanis were also given
service in the Mughal court.
● Akbar initiated a new trend, as he began to
recruit Hindus into the noble category on
a regular basis. The largest section among
them was the Rajputs. Among the Rajputs,
the Kachhwahas were outweighed.
● In 1594, the proportion of Hindus in the
nobility under Akbar, was about 16 percent.
Raja Man Singh and Raja Birbal, both were
the personal friends of Akbar, while in the
sphere of revenue administration, Raja Todar
Mal had a place of great influence and honor.
● The Rajputs who were recruited to the
nobility, either belonged to hereditary rajas
or to the aristocratic families. In addition to
this, the nobility did provide an opportunity
of promotion and distinction to many persons
for humble origin.
● The nobility attained a considerable measure of
stability under the Mughal emperors Jahangir
and Shah Jahan and they paid personal and
careful attention to the organization of the
●
●
●
●
●
●
nobility (the Mansabdari system), orderly
promotions, discipline, and the recruitment
of competent people into the imperial service.
The Mughal nobles, as we have seen, received
salaries which were extremely high by any
standards. This, as well as the liberal policy
of the Mughal emperors in matters of faith,
and the stable political conditions in India
attracted many talented persons from foreign
lands to the Mughal court.
Bernier, the French traveler, once said that the
“Mughal nobility consisted of foreigners who
enticed each other to the court.” However, the
modern research has shown this statement to
be fallacious.
Under the reign of Jahangir and Shah Jahan,
most of the nobles were those who born in
India. At the same time, the proportion of
Afghans, Indian Muslims (Hindustanis), and
Hindus in the nobility continued to rise.
Jahangir was the first Mughal Emperor who
realized that the Marathas were “the hub of
affairs” in the Deccan, and hence made effort
convinced them. This policy was continued
by his son Shah Jahan.
Among the Maratha Sardars who served Shah
Jahan was Shahaji, the father of Shivaji;
however, soon he deserted. Later, Aurangzeb
gave an opportunity to many Marathas and
Deccan Muslims.
The Hindus that formed roughly about 24
percent of the nobility during the reign
of Shah Jahan; later (under the reign of
Aurangzeb), they accounted about 33 percent
of the nobles. Among the Hindu nobles, the
Marathas formed more than half.
The Mughal nobles received extremely high
salaries; at the same time, their expenses were
also very high. Each noble maintained :
1. A large number
attendants;
of
servants
and
2. A large stable of horses, elephants, etc.;
and
3. Transport of all types.
● Many of the nobles also maintained a big
harem (of women), which was normal for a
man of higher status at that time.
62 Master Series : Medieval India
● Besides varieties of fruits, about 40 dishes
used to be prepared for each meal for Akbar.
Ice, which was an item of luxury at that time,
was used the year around by the privileged
classes.
● The expensive jewels and ornaments, which
were worn both by men and women were
common among the higher status people.
● Jahangir introduced a new fashion for men
wearing costly jewels in their ears after
piercing them. To some extent jewelry was
also meant to be a reserve to be used in an
emergency.
● There is a controversy that the Mughal nobles
had little interest in saving because, after
their death, all their properties reverted to the
emperor. The idea behind that was everything
flowed from him, therefore, at last, everything
flowed to him.
● Many historians refuted this idea (i.e. returning
to the nobles’ property back to emperor); the
Mughal emperors did not claim the property
of their nobles. Nevertheless, when a noble
died, a careful inventory of his property and
estate was made because, usually, the noble
owed considerable sums of money to the
central treasury. Therefore, his debts first
be adjusted before the property could were
handed over to his heirs.
● The emperor reserved the right of settling the
property of a noble among his heirs (or/and
according to his choice), and not on the basis
as laid down by the Islamic law. Secondly,
daughters did not receive a share of their
father’s properties.
● The procedure of dispensing properties of
deceased noble sometimes led to considerable
delays and harassment to the dependents
(especially of the detested noble).
● Aurangzeb made a rule that the properties of
a noble who did not owe money to the state
were not to be attached and that, in any case,
a certain part of the property of a deceased
noble should be made available immediately
to his dependents.
● Members of the royal family, including
princes and queen mothers, took keen interest
in foreign trade. Akbar’s widow and the
mother of Jahangir, owned ships, which run
between Surat and the Red Sea ports.
Zamindars
● The right of ownership regarding the land
depended mainly on succession.The people
who settle a new village or who brought
wastelands under cultivation, belong to the
respective villages. These villagers became
the owners of these lands.
● The considerable section of the zamindars
had the hereditary right of collecting land
revenue from their respective villages. This
was called his ‘talluqa’ or his ‘zamindari.’
● For collecting the land revenue, the zamindars
received a share of the land revenue which
could go up to 25 percent.The zamindars,
not necessarily “owner” of all the lands over
which he collected the land revenue.
● The peasants who actually cultivated the land
could not be dispossessed as long as they paid
the land revenue. Thus the zamindars and the
peasants, both had their own hereditary rights
in land.
● The zamindars had their own armed forces
(to collect the land revenue), and generally
resided in the forts or garhis which were both
a place of refuge and a symbol of status.
● The zamindars generally had, close connections
with the caste, clan, or tribal basis and also
with the peasants settled in their zamindaris.
● In addition to these zamindars, there was a
large class of religious divines and learned
men who in return for their services, were
granted tracts of land for their maintenance.
In Mughal terminology, such grants were
popular as ‘milk’ or ‘madad-i-maash’ and
in Rajasthani terminology, it was popular as
‘shasan.’
Trade and Commerce
● In the medieval period, the middle classes
masses had been largely belonged to
Mughal Dynasty 63
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
merchants and other professional classes such
as vaidyas and hakims (Ayurvedic doctors)
and other officials.
Among the merchant classes, some specialized
in wholesale trade, and others in the retail
trade. The wholesale traders were known as
‘seth’ or ‘bohra’ and the retail traders were
known as ‘beoparis’ or ‘banik.’
In south India, the community ‘chettis’
formed the trading class. Besides, there was
a special class, ‘banjaras,’ who specialized in
the trading.
The banjaras used to move from one place to
another place, sometimes with thousands of
oxen, laden with food grains, salt, ghee, and
other daily use stuff.
The ‘sarrafs’ (shroff) are specialized in
changing money, keeping money in deposit or
lending it, or transmitting it from one part of
the country to the other by means of ‘hundi.’
The ‘hundi’ was a letter of credit payable
after a certain period. The use of hundis made
it easier to move goods or to transmit money
from one part of the country to another.
When needed, the hundis were cashed at
a discount rate, which sometimes included
insurance so that the cost of goods lost or
destroyed in transit could be recovered.
Taking the advantage of these facilities, the
Indian merchants could easily ship goods to
countries of West Asia as well where there
were Indian banking houses.
English and Dutch traders who came to India
during the seventeenth century found that the
Indian financial system was highly developed,
and the Indian merchants were very active
and alert.
The trading community of medieval time in
India was considerably large in number and
included some of the richest merchants of the
world. For example, Virji Vohra had a large
fleet of ships and he dominated Surat trade
for several decades; Malaya Chetti dominated
the Coromandel Coast; Abdul Ghaffoor Bohra
was much popular trader who left 85 lakhs of
rupees in cash and goods at the time of his
death in 1718.
● Merchants and traders lived in lofty houses
with colored tiles, wore fine clothes, and
had people carrying flags and banners before
them when they moved out in public.
● The French traveler, Bernier, however, written:
“the merchants tried to look poor because
they were afraid that they might be squeezed
of their wealth.” Bernier’s observation might
be wrong because the emperors right from
the time of Sher Shah passed many laws to
protect the property of the merchants.
● The laws made (for the traders) by Sher Shah
were very strict. Secondly, Mughal Emperor
Jahangir made a provision that “if anyone,
whether nonbeliever or Musalman should die,
his property and other belongings should be
left for his heirs, and no one should interfere
with them.”
● In a case where the respective (rich) person
had no heir, an inspector should be appointed
and also there would be separate guardians to
guard the property, so that its value might be
expended in a lawful and social expenditure,
such as the building of mosques and sarais,
repair of broken bridges, and the digging of
tanks and wells.”
Organization of Trade &
Commerce
● The Mughals paid attention to roads and
sarais, which made communication easier.
A uniform tax was levied on goods at the
point of their entry into the empire. Rahdari
(a transit duty, a toll) or Road ceases was
declared illegal, though it continued to be
collected by some of the local rajas (kings).
● The Mughals introduced silver rupees of high
purity, which became a standard coin in India
and abroad and that helped in the growth of
India’s trade as well.
● Mughals also made the policies that helped
the commercialization of the economy and
the growth of a money economy.
● During the Mughals period, salaries of
the standing army as well as many of the
administrative personnel (excluding the
64 Master Series : Medieval India
nobles) were paid in cash. Besides, under the
zabti system, the land revenue was assessed
and required to be paid in cash.
● The growth of the rural grain markets led
to the rise of small townships (or qasbas).
The demand for all types of luxury goods by
the nobles led to the expansion of handicraft
production as well as the growth of towns.
● Ralph Fitch, who came India during the
Akbar’s reign said that Agra and Fatehpur
Sikri were each larger than London.Monserrate
said that Lahore was second to none of the
cities in Europe or Asia. Bernier says that
Delhi was not much less than Paris and that
Agra was larger than Delhi.
● Ahmadabad was also a large town, being
as large as London and its suburbs. Dacca,
Rajmahal, Multan, and Burhanpur were large
towns, while Patna in Bihar had a population
of 2 lakhs.
Role of European Trading
Companies
● In the beginning of seventeenth century, the
arrival of Dutch and English traders also
helped in the growth of India’s trade.The
Indian traders welcomed the foreign traders
and they helped to break the Portuguese
monopoly of sea trade, and in a course of
time, helped to establish a direct link between
India and the European markets.
● Over a period of time, like the Portuguese,
the Dutch and the English traders were also
intended to establish a monopoly and made
fortified establishments so that they could
confront the local rulers.The Portuguese
power had begun to decline during the
second half of the sixteenth century, as was
demonstrated by the defeat of the Spanish
Armada by England in 1588.
● Despite a vehement opposition by the
Portuguese, in 1606, the Dutch established
themselves at Machilipatnam after obtaining a
farman from the ruler of Golconda. They also
established themselves in the Spice-Islands
(Java and Sumatra); likewise, by 1610, they
predominated in the spice trade.
● The cloth produced on the Coromandel Coast
was the most popular and also cheapest to
carry. Hence, Dutch increased their trade to
south from Machilipatnam to the Coromandel
Coast. They made Pulicat as their base station
after taking it from the local ruler.
● Like the Dutch, the English also had come to
the coast for the spice trade, but the hostility
of the Dutch created a hindrance.
● In 1612, after defeating a Portuguese fleet
out-side Surat, the English were able to set
up a factory (in Surat), for which permission
finally was taken by Thomas Roe in 1618
from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
● The Dutch followed the English and soon
established a factory at Surat as well. Export
of textiles was the base of India’s foreign
trade. As an English writer observed, “From
Aden to Achin (in Malaya) from head to foot,
everyone was clothed in Indian textiles.”
● In 1622, with the help of the Persian forces,
the English captured Ormuz, the Portuguese
base at the head of the Persian Gulf.
● By the first quarter of the seventeenth century,
both the Dutch and the English were well
set in the Indian trade, and the Portuguese
monopoly was broken forever.
● The Portuguese restricted to Goa and Daman
and Diu only; likewise, their share in India’s
overseas trade declined continuously and was
almost insignificant by the end of the century.
● By 1640, export of cloth from the Coromandel
equated with that of Gujarat; and by 1660, it
was three times that of Gujarat. Machilipatnam
and Fort St. David, which later developed into
Madras were the chief centers of the trade.
● Another item which became popular was the
export of Saltpeter (chemical name Potassium
nitrate), which supplemented the Europeans,
as it was used in making gun-powder and
was also used as a ballast for ships going
to Europe.
● The best quality Saltpeter was found in
Bihar; therefore, exports from these areas
grew rapidly; surprisingly, by the end of the
Mughal Dynasty 65
century, this trade became equal (in value) to
the exports from the Coromandel.
● The Indian textiles became a rage in England
by the last quarter of the seventeenth
century. An English observer wrote, “Almost
everything that used to be made of wool or
silk, relating either to dress of the women or
the furniture of our houses was supplied by
the Indian trade.”
● The increasing import from India, put down
the local European market; as a result of
which, in 1701, an agitation had been seen
in Europe. Subsequently, all calicoes painted,
dyed, printed, or stained from Persia, China,
or the East Indies (i.e. India) were banned.
But the agitation and subsequent strict laws
could not change the trade pattern effectively.
● India was more closely linked to the world
markets, especially to the European markets
where a commercial revolution was taking
place. But this linkage had negative factors
as well. Europe had little to supply to India
in return for its goods.
Causes for the Downfall of
the Mughals
● The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the
death of Aurangzeb. Taking this advantage,
in 1739, Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal
Emperor and looted Delhi. The religious and
Deccan policies of Aurangzeb contributed to
its decline.
● The weak successors and demoralization of
the Mughal army were also the reasons for
the decline.The financial difficulties due to
continuous wars led to the decline.The neglect
of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when
the Europeans began to settle in India.Further,
the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah
Abdali weakened the Mughal state.
66 Master Series : Medieval India
Medieval India Master Exercise
MCQs
1.
for Preliminary Examination
Which of the following statements are true?
5.
(a) Akbar divided the kingdom into 15
provinces
(a) A hereditary post in the court of the King
(b) A military office
(c) Both (a) & (b)
(d) A feudal title used for all landlords
(c) Any office in the Mughal Empire
6.
Which among the following was the Court
language of the Mughal Empire?
2. Benevolent despotism
3. Rule of aristocracy;
(b) Turk
4. Military based organization;
(c) Persian
(d) Urdu
Which of the above were the features of Mughal
administration?
Give the correct chronological order of the
events:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2, 3 and 4
(i) Attack of Nadir Shah
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(ii) Attack of Ahmed Shah Abdali
(iii) Death of Sayyid brother
(d) All of these
7.
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
Consider the following statements:
1. Akbar introduced Dahsala system for
revenue administration.
(a) (i)-(ii)-(iii)
(c) (ii)-(iii)-(i)
2. The seventeenth century the introduction
and expansion of two major crops – tobacco
and maize.
(d) (iii)-(i)-(ii)
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Who invited Babur to India?
(a) Only 1
(i) Rana Sanga
(b) Only 2
(ii) Daulat Khan Lodhi
(c) Both 1 and 2
(iii) Sikandar Lodhi
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
(b) (ii)-(i)-(iii)
4.
Consider the following features:
1. Centralized authority;
(a) Arabic
3.
What was the meaning of Mansab during Mughal
empire?
(b) Sher Shah started many reforms in
administration
(d) None of these
2.
3
(iv) Sher Khan
Choose the correct answer from the codes given
below:
8.
Consider the following statements:
1. Jat rebellion was the result of agrarian crisis.
(a) (i), (ii)
2. Agrarian crisis was only the reason of
Disintegration of Mughal Empire.
(b) (i), (iv)
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(c) (ii), (iii)
(a) Only 1
(d) (ii), (iv)
(b) Only 2
Mughal Dynasty 67
(c) Both 1 and 2
under various Mughal Kings and how it played a
major role in the decline of the Mughals.
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
9.
about
7.
The Deccani ulcer destroyed the Mughal rule in
India. How far do you agree with the statement?
Elucidate.
2. Mansabs received the salary both in cash
and kinds.
8.
The rule of Shah Jahan was the epitome of Art
and Architecture in India. Analyse the statement.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
9.
Jahangir in his later years of rule was a puppet in
the hands of Nur Jahan? Explain the Junta rule in
the above mentioned context.
Consider the following
Mansabdari system:
statements
1. It was hereditary system.
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
10. Consider the following statements:
1. During Mughal rule, judiciary laws were
based on Islamic rules.
2. The Justice department was under Qazi-ulQuzat’ in 17th centuary.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Subjectve type questions for
Main Examination
10. Akbar’s Religious and Rajput Policy were the
pillars of strong Mughal foundation in India.
Explain.
11. The Land Reforms policy of Mughals were the
continuation of Sher Shah’s works. Elucidate.
12. How far can you say that Agrarian crisis became
important reason for disintegration of Mughal
Empire?
13. The weakest part of Mughal administration was
the military organization”. Elaborate.
14. Discuss the significane of Mansabdari system,
how it affected the Mughal empire?
15. Throw light on judicial system of Mughal
Empire.
16. Criticaly examines the Features and significance
of Mughal administration.
1.
Discuss the nature and character of Akbar’s
Rajput policy.
17. The Mughal Empire fell by the burden of its own
weight. Examine.
2.
Describe the Rajput policy of Mughal Emperors,
do you agree with view that reversal of Akbar’s
Rajput policy by Aurangzeb was responsible for
the disintegration of Mughal Empire.
18. Before Aurangzeb, all the Mughal Emperors
were capable rulers, after him all were incapable
rulers. Critically comment.
3.
Expansion of Mughal Empire in Deccan brought
about its decline. Discuss.
4.
Discuss the responsibility of Aurangzeb in
decline of Mughal Empire.
20. Mughal Empire was an upgrade on Delhi
Sultanante in the field of Administration but
devoid of its bigotry and racialism. Comment.
5.
Discuss the various factors responsible for the
disintegration of great Mughal Empire.
6.
Trace the development of Mansabdari System
19. Mughal Empire was Akbar’s Empire. Examine.
Answers to MCQs
1.
6.
(c)
(d)
2.
7.
(c)
(c)
3.
8.
(d)
(a)
4.
9.
(a) 5. (c)
(c) 10. (c)
68 Master Series : Medieval India
Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 68
MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 4
Rise of
MARATHAS
● The Marathas had important positions in
the administrative and military systems of
Ahmednagar and Bijapur. Marathas did
not have any large, well-established states;
however, a number of influential Maratha
families, namely, the Mores, the Ghatages,
the Nimbalkars, etc., exercised local authority
in some areas.
● The Maratha ruler Shahji Bhonsle and his son,
Shivaji, consolidated the Maratha kingdom.
Shahji acted as the kingmaker in Ahmednagar,
and defied the Mughals. Taking advantage of
the unsettled conditions, Shahji tried to set up
a semi-independent principality at Bangalore,
as Mir Jumla, the leading noble of Golconda,
tried to carve out such a principality on the
Coromandal coast. Further, Shivaji’s attempted
to carve out a large principality around Poona.
Early Career of Shivaji
● Shahji had left the Poona jagir to his neglected
senior wife, Jija Bai and his minor son,
Shivaji. Shivaji was brave and intellect since
his childhood. When he was merely 18 years
old, he overran a number of hill forts near
Poona—Rajgarh, Kondana, and Torna in the
years 1645-47.
● In 1647, after the death of his guardian, Dadaji
Kondadeo, Shivaji became his own master
and the full control of his father’s jagir came
under his control. In 1656, Shivaji conquered
Javli from the Maratha chief, Chandra Rao
More and started his reigning career.
● The conquest of Javli made Shivaji the
undisputed master of the Mavala region or
the highlands and freed his path to the Satara
region and to the coastal strip, the Konkan.
Mavali foot-soldiers became a strong part of
Shivaji’s army. With their support, Shivaji
conquered a series of hill forts near Poona.
Shivaji and the Mughals
● In 1657, the Mughal invasion of Bijapur
saved Shivaji from Bijapur reprisal. Shivaji
first entered into negotiations with Aurangzeb
and asked him for the grant of all the Bijapuri
territories he held and other areas including
the port of Dabhol in the Konkan. Later
Shivaji betrayed and changed his side.
● Shivaji resumed-his career of conquest at the
expense of Bijapur. He burst into the Konkan,
the coastal strip between the Western Ghats
and the sea, and seized the northern part of it.
The ruler of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan (one of
the premier nobles) along with 10,000 troops.
Afzal Khan had been given instructions to
capture Shivaji by any possible means.
● In 1659, Afzal Khan sent an invitation to
Shivaji for a personal interview, promising
to get him pardoned from the Bijapuri court.
Convinced that this was a trap, Shivaji went
with full preparation, and murdered Afzal
Khan. Shivaji captured all Afzal Khan’s
property, including equipment and artillery.
● Shivaji soon became a legendary figure. His
name passed from house to house and he was
credited with magical powers. People flocked
to him from the Maratha areas to join his
army, and even Afghan mercenaries who had
Rise of Marathas 69
●
●
●
●
●
●
been previously in the service of Bijapur,
joined his army.
Aurangzeb was anxious because of the rising
of the Maratha power near to the Mughal
frontiers. Poona and adjacent areas, which
had been parts of the Ahmednagar kingdom
had been transferred to Bijapur by the treaty
of 1636. However, these areas were now
again claimed by the Mughals.
Aurangzeb instructed Shaista Khan, the new
Mughal governor of the Deccan (he was also
related to Aurangzeb by marriage), to invade
Shivaji’s dominions and Adil Shah, the ruler
of Bijapur, was asked to cooperate.
Adil Shah sent Sidi Jauhar, the Abyssinian
chief, who, invested Shivaji in Panhala.
Getting trapped, Shivaji escaped and Panhala
came under the control of the Bijapuri forces.
Adil Shah took no further interest in the war
against Shivaji, and soon came to a secret
understanding with him. This agreement freed
Shivaji to deal with the Mughals.
In 1660, Shaista Khan occupied Poona
and made it his headquarters. He then sent
detachments to seize control of the Konkan
from Shivaji. Despite harassing attacks from
Shivaji, and the bravery of Maratha defenders,
the Mughals secured their control on north
Konkan.
In 1663, on one night, Shivaji infiltrated into
the camp and attacked on Shaista Khan, when
he was in his harem (in Poona). He killed
his son and one of his captains and wounded
Khan. This daring attack of Shivaji put Khan
into disgrace. In anger, Aurangzeb transferred
Shaista Khan to Bengal, even refused to give
him an interview at the time of transfer as
was the custom.
In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, which was
the premier Mughal port, and looted it to his
heart’s content.
Treaty of Purandar
● After the failure of Shaista Khan, Aurangzeb
deputed Raja Jai Singh of Amber, who was
one of the most trusted advisers of Aurangzeb,
to deal with Shivaji. Unlike Shaista Khan,
Jai Singh did not underestimate the Marathas
rather he made careful diplomatic and military
preparations.
● Jai Singh planned to strike at the heart of
Shivaji’s territories i.e. fort Purandar where
Shivaji had lodged his family and his treasure.
In 1665, Jai Singh besieged Purandar (1665),
beating off all Maratha attempts to relieve
it. With the fall of the fort at sight, and no
relief likely from any quarter, Shivaji opened
negotiations with Jai Singh.
● After hard bargaining with Shivaji, the
following terms we agreed upon −
1. Out of 35 forts held by Shivaji, 23 forts
were surrendered to the Mughals;
2. Remaining 12 forts were left with Shivaji
on condition of service and loyalty to the
Mughal throne;
3. Territory worth four lakhs of huns a year
in the Bijapuri Konkan, which Shivaji
had already held, was granted to him.
4. The Bijapur territory worth of five lakhs
of huns a year in the uplands (Balaghat),
which Shivaji had conquered, was also
granted to him. In return for these, Shivaji
was to pay 40 lakhs huns in instalments
to the Mughals.
5. Shivaji asked them to be excused from
personal service. Hence, a mansab of
5,000 was granted to his minor son,
Sambhaji.
6. Shivaji promised, however, to join
personally in any Mughal campaign in
the Deccan.
● Jai Singh, later, cleverly threw a bone of
contention between Shivaji and the Bijapuri
ruler. But the success of Jai Singh’s scheme
depended on Mughal support to Shivaji in
making up from Bijapur territory worth the
amount he had yielded to the Mughals.
● Jai Singh had considered the alliance with
Shivaji from the starting point of the conquest
of Bijapur to the entire Deccan. However, the
Mughal-Maratha expedition against Bijapur
failed. Shivaji who had been deputed to
capture fort Panhala was also unsuccessful.
70 Master Series : Medieval India
● As the plan failed, Jai Singh persuaded
Shivaji to meet with Aurangzeb at Agra. Jai
Singh though that if Shivaji and Aurangzeb
could be reconciled, then Aurangzeb might
be persuaded to give greater resources for a
renewed invasion on Bijapur. But Shivaji’s
meeting with Aurangzeb also became futile.
● When Shivaji met Aurangzeb, he kept him
in the category of 5,000 mansabdar (the
rank, which had been granted to his minor
son). Further, the emperor, whose birthday
was being celebrated, did not find time to
speak to Shivaji. Therefore, Shivaji walked
off angrily and refused imperial service.
● Since Shivaji had come to Agra on Jai Singh’s
assurances, Aurangzeb wrote to Jai Singh for
advice. In return, Jai Singh strongly argued
for a lenient treatment for Shivaji. However,
in 1666, before any decision could be taken,
Shivaji escaped from the detention.
Administrative System of
Shivaji
● Shivaji’s system of administration was
largely borrowed from the administrative
practice of the Deccani states. Shivaji
designated eight ministers, sometimes called
the ‘Ashtapradhan’ (it was not in the nature
of a council of ministers), each minister being
directly responsible to the ruler.
● The most important ministers were the
‘Peshwa’ who looked after the finances and
general administration, and the sari-i-naubat
(senapati), which was a post of honor and was
generally given to one of the leading Maratha
chiefs.
● The majumdar was the accountant, while the
waqenavis was responsible for intelligence
post and household affairs. Further, the
surunavis or chitnis helped the king with his
correspondence.
● The dabir was master of ceremonies and also
helped the king in his dealings with foreign
powers. The nyayadhish and panditrao were
in charge of justice and charitable grants.
● Shivaji preferred to give salaries in cash to
the regular soldiers; however sometimes the
chiefs received revenue grants (saranjam).
● Shivaji strictly regulated the “mirasdars,”
(mirasdars were those who had the hereditary
rights in land). Later mirasdars grew
and strengthened themselves by building
strongholds and castles in the villages.
Likewise, they had become unruly and seized
the country. Shivaji destroyed their bastions
and forced them to surrender.
● Shivaji was not only a deserving general and
a skillful strategist, but he was also a shrewd
diplomat and laid the foundation of a strong
state by curbing the power of the deshmukhs.
Shivaji’s Achievements
● In 1670, Shivaji renewed the contest with
the Mughals, sacking Surat a second time.
During the next four years, he recovered a
large number of his forts, including Purandar,
from the Mughals and made deep inroads
into Mughal territories, especially Berar and
Khandesh.
● Mughal preoccupation with the Afghan
uprising in the north-west gave an opportunity
to Shivaji. Further, Shivaji also renewed his
contest with Bijapur, securing Panhala and
Satara by means of bribes.
● In 1674, Shivaji crowned himself formally at
Raigad. He was by now, became the most
powerful among the Maratha chiefs.
● The formal coronation had, therefore, a
number of purposes, including −
1. It placed him on a much higher pedestal
than any of the Maratha chiefs;
2. It strengthened his social position and
hence he married into some of the leading
old Maratha families;
3. Gaga Bhatt, the priest presiding over the
function, supported Shivaji and said that
Shivaji was a high class Kshatriya; and
4. As an independent ruler, now it became
possible for Shivaji to enter into treaties
with the Deccani sultans on a footing of
equality and not as a rebel.
Rise of Marathas 71
● In 1676, Shivaji undertook an expedition
into the Bijapuri Karnataka. Shivaji was
given a grand welcome by the Qutb Shah at
his capital and a formal agreement was made.
Qutub Shah agreed to pay a subsidy of one
lakh huns (five lakhs of rupees) annually to
Shivaji along with a Maratha ambassador
who was appointed at his court.
● Qutub Shah, further, supplied a contingent
of troops and artillery to aid Shivaji and also
provided money for the expenses of his army.
The treaty with Qutub Shah was beneficial
to Shivaji, as it enabled him to capture Jinji
and Vellore from Bijapur officials and also
to conquer much of the territories held by his
half-brother, Ekoji.
● Shivaji had assumed the title of “HaindavaDharmoddharak” (Protector of the Hindu
faith), but he plundered mercilessly the Hindu
population of the respective region.
● As per the agreement, Shivaji had to share
treasure (won in the war) with Qutub Shah,
but when Shivaji returned back to home with
treasure, he refused to share anything with
the Qutub Shah. Hence, Qutub Shah resented
with Shivaji.Karnataka expedition was the last
expedition of Shivaji, as he died shortly after his
return from the Karnataka expedition (1680).
72 Master Series : Medieval India
4
Medieval India Master Exercise
MCQs
1.
for Preliminary Examination
Consider the following statements:
Codes:
1. Guru Ramdas was political Guru of Shivaji.
A
B
C
D
2. Shivaji adopted the title of Chhatrapati and
Kshtriya Kulavatamsa.
(a) 1
3
2
4
(b) 3
4
1
2
3. Shivaji belonged to Bhosle clan.
(c) 2
1
3
4
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(d) 4
2
1
3
(a) Only 2
4.
(b) 2 and 3
1. Balaji Vishwanath introduced Saraujami
system.
(c) None of these
2. Baji Rao I campaigned against Sidis of
Janjira.
(d) All of the above
2.
Match the following:
List-I
3. Deshmukhs were equivalent to Chandharib
of North and Desais of Gujarart
List-II
1. Peshwa
(A) Baroda
2. Bhonsle
(B) Indore
3. Gaekwad
(C) Poona
4. Holkar
(D) Nagpur
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 2 and 3
(b) Only 1
(c) None of these
Codes:
3.
Consider the following statements:
(d) All of the above
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b) 4
1
2
3
(c) 3
4
1
2
1. It was one of the battle of 2nd AngloMaratha War.
(d) 4
1
3
2
2. The Peshwa action was led by Baji Rao II.
5.
Consider the following statements about Bhima
Koregaon Battle:
Match the following:
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
List-I
List-II
1. Peshwa
(A) PM
2. Sar-i-Naubat (B) Royal Correspondence
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both
(d) None
3. Sachiv
(C) Armed force chief
4. Dobir
(D) Foreign Minister
Answers to MCQs
1.
(d)
2.
(c)
3.
(b)
4.
(d)
5.
(b)
Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 73
MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 6
Bhakti and
SUFI MOVEMENTS
● The Medieval period is considered as an
age of great cultural synthesis in India and
during this period a new phase of cultural
development was initiated.
● The Turks and Mughals introduced fresh ideas
and helped in giving rise to new features in
the areas of religion, philosophy and ideas.
● The synthesis between different cultures
gave birth to new philosophical and religious
traditions, ideas.
Sufism
● After the arrival of Islam in India, some
changes can be seen in religious practice as
well. Religious ideas (especially Hindu and
Muslim religions) were exchanged. During
the eleventh century, some of the Muslims
(especially who had come from Persia and
nearby regions) were fundamentally Sufis.
They settled in different parts of India and
soon gathered plenty of Indian followers.
● Sufism or tasawuf is the name for various
mystical and movements in Islam. It aims
at establishing direct communion between
god and man through personal experience of
mystery which lies within Islam.
● Every religion gives rise to mystical
tendencies in its fold at a particular stage
of its evolution. In this sense, Sufism was a
natural development within Islam based on
the spirit of Quaranic Piety.
● The Sufis while accepting the Shariat did
not confine their religious practice to formal
adherence and stressed cultivation of religious
experience aimed at a direct perception of
god.
● There developed a number of Sufi orders of
Silsilah in and outside India. All these orders
had their specific characteristics. However,
there were a number of features which are
common to all Sufi orders.
● Sufism stressed the elements of love
and devotion as effective means of the
realization of God. Love of God meant love
of humanity and so the Sufis believed service
to humanity was tantamount to service to
God.
● In Sufism, self-discipline was considered
an essential condition to gain knowledge of
God by sense of perception.While orthodox
Muslims emphasise external conduct, the
Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
● While the orthodox believe in blind
observance of rituals, the Sufis consider love
and devotion as the only means of attaining
salvation.
● According to Sufis one must have the
guidance of a pir or guru, without which
spiritual development is impossible.Sufism
also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among
its followers.
● Other ideas emphasised by Sufism are
meditation, good actions, repentance for
sins, performance of prayers and pilgrimages,
fasting, charity and suppression of passions
by ascetic practices.
74 Master Series : Medieval India
Growth of Sufism in Islamic
World
● Sufism began to acquire the form of an
organised movement with the establishment
of the Turkish rule under the Ghaznavis and
then under the Seljuqs in various parts of
central Asia and Iran in the later 10th and
11th centuries.
● The period marks the development of two
parallel institutions in the Islamic world
– the Madarasa system (seminary, higher
religious school) in its new form as an official
institution of orthodox Islamic learning and the
Khanqah system as an organized, endowed
an permanent centre for Sufi activities.
● Another salient feature of Sufism during this
period was the emergence of Sufi poetry in
Persian.While Arabic literature on mysticism
is in prose, Persian literature is in poetry.
● Sufi poetry in Persian in the form of narrative
poems (mannavis) reached its peak during
the 12th and 13th centuries. Al-Ghazzali
was the most outstanding sufi author. One
of the most authentic and celebrated manual
of sufism was Kashful Mahjub written by
Al-Hujwiri.
Sufi Movement in India
● The Sufi movement in India commenced
in the 11th century A.D. Al Hujwiri, who
established himself in north India was buried
in Lahore and regarded as the oldest Sufi in
the sub-continent.
● Among the important Sufi Orders in the
history of Medieval India were those of the
Chishtitiya, Suhrawardiya, Qadiriya and
Naqshbandiya.
● Chisti and the Suhrawardi Silsilahs were
popular during the Sultanate period.
● The Suhrawardis were active in Punjab
and Sindh while the Chishti’s were active in
Delhi, Rajasthan and parts of the western
Gangetic plains. By the end of the sultanate
period Chishti’s spread to the eastern regions
of the Gangetic plain (Bihar and Bengal) and
into the Deccan.
● During the medieval period the Sufis
played an important role in interpreting and
elaborating on Islamic theological concepts
like WahdatulWujud (unity of being) and also
encouraged the development of practices like
Ziyarat (the practice of visiting tombs).
The Chishti Silsilah
● The Chisti Order was established in India by
Muinuddin Chishti who moved to India after
the invasion of Muizzuddin Muhammad
Ghori and subsequently to Ajmer in 1206.
● The fame of Khwaja Muinuddin grew after
his death in 1235.
● His grave was visited by Muhammad
Tughlaq after which the mosque and dome
were erected by Mahmud Khalji of Malwa
in the fifteenth century.
● The patronage of this dargah peaked after the
reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
● The Chishtis believed in love as the bond
between God and individual soul and tolerance
between people of different faiths.
● They accepted disciples irrespective of their
religious beliefs.
● They associated with Hindu and Jain yogi’s,
and used simple language.
● The Chishti presence in Delhi was established
by Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki who settled
in Delhi from his homeland in Transoxiana
in 1221. This was at the time of the Mongol
invasions when there was a steady flow of
people from central Asia fleeing from the
Mongols.
● Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki presence in Delhi
was a threat to the Suhrawardis who sought
to force him to leave by leveling charges
against him. The Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish,
dismissed these attempts eventually forcing
the Suhrawardis to relent.
● The Chishti pirs laid great emphasis on
the simplicity of life, poverty, humility and
selfless devotion to God.
● The renunciation of worldly possessions was
regarded by them as necessary for the control
of the senses that was necessary to maintain
a spiritual life.
Bhakti and Sufi Movements 75
● Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti argued that
highest form of devotion to God was to redress
the misery of those in distress, fulfilling the
need of the helpless and to feed the hungry.
● Chisti’s refused to accept any grant for their
maintenance from the Sultans.
● The other important Chishti Baba Fariduddin
Ganj-i-Shakar, established himself at Hansi
(in Haryana) on the route between Multan and
Lahore.
● Nizamuddin Auliya, was the best known
Chishti saint of the Sultanate period. He lived
in the fourteenth century, during a period
of political change and turmoil. During his
lifetime he was witness to the establishment
of the Khalji rule after the death of Balban
and subsequently the establishment of the
Tughlaq’s.
● There are numerous stories surrounding the
life of Nizamuddin Auliya, famous among
them were stories of his confrontations with
the Sultans of Delhi. The Khwaja is said
to have maintained a strict policy of not
involving himself with the various groups and
factions of the Sultan’s court in Delhi earning
him the respect of many.
● Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlvi was another of
the Chishti saint of Delhi. He played an active
role in the political affairs of the period.
● In the 13th century the Chishti Order
was established in the Deccan by Shaikh
Burhanuddin Gharib.
● Between the 14th and 16th centuries many
Chishti Sufis migrated to Gulbarga. This
was accompanied with a change where some
of the Chishtis began accepting grants and
patronage from the ruling establishment.
● Muhammad Banda Nawaz was among the
famous pirs in the region.
● The Deccan city of Bijapur emerged as an
important centre for Sufi activity.
The Suhrawardi Silsilah
● This Silsilah was founded by Shihabuddin
Suhrawardi in Baghdad.
● It was established in India by Bahauddin
Zakariya who founded the Suhrawardi Order,
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
based in Mutan, which was under the control
of Qubacha.
Bahauddin Zakariya was critical of Qubacha
and openly favored Iltutmish over his rival.
Bahauddin Zakariya’s ways were different
from that of the Chishtis.
The Suhrawardis, unlike the Chishtis,
accepted, maintenance grants from the
Sultans.
They believed that a Sufi should possess the
three attributes of property, knowledge and
hal or mystical enlightenment.
Suhrawardi saints argued that this was
necessary to ensure that they served the poor
better.
Bahauddin Zakariya stressed on the
observance or external forms of religious
belief and advocated a combination of ilm
(scholarship) with mysticism.
Practices like bowing before the sheikh,
presenting water to visitors and tonsuring the
head at the time of initiation into the Order
that the Chishtis had adopted were rejected.
After his death the silsilah continued to play
an important role in Punjab and Sindh.
Naqshbandi Silsilah
● In India this order was established by Khwaja
Bahauddin Naqshbandi.
● From the beginning the mystics of this Order
stressed on the observance of the Shariat and
denounced all innovations or biddat.
● Sheikh Baqi Billah the successor to Khawaja
Bahauddin Naqshbandi settled near Delhi,
and his successor Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
attempted to purge Islam from all liberal and
what he believed were ‘un-Islamic’ practices.
● He opposed the listening of sama (religious
music) and the practice of pilgrimage to the
tombs of saints.
● He opposed interaction with Hindus and
Shias.
● He criticised the new status accorded by
Akbar to many non-Muslims, the withdrawal
of the Jizyah and the ban on cow slaughter.
● He believed that he was the mujaddid
(renewer) of the first millennium of Islam.
76 Master Series : Medieval India
● He maintained that the relationship between
man and God was that between the slave and
the master and not the relation of a lover and
beloved.
● He emphasized the individual’s unique
relation of faith and responsibility to God as
creator.
● He tried to harmonize the doctrines of
mysticism and the teachings of orthodox
Islam.
The Qadri Silsilah
● The Quadiriyya Silsilah was popular in
Punjab.
● Sheikh Abdul Qadir and his sons were
supporters of the Mughals under Akbar.
● The pirs of this Order supported the concept
of Wahdat al Wajud.
● Among the famous Sufis of this order was
Miyan Mir who had enrolled the Mughal
princess Jahanara and her brother Dara as
disciples.
● The influence of the Sheikh’s teachings is
evident in the works of the prince Dara.
● Shah Badakhshani another pir of this Silsilah
while dismissing orthodox elements, declared
that, the infidel who had perceived reality
and recognised it was a believer and that a
believer who did not recognise reality was
an infidel.
● During medieval period there was constant
tension between the liberal and orthodox
views in Islam.
● The sufis featured on both sides, while there
were those like the Chishtis who held a liberal
view and argued in favour of assimilation of
local traditions there were others like Sheikh
Abdul Haqq of the Qadiriyya Silsilah who
held the view that the purity of Islam was
being diluted.
● This Orthodox view was represented by the
ulema that argued from the perspective of
being upholders of the Shariat.
● The liberal opinion found its voice among
many sufis who argued against the narrow
definition of Islamic laws by the ulema.
The Effects of Sufism
● The Sufi ideology promoted love and devotion
as means of coming nearer to God. The true
God’s devotees bound to came close (both)
to God and to one’s fellow men. Secondly,
Sufis suggested that prayers, fasts, and rituals
were not as important as the true love of God.
● The Sufis, as they were promoting true love
to God and fellow men, they were pretty
flexible and tolerant for all other religions and
sects, and advocated that the paths to God
can be many.
● The Sufis, further, promoted respect for
all human beings. This was the reason that
the orthodox Ulema did not approve of the
ideology of Sufis and said that Sufi teachings
were not in agreement with orthodox Islam.
● Many of the Hindus also respected the Sufi
saints and became followers. However, the
Sufis did not attempt to deceive or convert
Hindus to Islam, but rather advised Hindus to
be better Hindus by loving the one true God.
Bhakti Movement
● During the seventh century, Bhakti movement
evolved in the south part of the country
(especially in the Tamil speaking regions).
Over a period of time, it spread in all the
directions.
● The Alvars and the Nayanars of the Tamil
devotional cult had started the tradition of
preaching the idea of bhakti through hymns
and stories.
● Most of the saints of Bhakti movement were
from the non-Brahman families.
● Like Sufi ideology, the bhakti ideology also
taught that the relationship between man and
God was based on love, and worshipping
God with devotion was better than merely
performing any number of religious
ceremonies. Bhakti Saints emphasized on the
tolerance among men and religions.
● In the ninth century Sankara started a Hindu
revivalist movement giving a new orientation
to Hinduism. His doctrine of Advaita or
Bhakti and Sufi Movements 77
●
●
●
●
●
Monism was too abstract to appeal to the
common man.
Moreover, there was a reaction against the
Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman (God
without attributes) with the emergence of the
idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes).
In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who was
born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai,
preached Visishtadvaita.
According
to
Ramanuja
God
is
Sagunabrahman. The creative process and
all the objects in creation are real but not
illusory as was held by Sankaracharya.
Therefore, God, soul, matter are real. But
God is inner substance and the rest are his
attributes. He also advocated prabattimarga
or path of self-surrender to God. He invited
the downtrodden to Vaishnavism.
In the thirteenth century, Madhava from
Kannada region propagated Dvaita or
dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma.
According to his philosophy, the world is not
an illusion but a reality. God, soul, matter are
unique in nature.
Nimbarka and Vallabhacharya were also
other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the
Telangana region.
Sankaracharya
● Sankaracharya was a Nambudiri Brahman
born in Kaladi, Malabar. He was originally
a worshiper of Shiva.
● He gave an entirely new turn to the Hindu
revival movement by providing it with a
solid philosophical background through the
reinterpretation of ancient Indian scriptures,
particularly the Upanishads.
● Sankaracharya advocated the philosophy of
“Advaita” the monism of the Vedanta by
giving a brilliant exposition to the entire range
of the Vedic religions and spiritual thought.
● Having lost his father in his childhood,
Sankaracharya become a sanyasi, while in his
teens and began to roam around in search of
true knowledge and wisdom.
● A genius by birth and intensely religious
by outlook and social heritage, he received
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
instruction in religious scriptures and
philosophy at Kashi.
Sankaracharya renewed and systematised
Vedanta philosophy by stressing on its main
principle of monism (evalaadvaita or absolute
non-dualism).
Sankaracharya started a vigorous campaign
for the revival of Hinduism based on the solid
foundation of Vedic philosophy and ancient
Indian cultural tradition in order to check the
growth of Buddhism and Jainism.
He recognised the ascetic order of sanyasis on
the pattern of Buddhist sangha and launched a
campaign for the popularisation of Hinduism.
He composed extensive commentaries on
the Brahmasutra and chief Upanishad and
traveled all around India to highlight the
cultural unity of India.
The mathas also began propagating and
became the centre of Vedic religion.
The mathas, among many, included
Jaganathpuri in the east, Sringeri in the
South, Dwarka in the west and Badrinath in
the north.
Sankaracharya was an orthodox Brahmin for
whom the Vedic literature was sacred and
unquestionably true.
In order to harmonise the many paradoxes of
Vedic tradition, he had to take recourse to
a philosophy of “double standard of truth”
(already known in Buddhism). It meant that
on the everyday level of truth, the world was
produce by Brahma, and it went through an
evolutionary process similar to that taught
by the Sankhya school of philosophy. But
on the highest level of truth, the whole
universe including the God was unreal, i.e.,
the world in maya, an illusion and figment
of imagination,
Therefore, Shankarcharya believed that
ultimately the only reality was the Brahman,
the impersonal world soul of the Upanishads
with which the individual soul was identical.
Sankaracharya also believed that god and
the created world was one and the difference
which is evident is due to ignorance.
78 Master Series : Medieval India
● According to him, the way to salvation was to
realize by means of meditation and knowledge
that god and the created beings were one
and same. At the deepest level of meditation
“nirvikalpasamadhi”, the complete identity
between god and the individual is realized.
● It is the goal of everyone to know, realize,
feel and display in action this identity. When
this is accomplished all sufferings, birth and
death cease. This identity has been termed
as “sachidanand Brahman” by Sankaracharya.
● Sankaracharya’s ‘Brahman’ is not really
different from the concept of ‘nirvana’ of
Mahayana Buddhism.
● It is a fact which was well recognised by his
opponents who called him “crypto-Buddhist.”
● However, Shankarcharya proved the Buddhist
scholars wrong and was able to show that
Buddhist metaphysics was only a poor
imitation of the metaphysics of Sanatan
dharma.
● The philosophy of Sankaracharya had far
reaching consequences for the India society.
For example, the monsticSankaracharya
(mathas) which he established in the four
corners of India served as an effective step
towards the physical and spiritual unification
of India.
● By the able use of arguments he reduced all
the apparently self-contradicting passages of
the Upanishads to a consistent system which
has remained the standard of Hinduism to this
day.
● Sankaracharaya passed away at KedarNath at
the age of 32.
● Later on Ramanuja combined Sankara’s
Advaitavada with the VaishnavaPancharatra
theology which claimed that Vishnu is the
very foundation of the universe.
● The impact of Ramanuja’s writings and his
long service as priest of the famous Vishnu
temple at Srinangam made his ideas widely
known among the Vaishnavites and he is justly
regarded as the founder of Srivashnavism.
● The Vedantic Philosophy of Sankaracharya
was revived by Vivekanand in the second
half of the 19th century.
The Bhakti Movement in North India
● The bhakti movement in the north included
socio-religious movements that were linked
to one of the acharyas from the south and
is sometimes seen as a continuation of the
movement that originated in the south.
● Though there were similarities in the traditions
of the two regions, the notion of bhakti varied
in the teachings of each of the saints.
● The Nirguna’s like Kabir rejected the Varna
Ashrama and all conventions based on caste
distinction and championed new values,
helping the emergence of new groups and
new unorthodox/protestant sects.
● The Saguna’s like Tulsidas on the other hand
upheld the caste system and the supremacy
of the Brahmins. They preached religion of
surrender and simple faith in a personal god
and had a strong commitment to idol worship.
Monotheistic Bhakti
● Kabir was the earliest and most influential
Bhakti saint in north India. He was a weaver
and spent a large part of his life in Banaras.
His poems were included in the Sikh scripture,
the Adi Granth.
● Among those who were influenced by Kabir
were Raidas, who was a tanner by caste from
Banaras, Guru Nanak who was a Khatri from
Punjab and Dhanna who was a Jat peasant
from Rajasthan.
● There are similarities in the teachings of the
various monotheistic Bhakti saints in North
India.Most of the monotheists belonged to the
low castes and were aware that there existed
a unity in their ideas.
● They were also aware of each other’s teachings
and influence and in their verses they mention
each other and their predecessors in a manner
suggesting ideological affinity among them.
● All of them were influenced by the Vaishnava
concept of Bhakti, the Nathpanthi movement
and Sufism.Their ideas seem to be a synthesis
of the three traditions.
● The importance given to the personal
Bhakti and Sufi Movements 79
experience of Bhakti saint with God
was another common feature among the
monotheistic bhakti saints.
● Nirguna bhakti and not Saguna bhakti was
what they believed in. They had adopted the
notion of bhakti from Vaishnavaism but they
gave it a nirguna orientation.
● Though they called God using different
names and titles their God was non-incarnate,
formless, eternal and ineffable.
● The Bhakti saints refused any formal
association with the organized dominant
religions of the time (Hinduism and Islam)
and criticized what they regarded to be the
negative aspects of these religions.
● They rejected the authority of the Brahmans
and attacked the caste system and practice of
idolatry.
● They composed their poems in popular
languages and dialects spoken across north
India which enabled them to transmit their
ideas among the masses. It also helped their
ideas to spread rapidly among the various
lower classes.
Vaishnava Bhakti
● In the 14th and early 15th centuries Ramananda
emerged as a popular Vaishnava bhakti saint
in north India.Though he was from the
south he lived in Banaras because he
considered it to be the link between the South
Indian bhakti and North Indian Vaishnava
bhakti traditions.
● He looked upon Ram and not Vishnu as the
object of bhakti.He worshiped Ram and Sita
and came to be identified as the founder of the
Ram cult in north India.He like the monotheist
bhakti saints also rejected cast hierarchies and
preached in the local languages in his attempt
to popularize the cult.His followers are called
Ramanandis.
● Tulsidas also championed the bhakti cause.
Tulsidas was a worshipper of Rama and
composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, the
Hindi version of Ramayana.
● In the early 16 century Vallabacharya, a popular
bhakti saint popularized the Krishna bhakti.
Among those who followed Vallabacharya’s
footsteps were Surdas and Mira Bai.
● Surdas popularized Krishna cult in north
India.Mirabai was a great devotee of Krishna
and she became popular in Rajasthan for her
bhajans.
● The Vaishnava bhakti movement in Bengal
was very different form its counterparts in
north India and the south and was influenced
by the Vaishnava bhakti tradition of the
Bhagavata Purana and the Sahajiya Buddhist
and Nathpanthi traditions. These traditions
focused on esoteric and emotional aspects of
devotion.
● In the 12th century, Jayadeva was an important
bhakti saint in this tradition. He highlighted
the mystical dimension of love with reference
to Krishna and Radha. Chaitanya was a
popular bhakti saint from the region; he
was looked upon as an avatara of Krishna.
Though, he did not question the authority
of the Brahmans and the scriptures. He also
popularized the sankirtan (group devotional
songs accompanied with ecstatic dancing).
With him the bhakti movement in Bengal
began to develop into a reform movement
with the notions of caste divisions that came
to be questioned.
● In Maharashtra the bhakti movement drew its
inspiration from the Bhagavata Purana and the
Siva Nathpanthis. Jnaneswar was a pioneer
bhakti saint of Maharashtra. His commentary
on the Bhagavad Gita called Jnanesvari
served as a foundation of the bhakti ideology
in Maharashtra. Arguing against caste
distinctions he believed that the only way
to attain God was through Bhakti. Vithoba
was the God of this sect and its followers
performed a pilgrimage to the temple twice
a year. The Vithoba of Pandarpur became the
mainstay of the movement in Maharashtra.
● Namdev (1270–1350) was another important
bhakti saint from Maharashtra. While he is
remembered in the north Indian monotheistic
tradition as a nirguna saint, in Maharashtra
80 Master Series : Medieval India
he is considered to be part of the varkari
tradition (the Vaishnava devotional tradition).
● Some of the other important bhakti saints of
Maharashtra were the saints Choka, Sonara,
Tukaram and Eknath. Tukaram’s teachings
are in the form of the Avangas (dohas),
which constitute the Gatha, while Eknath’s
teachings that were in Marathi attempted to
shift the emphasis of Marathi literature from
spiritual to narrative compositions.
●
●
Importance of the Bhakti
Movement
● The importance of the bhakti movement
was very great. Various preachers spoke and
wrote in the regional languages and thus, the
bhakti movement provided an impetus for the
development of regional languages such as
Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc.
● Through regional languages they made direct
appeal to the masses. As the caste system was
condemned by the bhakti saints, the lower
classes were raised to a position of great
importance.
● The importance of women in society was
also increased because the bhakti movement
gave equal importance to them. Moreover,
the bhakti movement gave to the people a
simple religion, without complicated rituals.
They were required to show sincere devotion
to God. The new idea of a life of charity and
service to fellow people developed.
Guru Nanak
● The teachings and philosophy of Guru
Nanak form an important part of Indian
philosophical thought. His philosophy consists
of three basic elements: a leading charismatic
personality (the Guru), ideology (Shabad) and
Organization (Sangat).
● Nanak evaluated and criticized the prevailing
religious beliefs and attempted to establish a
true religion, which could lead to salvation.
● He repudiated idol worship and did not
favour pilgrimage nor accept the theory of
incarnation. He condemned formalism and
●
●
●
●
●
ritualism.He laid emphasis on having a true
Guru for revelation.
He advised people to follow the principles
of conduct and worship: sach (truth), halal
(lawful earning), khair (wishing well of
others), niyat (right intention) and service
to the lord.
He denounced the caste system and the
inequality it caused. He argued that the caste
and honour should be judged by the acts
or the deeds of individuals. He laid stress
on concepts of justice, righteousness and
liberty.His verses mainly consist of two basic
concepts, Sach (truth) and Naam (name).
The bases of the divine expression for him
were formed by, the Sabad (the word), Guru
(the divine precept) and Hukam (the divine
order).He introduced the concept of Langar
(a community kitchen). Guru Nanak identifies
himself with the people or the ruled.
The first four Gurus of Sikh followed the
tradition of quiet meditation and scholarship.
However, the fifth Guru, Arjun Das, completed
the compilation of the Sikh scriptures popular
as the Adi Granth or Grant Sahib.
To emphasize that the Guru combined both
spiritual and worldly leadership in his person,
he began to live in an aristocratic style. He
erected lofty buildings at Amritsar, wore
fine clothes, kept fine horses procured from
Central Asia and maintained retainers in
attendance.
Guru Arjun Das started a culture of collecting
offerings from the Sikh community at the rate
of one-tenth of their income.
Akbar had been deeply impressed with the
Sikh Gurus and, probably he also visited them
at Amritsar. But later, a clash began with the
imprisonment and killing of Guru Arjun Das
by Jahangir on a charge of helping rebel
prince, Khusrau, with money and prayer.
● After Arjun Das, Guru Har Govind became
Sikh Guru. He was also imprisoned for some
time, but soon he was set free.
● Guru Har Gobind developed friendly
relations with Jahangir and accompanied him
on his journey to Kashmir just before his
Bhakti and Sufi Movements 81
death. However, Guru Har Gobind clashed
with Shah Jahan on a hunting issue.
● There were a series of skirmishes and
ultimately the Guru retired to the Punjab
foothills where he did not interfere with.
● By the time of Guru Har Gobind, Sikh Guru
had sizeable followers, including a Pathan
contingent led by Painda Khan. However, the
occasional conflict between the Gurus and the
Mughal rulers remained there, but that was
personal and political rather than religious.
● Though the Sikh guru’s stressed on equality
the social differentiation among the followers
continued. It was only towards the end of
the 17th century that Guru Gobind Singh
reasserted the idea of equality.
● In 1699 Guru Gobind Singh attempted to
resolve the differences among the various Sikh
groups and created the Khalsa. This institution
removed the masands as intermediaries.
Thereafter every Sikh was to have a direct
link with the Guru.
● The idea of Guru Panth was another
institutional idea that emerged during this
period. It sanctified the collective authority
of the KhalsaPanth, which equated the Panth
with the Guru.
● Guru Nanak in his last days had nominated a
successor and paid homage to him, this gave
rise to the idea that the Guru and the Sikh
were interchangeable.This created a problem
for the institution of the Sangat (that was a
collective body of the Sikhs) in which God
was said to be present.
● When Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa
he chose the panjpiyare (the five beloved)
and requested them to administer the pahul
(amritchakhha) to him.
● With this the difference between the Guru and
the Khalsa was symbolically removed. Guru
Gobind Singh is believed to have said that
the Khalsa is his own roop (form).
● The followers of the tenth guru came to
be known as the ‘Khalsa,’ which means
“the pure”. In the seventeenth century, the
Khalsa had become a strong military group.
It was the time when the Sikhs distinguished
themselves from other people by the means
of five characteristics (popular as ‘5Ks’),
namely −
1. Kesha (hair),
2. Kangha (comb),
3. Kara (iron bracelet),
4. Kripan (dagger), and
5. Kachchha (under-wear).
● Guru Arjun compiled the Guru Granth
Sahib.After the death of Guru Gobind Singh
the tenth Guru the tradition of guru ended.It
was believed that the spirit of the guru did not
pass onto any successor but instead remained
within “Shri Gurugranth Sahib”.
Other Luminaries of the
Composite Culture
● Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan,
was by temperament a scholar and a Sufi
who loved to discourse with religious divines.
With the help of Brahmanas of Kasi, Dara got
the Gita translated into Persian.
● Dara declared the Vedas to be “heavenly books
in point of time” and “in conformity with the
holy Quran,” thus underlining the belief that
there was no fundamental difference between
Hinduism and Islam.
● Dadu (a saint of Gujarat), preached a nonsectarian (nipakh) path. He refused to relate
himself with either the Hindus or the Muslims,
or to bother with the revealed scriptures of the
two, asserting the indivisibility of the Brahma
or the Supreme Reality.
● Tukaram from Pandharpur, Maharashtra
began a liberal trend of Bakhti movement,
which later became the center of the
Maharashtra Dharma. In addition, here,
worship of Vithoba (a form of Vishnu), had
become popular.
The same liberal tread can be seen in the life
and works of Tukaram, the supreme exponent
of Shake in Maharashtra at Pandharpur, which
82 Master Series : Medieval India
had become the centre of the Maharashtra
Dharma and where worship of Vithoba, a form
of Vishnu, had become popular.
Tukaram, who was probably born in a ‘sudra’
(lower caste) family used to do puja (worship)
to the god with his own hand (worship of God
by sudra was strictly prohibited at that time).
● The sentiments of the orthodox Hindus were
echoed by Raghunandan of Navadwipa
(Nadia) in Bengal. He was the most influential
writer of Dharamshastras (of medieval
period). He claimed that none other except
Brahmanas had the right to read the scriptures
or to preach.
Raghunandan, further, said that in the Kali
age, there were only two varnas (caste), i.e.
Brahmanas and Sudras. The true Kshatriyas
having disappeared long ago and the vaishyas
and others having lost their caste status due to
the non-performance of appropriate duties.
Considered to be the most influential writer
on the Dharamshastras during the medieval
period, Raghunandan asserted the privileges of
the Brahmans stating that none other except the
Brahmans had the right to read the scriptures
or to preach.
Bhakti and Sufi Movements 83
Medieval India Master Exercise
MCQs
1.
for Preliminary Examination
Which of the following indicates the correct
chronology of flourishing of the Bhakti saints?
3. Provided an impetus for the development of
regional languages
(a) Ramananda – Guru Nanak – Namdev –
Dynaneshwar – Tukaram
4. Hindu Muslim Unity
(b) Ramananda – Dynaneshwar - Guru Nanak –
Namdev – Tukaram
(a) Only 2, 3 and 4
(c) Dynaneshwar – Namdev – Ramananda –
Guru Nanak – Tukaram
(c) Only 1, 3 and 4
(d) Ramananda – Guru Nanak – Dynaneshwar
– Namdev – Tukaram
2.
Codes:
(b) Only 2 and 4
(d) All of the above
6.
(a) Shah Wali-Ullah
(a) Tukaram
(b) Sayed Ahmad Barelavi
(b) Surdas
(c) Sir Sayed Ahmad
(c) Chaitanya
(d) Mohammad Ilyas
7.
(a) Shah Wali-Ullah
1. Dnyana
(d) Abdullah Shah
(b) Sayed Ahmad Barelavi
(c) Sir Sayed Ahmad
8.
3. Bhaav
Consider the following statement (s) is/are
related to the purpose of the Sufi Movement.
Codes:
I.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
The Bhakti movement was started by
Code:
(a) Shankara
(a) Only I
(b) Ramanada
(b) Only II
(c) Alvars
(c) Both I & II
(d) Sufi teachers
Which of the following statement/s is/are correct
with regards to impact of the Bhakti movement?
1. Position of women was raised
2. Removed caste system
Its main object is to bring humanity, divided
as it is into so many different sections,
closer together in the deeper understanding
of life.
II. The Sufi message is the echo of the same
divine message which has always come and
will always come to enlighten humanity.
(d) All of the above
5.
What is the real name of Baba Bulleh Shah?
Before accepting Bhakti as one of the recognized
road to salvation, which of the following was/
were the only road/roads to salvation?
2. Karma
4.
Who interpreted neo-Sufi concept of Islam?
In the Bhakti tradition, who popularized kirtans?
(d) Namdev
3.
6
(d) Neither I & II
9.
Which of the following statement (s) is/are
correct object of Sufi Movement?
(a) To realize and spread the knowledge of
unity, the religion of love and wisdom,
84 Master Series : Medieval India
so that the bias of faiths and beliefs may
of itself fall away, the human heart may
overflow with love, and all hatred caused by
distinctions and differences may be rooted
out.
(b) To discover the light and power latent in
man, the secret of all religion, the power of
mysticism, and the essence of philosophy,
without interfering with customs or belief.
Hints:
1.
Dynaneshwar – 13th century; Namdev – 13th
and 14th century; Ramananda – First half 15th
century; Guru Nanak – 15th and 16th century,
Disciple of Kabir, Kabir disciple of Ramananda;
Tukaram – 17th century.
2.
The early sufis popularized musical gatherings
called ‘sama’. Chaitanya popularized kirtans or
musical gatherings as a special form of mystic
experience.
3.
Dnyana (Knowledge) and Karma (Action)
led to domination of priests. Bhakti emphasized
bhaav, faith in god, love towards god and service
to humanity, etc. thus removing need for the
priests.
4.
Bhakti cult rose during the seventh and
eight centuries. The Saivaite Nayanars and
Vaishnavaite Alvars preached the Bhakti cult
under the Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas. But,
the spread of Bhakti movement in medieval
India is a different kind. This medieval Bhakti
movement was the direct result of the influence
of the spread of Islam in India. Monotheism or
belief in one God, equality and brotherhood of
man and rejection of rituals and class divisions
are the distinctive characteristics of Islam. These
Islamic ideas created a profound impact on the
religious leaders of this period. Moreover, the
preaching of Sufi teachers shaped the thinking
of Bhakti reformers like Ramananda, Kabir and
Nanak.
5.
Through regional languages they made direct
appeal to the masses. They condemned the caste
system and included all people, thus increasing
the importance of lower castes. Bhakti movement
gave equal importance to them. They gave to the
people a simple religion, without complicated
rituals. They were required to show sincere
devotion to God.
(c) Only A
(d) Both A & B
10. Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya was disciple of
which Sufi Saint?
(a) Baba Farid
(b) Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti
(c) Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud
(d) Sheikh Shihabuddin
Subjectve type questions for
Main Examination
1.
The rise of Sufism and Bhaktism in India
contributed to the development of composite
culture. Elucidate
2.
In relation to religious beliefs of the Medieval
period in India, explain the contribution of
following personalities:
(a) Dara Shikoh
(b) Ramdas
(c) Tukaram
(d) Kabir
(e) Shankaracharya
3.
Explain the difference between the Chisti
and Suhrawardi Silsilah’s.
Answers to MCQs
1.
6.
(c)
(a)
2.
7.
(c)
(d)
3.
8.
(a)
(c)
4.
9.
(c) 5. (c)
(d) 10. (a)
Introduction to Constitution & Preamble | 85
MEDIEVAL INDIA MASTER SERIES
UNIT 5
Vijayanagar and
BAHMANI KINGDOM
● The three ancient kingdoms, Chera, Chola,
and Pandya, occupied the Dravidian country,
peopled by Tamil-speaking peoples. Pandya,
the largest of them, had its capital at
Madura, and traced its foundation to the 4th
century B.C.
● The Chola kingdom had its headquarters
at Combaconum and Tanjore. Talkad, in
Mysore, now buried by the sands of the
Kaveri, was the capital of the Chera kingdom
288 to 900 AD.
● The 116th king of the Pandya dynasty was
overthrown by the Muslim general Malik
Kafur in 1304. But the Muslims failed to
establish their power in the extreme south,
and a series of Hindu dynasties ruled from
Madura over the old Pandya kingdom until
the 18th century.
● The authentic history in Southern India begins
with the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar
or Narsinha, from 1336 to 1672 AD. The
capital can still be traced within the Madras
District of Bellary, on the right bank of the
Tungabhadra river—vast ruins of temples,
fortifications, tanks, and bridges. For at least
three centuries, Vijayanagar ruled over the
southern part of the Indian triangle. The Rajas
waged war and made peace on equal terms
with the Muslim Sultans of the Deccan.
● The latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s
reign witnessed a spate of rebellions by
the nobles and provincial governors. The
rebellion of Hasan Shah resulted in the
establishment of the Madurai Sultanate. In
1336 the Vijayanagar kingdom was founded.
In 1347 Bahmani kingdom was established.
Vijayanagar Empire
(1336-1565)
Sources
● The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are
varied such as literary, archaeological and
numismatics.
● Krishnadeva Raya’s Amukthamalyada,
Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani
Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the
indigenous literature of this period.
Fig. 4.1. Vijayanagara Empire
● The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta,
Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian
traveler Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese
traveler Domingo Paes were among eminent
86 Master Series : Medieval India
foreign travelers who left valuable accounts
on the socio-economic conditions of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
● The copper plate inscriptions such as the
Srirangam copper plates of Deva Raya II
provide the achievements of Vijayanagar
rulers.
● The Hampi ruins and other monuments
of Vijayanagar provide information on the
cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar
rulers.
● The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar
rulers contain figures and legends explaining
their tittles and achievements.
Political History
● The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1346
as a direct response to the challenge posed
by the sultanate of Delhi. The empire was
founded by brothers, Harihara and Bukka.
Their dynasty was named after their father,
Sangama.
● There are several theories with regard to the
origin of this dynasty. According to some
scholars, they had been the feudatories of
the Kakatiyas of Warangal and after their
fall they served the Kampili state. Another
view says that they were the feudatories of
the Hoysalas and belonged to Karnataka.
● Harihara and Bukka were helped and
inspired by contemporary scholar and a
saint Vidyaranya for the establishment
of their kingdom. It is believed that to
commemorate the memory of their guru, the
brothers established the city of Vidyanagar
or Vijayanagara on the banks of river
Tungabhadra.
● The empire included people from different
cultural regions, the Tamil, Telugu and
Karnataka region who all spoke different
languages and belonged to different cultures.
● Between 1336 and 1565, Vijayanagar was
ruled by three different dynasties- Sangama,
who remained in power till 1485; the Saluva
who remained in power till 1503 and the
Tuluvas.The last dynasty was the Aravidu
dynasty that ruled till seventeenth century.
● Foreign travellers like Nicolo Conti, Fernao
Nuniz, Domingo Paes, Duarto Barbosa and
AbdurRazzaq wrote about the magnificence
of Vijayanagar.
● Vijayanagar’s main rivals were Bahamani
Sultan’s with whom they fought many battles.
The Tungabhadra doab (between Krishna and
Tungabhadra), Krishna-Godavari basin and
Konkan areas of Marathwada were the bone
of contention between two.
Vijayanagar Dynasties
Dynasty
Sangama
Saluva
Tuluva
Aravidu
Founder
Harihar and Bukka
Saluva Narsimha
Vir Narsimha
Tirumala
Period
1336-1485
1485-1505
1505-1570
1570-1649
Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485)
● This dynasty was founded in 1336 by two
brothers Harihara and Bukka. These two
brothers were feudatories in Kampili of
Karnataka.They laid the foundation of the
kingdom of Vijayanagar on the banks of
the river Tunghabhadra. Their capital was
located at Vijayanagar. This city is nowadays
known as Hampi (Karnataka). Though Hampi
is a small city but it has many buildings of
architectural splendor. It is also a World
Heritage Site.
● Harihara (1336–1356), was the first ruler of
the Vijayanagar Empire and also the Sangama
dynasty. Bukka Rai I (1356–377) succeeded
Harihara. Their father was Sangama, hence
the name of dynasty.
● Dev Raya I and Dev Raya II in 15th century
were two great rulers of Sangama dynasty.
Dev Raya II appointed large number of
Muslims soldiers in his army as archers. At
the same time the Muslim Bahmani kingdom
also had large number of Hindu soldiers. Both
kingdoms used religion as political tool.
● Virupaksha II was the last ruler of this
dynasty, killed by his commander in chief
Saluva Narsimha in 1485, and laid down the
foundation of Saluva dynasty.
Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 87
Saluva Dynasty (1485–1505 AD)
● Saluva Narasimha came forward to take
control and help to prevent the demise of
Sangama King. This change of power marked
the end of the Sangama dynasty and the
beginning of the Saluva dynasty.
● By tradition the Saluvas were natives of the
Kalyani region of northern Karnataka. The
Gorantla inscription traces their origins to
this region from the time of the Western
Chalukyas and Kalachuris of Karnataka.
The term ‘Saluva’ is known to lexicographers
as ‘hawk’. They later spread onto the east
coast of modern Andhra Pradesh, perhaps by
migration or during the Vijayanagar conquests
of the fourteenth century. The earliest known
Saluva from inscriptional evidence in the
Vijayanagar era was Mangaldeva, the greatgrandfather of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya.
Mangaldeva played an important role in the
victories of Vijaynagar king, Bukka Raya I,
against the sultanate of Madurai.
Tuluva Dynasty (1505–1570 AD)
● The dynasty was effectively founded when
General Tuluva Narasa Nayaka became
regent to the two young sons of the previous
emperor in 1491. The sons were kept under
firm control, with the younger of them even
being kept in confinement for his entire
reign, before he was murdered. That murder
allowed the general’s son, Viranarasimha
Raya, to declare himself king, although he
spent his entire reign putting down rebellions
throughout the empire.
● The Tuluva gained their name from their
homeland, the Tulu-speaking region of
‘Tulunud’. Narasa Nayaka belonged to the
Bunt community, the upper class matrilineal
Hindu community belonging to the
Nagavanshi Kshatriya, a warrior order found
mainly in southern coastal Karnataka. Under
their control, the Vijaynagar Empire reached
the height of its power.
Vira Narsimha (1505-1509)
● He is known as the founder of this dynasty.
He was the son of Narasa Nayaka. He became
the king after the assassination of Immadi
Narasimha.
Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529)
● He was the younger brother of Vira Narasimha
and most famous king of this dynasty, also
known as Andhra Bhoj. Krishna Deva
Raya maintained friendly relations with
Albuquerque, Portuguese governor and
allowed him to build a fort at Bhatkal.
● He possessed great military ability. His first
task was to check the invading Bahmani
forces. By that time the Bahmani kingdom
was replaced by Deccan Sultanates. The
Muslim armies were decisively defeated in
the battle of Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya.
● Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had
resulted in the confrontation with the Sultan
of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. Krishna Deva
Raya defeated him and captured the city of
Raichur in 1520. From there he marched on
Bidar and captured it.
● Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was
also successful. He defeated the Gajapathi
ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole
of Telangana.
● Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all
religions. He was a great patron of literature
and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
● Eight
eminent
scholars
known
as
Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court.
AllasaniPeddanna was the greatest and he
was called Andhrakavita Pitamaha. His
important works include Manucharitam and
Harikathasaram. PingaliSuranna and Tenali
Ramakrishna were other important scholars.
● Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a
Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and
Sanskrit works, Jambavati Kalyanam
and Ushaparinayam. He built the famous
Vittalaswamy
and
HazaraRamaswamy
temples at Vijayanagar.
● He took the titles of Yavanaraja
Sthapanacharya (restorer of Yavana kingdom
i.e. Bahamani) and Abhinava Bhoja.
88 Master Series : Medieval India
● He also built a new city called Nagalapuram
in memory of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides,
he built a large number of Rayagopurams.
● After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata
succeeded the throne. During the reign of
Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur,
Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated
him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565. This
battle is also known as RaksasaThangadi.
● Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed.
The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This
battle was generally considered to mark the
end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
temples. Temples had great role in developing
various cultures, like drama, music, paintings
and hence it encouraged various craftsmen
and artisans. Temples in south India thus
played an important role, both for developing
economy as well as culture.
Famous Travelers to Vijayanagar Empire
Travellers
Ibn Batuta
Country
Morocco
Rulers
Harihar
Nicolo de Conti Italy
Deva Raya I
Abdur Razzak
Persia
DevaRaya II
Domingo Paes
Portugal
KrishnaDeva Raya
Duarte Barbosa
Portugal
KrisnaDeva Raya
Aravidu Dynasty
● Aravidu dynasty for about another century.
Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the
important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler
of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.
Features of Vijayanagar Empire
● They gave centralized administration in which
king was supreme and generally a Brahmin
Kings were assisted by Mantri Parishad,
whose members were also mainly Brahmins.
Land tax collection was an important source of
revenue for empire. They minted Gold coins,
silver and copper coins were not known. They
were the followers of Vaishnavism.
● There was evidence of influence of Aryan
culture. Brahmins have great impact on
administration , all top positions in army,
revenue and judicial were occupied by
Brahmins and temples got certain land which
were taxed but at very low rates; 1/40th in
case of temples and 1/30th in case of priests.
● Brahmins had monopoly over education,
it was reserved for upper castes only and
women were generally ignored.
● Temples were one of the largest employers.
They also worked as banking institutions
providing loans @ 3-30%. External trade was
charged at higher rates as external trade had
greater degree of risk.
● Sometimes even kings had to take loans from
Administration
● The king enjoyed absolute authority in
executive, judicial and legislative matters.He
was the highest court of appeal.
● The succession to the throne was on the
principle of hereditary. Sometimes usurpation
to the throne took place as SaluvaNarasimha
came to power by ending the Sangama
dynasty.
● The King was assisted by a council of ministers
in his day to day administration.The Empire
was divided into different administrative units
called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally
into gramas.
● The governor of Mandalam was called
Mandaleswara or Nayak.Vijayanagar rulers
gave full powers to the local authorities in
the administration.Besides land revenue,
tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal
chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes
on various professions were other sources of
income to the government.
● Land revenue was fixed generally one
sixth of the produce.The expenditure of the
government includes personal expenses of
king and the charities given by him and
military expenditure.
● In the matter of justice, harsh punishments
such as mutilation and throwing to elephants
were followed.
Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 89
Army and Military Organisation of
the Vijayanagar Empire
● In order to wage continuous warfare there
was a need to keep a large army. Artillery
was important and well bred horses were
maintained. The Vijayanagar rulers imported
high quality horses from across the Arabian
Sea from Arabia and other Gulf countries.
● The port of Malabar was the centre of this
trade and trade in other luxury commodities.
The Vijayanagar rulers always attempted to
control the port of Malabar.
● Like the Bahamanis, the Vijayanagar state
also was familiar with the use of firearms and
employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to
train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of
warfare.
● One of the Rayas, Deva Raya II enrolled
Muslims in his armed services, allotted them
jagirs and erected a mosque for their use in
the city.
● The walls of the forts to counter the firearms
were now made thick and special kinds of door
with fortified walls front were constructed.
On the walls of the forts, special kinds of
big holes were made to rest the guns. Special
kinds of parapets were constructed on the
forts to put the canons on it.
● Firearms were used. Some firearms were
small and comprised of rifles and pistols.
Some like canons were heavy and had to be
put on a bullock cart or on an elephant and
pushed into the battlefield.
● One of the important characteristics of
the Vijayanagar administration was the
Amara Nayaka system. In this system, the
commander of the Vijayanagar army was
called the Nayaka. Each Nayaka was given
an area for administration.
● The Nayaka was responsible for expanding
agricultural activities in his area. He collected
taxes in his area and with this income
maintained his army, horses, elephants and
weapons of warfare that he had to supply
to the Raya or the Vijayanagar ruler. The
Nayaka was also the commander of the forts.
● Some of the revenue was also used for the
maintenance of temples and irrigation works.
The Amara-Nayakas sent tribute to the king
annually and personally appeared in the royal
court with gifts to express their loyalty.In the
seventeenth century, several of these Nayakas
became independent and established separate
states.
● The feudal Nayankaras used to maintain their
own soldiers, forces and elephants. They
were a powerful section that challenged the
Vijayanagar authority, weakened its internal
structures and contributed to the defeat of the
Vijayangar in the battle of Talikota.
Social Life
● Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers
the existence of four castes – Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras – in the
Vijayanagar society.
● Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the
splendor of buildings and luxurious social life
in the city of Vijayanagar.
● Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used
for dress.Perfumes, flowers and ornaments
were used by the people. Paes mentions of
the beautiful houses of the rich and the large
number of their household servants. Nicolo
Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery.
Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and
cock-fighting were some of the amusements.
● Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of
Vijayanagar. They were continued by the
Nayak rulers in the later period. The metal
images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens
at Tirupati are examples for casting of
metal images. Music and dancing were also
patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
Economic Condition
● According to the accounts of the foreign
travelers, the Vijayanagar Empire was one
of the wealthiest parts of the world at that
time. Agriculture continued to be the chief
occupation of the people.
90 Master Series : Medieval India
● The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus
to its further growth by providing irrigation
facilities. New tanks were built and dams
were constructed across the rivers like
Tunghabadra. Nuniz refers to the excavation
of canals.
● There were numerous industries and they
were organized into guilds. Metal workers and
other craftsmen flourished during this period.
Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and
Anantapur district. Vijayanagar was also a
great centre of trade.
● The chief gold coin was the varaha but weights
and measures varied from place to place.
● Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the
general prosperity. There were a number of
seaports on the Malabar Coast, the chief
being Cannanore. Commercial contacts with
Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on
the west and with Burma, Malay Peninsula
and China on the east flourished.
● The chief items of exports were cotton and
silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and
sugar.The imports consisted of horses, pearls,
copper, coral, mercury, China silk and velvet
clothes. The art of shipbuilding had developed.
Cultural Contributions
● The temple building activity further gained
momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.The
chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara
architecture were the construction of tall
Raya Gopurams or gateways and the
Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the
temple premises.
● The sculptures on the pillars were carved with
distinctive features. The horse was the most
common animal found in these pillars. Large
Mandapams contain one hundred pillars as
well as one thousand pillars in some big
temples. These Mandapams were used for
seating the deity on festival occasions.
● Also, many Amman shrines were added
to the already existing temples during this
period.The most important temples of the
Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi
ruins or the city of Vijayanagar.
● Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy
temples were the best examples of this style.
The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples
at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the
magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of
temple architecture.
● The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai
and Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch
of Vijayanagar. They were continued by the
Nayak rulers in the later period.
● The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya
and his queens at Tirupati are examples for
casting of metal images.
● Music and dancing were also patronized by
the rulers of Vijayanagar. Different languages
such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil
flourished in the regions.
● There was a great development in Sanskrit
and Telugu literature.The peak of literary
achievement was reached during the reign of
Krishna Deva Raya. He himself was a scholar
in Sanskrit and Telugu.
● His famous court poet Allasani Peddanna was
distinguished in Telugu literature.
Bahmani Kingdom
● The Deccan region was a part of the provincial
administration of the Delhi Sultanate.In order
to establish a stable administration in the
Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed
amiran-i-sada/ Sada Amir, who were the
administrative heads of hundred villages.
● From 1337 the conflict between the officers
in Deccan and Delhi sultanate accelerated
which led to the establishment of an
independent state in the Deccan in 1347 with
the capital at Gulbarga in Andhra Pradesh.
● Its founders Haran Gangu assumed the title
AlauddinHasanBahman Shah as he traced
his descent from the mythical hero of Iran,
Bahman Shah and the kingdom was named
after him, the Bahamani Sultanate.
● After Mohammad bin Tughlaq there were no
attempts by the Delhi Sultanate to control
the Deccan region, therefore, the Bahamani
Sultans without any checks annexed the
kingdom.
Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 91
Kingdom
Golkonda
(Andhra)
Bijapur (Kar)
Ahmadnagar
(Mah)
Berar
(Maharshtra)
Bidar
(Karnataka)
Fig. 4.2. Bahamani Kingdom
● There were a total of fourteen Sultans ruling
over this kingdom. Among them, Alauddin
Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz
Shah were important.
● Three important people who played a key role
in expanding and consolidating the Bahmani
Kingdom are as follows:
1. Firoz Shah Bahamani (1397-1422)
● He was well acquainted with the religious
sciences, i.e. Commentaries on the Quran,
jurisprudence etc. He was fond of Botany,
Geometry, Logic etc.) He was educated and
learned man and knew many languages. The
most remarkable step taken by him is the
induction of Hindus in administration on
large scale. He was married to daughter of
Deva Raya I and later defeated by Dev Raya
I. He gave up the power to his brother Ahmad
Shah.
2. Ahmad Shah
● He was also known as Wali, as he was treated
as Sufi Saint. Ahmad Shah shifted the capital
from Gulbarga to Bidar. A famous north
Indian saint Gesu Daraz (Long Haired) a
Saint of Chisti Silsila visited in his reign.
● The Bahamani kingdom gradually expanded
and reached to zenith of power and territorial
limits during the Prime Minister ship of
Mahmud Gawan. After his death the kingdom
was divided into 5 kingdoms, which though
were not large, but very strong.
Founder
Qutub Mulk
Year
1512
Yusuf Adil
Khan
Malik
Ahmad
Fatehullah
Imad Ul
Mulk
Qasim Barid
1489
1490
1484
1527
Dynasty
Qutb Shahi
dynasty
Adil Shahi
dynasty
Nizam Shahi
dynasty
Imad Shahi
dynasty
Barid Shahi
dynasty
● Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from
Gulbarga to Bidar.The power of the Bahmani
kingdom reached its peak under the rule of
Muhammad Shah III. It extended from the
Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the
west it extended from Goa to Bombay. On
the east, it extended from Kakinada to the
mouth of the river Krishna.
3. Mahmud Gawan
● One of the most important personalities in
the Bahamani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan.
The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under
the guidance of Mahmud Gawan.
● Mahmud Gawan’s early life is obscure. He
was an Iranian by birth and first reached
Deccan as a trader. He was granted the title
of ‘Chief of the Merchants’ or Malikut-Tujjar
by the Bahamani ruler, Humayun Shah.
● The sudden death of Humayun led to the
coronation of his minor son Ahmad III. A
regency council was set for the administration
and Mahmud Gawan was its important
member.
● He was made wazir or the prime minister and
was given the title of ‘Khwaju-i-Jahan.’The
history of Bahmani kingdom after this period
is actually the record of the achievements of
Mahmud Gawan.
● He lived a simple life and was magnanimous.
He was also a learned person. He possessed
a great knowledge of mathematics.He made
endowments to build a college at Bidar which
was built in the Persian style of architecture.
● He was also a military genius. He waged
92 Master Series : Medieval India
successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa
and the sea pirates on the Arabian Sea.His
conquests include Konkan, Goa and KrishnaGodavari delta and thus he expanded the
Bahmani Empire through his conquests.
● Despite of being an Afaqui he was liberal
and wanted a compromise between the
Afaquis and the Deccanis.He controlled the
kingdom in an efficient manner and provided
it stability.
● Gawan conquered the Vijayanagar territories
up to Kanchi.On the western coast, Goa
and Dhabol were conquered. Losing
these important ports was a great loss for
Vijayanagar.
● Bahamani strengthened its trading relations
with Iran and Iraq after gaining control over
Goa and Dabhol.His administrative reforms
were aimed to increase the control of Sultan
over the nobles and provinces.
● Gawan carried out many internal reforms and
attempted to put an end to the strife in the
nobility. Royal officers were appointed in
each province for this purpose. Most of the
forts were under the control of these officers.
● In order to curb the military power of the
Tarafdar, Gawan ordered that only one
fort of each province was to be under the
direct control of the provincial Tarafdar.The
remaining forts of the province were placed
under a Qiladar or commander of the forts.
The Qiladar was appointed by the central
Government.
Administration of Mahmud Gawan
● The success of Muhammad Shah was due
to the advice and services of his minister
Mahmud Gawan. One of the important
acquisitions was the control over Dabhol, an
important port on the west coast.
● Under Bahman Shah and his son Muhammad
Shah, the administrative system was well
organised.The kingdom was divided into
four administrative units called ‘taraf’ or
provinces. These provinces were Daultabad,
Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga.
● Muhammad I defeated the Vijayanagar
kingdom and consequently Golconda was
annexed to Bahamani kingdom.
● Every province was under a Tarafdar who
was also called a Subedar. Some land
was converted into Khalisa land from the
jurisdiction of the Tarafdar. Khalisa land
was that piece of land which was used to run
expenses of the king and the royal household.
● Further the services and the salary of every
noble was fixed. Those nobles who kept 500
horses were given 1000,000 huns annually.
If short of the stipulated troops, the Tarafdar
would have to reimburse the amount to the
central government.
● Nobles used to get their salary either in cash
or in form of grant of land or ‘jagir’.
● Bahamani ruler depended for military support
on his Amirs.There were two groups in the
ranks of Amirs:
1. One was the Deccanis who were
immigrant Muslims and had been staying
for a long time in the Deccan region.
2. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis
who had recently come from Central
Asia, Iran and Iraq and had settled in the
Deccan region recently.
● Between both these groups there was always
tension to appropriate better administrative
positions and because of their feuds, the
stability of the Bahamani Sultanate was
affected.
● For the first time in India both Bahamani and
Vijaynagar kingdoms used gunpowder in the
warfare.The Bahamanis were already familiar
with the use of firearms. They employed
Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the
soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.
Break up of Bahmani Kingdom
● However, soon after his death, the governors
declared their independence and the Bahamani
kingdom broke up.In the fifteenth and the
sixteenth century, some Amirs in Bidar,
Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bijapur and
Berar established independent sultanates of
their own and formed new states.
Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 93
● These were the NizamShahis of Ahmadnagar,
the AdilShahis of Bijapur, the QutbShahis of
Golconda, and the ImadShahis of Berar and
the BaridShahis of Bidar.
● They formed a league of states and
strengthened them by matrimonial alliances.
They maintained the traditional rivalry with
the Vijayanagar rulers.
● Golconda and Bijapur entered into matrimonial
alliances and led the Battle of Talikota against
Vijayanagar.They finally succumbed to the
Mughal armies.
● Deccan Sultanate emerged after the fall
of Bahamani Kingdom – Bidar, Bijapur,
Golconda, Ahmednagar, Berar.
Conflicts between the
Vijayanagar and the Bahamani
Kingdoms
● There were constant conflicts between the
Vijayanagar and the Bahamani kingdoms
over the control of Raichur doab which
was the land between rivers Krishna and
Tungabhadra.
● This area was fertile and rich in mineral
resources. The famous diamond mines of
Golconda were located in the eastern part
of the doab region.
● The geography of both the kingdoms was
such that expansion was possible only across
Tungabhadra in the Deccan. It appears that the
battles between the two were not conclusive
and the status quo was maintained.
● Sometimes, Bahamani had an advantage and
sometimes, Vijayanagar had an advantage.
For instance, in 1504, the Bahamani managed
to reconquer the Raichur doab. However,
with the ascent of Krishna Deva Raya, the
Bahamanis lost Raichur, Mudkal, Nalgonda
and other inland towns.
● An important result of these wars was that
both the powers were so involved amongst
themselves that they never realized the
increasing power of the Portuguese on the
coast of South India.
● Besides, continuous warfare exhausted the
resources of both the states and weakened
them.
● The other areas of conflict were the
Marathwada region and the deltaic region
of Krishna-Godavari.Both regions had fertile
areas and important ports that controlled trade
to the foreign countries.
● The fertile area in the Marathwada region was
the Konkan belt that also had the port of Goa
which was an important region for trade and
export and import especially import of horses
from Iraq and Iran.
● Often, the battles between the Vijayanagar and
the Bahamani states are perceived as HinduMuslim conflicts, but the above mentioned
reasons show that the struggle was not due
to any religious differences.
● Territorial and economic motives were the
main causes for the war.Despite hostilities
between the two states, there were times
when they also co-operated with each other.
● Krishna Deva Raya, for example, supported
some claimants to power in the Sultanates
and took pride in the title “establisher of
the Yavana kingdom”. Similarly, the Sultan
of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession
disputes in Vijayanagra following the death
of Krishna Deva Raya.
● There were also sharing and exchange of
ideas, especially in the field of art, literature
and architecture.
Deccan and South India
● After the break-up of the Bahmani kingdom,
three powerful states, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur,
and Golconda emerged as the independent
states. In 1565, all these three states united
to crush Vijayanagara Empire at the battle of
Bannihatti, near Tallikota.
● After the victory in the battle of Bannihatti,
the Deccani states resumed their old ways.
Both Ahmednagar and Bijapur claimed
Sholapur, which was a rich and fertile tract
of that time.
94 Master Series : Medieval India
● The Gujarat rulers actively supported Berar
ruler against Ahmednagar, and later also
engaged in a war against Ahmednagar. On
the other hand, Bijapur and Golconda clashed
over the possession of Naldurg (located in
Maharashtra).
● In 1572, the Mughal emperor Akbar conquest
Gujarat, which created a new situation. The
conquest of Gujarat was just beginning of the
Mughal conquest of the Deccan. However,
Akbar at that time was busy elsewhere and
did not pay attention to the Deccan affairs.
● Ahmednagar conquested Berar. Further,
Ahmednagar and Bijapur made an agreement
whereby Bijapur was left free to expand
its territory in the south at the expense of
Vijayanagara, while Ahmednagar ruled Berar.
● The Marathas were also started taking interest
in the affairs of the Deccan.
● In south, the revenue affairs at the local level
were in the hands of the Deccani Brahmans.
● During the middle of the sixteenth century,
the rulers of the Deccan states relied upon
a policy i.e. winning over the Marathas to
their side.
● The Maratha chiefs were given services and
positions in all the three leading states of the
Deccan. Ibrahim Adil Shah (ruler of Bijapur),
who ascended the throne in 1555, was the
leading advocate of this policy.
● Ibrahim Adil Shah, most likely, introduced
Marathi in revenue accounts at all levels.
Besides, a few other families such as the
Bhonsales who had the family name of
Ghorpade, Dafles (or Chavans), etc., also rose
to prominence in Bijapur.
● Ahmednagar ruler had been given the title
of ‘Peshwa’ to a Brahmana, namely Kankoji
Narsi.
Mughal’s Movement towards
Deccan
● After decline of the Delhi Sultanate, many
Sufi saints and other people in search of the
employment had migrated to the court of the
Bahmani rulers.
● After the conquest of Malwa and Gujarat in
1560’s and early 1570’s, Akbar gradually
moved towards the Deccan politics.
● In 1576, a Mughal army invaded Khandesh,
and compelled the rulers of Khandesh to
surrender. However, because of the 12 years
(from 1586 to 1598) Akbar’s absent from
India (he was lived at Lahore during this
period), affairs in the Deccan deteriorated.
● Among the Deccan states, there was very
unstable politics. War among the various
Deccan states was a frequent occurrence.
Religion (especially shia and sunni) was the
leading cause of conflict.
Mahdawi Belief
● Mahdawi ideas had spread widely in the
Deccan. In fact, a group of the Muslims
believed that in every epoch, a man from
the family of the Prophet will make an
appearance and will strengthen the religion,
and make justice triumph; such a group of
Muslims were known as the ‘Mahdi.’
● In India, Saiyid Muhammad, who was born
at Jaunpur (in Uttar Pradesh), in the first half
of the fifteenth century, proclaimed himself
as the Mahdi.
● Saiyid Muhammad traveled throughout the
country as well as in the Islamic world, which
created great enthusiasm. He established his
dairas (circles) in different parts of the country,
including the Deccan where his ideas found a
fertile soil. However, the orthodox elements
were bitterly opposed to Mahdawaism as to
Shiism.
Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom 95
Medieval India Master Exercise
MCQs
1.
for Preliminary Examination
Who among the following was the founder of the
Vijaynagar Kingdom and the city according to
the Kapaluru and Begepalli grants?
(a) Saluva Narsimha
2.
3.
(c) Six
(d) Seven
6.
(a) Deva Raya I
(c) Tirimala
(b) Deva Raya II
(d) Hari and Bukka
(c) Harihar
Who became the King of Tuluva Dynasty after
the assassination of Immadi Narasimha?
(d) Bukka
7.
(a) Hari
Which of the following foreign travellers visited
in the court of Harihara I?
(b) Vir Narsimha
(a) Ibn Batuta
(c) Tirimala
(b) Nicolo de Conti
(d) Krishna Deva Raya
(c) Abdur Razzak
Consider the following statement (s) related to
the features of Vijaynagar Empire.
(d) Domingo Paes
8.
It was monarchy
Which of the following foreign travellers visited
in the court of Deve Raya II ?
(a) Ibn Batuta
II. Land tax was an important source of revenue
for the empire.
(b) Nicolo de Conti
Select the correct statement (s):
(c) Abdur Razzak
(a) Only I
(d) Domingo Paes
(b) Only II
9.
Which Vijaynagar ruler followed Vaishnavism?
(c) Both I & II
(a) Krishna Dev Ray
(d) Neither I nor II
(b) Vir Narsimha
Who was the following Bahmani King married
to the daughter of Dev Raya I?
(a) Sultan Quli Hamadani or Quttbul Mulk
(b) Yusuf Adil Khan
(c) Ahmad Shah I
5.
Who among the Vijaynagar ruler adopted the
‘Gajabetekara (the elephant hunter)’?
(b) Vir Narsimha
I.
4.
5
(c) Tirumala
(d) All of the above
10. Who among the ruler of Vijaynagar maintained
friendly relations with Albuquerque, the
Portuguese Governor and granted him
permission to build fort at Bhatkal?
(d) Firoz Shah Bahmani
(a) Krishna Dev Ray
How many kingdoms ruled over Vijaynagar?
(b) Vir Narsimha
(a) Four
(c) Tirumala
(b) Five
(d) All of the above
96 Master Series : Medieval India
Subjectve type questions for
3.
Main Examination
1.
Explain the rivalry between the Vijayanagar and
Bahamani Kingdom?
2.
Mention the contributions of Krishna Deva
Raya in the development of Telugu and Sanskrit
literatures in South.
With reference to Bahmani Kingdom, list down
the contribution of:
(a) Mahmud Gawan
(b) Malik Amber
Answers to MCQs
1.
6.
(d)
(b)
2.
7.
(b)
(a)
3.
8.
(c)
(c)
4.
9.
(d) 5. (a)
(d) 10. (a)
Part - C
Art and Culture
Characteristics of Indian Culture 1
ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES
UNIT 1
Characteristics of
INDIAN CULTURE
What is Culture?
Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a
particular group of people, encompassing language,
religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts.
The Center for Advance Research on Language
Acquisition goes a step further, defining culture as
shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive
constructs and understanding that are learned by
socialization. Thus, it can be seen as the growth of
a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to
the group.
Salient Features of Indian Culture
(a) Unity in Diversity: According to the Indian
spiritual tradition there is only one source for
the universe. But it has infinite manifestations.
Many people have described and experienced
it in different ways.. The principle of unity in
diversity is the implicit law of nature, universe
and life. People belonging to various religions
harmoniously co-exist in India. Numerous
styles of architecture, sculpture, painting, music,
dance, festivals and customs have developed
here. This wide variety has made the Indian
culture rich and beautiful.
There are many reasons. The size of the
country and the variations in its physical and
climatic features are the main reasons for the
variety. Different ethnic groups like Iranians,
Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs,
Turks, Mughals and Europeans came to India.
They settled here and mingled with the local
population. They brought their cultural habits,
thoughts and ideas to India. India has always
shown a remarkable capacity for the assimilation of ideas. Despite this diversity, there is
an intrinsic unity in our cultural heritage. It is
reflected throughout the nation in our music,
dance forms, drama, art and literature.
(b) Continuity and Change: Indian cultural
heritage is as old as the Indus Valley Civilization. It still flourishes maintaining its original
features together with changes. Even today, the
pattern of a house in an Indian village is not
very different from that of a Harappan house.
There were many great cultures in different
parts of the world. However, most of them
have disappeared or have been replaced by
other cultures.
A culture perishes when it fails to absorb
changes. They include the reform movements
by Jainism and Buddhism in 6th century BC
and the religious and social awakening in the
18th and 19th centuries. Several changes were
brought about in Indian thought and practices
by various movements. The Indian culture has
maintained an unbroken continuity from the
Vedic times to the present day, in spite of
countless wars and two centuries of the British
rule. Thus a process of continuity and change
has always been a feature of the Indian culture.
It shows the dynamic character of our culture.
(c) Religious Pluralism: India has been a
cradle of religions. It considered religion as a
way of life and not just as rituals or dogmas.
India has a tradition of giving equal respect for
all religions. Due to this, other major world
2 Master Series : Art and Culture
religions flourished in India. Adhithidevobhava
is a famous mantra of our land. India has
always preached and practised tolerance and
understanding. These have been the basis of
Indian religion, philosophy, art and literature.
The secular character of Indian culture is a
result of the intermingling of people from
diverse cultural groups. Hindus, Muslims,
Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsees and
Jews live together in India. During festivities
people come together to share their thoughts
and beliefs. (Example: The devotees of Lord
Ayyappa visit the Vavar Mosque at Erumeli).
Everyone is free to profess, practise and propagate any religion of his/her own choice. There
is no state religion and the state gives equal
respect for all religions.
(d) Universalism: The values of Vasudhaiva
Kudumbakam and Loka Samastha Sukhino
Bhavanthu are the key aspects of Indian tradition. Our scriptures advocate that Iswar or
the Divine Spirit is in all living beings. So,
the Indian culture believes in the oneness of
all living beings. The concept of co-existence
is not limited to the geographical and political
boundaries of the country alone. India has a
universal outlook. It has been promoting the
message of peace and harmony in the entire
world. Spiritual and Material India is popularly
known to be a land of spiritualism. However,
Indian history from ancient times shows the
development of materialistic culture as well.
Our ancient civilizations were proud of its
vast knowledge of mathematics, weights and
measures. Discoveries of many scientific theories were made by Indians long before the
modern science acknowledged them. Similarly,
in the areas of astronomy, medicine and other
sciences India’s achievements in ancient times
were significant. There was no resistance from
religions in pursuing such knowledge.
(e) Humanity and Tolerance: The gentleness of Indians has always been there, despite
the aggressiveness of the Muslim conquerors
and the reformative attitude of the British, the
Portuguese and the Dutch. The Indians are
noted for their benevolent and calm nature,
without any harshness in their principles and
ideals. Mahatma Gandhi’s satyagraha principle
or Ahimsa worked wonders and gave credit to
India in the international forum.
(f) Closely connected Social System:
The Indian culture has family-bound traditions and customs. The families are closely
connected with grandparents, parents, children
and grandchildren. They share the same spirit,
values, tradition and property. Indians regard
family as an institution or a link, which continues for the rest of their lives.
(g) Cultural Charisma (Cultural Appeal):
India is a place of infinite variety of culture
and tradition. They are the most remarkable
features of India. One can identify ‘Indian
Music’, ‘Indian Dance’, ‘Indian Literature’,
Indian Cuisine’ ‘Indian Fairs and Festivals’ and
so on. Indian classical music and dance are
mentioned in the ancient religious texts and are
treasured by its people till now. There are innumerable religious and historical monuments in
India that reflect the strong influence of several
rulers that ruled the country for ages.
Culture and its Determinants
Culture is determined and shaped historically
and socially. It, in its turn, influences the social,
economic and political development of people or
nation.
(a) Culture, Society and History: To begin
with, culture is the life and mind of a society
at any given time in history. The culture of a
particular society or age cannot be separated
from its historical context. The continuity,
change or transformation in cultural traditions
is influenced by the social, economic and
political developments at any given time, and
vice-versa.
To give a few examples, the growth and changes
in agricultural production are inseparably linked
with the emergence, development and changes
within the Vedic civilization in India.
The early Dravidian civilization has been an
important influence because of its cultural
significance in a specific historical and social
context. The flowering of art and literature as
well as the Buddhist monuments of the Mau-
Characteristics of Indian Culture 3
rya and Gupta period would not have been
possible without the prosperity and increase in
commerce during that period. The same can be
said for the Chola temples or the Vijaynagar
structures. The Bhakti movement had as its
basis the growth of trade and commerce, and
the consequent growth of towns in the 14th and
15th centuries, which motivated a questioning
of the caste restrictions in certain occupations
in the name of religion. The preachings of
Bhakti saints in the peoples’ languages and their
compilation made possible the growth of Braj,
Awadhi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Marathi, Panjabi,
Kashmiri and other regional literatures.
The enormous expenditure involved in the
magnificent architecture of the Mughals was
possible only because of the significantly
increased state share in the surplus production
during Mughal rule. Development of new musical forms and their popularisation in the courts,
translation of important texts of the world, as
well as growth of new techniques in production
were immensely helped by the Court patronage generated by this increased surplus. The
concepts of equality as part of anti-caste and
peasant economic struggles, the movement for
women’s education and emancipation, a scientific temper, secularism, a democratic culture
and the culture of democracy took shape in
the context of modernity that came with the
development of capitalism in India, as a result
of the impact of British conquest.
(b) Political Structures and their Impact
on Culture: Political structures have also had
an impact on our culture throughout its history.
For example, the periods of political decentralization, as after the disintegration of the Gupta
Empire and, later, the Mughal Empire, resulted
in the growth of regional cultures. Similarly the
periods of centralization, such as the Mughal
and the modern periods, helped in the development of a composite, syncretic tradition that
has the semblance of a national culture. The
religion professed by a ruler can inspire the
development of art forms bearing those religious expressions. It does not, however, mean
that other forms were suppressed. Similarly a
more liberal, democratic and secular rule may
witness the growth of non-religious art forms
as seen in modern and contemporary India.
An oppressive rule can also stimulate cultural
expressions of protest as seen during the colonial rule.
(c) Outside Influences and Culture: No
society has existed in isolation, or remained
uninfluenced by the other societies it came in
contact with. This is as true of our country as
any other, and we have had contact with the
outside world since the earliest times.
Our entire scientific and technological heritage
is a shared heritage. Repeated new influences
as a result of trade contacts, conquests followed
by settlements and adoption or intermixing
with the native population by different tribes
and races through India’s history have enriched
India’s culture. The Aryans brought with them
forms of agricultural products, new gods and
beliefs. With Turkish conquest came gunpowder, cavalry and new techniques. Stitched cloth,
domes, arches, paper, glass-making techniques,
and water-wheel are some of the elements of
civilization which came from outside. Persian
influences after the Mughal conquest brought
into being new melodies, musical forms, musical instruments, dastan and ghazals as forms
of literary expression, miniature painting, etc.
The composite, syncretic culture, and flowering
of different regional cultures came from the
interaction that shared life gave to India. It is
a culture of unity in diversity.
4 Master Series : Art and Culture
Art and Culture Master Exercise
1
Subjectve type questions for Main
Examination
1.
What is the difference between art and culture?
How is culture different from civilization?
2.
India is the land of diversified culture, religion,
customs, traditions and languages. What are the
factors that shape our history?
3.
In the context of diversity of India, can it be said
that the regions form cultural units rather than
the States? Give reasons with examples for your
viewpoint. (UPSC 2017)
History and Culture of India Through Ages 5
ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES
UNIT 2
History and Culture of India
THROUGH AGES
What is Pre-history?
Pre-history concerns itself with the period of human
existence before the availability of written records with
which recorded history begins. It is thus a study of those
pre-literate societies of our earliest hunter-gatherer
ancestors and the progress, technological and otherwise,
as they domesticated animals, gradually mastered
agriculture, and settled down in the earliest settlements,
villages and towns. It follows the development of some
of these settlements into centralised human societies
and the emergence of the first great civilisations of
the world. The story of this progress from the earliest
hunter-gatherer lifestyle to the diversity of human
activity today encompasses a vast span of time and is
not uniform in different parts of the world.
● India is one of the oldest inhabited regions on
the planet. The Hominid activity in the subcontinent dates back to over 250,000 years.
● Significant human activity was underway in
India by the Holocene Period some 10,000
years ago. Before delving into the ancient
history of India, one of the vital thing to
understand is the Geological time frame for
better understanding of continuity and cultural
pattern of the Indian history.
The Evolution of Humankind
● It is believed that the genus Homo evolved in
Africa roughly 2.5 million years ago.
● The Homo habilis species that emerged were
the first members of the Homo lineage, and is
definitely known to have made and used stone
tools and artefacts. (Refer fig 2.2)
● It is known that Homo erectus populations,
which had appeared by around 1.8 million
years ago, had spread out of Africa and
occupied large regions of Eastern and Southeast Asia half a million years ago.
● Fully modern man or Homo sapiens sapiens
appears in the period between 100,000 BP
(before present) and 60,000 BP, initially in
South Africa and the Near East.
● In the Indian context, the oldest fossils of the
Homo lineage have been found in Tamil Nadu
and have been dated to 1.5 million years ago.
Fig. 2.1. Evolution of Humankind
6 Master Series : Art and Culture
The Quaternary Period
The Quaternary Period is the current and
most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic
Era in the geologic time scale. It spans from 2.588
million years ago to the present. The Quaternary
Period is divided into two epochs, the Pleistocene
(2.588 million years ago to 11.7 thousand years ago)
and the Holocene (11.7 thousand years ago to today).
Pleistocene Epoch
● Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated
glacial cycles in which continental glaciers
pushed to the 40th parallel in some places.
● It is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent,
30% of the Earth's surface was covered by
ice. The mean annual temperature at the edge
of the ice was −6 °C (21 °F), at the edge of
the permafrost, 0 °C (32 °F).
● The evolution of anatomically modern humans
took place during the Pleistocene. In the
beginning of the Pleistocene, Paranthropus
species are still present, as well as early
human ancestors, but during the lower
Palaeolithic they disappeared, and the only
hominine species found in fossil records is
Homo erectus for much of the Pleistocene.
● The Middle Palaeolithic saw more varied
speciation within Homo, including the
appearance of Homo sapiens about 200,000
years ago. Modern humans migrated from
Africa, spreading all over the ice-free world
during the late Pleistocene.
Holocene Epoch
The Holocene also encompasses the growth
and impacts of the human species worldwide,
including all its written history, development of
major civilizations, and overall significant transition
towards urban living in the present. The beginning
of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning
of the Mesolithic age in majority areas. The Late
Holocene brought advancements such as the bow
and arrow (at some places) and saw new methods
of warfare. Spear throwers and their large points
were replaced by the bow and arrow with its small
narrow points beginning. Villages built on defensive
bluffs indicate increased warfare, leading to food
gathering in communal groups for protection rather
than individual hunting.
Ancient history can be divided into different
periods according to the tools used by people then.
1. Palaeolithic Period: 2 million BC – 10,000 BC
2. Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BC – 8000 BC
3. Neolithic Period: 8000 BC – 4000 BC
4. Chalcolithic Period: 4000 BC – 1500 BC
5. Iron Age:
1500 BC – 200 BC
Fig. 2.2. The Evolution of Man
History and Culture of India Through Ages 7
The Stone Age
The Division of Stone Age
● In earlier studies of History, the division
was made into three groups based on the
material of manufacture of these weapons
and implements, recognized as three ages of
stone, bronze and iron.
● The Stone Age was initially divided into an
earlier period of chipped stone tools and a
later period of ground or polished stone tools
by and termed as Palaeolithic and Neolithic,
respectively.
● Later, in the course of the discovery and
study of several sites, it emerged that the
Palaeolithic was not a single homogeneous
period, but a sequence of pre-historic phases
marked by faunal changes and changes in
the lithic industries (lithic means stone). The
Stone Age was thus divided into The Upper,
Middle and Lower Palaeolithic.
● Stone tools smaller than the trademark
Palaeoliths, known as microliths, were
increasingly found in many deposits overlying
Palaeolithic stone assemblages, which
were ascribed to a period between the late
Palaeolithic and early Neolithic. This period
was given the term Mesolithic (Middle Stone
Age). Therefore the Mesolithic age was the
transitional period from hunting-gathering to
food-producing cultures.
●
●
●
General Transitions Through
the Stone Age
● The time span of the Lower Palaeolithic was
the maximum covering the whole of Lower
Pleistocene and bulk of the Middle Pleistocene
epoch. During this span many river valleys and
terraces were formed. Early men preferred
to live near the water supply, as the stone
tools are found mainly in or adjacent to the
river valleys. Evidence of the earliest stone
tools in Western Europe has appeared from
the deposits of first Inter-glacial phase in the
Lower Pleistocene.
● The Upper Palaeolithic is marked by a lot
of technological advances such as profusion
●
in the variety of stone and bone tools and
artefacts, constructing dwellings, sewing
clothes with bone needles, etc. This is also the
earliest occurrence of art – painting of walls
of cave sand dwellings, carving of human and
animal figurines from stones and ivory and
decorating bodies of the living and the dead
with beads and pendants.
The Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic is a brief
period of transition between the Palaeolithic and
the food-producing stage of the Neolithic in
most parts of the world, and is characterised
by the appearance of microliths (tiny stone
artefacts, often a few centimetres in size) in the
archaeological record. It is characteristically a
few thousand years in duration after the last
stages of the Upper Palaeolithic and ends with
the advent of agriculture.
The onset of the Neolithic varies between
10,000BC to 3,000 or 2500BC in different
parts of the world. The Neolithic marked
the beginning of settled life for humankind,
though sections of the population still lived as
nomadic or semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers
or agro-pastoralists.
The Stone Age (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic
and Neolithic) was followed by the Bronze
Age in most parts of the world and later
the Iron Age. Script or writing makes an
appearance in the Bronze Age in many parts
of the world and, by the end of the Iron
Age, prehistory merges into recorded history
in most parts of the world. Some researchers
prefer the term ‘proto-history’ to refer to those
periods during which a culture or civilisation
has not yet developed writing but other
cultures have already noted its existence into
their own writings. Roman Britain or early
days of literate civilizations in Mesopotamia
and Egypt may be called proto-historic, as
possibly the Neolithic-Chalcolithic and the
Iron Age in south India.
The periods following the Iron Age is in
written part in most parts of the world and
hence the beginning of recorded history in
these regions occur.
8 Master Series : Art and Culture
The Palaeolithic Age
● It was the first part of the Stone Age. During
this period, man relied on hunting and had no
knowledge of cultivation and house building.
● During the Paleolithic Age or Old Stone Age
man used crude implements for hunting wild
animals or for the purpose of cutting and
boring. The chief implements used consisted
of darts, scrapers, axes and throwing stones.
● Tips of sharpened stones were used as heads
of spears, lances or daggers. Most of the
Paleolithic remains in India were made of
a peculiar kind of rock called quartzite.
● According to the nature of tools and the
change in the climate, the Paleolithic Age in
India is divided into three phases;
1. Lower Paleolithic (500,000 BC to 50,000
BC),
2. Middle Paleolithic (50,000 BC to 40,000
BC), and
3. Upper Paleolithic (40,000 BC to 10,000
BC).
A. Lower Palaeolithic Age
● They were mainly hunters and food gatherers;
tools used were axes, choppers and cleavers.
● Earliest lower Palaeolithic site is Bori in
Maharashtra.
● Limestone was also used to make tools.
● Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age were:
Soan valley (in present Pakistan), sites in
the Thar Desert, Kashmir, Mewar plains,
Saurashtra, Gujarat, Central India, Deccan
Plateau, Chotanagpur plateau, North of
the Cauvery River, Belan valley in UP.
● There are habitation sites including caves and
rock shelters
● The Early or Lower Stone Age in India may
be associated with the people of the Homo
sapiens group.
B. Middle Palaeolithic Age
● Tools used were blades, pointers, scrapers
and borers.
● The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
● Important Middle Palaeolithic Age sites are:
Belan valley in UP, Luni valley (Rajasthan), Son and Narmada rivers, Bhimbetka.
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters
● Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen
District of Madhya Pradesh, 45 km south of Bhopal
at the southern edge of the Vindhyachal hills.
● These served as shelters for Paleolithic age man for
over more than 1 lakh years.
● This is the most exclusive Paleolithic site in India
which contains the rock carvings and paintings.
● These paintings belong to the Paleolithic, and
Mesolithic ages, Chalcolithic, early-historic and
even medieval times.
● It was excavated by VN Mishra and it has many
rock shelters and caves and is considered as richest
haul of such dwelling.
● Quarzite were used in Bhimbetka and is the earliest
example of rock painting. Various colours were
used in the paintings, i.e., Green and Dark Red
colour. These colours were prepared by combining
manganese, hematite, wooden coal, soft red stone,
plant leaves. Sometimes animal fat and extracts of
leaves were used as well. Brushes were made of
the fiber of plants.
● It depicted animals, hunting scenes, birds and
humans. Main animals depicted are: Elephant, Tiger,
Lion, Bison, Rhinoceros, Bear.
● Bhimbetka is a World heritage Site. Earlier it was
considered to be a Buddhist site and was later
recognized as Paleolithic site. Bhimbetka Rock shelters
were included in the world heritage list in 2003.
Fig. 2.3. The Bhimbetka Dwellings
C. Upper Palaeolithic Age
● Emergence of Homo sapiens.
● Lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, blades, fishing tools and burin tools
were found.
● Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age are:
Belan, Son, Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar),
Maharashtra, Orissa and Eastern Ghats in
Andhra Pradesh.
History and Culture of India Through Ages 9
Fig.2.4. Palaeolithic Sites in India
10 Master Series : Art and Culture
● Paintings at Bhimbetka site belong to this age.
● Nearly all of our knowledge of Palaeolithic
human culture and way of life comes from
archaeology and ethnographic comparisons to
modern hunter-gatherer cultures.
● The economy of a typical Palaeolithic society
was a hunter-gatherer economy. Humans hunted
wild animals for meat and gathered food,
firewood, and materials for their tools, clothes,
or shelters. Human population density was very
low, around only one person per square mile.
● This was most likely due to low body fat,
infanticide, women regularly engaging in
intense endurance exercise and a nomadic
lifestyle. At the end of the Palaeolithic,
specifically the Middle and or Upper
Palaeolithic, humans began to produce works
of art such as cave paintings, rock art and
jewellery and began to engage in religious
behaviour such as burial and ritual.
Palaeolithic Tools
● Palaeolithic humans made tools of stone,
bone, and wood. Evidence shows these
early hominids intentionally selected raw
materials with good flaking qualities and
chose appropriate sized stones for their needs
to produce sharp-edged tools for cutting.
● The earliest Palaeolithic stone tool industry
began around 2.6 million years ago. It
contained tools such as choppers, burins and
awls. The most recent Lower Palaeolithic
implements completely vanished from the
archaeological record around 100,000 years
ago and were replaced by more complex
Middle Palaeolithic tool kits.
● Lower Palaeolithic humans used a variety
of stone tools, including hand axes and
choppers. Although they appear to have used
hand axes often for various purposes of attack
and defence.
● Choppers and scrapers were likely used for
skinning and butchering scavenged animals
and sharp ended sticks were often obtained
for digging up edible roots. Presumably,
early humans used wooden spears as early as
five million years ago to hunt small animals,
much as their relatives, chimpanzees.
● The Lower Palaeolithic hominid Homo
erectus possibly invented rafts to travel
over large bodies of water, which may have
allowed a group of Homo erectus to reach
the distant islands. Around 200,000 BP,
Middle Palaeolithic Stone tool manufacturing
spawned a tool making technique.
● This technique increased efficiency by allowing the creation of more controlled and consistent flakes. It allowed Middle Palaeolithic
humans to create stone tipped spears, which
were the earliest composite tools, by hafting
sharp, pointy stone flakes onto wooden shafts.
Microliths or small stone tools or points were invented
around 70,000 or 65,000 BP and were essential to the
invention of bows and spear throwers in the following
Upper Palaeolithic period. The invention of these devices
brought many additional foods like fish into the human
diets, which provided a hedge against starvation and a
more abundant food supply (the period of appearance
of microliths in India is still an issue of debate).
● Fire was used by the Lower Palaeolithic
hominid as early as 300,000 or 1.5 million
years ago and possibly even earlier.
● However, the use of fire only became common in the societies of the following Middle
Palaeolithic Period. Use of fire reduced mortality rates and provided protection against
predators.
● Early hominids may have begun to cook their
food as early as the Lower Palaeolithic or at
the latest in the early Middle Palaeolithic.
● Some scientists have hypothesized that Hominids began cooking food to defrost frozen
meat, which would help ensure their survival
in cold regions.
Palaeolithic Society
● The social organization of the Lower Palaeolithic societies remains largely unknown to
scientists, though Lower Palaeolithic hominids were likely to have had more complex
social structures than chimpanzee societies.
● Later Homo erectus may have been the first
people to invent home bases and incorporate
them into their foraging and hunting strategies
like contemporary hunter-gatherers, possibly
as early as 1.7 million years ago.
History and Culture of India Through Ages 11
● However, the earliest solid evidence for the
existence of home bases among humans only
dates back to 500,000 years ago.
● Human societies from the Palaeolithic to the
early Neolithic farming tribes lived without
states and organized governments. By the
end of the Palaeolithic era, about 10,000 BP
people began to settle down into permanent
locations, and began to rely on agriculture for
sustenance in many locations.
● Much evidence exists that humans took part
in long-distance trade between bands for rare
commodities such as ochre, which was often
used for religious purposes such as ritual and
raw materials, as early as 120,000 years ago
in Middle Palaeolithic.
● Some sources claim that most Middle and
Upper Palaeolithic societies were possibly
fundamentally egalitarian and may have
rarely or never engaged in organized violence
between groups (war).
● There was no formal division of labour during
the Palaeolithic. Each member of the group
was skilled at all tasks essential to survival,
regardless of individual abilities.
Mesolithic Period
(Middle Stone Age)
● Major climate change happened. Climate
became warmer and more humid.
● Humans began to live in groups and started
switching towards the sedentary life style.
The increase in the group size created the need
of more food for the survival of all members
of the family, this lead to improvements of
the tools and weapons.
● The Mesolithic Era also brought modifications
in the clothing and food style of then times.
People started wearing clothes made of
animal’s skin as well eating cooked food
by using fire. Primitive people were also
fond of art and paintings as depicted by the
popular cave paintings present at Bhimbetka
in Madhya Pradesh.
● Rainfall increased and so more availability of
flora and fauna. Domestication of animals
and plants were seen for the first time. Started
12000 years ago.
● First animal to be domesticated was the
wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats
were the most common domesticated animals.
Hunting and food gathering continued.
● The Mesolithic sites in distribution cover
almost the entire country except a few areas
like Indo- gangetic plain, Assam and most of
the Western coast of India. In Indo-gangetic
plain, their absence can be explained by the
lack of primary raw material (stones) for
making tools.
● Assam and Western coast were probably
left uninhabited due to very high rainfall and
dense vegetation in this area.
● Transitional Phase between Paleolithic &
Neolithic Age
● Characteristic tools of this Age: Microliths
● They are small stone tools that were probably
stuck to stones to be used as saws and sickles.
Major Sites of Mesolithic Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindhya, Gujarat, UP, Sojat (Rajasthan),
Bhimbetka, Godavari Basin, Sarai Nahar Rai.
● Tools used were blades, crescents, triangles,
trapezes, spearheads, knives, arrowheads,
sickles, harpoons and daggers.
● It seems that the Mesolithic people preferred
the
following
environment-Sand-dunes,
Rock-shelter, Alluvial plain, Rocky plain,
Lake-shore, Coastal environment.
Mesolithic Tools
● The people perhaps produced a variety of
implements and weapons such as arrows,
spears, knives, sickles etc.
● The advantage of these composite tools was
that, being made of a number of micro-lithic
components, one of the broken components
could easily be replaced without discarding
the whole tool. This type of replacement was
not possible in case of a single piece tool.
● Tools are characterised by parallel-sided
blades taken out from prepared cores of finematerials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper,
carnelian, agate etc.
● In India, Microlith tools are associated with
Mesolithc period (whereas in many other
12 Master Series : Art and Culture
parts of the world microliths are also found
during Palaeolithic period).
● Numerous types among the microliths have
been noted such as blunted back blades,
obliquely truncated blades, points, lunates,
triangles, crescents, trapezes etc. Size of these
tools varies between 1cm. and 3cm.
● Some of the microliths were used as
components of spearheads, arrowheads,
knives, sickles, harpoons and daggers. They
were fitted into grooves in bone, wood and
reed shafts and joined together by natural
adhesives like gum and resin.
● It can be inferred that the Mesolithic people
had little material culture. Later, in contact
with the metalworking and farming people
they acquired a few items of material culture
like, pottery, metal tools and stone beads for
ornaments.
Mesolithic Society
● It seems to be certain that this period
experienced the arrival of new peoples in
India, possibly from the west. This is the
reason for which the Upper Palaeolithic blade
industry was non-existent in Indian context.
● The process of disposing the dead was also
unspecialized among them. The bodies used to
be buried within the habitation area, whether
it is a rock-shelter or an open-air site.
● At the site Sarai Nahar Rai in the District
Pratapgarh all the skeletons are found to be
placed in West-east direction keeping the right
forehand diagonally across the abdomen.
● In fact, we are not sure whether the microlith makers of India were the hunters and
food-gatherers of Palaeolithic tradition or
they were the agriculturists.
This new subsistence economy based on food
production had a lasting impact on the evolution of
human society and the environment.
● Agriculture had not fully developed.
● The earliest evidence of domestication of
animals has been provided by Adamagarh in
Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan.
● The Pachpadra basin and Sojat Area of
Rajasthan is a rich Mesolithic sites and lot
of microliths have been discovered.
● Bagor in Rajasthan is the almost largest
Mesolithic site in India. Another major
Mesolithic site in Rajasthan is Tilwara.
● In Gujarat some places on the banks of River
Sabarmati are Mesolithic sites which include
the Akhaj, Valsana, Hirpur, Langhanj etc.
Sarai Nahar Rai in Allahabad-Pratapgarh of
Uttar Pradesh is a Mesolithic site. Other sites in
Uttar Pradesh are Morhana Pahar and lekkahia.
● In Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka along with
Adamgarh are major Mesolithic sites.
In Jharkhand Chota Nagpur plateau is a
major Mesolithic site in India. In Orissa
Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh is a
major Mesolithic site in India.
● In south India Godavari basin is rich in
microliths.
● The rock painting of Mesolithic period is
found in Adamgarh, Bhimbetka of Madhya
Pradesh and Pratapgarh, Mirzapur of
Rajasthan.
● Apart from the animals, hunting scenes, the
Mesolithic sites have also painting of social
life, sexual activity, child birth, rearing of
children and burial ceremony, which makes
it clear that Mesolithic man had developed
an aesthetic sense.
Neolithic Period
(New Stone Age)
● The human settlements in the Mesolithic era
got more sedentary and this was the beginning
of establishment of villages. Moving from
nomadic to settled life. Man now could keep
cattle, sheep and goats and protect crops from
pests.
● In due course, as the efficiency of agricultural
production improved, some farmers were able
to generate surplus food. As a consequence,
a section of the population were freed from
the task of food production and their talents
and energies were diverted to tasks such as
the production of pots, baskets, quarrying
of stone, making of bricks, masonry and
carpentry. This was the beginning of the
new occupations such as the oil presser,
washer man, barber, musician, dancers etc.
This transition from hunting-gathering to food
production is called the Neolithic revolution.
History and Culture of India Through Ages 13
● Wheel was discovered. Ragi, wheat and
horse gram were cultivated. They knew to
make fire. Around 6000 BC, the smelting of
metals such as Copper began which was used
for raw material to be used in tool production.
Later, Tin was mixed with copper and bronze
appeared which stronger metal than both tin
and copper was.
● Use of bronze for tools led to the invention
of wheel which revolutionized transport
and pottery production. Art was seen in
cave paintings of dance, Evidence of houses,
Also show first intentional disposal of the
dead.
●
Important Sites of Neolithic: Inamgaon,
Burzahom (Kasmir), Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Daojali
Hading (Tripura/Assam), Hallur (AP), Paiyampalli
(AP), Chirand (Bihar).
● In North India, Burzahom site in Kashmir
is located in a cave inside Mahadeva hills
on famous Kashmir Valley. The other twin
sites, Gurfkral & Martand, are close to it.
The unique evidence of pit-dwellings with
wooden super-structures, coarse grey or black
polished pottery frequently with ‘mat-bases’,
large number of bone tools in the shape
of points, awls, needles, harpoon heads,
stone-axes, ring-stones, a type of specialized
choppers (pierced, rectangular), knife with
razor-like blade, are the characteristics of the
Burzahom Period. Burzahom cave site has
another interesting point to note — an engraved
hunting scene which strongly suggests their
hunting economy.
● Most of the Neolithic sites of Central and
South India lies in the zone between river
Tapti in the north-west and Tungabhadra and
lower Krishna Rivers in the south-east. Most
of these sites may be declared as Neo-Chalcolithic sites, excepting Brahmagiri and Sanganakallu which are referred to as orthodox
Neolithic sites occurring in this part of this
sub-continent.
● The significant zones of Eastern India includes
Assam, Bengal-Bihar-Orissa cultural sites. In
Assam Neolithic sites, a type of small ground
cells with rounded contour, shouldered cells,
etc which are conspicuously lacking in the
●
●
●
●
Neolithic sites of North and Central India are
found.
These Neolithic findings are associated with
the common occurrence of ‘Megalithic
monuments’ widely distributed in entire
hill areas of Assam. The raw materials for
such tools are flat slabs of chert, sand-stone
and slate. Brahmaputra valley, Khasi, Garo
and Kachar hills are the prominent Neolithic
sites of Assam. In some places, tanged axes,
grooved hammer-stones could be noticed
in addition to above-mentioned tools.The
districts of Midnapur, Bankura, Burdwan,
Birbhum and Purulia in West Bengal together
form a triangular zonal shape which offers
significant Neolithic cultural tools. Polished
elongated Celts, rectangular polished chisels,
black coloured polished pottery, etc have
been discovered from these Neolithic sites
The Neolithic culture had been established in
India at a stage when a far more advanced
urban culture exhibiting Chalcolithic features
flourished in the extreme north centring round
Indus valley.
This urban culture as found in Indus valley
might have positive influence of Western
Asiatic Neolithic cum Chalcolithic mixed
cultural thrust. On the other hand, die eastern
Neolithic culture shows striking similarities
with the Neolithic typologies of China and
other sites of South-east Asia.
The Western Indian and Malwa forms of
Neolithic tradition may better be termed
as Neo-Chalcolithic, have had, their origin
from a ‘self-evolved’ microlithic base. Thus,
it is safer to say that the Neolithic culture
developed in different parts of India not from
a single source.
Philological researches have established a
definite link between these Neolithic peoples
of India and the primitive tribes that lived in
Indo-China, the Malayan Peninsula and the
Indian Archipelago.
Neolithic Tools
● The tools and implements of the Neolithic
Age were very different from those of the
preceding ages, i.e., the Palaeolithic and
14 Master Series : Art and Culture
●
●
●
●
Mesolithic. The people of this age used
stones other than quartzite and the tools
and implements they made were far better
grooved, ground and polished.
For different types of work, they had different
types of highly finished tools and these can
be very easily distinguished from the rough,
crude tools of the Palaeolithic Age.
As the name Neolithic denotes, it was the
New Stone Age, metals except gold being
then unknown. Neolithic people were skilled
farmers, manufacturing a range of tools
necessary for the tending, harvesting and
processing of crops (such as sickle blades
and grinding stones) and food production
(e.g. pottery, bone implements).
They were also skilled manufacturers of a range
of other types of stone tools and ornaments,
including projectile points, beads, and
statuettes. The tools and implements left by
the Neolithic people of India have been found
all over India.
A stone factory of the time has been
discovered in the Bellary district of Madras
where traces of the various stages of the
making of the tools and implements can be
still seen.
Neolithic Society
● The life and living of the Neolithic men
showed a distinct advance from those of the
previous ages. Agriculture became known to
them, domestication of animals like ox, goat
etc., production of fire by friction of bamboos
or pieces of wood or flint, making of painted
pottery were all known, to them.
● They lived in caves, decorated their frails
by painting scenes of hunting, dancing etc.
They knew spinning and weaving, as also
making of boats. Some tombs of the Neolithic
men which have been discovered show that
they used to bury their dead in large earthen
urn. There were also tombs with stone-slab
roof on stone pillars.
● The domestication of large animals (c.
8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in
social inequality in most of the areas where
it occurred. Possession of livestock allowed
competition between households and resulted
in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic
pastoralists who controlled large herds
gradually acquired more livestock, and this
made economic inequalities more pronounced.
● Families and households were still largely
independent economically, and the household
was probably the centre of life. Whether
a non-hierarchical system of organization
existed is debatable, and there is no evidence
that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies
functioned under any dominating class or
individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms
of the Bronze Age.
Neolithic Revolution
● Between 10,000 and 3000 B.C.E., people in
several areas around the earth developed new
agricultural methods and machines, such as
the plough pulled by horses or oxen. During
this time, people also began domestication
and development of both crops and animals.
● The results of these changes made agricultural
production much more productive. Food
output increased. More land could be farmed
by fewer people or in fewer hours. This
resulted in greatly improved production and
increased the availability of food.
● Most importantly, the agricultural surplus
and techniques also brought about deep
social divisions and in particular encouraged
inequality between the sexes (male and female).
● The change from hunting/gathering to
primitive farming appears so abrupt that this
technological change is often characterized
as the Neolithic Revolution. The revolution
resulted in the discovery of smelting and the
creation of bronze tools led to the Bronze Age
(name given to Late Neolithic period).
● Agricultural innovation greatly increased
food production output and created a surplus
beyond what was needed for survival.
● Producing more food freed people’s time from
agricultural work. Some people continued to
work in agriculture, while others did other
forms of work in large numbers (artisans,
clerks, and priests etc.)
History and Culture of India Through Ages 15
● People could specialize in work other than
agriculture. The amount of non-agricultural
goods produced increased.
● With more food and temporarily better
nutrition, population increased. Often, a
population increased at a faster rate than an
area’s resources were capable of sustaining it,
and nutrition per person returned to its original
level.
● As families and the number of potential
workers grew, food production could
increase even more.
These developments provided the basis for
densely populated settlements, specialization
and division of labour, trading economies, the
development of non-portable art and architecture,
centralized administrations and political structures,
hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems
of knowledge (writing), and property ownership.
Personal land and private property ownership led
to hierarchical society, class struggle and armies.
Chalcolithic Period
(Copper Age/Bronze Age)
● About 5,000 years ago the man started
using bronze along with the stone. Now the
man had developed to a great extent. The
population was mainly urban including the
priests, writers and clerks during this stage.
● Though the tools available suggest that there
was over-lapping in use of stone and the
metal, the similarity in the shape and types of
stone and bronze tools shows simultaneous use
of the bronze and stone. Tin mixed with the
copper was the major material used. That is
why, the period is called Bronze age.
● The specialists were needed to manufacture
goods with the metal, like smiths, miners and
the smelters. During this period, the discovery
of wheel revolutionized the whole system. The
transportation was improved which eventually
brought about the complexities in life of the
man. The commerce was developed.
● The production in all fields was surplus i.e. he
could sell it away for luxuries. This gave rise
to capitalism. The person with more resources
was able to control the power. The status of
rich and poor developed and along with this
came the exploitation. This age is witnessed
in Indus Valley Civilization that spread to
long belt along the western India.
● Cultivation & cattle rearing along with
established the knowledge of crop rotation
(Inamgaon), Knowledge of Irrigation &
Harvesting, Excavation reveals structures
like Granaries, Embankment & Fortification,
Mud houses made of mud in circular &
rectangular pattern along with mud chulha.
● Famous Pottery of this age: Black on Red
ware.
● Other settlements were: Brahmagiri, Navada
Toli (Narmada region), Chirand (Ganga
region) and, Mahishadal (West Bengal).
Chalcolithic Tools
● The Chalcolithic people used tiny tools and
weapons of stone in which the stone-blades
and blade-lets occupied an important role. In
certain settlements, copper objects are found
in good numbers, e.g., at Ahar and Gilund
in Rajasthan.
● The Chalcolithic people made tools, weapons
and bangles of copper, manufactured beads
of semi-precious stones such as carnelian,
steatite, and quartz because spindle whorls
have been discovered in Malwa. Discovery
of cotton, flax and silk threads shows that
they knew well the manufacture of cloth.
Painted pottery is one of the distinguishing feature of
the Chalcolithic period, most prominent being ‘Black
and Red ware’. They used both Iota and thali. No
plough or hoe has been found at Chalcolithic sites.
● Though copper and bronze came to be used,
its usage was limited due to the scarcity
of the material and dependence on stone
tool equipment did not changed much. The
Neolithic trend of using polished stone tools
continued in this period also. Copper and its
alloys were used in making axes, chisels,
knives, fishhooks, pins, rods, etc.
Chalcolithic Society
● People domesticated animals and practised
agriculture. They seem to have eaten beef
16 Master Series : Art and Culture
●
●
●
●
but not pork. Occasionally their houses were
made of mud bricks, but mostly they were
constructed with wattle and daub, and seem
to have been thatched. However, the people
in Ahar lived in stone-built houses.
Though the Chalcolithic people of Harappa
made extensive use of bricks, the Chalcolithic
people in the rest of India did not use any
such material. The walls were constructed
out of mud or mud and wattle. The houses
were either circular or rectangular on plan,
plastered with cow dung and lime. They had
some light roof supported on wooden posts as
post-holes were encountered in large number
in all the Chalcolithic sites.
The Chalcolithic people subsisted on
farming and hunting-fishing, reared cattle,
sheep, goat, buffalo and pig, which were
also slaughtered for food. The principal
cereal was barley though wheat was also
cultivated. Neither plough nor hoe has been
attested to at Chalcolithic sites, but perforated
stone discs, which were used as weights for
the digging sticks abound.
Fish and animal flesh formed an important
part of the diet of the Chalcolithic people.
Fish bones and fishhooks attest to active
fishing. Hunting also was an important
occupation for bones of wild animals like wild
pig, deer, stage, sambhar, cheetah, etc. were
found in the excavations. Cattle, buffalo,
goat, sheep, pig and rarely horse were among
the domesticated animals.
Regional differences in regard to cereals,
pottery, etc., appear in this phase. The
dead were buried. Terracotta figurines of
women suggest that the Chalcolithic people
venerated the mother goddess. Probably, the
bull was the symbol of a religious cult. Both
the settlements and burial practices suggest
existence of social inequalities. The rate of
infant mortality was very high. Although most
Chalcolithic cultures existing in the major
part of the country were younger than the
Indus Valley civilization, they did not derive
any substantial benefit from the advanced
technological knowledge of the Indus people.
● The rural life pattern, started in Neolithic
period has been perfected in the Chalcolithic
period, and this period forms the transition
from stone ages to pure metal age.
Chalcolithic Cultures
● Chronologically, there are several series of
Chalcolithic settlements in India. Some are
pre-Harappan, others are contemporaries
of the Harappan culture and still others are
post-Harappan. Pre-Harappan strata on some
sites in the Harappan zone are also called
early Harappan to distinguish them from the
mature urban Indus civilization. Thus the preHarappan phase at Kalibangan in Rajasthan and
Banwali in Haryana is distinctly Chalcolithic.
So is the case with Kot Diji in Sind. The
Kayatha culture in Madhya Pradesh (20001800 BC) is a contemporary of the Harappan
culture. It has some pre-Harappan elements in
pottery, but it also shows Harappan influence.
Several postHarappan Chalcolithic cultures in
these areas are influenced by the post-urban
phase of the Harappan culture.
● Several other Chalcolithic cultures, though
younger in age than the mature Harappan
culture, are not connected with the Indus
Civilization. The Malwa culture (17001200BC) found in Navadatoli, Eran and
Nagda is considered to be nonHarappan. So
is the case with the Jorwe culture (1400-700
BC) which covers the whole of Maharashtra
except parts of Vidarbha and Konkan.
● In the southern and eastern parts of India,
Chalcolithic settlements existed independently
of the Harappan culture. In south India they
are found invariably in continuation of the
Neolithic settlements. The Chalcolithic
settlement of the Vindhyan region, Bihar
and Bengal Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic
cultures spread farming communities in
Sind, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, etc., and
created conditions for the rise of the urban
civilization.
● In Western India, these cultures disappeared
by 1200 BC or so. Only the Jorwe culture
continued until 700 BC. However, in several
parts of the country the Chalcolithic ‘black
History and Culture of India Through Ages 17
and red ware’ continued till the second
century BC.
● The eclipse of the Chalcolithic habitation
could be attributed to a decline in rainfall
from about 1200 BC onwards. In fact, the
Chalcolithic people could not continue for
long with the digging stick in the black soil
area which is difficult to break in the dry
season. In the red soil areas, especially in
eastern India, however, the chalcolithic phase
was immediately followed, without any gap,
by the iron phase which gradually transformed
the people into full-fledged agriculturists.
Similarly, at several sites in southern India
Chalcolithic culture was transformed into
megalithic culture using iron.
● In South India, the Neolithic phase
imperceptibly faded into the Chalcolithic
phase, and so these cultures are called
Neolithic-Chalcolithic. The Chalcolithic
communities founded the first large villages
in peninsular India and cultivated far more
cereals than is known in the case of the Neolithic
communities. The settlements at Kayatha and
Eran in Madhya Pradesh and Inamgaon in
western Maharashtra were fortified.
Iron Age
● The Iron Age was a period found at different
points around the world where societies
recovered from the collapse of Bronze-Age
civilization, developed new tools, and built
bigger, more complex civilizations than ever
before. This is the era that gave Europe
Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. It’s the time
in which China developed Confucianism and
Taoism. India, of course, was not to be left
out of this.
● India’s Iron Age laid religious, philosophical,
social, and political foundations that would
go on to influence people across the world.
● India’s Iron Age emerged in an era of
transition known as the Vedic period (ca.
1,500-600 BCE). The Vedic period covers
both the end of the Bronze Age following the
collapse of the Harappan civilization around
1,400 CE and the start of the Iron Age.
● The Harappan civilization of the Indus
River Valley had been complex and highly
urbanized. The societies of the Vedic period
were smaller, most only about the size of a
village, recovering from the changes in the
regional economy as well as drought, the
likely culprit that collapsed India’s BronzeAge stability.
● This was a time of re-organization, but also
religious growth. The Vedic period is named
for the Vedas, foundational religious texts of
Hinduism. The oldest, written in the ancient
script of Vedic Sanskrit, was likely created
between 1,500 and 1,200 BCE.
● Thriving from about 1,200 to 600 BCE
along the Indus and Ganges river valleys,
the Painted Grey Ware people started using
iron for agricultural tools, domesticate horses,
and started re-organizing into more complex
social and political units.
● This is the first period in Indian history to
show clear evidence of social and political
hierarchies, as well as true governments.
(a) The upper Ganges valley and its peripheries
(b) Malwa plateau and Tapti valley
(c) South and Central Indian megalithic areas
(d) Baluchistan plains
(e) Middle and Lower Ganges valleys
(f) North west mainly Peshawar region.
18 Master Series : Art and Culture
Art and Culture Master Exercise
2
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
Consider the following pairs:
Paleolithic Age Site
State
Which of the following element was used in
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters?
1. Bhimbetka
:
Madhya Pradesh
(a) Limestone
(b) Quarzite
2. Hunsgi
:
Karnataka
(c) Iron
(d) Bronze
3. Daojali Hading
:
Arunachal Pradesh
4. Chirand
:
Uttar Pradesh
5.
(a) Cow
(b) Horse
(a) 1 and 2
(c) Dog
(b) 2 and 3
(d) None
(d) 2 and 4
Polished stones were used in
Subjectve type questions for Main
Examination
1.
Discuss the linkage between climate change and
Mesolithic period.
2.
Explain the inventions occurred during Neolithic
Revolution.
3.
What are the major characteristics that
differentiate Upper Paleolithic and Late Stone
Age cultures from Middle Paleolithic and
Middle Stone Age cultures?
4.
How did the settlement pattern of the Upper
Paleolithic differ from that of the Middle
Paleolithic?
(a) Paleolithic age
(b) Neolithic age
(c) Chalcolithic age
(d) Mesolithic age
3.
The first animal tamed by primitive man was:
Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?
(c) 3 and 4
2.
4.
Who discovered a Paleolithic stone tool in India
in 1863?
(a) Sir John Lubbock
(b) Le Mesurier
(c) Robert Bruce
(d) None of the above
Answers to MCQs
1.
(a)
2.
(b) 3.
(c)
4.
(b) 5.
(c)
Indian Architecture 19
ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES
UNIT 3
Indian
ARCHITECTURE
What is Indian Architecture?
The architecture of India is rooted in its long and
glorious, the history, unique culture, and the multiplicity
of religious beliefs. Indian architecture have progressed
with time and assimilated many influences that came as
a result of India’s global outreach and interaction with
almost all other regions of the world.
Indian Architecture can be broadly called as
● Indus Civilization
● Cave Architecture
● Temple Architecture
● Indo-Islamic Architecture
● Modern Architecture
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
● Harappan architecture is the architecture of
the Harappans, an ancient people who lived
in the Indus Valley from about 3300 BCE to
1300 BCE.
● The IVC were advanced for their time,
especially in architecture.
Earliest remains were found in:
●
●
●
●
●
●
Harappa
Mohenjodaro
Ropar
Kalibangan
Lothal
Rangpur
Fig. 3.1. Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, with
the Great Bath in the front
Characteristic Feature of Indus
Valley Civilization
● Harappa and Mohen-Jo Dero were laid out
on a grid pattern and had provisions for an
advanced drainage system.
● Roads were wide and at right angles to one
another.
● The corbelled arch and baths were constructed
with knowledge and skill.
● A typical city would be divided into two
sections, each fortified separately.
(a) One section was located on an artificially
raised mound (sometimes called acropolis) while the other level was on level
ground.
(b) The acropolis contained the important
buildings of the city, like the assembly
20 Master Series : Art and Culture
halls, religious structures, granaries and in
the great bath in case of Mohenjo-Daro.
(c) The lower section of the city was where the
housing for the inhabitants was located.
● The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost
all kinds of constructions and the absence of
stone buildings are the important characteristics of the Harappan culture.
Important Features
Why didn’t the IVC Architecture
Survive the ravages of time?
It was due to the fact that during this time
sculpture and architecture was utilising organic
and perishable materials such as mud, mudbrick,
bamboo, timber, leaves, straw and thatch.
Cave Architecture
● The cave architecture in India is believed to
have begun in the third century BC.
● These caves were used by Buddhist and Jain
monks as places of worship and residence.
● Some examples of this type of cave structure
are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists.
● These were excavated not only by Buddhists
or Jains but also by Hindus.
● These caves house some of the amazing
murals, sculptures and architectural structures.
● Some of the famous and prominent caves
are at Nashik, Kanheri, Gaya (Barabar
Hills), Bhaja, Nagarjunikonda, Badami,
Elephanta and Ellora.
● The Great Bath: The most impressive
structure excavated at Mohenjo-Daro so far,
is the Great Bath. Constructed with kiln-burnt
bricks, this Monumental Bath is a pool 12
metres long, 7 metres wide and 2.5 metres
deep. Gypsum has been used along with
mortar to make the floor and sides of the
pool water-tight. The pool is in the centre
of a large open quadrangle with rooms and
galleries on all sides. A flight of steps at
either end connects it the rooms. Probably
meant for religious rites, it may have been
used by the people for changing their clothes.
The pool was fed by a well nearby and the
dirty water was drained into the city’s sewage
system through a large corbelled drain 1.83
metres high.
Ajanta and Ellora Caves
● The Granary at Harappa: The Granary
at Harappa is made of burnt brick. Built close
to the river Ravi to make transportation easy,
it is comprised of two blocks. Each block
has six storage rooms 15 metres long and 6
metres wide. The two blocks are separated by
a passage. Air-ducts are provided under the
wooden floor. The row of triangular openings
may have been for ventilation. The granary
complex measures 55 metres by 43 metres
(a) Ajanta
● The Assembly Hall: The Assembly
Hall covers an area of 750 square metres.
Four rows of fine brick piers and pillars at
the corners suggest that it was used as an
assembly hall.
● Dock at Lothal: The sea-port of Lothal
on the Gulf of Cambay has an enclosed
shipping dock more than 216 metres long
and 37 metres wide. It was controlled by a
sluice-gate and ships could be loaded at both
high and low tides.
● Maharashtra is home to the spectacular and
amazing Ajanta and Ellora group of caves.
● The cave at Ajanta and Ellora were cut out of
rock, by hand, and rank amongst some of the
most outstanding specimens of ancient Indian
architectural heritage.
● In all there are 34 caves at Ellora and 29
caves at Ajanta.
● The Ajanta caves depict the story of Buddhism,
spanning the period from 200 BC to 650 AD.
● The caves at Ajanta served as secluded
retreats to the Buddhist monks.
● Beautiful wall frescos and sculptures speak
volumes of the advancement of Indian art in
ancient period.
● Some of the caves at Ajanta house panels
depicting stories from the Jatakas, stories
about several incarnations of the Buddha.
● Other wonderful paintings in Ajanta are the
Indian Architecture 21
flying apsara, dying princess and Buddha in
preaching mode.
(b) Ellora
● The Ellora caves are carved into the sides of
a basaltic hill.
● The caves at Ellora contain some of the finest
specimens of cave-temple architecture and
exquisitely adorned interiors.
● Structures in the Ellora caves represent the
three faiths of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism and were carved during 350 AD to
700 AD.
● The nobility, serenity and grace of Buddha
are visible in the Buddhist caves of Ellora.
● Ellora caves also contain images of
Vishwakarma, the patron saint of Indian
craftsmen.
● The Kailasha temple in Cave 16 is indeed
an architectural wonder, the entire structure
having been carved out of a monolith.
Art and Architecture During
the Mauryan Period
Mauryan Columns
● The highly polished, tall and well proportioned
columns with slightly tapering monolithic
shafts, and standing free in space and complete
and independent by themselves are admittedly
the best representatives of the court art of the
Mauryas. (Refer Fig 3.2)
● The columns that bear the edicts of Asoka
include those of Delhi-Meerut, Allahabad,
Lauriya-Areraj,
Lauriya-Nandanqarh,
Rampurva and’ Kosam the third category,
that of columns bearing dedicatory
inscriptions, includes at least two wellknown specimens, those of Rummindei and
Nigali Sagar.
● All Mauryan columns, no matter where they
are set up, are chiselled out of grey Chunar
sandstone and have a lustrous polish due to
the application perhaps of silicious varnish on
the stone. This uniform place of origin of the
material probably suggests that there was at
or near Chunar an art-centre established and
patronized directly by the Mauryan Court, an
assumption supported by the additional fact
that all the component parts of the columns
including the crowning animal, abacus and
the shaft tend increasingly to form one whole
so far as form and technique are concerned.
● The component Parts that are easily known
are (a) the shaft always plain and smooth,
circular in section and slightly tapering
upwards, without any base whatsovor, and
always and Invariably chiselled out of one
piece of stone; (b) the capital having the
shape and appearance of a gently arched bell
formed of lotus petals, the proportionate ratio
of breadth and height being variable from
capital to capital, and joined with the shaft by
a copper-boll of cylindrical shape bulging in
the middle; (c) the abacus, square and plain
in the earlier specimens and circular and
decorated in the later ones, and of variable
proportions; (d) and the crowning animal,
seated or standing, always and invariably in
the round, and always constituting a single
piece with the abacus.
● The total aesthetic effect of Maurya columns
has never been surpassed in later Indian art,
Mauryan columns occupy a proud position
by reason of their very free and significant
artistic form in space, the balanced proportion
of their constituent elements, the unitary and
integrated effect of the whole, the chaste and
elegant shaft and capital, and no less by the
conscious, proud and dignified attitude of the
crowning ornaments.
● The indigenous and original contribution to the
creation of this item of Mauryan art is therefore undeniable. Equally undeniable is also
the fact that in their lustrous varnish, in their
adoption and adaptation of the bell-shaped
capital, in the higher plane of conception and
driving idea and in the general monumental
and dignified quality and appearance they
exhibit, the Mauryan columns seem to reveal
clearly the debt they owe to Achamenian art,
as well as to Hellenistic Art so far as the
crowning member of the columns and part of
the general effect are concerned.
22 Master Series : Art and Culture
Fig. 3.3. Dhauli cave
Mauryan Cave Architecture
Fig. 3.2. Ashoka Pillar, Vaishali (Bihar)
Mauryan Animal Figures
● The Basarh Bakhira lion evidently marks one
of the earliest stages; (Refer Fig 3.3) the next
definite stage is reached at Dhauli where the
elephant which is datable as we know in the
twelfth or thirteenth year of Asoka’s reign; to
this stage must also be ascribed the elephant of
Sankissa. The Rampurva bull marks the next
stage in the ascending scaleclosely followed
by the Lauriya-Nandangarh lion; while the
Rampurva lion leads us to the final stage
represented by the quadripartite semi-lions
of Sarnath and Sanchi – an unmistakable
evidence of clever accumulation that always
comes at later stage of the evolution of form.
● From the Lauriya-Nandangarh specimen to
the Rampurva lion there is a decided advance
in the clear and precise cutting of the stone,
in general finish, in the feeling for form and
in linear rhythm. there is also an evident
advance in modelling which is powerful and
vigorous, specially in the muscle and thews.
● Of the architectural remains usually ascribed
to the Maurya period very few are artistically
Significant. Tradition ascribes a large number
of stupas and chaitya-halls to the building
activities of Asoka, but none of them exists
today in their original form and plan except the
excavated chaitya-halls, bearing inscriptions of
Asoka and Dasaratha, in the Barbar caves.
● Chronologically the latest and architecturally
the best of the series is undoubtedly the
Lomasa Rishi (Refer Fig 3.4) which though
bearing no inscription may be taken to belong
to the Maurya period. In ground plan and
general design it is much like the Sudama, and
consists similarlv of a rectangular antechamber
with barrel vaulted roof entered by the long
side through a doorway with sloping jambs.
But the most interesting architectural element
in the Lomasa Rishi is its facade which is
frankly an exact translation of the gable end
of a wooden structure in the language of stone.
Fig. 3.4. Lomas Rishi Cave
Indian Architecture 23
Mauryan Sculpture
● Besides the animal sculptures described and
discussed above, quite a considerable number
of independent figure sculptures in the round
and of various size and proportion and a few
fragments of reliefs have been ascribed to the
Maurya period mainly on the ground of their
having the so- called Mauryan polish on them
and their being carved out of grey sandstone
from Chunar.
● The two Patna Yakshas almost identical
in form and appearance, conception and
treatment, dress and ornament, and now in
the Indian Museum come first in the list of
alleged Mauryan sculptures.
● Artistically the Didarganj Yakshini is the best
of the series and can in no way be considered as
archaic or primitive. One witness here perhaps
an earliest urban, conscious and sophisticated
female type and form immortalised in later
Indian art and literature.
Mauryan Art – Foreign Influence
● There can be no doubt that the impetus came
from outside. The very sudden use of stone
and that at once for monumental art of large
designs and huge proportions, and the quick
process of evolution from primitive to conscious, civilised and sophisticated form and
appearance, from tribal to imperial outlook
that is evident in the total effect of the columns point unmistakably in that direction .
● It has been repeatedly suggested, not without
reason, that this extraneous impetus and inspiration came from Iran of the Achaemenid
emperors; some have even suggested that
Mauryan columns are but Indian adaptations
of the Achaemenian prototype. As repeatedly
attempts have been made to deny the aliened
extent of debt, not again without a certain amount
of justice; but few have seriously doubted that
West Asiatic art-forms in general and Achaemenian impetus and inspiration directly and in
particular were at work at the root.
● The stone columns of the Mauryan Pillared
Hall were evidently without capitals whereas
the columns of the pillared halls of Perspolis
are provided with more or less elaborate
capitals. Achaemenian columns stand either
on bell-shaped bases or on plain rectangular
blocks or on plain circular mouldings while
the Independent Mauryan columns have no
base at all. The bell form that is used as
supporting base in Persian columns serves as
capital in Mauryan ones and makes altogether
a different aesthetic effect; and moreover in
form, shape and appearance the Mauryan bell,
which along with the Achaemenian may have
originally been derived from stylised lotus
design and which may have been a common
art-motu in both Indian and Iranian art-heritage, is a long way off from the Achaemenian
bell in which a ring of leaves and petals
plays an important part in the decoration of
the upper end of the motif and which has no
bulge whatsoever in the middle that makes
the Mauryan bell so gainly and conspicuous.
● Mauryan columns are all plain and circular,
but evidently they did not adopt the type
from Achaemenian unfluited ones which had
for ordinary purposes been discarded by the
Achaemenians themselves. A funeral mound
at Lauriya-Nandangarh has yielded to the
excavator’s spade a plain and circular piece
of a column carved out of sala wood; such
columns are in our literature known as sthuna,
and the primitive animal standards were evidently comprised of such sthuna columns. It
is not unlikely that the Mauryan shaft was
derived from such wooden originals.
● The assumption derives further support from
the fact that Achaemenian shafts are indeed
built of separate pieces or segments of stone
and evidently present the essential character
of the work of a mason, while the Mauryan
shaft is one piece which pertains to the
character of the work of a wood-carver or
carpenter.
● The Achaemenian capitals crowned with a
cluster of stylised palm-leaves after the old
Egyptian manner, and formed of either of two
semi-bulls or unicorns or lions seated back to
back, or of an upright or inverted cup, and
the whole crowned with projecting double
volutes have nothing whatsever in common
24 Master Series : Art and Culture
with the Mauryan capitals which consist, as
we have seen of simply a bell formed of stylised lotus-petals. The crowning of abacus and
the round and independent animal motif of
Mauryan columns are also altogether absent
from Achaemenian examples.
● The result achieved by this almost thorough
transformation is altogether different. The
Achaemenian column intended invariably
as part of a larger architectural conception
is composed of much too may component
parts presenting harsh contrasts and looking
complex and complicated, while the Mauryan
column intended to produce the effect of an
independent monument at least in its latest
and best specimen is simpler, more harmo-
nious in conception and execution, and gives
the feeling of greater stability, dignity and
strength.
● The indigenous and original contribution to
the creation of this item of Mauryan art is
therefore undeniable. Equally underiable is
also the tact that in their lustrous varnish, in
their adoption and adaptation of the bell-shaped
capital, in the higher plane of conception and
driving idea and in the general monumental
and dignified quality and appearance they
exhibit, the Mauryan columns seem to reveal
clearly the debt they owe to Achaemenian art,
as well as to Hellenistic Art so far as the
crowning member of the columns and part of
the general effect are concerned.
Temple Architecture
● In ancient India, temple architecture of high
standard developed in almost all regions.
● The distinct architectural style of temple
construction in different parts was a result
of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial,
historical and linguistic diversities.
Basic Forms of Temples in India
● Garbhgriha:
A
cave-like
sanctum
(garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’), which,
in the early temples, was a small cubicle with a
single entrance and grew into a larger chamber
in time. The garbhagriha is made to house the
main icon which in itself the focus of much
ritual attention.
● Mandapa: The entrance to the temple
which may be a portico or colonnaded hall
that incorporates space for a large number of
worshippers and is known as a mandapa.
(a)
● Vimana: From the fifth century CE onwards,
freestanding temples tend to have a mountain
like spire, which can take the shape of a curving
shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower,
called a vimana, in South India.
● Vahan: The mount or vehicle of the temple’s
main deity along with a standard pillar or
dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum.
(b)
Indian Architecture 25
● While the earliest temples had just one tower,
or shikhara, later temples had several. The
garbhagriha is always located directly under
the tallest tower.
Sub-Divisions of Nagara Style (Refer
Fig. 3.5)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 3.5. (a) Shikhara in Latina sytle
(b) Shikhara in Phamsana style
(c) Mandapa in Phamsana design, Shikhara in Latina
style
(d) Shikhara in Valabhi style
Classification of Indian Temple
Styles
Based on different architectural styles, employed
in the construction of the temples, Ancient Indian
temples are classified in three broad types:
1. The Nagara or the Northern style
2. The Dravida or the Southern style
3. The Vesara or Mixed style
But at the same time there are also some regional
styles of Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas.
Complexity in Classification: As temples grew more
complex, more surfaces were created for sculpture through
additive geometry, i.e., by adding more and more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical walls and niches, without
breaking away from the fundamental plan of the shrine.
Nagara Style of Architecture
● The style of temple architecture that became
popular in northern India is known as Nagara.
● It is common for an entire temple to be built
on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
● Unlike in South India it does not usually have
elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
● Latina: Also known as the rekha-prasada
type of shikara – which is square at the base
and whose walls curve or slope inward to a
point on top.
● Phamsana: Buildings tend to be broader
and shorter than latina ones. Their roofs are
composed of several slabs that gently rise to
a single point over the centre of the building,
unlike the latina ones which look like sharply
rising tall towers. Phamsana roofs do not
curve inward, instead they slope upwards on
a straight incline.
● Valabhi: Rectangular buildings with a roof
that rises into a vaulted chamber. The edge
of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the
bamboo or wooden wagons.
Temple Architecture in of India
Various Regions
● Central India
● Western India
● Eastern India
● The Hills
(a) Central India
● Ancient temples of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan share many traits.
● The most visible is that they are made up
of sandstone.
● These are relatively modest-looking shrines
each having four pillars that support a small
mandapa which looks like a simple square
porch-like extension before an equally small
room that served as the garbhagriha.
(b) Western India (Gujarat and Rajasthan)
● Sandstone (most common), Grey to black
Basalt, Soft White marble (Jain temples,
11th-12th century) were used.
● Proximity of sacred architecture to a water
body such as a tank, a river or a pond.
26 Master Series : Art and Culture
● The influence of the woodcarving tradition of
Gujarat is evident in the lavish carving and
sculpture work.
Decorative Feature of Nagara Style in Vimana
● Amalak horizontal fluted disc
● Kalash a vase on top of amalak
● However, the walls of the central small shrine
are devoid of carving and are left plain as the
temple faces the east and, every year, at the
time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly
into this central shrine.
Famous Sun Temples of India
Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa
The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujrat
Suryanagar Temple, Tamilnadu
Suryanarayansway Temple, Arasavalli, Andhra
Pradesh
5. Sun Temple, Assam
6. Brahmadeya Sun Temple, Unao, Madhya Pradesh
1.
2.
3.
4.
(c) Eastern Style of Temple
● Terracotta was the main
construction. (Refer Fig. 3.6)
medium
of
Pala Style
● It includes tall curving shikhara crowned by a
large amalaka.
● Local vernacular building traditions of Bengal
also influenced the style of temples – Most
prominent was the shape of the curving or
sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali
hut.
● In Odisha the Shikhara (Deul) is vertical
almost until the top, when it suddenly curves
sharply inwards, preceded, as usual, by
mandapas (jagamohana).
(d) The Hills
● Hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and
Kashmir are part of this.
● Gandhara influence is present.
● As a result both Buddhist and Hindu traditions
began to intermingle and spread in the hills
● Tradition of wooden buildings with pitched
roofs.
● While the main garbhagriha and shikhara
are made in rekha-prasada or latina style,
the mandapa is of an older form of wooden
architecture.
● Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda
shape.
Dravidan Style of Architecture
● The shape of the main temple tower known
as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped
pyramid that rises up geometrically rather
than the curving shikhara of North India.
● In the South Indian temple, the word
‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning
element at the top of the temple which is
usually shaped like a small stupika or an
octagonal cupola— this is equivalent to the
amlak and kalasha of North Indian temples.
(Refer Fig. 3.7)
● The front wall has an entrance gateway in its
centre, which is known as a gopuram.
● It is common to find a large water reservoir,
or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
Fig. 3.7. The Typical Dravidian Temple
Contrast with Nagara Style
Fig. 3.6. The Terracota Temple (Curving Roof)
● The North Indian idea of multiple shikharas
rising together as a cluster was not popular
in South India.
Indian Architecture 27
● Unlike the Nagara temple, the Dravida temple
is enclosed within a compound wall.
● With the passage of time, the population and
size of the town associated with that temple
would have increased, and it would have
become necessary to make a new boundary
wall around the temple. This would have
been taller that the last one, and its Gopurams
would have been even loftier.
South Indian Temples
● The Gopurams of Meenakshi temple in
Madurai is the best example of a temple
having loftier Gopurams. (Refer Fig. 3.9)
● Temples thus become the focus of urban
architecture.
● During the eighth to twelfth centuries, the
role of the temple was not limited to religious
matters alone. Temples became rich administrative centres, controlling vast areas of land.
● The plan of the temple and the shape of the
vimana were conditioned by the iconographic
nature of the consecrated deity.
● The early buildings, it is generally assumed, were
rockcut, while the later ones were structural.
● The rock cut temples and Rathas of
Mahabalipuram, the magnificent Shiva
temple in Thanjavur called as Brihadeeswara
Temple are the best examples of Dravidian
architecture.(Refer Fig. 3.8)
Fig. 3.8. Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavuru
Fig. 3.9. A Gopuram of Meenakshi Temple in Madurai
Vesara Style of Architecture
(Deccan Region)
● A hybridised style (of Nagara and Dravida
styles) that seems to have become popular
after the mid-seventh century.
● The Eastern Chalukyan temples, like the
Mahakuta near Badami (Refer Fig. 3.10),
and the Swarga Brahma temple at Alampur
show a greater assimilation of northern styles
from Odisha and Rajasthan.
● The Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebid in
Karnataka (built in dark schist stone) is one of
the best example of Vesara style temples built by
Hoyasalas. They are easily distinguishable from
other medieval temples by their highly original
star-like ground-plans and a profusion of
decorative carvings.
Fig. 3.10. Temple of Badami
28 Master Series : Art and Culture
Comparison of Ajanta and Mahabalipuram
Ajanata Caves
Mahabalipuram Temple
●
●
●
●
The famous cave site in western India is Ajanta.
● The group of monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th-century CE religious monuments in
It is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.
the coastal resort town of Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu,
It has 29 caves, including 4 chaitya caves.
India and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
It has the large Chaitya-Vihara and is decorated with
● It is on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal,
sculpture and paintings (murals).
about 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of Chennai.
● Ajanta is the only surviving example of the painting
●
The site has 400 ancient monuments and Hindu temples,
of the first century BCE and the fifth century BCE.
including one of the largest open-air rock reliefs in the
● Some of the vihara caves here are unfinished.
world: the Descent of the Ganges or Arjuna's Penance.
● The monuments were built during the Pallava dynasty.
Known as the Seven Pagodas in many colonial-era
publications, they are also called the Mamallapuram
temples or Mahabalipuram temples in contemporary
literature.
Indo-Islamic Architecture
Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim
merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a
passage of six hundred years.
● Muslims absorbed many features of local
cultures and traditions and combined them
with their own architectural practices.
● The main elements in the Islamic architecture
is the introduction of arches and beams, and it
is the arcuate style of construction while the
traditional Indian building style is trabeate,
using pillars and beams and lintels.
● Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architectural building like mosques
for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs,
dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out
gardens, madrasas, sarais or caravansarais,
Kos minars, etc., were constructed over a
period of time.
In spite of the obvious Saracenic, Persian and
Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic structures were
heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of
Indian architectural and decorative forms.
Categorisation of Indo-Islamic
Architecture
● The Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)
● The Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore)
● The Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal,
and Jaunpur)
● The Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda)
Decorative Forms in Indo-Islamic
Style
● These forms included designing on plaster
through incision or stucco. The designs were
either left plain or covered with colours.
● Motifs were also painted on or carved in
stone. These motifs included varieties of
flowers, both from the sub-continent and
places outside, particularly Iran.
● The lotus bud fringe was used to great
advantage in the inner curves of the arches.
● Popular colours were blue, turquoise, green
and yellow.
● Subsequently the techniques of tessellation
(mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made
use of for surface decoration. (Refer Fig. 3.13)
● At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior
walls or on canopies.
● Other decorations included arabesque,
calligraphy and high and low relief carving
and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief
carving has a three-dimensional look. (Refer
Fig. 3.10)
Indian Architecture 29
for construction such as quartzite, sandstone,
buff, marble, etc.
Minars
● Two most striking minars of medieval times
are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand
Minar at Daulatabad Fort.
● The everyday use of the minar was for the
azaan or call to prayer.
● It’s phenomenal height, however, symbolised
the might and power of the ruler.
Fig. 3.11. The Intricate Jali Work, Amer Fort, Jaipur
Tombs
● Monumental structures over graves of rulers
and royalty was a popular feature of medieval
India.
● Some well known examples of such tombs
are those of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun,
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar and
Itmad uddaula.
● The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise
as a reward for the true believer on the Day
of judgement.
Fig. 3.12. A Lotus Bud fringe
● This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb
construction.
● Surely though, such vast expanses of structured
and stylised spaces could not have been
intended only to signify peace and happiness
in the next world but to also showcase the
majesty, grandeur and might of the person
buried there.
Sarais
Fig. 3.13. Pietra dura work (with flower motif), Agra
Materials Used for Construction in
Indo-Islamic Architecture Forms
● The walls in all buildings were extremely
thick and were largely constructed of rubble
masonary, which was easily available.
● These walls were then cased over with
chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone.
● An amazing range of stones were utilised
● Sarais were largely built on a simple square
or rectangular plan and were meant to
provide temporary accommodation to Indian
and foreign travellers, pilgrims, merchants,
traders, etc.
● In effect, sarais were public domains which
thronged with people of varied cultural
backgrounds.
● This led to cross-cultural interaction, influences
and syncretic tendencies in the cultural mores
of the times and at the level of the people.
30 Master Series : Art and Culture
The following table enlists the Major Monuments of India −
Monuments
Constructed by
Nalanda University
Gupta Dynasty
The seven Pagodas of Mahabalipuram Narasimhavarman II
Jagannatha Temple
King Anantavarman Chodaganga
Deva (Eastern Ganga Dynasty)
Lingaraj Temple
Somavamsi Dynasty
Khajuraho Group of Monuments
Chandela Dynasty
Brihadeeswara Temple (also known Raja Raja Chola I
as RajaRajeswara Temple)
Ajanta Caves
Satavahana Dynasty later Mauryan
Dynasty
Ellora Caves
Kalachuri, Chalukya, and Rashtrakuta
Dynasties
Agra Fort
Mughal Emperor Akbar
Thousand Pillars Temple (also known Kakatiya Dynasty
as Rudreshwara Swamy Temple)
Red Fort
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Taj Mahal
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Konark Sun Temple
Narasimhadeva I (Eastern Ganga
Dynasty)
Fatehpur Sikri
Mughal Emperor Akbar
Bibi Ka Maqbara
Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb
Jama Masjid
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Mehrangarh Fort
Rao Jodha
Tajmahal
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Qutub Minar
Qutubuddin Aibak
Makkah Masjid
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
Hawa Mahal
Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh
Moti Masjid
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Humayun’s Tomb
Akbar and Humayun’s wife Empress
Bega Begum
Charminar
Quli Qutub Shah
Elephanta Caves
Not exactly known
Bara Imambara
Asaf-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh)
Dilwara Temples
Vastupal-Tejpal
Gateway of India
British Government (Designed by
George Wittet)
India Gate
Designed by Edwin Lutyens
Jantar Mantar
Maharaja Jai Singh
Parana Qila (Old Fort)
Shershah Suri
Golden Temple
Fourth Sikh guru, Guru Ram Das
Victoria Memorial
British Government
Thillai Natarajah Temple
Made collectively by Pallava, Chola,
Pandya, etc.
Group of Hampi Monuments
Vijayanagara Empire
Lotus Temple
Architect - Fariborz Sahba
Location
Rajgir, Nalanda (Bihar)
Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu)
Puri, Odisha
Bhubaneswar, Odhisha
Chhatarpur, Madhya Pradesh
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Hanamakonda, Telangana
Delhi
Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Konark, Odisha
Agra, UP
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Delhi
Jodhpur, Rajasthan
Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Delhi
Hyderabad, Telangana
Jaipur, Rajasthan
Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Delhi
Hyderabad, Telangana
Mumbai (Harbour), Maharashtra
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Mount Abu, Rajasthan
Mumbai City, Maharashtra
Delhi
Delhi
Delhi
Amritsar, Punjab
Kolkata, West Bengal
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
Hampi, Karnataka
Delhi
Indian Architecture 31
3.2. Indian Sculpture
Deep-rooted Background of Indian
Sculpture
on them the representation of a human or an
animal figure and have on top an inscription
in pictographic script which has not been deciphered so far. [Refer Fig. 3.14 (b)]
● The beginning of stone sculpture in India goes back
to a very remote age.
● The excavations carried out in 1924, at the ruins
of Mohenjodaro on the Indus river and Harappa in
the Punjab, brought to light a highly developed Indus
Valley urban civilization.
● Trade and cultural contacts existed between these
cities and those of Mesopotamia of which the evidence
is the occurrence of the seals.
● Clay was the earliest medium in which man began
to mould and large number of terracotta figurines
have been discovered from the Indus Valley sites.
Examples of Early Sculpture
in IVC
(a)
(b)
(a) Male Torso: It is of polished red lime stone
from Harappa, chiselled in the round, is remarkable for its naturalistic pose and sophisticated
modeling, highlighting its physical beauty.
(b) Bearded Nobleman: Another noteworthy
example from this urban culture is the bust portrait
of a bearded nobleman or high priest, from Mohenjodaro, wearing a shawl with trefoil pattern.
(c) Dancing Girl: The bronze dancing girl of
the same period discovered at Mohenjodaro
is perhaps the greatest surviving achievement
of the metal work of the Harappan age. This
world-famous figure shows a female dancing
figure standing as if relaxing after a dance
number, with her right hand on her hip and
the left dangling free. [Refer Fig. 3.14 (a)]
(d) Terracotta Figure: Representing a bull is a
forceful representation, eloquently proclaiming
the special study of the anatomy of the animal
by the modeller who fashioned the figure. The
animal is shown standing with his head turned
to the right and there is a cord around the neck.
[Refer Fig. 3.14 (c)]
(e) Harrapan Seals: A large number of seals
have been discovered in the excavations. They
are made of steatite, terracotta and copper
and are of various shapes and sizes. Generally
they are rectangular, some are circular and few
are cylindrical. Almost invariably they bear
(c)
Fig. 3.14. (a) The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo Daro
(b) Indus valley Seal with Bull, Elephant, and
Rhinoceros, 2500–1900 BC
(c) Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600-2450 BCE
Buddhist Sculptures
● The earliest historical sculpture in India is of
the Mauryan age in the 4th-3rd centuries B.C.
● It is a bold and massive style marked by
a certain realism freely employing foreign
elements from Achaemenid Persia.
● The great Buddhist Emperor Ashoka caused
the erection of monolithic pillars of sandstone,
30 to 40 feet high, crowned by animal figures
like the bull, lion and elephant, and had
them inscribed with the Buddhist concepts
of morality, humanity and piety, which he
wished his people to follow.
● Famous Ashokan pillars are from Lauriya
Nandangarh in Bihar, Sanchi and Sarnath.
32 Master Series : Art and Culture
Significance of India’s National Emblem from
Ashoka’s Sarnath Pillar
The most remarkable feature in stupas is the highly
polished monolithic lion-capital found at Sarnath, which
is now the Emblem of the Government of India.
● It represents four roaring lions back to back facing
the four cardinal directions.
● The round abacus is decorated with four dharmachakras
or wheels of law, alternating with an elephant, a bull, a
horse and a lion, all carved with masterly skill.
● The abacus is supported by a bell-shaped base
consisting of a lotus with dharmachakra, which
perhaps symbolized the victory of righteousness
over physical force.
● The superb modeling of the figures executed in a
realistic manner with a certain stylization, is invested
with a great power and dignity, and reveals the
aristocratic and international nature of Mauryan art.
Buddha Images and Changes Over
the Time
● The narrative art of Bharhut depicted stories
of Buddha’s previous birth in sculptures.
(Refer Fig. 3.15)
● Though it may seem strange, Buddha is never
represented in human form in Buddhist art
before the Christian era, as his spirituality
was considered too abstract for the purpose.
● The adherents of the Buddhist faith followed the
Hinayana path as a means of attaining salvation.
● Buddha’s presence in early Indian art is,
therefore, suggested by symbols like the Bodhi
tree under which he attained enlightenment,
the wheel of law, his foot prints, the royal
umbrella, the stupa and an empty throne, etc.
● Satavahana Kings of South India excavated
cave temples and monasteries along the
Western Coast of India and erected several
Buddhist stupas.
Fig. 3.15. Worship of the Bodhi Tree, Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh
Stupa Architecture
● Stupa worship was an ancient form of honouring the great dead.
● Stupas were built not only to enshrine relics
of Buddha and Buddhist saints, but also to
commemorate events of religious significance.
● It is a solid structural dome raised on a terrace
and surmounted by a railed pavilion from which
rises the shaft of the crowning umbrella.
● Stupa was originally a mud funerary mound
enshrining in its core the sacred relics of the
Buddha or his disciples, such as hair, bits of
bones, etc.
Evolution of Indian Style of
Sculpture Making
● After Alexander’s invasion of India in 326 BC,
the Indo-Greek, Indo Scythian and Kushan
kings ruled over its north-western territories
and under their patronage emerged a distinct
style of sculpture, popularly known as the
Greco-Roman, Buddhist or Gandhara art.
● It was a product of the combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements. Greek
and Roman techniques, modified according to
Indian requirements, were employed in fashioning the Gandhara sculpture which truly
represents Indian culture in a Western garb.
● The subject-matter treated is predominantly
Buddhist. Its area extended from Takshila
in India to the Swat Valley in Pakistan and
northwards to areas in Afghanistan.
Buddha Became Symbol for
Growing Art in Asia
● The first century of the Christian era's revolutionary
change, had far-reaching effects, not only on the
art of India, but also on the artistic development of
Buddhist countries of Asia.
● Buddha who was hitherto designated only by a
symbol, was conceived in human form.
● He was given some of the 32 suspicious bodily signs
associated with the Mahapurushalakshana, such as
the protuberance of the skull, the hair-knot, bindi
between the eyebrows and elongated ears.
● This change came about as a result of the new changes
that had crept into the religious outlook of Buddhism
due to the influence of the Devotional School of Hindu
Philosophy, requiring the worship of personal gods.
● It must have exercised profound influence on the
religious approach of the masses towards Buddhism.
● The image becomes henceforth the main element of
sculpture and worship.
Indian Architecture 33
Gandhara and Mathura Art
Possibly, the emergence of the image of Buddha in Gandhara and in Mathura was a parallel development.
In each case, it was produced by the local artist craftsmen working in the local tradition.
Fig. 3.16. (a) Gandhara Art
(b) Mathura Art
Main Differences Between Mathura and Gandhara School of Arts
Features
Origin
Material Used
Image Features
Halo
Mathura School
Gandhara School
No foreign Influence, however, later ● Strong Greek influence. Was based
it cross fertilized with the Gandhara
on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating
School. Its development took place
foreign techniques and an alien spirit.
indigenously.
● It is also known as Graeco-Buddhist
School of art.
● Initially inspired by Yaksha Images
Assimilating various traits of
Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian
traditions into the local tradition is a
hallmark of the Gandhara style.
● Initially inspired by Hellenistic features.
Spotted Red Sandstone
● Blue-grey Mica schist/Grey Sandstone
Early period: Light volume having ● Finer details and realistic images.
Buddha carved out in various Mudras.
fleshy body.
●
Curly hair, anatomical accuracy,
Later Period: Flashiness reduced.
spatial depth, and foreshortening.
Buddha carved out in various Mudras.
Not much attention to detailed ● Buddha is sometimes thin.
sculpting. Buddha is stout.
● More stress is given to the bodily
features and external beauty
More stress is given to the inner
beauty and facial emotions rather
than bodily gesture.
The halo around the head of Buddha Not decorated, generally. The images are
was profusely decorated. Images are very expressive
less expressive.
34 Master Series : Art and Culture
Amaravati School of Art
● Flourished in Amaravati, situated in the
eastern Deccan, Andhra Pradesh, a different
type of art form evolved.
● Patronized first by the Satavahanas and later
by the Ikshvakus and also by other groups
● The lotus and the purnakumbha motifs
are typical of Amaravati Art expressing
auspiciousness and abundance.
● White Marble was used in this art and the
themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales.
Greenish white limestone was also used.
Major Works of Amaravati School of
Arts
● Lord Buddha is depicted in the form of
‘Swastika’ mark. This has been carved out
on the cushioned seat over a throne that is
situated under the Bodhi tree.
● At a later stage the Amaravati School
depicted Buddha in the human form for
the first time. The sculptures of this school
depict Buddha in the superhuman form.
● There are animal sculptures, the Triratna, the
coins of that age and other minor antiquities.
● The sculpted figures apparently reflect the features
of Satavahana sculptures and architectures.
● The female figures are full of dynamism and
life.
● The figures of Amaravati have slim blithe
features and are represented in difficult poses
and curves. However the scenes are overcrowded, the general effect is not pleasing.
● Other pieces of art from the Amaravati School
include the ornate bull or ‘nandiswara’ that was
situated in the Amareswara temple; earlier forms
of Lord Ganesha, Ganeshani and Lakshmi.
Gupta Sculpture
● With the Gupta period India entered upon the
classical phase of sculpture.
● By the efforts of the centuries, techniques
of art were perfected, definite types were
evolved, and ideals of beauty were formulated
with precision.
● A thorough intelligent grasp of the true aims
●
●
●
●
●
and essential principles of art, a highly developed
aesthetic sense and masterly execution by skilled
hands produced those remarkable images which
were to be the ideal and despair of the Indian
artists of subsequent ages.
Sculptures were made out of stone, wood,
bronze, and terracotta clay.
Most of these sculptures were portrayed as
Buddhist and Hindu gods. Some portray
scenes from important people lives.
Many sculptures were made to stand up by
themselves. But some were carved into to
walls, temples, and caves.
Gupta sculptures portrayed deities in human
form. These sculptures were very detailed and
beautiful. For example this Buddha sculpture
has very smooth body and is very detailed.
Classic examples of Gupta periods are Red
Sandstone image of Buddha from Mathura,
Sculptures at Deogarh temples (Sheshashayi
Vishnu) and those from the temples of
Udaigiri and Ajanta.
Medieval School of Sculpture
● Indian sculpture from the 7th century onwards
developed two styles: sculpture that flourished
in northern and southern India.
● The local schools of Maharashtra and
Karnataka
also
possess
considerable
individuality and often show both northern
and southern features. Sculpture in bronze
was also produced in this period.
● Instead of the classical dignity, sobriety and
simplicity, the sculpture is now more and
more tending towards ornamentation, creating
highly ornate art objects, with strange and
unusual imaginary creatures, such as half
human, half monsters, etc.
Medieval Indian Sculpture of North
India
● The history of North Indian sculpture from
the 7th to the 9th centuries is obscure. There
are two trends: one shows the decline and
collapse of classical forms and the other
depicts the evolution of new styles.
Indian Architecture 35
● A breakdown of the Gupta type of sculpture
is indicated from at the 7th century onwards.
It changed from harmonious proportion,
graceful movement and supple modelling to
squat proportions, a halting movement and a
hard form.
● A novel elegance, richer decorativeness and
a disconnected rhythm characterised the
medieval styles of the 10th and 11th centuries.
● The sculptures at Abaneri, the shiva
temple at Indore, and the Teli-Ka-Mandir
at Gwalior are examples of Medieval North
Indian sculptures.
Medieval Indian Sculpture of East
India
● Sculpture in eastern India represents a distinct
idiom. The flatness of planes and angularity
of contours are less prominent, the figures
have a sense of mass and weight.
● This is clearly seen in sculpture from Konark
in Orissa.
Medieval Indian Sculpture of South
India
● The 7th-century sculptures at Mahabalipuram
are a great example of medieval sculpture.
● It is a large relief depicting the penance
of Arjuna. The tall, slender figures, with
supple tubular limbs recall the proportions
of Amaravati. The light, aerial forms gained
stability.
● The temples at Tiruvalishvaram, Kodumbalur,
Kilaiyur, Shrinivasanalur, Kumbakonam, are
examples of this types of sculpture.
● South Indian bronze sculpture occupied a
special place has a special place in the history
of Indian art. 9th and 10th centuries witnessed
lot of bronze sculptures. Most South Indian
bronze images represent Hindu Gods.
Colonial Sculptures in India
European influence in Indian Art
● The European colonists brought the new
concept of western sculptural art to India.
● They had a very rich history of European
architecture consisting of Neo-classical,
Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance style.
● The initial structures they built were useful
warehouses, walled trading posts as well as
forted townships along the coastline.
● There is also Danish influence in Indian
sculpture, which is clearly visible in
Nagapatnam, which was laid out in squares and
canals and also in Tranquebar and Srerampore.
● The French brought a distinct urban design
to its settlement through the Castesian Grid
plans and classical architectural patterns.
● Finally British brought the long lasting
impact on Indian architecture through their
two hundreds years of ruling.
British Architecture Styles
● The British followed different architectural
styles among which Gothic, Imperial,
Christian, English, Renaissance and Victorian
were the most important.
● The British architecture started with building
factories but soon they started building courts,
schools, municipal halls and Dak Bungalows,
which were all ordinary structures built by
garrison engineers.
● Many buildings of that time were influenced
and copied from famous buildings in London
and other places of Britain.
● Unlike Europe, these buildings were made of
mostly brick and coated with lime or ‘Chunam’
and sometimes with engraved ‘facades’ that
looked like made of stones. However, some
later buildings were made up of stones.
● Governor Sir Bartle Frere really tried to
give Bombay an imperial look and feel.
The Secretariat, University Library, Rajabai
Tower, Telegraph Office and the Victoria
Terminus all adopted the Victorian Gothic
style, similar to buildings in London.
● New Delhi was constructed during the
British period, which was considered as
‘The Rome of Hindustan’. Sir Edward
Lutyens, employed by British Viceroy was
the designer of this city.He was specifically
36 Master Series : Art and Culture
directed to “harmonise externally with the
traditions of Indian art”. The Rashtrapati
Bhawan or the then Viceroy’s House is the
great example of this fusion with Chajjas,
Jalis and Chhatteis.
Indo-Gothic Style
It was a blend of Indian, Persian and Gothic Styles
of architecture. Features of Indo-Gothic style are
as follows:
● The constructions were extremely large and
elaborate in their execution.
● The walls were thinner than in the IndoIslamic architecture.
● The arches were pointed unlike the curving
arches of Indo-Islamic era.
● One of the unique features of the Victorian
style was the use of large widows.
● The churches had a crucified ground plan.
● For example, Victoria Memorial in Kolkata,
Gateway of India in Mumbai etc.
Neo-Roman Style
The architecture of New Delhi was done by Edwin
Lutyens and Herbert Baker are examples of NeoRoman style. Some of the features are:
● The constructions were anonymous and
without any interesting features.
● It was a confluence of all styles of architecture
which made the style congested and cramped
the space of artistic expression.
● Simplicity, modernity and utility were highly
compromised due to the hybrid nature of the
constructions.
● There was a focus on circular buildings.
Indian Architecture 37
Art and Culture Master Exercise
3
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
Which of the following language is used in the
inscription of Sanchi Stupa?
6.
(a) Pali
(b) Brahmi
(c) Sakskrit
(d) None of these
2.
3.
The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an
archaeological site of the Palaeolithic period. It
is located in which state?
(a) Gujarat
(b) Madhya Pradesh
(c) Maharashtra
(d) Jharkhand
Consider the following pairs:
School of Art
Stone Used
1. Gandhara
Blue-grey Mica schist/
Grey Sandstone
2. Mathura
White Marble
3. Amaravati
Spotted Red Sandstone
7.
8.
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly
matched?
4.
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 only
Ashokan pillars can be found at following places.
1. Nandangarh
2. Sanchi
9.
3. Sarnath
Select the correct answer using the code below:
5.
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) All of the these
Yaksha and Yakshini sculptures relates to:
(a) Buddhism
(b) Hinduism
(c) Jainism
(d) All of the above
Consider the following statements regarding
Harappan civilization:
1. All of the cities were divided into two or
more parts.
2. In the divided cities usually, the part to the
west was larger but at a lower elevation and
called as the lower town.
3. In the divided cities usually, the part to the
east was smaller but at a higher elevation
and called as the citadel.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are
incorrect?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None of the above
At which of the following Harappan sites,
terracotta female figures were discovered?
(a) Mohenjo-daro (b) Kot Bala
(c) Kot Diji
(d) Khirasara
With reference to Barabar caves, consider the
following statements.
1. They were built during the reign of Ashoka.
2. They were dedicated to ajivikas.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Which of the following is/are features of the
Dravida style of temple architecture?
1. Curvilinear shikara
2. Recessed sculptures
3. Gopuram
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
38 Master Series : Art and Culture
10. The structures which provided temporary
accommodation to travellers are:
(a) Tombs
(b) Sarais
(c) Minars
(d) Temples
Subjectve type questions for Main
Examination
1.
2.
3.
Why were so many temples built during the age
of Pallavas despite their conflict with the Chalukya
kingdom?
4.
What are the commonalities and differences
between the temples of North India and South
India?
5.
Indian style of architecture was overshadowed by
Islamic style of architecture in the late 12th century.
Elucidate.
Harappan civilization was the age of “First
Urbanization” in our ancient history, with planned
cities and buildings. Corroborate your answer with
relevant illustrations.
What is the difference between Stupa, Chaitya
and Vihara? Describe the physical and aesthetic
features of Sanchi Stupa.
Answers to MCQs
1.
6.
(b) 2.
(c) 7.
(b) 3.
(a) 8.
(a)
(c)
4.
9.
(d) 5. (d)
(b) 10. (b)
Languages and Literature 39
ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES
UNIT 4
Languages and
LITERATURE
The Rich Heritage of India
The literary base of a civilization tells us about the
evolution of each of its languages and culture through
the span of centuries. Sanskrit is the mother of many
Indian languages. The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and
Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit. There is also
a variety of secular and regional literature. By reading
about the languages and literature created in the past,
we shall be able to understand our civilization better
and appreciate the diversity and richness of our culture.
Some famous work are:
● ‘Abhijanam Shakuntalam’ and ‘Meghdoot’ by
Kalidasa,
● ‘Mricchakatika’ by Shudraka,
● ‘Swapna Vasavadattam’ by Bhasa,
● ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha.
● Chanakya’s ‘Arthashastra’ ,
● Vatsyayana’s ‘Kamasutra’.
Vedas
● The Vedas are the earliest known literature
in India.
● The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and were
handed down orally from one generation to
the other. The word ‘Veda’ literally means
knowledge.
● To be able to keep such a literary wealth as
the Vedas intact, when the art of writing was
not there and there was a paucity of writing
material, is unprecedented in world history.
In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as
eternal and divine revelations. They treat the
whole world as one human family ‘Vasudev
Kutumbakam’.
There are four Vedas, namely, the – Rig Veda,
Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.
Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
Rig Veda
● The Rig Veda is the earliest of the Vedas. It is
a collection of 1028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit.
Many of these are beautiful descriptions of
nature. The prayers are largely for seeking
worldly prosperity.
● It is believed that these recitations are the natural outpouring of Vedic Rishis experiencing
a mentally transcendental stage.
● Some of the well-known Rishis are Vasistha,
Gautama,
Gritasamada,
Vamadeva,
Vishvamitra and Atri.
● The prominent gods of the Rig Veda are
Indra, Agni, Varun, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu,
Aditi and the Ashwini twins. Some of the
prominent goddesses are Usha – the goddess
of dawn, Vak – the goddess of speech and
Prithvi – the goddess of earth. The prayers
are for seeking worldly prosperity and for the
development of a highly cultured society.
Yajur Veda
● Yajur means sacrifice or worship. This Veda
is concerned mostly with rites and mantras of
different sacrifices.
● It gives directions for the performance of
the yajnas. It has both poetic and prose
40 Master Series : Art and Culture
renderings. Being a treatise on rituals, it is
the most popular of the four Vedas.
● There are two major branches of Yajur Veda,
namely Shukla and Krishna Yajur Veda i.e.
Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taitriya Samhita.
Sama Veda
● Sama means melody or songs. This Veda
consists of 16,000 ragas and raginis or
musical notes.
● Out of total 1875 verses only 75 are original
and others are from the Rig Veda.
● The Sama Veda prescribes the tunes for the
recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda.
● It may be called the book of Chants (Saman).
This book is an evidence of the development
of Indian music during this period.
Atharva Veda
● The Atharva Veda is also known as the
Brahma Veda. It contains treatment for
ninety-nine diseases.
● The source of this Veda is traced to two rishis
called Atharvah and Angiras. The Atharva
Veda is of immense value as it represents the
religious ideas at an early period of civilisation. It has two branches, the Paippalada and
the Saunaka.
● This book gives detailed information about
the family, social and political life of later
Vedic period.
Vedangas
● In order to understand the Vedas, it is necessary to
learn the Vedangas or the limbs of the Vedas.
● These supplements of the Vedas provide education
(siksha), grammar (vyakarana), ritual (kalpa),
etymology (nirukta), metrics (chhanda) and
astronomy (Jyotisha).
● A good deal of literature grew around these subjects.
It was written in the form of precepts in the sutra
style.
● The most famous example of this is Panini’s
grammar, Ashtadhyayi, which illustrates the rules of
grammar and also throws light on society, economy
and culture of those times.
Brahmanas and Aranyakas
● After the four Vedas, a number of works called the
Brahmanas were developed.
● These books gave a detailed explanation of Vedic
rituals and instructions and deal with the science
of sacrifice.
● The latter portions of the Brahmanas were called the
Aranyakas while the final parts of the Aranyakas are
philosophic books named Upanishads which belong
to the later stage of the Brahmana literature.
● Each of the four Vedas have their own Brahmana
books.
● Rig Veda had Kaushitaki and Aitreya. Taitteriya
belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda and Shatpath
belongs to Shukla Yajur Veda.
● Tandav, Panchvish and Jaimaniya belongs to
Atharva Veda. It is through them that we get a
detailed information of the social, political and
religious life of the people.
Upanishads
● The Upanishads mark the culmination of Indian
thought and are the final parts of the Vedas.
● As the Upanishads contain abstract and
difficult discussions of ultimate philosophical
problems, they were taught to the pupils at
the end.
● Vedas start with the worship of the manifest,
as that is obvious and then slowly transform
to the knowledge of the unmanifest.
● There are more than 200 known Upanishads,
one of which, the Muktika, gives a list of
108 Upanishads – this number corresponds
to the holy number of beads on a mala or
Hindu rosary.
Ramayana and the Mahabharata
● The Mahabharata, was written by Ved Vyas.
Originally, it was written in Sanskrit and
contained 8800 verses and was called “Jaya”
or the collection dealing with victory.
● These were raised to 24,000 and came to be
known as Bharata, named after one of the
earliest Vedic tribes. The final compilation
brought the verses to 100,000, which came
to be known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita.
Languages and Literature 41
● It contains narrative, descriptive and didactic
material, relating to conflict between the
Kauravas and the Pandavas.
● The Mahabharata and the Ramayana have
several renderings in different Indian languages.
● The Mahabharata contains the famous
Bhagavad Gita which contains the essence of
divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel. Though it is a very ancient scripture, its
fundamental teachings are in use even today.
● In the Bhagvad Gita, Krishna explains to
Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and
elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic
philosophies with examples and analogies.
● This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu
philosophy and a parochial, self-contained
guide to life.
● In modern times Swami Vivekananda, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and
many others used the text to inspire the Indian
independence movement.
Puranas
● The Puranas occupy a unique position in
the sacred literature of the Hindus. They are
regarded next in importance only to the Vedas
and the Epics.
● There are said to be eighteen Puranas and
about the same number of Upapuranas.
Some of the well known Puranas are –
Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu,
Agni, Matsya and Garuda.
● Their origin can be traced as far back as the
time when Buddhism was gaining importance
and was a major opponent of the Brahmanic
culture.
● Puranas are mythological works which
propagate religious and spiritual messages
through parables and fables.
● They are full of myths, stories, legends and
sermons that were meant for the education of
the common people.
● These Puranas contain important geographical
information/histories and deal with the
mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic
genealogies.
This period also saw the compilation of various
smritis or law books written in verse. The phase of
writing commentaries on the smritis begins after the
Gupta period. Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should describe five topics;
1. Sarga (Creation)
2. Pratisarga (Secondary creation)
3. Vemsa (Geneology)
4. Manvantara(Manu periods)
5. Vamsanucarita (Dynastic history)
Buddhist and Jain Literature
in Pali, Prakrit and Sanskrit
● The religious books of the Jains and the
Buddhists refer to historical persons or incidents.
● The earliest Buddhist works were written
in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha
and South Bihar. The Buddhist works can
be divided into the canonical and the noncanonical.
● The canonical literature is best represented
by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets
-Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma
Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka deals with the rules
and regulations of daily life. Sutta Pitaka
contains dialogues and discourses on morality
and deals with Dharma while Abhidhamma
Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics.
● It includes discourses on various subjects such
as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge
and mataphysical problems.
● The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and
were finally compiled in the sixth century AD
in Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works
are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas,
Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras.
● Among the important Jain scholars, reference
may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth
century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth
century AD).
● Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature
comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar.
These works contain many passages which
help us to reconstruct the political history of
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
● The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and
traders.
42 Master Series : Art and Culture
Sanskrit Literature
● The Dharmasutras were compiled between
500 and 200 BC.
● These lay down duties for different varnas
as well as for the kings and their officials.
They prescribed the rules according to which
property had to be held, sold and inherited.
● They also prescribe punishments for persons
guilty of assault, murder and adultery. The
Manusmriti tells us about the role of man
and woman in society, their code of conduct
and relationship with each other.
● Kautilya’s Arthashastra is an important
treatise of the Mauryan times. It reflects the
state of society and economy at that time and
provides rich material for the study of ancient
Indian polity and economy.
● The works of Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa
and Banabhatta provide us with glimpses
of the social and cultural life of northern and
central India in times of the Guptas and Harsha.
● The Gupta period also saw the development
of Sanskrit grammar based on the works of
Panini and Patanjali.
Dravidan Literature
Telugu Literature
● The Vijayanagara period was the golden age
of Telugu literature. Nachana Somanatha, a
court poet of Bukka I, produced a poetical
work titled Uttaraharivamsam.
● Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the greatest of
the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of great
merit. His work Amukta Malyada is regarded
as an excellent prabandha in Telugu literature.
● Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly
known as ashtadiggajas adorned his court.
Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author
of Manucharitram, was the greatest.
● He was known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha.
The other seven poets of the group were Nandi
Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam,
Madayagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju
Ramabhadra Kavi, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja
Bhushana and Tenali Ramakrishna.
● Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed
two poetical works of great merit known
as Kalahasteeswara Mahatmayam and
Kalahasteeswara Satakam Pingali Surana
composed two works Raghavapandaviyam
and Kalapuranodayam.
● In the former, he attempted a literary feat
telling the story of the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata simultaneously.
Kannada Literature
● Kannada language has been developed fully
after the tenth century AD.
● The earliest known literary work in Kannada
is Kavirajamang written by the Rashtrakuta
King, Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I. Pampa,
known as the father of Kannada wrote his great
poetic works Adi Purana and Vïkramarjiva
Vijaya in the tenth century AD.
● Pampa lived in the court of Chalukya
Arikesari. In his poetic skill, beauty of
description, delineation of character and
development of rasa, Pampa is unrivalled.
Ponna and Ranna were two other poets
who lived during the reign of Rashtrakuta
Krishna III.
● Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti Purana
and Ranna wrote Ajitanatha Purano.
Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned
the title Ratnatraya (the three gems).
Malayalam Literature
● Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the
adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam
emerged around the eleventh century AD.
● By fifteenth century Malayalam was
recognized as an independent language.
● Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra
and Kokasandisan are two great works.
● Rama Panikkar and Ramanuj an
Ezhuthachan are well known authors of
Malayalam literature. Though it developed
much later compared to other South Indian
languages,
● Malayalam has made a mark as a powerful
medium of expression. Now a large number
of journals, newspapers and magazines are
Languages and Literature 43
published in Malayalam. When people read
and write in their own language, they enjoy
it more.
● It is so well inter-woven in their social life
that they can express and feel their emotions
as well in their own language. This, must also
be the case with you and your language also.
Sangam Literature
● The Sangama literature was produced in
the early four centuries of the Christian era,
although it was finally compiled by 600
AD. Poets who were these assemblies were
patronised by kings and chieftains produced
the Sangama literature over a period of
three to four centuries.
● Poets, bards and writers, authors came from
various parts of South India to Madurai. Such
assemblies were called “Sangamas”, and the
literature produced in these assemblies was
called “Sangama literature”.
● The contributions of Tamil saints like
Thiruvalluvar who wrote ‘Kural’ which
has been translated into many langauges are
noteworthy.
● The Sangama literature is a collection of long
and short poems composed by various poets
in praise of numerous heroes and heroines.
They are secular in nature and of a very high
quality. Three such sangams were held.
● The poems collected in the first sangam have
been lost. In the second Sangam about 2000
poems have been collected.
● There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which
are arranged in eight anthologies called
Ettuttokoi.
● There are two main groups – the Patinenkil
Kanakku (the eighteen lower collections)
and Pattupattu (the ten songs). The former is
generally assumed to be older than the latter, and
considered to be of more historical importance.
Thiruvallurar’s work ‘Kural’ is divided into
three parts. The first part deals with the epics, the
second part with polity and government and the
third part with love. Besides the Sangama texts, we
have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with
grammar and poetry. In addition, we have the twin
epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. These
two were composed around the sixth century AD.
The first is considered as the brightest gem of Tamil
literature and deals with a love story. The second
epic was written by a grain merchant of Madurai.
These epics throw light on the socio-economic life
of Tamils from second century to sixth century AD.
Hindi Literature
● The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use
of regional langages by the various saints
helped in their growth and development of
Hindi.
● Prithviraj Raso is supposed to be the first
book in the Hindi language. It is an account
of exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. In its
imitation several other rasos were written.
● The language went on changing as the area
where it was used expanded. New words to
express new situations were either coined or
taken from areas coming under its influence.
Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics
for guidance and Bharata’s Natyashastra was
kept in mind by Hindi writers.
● Though it is said that Tulsidas wrote
Ramcharit Manas based on Valmiki’s
Ramayana, he also alters situations and adds
quite a few new scenes and situations based
on folklore. For example, Sita’s exile is
mentioned in Valmiki’s version but it is not
mentioned in Tulsidas’s account. Tuisidas has
deified his hero while the hero of Valmiki is
a human being.
● Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsa stage
between the 7th and 8th centuries AD and
the 14th C. It was characterized as Veergatha
Kala i.e. the age of heroic poetry or the Adi
Kala (early period). It was patronised by the
Rajput rulers as it glorified chiralry and
poetry. The most famous figures from this
period were Kabir and Tulsidas. In modern
times, the ‘Khadi dialect’ became more
prominent and a variety of literature was
produced in Sanskrit.
● Similarly, Surdas wrote his Sur Sagar in
which he talks of Krishna as an infant, a
young lad indulging in pranks and a young
44 Master Series : Art and Culture
man engaged in dalliance with the gopis.
These poets made a deep impression on the
minds of the listeners.
● They inspired Mirabai, who sang in
Rajasthani language, and Raskhan, who,
though a Muslim, sang in praise of Krishna.
Nandadasa was an important Bhakti poet.
Rahim and Bhushan were a class apart. Their
subject was not devotion, but spiritual. Bihari
wrote his Satsai in the seventeenth century;
it gives us a glimpse of shringar (love) and
other rasas.
● Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l838-94) wrote
novels originally in Bangla. They came to
be translated into Hindi and became very
popular. Vande Mataram, our national
song, is an excerpt from his novel, Anand
Math. Swami Dayanand’s contribution to
Hindi cannot be ignored.
● Satyartha Prakash was his most important
work in Hindi. Among other names who have
enriched Hindi literature, is that of Munshi
Prem Chand, who switched over from Urdu
to Hindi. Surya Kant Tripathi, ‘Nirala’,
achieves recognition because he questioned
the orthodoxies in society. Mahadevi Verma
is the first woman writer in Hindi to highlight
issues related to women.
Bengali Literature
● In this regard, a very important landmark was
achieved by William Carey, who wrote a
grammar of Bengali and published an English-Bengali dictionary and also wrote books
on dialogues and stories.
● It may be noted that the grammar and dictionaries are important in the development
of a literature. They guide the writers as to
the correctness of a sentence and also help
them in finding suitable words for a particular
situation and idea.
● Although the aim of the press run by the
missionaries was mainly to propagate Christian faith but other presses run by local people
helped in the flourishing of non-Christian
literature.
● In 1854 came Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch
and in 1857 the three universities of Calcutta,
Madras and Bombay were established.
Besides textbooks for schools and colleges,
other literature were also produced.
● Raja Ram Mohan Roy who wrote in Bengali
besides English that gave impetus to Bengali
literature. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (182091) and Akshay Kumar Dutta (1820-86)
were two other writers of this early period. In
addition to these, Bankim Chandra Chatterji
(l834-94), Sharat Chandra Chatterji (l8761938), and RC Dutta, a noted historian and
a prose writer, all contributed to the making
of Bengali literature.
Assamese
● Like Bengali, Assamese also developed in
response to the Bhakti movement.
● Shankardeva who introduced Vaishnavism
in Assam helped in the growth of Assamese
poetry.
Punjabi and Rajasthani
Literature
● Punjabi is a language with several shades. It
is being written in two scripts, Gurmukhi
and Persian.
● The Gurmukhi script till the end of the nineteenth century was almost limited to the Adi
Granth, the holy book of the Sikhs.
● However, the language did not lack literature.
Guru Nanak was the first poet in Punjabi.
Some other contemporary poets, mostly Sufi
saints, used to sing in this language. These Sufis
or their followers used the Persian script if they
wanted to commit their poetry to writing. In
this list, the first name is that of Farid.
● The Adi Granth also contains poetry of the
next four gurus. All this literature belongs to
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Amongst
the later gurus, the poetry of the ninth guru,
Guru Tegh Bahadur has also contributed to
the Adi Granth.
● Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, was
educated in Patna (Bihar), where he learnt
Languages and Literature 45
Persian and Sanskrit. He has composed two
savaiyyas in Punjabi but these are not a
part of the Adi Granth.
Marathi Literature
● Marathi grew out of these these local dialects.
The Portuguese missionaries started using
Marathi for preaching their gospel.
● The earliest Marathi poetry and prose is by
Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who lived
in thirteenth century.
● He wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad
Gita. He was the one who started the kirtan
tradition in Maharashtra. He was followed
by Namdev (1270-1350), Gora, Sena and
Janabai. All these sang and popularised the
Marathi language.
● Tukarama (1598-1650) is supposed to be the
greatest Bhakti poet of them all.
● Ramdas (1608-81), who was the guru of
Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers.
● He was the devotee of Rama. He inspired
Shivaji. The closing years of the nineteenth
century saw an upsurge in the Marathi
literature. It was a nationalist movement
that made Marathi prose popular and
prominent.
● Bal Gangadhar Tilak (l 857-1920) started
his Journal Kesari in Marathi. This helped
the growth of Marathi literature. But the role
of Keshav Sut and VS Chiplunkar was no
less. Hari Narayan Apte and Agarkar wrote
novels which became very popular.
● All these prose writers made great contribution
to the development of Marathi literature. The
name of HG Salgaokar is remembered for
writing inspirational poetry.
● Besides, the names of MG Ranade, KT
Telang, GT Madholkar (poet and novelist)
are no less important.
Sindhi Literature
● Sindh was one of the important centres of Sufis,
who established khanqahs at various places.
● The Sufi singers with their devotional music
made the language popular.
● The credit for creating literature in Sindhi goes
to Mirza Kalish Beg and Dewan Kauramal.
Gujarati Literature
● Bhakti songs of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries deals with early Gujarati literature .
● Narsi Mehta’s name is the foremost in this
respect. The people of Gujarat wove these
devotional songs in their folk dances and their
religious forms often find expressions in their
celebrations.
● Narmad’s poetry gave a fillip to the Gujarati
literature. Saraswati Chandra, a novel by
Govardhan Ram, has become a classic and
has given great impetus to other writers. But
probably a name that cannot be forgotten is
that of Dr KM Munshi.
● He was a novelist, an essayist and a historian,
and has left a plethora of historical novels.
In these books he exhibits his ability to mix
fact with fiction. Prithvi Vallabha is one of
his finest novels.
Tribal Literature
● India is rich with a diversity of religions,
arts, customs, races, traditions, and languages.
While the government of India recognizes
twenty-two official languages, there are over
880 languages spoken in the country.
● Until recently, the tribal literature created
in non-mainstream languages has not been
very recognized or available for an Indian or
global audience. One of the primary reasons
for this is that tribal discourse, including
folktales and songs, is mainly oral in nature.
In addition, the communities who produce it
tend to be far from developed metropolitan
cities, and so their creative works have been
largely overlooked.
● However, the Indian government and
prominent personalities, including social
activists and politicians, have stepped
forward to encourage the conservation and
translation of these unheard voices and to
share their literary gems with the world.
Sahitya Akademi, India’s National Academy
46 Master Series : Art and Culture
of Letters, has developed the Project of Indian
Literature in Tribal Languages and Oral
Traditions to preserve and educate people
about this literature.
● Tribal languages such as Kukna, Bhili, Gondi,
Mizo, Garo, Santhali, Kinnauri, Garhwali,
Dehwali, Warli, Pawri and so on, possess
hundreds of literature in their own sweet orla
form.
● Tribals in India have indeed taken to writing
now-a-days. Many tribal languages now
possess their own scripts or have taken
recourse to the state scripts. Approximately
four decades ago, when Dalit literature started
pulling the nation’s attention, tribal writers
also came into the limelight. In Marathi, for
example, Atmaram Rathod, Laxman Mane,
Laxman Gaikwad, each belonging from
nomadic tribal communities, were hailed as
Dalit writers. During that time, the northeast
was yet to flower its magic in tribal literature
to the rest of India. During the last 20 years
that the various tribal voices and literary
works have started making their presence
felt. Thus, Kochereti from Kerala and Alma
Kabutri from the north stormed the readers
almost the same time when L. Khiangte’s
anthology of Mizo Literature and Govind
Chatak’s anthology of Garhwali literature
appeared in English and Hindi translation.
● The last two decades have established that
Indian tribal literature is no longer only the
folk songs and folk tales. It now embraces
other complex genres, like the novel and
drama. Daxin Bajarange’s Budhan Theatre
in Ahmedabad has been giving rise to
gorgeously refreshing plays, modern in form
and contemporary in content. Little magazines
such as Chattisgarhi Lokakshar and Dhol
have started coming out, providing space for
tribal poets and writers. Literary conferences
regularly provide a platform for tribal writers.
Conferences are being frequently held at
Ranchi in Jharkhand and Dandi in Gujarat. In
January 2008, a global conference under the
title ‘Chotro’, dedicated to tribal literature and
culture, was held at Indira Gandhi National
Centre for Arts at Delhi.
● At present there exists a successful
understanding among tribal activists all over
the country that tribal uniqueness and culture
cannot be upheld unless tribal languages and
literature are played up.
Languages and Literature 47
4
Art and Culture Master Exercise
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
Which of the following literary works were
composed during the Gupta’s period?
1. Kathasaritsagar by Somdev
(c) Shankracharya
(d) Rishi Agasta
5.
2. Vikramanyadevcharita by Bilhana
3. Gita Govinda by Jayadev
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
(a) Tolkāppiyam
(a) 1 and 2 only
(c) Patinenkīlkanakku
(b) 1 and 3 only
(d) None of the above
(c) 2 only
(d) None
2.
Who is chief deity under Rig veda ?
(b) Patinenmēlkanakku
Subjectve type questions for Main
Examination
(a) Indra
1.
Briefly give details about the Vedas.
(b) Varun
2.
Vernacular newspapers were more of a viewspaper than newspaper. Examine.
3.
How did various regional forms of literature
developed in the course of time and what was
their significance on the society?
4.
What is Sangam literature? How did it evolve
and contribute to development of our ancient
literature?
(c) Agni
(d) Vayu
3.
Which of the following Indian literature is the
earliest known works?
(a) Puranas
(b) Rig Vedas
(c) Sama Vedas
(d) Rajtrangini
4.
Which of the following is related to Tamil
Grammar, that is said to be the earliest extant
work of Tamil Literature?
Who among the following wrote the Kural, which
deals with many aspects of life and religion?
(a) Thiruvalluvar
(b) Ayaikar
Answers to MCQs
1.
(d) 2.
(a)
3.
(b) 4.
(a)
5.
(a)
48 Master Series : Art and Culture
ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES
UNIT 5
Religions and Schools of
PHILOSOPHY IN INDIA
5.1 Religions in India
What does Religion Signify?
Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics
have their foundation on religion. Religion has played
an important part in the lives of the Indians from the
earliest times. It assumed numerous forms in relation
to different groups of people associated with them.
Religious ideas, thoughts and practices differed among
these groups, and transformations and developments
took place in the various religious forms in course of
time. Religion in India was never static in character but
was driven by an inherent dynamic strength.
Religion in India is characterized by a diversity of
religious beliefs & practices. Secularism in India
means treatment of all religions equally by the state.
India is a Secular State by the 42nd amendment act
of Constitution in 1976. The Indian subcontinent is
the birthplace of four of the world’s major religions;
namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.
Hinduism
● Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or
a way of life, widely practised in South Asia.
● Hinduism has been called the oldest religion
in the world, and some practitioners and
scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma,
“the eternal tradition”, or the “eternal way”,
beyond human history.
● Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion. This
“Hindu synthesis” started to develop between
500 BCE and 300 CE, following the Vedic
period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).
● Although Hinduism contains a broad range of
philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts,
recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites.
Hindu texts are classified into Śruti (“heard”)
and Smriti (“remembered”).
● These texts discuss theology, philosophy,
mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics.
Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas.
Buddhism
Buddhism began in India 2,500 years ago and
remains the dominant world religion in the East.
There are over 360 million followers of Buddhism
worldwide and over a million American Buddhists
today. Buddhist concepts have also been influential
on western culture in general, particularly in the
areas of meditation and non-violence.
Life of Gautama Buddha (567–487 BC)
● Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of
Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in Lumbini
Garden near Kapilavastu. His father was
Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and mother
Mayadevi. (Refer Fig. 5.1 )
● As his mother died at child birth, he was
brought up by his aunt Prajapati Gautami.
At the age of sixteen he married Yasodhara
and gave birth to a son, Rahula.
● The sight of an old man, a diseased man, a
corpse and an ascetic turned him away from
worldly life.
Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 49
● He left home at the age of twenty nine in
search of Truth. He wandered for seven
years and met several teachers but could
not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under
a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense
penance, after which he got Enlightenment
(Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. Since
then he became known as the Buddha or
‘the Enlightened One’. He delivered his
first sermon at Sarnath near Benares and
for the next forty five years he led the life
of a preacher. He died at the age of eighty
at Kusinagara.
● The most important disciples of Buddha
were Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda,
Kassapa and Upali. Kings like Prasenajit
of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of
Magadha accepted his doctrines and became
his disciples.
4. The Path for Ending Suffering: This
path is called the eightfold path. It emphasizes
on a middle path between worldly pleasure and
painful asceticism.
Divisions – Hinayana, Mahayana and
Theravada
There are conflicting view about the divisions/
sects in Buddhism. This is because each division
along with their different schools of thought promote
their own sect as actual Buddhism. Nevertheless,
few precise differences can be ascertained –
After Buddha’s demise (Mahaparinirman), the
Buddhist order split into two groups.
1. Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle): They interpreted
Buddha’s teaching literally and strictly,
emphasizing on strict personal meditation and
the monastic path to Enlightenment.
2. Mahayana (Greater Vehicle): They interpreted
Buddha’s teaching logically and liberally trying
to understand the true meaning of Buddha’s
teachings.
Bodhisattva
Fig. 5.1. Gautama Buddha
The Four Noble Truths and the
Eightfold Path (Middle Path)
1. The Truth of Suffering: No matter how
much we struggle, we are unable to find the
ultimate happiness or satisfaction. Suffering is
the common bond we share. Therefore suffering
is the real truth of our existence.
A Bodhisattva is an ordinary person who takes
up a course in his or her life that moves in the
direction of Buddha. The Mahayana has conceived
them as having renounced the ultimate state out of
pure compassion towards all beings, and can therefore refers to anyone en route. In non-Mahayana
Buddhism, it usually refers either to Maitreya, the
Buddha of the Future, or to the historical Buddha
Gautama prior to his enlightenment.
The four major events
1. The Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana): Buddha leaving his home, family
and kingdom in search of truth. This is
symbolised by a horse.
2. Enlightenment (Nirvana): Buddha attaining
2. Desire: The truth about the cause of suffering
enlightenment under the tree in Bodh Gaya.
This is symbolised by a bodhi tree.
– Cravings, desires and ignorance about reality
are the cause of suffering.
3. Dhammachakraparivartan: This was
3. The Truth about end of Suffering: If
desire is eliminated, then only the suffering
would stop. This stage when all desires are
burned is called “nirvana” in Buddhism.
Buddha giving his first sermon in Deer Park
close to Varanasi. This is symbolised by a wheel.
4. Mahaparinirvana: Buddha’s death. This is
symbolised by a stupa. Essentially, stupa is a
mound.
50 Master Series : Art and Culture
Buddhist Literary Texts – Tripitakas
Tripitakas ( three baskets ) comprises the three
main categories of texts that make up the Buddhist
canon.
1. Vinaya-pitaka: Contains the rules of
communal life for monks and nuns.
2. Sutta-pitaka: Collection of sermons of the
Buddha.
3. Abhidhamma-pitaka: Contains interpretations
and analyses of Buddhist concept
Sarvastivada
● The Sarvāstivāda were an early school of
Buddhism that held to the existence of all
dharmas in the past, present and future, the
“three times”.
● The Sarvāstivādins were one of the most
influential Buddhist monastic groups,
flourishing throughout Northwest India,
Northern India, and Central Asia.
● Sarvāstivāda is a Sanskrit term that can be
glossed as: “the theory of all exists”. The
Sarvāstivāda argued that all dharmas exist
in the past, present and future, the “three
times”. Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāsya states, “He who affirms the existence
of the dharmas of the three time periods
[past, present and future] is held to be a
Sarvāstivādin.
● The Sarvāstivāda was also known by other
names, particularly hetuvada and yuktivada.
● Hetuvada comes from hetu – ‘cause’, which
indicates their emphasis on causation and
conditionality.
● Yuktivada comes from yukti – ‘reason’ or
even 'logic', which shows their use of rational
argument and syllogism.
● The Sarvastivada school is also known
as the Vaibhashika because of the c. 2ndcentury-CE commentary Mahavibhasha
(“Great Elucidation”). This text itself was
commented upon by the important 4th- or
5th-century Buddhist thinker Vasubandhu
in his Abhidharmakosha, prior to his
conversion to the Mahayana tradition of
Buddhism.
Buddhist Schools
● The Sammitīya were one of the eighteen or twenty
early Buddhist schools in India, and were an offshoot of the Vātsīputrīya sect. Like its predecessor,
it claims the person as a carrier of skandhas endures,
and as such was a representative (perhaps the most
prominent one) of the Pudgalavāda schools.
● The Sautrāntika were an early Buddhist school generally believed to be descended from the Sthavira
nikāya by way of their immediate parent school, the
Sarvāstivādins. Their name means literally “those
who rely upon the sutras”, and indicated their rejection of the Abhidharma texts of other early Buddhist
schools.
Jainism
Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539–
467 BC)
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara
of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama
near Vaisali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and
Trisala. He married Yasoda and gave birth to a
daughter. At the age of thirty he became an ascetic
and wandered for twelve years. In the 13th year
of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual
knowledge called Kevala Gnana. Thereafter, he
was called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were
called Jains and his religion Jainism. He preached his
doctrines for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava
near Rajagriha. (Refer Fig. 5.2)
Teachings of Mahavira
The three principles of Jainism, also known as
Triratnas (three gems), are
● Right faith
● Right knowledge
● Right conduct.
Right faith is the belief in the teachings and
wisdom of Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the
acceptance of the theory that there is no God and
that the world has been existing without a creator
and that all objects possess a soul.
Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 51
● The first Jain Council was convened at
Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of
the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd
century BC. In this council 12 Angas were
compiled. The second Jain Council was
held at Valabhi in 5th century AD. In this
council final compilation of the 12 Angas and
12 Upangas took place.
Jain Sects
Jains are divided into two major sects; the
Digambara (meaning sky clad) sect and the Svetambara (meaning white clad) sect.
Digambara
Fig. 5.2. Lord Mahavira
Right conduct refers to the observance of the five
great vows
● Not to injure life
● Not to lie
● Not to steal
● Not to acquire property
● Not to lead immoral life.
Spread of Jainism
● Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his
teachings. He admitted both men and women
in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks
and lay followers. The rapid spread of Jainism
was due to the dedicated work of the members
of the Sangha.
● It spread rapidly in Western India and
Karnataka.
Chandragupta
Maurya,
Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal
dynasties of south India such as the
Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and
the Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism.
● By the end of the fourth century B.C., there
was a serious famine in the Ganges valley.
Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and
Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana
Belgola in Karnataka.
● Those who stayed back in north India were
led by a monk named Sthulabahu who
changed the code of conduct for the monks.
● This led to the division of Jainism into
two sects Svetambaras (whiteclad) and
Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked).
Svetambara
They believes that
They believe that anybody
women cannot
can achieve salvation, be it
achieve nirvana or
a householder or a monk.
liberation directly. They
first have to reborn as
a man for this.
They believes that practice
They believes that in
of nudity is not essential to
order to achieve nirattain liberation.
vana or liberation,
one must renounce
everything including
clothes.
The monks are not Svetambara monks can have
allowed to have any a few possessions simple
kind of possessions.
white clothing, a begging
bowl, a brush to remove
insects from their path and
books and writing materials
Digambara idols are Svetambara idols of Tirtnaked, undecorated with hankars are decorated with
downcast eyes.
jewels, wearing loincloth
with prominent staring eyes.
Christianity
● Two major divisions – the Roman Catholic
Church and the Protestant church.
● According to tradition, Christianity was
brought to India by Saint Thomas in the
100 A.D. to legends, the Parthian king
Gondophernes sent a messenger to Syria
to look for a skilful architect who would
build for him a new city, who returned with
St. Thomas, who converted him and many
members of his court to Christianity.
● The truth of the legend is doubtful. It
was most probably the frequent trade and
52 Master Series : Art and Culture
movement between India and the west which
was responsible for bringing this disciple of
Lord Christ to India.
● Tomas preached Christianity in many parts of
India & was killed at Mylapore, near Madras.
The tomb of St. Thomas is still to be found
at the same place.
● A large community of Christians known
as Syrian Christians continues to reside in
Kerala even today.
Sikhism
● Started by Guru Nanak, and was preached
by subsequent Gurus till tenth Guru, Guru
Gobind Singh, with basic beliefs as:
♦ Formless God
♦ Equality of all mankind
♦ Need of a Guru
♦ Pahul tradition
● Music has always been an important feature
of Sikhism as they believe that through music
one can attain ecstacy or samadhi.
● The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the
Sikhs three things viz.
(a) Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of
five gurus and other allied saints.
(b) Standardized script for Gurmukhi in which
the Adi Granth was first written.
(c) Site and the foundation of the Har Mandir
sahib/Golden Temple and the Akal Takht
at Amritsar, the highest seat from where
the dictats for the entire Sikh community
are issued.
● The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created
the Khalsa, which means “the pure”, in 1699.
● He also ordained the Sikhs to take five vows,
namely, keeping of kesh (long hair and a
beard), kangha (comb), kada (a metallic
bangle), kirpan (a sword) and kaccha (an
underwear extending to a little above the
knees). Consequently, these symbols became
the distinguishing marks of a Sikh.
● He further added that after his death the Adi
Granth will be the guru of the Sikhs and they
have to pay obeisance to this holy book.
Facts about other Sikh Gurus
a) Guru Angad Dev (1504-1552)
● Compiled the biography of Guru Nanak Dev, known
as the Janam Sakhi.
● Introduced Gurmukhi script and encouraged people
to learn Punjabi.
b) Guru Amar Das (1479-1574)
● Guru Amar Das further institutionalized the free
communal kitchen called langar among the Sikhs.
● Guru Amar Das not only preached the equality of
people but also tried to foster the idea of women’s
equality.
c) Guru Ram Das (1534-1581)
● Founded the city of Amritsar in 1574.
● Spread Sikhism in North India.
● Guru Ram Das stressed the importance of kirtan (hymn singing), which remains an important
part of Sikh worship.
d) Guru Arjan Dev (1563-1606)
● Compiled the Guru Granth Sahib in 1604.
● Started the practice of daswandh (tithe) - contributing one tenth of one›s earnings for community
purposes.
● Author of Sukhmani Sahib bani - the Prayer for
Peace.
● Guru Arjan Dev was imprisoned and martyred in
1606 by Emperor Jahangir.
e) Guru Hargobind (1595-1644)
● Transformed the Sikhs by introducing martial arts
and weapons for the defense of the masses.
● Built the Akal Takht in 1608 at Amritsar in Punjab.
f) Guru Harkrishan (1656-1664)
● Became Guru at the age of five.
● Gurdwara Bangla Sahib in New Delhi was constructed in the Guru’s memory.
g) Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621-1675)
● Build the city of Anandpur Sahib.
● Sacrificed his life upholding the “right to freedom
of religion”.
● Guru Tegh Bahadur was martyred by Emperor
Aurangzeb.
Zoroastrianism
● Founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in 8th
century BC. He preached monotheism in the
region now known as Persia.
Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 53
● He taught the worship of fire + the presence
of good and bad in the form of Ahura Mazda
(the Supreme Being represented as a deity of
goodness and light) and Ahura Man.
● Zoroastrian religion spread over the whole of
Persia and remained the dominant religion till
the 8th century AD when Muslims conquered
this region.
● Most of the Parsis migrated to different parts
of the world. They also came to India and
settled at Navsari in Gujarat, and later on
spread to almost all the parts of India.
● Zoroastrianism is not a proselytizing religion
and no new entrants are accepted into its fold
under any circumstances.
●
●
●
●
Islam
● According to the Muslim belief, Quran is the
message of Allah revealed to Mohammad
through his archangel Gabriel.
● Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved
in what is called the Hadith or Hadees.
The five fundamental principles of Islam are
1. Tauhid (belief in Allah)
2. Namaz (prayers, five times a day)
3. Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan)
4. Zakat (giving of alms)
5. Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca)
Judaism
● Indian Jews are a religious minority of India.
Judaism was one of the first foreign religions
to arrive in India.
● Of the total Jewish population in India, about
half live in Manipur & Mizoram and a quarter
live in the city of Mumbai.
● In Kerala a community of Jews can be seen
at Kannur (Kodungalloor) and Kochi
The Sufi Movement
The Sufis
● The Sufis were mystics. They were pious
men who were shocked at the degeneration
in political and religious life. They opposed
●
●
the vulgar display of wealth in public life and
the readiness of the ulema to serve “ungodly”
rulers.
Many began to lead a retired ascetic life,
having nothing to do with the state.
The Sufi philosophy also differed from the
ulema. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free
thought and liberal ideas.
They were against formal worship, rigidity
and fanaticism in religion. The Sufis turned
to meditation in order to achieve religious
satisfaction. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufis
too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’ and
service of humanity.
In course of time, the Sufis were divided into
different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah
having its own pir (guide) called Khwaja or
Sheikh.
The pir and his disciples lived in a khanqah
(hospice). A pir nominated a successor or
wali from his disciples to carry on his work.
The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy
songs) to arouse mystical ecstasy.
Sufism in India
● The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in
the eleventh and twelfth centuries. One of the
early Sufis of eminence, who settled in India,
was Al-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly
known as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of
Unlimited Treasure).
● In the beginning, the main centres of the Sufis
were Multan and Punjab. By the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, the Sufis had spread
to Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan.
● It may be mentioned that Sufism had already
taken on a definite form before coming to
India. Its fundamental and moral principles,
teachings and orders, system of fasting,
prayers and practice of living in khanqahs
had already been fixed.
● The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on
their own free will. Their emphasis upon
a pure life, devotional love and service to
humanity made them popular and earned
them a place of honour in Indian society.
54 Master Series : Art and Culture
● Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-i-Akbari
speaks of fourteen silsilahs of the Sufis.
● These silsilahs were divided into two types:
Ba-shara and Be-shara. Ba-shara were those
orders that followed the Islamic Law (Sharia)
and its directives such as namaz and roza. Chief
amongst these were the Chishti, Suhrawardi,
Firdawsi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi silsilahs.
● The beshara silsilahs were not bound by the
Sharia. The Qalandars belonged to this group.
The Chishti Silsilah
● The Chishti order was founded in a village
called Khwaja Chishti (near Herat).
● In India, the Chishti silsilah was founded by
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (born c. 1142)
who came to India around 1192.
● He made Ajmer the main centre for his
teaching. He believed that serving mankind
was the best form of devotion and therefore
he worked amongst the downtrodden.
● He died in Ajmer in 1236. During Mughal
times, Ajmer became a leading pilgrim centre
because the emperors regularly visited the
Sheikh’s tomb.
● The extent of his popularity can be seen by
the fact that even today, millions of Muslims
and Hindus visit his dargah for fufilment of
their wishes.
● The khanqah of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki
was also visited by people from all walks of
life. Sultan Iltutmish dedicated the Qutub Minar
to this Saint. Sheikh Fariduddin of Ajodhan
(Pattan in Pakistan) popularised the Chishti
silsilah in modern Haryana and Punjab.
The Suhrawardi Silsilah
● This silsilah was founded by Sheikh
Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
● It was established in India by Sheikh
Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262).
● He set up a leading khanqah in Multan,
which was visited by rulers, high government
officials and rich merchants. Sheikh Bahauddin
Zakariya openly took Iltutmisht’s side in his
struggle against Qabacha and received from
him the title Shaikhul Islam (Leader of Islam).
● It must be noted that unlike the Chishti saints,
the Suhrawardis maintained close contacts
with the state. They accepted gifts, jagirs and
even government posts in the ecclersiastical
department. The Suhrawardi silsilah was
firmly established in Punjab and Sind.
● Besides these two silsilahs there were others
such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah,
Qadiri Silsilah, Naqshbandi Silsilah.
The Bhakti Movement
The development of Bhakti movement took
place in Tamil Nadu between the 7th and 12th
centuries. It was reflected in the emotional poems
of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars
(devotees of Vishnu). These saints looked upon
religion not as a cold formal worship but as a loving
bond based upon love between the worshipped and
worshipper. They wrote in local languages, Tamil
and Telugu and were therefore able to reach out to
many people.
● Centered around Krishna’s childhood and
youth, this work uses Krishna’s exploits to
explain deep philosophy in simple terms.
This work became a turning point in the
history of the Vaishnavite movement which
was an important component of the Bhakti
movement.
● A more effective method for spreading of the
Bhakti ideology was the use of local languages.
The Bhakti saints composed their verses in
local languages. They also translated Sanskrit
works to make them understandable to a wider
audience. Thus we find Jnanadeva writing in
Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi,
Shankaradeva popularising Assamese,
Chaitanya and Chandidas spreading their
message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and
Rajasthani.
● The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can
be achieved by all. They made no distinction
of caste, creed or religion before God. They
themselves came from diverse backgrounds.
● Ramananda, whose disciples included Hindus
and Muslims, came from a conservative
brahman family. His disciple, Kabir, was
Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 55
a weaver. Guru Nanak was a village
accountant’s son.
● Namdev was a tailor. The saints stressed
equality, disregarded the caste system and
attacked institutionalised religion. The saints
did not confine themselves to purely religious
ideas.
● They advocated social reforms too. They
opposed sati and female infanticide. Women
were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and
Lalla (of Kashmir) composed verses that are
popular even today.
● In northern India, it developed into two
streams, nirguna bhakti and saguna bhakti.
♦ Nirguna bhaktas – Devotees of a formless
God even while calling him variously as
Rama, Govinda, Hari or Raghunatha. The
most conspicuous among them were Kabir
and Nanak
●
●
●
●
♦ Saguna bhaktas – Devotees of Rama, the
son of Dasharatha, or Krishna, the son of
Devaki and Vasudeva, who idolised Rama
in his famous Ramcharita Manas
● Surdas, who sang praises of Krishna in his
famous
●
● Raskhan, a Muslim poet, who was a devotee of Lord Krishna, also belonged to this
tradition.
The Vaishnavite Movement
● Saints such as Kabir, Namdev and Guru
Nanak had preached devotion toward a
nirankar form of God. During this period,
another movement based upon devotion
towards a sakar form of God had also
developed.
● This movement, called the Vaishnavite
movement, centered around the worship
of Rama and Krishna, who were seen as
incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. Its main
exponents were Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas
and Chaitanya. Their path to salvation was
expressed through the medium of poetry,
song, dance and kirtans.
● Surdas (1483-1563) was a disciple of the
famous teacher, Vallabhachara. He was a
●
blind poet, whose songs are centered around
Krishna.
His Sursagar recounts the exploits of Krishna
during his childhood and youth with gentle
affection and delightfulness.
The love for Krishna was also expressed
through the songs of Mirabai (l 503-73).
Widowed at an early age, she believed in a
spiritual marriage with her Lord. Her poems
have a quality of their own and are popular
even today.
The Vaishnavite movement spread in the east
through the efforts of Chaitanya (1484-1533).
Chaitanya considered Krishna not as a mere
incarnation of Vishnu but as the highest form
of God.
The devotion for Krishna was expressed
through Sankirtans (hymn session by
devotees) which took place in homes, temples
and even street processions. Like other Bhakti
saints, Chaitanya too was willing to welcome
everyone, irrespective of caste, into the fold.
The saints thus promoted a sense of equality
amongst the people.
Ramananda: The worship of Rama was
popularised by saints like Ramananda (14001470). He considered Rama as the supreme
God. Women and outcastes were welcomed. The
most famous of the Rama bhaktas was Tulsidas
(l532-1623) who wrote the Ramacharitmanas.
The Vaishnavite saints developed their
philosophy within the broad framework of
Hinduism. They called for reforms in religion
and love amongst fellow beings.
Shaivite Movement (Lingyat)
● The Lingayat/Veerashaiva community, a
politically dominant group in Karnataka,
are devotees of Shiva. The Lingayats follow
12th-century saint-philosopher Basavanna
who had rejected ritualistic worship and preeminence of the Vedas. The Veerashaivas
sect of the community also worships Shiva
idols and practises other Hindu customs. The
Lingayats consider the Veershaivas to be part
of Hinduism as they follow Hindu customs
while the Veerashaivas think the community
56 Master Series : Art and Culture
was an ancient religion established by Shiva
and Basavanna was one of its saints.
● The community has a strong presence in the
state especially in the north. Lingayats constitute 17% of the total population in Karnataka.
They are dominant in close to 100 of the 224
assembly seats, mostly in North Karnataka.
Virasaivism teaches eight rules to be observed
which are called ashtavarans.
(1) obedience to a guru
(2) worship of a linga
(3) reverence for the Jangama as for an
incarnation of Siva
(4) smearing of ashes (Vibhuti) made of
cowdung
(5) wearing of a rosary of rudraksha beads
(6) padodaka sipping the water in which the
feet of a guru of jangama have been bathed
(7) prasada offering food to a guru linga or
jangama and partaking sacramentally of
what is left and
(8) panchakshara uttering the five syllabled
formula namah sivaya at the diksha ceremony these eight modes of piety are taught
to every Lingayat child.
(9) The lingayats do not concern themselves
with the worship of Siva in public temples.
The present issue of Lingayats
The Lingayat community has been demanding status
of a separate religion for a long time. The issue came
at the centre stage when Chief Minister Siddaramaiah
promised to consider the demand. One part of the
community demands the minority status for both
Veerashaiva and Lingayats considering them the same,
while another wants it only for the Lingayats as it
considers Veershaivas to be Hindus.
The Nagamohan committee has recommended minority
status for only the Lingayats and has kept Veershaivas
out.
5.2 Schools of Philosophy
in India
Indian philosophy refers to ancient philosophical
traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The principal
schools are classified as either orthodox or heterodox
– āstika or nāstika – depending on one of three
alternate criteria: whether it believes the Vedas are
a valid source of knowledge; whether the school
believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman; and
whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas.
There are six major schools of orthodox
Indian Hindu philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika,
Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmānsā and Vedanta, and five
major heterodox schools—Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika,
Ajñana, and Cārvāka. However, there are other
methods of classification; Vidyaranya for instance
identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy
by including those that belong to the Śaiva and
Raseśvara traditions.
(a) Samkhya System
● The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality
is constituted of two principles one female
and the other male i.e. Prakriti, Purusha
respectively.
● Prakriti and Purusha are completely
independent and absolute.
● According to this system, Purusha is mere
consciousness; hence it cannot be modified
or changed. Prakriti on the other hand is
constituted of three attributes, thought,
movement and the change or transformation
of these attributes brings about the change in
all objects.
● The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish
some relationship between Purusha and Prakriti
for explaining the creation of the universe.
● The propounder of this philosophy was
Kapila, who wrote the Samkhya sutra.
● Infact Samkhya school explained the
phenomena of the doctrine of evolution and
answered all the questions aroused by the
thinkers of those days.
(b) Yoga
● Yoga literally means the union of the two
principal entities.
● The origin of yoga is found in the Yogasutra
of Patanjali believed to have been written in
the second century BC.
● By purifying and controlling changes in the
mental mechanism, yoga systematically brings
about the release of purusha from prakriti.
Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 57
● Yogic techniques control the body, mind
and sense organs. Thus this philosophy is also
considered as means of achieving freedom or
mukti.
● This freedom could be attained by practising
self-control (yama), observation of rules
(niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath
control (pranayama), choosing an object
(pratyahara) and fixing the mind (dharna),
concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana)
and complete dissolution of self, merging the
mind and the object (Samadhi).
● Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher
and guide.
(c) Nyaya
● Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical
thinking.
● According to Nyaya, valid knowledge is
defined as the real knowledge, that is, one
knows about the object as it exists.
● For example, it is when one knows a snake
as a snake or a cup as a cup.
● Nyaya system of philosophy considers God
who creates, sustains and destroys the
universe.
● Gautama is said to be the author of the
Nyaya Sutras.
(d) Vaisheshika
● Vaisheshika system is considered as the
realistic and objective philosophy of universe.
● The reality according to this philosophy has
many bases or categories which are substance,
attribute, action, genus, distinct quality and
inherence.
● Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of
the universe are composed of five elements–
earth, water, air, fire and ether.
● They believe that God is the guiding principle.
● The living beings were rewarded or punished
according to the law of karma, based on
actions of merit and demerit.
● Creation and destruction of universe was a
cyclic process and took place in agreement
with the wishes of God.
● Kanada wrote the basic text of Vaisheshika
philosophy.
● A number of treatises were written on this
text but the best among them is the one
written by Prashastapada in the sixth
century AD.
● Vaisheshika School of philosophy explained
the phenomena of the universe by the
atomic theory, the combination of atoms
and molecules into matter and explained
the mechanical process of formation of
Universe.
(e) Mimamsa
● Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis
of interpretation, application and the use of the
text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of
the Veda.
● According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas
are eternal and possess all knowledge, and
religion means the fulfillment of duties
prescribed by the Vedas.
● This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya
– Vaisheshika systems and emphasizes the
concept of valid knowledge.
● Its main text is known as the Sutras of
Jaimini which have been written during the
third century BC.
● The names associated with this philosophy
are Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta.
● The essence of the system according to Jaimini
is Dharma which is the dispenser of fruits of
one’s actions, the law of righteousness itself.
This system lays stress on the ritualistic
part of Vedas.
(f) Vedanta
● Vedanta implies the philosophy of the
Upanishad, the concluding portion of the
Vedas.
● Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries
on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the
Bhagavad Gita.
● Shankaracharya’s
discourse
or
his
philosophical views came to be known as
Advaita Vedanta.
58 Master Series : Art and Culture
● Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief
in one reality.
● Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate
reality is one, it being the Brahman.
● According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman
is true, the world is false and self and
Brahman are not different, Shankaracharya
believes that the Brahman is existent,
unchanging, the highest truth and the
ultimate knowledge.
● The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of
all things and the ultimate existence.
● Ramanuja was another well known Advaita
scholar.
● Vedanta philosophy has ventured to deny
the existence of the apparent ego, as known
to us, and in this respect Vedanta has its
unique position in the history of philosophies
of the world.
● Vedanta is a philosophy and a religion. As
a philosophy it inculcates the highest truths
that have been discovered by the greatest
philosophers and the most advanced thinkers
of all ages and all countries.
(g) Charvaka School
● Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of
the Charvaka School of philosophy.
● It finds mention in the Vedas and
Brihadaranyka Upanishad.
● It holds that knowledge is the product of the
combination of four elements which leaves
no trace after death.
● Charvaka philosophy deals with the
materialistic philosophy.
● It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy
– the philosophy of the masses.
● According to Charvaka there is no other
world. Hence, death is the end of humans
and pleasure the ultimate object in life.
Charvaka recognises no existence other than
this material world.
● Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be
perceived, they are not recognised by
Charvakas.
● Out of the five elements earth, water, fire,
air and ether, the Charvakas do not recognise
ether as it is not known through perception.
● The whole universe according to them is thus
consisted of four elements.
Religions and Schools of Philosophy In India 59
Art and Culture Master Exercise
5
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
Who, according to Jains, was the founder of
Jainism?
(a) Parsavanatha
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1 and 4 only
5.
(b) Arishtanemi
(c) Rishabha
(a) Yoga
(d) Mahavira
2.
(b) Vedanta
In India, Jainism spread during the reign of:
(c) Vaisheshika
(a) Harshavardhana
(d) Mimansa
(b) Chandragupta Vikramaditya
(d) Chandragupta Maurya
Subjectve type questions for Main
Examination
Buddhism and Jainism both gave stress on:
1.
Explain how the temple was the focus for all
aspects of everyday life in the Ancient Indian
community - religious, cultural, educational and
social.
2.
Most if not all religions would qualify as
philosophies too. Is Buddhism a Religion or a
Philosophy?
3.
Did the six darshans evolve from one another?
Or did they evolve or manifest separately?
4.
How can we bring principles of Philosophy into
innovations of Neuroscience to help humankind
to move in positive or right direction?
5.
Write a note on Sufism, its origin and its influence
on Indian Islam.
(c) Samudragupta
3.
(a) Worship of God
(b) None of these
(c) Self-mortification
(d) Non-violence
4.
With which school of Indian philosophy the
'Theory of karma' is associated?
Which of the following Bhakti saints were
contemporaries?
1. Kabir
2. Guru Nanak
3. Dadu Dayal
4. Tukaram
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
Answers to MCQs
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 and 4 only
1.
(a)
2.
(d) 3.
(d) 4.
(a)
5.
(c)
60 Master Series : Art and Culture
ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES
UNIT 6
Paintings &
Performing Arts
6.1 Paintings in India
Sadanga, The Six Limbs of
Indian Painting
Around the 1st century BC, Vatsyayana enumerated
the Sadanga or Six Limbs of Indian Painting, a series
of canons laying down the main principles of the art.
These 'Six Limbs' have been translated as follows.
● Rupabheda: The knowledge of appearances.
● Pramanam: Correct perception, measure and
structure.
● Bhava: Action of feelings on forms.
● Lavanya: Yojanam Infusion of grace, artistic
representation.
● Sadrisyam: Similitude.
● Varnikabhanga: Artistic manner of using the
brush and colours.
These ' Six Limbs ' were put into practice by Indian
artists, and are the basic principles on which their
art was founded. Indian painting is the result of the
synthesis of various traditions and its development is an
ongoing process. However while adapting to new styles,
Indian painting has maintained its distinct character.
Art in the Ancient Period
Painting as an art form has flourished in India
from very early times as is evident from the remains
that have been discovered in the caves, and the
literary sources.
Cave Paintings
● Bhimbetka caves (MP) have drawings and
paintings of animals.
● The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh
(Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left
drying.
Painting in Indian Literature Works
● Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of various types and techniques for
example, Lepyachitras, lekhachitras and .
● Buddhist text Vinayapitaka describes the
existence of painted figures in many royal
buildings
● The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century AD)
mentions numerous paintings or Patas.
● Vishnudharmottara purana (7th century
AD) has a section on painting called Chitrasutra which describes the six organs of
painting like variety of form, proportion,
lustre and portryal of colour etc.
● The best specimens of Gupta paintings are
the ones at Ajanta. Their subject was animals
and birds, trees, flowers, human figures and
stories from the Jataka. (Refer Fig 6.1)
Mural Paintings
● Mural paintings are done on walls and rock
surfaces like roofs and sides.
● The murals chiefly depict religious scenes
from the life of the Buddha and the
● Buddhist Jataka stories, religious themes of
Jain and Hindu religions, but we also have
secular scene.
● In Mural Painting one can find, princes in
their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolies with loads over their shoulders, beggars,
peasants and ascetics, together with all the
many beasts, birds and flowers of India.
Painting and Performing Arts 61
Mughal Paintings
Fig. 6.1. Jataka tales from Ajanta Caves
Important Mural Paintings of
Ancient Period
● The caves of Ajanta, Bagh, Sittanavasal
● Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu)
● Ravan Chhaya rock shelter
● Kailasanatha temple in Ellora Caves
● Badami cave Temples, Karnataka
During the middle Ages murals were usually executed
on dry plaster. Murals today are painted in a variety of
ways, using oil or water-based media.
Miniature Painting
● Small works which were made on perishable
materials.
● Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were
illustrated, on palm leaves.
● Resemble the Ajanta style, but on a miniature scale.
● Mughal painting evolved from the Persian school of
miniature painting with Hindu, Buddhist and Jain
influences.
● The paintings often revolved around themes like
battles, legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife,
royal life, mythology, etc.
● Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, returned
from his exile, he brought along with him two
eminent Persian artists – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd
al-Samad. Based on Humayun’s instructions, these
Persian artists created many famous paintings,
including the ‘Khamsa of Nizami.’ These paintings
deviated from the traditional style of Persian art
and hence a new style of art form called ‘Mughal
Painting’ was born.
● During Akbar reign, under his orders ‘Humayunama’
was illustrated. About 1200 paintings were drawn on
lines pasted on one side of the manuscript of this
book. Abul Fazal has listed 15 outstanding painters
like Daswant, Basawan, Kesav and Farrukh Beg.
● During Jahangir’s time, the art of painting reached
its climax. Jahangir was not only interested in painting, he was also its keen judge. He established a
gallery of painting in his own garden.
● Withdrawal of royal patronage to painting
under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists
to different places in the country.
● This helped in the development of Rajasthani
and Pahari Schools.
Painting in the Medieval Period
● In Eastern India, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa,
during the Pala kingdom in the 9th – 10th
century AD, a new kind of painting developed
called the miniature painting.
● From the thirteenth century onwards, the
Turkish Sultans of northern India brought with
them important features of Persian court culture.
● During the Mughal period, book illumination
or individual miniatures replaced wall painting
as the most vital form of art.
● With the synthesis of Persian and Indian style
the independent style of Mughal painting
was developed. (Refer Fig. 6.2)
● Artists began to use vibrant colours such as
peacock blue and red and were able to give
three dimensional effects to paintings.
Fig. 6.2. A Mughal Painting
62 Master Series : Art and Culture
Features of Rajasthani Paintings and
Pahari Paintings
● In Rajasthani School the themes of the paintings were
mostly religious and love subjects based on Lord Rama
and Krishna. Court scenes were also depicted.
● Pahari School is famous for beautiful flowering lines
and brilliant colours. The theme revolves around
mythical and secular themes.
filled by paintings of flowers, animals, birds,
and even geometric designs.
● There are paintings for each occasion and
festival such as birth, marriage, Holi, Surya
Shasti, Kali Puja, Upanayanam, Durga Puja etc.
Painting in the Modern Period
● In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries
paintings
comprised
semi
westernized local styles which were patronised
by British residents and visitors.
● Themes were generally drawn from Indian social
life, popular festivals, and Mughal monuments.
● Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma of
Travancore depicting mythological and social
themes became highly popular at this time.
● Amrita Shergil painted on Indian themes in
bright colours especially Indian women and
peasants
● Two government institutions have been set up
to promote art, music etc in India.
● The National Gallery of Modern Art has the
largest collection of modern art under one roof.
● The second one is the Lalit Kala Akademi
which recognises(a)and patronizes artists in
all fields.
6.2. Regional Paintings
in India
Madhubani Painting or Mithila
Painting
● It is practiced in the Mithila region of Nepal
and in Indian States of Bihar. (Refer Fig. 6.3)
● Painting is done with fingers, twigs, brushes,
nib-pens, and matchsticks, using natural
dyes and pigments.
● Characterized by eye-catching geometrical
patterns.
● The painting was traditionally done on freshly
plastered mud walls and floors of huts, but
now they are also done on cloth, handmade
paper and canvas.
● Generally no space is left empty; the gaps are
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.3. (a) & (b) The Madhubani Painting
Rajput Painting
● The main themes around which Rajasthani
Paintings of India revolved include the Great
epics of Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the
life of Lord Krishna, landscapes and humans.
● Miniatures in manuscripts or single sheets to
be kept in albums were the preferred medium
of Rajput painting, but many paintings were
done on the walls of palaces, inner chambers
of the forts, havelis, particularly, the havelis
of Shekhawati.
● The colours were extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were
even derived by processing precious stones.
● Gold and silver were used.
Pahari Painting
● Originating from Himalayan hill kingdoms
of North India.
● Pahari paintings have been widely influenced
by the Rajput paintings, because of the family
Painting and Performing Arts 63
relations of the Pahari Rajas with royal court
at Rajasthan.
● Pahari paintings of India can be divided into
two distinct categories, on the basis of their
geographical range, namely:
(1) Basohli and Kulu Style (Colours are less
intense, the treatment of landscape and
perspective is generally more naturalistic)
(2) Guler and Kangra Style (Based on colors
and refinement)
Phad Paintings
● Rajasthan in Western India is its place of origin.
● A large painting on cloth, which venerates
the deeds of a hero
● Generally, the life events of Goga Chauhan,
Prithaviraj Chauhan, Amar Singh Rathor,
Tejaji, and many others were illustrated on
the Phadas in the earlier times
● The colors employed are generally vegetable
dyes and are used in a fixed order starting
from orange-yellow to brown, green, red and
finally black.
● A traditional Phad runs the length of thirty
feet and is five feet wide. (Refer Fig. 6.4)
● Khadi, or hand woven local material is
used as the canvas.
● Only one color can be used at a time.
● Specific colors are used for different things
– orange for limbs and torso, yellow for
ornaments, clothing and designs, blue for
water and curtains, green for trees and
vegetation and red, prominently for dress.
● All these are outlined with bold black strokes,
which give definition to these forms.
(b)
Fig. 6.4. (a) & (b) The Phad Paintings
Pattachitra Paintings
● Pattachitra is a vibrant folk art form native
to Orissa.
● Born out of the cult of Jagannath Dev.
● Incredible pictorial conceptions, characteristic
conventions and vibrant colors
● Executed primarily on cloth, using natural
colors.
● Pattachitra on pal leaf is known as
talapattachitra.
Fig. 6.5. Pattachitra Paintings
Warli Painting
● The Warlis or Varlis are an indigenous
tribe or Adivasis, living in mountainous
as well as coastal areas of MaharashtraGujarat border and surrounding areas.
(Refer Fig. 6.6)
(a)
64 Master Series : Art and Culture
● Their mural paintings are similar to those
done between 500 and 10,000 BCE in the Rock
Shelters of Bhimbetka, in Madhya Pradesh.
● The ritual paintings are usually done inside
the huts.
● The walls are made of a mixture of branches,
earth and cow dung, making a Red Ochre
background for the wall paintings.
● The paintings use a very basic graphic
vocabulary: a circle, a triangle and a square.
Their paintings were monosyllabic. The circle
and triangle come from their observation of
nature, the circle representing the sun and the
moon, the triangle derived from mountains
and pointed trees.
● The Warli use only white for their paintings.
Deccani School of Paintings
● The Deccani style refers to the miniature art
style that was practiced in Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda and Hyderabad from the
16th-19th century.
● It was an art form that was an idiom of
Islamic painting combining European, Iranian
and Turkish influences.
● They often portrayed intense colors and sensuous looking female figures. The ladies were
portrayed with beautiful faces, large eyes and
broad foreheads.
● Also, symmetrical arrangement played a
prominent role in the Deccan School of miniature painting, the artists from the Deccan
School of painting chose to portray geometrically accurate buildings and other man made
wonders.
● Bright colors like red and orange are some of
the most important aspects of Deccan School
of miniature painting.
The types of Deccani paintings are:
Fig. 6.6. Warli Painting
Kalamkari Painting
● Painting done by Kalam (pen). (Refer Fig. 6.7)
● These paintings are made in Andhra Pradesh.
● It is hand painted as well as block printing
with vegetable dyes applied on cloth.
● This art is mainly related to decorating temple
interiors with painted cloth panels
● The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick
pointed at one end with a bundle of fine hair
attached to the other end to serve as brush
or pen.
● The kalamkari dyes are obtained by extracting
colours from plant roots, leaves, along with
salts of iron, tin, copper, alum etc.
Fig. 6.7. Kalamkari Painting
a) Ahmednagar painting: This school was
patronized by Hussain Nizam Shah I of
Ahmednagar.
b) Bijapur Paintings: This school was patronized by Ali Adil Shah I (1558-80 A.D.) and
his successor Ibrahim II (1580-1627 A.D.).
c) Golconda painting: The patrons of the Golconda paintings were the Qutb Shahi rulers.
The first important work was accomplished
during the times of Muhammad Quli Qutab
Shah (1580-1611).
Tanjore Paintings
It is the native art form of Thanjavur (also
known as Tanjore) city of Tamil Nadu. The dense
composition, surface richness and vibrant colors of
Indian Thanjavur Paintings distinguish them from
the other types of paintings. Then, there are embellishments of semi-precious stones, pearls and glass
pieces that further add to their appeal. The relief
work gives them a three dimensional effect. Tanjore
Painting of India originated during the 16th century,
under the reign of the Cholas.
Painting and Performing Arts 65
Mysore Paintings
Mysore Paintings of India make use of thinner
gold leaves and require much more hard work. The
most popular themes of these paintings include
Hindu Gods and Goddesses and scenes from Hindu
mythology. The grace, beauty and intricacy of Indian
Mysore Paintings leave the onlookers mesmerized.
6.3. Indian Handicrafts
The 'World' of Indian Handicrafts
India is a combination of many worlds, living in many
centuries and cultures. The world of India’s crafts
spans millennia and spreads across the length and
breadth of our land, which is seen in cities and towns,
by-lanes and villages. A small crafted object made
in an unknown village of India has the capacity of
becoming an object displayed in the finest museums
of the world, yet the same object is often merely an
object of utility for a particular community which
never thinks of it as a great art. It is often a lack
of knowledge of the variety of cultures, techniques,
meanings, uses and relevance of such handicrafted
objects that allows us to neglect their beauty and
take our cultural heritage for granted.
The Definition of Crafts
● Indian words for handicrafts are commonly
hastkala, hastshilp, dastkari, karigari, all
meaning handiwork, but they also refer to
objects made with craftsmanship, i.e., specialised skills of the hands which are also artistic.
● The aesthetic content is an intrinsic part of
such objects and means the object of utility
has a value that goes beyond mere usage and
is also pleasing to the eye.
● A handcrafted object is seldom merely decorative, and whether it has no embellishment
or is highly decorative, its true purpose is
served only when it is both useful and has
a fine form.
Crafts and Culture
Crafts are therefore closely related to concept
of form, pattern, design, usage, and these lead to its
total aesthetic quality.
Carving
● Once the stone is selected the measurements
for rough hewing and cutting of the sculpture
are taken.
● Carving is a difficult process, requiring skill,
concentration and extreme caution.
● It is a process in which forms are cut away
or subtracted from the original solid material.
Types of Stone Works
Stone objects include household objects like bowls,
plates, grinding stones, and pillars, beams and brackets
for construction of houses. Figures made in solid
materials like stone are further classified into categories
that explain their technical dimensions:
● Relief-sculptured panels
● Three-dimensional figures in the round.
● A block of stone is carved by chiselling
away tiny chips in order to create the desired
shape. Once the stone has been carved the
chips cannot be put back or replaced. This
means the artist has to have a precise and
accurate idea of how far to carve and what
to remove.
● One cannot afford to make mistakes in this
process for once the stone is cut away or
carved it cannot be put back.
● Imagine the acumen needed to plan in advance
the shape of the face, the size of the smile and
the right angle of the jewel that will adorn a
carved image.
● Once the rough work is over, details are
carved with finer tools and then the stone
is polished. Some stones can be polished to
shine like a mirror.
Stone Sculpture Through
the Ages
● At Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, there are a
number of rock shelters of the Stone Age period.
● Early inhabitants lived in natural caves and
created fine tools and flints of agate and other
natural stones in the area. These tiny flints
and well-carved stone implements are the first
examples in the long story of Indian sculpture.
● At Ellora, in Maharashtra, there are Hindu,
Buddhist and Jain rock-cut shrines.
66 Master Series : Art and Culture
● The Kailash temple at Ellora of the ninth
century is an entire temple that was carved
out of the natural hillside.
● The temple is really a massive sculpture cut
out of a single piece of the hill. The artists
started work from the top and carved downwards, beginning with the towering roof, the
windows, the doors through which one enters
into halls with enormous sculptured panels.
Metal Craft
● For our traditional rulers, the nobility and
wealthy landowners, objects made of precious
metal were symbolic manifestations of power.
● Much of their income from taxes was converted
into treasure (khazana) in the form of objects
made from precious metals and jewellery.
● It was in workshops (karkhanas) that goldsmiths
and silversmiths, whether private or public servants, practised their skills under the patronage
and close supervision of their masters.
● Some of these objects were made to be
presented as gifts on special occasions such
as the public assemblies (durbars) that formed
part of court ritual, while others were only
brought out for specific religious rituals.
● Still others were designed for everyday use.
● Nataraja is an example of Metal Crafts in
Chola Kingdom. (Refer Fig. 6.8)
Crafting Metals
● Human cultures around the world have a long
history of experimentation and expression
using alloys like brass and bronze, and precious
metals like gold and silver, and in more recent
human history using iron and steel.
Making of a Bronze Image
● From the Rig Vedic times there have been
references to two casting processes, solid and
hollow, termed ‘ghana’ and ‘sushira’.
● Tamil Nadu is one of the famous bronze
casting regions.
● Stylistically, the images belong to different
periods like Pallava, Chola, Pandyan and
Nayaka and the images that are now produced
belong to one or the other of these styles.
● The icon-makers are known as stapatis.
Meenakari or Enamel Work
● One of the most sophisticated forms of jewellery
developed in North India is Meenakari. (Refer
Fig. 6.9)
● Jaipur is the main centre, but some craftsmen
practise this art in Delhi, Lucknow and
Varanasi as well.
● Meenakari is combined with kundan to
produce a delicate and rich effect. The
meenakari or enamelled patterns are so fine
and intricate that they need to be examined
with a magnifying glass.
● This tradition continues even today.
Fig. 6.9. Meenakari or Enamel Work
Paper Crafts
Paper Toys
● Toy-makers, especially those living in cities
and industrial areas, make use of materials
like paper, cardboard, palm-leaf, clay, bamboo
Fig. 6.8. The Metal Crafts of Nataraja
Painting and Performing Arts 67
strips, pith, and papier-mâché along with other
recycled materials to create toys for children.
● Discarded items including newspaper, string,
rubber bands are recycled to create toys.
● The toymaker creates a number of different
playthings such as kites, puppets, stringmanipulated toys, rattles, drums, damrus
and whistles, moving toys like windwheels,
animal toys like the jumping snake, mystery
boxes, and jack-in-the-box kind of toys.
● Apart from toy-making, Indian craftsmen
also produce a wide variety of decorative
and utilitarian items by using plain, white and
coloured papers.
Papier-mâché of Kashmir
● The raw materials used in making papier-mâché
articles usually include old newsprint, methi
(fenugreek) powder, Multani mitti or clay.
● In South India, waste paper pulp is handbeaten into a soft substance and mixed with
local clay. It is rolled out into thin sheets
placed over any complicated mould.
● The articles are finally dipped into a thin
solution of paper pulp and white clay to
provide a smooth uniform surface.
● The objects are then painted in oil or water
colour.
Textiles
● Textiles are a part of India’s history — its
past, present, and future. Indian textiles were
found in the tombs of the Egyptian Pharaohs,
they were sought-after export to ancient
Greece and Rome, they also became part of
the fashionable attire of both European and
Mughal courts.
● Suppressing and replacing the Indian handloom
cotton trade with mill-made alternatives was a
key factor of the British Industrial Revolution.
That is the reason Gandhi made handspun khadi
a symbol of the Indian Independence movement.
● Tussar, Eri and Moga: India is the only
source of tussar silk that comes from the
Antheria Assamia moth, which feeds on the
leaves of the Som and Wali trees.
● Tussar silk has a coarse, uneven texture and
a slightly yellowish brown colour. Since it is
less strong in texture and cannot be refined
it does not have the same sheen or fineness
as mulberry silk.
● The celebrated Kashmiri shahtoosh ‘ring
shawl’ made from the fleece of the wild
Himalayan ibex is so fine that a metre of
this woollen shawl can pass through a man’s
signet ring.
● Production and sale is banned today for
ecological reasons and to prevent the
extinction of the ibex.
● Weaving it was a fine art, wearing it now a
forbidden luxury.
Indian Embroidery
● There are shawls from Kashmir that are
magically two-sided with the same design
embroidered in different colours on each side.
This is known as do-rukha.
● Punjab is famed for its traditional embroidery
called phulkari — flowering work. Using
threads in brilliant colours like flaming pinks,
oranges, mustard yellows and creams, the
reverse satin stitch is done on a brick-red
khadi cloth.
● Sujni, from Bihar, is a form of quilted
embroidery with mainly narrative themes.
● Kantha, embroidery from Bengal, is made of
thousands of fine stitches, giving the fabric a
puckered quilted look.
6.4. Classical Dances in India
The Tradition of Dance in India
Dance in India has a rich and vital tradition dating
back to ancient times.However, it is not easy to trace
the precise history and evolution of the various dances
known as the 'art' or ‘classical’ forms popular today.
The earliest treatise on dance available to us is Bharat
Muni's Natyashastra, the source book of the art of
drama, dance and music.
The Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda.
According to the author, he has evolved this veda
by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the
Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions
from the Atharvaveda.
As per the ancient treatises, dance is considered as
having three aspects:
68 Master Series : Art and Culture
● Natya: It highlights the dramatic element and most
dance forms do not give emphasis to this aspect
today with the exception of dance-drama forms like
Kathakali.
● Nritya: It is essentially expressional, performed specifically to convey the meaning of a theme or idea.
● Nritta: It is on the other hand, is pure dance where
body movements do not express any mood (bhava),
nor do they convey any meaning.
1.
3.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Navarasas (Nine expressions in Dance)
To present nritya and natya effectively, a dancer should
be trained to communicate the navarasas.
1. Love (Shringaara)
2. Mirth (Haasya)
3. Compassion (Karuna)
4. Valour (Veera)
5. Anger (Roudra)
6. Fear (Bhayanak)
7. Disgust (Bibhatsa)
8. Wonder (Adbhuta)
9. Peace (Shaanta)
An ancient classification followed in all styles is of
Tandava and Lasya.
● Tandava: The masculine, is heroic bold and
vigorous.
● Lasya: The feminine is soft, lyrical and
graceful.
Evolution of Dance in India
● Nurtured for centuries, dance in India has
evolved in different parts of the country its
own distinct style taking on the culture of that
particular region, each acquiring its own flavour.
● Consequently a number of major styles
of ‘art’ dance are known to us today, like
Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Kathak,
Manipuri, Odissi and Sattriya.
● Then, there are regional variations, the dances
of rural and tribal areas, which range from
simple, joyous celebrations of the seasons,
harvest or birth of a child to dances for the
propitiation of demons or for invoking spirits.
Eight Classical Dances in India
The Sangeet Natak Akademi currently confers classical
status on eight Indian classical dance styles.
Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)
Kathak (North India)
Kathakali (Kerala)
Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)
Manipuri (Manipur)
Mohiniyattam (Kerala)
Odissi (Odisha)
Sattriya (Assam)
Panchtatatva (Five major styles of Dance)
●
●
●
●
●
Bharatnatyam (Element of Fire)
Odissi (Element of water)
Kuchipudi (Element of earth)
Mohiniattam (Element of air)
Kathakali (Element of sky)
A. Bharatanatyam
● 2,000 years old popular dance form in Tamil
Nadu and Karnataka
● This dance flourished in the Hindu temples
of South India.
● The temple dancers (called Devadasis or
servants of god) flourished under royal
patronage and religious devotion.
● The present form of Bharatnatyam dance was
evolved by Poniah Pillai of Tanjore and his
brothers.
● The credit of reviving and popularizing the
Bharatnatyam in its present form goes to
Rukmini DeviArundale, who gave it new life
and respectability.
● Bala Saraswati, the queen of Bharatnatyam
also deserves accolades for her work and
efforts to popularize Bharatnatyam.
Significance of Bharatnatyam
● It is known for its grace, elegance, purity,
tenderness, expression and sculpturesque poses.
● It is considered to be a fire-dance — the
mystic manifestation of the metaphysical
element of fire in the human body.
● The movements of an authentic Bharata
Natyam dancer resemble the movements of
a dancing flame.
● It was created not merely for pleasure, but to
embody the cosmic relationships and expressions (bhava) for all the worlds.
Painting and Performing Arts 69
● So this performing art follows the worlds’
movements in all activities and states: work
and leisure, calm and laughter, fight and wars.
How Bharatanatyam Dance is
Performed?
● Although it is more commonly danced by
women, it is practiced by both male and
female dancers.
● Bharata Natyam proper is a solo dance, with
two aspects lasya and tandava
● It is also called as ekaharya (solo) performance:
one dancer presenting various characters,
regardless of their gender.
● However, in more modern times, Bharata
Natyam performances have taken stage as
group performances involving dramatical
performances that require many characters
depicted by various dancers.
Techniques Involved in Bharatnatyam
Dance
● As a solo dance, it leans heavily on the
abhinaya or mime aspect of dance – the
nritya, where the dancer expresses the sahitya
through movement and mime.
● The dance form is based on ‘Adavu’ (steps)
and ‘Hasthamudra’ (hand gestures).
● The dance movements are characterized by
bent legs, while feet keep rhythm. Hands may
be used in a series of mudras, or symbolic
hand gestures, to tell a story.
● The body limbs are classified as Anga, Pratyanga or Upaanga.
● 6 Angas comprise: chest, waist, bottom,
hands, head, legs. Some Bharatanatyam
experts distinguish also neck.
● 6 Pratyangas are: thighs, knees, shoulders,
arms, stomach. Some Bharathanatyam
experts distinguish also Wrists, Elbows and
Ankles.
● 12 Upaangas are: glance, eyebrows, eyelids,
eyeballs, cheeks, nose, gums, lips, teeth,
tongue, chin and face in general. Some
Bharatanatyam experts distinguish also heels,
fingers, feet and palms.
● Pratynaga and Upaangas are supposed to
move in unison with the Angas.
Three Divisions of Bharathanatyam
● Nirutham: It is a pure dance without
any emotions, expressions or sahityam. It
involves Adavus (These are a combination of
hand movement and feet movement as well as
head movements and eye movements).
● Niruthiyam: It has sahityam (a sentence
which means something). It has emotions,
expressions and has a meaning shown by the
hastas. Niruthiyam involves all four types of
Abhinayam.
● Natyam: When a Nirutham and Niruthiyam
are combined together with music in the
background. This type of dance requires the
dancer’s imagination and initiative to tell a
story through dancing and music.
● Natyam: When a Nirutham and Niruthiyam
are combined together with music in the background it is called Natyam. This type of dance
requires the dancer’s imagination and initiative
to tell a story through dancing and music.
Major Items in Bharatnatyam
The sequence of the dance performance is
‘Alarippu’, ‘Jathiswaram’, ‘Sabdam’, ‘Varnam’,
‘Padam’ and ‘Thillana’. After ‘Thillana’, with a
‘Mangala Slokam’ the dance program ends.
Typically a Performance includes
● Alarippu: Meaning flowering bud is traditionally the first dance piece that Bharatanatyam dancers learn and perform in this type
of classical dance recital. It is an invocation
piece, symbolising the offering of respects to
both God and the audience.
● Jatiswaram: An abstract dance where the
drums set the beat. Jatiswaram brings out
three aspects of dance: unity of music, rhythm
and movements.Jatiswaram has no sahitya or
words, but is composed of adavus which are
pure dance sequences - nritta.
● Shabdam: The dancing is accompanied by
a poem or song with a devotional or amorous
theme. Shabdam is usually depicting graceful
movements in a story or a poem
● Varnam: The center piece of the performance. It is the longest section of the dance
punctuated with the most complex and diffi-
70 Master Series : Art and Culture
cult movements. Positions of the hands and
body tell a story, usually of love and the
longing for the lover.
● Padam: Probably the most lyrical section
where the dancer “speaks” of some aspect of
love, devotion to the Supreme Being; or of
love of mother for child; or the love of lovers
separated and reunited.
● Tillana: The final section is a pure dance
(nirutham) when the virtuosity of the music
is reflected in the complex footwork and
captivating poses of the dancer.
Apart from these items, there are items such as
Shlokam, Swarajathi, Krithi, etc. The performance
concludes with the chanting of a few religious verses
as a form of benediction.
dancer’s movements, while the others do. The modern
costumes are deeply symbolic, as their purpose is to
project the dancer’s sukshma sharira, in the material
world.
● Music: The accompanying music is in the Carnatic
style of South India.
● Ensemble: Mostly, South Indian instruments are
used in the ensemble. These include, the mridangam
(drum), nagaswaram (long pipe horn made from a
black wood), the flute, violin and veena.
● Languages: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit are traditionally used in Bharata Natyam.
B. Kuchupudi
● Kuchipudi derives its name from the village
of Kuchelapuram, a small village about 65
kms from Vijaywada. (Refer Fig. 6.11)
● It is known for its graceful movements and
its strong narrative/dramatic character.
● Andhra has a very long tradition of dancedrama which was known under the generic
name of Yakshagaana.
● In 17th century Kuchipudi style of
Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra
Yogi a talented Vaishnava poet.
Fig. 6.10. Bharatnatyam Performance
Four Types of Abhinaya in Dance
● Anghika: Physical or body movements.
● Vachika: the song being played, poetry
● Aaharya: Ornamentation of a character/dancer
e.g. jewellery, costume
● Satvika: Involuntary movements e.g. trembling,
break of voice, tears.
Other Significant Aspects of Bharatnatyam
● Jewellery: Dancers wear anklets made of rope
or leather with rows of sleigh-like (traditionally
copper) bells attached on the anklet. The dancer's
talent is judged (along with style and presentation)
by the amount of ringing heard and the number of
bells on the anklet.
● Costume: There are several varieties of Bharata
Natyam costumes, some of which do not restrict the
● Siddhendra Yogi initiated young Brahmin
boys of Kuchipudi village to practice
and perform his compositions particularly
Bhaamaakalaapam.
How Kuchipudi Dance is Performed?
● To show the dexterity of the dancers in
footwork and their control and balance over
their bodies, techniques like dancing on the
rim of a brass plate and with a pitcher
full of water on the head was introduced.
Acrobatic dancing became part of the
repertoire.
● Carrying a fine combination of Natya, Nritta
and Nritya, Kuchipudi was never a solo affair
and required a number of performers.
● By the middle of this century, Kuchipudi
fully crystallized as a separate classical solo
dance style. Thus there are now two forms
of Kuchipudi; the traditional musical dancedrama and the solo dance.
Painting and Performing Arts 71
● Notable people – Raja reddy and Radha reddy,
Sonal mansingh, Yamini Krishnamurtthy.
● The music that accompanies the dance is
according to the classical school of Carnatic
music and is delightfully syncopatic.
● The accompanying musicians, besides the
vocalist are: a mridangam player to provide
percussion music, a violin or veena player
or both for providing instrumental melodic
music, and a cymbal player who usually
conducts the orchestra and recites the
sollukattus (mnemonic rhythm syllables).
C. Kathakali
● Kathakali (means ‘story play’), as a dance
form popular today, is considered to be of
comparatively recent origin.
● It is an art which has evolved from many
social and religious theatrical forms which
existed in the southern region in ancient times.
● Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and
Ramanattam are few of the ritual performing
arts of Kerala which have had a direct influence
on Kathakali in its form and technique.
Major Features of Kathakali
● It is known for its heavy, elaborate makeup
and costumes.
● It presents themes derived from the Ramayana,
the Mahabharata and other Hindu epics,
mythologies and legends.
● It is the only Indian dance form in which the
entire body, both skeleton and muscles, down
to even the smallest facial muscle are used to
portray emotion.
● In Kathakali emphasis is given more on
‘aharya abhinaya’, the use of costumes,
ornaments and facial make-up. The Kathakali
makeup is so heavy that it looks like a mask.
A mixture of rice paste and lime is applied to
make the chutti on the face which highlights
the facial make-up. (Refer Fig. 6.12)
Fig. 6.11. A Kuchipudi Performance
Differences Between Bharatanatyam and
Kuchipudi
● Bharatnatyam has more sculptured poses whereas
Kuchipudi has more rounded poses.
● Beyond the stylistic differences of Kuchipudi and
Bharata Natyam steps, there are certain types of
dances that are unique to Kuchipudi: Specifically
there is the Tarangam which is unique in that the
dancer holds a plate with two diyas (small oilburning candles) in her hands while balancing a
"kindi" (small vessel) containing water.
● Bharatanatyam (BN) doesn’t have 'vachikabhinayam',
thus none of BN dancers would give lip movement
for the song for which they are dancing, where as
kuchipudi dancers would give lip movement as if
they are singing the song for which they are dancing
(this is because Kuchipudi has evolved from drama,
as in olden days artists used to sing to their own tunes
and dance simultaneously, as dancers today wanting in
their music sense cannot sing on their own).
Other Unique Aspects of Kathakali
● Costume: There are several kinds of
Kathakali costumes namely, Sathwika (the
hero), Kathi (the villain), Minukku (females),
and Thatti.
● Concept: When Kathakali dance is being
performed the text of the drama or the story
is sung for the dancer and is the baseline for
his/her interpretation.
● Personalities: It was Mahakavi Vallathol
Narayan Menon, who gave Kathakali its
present form. He was the founder of the
Kerala Kala Mandalam.
● Music: Kathakali music follows the
traditional sopana sangeet of Kerala.Now,
Kathakali music also uses Carnatic ragas –
the raga and tala conforming to the bhava,
rasa and dance patterns (nritta and natya).
72 Master Series : Art and Culture
and the other is extended out on the level of
the shoulder.
● The pirouettes (a full turn on the front of
one foot in ballet) are the most characteristic
feature of the dance style in nritta portions.
● It possesses a particular performance style
of expressional pieces called bhaav bataanaa
(lit. to show bhaav or ‘feeling’). It is a mode
where abhinaya (nritya) dominates.
Fig. 6.12. A Kathakali Performance
D. Kathak Dance
● The word Kathak has been derived from the
word Katha which means a story. Kathakars
or story-tellers, are people who narrate stories
largely based on episodes from the epics,
myths and legends. (Refer Fig. 6.13)
● It probably started as an oral tradition. Mime
and gestures were perhaps added later on to
make the recitation more effective.
● The Vaishnavite cult which swept North India
in the 15th century and the resultant bhakti
movement contributed to a whole new range
of lyrics and musical forms.
● The Radha-Krishna theme proved immensely
popular alongwith the works of Mirabai, Surdas, Nandadas and Krishnadas.
● Modern exponents of Kathak dance are Birju
Maharaj and Uma Sharma.
Salient Features of Kathak Dance
● The weight of the body is equally distributed
along the horizontal and vertical axis.
● The full foot contact is of prime importance
where only the toe or the ball of the foot is
used, their function is limited.
● There are no deflections and no use of sharp
bends or curves of the upper or lower part
of the body.
● Torso movements emerge from the change
of the shoulder line rather than through the
manipulations of the backbone or upper chest
and lower waist muscles.
● In the basic stance, the dancer stands straight,
holds one hand at a level higher than the head
Fig. 6.13. A Kathak Dance Performance
Difference Between Kathak and other
Classical Dances
● Kathak dances are performed straight-legged and
the ankle bells worn by the dancers are skillfully
controlled.
● In Kathak dance the emphasis is more on footwork
as against hasta mudras or hand formations in
Bharatnatyam dance.
● Kathak dance can be performed by both men and
women. A Kathak dancer is not required strictly to
stick to fixed steps and stages in. He or she can
change the sequence of steps to suit his or her skill
and style of dancing.
● Being the only classical dance of India having links
with Muslim culture, it represents a unique synthesis
of Hindu and Muslim genius in art. Further, Kathak
is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music.
Painting and Performing Arts 73
E. Odissi
● Odissi is a highly stylised dance and to some
extent is based on the classical Natya Shastra
and the Abhinaya Darpana. (Refer Fig. 6.14)
● It closely follows the tenets laid down by the
Natya Shastra. Facial expressions, hand gestures
and body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas.
Tribhanga
● It is a very feminine stance where the body
is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.
(Refer Fig. 6.16)
Fig. 6.16. The Tribhanga Posture of Odissi
Salient Features of Odissi
Fig. 6.14. A Odissi Performance
Chowk
● It is a position imitating a square – a very
masculine stance with the weight of the body
equally balanced. (Refer Fig. 5.15)
● The techniques of movement are built around
the two basic postures of the Chowkand the
Tribhanga.
Fig. 6.15. A Chowk Performance
● The torso movement is very important and is
a unique feature of the Odissi style.
● With the lower half of the body remaining
static, the torso moves from one side to the
other along the axis passing through the centre
of the upper half of the body. Great training
is required for this control so as to avoid any
shoulder or hip movement.
● There are certain foot positions with flat, toe
or heel contact. These are used in a variety
of intricate combinations. There are also
numerous possibilities of leg movements.
Almost all leg movements are spiral or
circular, whether in space or on the ground.
● In addition to the leg movement, there are
a variety of gaits for doing pirouettes and
jumps and also certain postures inspired by
the sculptures. These bhangis, as they are
called are really units of movement ending
in one particular stance.
● Hand gestures play an important role both in
nritta where they are used only as decorative
embellishments and in nritya where they are
used for communication.
● An Odissi orchestra essentially consists of a
pakhawaj player (usually the Guru himself),
a singer, a flutist, a sitar or violin player and
a manjira player.
74 Master Series : Art and Culture
F. Mohin iyattam
● Mohiniyattam literally interpreted as the
dance of ‘Mohini’ is the classical solo dance
form of Kerala.
● According to a Puranic story, Lord Vishnu
took on the guise of a ‘Mohini’ to seduce
the Asuras, both in connection with churning
of the ocean and episode of the slaying of
Bhasmasura.
● The delicate body movements and subtle facial
expressions are more feminine in nature and
therefore are ideally suited for performance
by women.
Fig. 6.17. The Mohiniyattam Dance
Salient Features of Mohiniyattam Dance
● Mohiniyattam is characterized by graceful,
swaying body movements with no abrupt
jerks or sudden leaps. It belongs to the lasya
style which is feminine, tender and graceful.
● The movements are emphasized by the glides
and the up and down movement on toes, like
the waves of the sea and the swaying of the
coconut, palm trees and the paddy fields.
● The foot work is not terse and is rendered
softly. Importance is given to the hand
gestures and Mukhabhinaya with subtle facial
expressions.
● Mohiniyattam lays emphasis on acting. The
dancer identifies herself with the character
and sentiments existing in the compositions
like the Padams and Pada Varnams which
give ample opportunity for facial expressions.
● The hand gestures, 24 in number, are mainly
adopted from Hastalakshana Deepika, a text
followed by Kathakali. Few are also borrowed
from Natya Shastra, Abhinaya Darpana and
Balarambharatam.
● The gestures and facial expressions are closer
to the natural (gramya) and the realistic
(lokadharmi) than to the dramatic or rigidly
conventional (natyadharmi).
G. Manipuri
● Manipuri dance is indigenous to Manipur, the
North eastern state of India.
● The most striking part of Manipur dance is its
colorful decoration, lightness of dancing foot,
delicacy of abhinaya (drama), lilting music
and poetic charm.
● Manipuri dance incorporates both the tandava
and lasya and ranges from the most vigorous
masculine to the subdued and graceful feminine.
● The Manipuri classical style of singing is
called Nat – very different from both north
and south Indian music.
● Manipuri Dance is a common name and
envelopes all the dance-forms of Manipur.
Thus, Manipuri dance can be called a basket
of various dances.
Various Forms of Manipuri Dance
● Ras Leela: The most important dance form
in the Manipuri style. The theme revolves
around the love of Krishna and the milkmaids
(gopinis). Although the themes are romantic,
we must remember that the Bhakti school of
Hinduism considers physical love as a metaphor for spiritual longing. (Refer Fig. 6.18)
● Pung Cholom: It is based upon the drum
known as pung or Manipuri mridang. This
dance may be performed by men or women.
The dancers play the pung at the same time
that they are dancing. Sometimes acrobatics are
used for an exciting effect, all without breaking
the flow of the music. (Refer Fig. 6.19)
● Nupa Pala: It is a variation of the Pung
Cholom; this is also known as the Kartal
Cholom and is the cymbal dance.
● Khamba Thoibi: This portrays the love
affair between a prince and princes of two
warring clans.
Painting and Performing Arts 75
● Maibi This dance which deals with the
cosmogony of the Meitei people of Manipur.
Besides the Ras and other leelas, each stage in
one’s life is celebrated with Sankirtana performances
– child birth, upanayanam, wedding and shradha are
all occasions for singing and dancing in Manipur.
The whole community participates as song and
dance form part of daily life expressions.
● The costumes are usually made of pat – a
silk produced in Assam which is derived from
the mulberry plant – and woven with intricate
local motifs.
Fig. 6.20. The Sattriya Dance
Fig. 6.18. The Rasleela
6.5. Folk Dances of India
Indian folk and tribal dances are simple dances,
and are performed to express joy and happiness among
themselves. Folk and tribal dances are performed for
every possible occasion, to celebrate the arrival of
seasons, birth of a child, a wedding and festivals.
The dances are extremely simple with minimum
of steps or movement. The dances burst with verve
and vitality. On most occasions, the dancers sing
themselves, while being accompanied by artists on
the instruments. Each form of dance has a specific
costume. Most costumes are flamboyant with extensive jewels.
Fig. 6.19. The Cholom Pung
H. Sattriya
● Sattriya recognized in 2000 as a classical
dance by Sangeet Natak Akademi, the Sattriya
is the most recent entrant in this list. (Refer
Fig. 6.20)
● Traditionally, Sattriya was performed only by
bhokots (male monks) in monasteries as a part
of their daily rituals or to mark special festivals.
● Today, in addition to this practice, Sattriya is
also performed on stage by men and women
who are not members of the sattras, on themes
not merely mythological.
● Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly
laid down principles in respect of hastamudras,
footworks, aharyas, music etc.
Folk Dance of Central India
● Chuar Dance (Madhya Pradesh): Men
put head-dresses with stringed ‘cowries’ and
plumes of peacock feathers and make their way
to the dancing ground. Women ornamented
with brass fillets and bead necklaces with
their tattooed bodies also join the gathering.
The men beat the drums, tossing the horns and
feathers of their head-gears to the rising tempo
that gives the dance a wilder touch.
● Muria Dances (Chhattisgarh): At the
start of dance sequences they begin with an
invocation to the phallic deity of their tribe
and the founder of the Ghotul institution. The
site chosen for the dance is near the Ghotul
compound. During marriages, the Muria boys
and girls perform Har Endanna dance.
76 Master Series : Art and Culture
● Saila Dance (Chhattisgarh): Performed
during the post harvest time. Saila is a stickdance and is popular among the people of
Sarguja, Chhindwara and Betul districts. Saila
dance often comes out with many variations
and much buffoonery. Sometimes the dancers
form a circle, each standing on one leg and
supporting himself by holding on to the man
in front.
● Karma Dance (Chhattisgarh): The Karma
dance is associated with the fertility cult and
is related to the Karma festival that falls
in the month of August. The Karma dance
symbolizes coming of green branches in tress
during the spring season.
Fig. 6.21. The Chhau
● Kaksar Dance: Kaksar dance is performed
during the festival period. To invoke the
blessings of the deity, young boys and girls
perform Kaksar (a group dance). The Kaksar
dance presents a unique opportunity to boys
and girls to choose their life partners.
Folk Dances of East India
● Chhau
(Jharkhand,
Odisa,
Fig. 6.22. The Goti Puas
West
Bengal): All the Chhau (mask dance)
performers hold swords and shields while
performing. The stages are decorated and
brightly lit by torches, lanterns and flickering
oil lamps. The musical instruments used are
the Dhol (a cylindrical drum), Nagara (a
huge drum) and Shehnai (reed pipes). The
Chhau dance is performed by men and boys.
Seraikela (Jharkhnad), Purulia(West Bengal)
Mayurbhanj (Not, wearing mask, Odisha).
(Refer Fig. 6.21)
● Brita Dance (West Bengal): Usually the
barren women of the region perform the Brita
dance to invoke the blessings of the Gods so
that their wishes are fulfilled. Traditionally
this dance is performed after a person recovers
from a contagious disease like small pox.
● Kali Naach (West Bengal): The Kali
dance is performed to invoke the blessings
of Goddess Kali. While performing the Kali
Naach, the performers wear a mask, purified
by mantras and dances to the accompaniment
of a sword.
● Dalkhai (Orissa): Dalkhai Dance is
performed during the time of festivals. In
the Dalkhai dance the men usually play
the musical instruments. Chaiti Ghora is a
dummy horse version of the Dalkhai dance
and is popular in the fishing communities.
● Goti Puas (Orissa): It is interesting to note
that the Odissi dance evolved from a curious
amalgamation of both Mahari and Goti Pua
dance styles. Usually a Goti Pua performance is
ably supported by a set of three musicians, who
play the pakhawaj, cymbals and harmonium.
The boys do the singing themselves, though at
times the group has an additional singer. (Refer
Fig. 6.11)
Folk Dances of North East India
● Bihu (Assam): It is an integral part of
the Bihu festival of Assam. Young men and
girls perform the Bihu dance together to the
accompaniment of drums and pipes. Love
forms the subject matter of the songs that are
sung during the performance. The dances are
performed in circles or parallel rows.
Painting and Performing Arts 77
Fig. 6.23. Bihu Dance Form
● Hajgiri (Tripura): It is performed by young
girls who display a series of balancing skills
and instruments of their kind. It is to ensure
good harvest. Tribal people of Tripura and other
adjoining states make use of the compounds of
their own houses as dancing grounds during
main festivals.
● Nongkrem (Meghalaya): ‘Nongkrem’ is
an important folkdance of Meghalaya. The
Khasis tribe of Meghalaya also celebrates the
ripening of paddy for threshing, by dances
and songs.
● Dhol-Cholom (Manipur): Dhol Cholom, a
drum dance is one of the dances performed
during Holi in Manipur. The Thang-ta dance
of Manipur was an evolved from the martial
arts drills promoted by the kings of Manipur.
The dance is exciting and is performed by
young men holding swords and shields.
Folk Dance of North India
● Hikat (Himachal Pradesh): It is performed
by women. The Hikat dance is performed in
pairs and the participants extend their arms
to the front, holding each other’s wrists. The
dancers keep their bodies inclined back and
make round of the same place.
● Namagen (Himachal Pradesh): Namagen
is a dance performance usually held during
autumnal hue celebrations. The most prominent dance amongst these is the Gaddis. In
this dance the costumes are largely woolen.
● Hurka Baul (Uttarakhand): Some of
the seasonal folk dances of Uttarakhand are
Jhumeila, the Chaufula of Garhwal and the
Hurka Baul of Kumaon. The Hurka Baul
dance is performed during the cultivation of
paddy and maize. The drum (Hurka) which
is the only musical accompaniment and baul,
the song. In the Hurka Baul dance the singer
narrates the story of battles and heroic deeds,
the performers enter from two opposite sides and
enact the stories in a series of crisp movements.
● Chholiya (Uttarakhand): The Chholiya
dance is performed during marriages. As the
procession of marriage proceeds to the bride’s
house, the male dancers, armed with swords
and shields, dance animatedly.
● Bhangra (Punjab): It is performed by men
folks during Baisakhi. During the Bhangra performance the drummer is surrounded by men
dressed in lungis and turbans. (Refer Fig. 6.25)
● Dumhal (Jammu & Kashmir): This
dance is performed with long colorful robes,
tall conical caps (studded with beads and
shells). Dumhal dance is accompanied by
songs which the performers themselves sing.
It is supported by drums. (Refer Fig. 6.24)
Fig. 6.25. The Bhangra
Fig. 6.24. Dumhal
● Luddi (Punjab): It is performed by men
folk. Luddi is performed to celebrate victory.
In the Luddi dance the try to copy the movement of a snake’s head.
78 Master Series : Art and Culture
● Gidha (Punjab): In the Gidha dance a
woman or a pair of women dance while the
others surrounding her clap in rhythm. The
Gidha dance is performed during the festival
of Teeyan to welcome the monsoons (rains).
● Dhamyal (Haryana): It is performed either
by men alone or with women. A circular drum
(Dhup) is played lightly by the male dancers.
The spring season is a time of celebration in
Haryana. The celebration is done usually after
the work in the fields has been done.
Nataraja or Lord Shiva, before leaving for the
battlefield. The Perini dance is performed to
the accompaniment of the beat of the drums.
● Thapetta Gullu (Andhra Pradesh):
More than ten persons participate in this
dance. The participants or performers sing
songs in the praise of local goddess. Dancers
use drums, hanging around their necks. The
dancers wear tinkling bells around their waist.
(Refer Fig. 6.27)
Folk Dances of South India
● Padayani (Kerala): It is associated with
the festival of certain temples, called Padayani
or Paddeni. Such temples are in Alleppey,
Quilon, Pathanamthitta and Kottayam districts.
The main Kolams (huge masks) displayed in
Padayani are Bhairavi (Kali), Kalan (god of
death), Yakshi (fairy) and Pakshi (bird).
● Kummi (Tamil Nadu): Kummi is a popular folk dance of Tamil Nadu. Kummi dance
is performed by tribal women during festivals.
Kummi is a simple folk dance where dancers
form circles and clap in rhythmic way. (Refer
Fig. 6.26)
Fig. 6.26. The Kummi
● Kolattam (Andhra and Tamil Nadu): It
is derived from Kol (a small stick) and Attam
(play). Kolattam dance is a combination of
rhythmic movements, songs and music and is
performed during local village festivals. The
stick, used in the Kolattam dance, provides
the main rhythm.
● Perini (Andhra Pradesh): The Perini
Thandavam is a male dance of the warriors.
As a part of tradition, the warriors performed
this dominant dance in front of the idol of
Fig. 6.27. The Thapetta Gullu
Folk Dances of South West
India
● Dollu Kunitha (Karnataka): Large
drums are adorned with colored clothes and
hang around the necks of men. The songs used in
this dance usually have religious and battle fervor.
This dance forms a part of the ritualistic dances
of the Dodavas of Karnataka. (Refer Fig. 6.29)
● Ghode Modni (Goa): It portrays the brave
deeds of the Goan warriors. In the Ghode
Modni (dummy horse presentation) dance the
delightfully dressed dancers perform dances,
armed with swords. During the Ghode Modni
celebrations people are in a mood for fun and
frolic.
● Lava Dance of Minicoy (Lakshadweep):
During the Lava dance performance the dancers
are dressed in multi-hued costumes and a headgear.
They also carry a drum. The dancers perform to
the rhythmic beats of drums and songs. (Refer
Fig. 6.29)
● Tarangmel (Goa): It is usually performed
during Dussehra and Holi celebrations.
Gathering of young people is an invitation
to everyone to join in the festive spirit. The
musical instruments used during Tarangmel
are ‘romut’, ‘dhol’ and ‘tasha’.
Painting and Performing Arts 79
Tali dancers hold cymbals in their hands and
strike them in a rhythmic manner.
● Dindi and Kala (Maharashtra): In these
dances the playful attitude of Lord Krishna
is presented. Dindi is a small drum. The
musicians, comprising ‘Mridangam’ player
and a vocalist, stand in the center and give the
dancers the necessary musical background.
Men and women folk perform the dance on
the rhythmic music.
Fig. 6.28. The Dollu Kunitha
Fig. 6.29. The Lava Dance
Folk Dances of West India
● Dandiya (Gujarat and Rajasthan):
Dressed in colorful costumes, the performers
play skillfully with big sticks in their hands.
Dandiya dance is accompanied by the musical
instrument called the ‘Meddale’ played by the
drummer in the centre. (Refer Fig. 6.29)
● Garba (Gujarat): It is associated with the
fertility cult. The Garba dance is performed
throughout nine nights of Navaratri, an
autumn festival. Women folk come out into
the open and with perforated earthen pots
holding lighted lambs poised on the head
sing, clap and dance a simple, circular dance,
in honor of the Goddess Amba.
● Dhangari Gaja (Maharashtra): It is
performed by Dhangars of Maharashtra to
please their God for blessings. The Dhangari
Gaja dance is performed in the traditional
Marathi dresses – Dhoti, Angarakha and
Pheta, accompanied by colorful handkerchiefs.
Dancers move around a group of drum
players.
● Koli (Maharashtra): The dances of Kolis
incorporate all elements of their surroundings.
The Koli dance is performed by both men and
women – divided into two groups. The main
story of the dance is enacted by the smaller
group of men and women. (Refer Fig. 6.31)
Fig. 6.30. Dandiya
● Tera Tali (Rajasthan): It is performed
by two or three women of the ‘Kamar’ tribe.
The women folk sit on the ground while
performing the Tera Tali which is an elaborate
ritual with many other rituals in it. The Tera
Fig. 6.31. Koli Dance
80 Master Series : Art and Culture
6.6. Indian Music and
Instrument
The ‘Deep’ Origin of Music in India
The origins of Indian classical music can be found in
the Vedas, which are the oldest scriptures in the Hindu
tradition dating back to 1500 BCE.
● The Sama veda was derived from the Rig veda so
that its hymns could be sung as Samagana. These
hymns were sung by Udgatar priests at sacrifices
in which the Soma ritual drink, clarified and mixed
with milk and other ingredients, was offered in
libation to various deities.
● This chanting style evolved into jatis and eventually
into ragas. Indian classical music has also been
significantly influenced by, or syncretised with,
Indian folk music.
● Bharat's Natyashastra was the first treatise laying
down fundamental principles of dance, music, and
drama.
What is a Raga?
Each Raga has its own scale consisting of minimum five and maximum seven notes (swaras). A
raga has specific ascending (Aaroh) and descending
(Avaroh) movements, specific dominating notes
(vadi) and specific notes complementing the Vadi
(Samvadi) notes. The characteristic phrases of a raga
(Pakad) establish its identity and mood.
Types of Classical Music
● Carnatic Music: Carnatic music is
confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
● Hindustani Music: The classical music
of the rest of the country goes under the
name, Hindustani Classical Music.
Hindustani Music
Evolution of Hindustani Music
● Advent of Islamic rule under the Delhi
Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire over
northern India helped spur the fusion of
Hindu and Muslim ideas to bring forth new
forms of musical synthesis like qawwali
and khyal.
● After the dissolution of the Mughal empire,
the patronage of music continued in smaller
princely kingdoms like Awadh, Patiala, and
Banaras, giving rise to the diversity of styles
that is today known as gharanas.
● There is an amount of foreign influences in
Hindustani music in terms of the instruments,
style of presentation, and ragas such as Hijaz
Bhairav, Bhairavi, Bahar, and Yaman.
● Also, as is the case with Carnatic music, Hindustani
music has assimilated various folk tunes.
Types of Hindustani Compositions
● The major vocal forms or styles associated
with Hindustani classical music are:
♦ Dhrupad
♦ Khyal
♦ Tarana
● Other forms include dhamar, trivat, chaiti,
kajari, tappa, tap-khyal, ashtapadis, thumri,
dadra, ghazal and bhajan; these are folk or
semi-classical or light classical styles, as they
often do not adhere to the rigorous rules of
classical music.
(a) Dhrupad
● It is an old style of singing, traditionally
performed by male singers.
● The lyrics, some of which were written in
Sanskrit centuries ago, are presently often
sung in brajbhasha, a medieval form of North
and East Indian languages that was spoken in
Eastern India.
● Dhrupad music is primarily devotional in
theme and content.
● Dhrupad was the main form of northern
Indian classical music until two centuries ago,
when it gave way to the somewhat less austere
khyal, a more free-form style of singing.
(b) Khayal
● It is a Hindustani form of vocal music based
on Dhrupad.
● Khyal, literally meaning “thought” or
“imagination” in Hindustani and derived from
the Arabic term, is unusual as it is based on
improvising and expressing emotion.
Painting and Performing Arts 81
● A Khayal is a two to eight-line lyric set to a
melody. The lyric is of an emotional account
possibly from poetic observation.
● Khayals are also popular for depicting the
emotions between two lovers, situations of
ethological significance in Hinduism and Islam,
or other situations evoking intense feelings.
● Amir Khusrau might have created the style in
the late 14th century.
(c) Tarana
● Taranas are medium to fast-paced songs that
are used to convey a mood of elation and are
usually performed towards the end of a concert.
● They consist of a few lines of poetry with
soft syllables or bols set to a tune.
● The tillana of Carnatic music is based on
the tarana, although the former is primarily
associated with dance.
(d) Tappa
● Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal
music whose speciality is its rolling pace
based on fast, subtle, knotty construction.
● It originated from the folk songs of the camel
riders of Punjab and was developed as a form
of classical music
(e) Thumri
● Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form said to
have begun in Uttar Pradesh with the court
of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah.
Instruments used in Hindustani
Music
● Plays of the Tabla, a type of drum, usually
keep the rhythm, an indicator of time in
Hindustani music.
● Another common instrument is the stringed
Tanpura, which is played at a steady tone
(a drone) throughout the performance of the
raga, and which provides both a point of
reference for the musician and a background
against which the music stands out. The task
of playing the tanpura traditionally falls to a
student of the soloist.
● Other instruments for accompaniment include
the Sarangi and the Harmonium.
Carnatic Music
● Carnatic music remained relatively unaffected
by Persian and Arabic influences. It was at
this time that Carnatic music flourished in
Vijayanagara, while the Vijayanagar Empire
reached its greatest extent.
● The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on
vocal music; most compositions are written to
be sung, and even when played on instruments,
they are meant to be performed in a singing
style (known as gāyaki).
Like Hindustani music, Carnatic music rests on two
main elements.
● Rāga: The modes or melodic formulæ
● Tāla: The rhythmic cycles
● There are three types of thumri: Poorab ang,
Lucknavi and Punjabi thumri.
Important Elements of Carnatic
Music
● The lyrics are typically in a proto-Hindi language
called Brij Bhasha and are usually romantic.
● Śruti: Commonly refers to musical pitch
(f) Ghazal
● Ghazal is the most common form of poetry
in the Urdu language and was popularized
by classical poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib,
Daagh, Zauq and Sauda amongst the North
Indian literary elite.
● Ghazal exists in multiple variations, including
semi-classical, folk and pop forms.
● Swara: Refers to a type of musical sound
that is a single note, which defines a relative
(higher or lower) position of a note, rather
than a defined frequency.
Raga System in Carnatic
● A raga in Carnatic music prescribes a set of
rules for building a melody.
● In Carnatic music, the sampoorna ragas
(those with all seven notes in their scales) are
82 Master Series : Art and Culture
classified into a system called the melakarta,
which groups them according to the kinds of
notes that they have.
● There are seventy-two melakarta ragas. There
is a system known as the katapayadi sankhya
to determine the names of melakarta ragas.
● Ragas may be divided into two classes: janaka
ragas (i.e. melakarta or parent ragas) and
janya ragas (descendant ragas of a particular
janaka raga).
Tala System in Carnatic
● Tala refers to a fixed time cycle or meter, set
for a particular composition, which is built
from groupings of beats.
● Talas have cycles of a defined number of
beats and rarely change within a song.
● Carnatic music singers usually keep the
beat by moving their hands up and down
in specified patterns, and using their fingers
simultaneously to keep time.
Compositions of Carnatic
● In contrast to Hindustani music of the northern
part of India, Carnatic music is taught and
learned through compositions, which encode
many intricate musical details, also providing
scope for free improvisation.
● A Carnatic composition really has two
elements, one being the musical element,
the other being what is conveyed in the
composition.
● In addition to the rich musical experience,
each composition brings out the knowledge
and personality of the composer, and hence
the words are as important as the musical
element itself.
● There are many types/forms of compositions.
Geethams and swarajatis (which have their own
peculiar composition structures) are principally
meant to serve as basic learning exercises.
Prominent Composers in Carnatic
● Purandara Dasa, who is known as the father
(Pitamaha) of Carnatic Music, formulated the
system that is commonly used for the teaching
of Carnatic music.
● The contemporaries Tyagaraja, Muthuswami,
Dikshitar and Syama Sastri are regarded as
the Trinity of Carnaticmusic because of the
quality of Syama Sastri's compositions, the
varieties of compositions of Muthuswami
Dikshitar, and Tyagaraja's prolific output in
composing kritis.
Forms in Carnatic music
The most common and significant forms in
Carnatic music are the Varnam and the Kriti (or
kirtanam).
(a) Varnam
● Varnams are short metric pieces which
encapsulate the main features and requirements
of a raga.
● All varnams consist of lyrics, as well as swara
passages, including a pallavi, an anupallavi,
muktayi swaras, a charanam, and chittaswaras.
● Known for their complex structure, varnams
are a fundamental form in Carnatic music.
(b) Kriti – The Carnatic Song
Carnatic songs (kritis) are varied in structure and
style, but generally consist of three units.
● Pallavi: This is the equivalent of a refrain
in Western music, with 1 or 2 lines.
● Anupallavi: This is the second verse, also
as 2 lines.
● Charana: The final (and longest) verse that
wraps up the song. The Charanam usually
borrows patterns from the Anupallavi. There
can be multiple charanas.
Similarities and Differences Between
'Hindustani' and 'Carnatic' Music
● Both the styles are monophonic, follow a melodic
line and employ a drone (tanpura) with the help of
one or two notes against the melody.
● Both the styles use definite scales to define a raga
but the Carnatic Style employs Shrutis or semitones
to create a Raga and thus have many more Ragas
than the Hindustani style.
● Carnatic ragas differ from Hindustani ragas. The
names of ragas are also different.
● However, there are some ragas which have the same
scale as Hindustani ragas but have different names;
such as Hindolam and Malkauns, Shankarabharanam
and Bilawal.
Conti...
Painting and Performing Arts 83
● There is a third category of ragas like Hamsadhwani,
Charukeshi, Kalavati etc. which are essentially
Carnatic Ragas. They share the same name, the same
scale (same set of notes) but can be rendered in the
two distinctively different Carnatic and Hindustani
styles.
● Unlike Hindustani music, Carnatic music does not
adhere to Time or Samay concepts and instead of
Thaats, Carnatic music follows the Melakarta concept.
Folk Music
A. Bauls
● The Bauls of Bengal are an order of musicians
dating back to the 17th century, who play a
form of Vaishnava music using a khamak,
ektara and dotara.
● The word Baul comes from Sanskrit batul
meaning divinely inspired insanity.
● They are a group of mystic minstrels with a
syncretic form of Vaishnavism influenced by
Sufism and Buddhism.
● They are itinerant singer-poets whose music
is earthy, and reflects on the infinite amid
quotidian contexts of work and love.
● They have also been influenced by Hindu
tantric sect of the Kartabhajas and also by Sufi
sects. Bauls travel in search of the internal
ideal, Maner Manush (Man of the Heart).
B. Bhangra
● Bhangra are a lively form of music and
dance that originated in the Punjab region
to celebrate Baisakhi, the festival of the Sikhs.
● As many Bhangra lyrics reflect the long
and often tumultuous history of the Punjab,
knowledge of Punjabi history offers important
insights into the meaning of the music.
C. Dandiya
● It is practiced in (mainly) the state of Gujarat.
● Dandiya is a form of dance-oriented folk music
that has also been adapted for pop music.
● The present musical style is derived from the
traditional musical accompaniment to the folk
dance.
D. Gana Sangeet
● Gana sangeet is generally sung in chorus
carrying some social message.
● The songs are usually about Freedom,
community strength, patriotism.
● Due to the British occupation in India, a lot
of protest songs about anti-imperialism/prosocialism has been written in India.
● Examples: Apni Azadi Ko Hum Hargis Mita
Sakte Nahin, ajadee hoyni tor, Kadam kadam
badhaye jaa, Vande Mataram, etc.
E. Haryanavi Music
● It is sung and played in the state of Haryana,
parts of western UP and neighboring districts
of Rajasthan and Punjab.
● The Jogis, Bhats and Sangis are the people who
have made folk music popular in Haryana.
● The tradition of music in Haryana goes back
to the Vedic times, and it is the only state in
India to have towns and villages named after
different ragas.
● Mainly string instruments are used to make
music. The sarangi is generally preferred.
● For the wind instruments, the Been and the
Bansuri provide lilting tunes in tandem with
the Dholak, a Drum usually played with the
palms or little sticks.
F. Lavani
● Lavani comes from the word Lavanya which
means beauty.
● Lavani originated in the arid region of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh practiced all over
Maharashtra.
● Traditionally, the songs are sung by female
artistes, but male artistes may occasionally
sing Lavanis.
● The dance format associated with Lavani is
known as Tamasha.
● Lavani is a combination of traditional song
and dance, which particularly performed to
the enchanting beats of 'Dholak', an drum like
instrument.
● They are sung in a quick tempo.
Musical Instruments of India
● There are many musical instruments in India.
● Some instruments are used primarily in north
Indian music (Hindustani sangeet), some are
used in the south Indian music (Carnatic
84 Master Series : Art and Culture
sangeet), while others are found in folk music.
Musical instruments are classified into 5 types.
1. Non-membranous percussion (Ghan)
2. Membranous percussion (Avanaddh)
3. Wind blown (Sushir)
4. Plucked string (Tat)
5. Bowed string (Vitat)
or lowered by opening or closing the hole
with the stomach.
A. Non-Membranous Percussion
(Ghan)
● This is one of the oldest classes of instruments
in India.
● This class is based upon percussive instruments which do not have membranes, specifically those which have solid resonators.
● These may be either melodic instruments or
instruments to keep tale.
(a) Ghungharu
● Ghungharu are the "tinklebells" or "jingle bells"
which are used to adorn the feet of dancers.
● When tied to the feet, they are played by the
act of dancing.
● They may also be played by hand.
● This instrument evolved from the payal which
are traditional anklets worn by women in India.
Fig. 6.33. The Ghatam Instrument
(c) Manjira
● It is also called jhanj, tala, mondira, (small size)
kafi (large size), or a host of other names.
● It is basically a set of small cymbals. It is
a ubiquitous component of dance music and
bhajans.
● It is a very ancient instrument; examples may
be seen on temple walls going back to the
earliest of times.
● They are usually made of brass.
Fig. 6.34. Manjira
Fig. 6.32. The Ghungharu
(b) Ghatam
● Ghatam is a large clay pot.
● It is very commonly played in South Indian
classical performances.
● There are two actions of resonance. The
primary one is the ringing of the pot caused
by striking. A very low resonance is also
produced by the cavity. This pitch is raised
B. Wind Blown Instrument (Sushir)
This class of instrument is characterized by the
use of air to excite the var ious resonators.
(a) Flutes
● They are typically made of bamboo or reed.
● There are two main types : Bansuri and Venu.
● The bansuri is used in the North Indian
system. It typically has six holes, however
there has been a tendency in recent years
Painting and Performing Arts 85
to use seven holes for added flexibility and
correctness of pitch in the higher registers.
● Venu is the South Indian flute and is used in
the Carnatic system. It typically has eight holes.
● It is considered a very auspicious instrument
and is found at temples and at weddings.
(b) Harmonium
● The harmonium is also known as peti or baja.
● It is a reed organ with hand pumped bellows.
● This instrument is not a native Indian instrument. It is a European instrument which was
imported in the 19th century.
● Although it is a relatively recent introduction,
it has spread throughout the subcontinent.
Today, it is used in virtually every musical
genre except the south Indian classical.
(c) Shehnai
● The shehnai is a North Indian instrument.
● Although it is referred to as a double-reeded
instrument it is actually a quadruple-reed
instrument. This is because it has two upper
reeds and two lower reeds.
● The instrument has a wooden body with a
brass bell. The reed is attached to a brass
tube which is wrapped in string.
● The shehnai has eight holes but it is common
to find some of the holes partially or completely occluded with wax.
● The sound of the shehnai is considered particularly auspicious.
Fig. 6.36. Nadaswaram
C. Plucked Stringed Instruments (Tat)
This class of instruments is characterized by
plucked strings. In ancient times virtually all instruments of this class were referred to as veena.
(a) Saraswati Veena
● Saraswati veena (Saraswathi veena or simply
‘veena’) is the instrument associated with
Saraswati, the goddess of learning and the
arts.
● This instrument is common in south India and
is an important instrument in carnatic sangeet.
● It has a body made of wood, generally, this
is jackwood.
● The highest quality veenas have the entire
body carved from a single block of wood,
while the ordinary veenas have a body which
is carved in three sections (resonator, neck
and head).
● A major centre for the manufacture of the
saraswati veena is in Tanjore.
Fig. 6.35. Shehnai
(d) Nadaswaram
● Nadaswaram is a South Indian version of the
shehnai. It is also called nagaswaram.
● It is substantially larger than the shehnai and
has a simple double reed rather than the more
complex quadruple reed.
Fig. 6.37. The Veena
86 Master Series : Art and Culture
(b) Sitar
● Artists such as Ravi Shankar have popularized
this instrument around the world.
● Sitar is a long necked instrument with an
interesting construction.
● It has a varying number of strings but 17 is
usual. It has three to four playing strings and
three to four drone strings.
● There are also a series of sympathetic strings
lying under the frets. These strings are almost
never played but they vibrate whenever the
corresponding note is sounded.
● The frets are metal rods which have been bent
into crescents. The main resonator is usually
made of a gourd and there is sometimes an
additional resonator attached to the neck.
D. Bowed-Stringed Instruments
(Virat)
This is a class of stringed instruments which
are bowed.
(a) Dilruba
● Dilruba is a cross between the sitar and
sarangi.
● The dilruba is popular in north-west India.
It is found in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and
Maharashtra.
Fig. 6.40. The Dilruba
(b) Violin
Fig. 6.38. The Sitar
(c) Sarod
● Sarod is an instrument which is derived from
the rabab. It is not an ancient instrument,
probably no more than 150 to 200 years.
● It is essentially a bass Rabab. It has a metal
fingerboard with no frets. The bridge rests on
a taut membrane which covers the resonator.
Fig. 6.39. The Sarod
● The violin is not native to the Indian
subcontinent
● There appears to be no difference in
construction between the Indian violin and its
Western counterpart, however the technique
is quite different.
● The most refined technique is to be found in
South Indian music. Instead of holding the
instrument under the chin, the musician props
it between the shoulder and the foot. This
gives a stability which cannot be matched by
either north Indian nor occidental techniques.
● North Indian technique, though not nearly as
refined, is still impressive.
Fig. 6.41. The Violin
Painting and Performing Arts 87
(b) Mridangam
(c) Sarangi
● It has three to four main playing strings
and a number of sympathetic strings. The
instrument has no frets or fingerboard; the
strings float in the air.
● Pitch is determined by sliding the fingernail
against the string rather than pressing it
against a fingerboard (like violin).
● This instrument has traditionally been
associated with the kathak dance and the
vocal styles of thumri, dadra and kheyal.
● Mridangam is a South Indian version of the
pakhawaj.
● It has heavy annular membrane around the
right side, and a number of pieces of straw
which are placed radially between the annular
membrane and the main membrane.
● The right side has a permanent application,
known as soru or karanai. The left side uses a
mixture of flour and water to provide a proper
tone. This application must be removed after
each performance.
● The lacing and heads are all placed upon a
barrel shaped wooden shell. The wood is
usually of jackwood.
Fig. 6.42. The Sarangi
E. Membranous Percussive
(Avanaddh)
This is a class of instruments which have struck
membranes. These typically comprise the drums.
(a) Tabla
Fig. 6.44. Mridangam
(c) Nagada
● Tabla is a pair of drums. It consists of a small
right hand drum called dayan and a larger
metal one called bayan.
● The dayan (right hand drum) is almost always
made of wood.
● The bayan (left hand drum) may be made of
iron, aluminium, copper, steel, or clay; yet
brass with a nickel or chrome plate is the
most common material.
● The large black spot on each of the playing
surfaces are a mixture of gum, soot, and iron
filings.
● Nagada are the kettle drums of the old naubat
(traditional ensemble of nine instruments).
● These drums are about 1-2 feet in diameter,
and played with sticks.
Fig. 6.45. Nagada
(d) Dholak
Fig. 6.43. The Tabla
● Dholak is a very popular folk drum of
northern India.
● It is barrel shaped with a simple membrane
on the right hand side; basically it is just a
smaller version of the dhol.
88 Master Series : Art and Culture
● The left hand is also a single membrane with
a special application on the inner surface.
This application is a mixture of tar, clay and
sand (dholak masala) which lowers the pitch
and provides a well defined tone.
sculpture are reflected in them. Stories adapted from
puranic literature, local myths and legends usually
form the content.
Importance of Puppetry
● Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate
emotionally and physically handicapped students
to develop their mental and physical status.
● The aesthetic satisfaction derived from making
of puppets and communicating through them
helps in the all round development of the
personality of the child.
● In modern times, educationists all over the
world have realised the potential of puppetry
as a medium for communication.
● Many institutions and individuals in India are
involving students and teachers in the use
of puppetry for communicating educational
concepts.
Fig. 6.46. Dholak
(e) Damaru
● Damaru is the most common hour-glass drum
in India.
● The resonator is usually either metal or wood.
● There are two drumheads on each side of the
resonator which are laced together with cord.
● Near the centre of the lacing are two loose
knoted cords.
● The knots on each end strike both heads to
produce a rattling sound. This is affected
by rotating the drum rapidly in alternating
directions. The pitch is bent by squeezing
the lacing.
Fig 5.47. Damaru
6.7. Puppet Forms in India
The root of Puppet is derived from the latin
word ‘Pupa’ meaning a doll. In Sanskrit terminology
Puttalika and Puttika means ‘little sons’. The earliest
reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil
classic ‘Silappadikaram’ written around the 1st or
2nd century B.C.
Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet
theatre are mostly based on epics and legends.
Puppets from different parts of the country have
their own identity. Regional styles of painting and
Types of Puppetry in India
1.
2.
3.
4.
String Puppets
Shadow Puppets
Rod Puppets
Glove Puppets
(a) String Puppets
● India has a rich and ancient tradition of string
puppets or marionettes.
● Marionettes having jointed limbs controlled
by strings allow far greater flexibility and are,
therefore, the most articulate of the puppets.
● Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
are some of the regions where this form of
puppetry has flourished.
Some are described below:
Kathputli (Rajasthan)
● Materials Used: Carved from a single
piece of wood, these puppets are like large
dolls that are colourfully dressed.
● Costumes: Headgears are designed in the
medieval Rajasthani style of dress, which is
prevalent even today.
● Music: Kathputli is accompanied by a highly
dramatised version of the regional music.
Painting and Performing Arts 89
● Appearance Oval faces, large eyes, arched
eyebrows and large lips are some of the distinct facial features of these string puppets.
These puppets wear long trailing skirts and
do not have legs.
● Performance Puppeteers manipulate them
with two to five strings which are normally tied
to their fingers and not to a prop or a support.
Fig. 6.48. Kathputli
Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
● They are styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana, the traditional theatre
form of the region.
● Appearance: Gombeyatta puppet figures
are highly stylized and have joints at the legs,
shoulders, elbows, hips and knees.
● Materials Used: These puppets are manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop.
Some of the more complicated movements of
the puppet are manipulated by two to three
puppeteers at a time.
● Story: Episodes enacted in Gombeyatta are
usually based on Prasangas of the Yakshagana plays.
● Music: It accompanies is dramatic and
beautifully blends folk and classical elements.
Kundhei (Orissa)
● Materials Used: Made of light wood, the
Orissa puppets have no legs but wear long
flowing skirts.
● Technique: They have more joints and are,
therefore, more versatile, articulate and easy to
manipulate.
● Performance: The puppeteers often hold
a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to which
strings are attached for manipulation.
● Costumes: Kundhei resemble those worn
by actors of the Jatra traditional theatre.
● Music: It is drawn from the popular tunes
of the region and is sometimes influenced by
the music of Odissi dance.
Fig. 6.49. Kundhei Dance
Fig. 6.50. The Gombeyatta
Bommalattam (Tamil Nadu)
● Technique: It combines the techniques of
both rod and string puppets. They are made
of wood and the strings for manipulation are
tied to an iron ring which the puppeteer wears
like a crown on his head. A few puppets
have jointed arms and hands, which are
manipulated by rods.
● Appearance: The Bommalattam puppets
are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate
of all traditional Indian marionettes. A puppet
may be as big as 4.5 feet in height weighing
about ten kilograms.
● Bommalattam theatre has elaborate preliminaries
which are divided into four parts – Vinayak
Puja, Komali, Amanattam and Pusenkanattam.
90 Master Series : Art and Culture
Tholu Bommalata (Andhra Pradesh)
● Puppets: The puppets are large in size and
have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees.
● Appearance: They are coloured on both
sides. Hence, these puppets throw coloured
shadows on the screen.
● Music and Theme: It is dominantly
influenced by the classical music of the region
and the theme of the puppet plays are drawn
from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.
Fig.5.51. Bommalattam
(b) Shadow Puppets
● Shadow puppets are flat figures. They are cut
out of leather, which has been treated to make
it translucent.
● Shadow puppets are pressed against the screen
with a strong source of light behind it.
● The manipulation between the light and the
screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows,
as the case may be, for the viewers who sit
in front of the screen.
● This tradition of shadow puppets survives in
Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
● These puppets are mostly small in size.
● The puppets however differ in size according
to their social status, for instance, large size
for kings and religious characters and smaller
size for common people or servants.
Fig. 6.52. The Togalu Gombeyatta
Fig. 6.53. The Tholu Bommalata
Ravanachhaya
● The puppets are in one piece and have no
joints. They are not coloured, hence throw
opaque shadows on the screen.
● The manipulation requires great dexterity,
since there are no joints. The puppets are
made of deer skin and are conceived in bold
dramatic poses.
● Apart from human and animal characters,
many props such as trees, mountains, chariots,
etc. are also used.
● Although, Ravanachhaya puppets are smaller
in size-the largest not more than two feet have
no jointed limbs, they create very sensitive
and lyrical shadows.
Fig. 6.54. The Ravanachhaya
Painting and Performing Arts 91
(c) Rod Puppets
● Rod puppets are an extension of glovepuppets, but often much larger and supported
and manipulated by rods from below.
● This form of puppetry now is found mostly
in West Bengal and Orissa.
Putul Nach
● Materials Used They are carved from
wood and follow the various artistic styles of a
particular region.
● Appearance The Bengal rod-puppets,
which survive are about 3 to 4 feet in height
and are costumed like the actors of Jatra, a
traditional theatre form prevalent in the State.
● Performance These puppets have mostly
three joints. The heads, supported by the main
rod, is joined at the neck and both hands
attached to rods are joined at the shoulders.
Yampuri
● Materials Used: These puppets are made
of wood.
● Appearance: Unlike the traditional Rod
puppets of West Bengal and Orissa, these
puppets are in one piece and have no joints.
● Technique: As these puppets have no
joints, the manipulation is different from other
Rod puppets and requires greater dexterity.
Fig. 6.56. The Yampuri Puppets
(d) Glove Puppets
Fig. 6.55. The Putul Nach
Odisha Rod Puppets
● Materials Used: They also have mostly
three joints, but the hands are tied to strings
instead of rods. Thus elements of rod and
string puppets are combined in this form of
puppetry. They are much smaller in size, usually about twelve to eighteen inches.
● Technique: Manipulation is somewhat
different. The Orissa rod-puppeteers squat on
the ground behind a screen and manipulate.
● Music: The music blends folk tunes with
classical Odissi tunes. The music begins with
a short piece of ritual orchestral preliminary
called Stuti and is followed by the play.
● Performance: The puppets of Orissa are
smaller than those from Bengal or Andhra
Pradesh. Rod puppet shows of Orissa are more
operatic and prose dialogues are seldom used.
● Glove puppets, are also known as sleeve,
hand or palm puppets.
● The head is made of either papier mache,
cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from
just below the neck. The rest of the figure
consists of a long flowing skirt.
● The manipulation technique is simple the
movements are controlled by the human hand
the first finger inserted in the head and the
middle finger and the thumb are the two arms
of the puppet. With the help of these three
fingers, the glove puppet comes alive.
● The tradition of glove puppets in India is
popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal
and Kerala.
● In Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays usually
present social themes, whereas in Orissa
such plays are based on stories of Radha and
Krishna.
● In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak
with one hand and manipulates the puppet
with the other. The delivery of the dialogues,
the movement of the puppet and the beat of
92 Master Series : Art and Culture
the dholak are well synchronised and create
a dramatic atmosphere.
6.8. Theatre Forms in India
The Indian theatre has a tradition going back to
at least 5000 years.
Theatre in India started as a narrative form,
i.e., reciting, singing and dancing become integral
elements of the theatre. The western philosophy of
life is deep-rooted in the belief that there is no life
after death whereas the Indian philosophy, especially
the Hindu doctrine, sees life in a continuity, i.e.,
there is no end even after death.
Theatre in the West presents life as it is whereas
in India it presents life as it should be. In other
words, Life in the West has been portrayed nearer
to realism whether in theatre or other arts but in
India it has been illustrated more in idealistic terms.
Fig. 6.57. The Glove Puppets
Pavakoothu
● Evolution: It came into existence during
the 18th century due to the influence of
Kathakali, the famous classical dance-drama
of Kerala, on puppet performances.
● Materials Used: In Pavakoothu, the height
of a puppet varies from one foot to two feet.
The head and the arms are carved of wood
and joined together with thick cloth, cut and
stitched into a small bag.
● Appearance: The face of the puppets is
decorated with paints, small and thin pieces
of gilded tin, the feathers of the peacock, etc.
● Technique: The manipulator puts his hand
into the bag and moves the hands and head
of the puppet.
● Theme: It is based on the episodes from
either the Ramayana or the Mahabharat.
Characteristics of Theatre
Forms in India
● Element of creativity, though not based on
classical or grammatical roots, is spontaneous,
emerging from the circumstances.
● When there is intensity of emotions, there is
a natural kind of rhythm in the expressions.
● Sorrow, joy, frustration, hatred and love have
their role and place.
● They reflect the common man’s social attitudes
and perceptions and also a classical element
with regional, local and folk coloring.
● Customs and the desire to improvise are
intermingled i.e, when the significant themes
are enacted, that the acting restricts itself to
traditional norms, not deviating from it.
● There is no formal setup governing the entry
or exit of the actors.
● There is an immediate, direct, realistic and
rhythmic relationship that the spectators are
able to develop with the artists.
● Dialogue delivery is usually carried out in a
high pitch which helps the actors in reaching
out to a larger audience.
Different Forms of Traditional
Theatre
A. Raasleela
Fig. 6.58. The Pavakoothu
● In this theatre form dialogues in prose
combined beautifully with songs and scenes
from Krishna's pranks.
Painting and Performing Arts 93
D. Swang
Fig. 6.59. The Rasleela Theatre
● Originally music-based, gradually, prose too,
played its role in the dialogues.
● The softness of emotions, accomplishment of
rasa along with the development of character
can be seen in this theatre form.
● The two important styles of Swang are from
Rohtak and Haathras.
● In the style belonging to Rohtak, the language
used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in Haathras,
it is Brajbhasha.
B. Bhand Pather (Kashmir)
● A unique combination of dance, music and
acting
● Satire, wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter.
● In this theatre form, music is provided with
surnai, nagaara and dhol.
● Since the actors of Bhand Pather are mainly
from the farming community, the impact of
their way of living, ideals and sensitivity is
discernible.
Fig. 6.61. The Swang
C. Jatra (West Bengal)
● These are Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies have within their
framework musical plays.
● Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's influence.
● Later, however, worldly love stories too,
found a place in Jatra.
● The earlier form of Jatra has been musical.
Dialogues were added at later stage. The
actors themselves describe the change of
scene, the place of action, etc.
E. Bhaona (Assam)
● It is a presentation of the Ankia Naat of Assam.
● In Bhaona cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal,
Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can be seen.
●
The Sutradhaar, or narrator begins the story,
first in Sanskrit and then in either Brajboli or
Assamese.
Fig. 6.62. The Bhaona
F. Nautanki (Uttar Pradesh)
Fig. 6.60. The Jatra
● The meters used in the verses are: Doha,
Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel.
94 Master Series : Art and Culture
● Among those remembered with reverence
is Gulab Bai of Kanpur. She gave a new
dimension to this old theatre form.
G. Bhavai (Gujarat)
● The instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi,
manjeera, etc.
● Unlike other theatre forms, in Tamaasha the
female actress is the chief exponent of dance
movements in the play. She is known as Murki.
● Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed,
and vivid gestures make it possible to portray
all the emotions through dance.
● In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.
Fig. 6.64. The Tamaasha
K. Dashavatar
Fig. 6.63. The Bhavai
H. Maach (Madhya Pradesh)
● The term Maach is used for the stage itself
and also for the play.
● In this theatre form songs are given prominence in between the dialogues.
● The term for dialogue in this form is bol and
rhyme in narration is termed vanag. The tunes
of this theatre form are known as rangat.
● The most developed theatre form of the
Konkan and Goa regions.
● The performers personify the ten incarnations
of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and
creativity.
● The ten incarnations are Matsya (fish), Kurma
(tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lionman), Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama,
Krishna (or Balram), Buddha and Kalki.
● Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar
performers wear masks of wood and papier
mache.
I. Krishnattam (Kerala)
● Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive days.
● The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa
krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana
Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana.
● The episodes are based on the theme of Lord
Krishna - his birth, childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good over evil.
J. Tamaasha (Maharashtra)
● It has evolved from the folk forms such as
Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan.
Fig. 6.65. The Dashavatar
L. Mudiyettu (Kerala)
● It is celebrated in the month of Vrischikam
(November-December).
● It is usually performed only in the Kali temples
of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess.
Painting and Performing Arts 95
● It depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali
over the asura Darika.
● The seven characters in Mudiyettu-Shiva,
Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali,
Kooli and Koimbidar (Nandikeshvara) are all
heavily made-up.
● The most popular episodes are from the
Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar,
Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun
yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek,
Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and
Panchavati.
Fig. 6.68. The Yakshagaana
Fig. 6.66. The Mudiyettu
M. Koodiyaattam (Kerala)
● It is based on Sanskrit theatre traditions
● The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar
or actor, Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and
Naangyaar, those taking on women's roles.
● The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or
jesters are the protagonists. It is the Vidushak
alone who delivers the dialogues.
● Emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements
makes this dance and theatre form unique.
O. Therukoothu (Tamil Nadu)
● The most popular form of folk drama of
Tamil Nadu, literally means "street play".
● It is mostly performed at the time of annual
temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain goddess)
to achieve rich harvest.
● At the core of the extensive repertoire of
Therukoothu there is a cycle of eight plays
based on the life of Draupadi.
Fig. 6.67. The Koodiyaattam
N. Yakshagaana (Karnataka)
● It is based on mythological stories and Puranas.
Fig. 6.69. The Therukoothu
96 Master Series : Art and Culture
6
Art and Culture Master Exercise
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
2.
Which of the following pairs are correctly
matched?
5.
(a) Kuchipudi – Odisha
(a) Hardwood painting
(b) Kathakali – Kerala
(b) Murals
(c) Bharatnatyam – Andhra Pradesh
(c) Dye painting
(d) Kathak – Tamil Nadu
(d) Sketch painting
(a) Andhra Pradesh
Subjectve type questions for Main
Examination
(b) Bihar
1.
Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk
motifs and narratives successfully expounds
Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. (UPSC 2016)
Which among the following is a folk dance of
India?
2.
Write a short note on the evolution of Mughal
paintings under the reign of Mughal rulers.
(a) Manipuri
3.
From where can the origin of Indian music be
traced and explain the chief divisions of Indian
music. Examine why classical music in India is
not considered a popular career choice.
(d) Bharatanatyam
4.
With reference to phad paintings, consider the
following statements:
Why is Natyashastra called the “fifth Veda”?
What does it reveal about Indian dance?
5.
What are the essential elements of Indian
musical instruments and how are they different
from western instruments?
6.
In what ways puppetry differs from traditional
theatre and out of the two, which is more vibrant
to show the expressions/feelings and why?
Ankia Nat is a dance form of
(c) Assam
(d) Jammu and Kashmir
3.
(b) Bihu
(c) Kathakali
4.
The term 'Pithoro', 'Mithila paintings' and 'Warli'
are traditional forms of:
1. They are the folk paintings of Maharashtra.
2. Their themes include rural life, animals, and
narratives of folk deities.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
Answers to MCQs
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
1.
(b) 2.
(c)
3.
(b) 4.
(b) 5.
(b)
History of Indian Coins Through Ages 97
ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES
UNIT 7
History of Indian Coins
THROUGH AGES
History of Indian Coins
The history of coins extends from ancient times to the
present, and is related to economic history, the history of
minting technologies, the history shown by the images
on coins, and the history of coin collecting. Coins are
still widely used for monetary and other purposes.
Ancient Indian Coinage
The Indus valley civilisation of Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa dates back between 2500 BC and 1750
BC. There, however, is no consensus on whether
the seals excavated from the sites were in fact coins.
Punch-marked coins
The first documented coinage is deemed to start with
‘Punch Marked’ coins issued between the 7th-6th
century BC and 1stcentury AD. These coins are
called ‘punch-marked’ coins because of their manufacturing technique. Mostly made of silver, these
bear symbols, each of which was punched on the
coin with a separate punch.
The coins were first issued by the merchant guilds
and then by the States, and were extensively used for
the purpose of urban development and trade activity
They are broadly classified into two periods : the
first period (attributed to the Janapadas or small
local states) and the second period (attributed to
the Imperial Mauryan period). The motifs found on
these coins were mostly drawn from nature like the
sun, various animal motifs, trees, hills etc. and some
were geometrical symbols.
Dynastic Coins
Fig. 7.1. History of Indian Coins
The earliest of these coins relate to those of the
Indo-Greeks, the Saka-Pahlavas and the Kushans.
These coins are generally placed between the
2nd century BC and 2nd century AD. Hellenistic
traditions characterise the silver coins of the IndoGreeks, with Greek gods and goddesses figuring
98 Master Series : Art and Culture
prominently, apart from the portraits of the issuers.
These coins with their Greek legends are historically
significant, as the history of the Indo-Greeks has
been reconstructed almost entirely on their evidence.
The Saka coinage of the Western Kshatrapas are
perhaps the earliest dated coins, the dates being
given in the Saka era which commences in AD 78.
The Saka era represents the official calendar of the
Indian Republic.
Kushan Coins
Earliest Kushan coinage is generally attributed
to Vima Kadphises. The Kushan coins generally
depicted iconographic forms drawn from Greek,
Mesopotamian, Zorastrian and Indian mythology.
Siva, Buddha and Kartikeya were the major Indian
deities portrayed. Kushan gold coins influenced
subsequent issues, notably those of the Guptas.
Satavahana
The Satavahanas were the early rulers of the region
between the rivers, Godavari and the Krishna. They
were also referred to as the Andhras. Their coins
were predominantly of copper and lead, however,
silver issues are also known. These coins carried the
motifs of fauna like elephants, lions, bulls, horses,
etc. often juxtaposed against motifs from nature like
hills, tree, etc. The silver coins of the Satavahanas
carried portraits and bilingual legends, which were
inspired by the Kshatrapa types.
Gupta
Gupta coinage (4th-6th centuries AD) followed
the tradition of the Kushans, depicting the king on
the obverse and a deity on the reverse; the deities
were Indian and the legends were in Brahmi. The
earliest Gupta coins are attributed to Samudragupta,
Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta and their coins
often commemorate dynastic succession as well as
significant socio-political events, like marriage alliances, the horse sacrifice, etc (King and queen type
of coin of Chandragupta 1, Asvamedha type, etc.), or
for that matter artistic and personal accomplishments
of royal members (Lyrist, Archer, Lion-slayer etc.).
Post-Gupta Coinage
Post-Gupta coinage (6th-12th centuries AD), is
represented by a monotonous and aesthetically less
interesting series of dynastic issues including those
of Harsha (7th century AD, Kalachuri of Tripuri
(11th century AD) and early medieval Rajputs
(9th-12th centuries AD). Gold coins struck between
this period are rare. These were revived by Gangeyadeva the Kalachuri ruler who issued the ‘Seated
Lakshmi Coins’ which were copied by later rulers
both in gold as well as in debase form. The Bull
& Horseman type of coins were the most common
motif appearing on coins struck by the Rajput clans.
In western India, imported coins like the Byzantine
solidi were often used reflecting trade with the
Eastern Roman Empire.
South Indian Coinage
The symbols and motifs on South Indian coin
issues were confined to dynastic crests such as the
boar (Chalukya), bull (Pallava), tiger (Chola), fish
(Pandya and Alupas), bow and arrow (Cheras) and
lion (Hoysala) etc. The Yadavas of Devagiri issued
‘Padmatankas’ with an eight-petalled lotus on the
obverse and a blank reverse. Coin legends refer to
names or titles of the issuer in local scripts and
languages. Decorative features are rare and divinities are almost absent till the medieval Vijayanagar
period (14th- 16thcenturies AD).
Medieval India Coinage
The Arabs conquered Sindh in 712 AD and ruled it
as a province of the Caliphate. By the 9th Century
AD, provincial governors established independent
rule and struck their own coins. However, it was
with the emergence of Turkish Sultans of Delhi in
the 12th Century that a decisive break was made
with the past and the existing motifs were gradually
replaced by Islamic devices, largely calligraphy.
Delhi Sultanate coins
The unit of account came to be consolidated and
was referred to as the ‘tanka’ with the ‘jittals’ as the
smaller value coins. With the Delhi Sultanate (12061526 AD) came the attempt at standardisation. This
period was marked by a considerable expansion of
the money economy. Coins were struck in gold, silver and copper. In the monetary system, the equation
between gold and silver was probably at 1:10.
The Khilji rulers issued coins in abundance with
grandiloquent titles (Ala-ud-din Khilji struck coins
History of Indian Coins Through Ages 99
assuming the title ‘Sikandar al Sani’, the second
Alexander) as well as honorific epithets for mints
(the Delhi mint bore titles ‘Hazrat Dar-al-Khilafat,
etc.).
The coins of the Tughlaqs (1320-1412 AD) were
superior in design and execution to those of the
Khiljis. Muhammed bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD),
took personal interest in his coinage, however,
his monetary experiments were a failure and the
cause of much misery. The first experiment was to
make his coinage reflect the gold/silver price ratio
prevailing in the free market. When this experiment
failed the old gold and silver coins of about 11
grams were reintroduced. The next experiment
was inspired by Chinese paper currency which had
spurred the development of trade and commerce.
Tughlaq attempted to establish a fiduciary system
of coinage between 1329 to 1332 AD. He attempted
to issue tokens of brass and copper. These tokens
bore the legends such as : ‘Sealed as a tanka of
fifty ganis’ together with appeals such as ‘He who
obeys the Sultan, obeys the Compassionate’. Mass
forgeries rendered the experiment a total disaster
and Tughlaq, to his credit, redeemed all tokens,
forged or genuine, in specie. It may be noted that
the experiments of Tughlaq were genuine experiments: while they were forced on the populace,
they were not dictated by a bankrupt treasury. Gold
coins were issued in very large numbers during the
reign of Muhammed bin Tughlaq, thereafter gold
coins became scarce.
By the time of the Lodhis, coins were struck almost
exclusively of copper and billon. In the provinces,
the Bengal Sultans, the Jaunpur Sultans, the Bahamanis of the Deccan, the Sultans of Malwa, the
Sultans of Gujarat, etc. struck coins. In the South,
however, the Vijayanagar Empire evolved coinage
of different metrology and design which was to
remain as a standard in the region and influence
coin design up to the 19th Century.
Mughal Coins
The Mughal period in India commenced in 1526
AD when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi, the
Sultan of Delhi and ended in 1857 AD when the
British deposed and exiled Bahadur Shah Zafar, the
last Mughal emperor after the great uprising. The
Mughals brought about uniformity and consolidation
of the system of coinage throughout the empire
which was the most significant contribution to the
monetary history of the subcontinent. The system
lasted long even after the cessation of the Mughal
rule in the region. The system of tri-metalism (use
of gold, silver and copper in coins) which characterizes the Mughal coinage was largely the creation
of Sher Shah Suri (1540 to 1545 AD), an Afghan,
who ruled for a brief time. Sher Shah issued a coin
of silver which was termed the Rupiya. This had
a weight of 178 grains and was the precursor of
the modern rupee. It remained largely unchanged
till the early twentieth century. Gold coins called
the Mohur (weighing 169 grains) were issued along
with the silver Rupiya and the copper coins, called
the Dam. Numismatics of the Mughal era reflects
originality and innovative skills in the designs and
minting techniques of the coins. The coin designs
gained maturity during the reign of Akbar (1542
to 1605). Innovations like ornamentation of the
background of the die with floral scrollwork were
introduced. Jehangir (1605 to 1627) took a personal
interest in his coinage. The surviving gigantic coins
are amongst the largest issued in the world. The
coins with zodiacal signs, portraits, literary verses
and the excellent calligraphy took Mughal coinage
to new heights. Aurangzeb (1658 to 1707) removed
the Kalima from his coins, and the format was
standardized to incorporate the name of the ruler,
the mint and the date of issue.
British India Coins
In 1858 AD, just after India’s first war of Independence, the property and powers of East India
company were transferred to the British crown.
The Queen Victoria was declared as queen and later
Empress of India.
(a) Queen Victoria: Alexandrina Victoria (1862
to 1901) was the longest ruling British monarch
in the history of British India Coinage. This
illustrates that a majority of the British India
coins were minted with her effigy.
(b) King Edward VII: Edward VII’s (1903 to
1910) issued coins were of following types:
♦ Four silver coins (Rupee, 1/2 Rupee, 1/4
Rupee and 2 Annas).
100 Master Series : Art and Culture
♦ Three copper coins (1/4 Anna, 1/2 P ice
and 1/12 Anna).
♦ A cupro-nickel 1 Anna coin No Gold coins
were issued during the reign.
In 1906, the King replaced the copper coins by
bronze issues. The bronze coins had the same
designs but a thinner plancet due to the rising
international prices of copper. Another special
feature of the coinage of this period was that
in all the silver coins the inscription was in
both English and Persian, compared to Victoria
coins that showed only English. In the 1 anna
cupro-nickel coin, the value was shown in five
languages English, Persian, Hindi, Bengali and
Telugu
(c) King George VI: After the death of King
George V his son, who would have been King
Edward VIII, abdicated before coronation. No
coins were minted using his portrait. His brother
the Duke of York was crowned King George
VI (1938 to 1947 AD) in May 1937 and the
first coin of India with his effigy was minted
in 1938 AD. After the price of silver started
going up after the outbreak of World War II
in 1939 AD, the practice of hoarding silver
coins became common. This led to reducing
the use of silver in coins. The 1940 1/4 Rupee,
1/2 Rupee and one Rupee coins were reduced
from 0.917 silver to 0.500 silver (there were
a limited number of 1939 Rupees minted in
0.500 silver)
Republic India Coinage
India won its independence on 15thAugust, 1947.
During the period of transition India retained the
monetary system and the currency and coinage of
the earlier period. While Pakistan introduced a new
series of coins in 1948 and notes in 1949, India
brought out its distinctive coins on 15thAugust,
1950.
Chronologically, the main considerations influencing the coinage policy of Republic India over time
have been:
● The incorporation of symbols of sovereignty
and indigenous motifs on independence;
● Coinage Reforms with the introduction of the
metric system;
●
The need felt from time to time to obviate the
possibility of the metallic value of coins rising
beyond the face value;
● The cost-benefit of coinisation of currency notes.
Independent India Issues could broadly be categorised as:
(a) The Frozen Series 1947-1950: This
represented the currency arrangements during
the transition period upto the establishment
of the Indian Republic. The Monetary System
remained unchanged at One Rupee consisting
of 192 pies.
♦ 1 Rupee = 16 Annas
♦ 1 Anna = 4 Pice
♦ 1 Pice = 3 Pies
(b) The Anna Series: This series was introduced on 15thAugust, 1950 and represented
the first coinage of Republic India. The King’s
Portrait was replaced by the Lion Capital of
the Ashoka Pillar. A corn sheaf replaced the
Tiger on the one Rupee coin. In some ways
this symbolised a shift in focus to progress and
prosperity. Indian motifs were incorporated on
other coins. The monetary system was largely
retained unchanged with one Rupee consisting
of 16 Annas.
(c) The Decimal Series: The move towards
decimalisation was afoot for over a century.
However, it was in September, 1955 that the
Indian Coinage Act was amended for the
country to adopt a metric system for coinage.
The Act came into force with effect from
1stApril, 1957. The rupee remained unchanged
in value and nomenclature. It, however, was
now divided into 100 ‘Paisa’ instead of 16
Annas or 64 Pice. For public recognition, the
new decimal Paisa was termed ‘Naya Paisa’
till 1stJune, 1964 when the term ‘Naya’ was
dropped.
With commodity prices rising in the sixties, small
denomination coins which were made of bronze,
nickel-brass, cupro-nickel, and Aluminium-Bronze
were gradually minted in Aluminium. This change
commenced with the introduction of the new
hexagonal 3 paise coin. A twenty paise coin was
introduced in 1968 but did not gain much popularity.
History of Indian Coins Through Ages 101
Over a period of time, cost benefit considerations
led to the gradual discontinuance of 1, 2 and 3 paise
coins in the seventies; Stainless steel coinage of 10,
25 and 50 paise, was introduced in 1988 and of
one rupee in 1992. The very considerable costs of
managing note issues of Re 1, Rs 2, and Rs 5 led
to the gradual coinisation of these denominations
in the 1990s.
Later, in 1996, the ‘Mahatma Gandhi Series’ was
introduced with prominent new features such as
changed watermarks, windowed security threads,
latent images, and intaglio features for the visually
handicapped. This was replaced in 2005 by the
‘MG series’ notes that had some additional security
features.
In 2010, India celebrated its hosting of the Commonwealth Games with commemorative 2 and 5 Rupee
coins. One side of these coins features the logo of the
Games while the other features the three lions from the
pillar of Ashoka. In the same year, India also adopted
the new symbol for the rupee `, with new coins bearing
this symbol being launched in 2011.
Since 2010, other commemorative coins have a
lso been issued – 60th anniversary of the Indian Parliament, 150th anniversary of Swami Vivekananda,
and more recently, International Day of Yoga.
Conclusion: Currency is a term which refers to
medium of exchange. Every country has its own
currency. There are historic evidences that show that
coins may have introduced somewhere between 2500
and 1750 BC. The coins printed in that time were
known as punch-marked coins. As the time passed,
many empires and dynasties rose and fell, which
changed the country’s coinage designs. The coins
reflect emblem of dynasties, social events, deities
and nature. A coin shows our country how much
rich in culture, architecture, language for upcoming
generation.
102 Master Series : Art and Culture
Art and Culture Master Exercise
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
4.
Which of the following is not the characteristic
feature of dynastic coin?
(a) It denotes the silver coins of the Indo-Greeks.
(b) It denotes ‘Punch Marked’ coins used in Vedic
society.
5.
(c) It denotes Saka coinage of the Western
Kshatrapas
(d) It denotes coins with Greek Gods.
2.
The symbols and motifs on South Indian coin
issues were confined to dynastic crests. Which
of the following has been correctly matched?
(c) Chola – Tiger
(d) Cheras – Lion
3.
(c) Slave dynasty
(d) Lodhi dynasty
(a) Slave dynasty
(b) Mughal dynasty
(c) Pallava dynasty
(d) Chola kingdom
The coins in present India is not minted in which
of the following place?
(a) Noida
(b) Mumbai
(c) Kolkatta
(d) Delhi
1.
How do you justify the view that the level of
excellence of the Gupta numismatic art is not at
all noticeable in later times? (UPSC 2017)
2.
The types of coin discovered in Ancient India is
a gateway to the culture of the era. Elucidate.
3.
The Coins denoted the prosperity as well as the
paucity of the Kingdom. Discuss.
Which of the following dynasty attempted to
establish a fiduciary system of coinage between
1329 to 1332 AD?
(a) Tughlaq dynasty (b) Khalji dynasty
The system of tri- metalism was the characteristic
feature of which of the following dynasty?
Subjectve type questions for Main
Examination
(a) Chalukyas - Bull
(b) Pallava – Boar
7
Answers to MCQs
1.
(b) 2.
(c)
3.
(a)
4.
(b) 5.
(d)
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 103
ART AND CULTURE MASTER SERIES
UNIT 8
Miscellaneous Information on
Art and Culture
8.1. Science and Technological
Developments
The ‘Ancient’ Root of Science and
Technology in India
India is a fascinating country with a very long history.
The earliest evidence of its civilization dates back about
4,500 years. Their discoveries, especially in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, have had a profound
impact on the rest of the world. While it is impossible
to catalogue all their achievements, here is a quick rundown that highlights their most important findings.
● Science and technology in Ancient India
covered many major branches of human
knowledge
and
activities
including
mathematics, astronomy, physics, metallurgy,
shipbuilding and navigation, etc.
● Ancient India's contributions to astronomy
are well known and documented. The earliest
references to astronomy are found in RigVeda dated between 4500 BC.
● The science of astronomy continued to develop
independently and culminated in original findings
such as the calculation of occurrence of eclipses,
calculation of earth's circumference, theorizing
about gravity, determining the number of
planets in the solar system.
● There are astronomical references of
chronological significance in the Vedas. The
Aitareya Brahmana states that the sun never
sets nor rises.
Mathematics has been called by the general name
of Ganita which includes.
1. Arithmetics
2. Geometry
3. Algebra
4. Astronomy and Astrology.
Arithmetic is called by several names such
as Pattin Ganita (calculations on board), Anka
Ganita (calculations with numerals). Geometry is
called Rekha Ganita (line works) and Algebra, Bija
Ganita (seed analysis), Astronomy and Astrology are
included in the term Jyotisa.
Astronomy
● Astronomy made great progress. The
movement of planets came to be emphasized
and closely observed. Jyotishvedanga texts
established systematic categories in astronomy
but the more basic problem was handled by
Aryabhatta (499 AD).
● His Aryabhattiya is a concise text ontaining
121 verses. It contains separate sections
on astronomical definitions, methods
of determining the true position of the
planets, description of the movement of
the sun and the moon and the calculation
of the eclipses.
● The reason he gave for eclipse was that the
earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis
and when the shadow of the earth fell on
the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and when
the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it
caused Solar eclipse.
● On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained
it as a process where the demon swallowed
the planet.
104 Master Series : Art and Culture
● All these observations have been described
by Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika
which gives the summary of five schools of
astronomy present in his time.
● Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy
and gave it a scientific outlook which became
a guideline for later astronomers.
● Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of
Firoz Shah developed an astronomical
instrument called Yantraja. Parameshvara
and Mahabhaskariya were famous families
of astronomers and almanac-makers.
● Nilakantha
Somasutvan
produced
a
commentary on Aryabhatta. Kamalakar
studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy.He was
an authority on Islamic knowledge as well.
● Jaipur Maharaja, Sawai Jai Singh II set
five astronomical observatories in Delhi,
Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur.
Mathematics
● Apastamba in 2nd century BC, introduced
practical geometry involving acute angle,
obtuse angle and right angle.
● The three main contributions in the field of
mathematics were the notation system, the
decimal system and the use of zero.
● These numerals replaced the Roman numerals.
Zero was discovered in India in the second
century BC.
● Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is
the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’
as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is
considered as the man who founded zero.
● He gave rules of using zero with other
numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra
and also formulated the area of a triangle,
which led to the origin of Trignometry.
Brahmgupta
● In 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics
to heights far beyond others.
● In his methods of multiplication, he used
place value in almost the same way as it is
used today.
● He introduced negative numbers and operations
on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahm
Sputa Siddantika through which the Arabs
came to know our mathematical system.
Bhaskaracharya
● Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th
Century.
● He was born at Bijapur, Karnataka and
famous for his book Siddanta Shiromani.
● It is divided into four sections: Lilavati
(Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya
(Sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of
planets).
● Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or
the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations.
● This method was rediscovered six centuries
later by European mathematicians, who called
it inverse cycle. In the nineteenth century, an
English man, James Taylor, translated Lilavati
and made this great work known to the world.
Medicine
● Diseases, cure and medicines were mentioned
for the first time in the Atharva Veda.
● Fever, cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy,
sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseases
mentioned.
● The diseases are said to be caused by the
demons and spirits entering one’s body.
● The remedies recommended were replete with
magical charms and spells.
● From 600 BC began the period of rational
sciences. Takshila and Taranasi emerged
as centres of medicine and learning.
● The two important texts in this field
are Charaksamhita by Charak and
Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta.
Metallurgy
● The glazed potteries and bronze and copper
arte-facts found in the Indus valley excavations
point towards a highly developed metallurgy.
● By the first century AD, mass production of
metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of
alloys like brass and bronze were taking place.
● The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex
is indicative of the high quality of alloying
that was being done. Alkali and acids were
produced and utilised for making medicines.
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 105
● This technology was also used for other crafts
like producing dyes and colours. Textile dyeing
was popular. The Ajanta frescoes reflect on
the quality of colour. These paintings have
survived till date.
● A two metre high bronze image of Buddha has
been discovered at Sultanganj (Near Bhagalpur).
Biologcal Science
● Hamsadeva compiled Mrga-pasi-sastra
in the thirteenth century which gives a
general,though not always scientific account
of some of the beasts and birds of hunting.
● The medieval rulers as warriors and hunters,
kept animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs
and falcons. Animals, both domesticated and
wild, existed in their menageries.
● Akbar showed special interest in producing
good breeds of domestic animals, elephants
and horses.
● Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded
his observations and experiments of weeding
and hybridisation. He described about thirtysix species of animals.
● His court artists, specially Mansur, produced
elegant and accurate portraiture of animals,
some of which are still preserved in several
museums and private collections.
● As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the
study of plants and his court artists in their floral
portraiture describe some fifty-seven plants.
Chemical Science
● Before the introduction of writing paper,
ancient literature was preserved generally on
palm leaves in South India and birch-bark
(bhoj-patra) in Kashmir and other northern
regions of the country.
● Kashmir,
Sialkot,
Zafarabad,
Patna,
Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Mysore
were well-known centres of paper production.
● During Tipu’s time, Mysore possessed a
paper-making factory, producing a special
type of paper that had a gold surface.
● The paper making technique was more or less
the same throughout the country, differing
only in preparation of the pulp from different
raw materials.
● The Mughals knew the technique of production
of gunpowder and its use in guns.
● Indian craftsmen learnt the technique and
evolved suitable explosive compositions.
● They were aware of the method of preparation
of gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and
charcoal in different ratios for use in different
types of guns.
● The principal types of fireworks included
those which pierced through air (rockets),
produced sparks of fire, blazed with various
colours and ended with explosion. Tuzuki-Baburi gives an account of the casting of
cannons.
● The melted metal was made to run into the
mould till full and then cooled down.
● Besides explosives, other items were also
produced.
● Ain-i-Akbari speaks of the ‘Regulations of
the Perfume Office of Akbar’.
● The attar of roses was a popular perfume, the
discovery of which is attributed to the mother
of Nurjehan.
Space Technology
● The Indian space programme is directed
towards the goal of self-reliance in the use of
space technology for national development. Over
the years, the space programme has established
itself with a succession of achievements.
● They include the launching of the first Indian
space satellite Aryabhatta in 1975 and then
Bhaskara I and Bhaskara II from the Soviet
Union, the Rohini satellite on India’s own
SLV-3 rocket and the Apple satellite on the
European Arianne rocket.
● A far reaching experiment in education through
satellite, SITE, was conducted in India in 1975.
Subsequently, INSAT I-IB, launched in 1983,
provided radio, television, telecommunication
and meteorological services.
● A perspective of major space mission planned
for the decade 1985-95 aims at using space
technology for nationwide application in
communication, survey and management of
natural resources and meteorology.
106 Master Series : Art and Culture
8.2. Cultural Institutions in
India
(a) Lalit Kala Academy
● Established in 1954. Headquarters: New
Delhi.
● Since its inception, the Academy has been
organising national exhibition of contemporary
Indian art with 15 national awards. Every
three years, the Academy also organises
Triennial India, an International exhibition
of contemporary art in New Delhi.
● Regional Centres: Chennai, Lucknow,
Kolkata and Bhubaneshwar and Garhi Artist
Studies, Delhi.
● The Academy honours eminent artists and
art historians every year by electing them as
fellows of the Academy. To propogate Indian
art outside, the Academy regularly participates
in International Biennials and Triennials
abroad and also organises exhibitions of
works of art from other countries. To foster
contracts with artists from outside, it sponsors
exchange of artists with other countries under
the various cultural exchange programmes
and agreements of the Government.
(b) Sangeet Natak Academy
● It was established on January 28, 1953 by
a resolution of the Ministry of Education
headed by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad signed
on 31st May 1952.
● Headquarter – New Delhi
● The Sangeet Natak Academy – India’s National
Academy for Music, Dance and Drama – is
the first Academy of the Arts, set up by the
Republic of India. It encourages the forms of
Dance, Drama and Music, offers Scholarships
to Artists and Teachers of traditional arts and
gives awards to outstanding Artists.
● The Academy Awards are the highest National
recognition conferred on participating artists.
The Academy also confers Fellowships to
Scholars, their numbers being restricted to
30 living recipients.
(c) Sahitya Academy
● Sahitya Academy is the Indian National
Academy of Letters meant to promote the
cause of Indian literature through publications,
translations, seminars, workshops, cultural
exchange programmes and literary meets
organised all over the country.
● The Academy was founded in March 1954
as an autonomous body fully funded by the
Department of Culture.
● The Academy has recognised 24 languages.
● It has an Advisory Board for each of the
languages that suggests various programmes
and publications in the concerned languages.
● Its headoffice is in New Delhi.
● The highest honour conferred by the Academy
on a writer is by electing him its fellow.
This honour is reserved for the ‘Immortals of
Literature’ and limited to 21 at any given time.
(d) National School of Drama
● It is one of the foremost theatre institutions
of the World and the only one of its kind
in India. It was set up by Sangeet Natak
Academy in 1959, later in 1975 it became
an autonomous body, totally financed by
Department of Culture.
● The objective of NSD is to train students
in all aspects of theatre, including Theatre
History Production, Scene Design, Costume
Designs, Lighting, Makeup, etc.
(e) Archaeological Survey of India
● The Archaeological Surrey of India (ASI)
was established in 1861.
● It functions as an attached office of the
Department of Culture. Under the Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Sites and
Remains Act of 1958, the ASI has declared
3,612 monuments to be of national importance
in the country.
● Since its establishment one hundred and forty
two years ago, the ASI has grown into a
large organisation with an all India network
of offices, branches and circles, Conservation,
preservation and maintenance of the Centrally
protected monuments and sites are the prime
tasks of ASI.
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 107
● The major activities of the Archaeological
Survey of India are:
(i) Maintenance, conservation and preservation
of Centrally protected monuments/sites
and remains;
(ii) Conducting archaeological explorations
and excavations;
(iii) Chemical preservation of monuments
and antiquarian remains;
(iv) Architectural survey of monuments;
(v) Development of epigraphical research
and publications;
(vi) Setting up and re-organisation of site
museums and
(vii) Training in Archaeology.
(f) National Archives of India
● The National Archives of India is the official
custodian of the non-current records of the
Government of India and is holding them in
trust for the use of administrators and schoolars.
● It is an Attached Office of the Ministry of
Culture.
● It was set up in March 1891 in Calcutta
(Kolkata) as the Imperial Record Department
and subsequent to the transfer of the National
Capital from Calcutta to New Delhi in 1911.
● It has a Regional Office at Bhopal and three
record centres at Bhubandeswar, Jaipur and
Pudducherry.
(g) Anthropological Survey of lndia,
Kolkata
● The Anthropological Survey of India’s
contribution for understanding the people of
India by its coverage of the entire length and
breadth of the country and its human surface
in the People of India project, its publications
and ethnographic films have been widely used
and acknowledged all over the world.
● Since its inception, it has been involved in
studying the bio-cultural profile of Indian
populations for over half a century, from its
headquarters in Kolkata and seven regional
centers spread over the length and breadth of
the country.
● Main thrust areas of research in the
Anthropological Survey of India are:
1. Understanding and documenting sociocultural aspects of the People of India
including audio-visual documentation,
collection and preservation of museum
artefacts.
2. Understanding the physical and biological
variation among the people of India through
established methods and also the new
technologies, understanding pre-historic,
paleo-anthropological and linguistic aspects
of the people of India.
(h) Indian Council for Cultural Relations
● The Indian Council for Cultural Relations
(ICCR), is an autonomo us organisation of
the Government of India, involved in India’s
external cultural relations, through cultural
exchange with other countries and their peoples.
● It was founded on 9 April 1950 by Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad, the first Education Minister
of independent India.
(i) National Gallery of Modern Art
● The National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA),
New Delhi was founded in 1954. The main
aim of t he NGMA is the promotion and
development of contemporary Indian Art.
● The NGMA’s important collections include
paintings, sculpture, graphic arts and
photographs. NGMA organizes exhibitions
from its collection and under Cultural
Exchange programme periodically.
● The foremost responsibility of the NGMA is
the ensure quality and to set and maintain
standards of excellence.
(j) National Mission for Manuscripts
● The National Mission for Mansuscripts was
launched in February, 2003 by the Ministry
of Culture to save the most valuable of our
cultural inheritance, i.e., manuscripts.
108 Master Series : Art and Culture
8.3. Miscellaneous Information related to Art and Culture
National Symbols of India
National Flag
The National Flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (kesaria) at the top, white in the
middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportions. The ratio of width of the flag
to its length is two to three. In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel which
represents the chakra. Its design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the
Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band
and it has 24 spokes. The design of the National Flag was adopted by the Constituent
Assembly of India on 22 July 1947.
National Symbol Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath has been adopted by the Indian Government as the
National Emblem of India. It was adopted on 26th of January in 1950 when India became
a republic. Lion Capital of Asoka is written with a quote in Devanagari script called
“Satyameva jayate” (represents truth alone triumphs) taken from Mundaka Upanishad, (part
of sacred Hindu Vedas).
National Anthem Jana Gana Mana was officially adopted as national anthem of India by the Constituent
Assembly on 24th of January in 1950. It was written by the Rabindranath Tagore (a famous
Bengali poet, artist, playwright, philosopher, composer and novelist). It was first sung at a
Calcutta session of Indian National Congress in 1911 on 27th of December.
The song Vande Mataram, composed in Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chatterjee, was a
National Song
source of inspiration to the people in their struggle for freedom. It has an equal status
with Jana-gana-mana. The first political occasion when it was sung was the 1896 session
of the Indian National Congress.
The National Bird of India—the Indian peacock, Pavo cristatus, is a colourful, swan-sized
National Bird
bird with a fan-shaped crest of feathers, a white patch under the eye and a long, slender neck.
Lotus, Nelumbo Nucifera Gaertnis the National Flower of India. It is a sacred flower and
National Flower
occupies a unique position in the art and mythology of ancient India and has been an
auspicious symbol of Indian culture since time immemorial.
Ficus bengalensis, is the National Tree of India, whose branches root themselves like new
National Tree
trees over a large area. The roots then give rise to more trunks and branches. Due to this
characteristic and its longevity, this tree is considered immortal and is an integral part of
the myths and legends of India.
The Ganga or Ganges is the longest river of India, flowing over 2,510 km of mountains,
National River
valleys and plains. It originates, as the Bhagirathi River, in the snowfields of the Gangotri
Glacier in the Himalayas. It is later joined by other rivers such as the Alaknanda, Yamuna,
Son, Gumti, Kosi and Ghagra.
National Calender The National Calendar based on the Saka Era with Chaitra as its first month and a normal
year of 365 days was adopted from 22 March 1957 along with the Gregorian calendar for
the following official purposes:
1. Gazette of India,
2. News broadcast by All India Radio,
3. Calendars issued by the Government of India and
4. Government communications addressed to the members of the public.
Dates of the National Calendar have a permanent correspondence with dates of the Gregorian
calendar, 1 Chaitra falling on 22 March normally and on 21 March in leap year.
The magnificent tiger, Panthera tigris, is a striped animal. It has a thick yellow coat of
National Animal
fur with dark stripes. The combination of grace, strength, agility and enormous power has
earned the tiger its pride of place as the National Animal of India.
A fleshy fruit, eaten ripe or used green for pickles, etc., of the tree Mangifera indica —the
National Fruit
mango is one of the most important and widely cultivated fruits of the tropical world. Its
juicy fruit is a rich source of Vitamins A, C and D.
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 109
National Currency Indian Rupee is the official currency of the Republic of India. The flow of this currency
National
Animal
is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The symbol of Indian rupee is derived from
the Devanagari consonant ¶j¸ (ra).
Aquatic The national aquatic animal of India is River Dolphin, which is also called as the Ganges
river dolphin. The mammal once used to live in the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna,
Kamaphuli and Sangu rivers of India, Bangladesh and Nepal. However, the species is no
more found in its early distribution ranges. The river dolphin is essentially blind and lives
only in freshwater.
Classical Languages of India
The following criteria were laid down to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered for
classification as a “Classical Language”.
1. High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history
over a period of 1500–2000 years;
2. A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered as a valuable heritage by generations of
speakers; the literary tradition be original and
not borrowed from another speech community;
3. The classical language and literature being
distinct from modern, there may also be a
discontinuity between the classical language
and its later forms or its offshoots.
♦ Tamil (2004)
♦ Sanskrit (2005)
♦ Kannada (2008)
♦ Telagu (2008)
♦ Malayalam (2013)
♦ Odia (2014)
National Calendar
The Indian national calendar (sometimes called
Saka calendar) is the official civil calendar in use in
India. It is used, alongside the Gregorian calendar,
by the Gazette of India, news broadcasts by All India
Radio, and calendars and communications issued by
the Government of India.
Month
1
2
3
4
5
6
Chaitra
Vaisakha
Jyaistha
Asadha
Sravana
Bhadra
Calendar structure
Length Start date
(Gregorian)
30/31
31
31
31
31
31
March 22*
April 21
May 22
June 22
July 23
August 23
Contii...
7
8
9
Asvina
Kartika
Margashirsh
(Agrahayana)
10 Pausa
11 Magha
12 Phalguna
30
30
30
September 23
October 23
November 22
30
30
30
December 22
January 21
February 20
In leap years, Chaitra has 31 days and starts on
March 21 instead. The months in the first half of the
year all have 31 days, to take into account the slower
movement of the sun across the ecliptic at this time.
Samvats
Samvat refers to era of the several Hindu calendar
systems in India and Nepal, in a manner that the
consecutive years 1 BC and AD 1 mark the Christian
era and the BC/AD system. There are several samvat
found in historic Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina texts and
epigraphy, of which three are most significant: Vikrama
era, Old Shaka era and Shaka era of 78 AD.
(a) Vikram Samvat:
● The Vikram Samvat is named after king Vikramaditya, and starts in 58 BC
● It uses lunar months and solar sidereal years.
● It is the official calendar of Nepal.
● It is related to the Bikrami calendar, and is linked
to Vikramaditya.
(b) Shaka Samvat:
● It is a historical calendar era, corresponding to
Julian year 78.
● The Saka era is believed to have been founded
by King Shalivahana of the Shatavahana dynasty.
● The Saka Calender is based on luni-solar reckoning of time.
● The calendar consists of 365 days and 12 months
like the normal Gregorian calendar.
● Chaitra is the first month of the year beginning
on March 22 which is the day after the Spring
Equinox. During leap years, the starting day of
Chaitra corresponds with March 21.
110 Master Series : Art and Culture
List of festivals in India
Hindu Festivals
In Hindu releigion, there is a tradition of celebrating almost everything. Whether it is
birth, death, victory, marriage, the new year, new months, harvests, initiations, marriages
or anniversaries, they all are celebrated in India. It is a well known fact that India is
a land of fairs and festivals. There are numerous Hindu festivals that are celebrated
throughout the year. In Hindu religion both animate and inanimate are considered sacred
and that is the reason why we have hundreds of festivals and fairs in Hindu Calendar
every year.
Major Hindu festivals
● Diwali
● Durga Puja
● Dussehra
● Ganesh Chaturthi
● Holi
● Janmashtami
● Maha Shivaratri
● Onam
● Pongal
● Rakhi Festival
● Ram Navami
The
Muslim calendar begins with the month of Muharram. The tenth day of this month
Muslim Festivals in
is spent in great mourning, as it was on this day that the Prophet’s grandson Hussain,
India
achieved martyrdom. But even this sad occasion is bathed in numerous colors, due to
the long colorful processions taken out by people carrying Taziahs, which are in fact
magnificent replicas of the martyr’s tomb. On the other hand Bakriid or Id-ul-Zuha,
is a festival of sacrifice, as on this day Prophet Ibrahim’s faith was tested. Eid-ul-Fitr
is another significant Muslim festival, which is celebrated at the end of the month of
Ramzan. A festival of bittersweet sentiments is Id-e-Milad, which commemorates the
birth as well as the death anniversary of the Prophet Mohammed.
● Bakra Eid
● Barah Wafat Celebration
● Eid-ul-Fitr
Sikh Festivals
● Muharram
Sikhism is considered the youngest of the major world religions. As per traditional
Sikh belief system, this religion is based upon the divine revelations received by Guru
Nanak, almost 500 years ago in the state of Punjab. The word Sikhism has its roots in
the Sanskrit term ‘Sikh’, which means a student or disciple. The Sikh community is
a staunch believer in the concept of one god and do not indulge in idol worship or is
any form of racism. The most sacred text of Sikhism is the Guru Granth Sahib. This
holy text is a compilation of preaching of ten Sikh gurus and also that of various other
spiritual personalities of their time.
● Gurupurabs
● Baisakhi
● Holla Mohalla
● Maghi
● Bandi Chorrh Divas (Diwali)
Contii...
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 111
Jain Festivals
Buddhist Festival
Sindhi Festivals
North East Festivals
Jain festivals occur on designated days of the year. Jain festivals are either related to
life events of Tirthankara or they are performed with intention of purification of soul.
● Paryushana
● Jayanti
● Diwali
● New Year
● Gyana Panchami
● Pausha Dashmi
● Varshi Tapa or Akshay Tritiya Tapa
● Maun-agiyara
● Navapad Oli
● Mahamastakabhisheka
● Roth Teej
● Akshaya Tritiya
● Shrut Panchami
● Buddha purnima
● Songkram
● Plughing festival
● Ulambana
● Hemis Gompa
● Losar festival
● Cheti Chand
● Teejri
● Akhan Tee
● Aunn-Matyo
● Ban Badhri
● Somavati Umaas
● Nandhi and Vaddi Thadri
● Janamashtami, Ram Navmi and Shivratri
● Tirmoori
● Dussehra
● Navratra
● Lal Loi
● Rakhri
● Shraadh
● Nagapanchmi (Gogro)
● Chaliha Sahib Festival
● Hornbill Festival, Kohima Nagaland
● Losoong, Sikkim
● Nongkrem Dance Festival, Meghalaya
● Chapchar Kut, Mizoram
● Wangala Festival, Meghalaya
● Dree Festival, Arunachal Pradesh
● Losar, Arunachal Pradesh
● Kharchi Puja, Tripura
● Majuli Festival, Assam
● Nongkrem Dance Festival, Meghalaya
● Anthurium Festival, Mizoram
● Aoling festival, Nagaland
● Cheiraoba, Manipur
● Bihu Festival, Assam
112 Master Series : Art and Culture
National Festivals of India
India is a land of multi-ethnicity where people of different languages and cultures live together with peace and
harmony. India is worldwide known for its cultural diversity and colorful festivals.
Gandhi Jayanti
Every year, October 2nd is celebrated as Gandhi Jayanti to commemorate the birth anniversary of the Father of the
Nation, Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi Ji was born on October 2, 1869, into a Hindu family, in Porbandar city of Gujarat
state. His father, Karam Chand Gandhi was the Diwan of Porbander State, which was a small princely salute state
in the Kathiwar Agency of British India. Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi or Mahatma Gandhi was the main force
behind.
Independence Day
Every year, August 15 is celebrated as Independence Day to commemorate India’s freedom from British rule. This
auspicious day is also marked as a birth of the world’s biggest democracy, India. Independence Day is one of the
three national festivals of India and binds the people of different cultures and religions into a bond of unity and
brotherhood.
Republic Day of India
On 26th of January every year India celebrates its Republic Day. It is one of the national holidays of India and
regarded as the most important day in the Indian history as it was on this day in 1950 the constitution of India came
into force and India became a truly sovereign state. It is celebrated with much enthusiasm throughout the country
to commemorate the event.
Wari-Warkari: Wari is a pilgrimage for the Warkari
sect related to Pandharpur god Vithoba in Maharashtra,
and it’s part of Bhakti movement rather than festival of
a particular tribal group.
Martial Arts from India
● Gatka: Gatka is an Indian martial arts
focused on weapons, especially swords.
● Huyen Langlon: Huyen Langlon is a
martial arts from northeastern India.
● Kalaripayattu: Kalaripayattu is an ancient
martial arts style from India.
● Malla-Yuddha: Malla-Yuddha is an Indian
and Southeast Asian martial arts focused on
combat wrestling.
● Mardani Khel: Mardani Khel is a weapon-based martial arts.
● Niyuddha: Niyuddha is an ancient Indian
martial arts focused on kicking, punching and
throwing.
● Pehlwani: Pehlwani is an Indian martial
arts focused on wrestling & grappling techniques.
● Silambam: Silambam is an Indian martial
arts focused primarily on staff fighting.
● Sqay: Sqay is a weapon-based martial arts
originating from the Kashmir area of India
and Pakistan.
● Varma Kalai: Varma Kalai is an Indian martial arts focused on pressure points. It can also be
used for healing applications.
● Silambam: Silambam is a weapon-based
Indian martial art from Tamil Nadu.
● Musti Yuddha: It is unarmed martial art
from the oldest city of India “Varanasi“.
● Thang Ta: Thang Ta is popular term for the
ancient Manipuri Martial Art
● Lathi: Lathi is an ancient armed martial art
of India. It also refers one of the world’s oldest
weapons used in martial arts. Lathi or stick martial arts practiced in Punjab and Bengal region
of India.
● Mardani Khel: Mardani Khel is an armed
method of martial art created by the Maratha.
● Pari-Khanda: Pari-khandaa style of sword
and shield fighting from Bihar.
● Thoda: Thoda martial art also known as the
dance of archery from Himachal Pradesh is the
talent with the bow and arrow.
● Huyen Langlon: Huyen Langlon martial art
from Manipur consists of two main components,
armed combat and unarmed fighting, thang-ta and
sarit sarak.
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 113
Sarees and Styles and Location (Production)
Central Styles
Eastern Styles
Western Styles
Northern Styles
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Chanderi saree – Madhya Pradesh
Maheshwari – Maheshwar, Madhya Pradesh
Kosa silk – Chhattisgarh
Dhokra silk - Madhya pradesh
Tangail Tant Saree – Bangladesh
Jamdani – Bangladesh
Muslin – Bangladesh
Rajshahi silk (Eri Silk) – Bangladesh
Tussar silk saree - Rajshahi Bangladesh
Dhakai Katan - Bangladesh
Khadi saree - Comilla Bangladesh
Jute cotton - Bangladesh
Mooga silk – Assam
Mekhla Cotton - Assam
Dhaniakhali Cotton – West Bengal
Shantipuri cotton- Shantipur, West Bengal
Phulia Cotton - Phulia, West Bengal
Begumpur Cotton - Begumpur, West Bengal
Garad Saree (Korial) - Murshidabad, West Bengal
Tant Saree - Farshganj, West Bengal
Murshidabad Silk – West Bengal
Baluchari Silk – Bishnupur, Bankura West Bengal
Kantha silk & cotton saree – West Bengal & Bangladesh
Batic Saree - West Bengal & Bangladesh
Sambalpuri Silk & Cotton Saree – Sambalpur, Odisha
Ikkat Silk & Cotton Saree – Bargarh, Odisha
Bomkai Silk & Cotton Saree - Bomkai, Ganjam, Odisha
Khandua Silk & Cotton Saree – Nuapatna, Cuttack, Odisha
Sonepuri Silk & Cotton Saree – Subarnapur, Odisha
Berhampuri silk– Behrampur, Odisha
Mattha Silk Saree – Mayurbhanj, Odisha
Bapta Silk & Cotton Saree – Koraput, Odisha
Tanta Cotton Saree – Balasore, Odisha
Manipuri Tant Saree – Manipur
Paithani – Maharashtra
Bandhani – Gujarat, Rajasthan, Pakistan
Kota doria – Rajasthan, Pakistan
Lugade – Maharashtra
Patola – Gujarat, Pakistan
Bagru – Rajasthan, Pakistan
Banarasi – Uttar Pradesh
Shalu – Uttar Pradesh
Tanchoi – Uttar Pradesh
Contii...
114 Master Series : Art and Culture
Southern Styles
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Mysore silk – Karnataka
Ilkal Saree – Karnataka
Molakalmuru Saree – Karnataka
Venkatagiri – Andhra Pradesh
Mangalagiri Silk Sarees – Andhra Pradesh
Uppada Silk Sarees – Andhra Pradesh
Chirala Sarees – Andhra Pradesh
Bandar Sarees – Andhra Pradesh
Bandarulanka – Andhra Pradesh
Kuppadam Sarees – Andhra Pradesh
Dharmavaram silk saree – Andhra pradesh
Kanchipuram saree (locally called Kanjivaram pattu) – Tamil Nadu
Kasaragod sarees – Kerala
Kumbakonam – Tamil Nadu
Thirubuvanam – Tamil Nadu
Coimbatore cotton Tamil Nadu
Chinnalampattu or Sungudi Tamil Nadu
Balarampuram – Kerala
Mundum Neriyathum – Kerala
Mayilati silk –Kerala
Kannur cotton–Kerala
Kalpathi silk sarees –Kerala
Maradaka silk – Kerala
Samudrikapuram silk and cotton – Kerala
Pochampally Saree or Puttapaka saree – Telangana
Gadwal saree – Telangana
Narayanpet – Telangana or Maharashtra
Foreign travelers in India
Megasthenes
•
Megasthenes was a Greek historian who
came to India in the fourth century B.C. as
a representative or ambassador of Seleucus
Nicator.
•
He lived in the court of Chandragupta Maurya for about five years (302-298 B.C.).
•
Megasthenes has written an account of India
and also that of Chandragupta’s reign in his
book entitled “INDIKA”.
Megasthenes on Mauryan Administration:
Megasthenes has given us the following useful information regarding the Mauryan
administration.
(a) About the King:
Megasthenes gives a detailed description of
the personal life of Chandragupta Maurya. He led
a very splendid life and his palace was unique in
its beauty. The king did not sleep in one room for
two continuous days. He did not favor meeting the
people too much.
(b) About Civil Administration:
Megasthenes has written a lot about the civil
administration of Chandragupta Maurya. He writes
that the king was an autocrat and he was the master
of unlimited powers. He kept himself fully aware
of the main events of his empire through his spies.
(c) About the Indian Society:
Besides dealing with the Mauryan administration Megasthenes has provided us very valuable
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 115
information regarding the Indian society in the
Mauryan period.
Fa-hien
Fahien was a Chinese monk who travelled India
during the age of Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya. He
travelled during C 399-414.
Fa-Hien started from China in 399 A.D. and
covering all the way through the deserts came up to
Peshawar. Here he changed his way and went South
East covering Taxila, Mathura, Kanauj, Kosambi,
Kashi, Kusinara, Saraswati, Kapilvastu, Vaishali,
Patliputra and Nalanda. He went to Bengal and from
there he took a sea voyage for his journey back
home visiting on the way Ceylone and Java.
He took 15 years in the whole of his journey
and reached China in 414. Out of these 15 years,
he spent 7 years in India alone. For three years, he
was in Patliputra, learning Sanskrit and writing his
memoirs of the journey.
Fahien on Indian society
a. Political Condition and Administration:
Fa-hien did not record anything specifically
about the political condition of India. He did not
mention even the name of Chandra Gupta II in
whose dominion he must have lived for more than
five years.
It is inferred that the administration of the Guptas
was liberal, the people enjoyed economic prosperity
and the burden of taxes on them was not heavy.
There were a few quarrels or disputes and
the people rarely felt the necessity to approach
the judiciary. Mostly, corporal punishment was
avoided and usually fines were exacted from the
offenders according to the nature of their offence.
Those who attempted repeated offences against
the state were punished severely and in that case
their right hands were cut off. It suggests that the
offences were few and minor and, probably, death
penalty was absent.
The primary source of income of the state was
land-revenue. The people were free to move from
one land to another. The government servants were
paid in cash and they were barred from taking
presents or bribery from the people. Monasteries,
Sanghas, temples and their property and other reli-
gious endowments were free from government taxes.
The public highways were secure and free from the
menace of thieves and dacoits.
b. The Social Condition:
The people were prosperous and content with
their lives. Public morality was high. Mostly the
people were vegetarians and avoided meat and
onions in their meals. They did not use alcohol and
other intoxicants. Only Chandalas (Untouchables),
who lived outside cities, engaged in hunting and
fishing and were meat eaters.
c. The Religious Condition:
Buddhism and Hinduism were the most popular
religions at that time. Buddhism was more popular
in Punjab, Bengal and the region around Mathura.
In Mathura, there were many Buddhist monasteries
and even government servants respected Buddhist
monks. The Hindu religion was more popular in the
‘middle kingdom’ (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and a part
of Bengal) which formed the heart of Chandra Gupta
II’s dominions.
d. The City of Pataliputra:
Fa-hien lived in Pataliputra for nearly three years
and studied the Sanskrit language. He described that
there were separate Sanghas both of the Hinayana
and Mahayana sects, which provided education to
students gathered from all parts of India. The Palace
of Emperor Asoka also existed at that time, about
which Fa-hien remarked that “it might have been
built not by men but by gods’.
e. Trade and Sea Voyages:
Fi-hien described internal and foreign trade
of India as well as its ports. According to him,
both internal and external trade of India was in
a progressive stage and the Indians carried on
sea-voyages. According to him India had trade relations with China, countries of south-east Asia and
western Asia as well as with Europe. On its western
sea-coast, India had ports like Cambay, Sopara and
Baroach while on its eastern coast Tamralipti was
a famous port from w here Fa-hien went to Sri
Lanka on an Indian ship.
Hiuen Tsang
•
Hiuen Tsang came from China to India in
search of Buddhist belief and practice. He
116 Master Series : Art and Culture
has been described as the “prince of pilgrims” and his accounts carry a lot of information on the political, social and religious
set up of India.
•
The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited
India during the period of emperor Harsha.
•
Hiuen Tsang visited Kashmir, Punjab and
proceeded to Kapilavastu, Bodh-Gaya, Sarnath, and Kusinagara.
•
He studied in the University of Nalanda and
travelled through the Deccan, Orissa and
Bengal. Since he stayed in India for 14 long
years, his accounts reflect what ancient India must have been once.
• Social structure:
He wrote that caste-system was rigid. There
was no purdah-system and women were provided
education. However, the practice of sati prevailed. In
general, the common people were simple and honest.
They used simple garments and avoided meat, onions
and liquor in their food and drinks. They observed
high morality in their social and personal lives. The
rich people dressed well, lived in comfortable houses
and enjoyed all comforts and amenities of life.
Al Beruni
•
Al Beruni was an Islamic scholar who was
“commissioned” by Mahmud of Ghazni to
write his monumental commentary on Indian philosophy and culture Kitab fi tahqiq
ma li’l-hind.
•
Born in Uzbekistan, this traveler remained
in India for thirteen long years to understand its culture and literature.
•
He studied Sanskrit with a view to read the
philosophical and religious books of the
Hindus.
Hiuen Tsang account on India
• City structure:
Hiuen Tsang described the city-life of India. The
information we gather from his account is that the
houses were of varied types and were constructed
with wood, bricks and dung. The city-streets were
circular and dirty. Many old cities were in ruins
while new cities had grown up.
Prayag was an important city while the importance of Pataliputra was replaced by Kannauj.
Sravasti and Kapilvastu had lost their religious
importance. Instead, Nalanda and Valabhi were the
centres of Buddhist learning. Hiuen Tsang described
Kannauj as a beautiful city.
• About Harsha:
He described him as a laborious king who
travelled far and wide and contacted his subjects
personally to look after their welfare and supervise
his administration. According to him, Harsha used
to spend 3/4th of the state-income for religious
purposes.
He described that the kingdom was well-governed; it was- free from revolts; there were a few
cases of law-breaking; offenders were given physical
punishments and tortured as well to extract the truth
from them while the traitors were given death sentence or turned out of the kingdom. The burden of
taxation was not heavy on the subjects; they were
free from the oppression of the government servants
and were, thus, happy. The state used to record its
every activity.
Account on India
• Social conditions:
Indian society was cast-ridden. Several evil
practices like child marriage, prohibition of widow
marriage, ‘Sati’ and ‘Jauhar’ existed in the Hindu
society. Only the Brahmans had the right to attain
salvation. People had a very narrow outlook.
• Religious conditions:
Idol worship was prevalent. Brahamans had the
sole privilege of reading the Hindu scriptures.
• Political conditions:
Alberuni informs as that the feeling of nationalism among the Indians was almost absent. The
country was fragmented into a number of independent states. These states were jealous of each other
and constantly engaged in fights against one another.
• Legal system:
According to Alberuni, criminal law was very
mild in India. The Brahmanas were exempted from
death punishment. The limbs of serious offenders
were amputated.
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 117
• Economic conditions:
King was not the owner of the land. He took
land tax from the peasants at the rate of one-sixth
of the produce.
Ibn Battuta describes Indian cities
•
Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent
full of exciting opportunities , resources and
skills. They were densely populated and
prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and invasions.
•
Most cities had crowded streets and bright
and colourful markets that were stacked
with a wide variety of goods. Ibn Battuta
described Delhi and Daulatabad as vast cities, with a great population, the largest in
India.
•
The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but also the hub of social and cultural activities. Most bazaars
had a mosque and a temple, and in some of
them at least, spaces were marked for public performances by dancers, musicians and
singers.
•
Ibn Battuta explains that towns derived a
significant portion of their wealth through
the appropriation of surplus from villages
because of the fertility of the soil, which allowed farmers to cultivate two crops a year.
•
He also noted that the subcontinent was
well integrated with inter-Asian networks
of trade and commerce, with Indian manufactures being in great demand in both West
Asia and Southeast Asia, fetching huge
profits for artisans and merchants. Indian
textiles, particularly cotton cloth, fine muslin, silks, brocade and satin, were in great
demand.
Ibn Battuta
•
Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan explorer. He is
known for the account of his journeys called
the Rihla («Voyage»).
•
He travelled for nearly 30 years and covered
most of the Islamic world. He also explored
West Africa, Southern and Eastern Europe,
South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia
and China.
•
•
•
Ibn Battuta arrived in India in 1333. In Delhi, he met the sultan Muhammad ibn Tughluq in the Hall of a Thousand Pillars in one
of his palaces in Jahanpanah. The sultan
was surrounded by dozens of chamberlains,
officials and slaves, including the “keeper
of the fly whisk.” In attendance were 200 armored soldiers, 60 horses in royal harnesses
and 50 elephants dressed in silk and gold.
[Source: Thomas Abercrombie, National
Geographic, December 1991]
Ibn Battuta was employed by the Sultan of
Delhi, who he described as generous, pious,
courageous and unpredictable and “of all
men the most addicted to the making of gifts
and the shedding of blood. His gate is never without some poor man being enriched,
or some living man executed...Every time
he said any encouraging word I kissed his
hand.” Ibn Battuta also described how the
sultan killed his father by using elephants to
collapse a pavilion on top of him.
Ibn Battuta served for seven years as judge
for the sultan and was rescued by the sultan
from debt but was almost arrested and executed for his association with a rebellious
Sufi mystic. “I fasted for five days, reciting
the Koran cover to cover each day” as repentance. In the end the mystic was spared
and Ibn Battuta was selected ro represent
the sultan as an ambassador to China.
Marco Polo
•
Marco Polo was perhaps the earliest western
traveller to journey on the Silk Route.
•
Probably the earliest and most famous western traveller to visit Golconda taking on the
Silk Route was Marco Polo (1254-1324).
Account on India
•
Marco Polo arrives on the Coromandel Coast
of India in a typical merchant ship with over
118 Master Series : Art and Culture
sixty cabins and up to 300 crewmen. He enters the kingdom of the Tamil Pandyas near
modern day Tanjore, where, according to
custom, ‘the king and his barons and everyone else all sit on the earth.’ He asks the
king why they ‘do not seat themselves more
honorably.’ The king replies, ‘To sit on the
earth is honorable enough, because we were
made from the earth and to the earth we
must return.’
•
The sole local grain produced here is rice.
People use only their right hand for eating,
saving the left for sundry ‘unclean’ tasks.
Most do not consume any alcohol, and drink
fluids ‘out of flasks, each from his own; for
no one would drink out of another’s flask.’
Nor do they set the flask to their lips, preferring to ‘hold it above and pour the fluid into
their mouths.’ They are addicted to chewing a leaf called tambur, sometimes mixing
it with ‘camphor and other spices and lime’
and go about spitting freely, using it also
to express serious offense by targeting the
spittle at another’s face, which can sometimes provoke violent clan fights. According to Marco Polo, the pearls found in the
kingdom are fine and great. He speaks of
the port of Kayal in glowing terms and says
that it was visited by Arabian and Persian
ships laden with horses and other things for
sale. He praises the king for his good administration and for his generous treatment
of foreign merchants.
•
As regards the social life of the people he refers to the polygamy of the kings, the prevalence of Sati, the popular belief in omens
and astrology.
•
Marco Polo also visited Warangal and
speaks of Queen Rudrama Devi as a lady
of much discretion, who administered her
realm with justice and equity. He says that
the country produced the finest muslins and
other costly fabrics.
•
Marco Polo praised the merchants of Gujarat as being the best and the most truthful in
the world.
Cultural Awards
Janpith Award
Sahitya Academy Fellowship
Sahitya Akademy Award
Dadasaheb Phalke Award
Jnanpith Award which is also as Gyanpeeth Award was established in the
year 1961. Awarded by the Gyanpeeth Trust, this award is the highest
literary award in India. It is conferred to only those Indian citizens who
have worked in any of the languages recognized in the Indian Constitution.
Bestowed by Sahitya Akademi, this award is stated to be the highest honour
by the Government of India. The Akademi confers this award on a writer is
by electing him as its Fellow. The awards are presented for immortal literary
works by the writers in any of 22 officially approved languages(including
English).
This award is given annually to the Indian writers by Sahitya Akademi,
Government of India. Established in 1954, Sahitya Akademi Award is conferred for works written in any of the 22 languages recognized by the Indian
Constitution (though Rajasthani is not one of the 22 official languages but
the award has been given in this language). The writer is provided a cash
prize of 1 lakh rupees along with a bronze plaque.
Dadasaheb Phalke Award is one of the highest and most prestigious awards
that is given in the field of cinema. The award, which was instituted in
1969 in honour of Dadasaheb Phalke, an Indian filmmaker who is regarded
as “the father of Indian cinema”.
Contii...
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 119
Kalidas Samman
The Kalidas Samman is a prestigious arts award presented annually by
the government of Madhya Pradesh in India. The award is named after
Kālidāsa, a renowned Classical Sanskrit writer of ancient India. The Kalidas
Samman was first awarded in 1980. It was initially conferred in alternate
years in the fields of Classical Music, Classical Dance, Theatre and Plastic
Arts. From 1986-87 onwards, the awards were presented in all four fields
every year. The award is presented for outstanding achievement in one of
the four categories.
As a tribute to the memory of the late Prime Minister Shri Jawaharlal Nehru
Nehru Award
and to his life-long dedication to the cause of world peace and international
understanding, the Government of India instituted the Jawaharlal Nehru
Award for International Understanding in 1965.
Given annually, for outstanding contribution to the promotion of international understanding, goodwill, and friendship among peoples of the world,
the Award carries Rupees 2.5 million in cash (convertible into foreign
currency) and a citation. The Award may be divided between two persons
who are considered by the Jury to be equally deserving of recognition in
a given year.
It is open to all persons regardless of nationality, race, creed or sex, but an
association, institution or organization is not eligible for the Award. To be
considered for the Award, it would ordinarily be necessary that a person be
recommended in writing by someone with the competence thereof
The Grammy Award is given outstanding achievement in the mainly EngGrammy Award
lish-language music industry by ‘The Recording Academy’ to recognize. It
is also called as Gramophone Award. The prime motive of giving awards
to recognise the positive impact of the lives of musicians, industry members
and society at large. Find out the winners of 60th Grammy Awards with
all categories of awards.
The Pulitzer Prize is given for the outstanding contribution in books, drama,
Pulitzer Prize
music and Journalism. It was instituted 1917 on the provisions in the will
of Hungarian- American Joseph Pulitzer who had made his fortune as a
newspaper publisher under the administration of Columbia University in
New York City.
DSC Prize for South Asian The DSC Prize for South Asian Literature is a literary award given to the
writer of any ethnicity or nationality whose theme of writing is revolving
Literature
around culture, politics, history, or people about South Asia.
The British Academy of Film and Television Arts is popularly called as
BAFTA awards
BAFTA is an independent charity that supports, develops and promotes the
art forms of the moving image by identifying and rewarding excellence,
inspiring practitioners and benefiting the public.
120 Master Series : Art and Culture
8.4. World Heritage Site 5.1 Religions in India s (India)
World Heritage Sites of India
Sl.No.
1.
World Heritage Site
Agra Fort Near the gardens of the Taj Mahal stands the important 16th-century Mughal
Year of
Declaration
1983
monument known as the Red Fort of Agra. This powerful fortress of red sandstone
encompasses, within its 2.5-km-long enclosure walls, the imperial city of the Mughal
rulers. It comprises many fairy-tale palaces, such as the Jahangir Palace and the Khas
Mahal, built by Shah Jahan; audience halls, such as the Diwan-i-Khas; and two very
beautiful mosques.
2.
Ajanta Caves The first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the 2nd and
1983
1st centuries B.C. During the Gupta period (5th and 6th centuries A.D.), many more
richly decorated caves were added to the original group. The paintings and sculptures
of Ajanta, considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, have had a considerable
artistic influence.
3.
Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi On a hill overlooking the plain and about 40 km
1989
from Bhopal, the site of Sanchi comprises a group of Buddhist monuments (monolithic
pillars, palaces, temples and monasteries) all in different states of conservation most of
which date back to the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. It is the oldest Buddhist sanctuary in
existence and was a major Buddhist centre in India until the 12th century A.D.
4.
Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park A concentration of largely
2004
unexcavated archaeological, historic and living cultural heritage properties cradled in an
impressive landscape which includes prehistoric (chalcolithic) sites, a hill fortress of an
early Hindu capital, and remains of the 16th-century capital of the state of Gujarat. The
Kalikamata Temple on top of Pavagadh Hill is considered to be an important shrine,
attracting large numbers of pilgrims throughout the year. The site is the only complete
and unchanged Islamic pre-Mughal city.
5.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (Formerly Victoria Terminus) The Chhatrapati
2004
Shivaji Terminus, formerly known as Victoria Terminus Station, in Mumbai, is an
outstanding example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India, blended with
themes deriving from Indian traditional architecture. The building, designed by the
British architect F. W. Stevens, was built over 10 years, starting in 1878. Its
remarkable stone dome, turrets, pointed arches and eccentric ground plan are close
to traditional Indian palace architecture. It is an outstanding example of the meeting
of two cultures, as British architects worked with Indian craftsmen to include Indian
architectural tradition and idioms thus forging a new style unique to Bombay.
6.
Churches and Convents of Goa The churches and convents of Goa, the former
1986
capital of the Portuguese Indies – particularly the Church of Bom Jesus, which contains
the tomb of St Francis-Xavier – illustrate the evangelization of Asia. These monuments
were influential in spreading forms of Manueline, Mannerist and Baroque art in all the
countries of Asia where missions were established.
7.
Elephanta Caves The 'City of Caves', on an island in the Sea of Oman close to
Bombay, contains a collection of rock art linked to the cult of Shiva. Here, Indian art
has found one of its most perfect expressions, particularly the huge high reliefs in the
main cave.
1987
Contii...
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 121
8.
Ellora Caves These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more than 2 km,
1983
were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad, in
Maharashtra. Ellora, with its uninterrupted sequence of monuments dating from A.D.
600 to 1000, brings the civilization of ancient India to life. Not only is the Ellora
complex a unique artistic creation and a technological exploit but, with its sanctuaries
devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, it illustrates the spirit of tolerance that
was characteristic of ancient India.
9.
Fatehpur Sikri Built during the second half of the 16th century by the Emperor Akbar,
1986
Fatehpur Sikri (the City of Victory) was the capital of the Mughal Empire for only some
10 years. The complex of monuments and temples, all in a uniform architectural style,
includes one of the largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid.
10.
Great Living Chola Temples The Great Living Chola Temples were built by kings
of the Chola Empire, which stretched over all of south India and the neighbouring islands.
The site includes three great 11th- and 12th-century Temples: the Brihadisvara Temple
at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara
Temple at Darasuram. The Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram, built by Rajendra I, was
completed in 1035. Its 53-m vimana (sanctum tower) has recessed corners and a graceful
upward curving movement, contrasting with the straight and severe tower at Thanjavur.
The Airavatesvara temple complex, built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram features a 24-m
vimana and a stone image of Shiva. The temples testify to the brilliant achievements of
the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting.
1987
11.
Group of Monuments at Hampi The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the
last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes
built Dravidian temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the
14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the Deccan Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city
was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned.
1986
12.
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram This group of sanctuaries, founded
1984
by the Pallava kings, was carved out of rock along the Coromandel coast in the 7th
and 8th centuries. It is known especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots),
mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs such as the famous 'Descent of the
Ganges', and the temple of Rivage, with thousands of sculptures to the glory of Shiva.
13.
Group of Monuments at Pattadakal Pattadakal, in Karnataka, represents the
1987
high point of an eclectic art which, in the 7th and 8th centuries under the Chalukya
dynasty, achieved a harmonious blend of architectural forms from northern and southern
India. An impressive series of nine Hindu temples, as well as a Jain sanctuary, can be
seen there. One masterpiece from the group stands out – the Temple of Virupaksha,
built c. 740 by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her husband's victory over the
kings from the South.
14.
Hill Forts of Rajasthan The serial site, situated in the state of Rajastahan, includes
six majestic forts in Chittorgarh; Kumbhalgarh; Sawai Madhopur; Jhalawar; Jaipur,
and Jaisalmer. The ecclectic architecture of the forts, some up to 20 kilometres in
circumference, bears testimony to the power of the Rajput princely states that flourished
in the region from the 8th to the 18th centuries. Enclosed within defensive walls are
major urban centres, palaces, trading centres and other buildings including temples that
often predate the fortifications within which developed an elaborate courtly culture
that supported learning, music and the arts. Some of the urban centres enclosed in the
fortifications have survived, as have many of the site's temples and other sacred buildings.
The forts use the natural defenses offered by the landscape: hills, deserts, rivers, and
dense forests. They also feature extensive water harvesting structures, largely still in
use today.
2013
Contii...
122 Master Series : Art and Culture
15.
Humayun's Tomb, Delhi This tomb, built in 1570, is of particular cultural
1993
significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent. It inspired several
major architectural innovations, culminating in the construction of the Taj Mahal.
16.
Khajuraho Group of Monuments The temples at Khajuraho were built during
1986
the Chandella dynasty, which reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. Only about 20
temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups and belong to two different religions
– Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a perfect balance between architecture and sculpture.
The Temple of Kandariya is decorated with a profusion of sculptures that are among the
greatest masterpieces of Indian art.
17.
Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya The Mahabodhi Temple Complex
2002
is one of the four holy sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and particularly to
the attainment of Enlightenment. The first temple was built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd
century B.C., and the present temple dates from the 5th or 6th centuries. It is one of the earliest
Buddhist temples built entirely in brick, still standing in India, from the late Gupta period.
18.
Mountain Railways of India This site includes three railways. The Darjeeling
1999
Himalayan Railway was the first, and is still the most outstanding, example of a hill
passenger railway. Opened in 1881, its design applies bold and ingenious engineering
solutions to the problem of establishing an effective rail link across a mountainous
terrain of great beauty. The construction of the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 46-km long
metre-gauge single-track railway in Tamil Nadu State was first proposed in 1854, but
due to the difficulty of the mountainous location the work only started in 1891 and was
completed in 1908. This railway, scaling an elevation of 326 m to 2,203 m, represented
the latest technology of the time. The Kalka Shimla Railway, a 96-km long, single track
working rail link built in the mid-19th century to provide a service to the highland town
of Shimla is emblematic of the technical and material efforts to disenclave mountain
populations through the railway. All three railways are still fully operational.
18.
Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi Built in the early 13th century a few
1993
kilometres south of Delhi, the red sandstone tower of Qutb Minar is 72.5 m high, tapering
from 2.75 m in diameter at its peak to 14.32 m at its base, and alternating angular
and rounded flutings. The surrounding archaeological area contains funerary buildings,
notably the magnificent Alai-Darwaza Gate, the masterpiece of Indo-Muslim art (built
in 1311), and two mosques, including the Quwwatu'l-Islam, the oldest in northern India,
built of materials reused from some 20 Brahman temples.
19.
Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat Rani-ki-Vav, on the
banks of the Saraswati River, was initially built as a memorial to a king in the 11th
century AD. Stepwells are a distinctive form of subterranean water resource and storage
systems on the Indian subcontinent, and have been constructed since the 3rd millennium
BC. Rani-ki-Vav was built at the height of craftsmens’ ability in stepwell construction
and the Maru-Gurjara architectural style, reflecting mastery of this complex technique
and great beauty of detail and proportions. Designed as an inverted temple highlighting
the sanctity of water, it is divided into seven levels of stairs with sculptural panels of
high artistic quality; more than 500 principle sculptures and over a thousand minor ones
combine religious, mythological and secular imagery, often referencing literary works.
The fourth level is the deepest and leads into a rectangular tank.
2014
20.
Red Fort Complex The Red Fort Complex was built as the palace fort of
Shahjahanabad – the new capital of the fifth Mughal Emperor of India, Shah Jahan.
Named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone, it is adjacent to an older fort, the
Salimgarh, built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546, with which it forms the Red Fort Complex.
The private apartments consist of a row of pavilions connected by a continuous water
channel, known as the Nahr-i-Behisht (Stream of Paradise). The planning of the palace
is based on Islamic prototypes, but each pavilion reveals architectural elements typical
of Mughal building, reflecting a fusion of Persian, Timurid and Hindu traditions.
2007
Contii...
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 123
21.
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are in the foothills
2003
of the Vindhyan Mountains on the southern edge of the central Indian plateau. Within
massive sandstone outcrops, above comparatively dense forest, are five clusters of natural
rock shelters, displaying paintings that appear to date from the Mesolithic Period right
through to the historical period. The cultural traditions of the inhabitants of the twentyone villages adjacent to the site bear a strong resemblance to those represented in the
rock paintings.
22.
Sun Temple, Konârak On the shores of the Bay of Bengal, bathed in the rays of the
1984
rising sun, the temple at Konarak is a monumental representation of the sun god Surya's
chariot; its 24 wheels are decorated with symbolic designs and it is led by a team of six
horses. Built in the 13th century, it is one of India's most famous Brahman sanctuaries.
23.
Taj Mahal An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and
1983
1648 by order of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favourite wife,
the Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired
masterpieces of the world's heritage.
24.
The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur The Jantar Mantar, in Jaipur, is an astronomical
2010
observation site built in the early 18th century. It includes a set of some 20 main fixed
instruments. Designed for the observation of astronomical positions with the naked eye,
they embody several architectural and instrumental innovations.
Natural Sites of India
25.
Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area This National Park in the
2014
western part of the Himalayan Mountains in the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh
is characterized by high alpine peaks, alpine meadows and riverine forests. The 90,540
ha property includes the upper mountain glacial and snow meltwater sources of several
rivers, and the catchments of water supplies that are vital to millions of downstream
users. The GHNPCA protects the monsoon-affected forests and alpine meadows of the
Himalayan front ranges. It is part of the Himalaya biodiversity hotspot and includes
twenty-five forest types along with a rich assemblage of fauna species, several of which
are threatened. This gives the site outstanding significance for biodiversity conservation.
26.
Kaziranga National Park In the heart of Assam, this park is one of the last areas
1985
in eastern India undisturbed by a human presence. It is inhabited by the world's largest
population of one-horned rhinoceroses, as well as many mammals, including tigers,
elephants, panthers and bears, and thousands of birds.
27.
Keoladeo National Park This former duck-hunting reserve of the Maharajas is
1985
one of the major wintering areas for large numbers of aquatic birds from Afghanistan,
Turkmenistan, China and Siberia. Some 364 species of birds, including the rare Siberian
crane, have been recorded in the park.
28.
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary On a gentle slope in the foothills of the Himalayas,
where wooded hills give way to alluvial grasslands and tropical forests, the Manas
sanctuary is home to a great variety of wildlife, including many endangered species,
such as the tiger, pygmy hog, Indian rhinoceros and Indian elephant.
29.
Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks Nestled high in West
Himalaya, India’s Valley of Flowers National Park is renowned for its meadows of
endemic alpine flowers and outstanding natural beauty. This richly diverse area is also
home to rare and endangered animals, including the Asiatic black bear, snow leopard,
brown bear and blue sheep. The gentle landscape of the Valley of Flowers National Park
complements the rugged mountain wilderness of Nanda Devi National Park. Together
they encompass a unique transition zone between the mountain ranges of the Zanskar
and Great Himalaya, praised by mountaineers and botanists for over a century and in
Hindu mythology for much longer. 1988
1985
Contii...
124 Master Series : Art and Culture
30.
Sundarbans National Park The Sundarbans covers 10,000 km2 of land and water
1987
(more than half of it in India, the rest in Bangladesh) in the Ganges delta. It contains
the world's largest area of mangrove forests. A number of rare or endangered species
live in the park, including tigers, aquatic mammals, birds and reptiles.
31.
Western Ghats Older than the Himalaya mountains, the mountain chain of the
2012
Western Ghats represents geomorphic features of immense importance with unique
biophysical and ecological processes. The site’s high montane forest ecosystems influence
the Indian monsoon weather pattern. Moderating the tropical climate of the region, the
site presents one of the best examples of the monsoon system on the planet. It also has
an exceptionally high level of biological diversity and endemism and is recognized as
one of the world’s eight ‘hottest hotspots’ of biological diversity. The forests of the
site include some of the best representatives of non-equatorial tropical evergreen forests
anywhere and are home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna, bird, amphibian,
reptile and fish species.
Latest Additions in Natural
Sites
A. Khangchendzonga National Park
● Located at the heart of the Himalayan range
in northern India (State of Sikkim), the
Khangchendzonga National Park includes
a unique diversity of plains, valleys, lakes,
glaciers and spectacular, snow-capped
mountains covered with ancient forests,
including the world’s third highest peak,
Mount Khangchendzonga. Mythological stories
are associated with this mountain and with a
great number of natural elements (caves, rivers,
lakes, etc.) that are the object of worship by
the indigenous people of Sikkim. The sacred
meanings of these stories and practices have
been integrated with Buddhist beliefs and
constitute the basis for Sikkimese identity.
B. The Architectural Work of Le
Corbusier (Chandigarh)
● Chosen from the work of Le Corbusier, the
17 sites comprising this transnational serial
property are spread over seven countries and
are a testimonial to the invention of a new
architectural language that made a break
with the past. They were built over a period
of a half-century, in the course of what Le
Corbusier described as “patient research”. The
Complexe du Capitole in Chandigarh (India),
the National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo
(Japan), the House of Dr Curutchet in La
Plata (Argentina) and the Unité d’habitation
in Marseille (France) reflect the solutions
that the Modern Movement sought to apply
during the 20th century to the challenges
of inventing new architectural techniques
to respond to the needs of society. These
masterpieces of creative genius also attest
to the internationalization of architectural
practice across the planet.
C. Archaeological Site of
Nalanda Mahavihara (Nalanda
University)at Nalanda, Bihar
● The Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State
of Bihar, in north-eastern India. It comprises
the archaeological remains of a monastic
and scholastic institution dating from the
3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. It
includes stupas, shrines, viharas (residential
and educational buildings) and important art
works in stucco, stone and metal. Nalanda
stands out as the most ancient university of
the Indian Subcontinent. It engaged in the
organized transmission of knowledge over
an uninterrupted period of 800 years. The
historical development of the site testifies to
development of Buddhism into a religion and
the flourishing of monastic and educational
traditions.
D. Historic City of Ahmadabad
● The walled city of Ahmadabad, founded by
Sultan Ahmad Shah in the 15th century, on the
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 125
eastern bank of the Sabarmati river, presents a
rich architectural heritage from the sultanate
period, notably the Bhadra citadel, the walls
and gates of the Fort city and numerous
mosques and tombs as well as important
Hindu and Jain temples of later periods. The
urban fabric is made up of densely-packed
traditional houses (pols) in gated traditional
streets (puras) with characteristic features
such as bird feeders, public wells and religious
institutions. The city continued to flourish as
the capital of the State of Gujarat for six
centuries, up to the present.
UNESCO List of Intangible
Cultural Heritage
● With the aim of ensuring better protection
of important intangible cultural heritages
across the world and in order to create
awareness of their significance, the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, a specialized agency of
the United Nations (UN) based in Paris
(UNESCO) established the intangible cultural
heritages list.
● UNESCO General Conference adopted the
Convention for the Safeguarding of the
Intangible Heritage as an international treaty
acknowledging that cultural heritage is more
than tangible objects, monuments and places.
● It also encompasses living expressions
and traditions. Intangible cultural heritage
means the skills, knowledge, expressions,
representations, practices – as well as the
artifacts, objects, instruments, and cultural
spaces associated with them that various
groups, communities and in certain cases
individuals recognise as a part of their
cultural heritage. This list is published by
the Intergovernmental Committee for the
Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Its
members are elected by State parties meeting in
the United Nations General Assembly. It aims at
drawing attention to importance of safeguarding
the cultural heritage and is a repository of
cultural diversity and creative expression.
● India, known for its heritage and cultural
diversity has 13 cultural heritages in the
UNESCO’s intangible cultural heritages list.
“Kumbh Mela” was the latest addition to the
list. Kumbh Mela was inscribed on the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage
of Humanity during the 12th session held at
Jeju, South Korea.
UNESCO Intangible Cultural
Heritages from India
1. Koodiyattam: A Sanskrit theatrical tradition
practised in a province of Kerala, traditionally
performed in theatres called as Kuttampalams
located in the hindu temples.
2. Vedic Chanting: The tradition of Vedic
chanting, chanted during sacred rituals and
recited daily by the Vedic communities known
not only for the rich content of its oral literature
but also for the ingenious techniques employed
by the Brahmin priests.
3. Ramlila: The traditional performance of
Ramayana performed across North India during
the festival of Dussehra. Most representative
are those performed in Sattna, Vrindavan,
Varanasi and Ramnagar .
4. Ramman: A religious festival in honour of
the tutelary god, Bhumiyal Devta practised in
the villages of Saloor-Dungra in the state of
Uttarakhand. Each of the caste and occupational
groups has distinctive roles in the festival.
5. Mudiyettu: A ritual dance drama from the
state of Kerala based on a mythological tale of
battle between Darika – the demon and goddess
Kali.
6. Kalbelia: A folk song and dance form of
Rajasthan. ‘Khanjari’ percussion instrument
and the ‘Poongi’, a woodwind instrument are
used during the performance. Kalbelia songs
disseminate mythological knowledge through
stories. At times, the lyrics are spontaneously
composed and improvised during the performance.
7. Chhau Dance: A tradition from eastern
India that enacts episodes from epics including
126 Master Series : Art and Culture
the Mahabharata and Ramayana, local folklore
and abstract themes. It is closely connected to the
regional festivals specifically the Chaitra Parva.
8. Buddhist Chanting: The sacred texts
chanted by the Buddhist lamas (priests) in the
Ladakh region. Each of the Buddhist sects has
several forms of chanting.
9. Sankirtana: Includes a set of arts performed
to mark religious occasions and various stages
in the life of the Vaishnava people of the Manipur plains. Sankirtana encompasses an array of
arts performed to mark religious occasions and
various stages in the life of the Vaishnava people of the Manipur plains. Sankirtana practices
centre on the temple, where performers narrate
the lives and deeds of Krishna through song
and dance.
●
●
●
10. Traditional brass and copper craft of
utensil making: The craft of the Thatheras
of Jandiala Guru constitutes the traditional
technique of manufacturing brass and copper
utensils in Punjab.
11. Yoga: The art of unifying the mind with body
and soul for greater spiritual, mental and physical
well-being. It consists of a series of poses, meditation, controlled breathing, word chanting etc.
12. Nawrouz: The Persian New year celebrated
worldwide. It invloves street performances of
music and dance, public rituals involving water
and fire, traditional sports and the making of
handicrafts.
13. Kumbh Mela: The festival of a sacred
pitcher where the piligrims bathe or take dip
in the sacred river. It is one of the largest
human congregations in the world. It is held
in pilgrimage places on the sacred rivers in
Haridwar, Allahabad, Ujjain and Nashik every
four years by rotation.
GI (Geographical Indication) Tag
● A Geographical Indication (GI) is primarily
an agricultural, natural or a manufactured
product (handicrafts and industrial goods)
originating from a definite geographical
●
territory. Typically, such a name conveys
an assurance of quality and distinctiveness,
which is essentially attributable to the place
of its origin.
Some of the examples of registered Indian
GIs are Darjeeling Tea, Tirupathi Laddu,
Kangra Paintings, Nagpur Orange, Kashmir
Pashmina etc.
GIs are not only part of our rich culture and
collective intellectual heritage, but they also
supplement the incomes of our rural farmers,
weavers, artisans and craftsmen across the
country. The promotion of GIs is in line with
the Government of India’s ‘Make in India’
campaign and therefore, it is our responsibility to preserve and protect them.
A geographical indication right enables those
who have the right to use the indication
to prevent its use by a third party whose
product does not conform to the applicable
standards. For example, in the jurisdictions in
which the Darjeeling geographical indication
is protected, producers of Darjeeling tea can
exclude use of the term “Darjeeling” for tea
not grown in their tea gardens or not produced
according to the standards set out in the code
of practice for the geographical indication.
However, a protected geographical indication
does not enable the holder to prevent someone
from making a product using the same techniques as those set out in the standards for
that indication. Protection for a geographical
indication is usually obtained by acquiring a
right over the sign that constitutes the indication.
Benefits of Geographical
Indication
● It confers legal protection.
● Prevents unauthorised use of a Registered
Geographical Indication by others.
● It provides legal protection to Indian
Geographical Indications which in turn boost
exports.
● It promotes economic prosperity of producers
of goods produced in a geographical territory.
Miscellaneous Information on Art and Culture 127
Examples of Geographical Indications in India
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Jammu & Kashmir
Himachal Pradesh
Sikkim
Arunachal Pradesh
Nagaland
Assam
Manipur
Tripura
West Bengal
Bihar
Uttar Pradesh
Pashmina, Hand-Knotted Carpet, Papier Mache, Walnut Wood Carving
12.
Rajasthan
Blue Pottery of Jaipur, Kathputlis, Sanganeri Hand-Block PrintingBlue Pottery
of Jaipur, Kathputlis, Sanganeri Hand-Block Printing
13.
14.
15.
16.
Gujarat
Madhya Pradesh
Chattisgarh
Odisha
Agates of Cambay, Kutch Embroidery, Patan Patola
17.
18.
Maharashtra
Telangana
Puneri Pagadi, Nashik Valley Wine, Mahabaleshwar Strawberry, Warli Painting
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Goa
Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh
Puducherry
Tamil Nadu
Feni
24.
Kerala
Aranmula Kannadi, Palakkadan Matta Rice, Balaramapuram Saris and Fine
Cotton Fabrics
Kangra Paintings, Kullu Shawl, Chamba Rumal
Large Cardamom
Arunachal Orange
Naga Mircha, Chakshesang Shawl, Naga Tree Tomato
Muga Silk, Joha Rice, Tezpur Litchi
Shaphee Lanphee, Wangkhei Phee, Moirang Phee, Kachai Lemon
Tripura Queen Pineapple
Darjeeling Tea, Santiniketan, Leather Goods, Khirsapati (Himsagar), Mango
Madhubani Paintings, Bhagalpur Silk, Sikki Grass Work of Bihar
Varanasi Glass Beads, Lucknow Chikan Craft, Mango Malihabadi Dusseheri,
Banaras Brocades and Saris
Chanderi Fabric, Leather Toys of Indore, Ratlami Sev
Bastar Dhokra, Bastar Wooden Craft, Bastar Iron Craft
Konark Stone Carving, Pattachitra, Ganjam Kewda Flower
Silver Filigree of Karimnagar, Hyderabad Haleem, Narayanpet, Handloom
Sarees
Channapatna Toys & Dolls, Mysore Sandal Soap, Mysore Jasmine
Pochampalli Ikat, Kondapalli Bommallu, Tirupathi Laddu
Villianur Terracotta Works
Kancheepuram Silk, Coimbatore Wet Grinder, Thanjavur Paintings, Temple
Jewellery of Nagercoil
128 Master Series : Art and Culture
Art and Culture Master Exercise
8
MCQs for Preliminary Examination
1.
(d) Stupa at Sanchi is the oldest stone
composition in India and was originally
commissioned by the emperor Bindusara.
Where is the The Great Himalayan National Park
(GHNP)?
(a) Himachal Pradesh
(b) Jammu & Kashmir
5.
(c) Uttrakhand
(d) Sikkim
2.
(a) Kumbh Mela
Which of the following is not matched correctly?
(b) Sankirtana
(a) Kaziranga National Park: Assam
(c) Yoga
(b) Nanda Devi National Park: H.P.
(d) Santhara
(c) Keoladeo National Park: Rajasthan
(d) Dachigam National Park: Jammu & Kashmir
3.
Which of the following statement is not true
about Manas Wild Life Sanctuary?
(a) It is located at the Bhutan-Himalayas in the
state of Assam
Subjectve type questions for Main
Examination
1.
Write short note on the following:
i.
Red Fort
ii. Qutub Minar
(b) It is very rich in the population of Royal
Bengal Tigers.
4.
Which of the following is not inscribed in
UNESCO’s Intangible cultural heritage from
India?
iii. Ashoka’s Rock Edict of Junagarh
(c) It is the first reserve included in the network
of tiger reserve under Project tiger in 1965.
2.
Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need
of the moment. Discuss.
(d) East Himalayan mixed Moist and Dry
Deciduous forests (the most common type).
3.
Discuss the Ancient India’s contributions to
astronomy.
Which of the following statement is not true
about Sanchi Stupa?
4.
Does making singing of national anthem
mandatory in Cinema Halls against judicial
activism?
(a) It is situated at Sanchi in Raisen district of
Madhya Pradesh.
(b) It is situated in Aurangabad district of
Maharashtra.
(c) Sanchi tagged as the World Heritage site by
UNESCO in 1989.
Answers to MCQs
1.
(a)
2.
(b) 3.
(c)
4.
(c)
5.
(d)