History of Marma This is a Social, Cultural and political history of the marmas in Bangladesh ByMongwaiching Marma B.A Hons, M.A in History University of Chittagong BANGLADESH JUNE 1, 2020 @ Dongnala, Kaptai, Rangamati, Bangladesh. E-mail-mongwaiching@gmail.com Table of Content: Page No 1. Introduction 5 2. Marma and Mugh/Mogh Controversy 6 3. The origin of the marma 7 4. Marma Identity in CHT (Choitgong Tongma Marma Lumyo), Bangladesh 8 5. The original residence of the Marmas 11 6. Relationship of the Magh (Marma) people with the rulers of Bengal: 17 6.1.1. Mogh (Marma) during Sultan rules in Bengal 17 6.1.2. Magh (Marma) during Afghan rule in Bengal 17 6.1.3. Mogh (Marma) during Mughal rule in Bengal 18 6.1.4. Magh/Marma during Arakan rule in Chittagong (1550--1666 A.D) 19 7. The expulsion of the Mogh/Mugh (Marma) from Chittagong 26 8. The Pegu from where the Marma of Bomaong Circle arrived (Bohmaong Hthong) 28 9. The Mrauk-U Where from the Marma of Mong Circle (Palai Mang Hthong) 29 10. About Arakane from where the Marma arrived 29 11. Situation of Marma in Bangladesh 30 12. Homeland of Marma 32 13. The Chittagong Hill Tracts into three Circles Chiefe 32 14. The king of Marma (Chief of the Bomang Circle and Mong Circle) 33 14.1.1. The custom of being king of Bomang 33 14.1.2. The custom of being king of Mong 33 14.1.3. Rajpunyah 33 14.1.4. The Bohmong Circle 34 14.1.5. The Mong Circle 36 15. Marma Population 38 16.1.1. Marma population in Bangladesh 38 16.1.2. Marma population in India 38 16. Marma Groups/Sub-Community 39 16.1.1. Rgre-sa/Rege-sa/Khyong-sa, 39 16.1.2. Plaing-sa 39 16.1.3. Kokdain-sa 39 -2- 16.1.4. Longdung-sa 39 16.1.5. Frang-sa/Frangra-sa 40 16.1.6. Oyoi-sa 40 16.1.7. Chiring-sa 40 16.1.8. Marok-sa/Marong-sa 40 16.1.9. Sbok-sa 40 16.2.0. Lemro-sa 40 16.2.1. Kyakfya-sa 40 16.2.2. Kronkyong-sa 40 16.2.3. Sakpregya-sa 40 17. Marma Language 41 18.1.1. Marma use Tibeto-Burman languages 41 18.1.2. Marma alphabet 41 18. Linguistic Relation among Burmese, Rakhain and Marma 42 18.1.1. Burmese 42 18.1.2. Arakane 43 18.1.3. Marma 44 19. Education of the Marma’s 45 20. Culture of the Marma’s 45 21. Traditional Dresses of the Marma’s 46 22. Religion of the Marma’s 47 23. Property Distribution of the Marma’s 48 24. Food Habits of the Marma’s 48 25. Economic condition of the Marma’s 49 26. House Structure of the Marma’s 49 27. Social Administration of Marma 49 28. Rituals during birth of the Marma’s: 50 28.1.1. Mui Jang" (Delivery room) 50 28.1.2. Things to do during prolong labor/delivery 50 28.1.3. Pkha-Tang" (Cradle inauguration) 50 28.1.4. "Mdetang-poye" (apology ceremony) 51 -3- 28.1.5. "Muingkyang Poye"/ Baby naming 51 29. “Shangpru-poye” (Shramana initiation ceremony) 51 30. "Paingjangkhaing-Poye"(Monk initiation ceremony) 52 31. "Rangtang-poye" (Bra holding ceremony) 53 32. Marriage Rituals of the Marma’s 54 33.1.1. Types of marriage in Marma Society 54 33.1.2. Social or Regular marriage 55 33.1.3. Escape marriage/Irregular marriage 55 33.1.4. Court marriage 56 33.1.5. “Smaw-Tang” (Ghorjamai) 56 33.1.7. Forbidden Relationships for marriage 56 33. Wedding ceremony of the Marma’s/"Lakthai Mangala Prukhrang" 57 33.1.1. Match the zodiac sign between brides and grooms 57 33.1.2. Marriage proposal given as per marma custom 57 33.1.3. "Khmrah Khyah Poye"/Bride giving ceremony 57 33.1.4. "Kangchhi"(Way obstacles) 57 33.1.5. "Lauthai mangla-poye"(The main episode of the wedding) 57 33.1.6. “Kraw-Chainga” (Tongue of hen) Seen 59 33.1.7. Blessing episod in wedding ceremonies 59 34. Rituals at the time of the death of the Marma’s 60 34.1.1. Ritual in case of death of common people 60 34.1.2. Ritual in case of death of a monk 62 34.1.3. Death occurs outside the house/village 63 34.1.4. "Choyaing" (pindana)/ Funeral 63 35. Conclusion 64 36. References 65 -4- 1. Introduction: The Marma people are the second-largest ethnic community/ indigenous minority group in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts, primarily residing in the Bandarban, Khagrachari and Rangamati Hill Districts. Some Marmas live in Chittagong border area of CHT like Rangunia and Fatikchari as well as Some Marmas live in Bangladesh's coastal districts of Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali, while others live in State of Tripura, India and Myanmar. They are living both in the plain and hill areas. There are over 210,000 Marmas living in Bangladesh. Since the 16th century, the Marma have considered the Chittagong Hill Tracts their home, where they have established the Bohmong and Mong Circles (chiefdoms). There has been a long-standing desire to learn about the history and culture of the Marma people, but this has not been possible due to the lack of written books or documents on the subject. When I studied history at the University of Chittagong, I felt terrible for knowing about the history of the Marma community. Because we can learn about the ancient civilizations of different nations and community about their social, cultural, economic and religious activities from different history books. But it was not possible to know about the ancient civilization of the Marma people as there was no written history book of the history of the Marma people. I completed BA Honors and Masters in History from Chittagong University in 2004, then wanted to study Marma history with a higher degree. It was no longer possible due to family financial difficulties. I have been involved with various NGOs, INGOs and UN agencies for almost 12 years. Today the corona virus suddenly came and the whole world came to a standstill, all the offices were closed and locked down. During these three months of lockdown, there has been an opportunity to conduct fact-finding research on the history of the Marmas by collecting data from accessible history books and online. I have tried to write the history of the Marma people by incorporating the knowledge and information gained from this online based research. It is difficult to write detailed research in a short time. If the history of the Marma people revealed in this study is of any use to anyone, it is the result of my three months of untiring work and hard work. Hopefully, those who are interested in learning about the Marma people or the Marma tribes will find this information very useful. If I have the opportunity to do research on the Marma community in the future, I will probably try to write more detailed data. This research work focusing on the historical, cultural, and social history of the Marma people in Bangladesh. -5- 2. Marma and Mugh/Mogh Controversy: There is considerable controversy over marma and mogh. Many call the Marma people Mugh/Mogh. The Portuguese used the word "Mugo" to refer to the Rakhine people, the Rakhine king, and the Rakhine language. "Mugo" and "Mugh" have the same meaning. Foley refers to the Rakhine people as Mughs or Magas in 1835. Medieval Arakanese Buddhists, especially those living east of the eastern border of Bengal, are widely known as "Mughs" and It is believed that the name was given to the people of Chittagong. Ahmed Sharif writes that "mugh" is a pouring word (blanket term) used to refer to Buddhists. The people of Chittagong generally use the name "mugh" to refer to the followers of the Buddha and the Buddhists living in Chittagong or Arakan or anywhere in the world. In fact, "Rakhine", "Marma", "Barua" etc. are confusing the unique identities of the people and everyone is being called by the name of Mugh. There is also an attempt to show them as separate groups by using names like "Jumia Mug", "Roang Mug", "Bhuiyan Mug", "Barua Mug" etc. But the origin of the word "Mugh" is unknown and the meaning is controversial. It is difficult to get an idea of the actual origin and meaning of this word as there are various assumptions and interpretations of this word. As a result, there has been little research on the etymology of the word mugh. Domestic and foreign historians / writers have different views on the origin of the Mugh term. For example, D.G.E Hall thinks that the word Mugh originates from the word Mongol. Because the Arakanese have similarities in appearance and appearance with the Mongols. The definition of the word "mugh" in the Bengali dictionary is "mughs" are the inhabitants of Arakan or Burma. The term "mugh" comes from the Burmese word "Mong". At one time, pirates on the coast of the Bay of Bengal were considered a “deadly nuisance” for their violence, cruelty, and barbarism. They were a group of Portuguese and Arakanese thugs who made a living by piracy in the 16th and 17th centuries. Since the word “Mugh” was used to refer to the Arakanese, Arakanese pirates were also known as "Mugh pirates". As a result, pirate and mugh became synonymous. The Mugh has become a disgusting, derogatory and derogatory term, being used as an insult in the 16th and 17th centuries, and the two words "mugh" and "muger mulluk" have become synonymous as oppressive and anarchic, respectively. According to Tibetan sources, Muslim invaders destroyed Buddhist monasteries in Magadha and -6- killed Buddhist monks. As a result, the Buddhists fled to Arakan and East Bengal as refugees. The Arakanese predecessors fled Magadha in the face of Muslim aggression and took refuge in Arakan. For this reason, their descendants became known as "Mughs" as their successors. The Rakhine state claims they came from the Buddhist land of Magadha. Phayre, who has long served as commissioner in Arakan, has come to the conclusion after extensive and in-depth research that the word Mugh does not exist in the vocabulary of the Mongoloid Arakanese and that they have never referred to themselves as mughs. In Arakan and in the whole of Burma there is no such thing as a Magh. There are a total of 135 officially recognized communities in Burma, of which there is no Magh. So, it is clear from the above discussion that the term “Mugh” is an externally imposed (exonym) i.e. a name imposed by foreigners, not in any way self-imposed (ethnonym). That is to say, the word mugh is being used to refer to a people, it is by no means a name given to that people and there is no such word in their vocabulary. 3. The origin of the marma: The word “Marma” originates from the Burmese word “Myanma”, which means “Burmese Nationals” and is pronounced as “Marma” by the people of the CHT. In other explanation the word “Marma” is derived from the Burmese word “Mraima” which means “Be Strong”. Hence, the predecessors of the Marma tribes were from Burma and as such, they came to be known as “Marma” or “Mraima”. The Marmas were previously known as Moghs or Maghs for centuries because they were called Mogh/Magh by Bengalis for joining hands with Dutch and Portuguese pirates during their invasion in Chittagong. The Marmas considered these names to be pejorative, because it means "pirate”. Some Marmas in the Indian state of Tripura continue to self-identify as Marima, or as Moghs or Maghs, considering these terms to have derived from Magadha, the name of a historic Indian kingdom. Some researchers opine that the Buddhists of Arakan now known as Marmas and Maghs are the same group of people. The Marma people of CHT, however, do not like to identify themselves with Maghs. Maghs were originally pirates and that Marmas, far from being pirates, hated this occupation. -7- So, the term "Marma" is derived from "Myanmar." In the Marma and Arakanese languages, Myanmar is pronounced Mranma, not Myanma. In the Burmese language, the Marma are known as the Marama.The word 'Marma' originates from the Burmese word 'myanma'. 4. Marma Identity in CHT (Choitgong Tongma Marma Lumyo), Bangladesh: Their ethnic designation “Marma” already clearly indicates they have a historical and geopolitical link and cultural closeness to Arakan and Burma/Myanmar, but the precise relationship between the tow remains to be fully investigated. The word “Marm” Like the word “Burma.” can be traced back to the old description “Mranma” which the Burmese used for themselves for centuries. The “Mage”/Mogh is another odd term for Marma mentioned in older sources. The term “Magh” is also believed to have derived from the ancient kingdom of Magadha, the kingdom where the Buddha lived and taught for more than four decades. However, there is no evidence to support such a claim. There are two polemic versions of the ancestral history of the Marma of the CHT. The Bohmang version reveal that the forefathers of the Marma were Talain people of Pegu, while other source reveals that contemporary Marma are rather Arakanese descendants. The Pegu/Bago was once the center of commerce and the capital city of the Mon people. In the Pali Buddhist chronicles of Southeast Asia, the Pegu was formally known as Hanthwady and Ramannadesa, which later became a strong political center of Mons. The “Talain” is derogatory term, which in Mon language, means “bastard” or “downtrodden” and used by Burmese to refer to the Mons. Talain people of Pegu claimed by Bohmang family and the Marma of Bandarban as their ancestors were the prisoners brought to the CHT after the fall of Pegu 1799. The popular belief among the Marmas is they originally came from Arakan from sixteenth century through the eighteenth century. Burmese history tells us that in the later part of the eighteenth century, the Burmese invaded the Arakanese ingdom, as a result of which two thirds of the population of Arakan migrated to the CHT. Burmese history further reveals that there were two waves of migration and relocation of the Arakanese-Marma about the same time one which settled in the Mong circle in the North (e.g. Khagrachri District) and other which moved to the Bohmang circle in the south (e.g. Bandarban district). -8- By 1869, the Marma were divided into rival groups, each group had their main chief locally regarded as Mong (raja) – the king who ironically appears more to be a representative of the Marma society than a leader. The Marma in the South of the Karnafulli River are headed by the Bohmang circle of Bandarban are called Ragrai-sa, those in North are under the Mong circle of Khagrachaari belong to the Palaing-sa. The Marma is also further divided and the terms Khyong-sa and Toungsa are used to refer the people for those who live on the ridges of hills and those of in the riverside. The Marma men wear Longi and women wear thoboing (sheets of soft cotton/silk clotes). Other little-known Marma groups Longdu-sa, Fran-sa, Kyapyai-sa, Kodaing-sa, Weyoi-sa and Maroi-sa, Palai-sa, Khyong-sa and so forth are scattered in Rangamati. Along with history, dress, manners, and cultural attributes that are typical to them, the Marma construct their ethnic identity through distinct language. Their names are similar to that of Arakanese and Burmese. The contemporary Marma communities are divided into eleven clan and groups living in different localities. Each group have their own regional dialect, but their dialects are connected to Arakanese vermacular and written in Burmese/Arakanese characters. Earlier in the Buddhist temples Arakanese language are taught to the Marma children, but it was discontinued since the 1970s. Today, most Marma can’t read and write their language. On this account, the Marma language, both written and spoken, is a great danger of being lost due to disuse and overuse of Bengali language. As a part of assimilation and homogenization of Bangla as national language. The Marma adopted Bangla as the only means of communication and method of education, putting the survival of their own language into danger. Marma, also called Magh, or Mogh, people of the Chittagong Hills region of Bangladesh. The Marma numbered approximately 210,000 in the late 20th century. One group, the Jhumia Marma, have long settled in this southeastern region of Bengal; the other group, the Rakhaing Marma, are recent immigrants, having come from Arakan toward the end of the 16th- 18th century, when their kingdom was conquered by the Burmese. Most of the Marma came under Bengali influence, but in the south of the Chittagong Hills region, where their culture remains comparatively pure, the script and dress are Burmese and the language an Arakanese dialect. Elsewhere the Bengali dress and language prevail. The religion of the Arakanese-speaking Marma is animistic Buddhism. The people are divided into endogamous clans, and in modern times there were still strong traces of a political organization under clan -9- chiefs. In the hills, shifting cultivation was still preferred to plow agriculture in modern times, but the villages, containing from 10 to 50 houses, were invariably built on the banks of streams. The houses were light structures on bamboo piles, and a relic of the communal house for men was sometimes found in the form of a roofed platform built at the end of the village street. The Marma have their own distinctive heritages –identity, culture, religion, language and tradition. Since they made their first settlement in the eighteenth century, religion, ethnic identity, and language have been three major driving forces for their continuity and survival in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The Marma dwell on high mountains and valleys of the CHT. The CHT consists of three hill district; Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrachari sharing the international borders with Tripura and Muzuram state of India to the north and Myanmar to the East. Karnafuli River (Kaisa Khyong) is the most largest and important river in the CHT. Origination from Lusai Hill of Mizoram in India. It runs 270 kilometers through CHT into the Bay of Bengal. The Marma use these teaks, timbers, and bamboos for construction of their houses for exterior/interior manufacture and furniture of home as well as for commercial commodities. Various other ceciduous forest plants, fruit trees, and herbs are used by the Marma as food, medicine, and daily supplies. Scaattered around and along this mountain range dwell a variety of ethnic minority and tribal groups. Historically, the CHT is the traditional home of eleven diverse ethnic groups of indigenous people. They are Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Tangchangya, Mru, Khumi, Lusai, Bowm, Chak, Khyang and Pankhua. The Marma are the second largest ethnic group among these tribal communities who, shince their arrival in the CHT in sixteenth century, have constructed a dynamic cultural and political word of the Marma. The Marmaare radically different from the Bengali majority in language, physical appearance, religion, dress, culture, and social norms. The Marma share a closer ethno-cultural affinity to the Mongolic, Burmese. Myanmar and Combodia and belong to the Tibetu-Bumese Language family. The Marma also differ from tribal groups in terms of language, cultures, and mannerism. The - 10 - Marma consider themselves as one particular group of indigenous people who openly claim their identity as “Marma” and prefer to be perceived/recognized as such by other ethnic groups in the region. The Marma ethnic identity is the notion of a Marma culture as embodied in the language, religion, tradition and other cultural elements considered to be typical Marma trhough the phrase “Marma Lomyo” meaning the Marma nationality, they identify and construct their identity. 5. The original residence of the Marma: The Marma of CHT were migrated from ancient Burma (Myanmar). The original and ancestral land of the Marma tribe was in the ancient Pegu city of Myanmar. The people of Pegu were known as “Talaing or Tai Luang” meaning “Greater Tai”, a branch of the Great Tai race, which, according to some historians, lived in southern and central China as early as 2200 BC.Arakan had firmly established its authority over Chittagong by the middle of the 16th century and retained its control for over a hundred years. The Burmese do not seem to have settled in Arakan until the 10th century. The Arakan king, TsuLa-Taing- Tsandra (951-957 A.D.), invaded Chittagong and defeated the local chieftain (probably a successor of Kanti Deva) in 953 A.D. in memory of this victory, he erected a monument with the words Tsit-ta-gung (there shall be no war) inscribed on it. It is said that this monument had been erected on the south of Kaunia Charra near Kumira. According some historians the modern name of Chittagong is derived from the inscription on this monument. Anawrahta (1044-77 A.D), one of the greatest king of Pagan in Burma, visited the Indian land of Bengal in course of his expedition. Harvey thinks that he visited Chittagong and planted magical image of men there. According Burmese history, the Burmese king Alaungsitha (1112-62 A.D) who was a very powerful monarch visited "the Indian land of Bengal" -- probably Chittagong -where he found the images set up by Anawrahta. According to Rajmala the Tipperah king Mukut Manikya sent some presents to the Arakan king Mengdi in 1395. Presumably, Chittagong was at that time under the control of Arakan king. According to Harvey, Sithabin was on the throne of Arakan in 1395 and Myinhsxinggyi in 1397. In 1406 the Arakan king Meng, Soamwan (Nara Meikhla, 1404-34) was dethrone by the army of Burmese king. He then fled to Gaur and sought the protection of the king there. The Arakan king - 11 - resided at Gaur for 24 years. When army of Ibrahiim Sharqi, king of Jaunpur, invaded Gaur in 818 A.H., (1416 A.D), the refugee king, at the request of Nur Qutbul 'Alam, rendered Raja Ganesa assistance. At last in 1430 A.D. Jalaluddin Mohammad dispatched an army to restore the Arakanese king on the throne. Wli Khan the general, who was sent restore the Arakan king, betrayed his trust. He came to terms with usurper (Shua Mangji) and took possession of Chittagong for himself. Nara Meikhla escaped to Gaur. The Sultan sent a second army who restored the king on the throne after killing Wali Khan. The Arakan king became a tributary to the Sultan of Bengal and undertook to assume a Muslim name and strike coins with Kalima. An increase Bengali Muslim influence is undoubtedly noticeable in Arakanese life from that period. This practice probably was first introduced in fulfilment of the promise made by Meng Soamwan but was continued in later times as a token of sovereignty in Chittagong which was recognised as being geographically beyond the country of the Arakanese race. Though Meng Khari (1434-59), successor of Nara Meikhla, occupied Ramu and Chittagong and shook off the Muslim authority. When Meng Khari occupied Ramu in 1434-35 the Chakmas on the frontier had put up a strong resistance on behalf of Muslims. But as nore-inforcement arrived from Gaur, the Chakmas were compelled to cede some part of Ramu to the Arakan king. The village of Rajakul and Chakmarkul near Ramu commemorate that invasion. However, the Muslims were not long in shaking off the authority of the Arakan kings from Chittagong. In the beginning of sixteenth century there was a triangular fight between Hussain Shah, Tippera King Dhanya Manikya (1463-1515) and the Arakan king Minyaza (1501-23) for the conquest of Chittagong. The Tippera king's army under general Chaychag in which Tippera army captured the fort at Meherkul and advanced upto the capital at Rangamati, (Dr. S.K. Chatterjee 6 thinks Chaychag was a tribal chief). Acording to Rajmal, Dhanya Manikya captured Chittagong in 1513 and extended his domain upto Ramu and Chatrasik in Arakan in 1515. He struck coins to signify his victory in Chittagong. The Tipperah king's general in this campaign was named Rasagaamardan (victory of Arakan). According to Arakanese history, the Arakan king, Min Yaza in 1517-18 sent an invasion to conquer Chittagong in charge general Sendaija who travelled by land with 4000 soldiers. The Arakan prince, Iremong, commanded the navy. The Mughal governor of Chittagong, (Yasin?) fled to Sonargaon. Prince Iremong occupied Sandwip and Hatiya and established his headquarters at - 12 - Lakhipur. The Arakan king visited the newly conquered territory of Chittagong and Dacca in 1517. In 1518 the Chakma king Chanui made submission to the Magh king and sent four ministers with two white elephants. Dharangri, the Magh governor of Chittagong, reported this to the Magh king who was at Dacca. Meantime General Sendaija who was on a visit to Chittagong, examine the gift of elephants and found that these were not really white elephants but ordinary elephants rubbed over with lime. He became annoyed and detained the ministers of the Chakma king. When came to the notice of the Magh king he took his general to task saying that the Chakma king had followed the tradition of making presents of white elephants to the Magh king and should not be punished. The Magh king was pleased to bestow the title, "Kulangphru" to the Chakma king. When the Magh king was returning to Arakan in 1520 he married the daughter of the Chakma king at Chittagong. According to Rajmala, the Tipperaa king Debmanikya occupied Chittagong in 1522 after defeating Maghs. The Arakan king Minbin (153-53), who was a capable ruler, occupied Ramu and Chittagong in 1531 and struck coins in which Chittagong and his Muslim name Zabauk Shah were inscribed. It was during Minbin's time that the Maghi system of land measurement in drones was introduced in Chittagong district. The Maghi calander is still in vogue in Chittagong and was mentioned in documents till recently. It is 35 years behind the Bengali year. Arakan entered the greatest period of her history with the accession of Minbin in 1531. The king of Arakan firmly established their authority in Chittagong during the great part of the sixteenth century. Only for a short period during the reign of Mahmud Shah and Sher Shah in Bengal, Chittagong was in Muslim hands. According to an inscription in a sliver plate found in a Buddhist Kyang (Temple) in Chittagong, the Kyang (Temple) was built in 1542 by Chandilah Raja who was probably Arakanese governor for the Chittagong. According to Arakanese history, Nusrat Khan Son of Hamza Khan, the Pathan governor of Chittagong made submission to the Arakanese king Sawlha (1553-64) and sent him presents, Nusrat Khan had clashes with the Minseyta (1554-71), successor of Sawlha, and was killed by the Portuguese, who were supporting the Arakanese, in 1569-70. Caeser Frederico has also referred to this incident. Ralph Fitch who was in Chittagong in 1585 expressly stated that it was often under the Arakan king. The Mogh entered Udaypur, looted it and camped there for 15 days in 1586 AD when Meng- 13 - Phalaung (1571-93) was the king of Arakan. He held all Chiltagong, and parts of Noakhali and Tippera. His son, Minnala, was the governor of Cbittagong. When the Tipperah king, Amar Manikya, was defeated in 1586, Jalal Khan is said to have died out of fear. Jalal's son, Ibrahim Khan, was the Uzir of Chittagong only in name. The real power was exercised by the Magh governor who was usually the second son of the Magh king. In 1599 the Arakan king, Meng Razagvi (1593-1612) attacked Pegu. During the Arakanese occupation of Chittagong there were forts at Hinguli, Kumira, Garjis and Koterpara (near Hathazari). The Arakan king, Meng Radzagyi, who called himself king of Bengala and Tippera, issued from Chittagong trilingual coins in 1601 in Arabic, Burmese and Devanagri characters with his Burmese and Muslim titles. For a short time during his reign the Arakan dominion extended from Dacca and the Sunderbans upto Moulmein. Under the Mugh kings Chittagong was divided into three principalities e. g. Dianga, Chakrasals and Ramu. Under Arakanese occupation the governor of Chittagong was either a son, brother or faithful kinsman of the Arakan king who was supported by an Arakanese garrison. Every year the king sent a hundred boats full of troops, powder and ball and then the garrison, and boats sent in the previous year returned home to Arakan. Imports, and exports were subject to taxation during, the Arakanese rule in Chittagong. Taxes were also levied on fisheries, salt, dry fish and fruitful trees. The king had a monopoly in minerals, teak wood etc- Fees were realised for granting permission to dig tanks and canals, erect bridges and temples, and make roads. The union of the Portuguese freebooters with the Arakanese ushered the greatest period in Arakanese history (1550-1666) during which Chittagong was mostly in Arakanese hands. Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese settlement at Chittagong was in a flourishing state.The king of Arakan who held it, was favourably disposed towards the Portuguese. According to Ain-i- Akbari (1590) "To the east and south of Bengal is an extensive kingdom called Arakhang. The port of Chittagong belongs to it." Two days after the tide turned, as Carvalho came with relief from Sandwip. He and Mattos got up 50 vessels among which were 2 foists, 4 catures, 3 barques, and the rest being jaleas. With this fleet they set out early in the morning and made surprise attack on enemy's ships with such fury and violence that they were completely routed. They became masters of all the Arakanese ships numbering 149 with all ammunition muskets and other implements of war. Many Arakanese lost - 14 - their lives in this engagement, notably Sinabadi, the uncle of the king of Arakan who was governor of Chittagong. Some escaped by jumping into the sea and swimming across to land. In 1609 dispute arose between the heir apparent of Arakan and his brother Anaporan. The prince actually fought a battle against his brother, who, being defeated, fled to Gonsalves, ruler of Sandwip. Gonsalves promised to succour him and kept his daughter as a hostage. He and Anaporan combining their armies marched against the king of Arakan but as the latter came with an army of 80000 men and 700 fighting elephants, they returned to Sandwip. In the sea fight, however, Gonsalves's brother Antonio captured 100 sails of the enemy with only 5 vessels on his side. Anaporan brought over to Sandwip his wife, children and all his treasure. Gonsalves married Anaporan's daughter. Shortly after Anaporan died and as Gonsalves seized his treasure it was suspected he caused his death. The Portuguese took the son of Anaporan who was 8 years old and a minor daughter to Hughli. In 1614 Meng Soa Pya, son of Nandabayon, king- of Pegu, succeeded Anaporan as governor of Chittagong. In, 1630 for war service against the Mughal he was given the tittle of Bohmong. Raja Maung Saw Pru (also spelt Mong Saw Pru) was a son of King Nanda Bayin (Nanda Bayin, was king of Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1581 to 1599) and grandson of Bayinnaung (Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta was king of the Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1550 to 1581). He was the 1st Governor of the Bohmong Circle (modern-day Bandarban District) from 1599 to 1631 appointed by Arakan king Min Razagyi during the Toungoo dynasty. Maung Saw Pru is the first ruler of Bohmong Htaung (Circle) who was the son of King Nanda Bayin of Pegu and grandson of Bayinnaung. In 1599, Min Razagyi (Min Razagyi was king of Arakan from 1593 to 1612.), the King of Arakan led to the capitulation of Hanshawaddy Kingdom (The Hanthawaddy Kingdom was the Mon kingdom that ruled lower Burma (Myanmar) from 1287 to 1539 and from 1550 to 1552). Nanda Bayin, the King of Pegu was defeated and perished in the war. Daughter of Nanda Bayin, Princess Thien Daw Hnang and minor Prince Maung Saw Prue were taken into Mrauk U Kingdom, the capital of Arakan, as captive along with other booties. Some 3000 families from Pegu followed the scion of their ruler and settled in Arakan. - 15 - The Arakanese King Min Razagyi appointed a Prince of Pegu Maung Saw Pru as the governor of newly established Bohmong Htaung (Circle) by giving the title of "Bohmong" Raja in 1599. Son of the Min Razagyi, King Khamaung (Min Khamaung; was a king of Arakan from 1612 to 1622) of Mrauk U married the Princess Thien Daw Hnang and appointed his brother-in-law Prince Maung Saw Pru as Governor of Chittagong in 1614. The Mong Circle, chiefdom's members are of Marma descent and are known as phalansa. Most inhabitants of the Mong Circle settled in the northwest during a migration wave from the Kingdom of Mrauk U (modern-day Arakan State in Myanmar) between the 16th and 18th centuries, while inhabitants of the other Marma chiefdom, the Bohmong Circle settled in the south and are known as ragraisa. The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was an independent coastal kingdom of Arakan which existed for over 350 years. It was based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The kingdom from 1429 to 1785 ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar and Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. From 1429 to 1531 it was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. After gaining independence from Bengal, it prospered with help from the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its reign continued until the 18th century, when it fell to the invasion of the Burmese Empire. The Mong Circle dates to 1782 with the first chieftain, Mrachai. During British rule, the British authorities designated the Mong Circle in 1871, to encompass an ethnically mixed population in the Feni valley. In 1881, the Chittagong Hill Tracts were administratively divided into three circles, namely the Chakma Circle, the Bohmong Circle, and the Mong Circles, each presided over by a hereditary chief from the Chakma and Marma peoples. The circles were codified into law with the Chittagong Hill Tract Regulations, 1900, eased revenue collection and administrative burdens on British authorities by delegating tax collection, land administration management and social arbitration responsibilities to the chieftains. In 1901, the Mong Circle extended 653 square miles (1,690 km2). This administrative structure remained in place until 1964, when the introduction of local self-government abolished the special status of these circles and brought local administration under the control of the central government. - 16 - 6. Relationship of the Mogh (Marma) people with the rulers of Bengal: 6.1.1. Mogh (Marma) during Sultan rules in Bengal: During the twenty-six years of the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, the Muslim kingdom in Bangladesh expanded enormously. By restoring internal peace and order, Sultan Alauddin Hussain Shah concentrated on expanding the territory. Hussein Shah's military achievements can be divided into five parts: - 1. Sikandar Lodi's Martyrdom Treaty and the capture of North Bihar, II. Kamata-Kamrup and Assam expedition, 3. Orissa expedition, 4. Conflict with Tripura and 5. Conquest of Chittagong. There was a long-running war between Husain Shah and the king of Tripura. The history of the kings of Tripura mentions this conflict in "Rajmala". It is known from Rajmala that Tripura Raja Dhanya-Manikya dominated Chittagong for some time. There is also mention of the occupation of Chittagong by the Arakanese Raj for some time. However, there is ample evidence of the permanent rights of Hussain Shah in Chittagong in contemporary Bengali literature and other sources. So it is believed that the kings of Tripura and Arakan clashed with Hussain Shah over the occupation of Chittagong. Due to the location and commercial situation in Chittagong, these clashes are very normal. However, it can be said without any doubt that the occupation of the kings of Arakan over Chittagong were very short-lived and the rights of the Husain Shahi rulers over Chittagong were intact from 1517 to 1538 AD. Nasrat Shah, son of Husain Shah, and most probably later Paragal Khan Chhuti Khan was the ruler of Chittagong. 6.1.2. Mogh during Afghan rule in Bengal: Sher Khan Sur was the founder of the Afghan rule in Bengal. After the victory in the battle of Tosar, Sher Khan took the title of Sher Shah and declared independence in Bihar. He hastily attacked Gaur and captured the capital of Bengal by killing the Mughal ruler Jahangir Quli and his followers. By dominating Bengal and Bihar, Sher Shah occupied many parts of northern India. Humayun marched with his army to capture him. A battle was fought with Humayun near Sher Shah's Kanauj. Humayun was defeated in the battle of Kanauj (May 17, 1540 AD). As a result of this battle, Sher Shah ascended the throne of Delhi and established the Sur Afghan Empire in northern India by dispersing Humayun. From this Bangladesh again became part of the Delhi Empire. Bangladesh belonged to Sher Shah's empire till Chittagong and Shrihat. Until the reign of Sher Shah's son and successor Islam Shah (1545-53 - 17 - AD) Bangladesh was under Delhi. After the death of Islam Shah, the Afghan Empire was divided in the fierce civil war that broke out among the Afghans over the throne of Delhi. At this time Muhammad Khan Sur, the ruler of Bengal, declared independence and Muhammad Shah took the title of Sur. Meng Bang, the Mugh king of Arakan, captured Chittagong on the occasion of the Afghan Civil War. Muhammad Shah Sur defeated the Maghs and recaptured Chittagong and conquered Arakan. But his rule over Arakan did not last long. 6.1.3. Mogh (Marma) during Mughal rule in Bengal: During the reign of Emperor Akbar, nominal Bangladesh became part of the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule could not be established in this province. Mughal rule was confined to the cities and forts of north-west Bengal. The great zamindars (Land lords) of Bengal did not accept the Mughal rule. They adopted independence in their zamindari (land lord) after the end of Karrani rule. These zamindars (Land Lords) are known as Bar Bhuiyan. Most of the Bar Bhuiyans were Muslims. Emperor Akbar appointed Shahbaz Khan, one of his most famous generals, as the subaddar (Head of Administration) of Bengal in 1583 AD to establish Mughal rule in Bangladesh by suppressing the Bar Bhuiyans. Shahbaz Khan organized a massive campaign against Isa Khan and Masum Kabuli, the leaders of the Bar Bhuiyans. Isa Khan and Masum Kabuli expelled the Mughals from their zamindari. Subadar Sadiq Khan (1585 AD) and Wazir Khan (1586 AD), the successors of Shahbaz Khan, could not benefit from fighting against the zamindars for a long time. In 1608 AD Islam Khan was appointed Subadar. Subaddar Islam Khan (1608-1613 AD) suppressed the Bar Bhuiyans and established Mughal rule in the province. After the death of Subaddar Islam Khan, his younger brother Qasim Khan was appointed Subadar of Bengal (1613 AD). In 1616, Meng Beng, king of Arakan, joined the Portuguese pirates and attacked Bhuluya. Qasim Khan marched against them with a large navy. In the meantime, there was a rift between Meng Bang and his Firingi allies. On this occasion the Mughal army attacked the Arakanese forces and drove them out of Bhuluya. Kashim Khan tried to conquer Chittagong. His expedition to Chittagong failed. Emperor Jahangir appointed Ibrahim Khan Fateh Jung as subaddar of Bengal in 1617 AD in place of Qasim Khan. Ibrahim Khan was the brother of Empress Nurjahan Begum. Emperor Jahangir instructed him to take possession of this neighboring kingdom. In 1618 AD, Ibrahim Khan under Mirza Isfandiar and Mirza Nuruddin sent expeditions to the state of Tripura by land and water. The - 18 - Mughal forces advanced towards Udaipur, the capital of Tripura, via Meherpur and Comilla. King Yasomanikya resists them, but he suffers many losses in battle. He took refuge in Udaipur. Mughal forces attacked Udaipur and captured it. Yasomanikya fled to Arakan. At this time King Meng Khamang of Arakan was seizing the Sandhip from the Firingis and plundering the land on the banks of the Meghna River. Ibrahim Khan marched with a strong fleet to punish the Maghs of Arakan and drove them out of the Meghna. A few months later he organized an expedition from Tripura to Arakan. Leaving the fleet on the Feni iver, he proceeded towards Chittagong by land. On the way to the dense jungle his soldiers suffered great hardships and an epidemic broke out among them. Due to this the Arakan expedition was stopped. After the accession of Emperor Shahjahan to the throne, Fidai Khan was replaced by Kashim Khan Juniy as Subaddar of Bengal (04 February 1628). After Kashim Khan Jr., Azam Khan was the subaddar of Bengal for three years. After this Islam Khan Mashadi (1635-39 AD) was appointed Subadar. King Thudhamma of Arakan died during the reign of Subaddar Islam Khan Mashadi (1638 AD). King Thudhamma's son and his successor were killed and an official took over the throne. Thudhamma's brother and the ruler of Chittagong, Mangatara, fought against the usurper of the throne. Defeated in Mangatara, he fled and took refuge with the people in Jahangirnagar. The Mograja entered the Meghna River with a large navy and plundered the coastal areas. The Subadar advanced with a strong fleet to intercept the Maghs. Frightened, the king returned to his kingdom. For the several times the rulers of Bengal tried to occupy Chittagong by attacking the Mugh kings, the rulers of greater Chittagong, in order to extend their territory. Because then Chittagong was under Arakan state and was ruled by Mugh king. 6.1.4. Mogh/Marma during Arakan rule in Chittagong (1550--1666 A.D): Arakan entered the greatest period of her history with the accession of Minbin in 1531. The king of Arakan firmly established their authority in Chittagong during the great part of the sixteenth century. Only for a short period during the reign of Mahmud Shah and Sher Shah in Bengal, Chittagong was in Muslim hands. According to an inscription in a sliver plate found in a Buddhist Kyang (Temple) in Chittagong, the Kyang (Temple) was built in 1542 by Chandilah Raja who was probably Arakanese governor for the Chittagong. - 19 - Minseyta (1554-71): According to Arakanese history, Nusrat Khan Son of Hamza Khan, the Pathan governor of Chittagong made submission to the Arakanese king Sawlha (1553-64) and sent him presents, Nusrat Khan had clashes with the Minseyta (1554-71), successor of Sawlha, and was killed by the Portuguese, who were supporting the Arakanese, in 1569-70. Caeser Frederico has also referred to this incident. Ralph Fitch who was in Chittagong in 1585 expressly stated that it was often under the Arakan king. Meng-Phalaung (1571-93): The Maghs entered Udaypur, looted it and camped there for 15 days in 1586 AD when Meng-Phalaung (1571-93) was the king of Arakan. He held all Chiltagong, and parts of Noakhali and Tippera. His son, Minnala, was the governor of Cbittagong. When the Tipperah king, Amar Manikya, was defeated in 1586, Jalal Khan is said to have died out of fear. Jalal's son, Ibrahim Khan, was the Uzir of Chittagong only in name. The real power was exercised by the Magh governor who was usually the second son of the Magh king. Meng Razagvi (1593-1612): In 1599 the Arakan king, Meng Razagvi (1593-1612) attacked Pegu. During the Arakanese occupation of Chittagong there were forts at Hinguli, Kumira, Garjis and Koterpara (near Hathazari). The Arakan king, Meng Radzagyi, who called himself king of Bengala and Tippera, issued from Chittagong trilingual coins in 1601 in Arabic, Burmese and Devanagri characters with his Burmese and Muslim titles. For a short time during his reign the Arakan dominion extended from Dacca and the Sunderbans upto Moulmein. Under the Mugh kings Chittagong was divided into three principalities e. g. Dianga, Chakrasals and Ramu. Under Arakanese occupation the governor of Chittagong was either a son, brother or faithful kinsman of the Arakan king who was supported by an Arakanese garrison. Every year the king sent a hundred boats full of troops, powder and ball and then the garrison, and boats sent in the previous year returned home to Arakan. Imports, and exports were subject to taxation during, the Arakanese rule in Chittagong. Taxes were also levied on fisheries, salt, dry fish and fruitful trees. The king had a monopoly in minerals, teak wood etc- Fees were realised for granting permission to dig tanks and canals, erect bridges and temples, and make roads. The union of the Portuguese freebooters with the Arakanese ushered the greatest period in Arakanese history (1550-1666) during which Chittagong was mostly in Arakanese hands. Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese settlement at Chittagong was in a - 20 - flourishing state.The king of Arakan who held it, was favourably disposed towards the Portuguese. According to Ain-i- Akbari (1590) "To the east and south of Bengal is an extensive kingdom called Arakhang. The port of Chittagong belongs to it." Two days after the tide turned, as Carvalho came with relief from Sandwip. He and Mattos got up 50 vessels among which were 2 foists, 4 catures, 3 barques, and the rest being jaleas. With this fleet they set out early in the morning and made surprise attack on enemy's ships with such fury and violence that they were completely routed. They became masters of all the Arakanese ships numbering 149 with all ammunition muskets and other implements of war. Many Arakanese lost their lives in this engagement, notably Sinabadi, the uncle of the king of Arakan who was governor of Chittagong. Some escaped by jumping into the sea and swimming across to land. Meng Soa Pya (1614): In 1609 dispute arose between the heir apparent of Arakan and his brother Anaporan. The prince actually fought a battle against his brother, who, being defeated, fled to Gonsalves, ruler of Sandwip. Gonsalves promised to succour him and kept his daughter as a hostage. He and Anaporan combining their armies marched against the king of Arakan but as the latter came with an army of 80000 men and 700 fighting elephants, they returned to Sandwip. In the sea fight, however, Gonsalves's brother Antonio captured 100 sails of the enemy with only 5 vessels on his side. Anaporan brought over to Sandwip his wife, children and all his treasure. Gonsalves married Anaporan's daughter. Shortly after Anaporan died and as Gonsalves seized his treasure it was suspected he caused his death. The Portuguese took the son of Anaporan who was 8 years old and a minor daughter to Hughli. In 1614 Meng Soa Pya, son of Nandabayon, king- of Pegu, succeeded Anaporan as governor of Chittagong. In, 1630 for war service against the Mughal he was given the tittle of Bohmong. The Mughals since the death, of Daud Khan in 1575 were in possession of Bengal and had over thrown the Bhuiyans by 1612. They were now planning the conquest of Bhulua. As this place was close to Sandwip, Gonsalves and the king of Arakan, thinking that the Mughals would be a danger to their kingdoms, forgot their enmity and entered, into a mutual agreement to combat them. They planned in 1614 to invade. Bengal the Portuguese in a fleet by sea, and the king of Arakan, Meng Khamaung, with an army by land. The king of Arakan entrusted the whole of his fleet to Gonsalves keeping his nephew as hostage. During these negotiations Gonsalves gave back the widow of Anaporan who afterwards married the governor of Chittagong. The king of Arakan and the - 21 - Portuguese attacked in. 1614-15 the Mughals and drove them out of the principality of Bhulua and took Lakhipur, while Gonsalves barred their advance from the sea. In 1616 Quasim Khan, Subhadar of Bengal, launched an offensive against the Raja of Arakan with Chittagong as first objective. He himself advanced to Bhulua (February, 1616), whence he despatched Abdun Nabi with a force of 5000 cavalry, 5000 musketeers, 200 war elephants and a fleet of 1000 war boats towards Chittagong. The Arakan king, Meng Khamaung (Hussein Shah ) decided to check their advance by making a fort at Katghar, a strategic point about 20 miles north west of Chittagong( a village 2 miles south of Barabakunda ). He sent his chief officer Karamgiri with a force of 100,000 infantry besides 400 elephants and 1000 war boats to complete the fort and bold it. He personally started from his capital for the defence of his stronghold of Chittagong with an army of 300,000 infantry and 10,000 calalry, besides a large number of elephants and war boats. Informed by spies that the new fort was not yet complete and that the garrison in the fort of Chittagong was also very small as the Arakan king had not yet reached with his force, Abd-unNabi hastened to Katghar leaving behind Sarbad Khan and Shaik Kamal to make a fort and hold it for the purpose of keeping up communication and food supply to the invading army, and delivered a vigorous assault on the unfinished fort in the early hours of the morning. The Arakanese were taken by surprise and though they greeted the Mughals with a .heavy shower of shells, bullets, arrows, bombs and stones the latter quickly overcame the resistance and pressed the garrison,so hard that the fall of the fort seemed imminent. At this stage, the Mughal commander, owing to his want of experience and judgment, was easily induced by some of his officers to suspend hostilities for the day, and this single mistake turned the tide of the whole campaign. When the attack was resumed next morning, the situation had entirely changed. The garrison bad recovered from the shock of the sudden assault and offered such a determined resistance that the idea of storming the fort bad to be abandoned, and a siege decided on. But the siege operations dragged on and the besiegers themselves were soon reduced to the position of the besieged as a result of the activity of the commandant of the enemy fort. At the threat to the food supply of the main army, the Mughal commander raised the siege and retreated towards Dacca, leaving behind his heavy artillery and destroying about 500 mds. of gun powder (May, 1616). The Imperial army had halted at Nizampur which had been in possession of the Arakanese. The local zaminder (Land lord) surrendered to the Mughal commander. But after the departure of the Mughal army, the - 22 - pargana with a revenue of Rs. 600/- was re-occupied by the Mughs. In March, 1621 Ibrstnm Khan launched his long deferred Arakan campaign with Cbittagong as his objective from his new base at Tipperah. The route was more direct no doubt but it lay through a hilly region clad with dense forests, with a bad climate, and involving considerable difficulties in regard to transport and food supply, Ibrahim Khan was ill-advised to adopt this new route and the expedition failed, primarily because of his initial mistake in regard to the choice of the route. Leaving the fleet in the big Feni river, the viceroy proceeded with the land army slowly along the new route to Chittagong, clearing the forest as be passed by. In some places the forest was so thick that even the horses and the elephants could not move without great difficulty. The scarcity of food and pestilence in his camp forced Ibrahim Khan to withdraw with the ranks much depleted and the morale of the army much shaken. In 1625 the twelve chiefs who ruled Chittagong on behalf of the Magh governor rebelled at the instigation of the Mugbal viceroy. Thiri Thudamma marched with his army, the navy following him, and crushed the rebellion. He raided Bhulua during this campaign.10 He then proceeded unopposed to Khizirpur along the Dulai to the out-skirts of Dacca, defeated the Mughal officers who had at last come out to face them, entered the city and sacked it and retired with a large booty and a number of captives. At this time Mahabat Khan was the governor of Bengal but the administration of Bengal was in charge of Khanzad Khan, son of Mahabat Khan, a lazy, pleasure-see king youth. This was the last raid by Mughs during the reign of Jahangir. Though Mirza Bagis, the Bhulna tbanadar had been11 supplied with 700 cavalry and 300 war boats he could not check the Arakan force. During the Arakan occupation Chittagong there was close contact between the peoples of Chittagong and Arakan. A large number of Muslim noblemen who had left Gaur after its fall had gone to Arakan and settled in the capital. They were the chief courtiers of the Arakan king whose court followed Muslim manners and customs. The Muslim courtiers of the Arakan king were great patrons of Bengali literature. Poets like Daulat Qadi and Alawal flourished at Arakan during this period and received patronage from Syed Musa, Magan Thakur and others. Magan Thakur, who practically exercised the powers of a chief minister, was himself a poet. Thiri Thudamma (1622-38): Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) had rebelled against his father and occupied Dacca after killing Ibrahim Khan, the subahdar in 1624. At this time Thiri Thudamma (1622-38) sent his envoy to Dacca with rare gifts worth rupees one lac as peshkash. The Arakan - 23 - raja through his envoy swore loyalty to the prince. The prince sent a valuable dress of honour with many precious gifts to the Arakan king and issued a Farman confirming the sovereignty of his territory which then included Chittagong. An event occurred in 1638 which gave an additional impetus to the game of piracy in its most frightful form. Mangat Ray or Mukut Ray, governor of Chittagong, rebelled against the king of Arakan. After an unsuccessful attempt to raid Arakan he fled to Bengal for safety along with his leading partisans. He marched towards Bhulua and wrote to the Imperial thanadar of the frontier post of Jugdia for protection from the pursuing Magh fleet. By Islam Khan's command the thanadar of Jugdia drove away by gun fire 200 Magh jalias which were obstructing Mangat Rai and ferried him over the Feni River into Mughal territory. Taking advantage of the confusion of civil war in Chittagong over 10,000 people of Bengal who were held in slavery there by the Feringhis escaped to their home land. The Feringhi settlers and pirates of Chittagong who had backed Mangat Rai in his abortive rising, now abandoned that city in fear of the Magh king's vengeance. Most of them migrated to the Portuguese possessions and a few came over to the Mughals with their families and boats. In course of time most of the latter embraced Islam and became merged in the local population. Shaista Khan conquered Chittagong: Mangat Rgi's family and supporters with 14 elephants and nearly 9000 men (both Arakanese and Tailang) reached Dacca and were welcomed and provided for by the Subahdar. To revenge on the Bengal kingdom, the king of Arakan made friends with the Portuguese adventurers, took them into his service, paid those high salaries and settled them in Dianga. With their help he built vessels large enough, to carry cannons. Thus equipped he began ravaging and laying waste the Mughal territory and launched a naval attack which was repulsed by Islam Khan.12 These cruel practices of the Arakanese and the Portuguese to which the people of Bengal were subjected continued till 1666 when Shaista Khan conquered Chittagong and broke their power for ever. When the luckless prince Shah Shuja was defeated by Mir Jumla, he proceeded from Chittagong by road to Arakan for shelter. On his way to Arakan he is said to have visited Govinda Manikya, the exiled king of Tripura in Chittagong Hill Tracts. Govinda Manikya gave him a warm reception and helped him as far as he could in the circumstances, Shnja was so pleased with the reception - 24 - that he presented Govinda Msnikya with a diamond ring and a Neemcha sword as token of gratitude. There is a mosque called after Shaja in Comilla. According to tradition Shuja conquered Coniilla and built this mosque as memento of his conquest. It is said that the village Shuja-nagar in Tipperah contained the property given in waqf for the maintenance of this mosque. The place in Cox's Bazar subdivision where Shuja had said his Eidul Fitr prayers in 1660 during his ill-fated journey is known as Idgaown. The high road from Daudkandi in Tipperah district to Arakan through Chittagong is still known as Shah Shuja's Road. Presumably, it was built during Shah Shuja's viceroyalty in Bengal. There are a number of mosques on the side of the road from Daudkandi to Comilla which are said to have been built by the camp followers of Shah Shuja. Shah Shuja requested the king of Arakan to give him shelter and provide ships so that he could go to Mecca. Sandathudamma (1652-84): The king Sandathudamma (1652-84) consented and Shuja with his family and followers were brought to Mrouhaung, the capital city of Arakan, in Portuguese gelasses from Teknaf. He arrived at Mrohaung on 26th August, 1660 and was favourably received by the king who assigned him a residence near the city. Shuja kept aloof from the king repelled by his table manners. The Arakanese had never seen the like of his treasure, six or eight camel loads of gold and jewels; moreover the Mughals offered large sums for his extradition. Eight months went by, yet the king never provided the ships he had promised. Finally he asked for Shuja's eldest daughter, and .Shuja, a blue-blooded Mughal of the Imperial house, felt that his cup of bitterness was full. He was helpless and could not get away. Shah Shuja, realising his peril, made a desperate attempt to escape from the country. But his plans miscarried, and when the populace got upon his followers the latter ran amok and set fire to a large part of the city before they were rounded up and massacred. It was given out that Shah .Shuja had attempted to seize the place. The king, it was said, had been dissuaded by his mother from having him killed. She argued that killing princes was a dangerous sport for which his own subjects might acquire a taste. But on 7-2-1661 Shah Shuja's residence was attacked and there was another massacre. Shah Shuja was never seen again. It was rumoured that he had fled to the .hills with his sons but had been caught and put to death. The chief of the Dutch factory at Mrohang reported (the prince Shah Shuja is believed, though with no certainty, to .have perished in the first fury, but his body was made unrecognisable by the grandees in order the better to be able to deck their persons with the costly jewels he wore. His three sons, together with his wives and daughters, have been taken ; the wives and daughters have - 25 - been brought to the King's palace and the sons after being imprisoned for some time, have been released and permitted to live in a little house. Every day the .gold and silver which the Arakanese have taken, are brought into the King's treasury to be melted down.') As soon as Mir Jumla heard through the Dutch factory at Dacca of Shah Shuja's murder he commanded a Dutch ship to carry an envoy to Mrohaung with a peremptory demand for the surrender of Shah Shuja's children. It was refused and the king protested to Batavia against the use of Dutch ship by a Mughal envoy. In July 1663 a desperate attempt to rescue the three captive princes failed. Thereupon the king burnt his boats 'by having them beheaded and slaughtering a large number of Bengalees and Moslems at the capital. A mournful ballad about the tragic life of the daughter of Shuja is current in Chitta-gong and Arakan and has been collected in East Bengal Ballads published by the Calcutta University. 7. The expulsion of the Mogh (Marma) from Chittagong: The expulsion of the Mogh from Bangladesh and the conquest of Chittagong was a particularly memorable and meritorious deed of Shaista Khan's subadari. Chittagong was ruled by the Arakanese king. In 1617, the Arakanese king seized the Sandhip from the Portuguese. As a result, it was very convenient for the Mugh/Mogh pirates to plunder the Meghna region up to Dhaka. Mogh/Mugh and Firingi pirates used to come together and cause havoc in this area. The Portuguese and Firingi pirates were called Harmads. These pirates captured men and women and sold them as slaves to European merchants. European merchants sent them to different countries as commodities. The Moghs took many to Arakan and employed men as laborers and kept girls as slaves. Subedar Shaista Khan felt the urgent need to take measures to protect the lives and property of the people from the intrusion of the Mogh and Firingi pirates. To repel them, he built many warships and collected warships from different places. In this way he equipped 300 warships and prepared for the campaign against the pirates. His mission was to conquer Sandhip and Chittagong. Shortly before the expedition, a fugitive naval chief of the Mughal navy named Dilayar snatched Sandhip from the Arakanese and established his dominance there. Ibn Husain, the Mughal naval commander, attacked Sandhip with his navy and defeated and captured Dilayar and captured Sandhip (November 1665 AD). At this time a dispute arose between the Mogh rulers of Chittagong - 26 - and the Portuguese and the Mughal officials of Noakhali took advantage of this. The Firingis of Chittagong took refuge in Noakhali in 42 fishing boats with their families and treasures. Subedar Shaista Khan sent an expedition from Dhaka to conquer Chittagong on 24 December 1665 AD. Buzurg Umed Khan, the eldest son of Subadar, was appointed chief of the expedition. Ibn Husayn, the commander of the navy, set sail for the river with 288 warships. The Firingis joined him with 40 warships. Buzurg Umed's army advanced from Noakhali and Ibn Husain's navy marched towards Chittagong from the coast of Bahia. On 14 January the Mughal troops crossed the Feni River and entered the Chittagong area. When the Mughal fleet left Comilla and approached the Kathalia canal, it was stopped by the Mogh navy. On 23th and 24th January 1666 AD, a naval battle was fought between the two sides near Kathalia canal. The Mogh naval fleet suffered heavy losses in this battle and it fell into the Karnafuli River. The Mogh navy was ready to resist the Mughals on the Karnafuli River. Ibn Husayn's navy entered the Karnafuli River and attacked the Maghs. Several ships of the Arakanese sank in the Mughal shelling. They were completely defeated and 135 of their warships were captured by the Mughals. The victorious Mughal naval commander besieged the port of Chittagong by river. At this time the army of Buzurg Umed was near Chittagong. One day after the battle, the Mogh army became helpless and surrendered to Ibn Husain. On 26 January 1666 AD, the victorious Mughal general Buzurg Umed entered the Chittagong fort. 2000 Moghs were captured by the Mughals. The Mogh pirates captured thousands of Bengali peasants and enslaved them, but they were released after the Mughal conquest of Chittagong. Chittagong became part of the Mughal Empire and its rule was vested in a faujdar. By the order of the emperor, the name of Chittagong was changed to Islamabad. After the occupation of the Chittagong region of the Arakan state by the ruler of Bengal, most of the Arakanese Maghs/Marmas settled in the Chittagong Hill Tracts along with the Magh / Marma and other ethnic groups. As Greater Chittagong was formerly part of the Arakan Empire, the Arakanese Maghs settled in Bandarban, Rangamati and various parts of Khagrachhari district and Rangunia, Satkania and Eidgaon in Chittagong district and the Rakhine settled in Cox's Bazar, Maheshkhali, Ukhia and Teknaf. Mugs / Marmas stay permanently in these places. The Mughs/Marmas lived in the river valleys like Sangu River, Karnafuli River, Matamuhri River and Zum farmers lived in the hills. - 27 - In 1760 AD, Chittagong district was transferred to East India Company. In 1781 AD, The Chittagong Hill Tracts were blocked or economically isolated. Thus the war lasted for about 10 years. Finally tired, the government of the company made a treaty with the Chakma king in 16 AD. In that treaty the internal independence of the king of the Chittagong Hill Tracts was recognized. The year 1937-48 is very important in the history of political evolution of the Indian subcontinent. Towards the end of this period, the British government decided to hand over power, which resulted in the creation of two independent and sovereign states, India and Pakistan. Pakistan became independence on 14 August 1947. The state of Pakistan was born on 14 August 1947 on the basis of biracialism. Bangladesh became independence on 16 December 1971. 8. Pegu from where the Marma of Bomaong Circle arrived (Bohmaong Hthong): Pegu, Burmese Bago (Bago formerly spelt Pegu) formerly known as Hanthawaddy is a city and the capital of the Bago Region in Myanmar. The pegu city, on the Pegu River, 47 miles (76 km) northeast of Yangon (Rangoon). Pegu was the capital of the Mon kingdom and is surrounded by the ruins of its old wall and moat, which formed a square, with 1.5-mile (2.4-kilometre) sides. On the Yangon–Mandalay railway, it is the start of a branch line southeast along the Gulf of Martaban, an inlet of the Bay of Bengal, and has extensive road links in all directions. In 1369, King Binnya U made Bago the capital. The city remained the capital until the kingdom's fall in 1538. During the reign of King Razadarit, Bago and Ava Kingdom were engaged in the Forty Years' War. The peaceful reign of Queen Shin Sawbu came to an end when she chose the Buddhist monk Dhammazedi (1471–1492) to succeed her. Under Dhammazedi, Bago became a centre of commerce and Theravada Buddhism. In 1519, António Correia, then a merchant from the Portuguese casados settlement at Cochin landed in Bago, then known to the Portuguese as Pegu, looking for new markets for pepper from Cochin. A year later, Portuguese India Governor Diogo Lopes de Sequeira sent an ambassador to Pegu. The Portuguese conquest of Pegu, following the destruction caused by the kings of Tangot and Arrakan in 1599. - 28 - The capital was looted by the viceroy of Toungoo, Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo, and then burned by the viceroy of Arakin during the Burmese–Siamese War (1594–1605). Anaukpetlun wanted to rebuild Hangsawadi, which had been deserted since Nanda Bayin had abandoned it. He was only able to build a temporary palace, however. The Burmese capital relocated to Ava in 1634. In 1740, the Mon revolted and founded the Restored Hansawaddy Kingdom. However, a Bamar king, Alaungpaya, captured the city in May 1757. Bago was rebuilt by King Bodawpaya (r. 1782-1819), but by then the river had shifted course, cutting the city off from the sea. It never regained its previous importance. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War, the British annexed Bago in 1852. In 1862, the province of British Burma was formed, and the capital moved to Yangon. The substantial differences between the colloquial and literary pronunciations, as with Burmese words, was a reason of the British corruption "Pegu". 9. The Mrauk-U Where from the Marma of Mong Circle (Palai Mang Hthong): The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was an independent coastal kingdom of Arakan which existed for over 350 years. It was based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The kingdom from 1429 to 1785 ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar and Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. From 1429 to 1531 it was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. After gaining independence from Bengal, it prospered with help from the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its reign continued until the 18th century, when it fell to the invasion of the Burmese Empire. It was home to a multiethnic population with the city of Mrauk U being home to mosques, temples, shrines, seminaries and libraries. The kingdom was also a center of piracy and the slave trade. It was frequented by Arab, Danish, Dutch and Portuguese traders. 10. About Arakane from where the Marma arrived: Arakan, coastal geographic region in southern Myanmar (Burma). It comprises a long, narrow strip of land along the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal and stretches from the Nāf estuary on the border of the Chittagong Hills area (in Bangladesh) in the north to the Gwa River in the south. The Arakan region is about 400 miles (640 km) long from north to south and is about 90 miles (145 km) wide at its broadest. The Arakan Yoma, a range that forms the eastern boundary of the region, - 29 - to some extent isolates it from the rest of southern Myanmar. The coast has several sizable offshore islands, including Cheduba and Ramree. The region’s principal rivers are the Nāf estuary and the Mayu, Kaladan, and Lemro rivers. Only one-tenth of Arakan’s generally hilly land is cultivated. Rice is the dominant crop in the delta areas, where most of the population is concentrated. Other crops include fruits, chilies, dhani (thatch), and tobacco. The natural hillside vegetation of evergreen forest has been destroyed over wide areas by shifting cultivation (slashing and burning to clear land for cultivation) and has been replaced by a useless tangle of bamboo. The main towns are coastal and include Sittwe (Akyab), Sandoway, Kyaukpyu, and Taungup. Long accessible only by sea, the Arakan region is now linked by air and road with the rest of the country. An all-weather road running through a pass in the Arakan Yoma connects Taungup with Pyè on the Irrawaddy River. Arakanese, also called Rakhine, ethnic group centred in the Arakan coastal region of Myanmar (Burma), in the state of Rakhine. Most Arakanese speak an unusual variety of the Burmese language that includes significant differences from Burmese pronunciation and vocabulary. An independent Arakanese kingdom was probably established as early as the 4th century CE and was led at various times by Muslim as well as Buddhist rulers. Modern Arakanese continue to follow distinctive traditions and to celebrate this part of their history. The huge Mahamuni statue (now in Mandalay) is considered by Buddhist Arakanese to be their national image and is alleged to predate the Burmese kingdom centred at Pagan (1044–1287 CE) by a millennium. Eventually the Mongols, and later the Portuguese, invaded Arakan. In 1785 Burmese forces conquered the Arakanese kingdom and carried the Mahamuni statue off to Mandalay. The Arakan region was ceded to the British in 1826 through the Treaty of Yandabo. When Myanmar became independent from British rule in 1948, the province in which the Arakanese are dominant was named Arakan. This name was changed to Rakhine in the 1990s. 11. Situation of Marma in Bangladesh: The Marma people are the second-largest ethnic community in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts, primarily residing in the Bandarban, Khagrachari and Rangamati Hill Districts. Some - 30 - Marma lives in Bangladesh coastal districts of Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali, while others live in State of Tripura, India and Myanmar. There are over 210,000 Marmas living in Bangladesh. Since the 16th century, the Marma have considered the Chittagong Hill Tracts their home, where they have established the Bohmong and Mong Circles (Circle chief). Marma inhabited areas in Bangladesh are - in Bandraban district - Sadar, Roangchhari, Ruma, Thanchi, Lama, Alikadam and Naikhyangchhari. In Khagrachhari Sadar, Ramgarh, Laxichhari, Manikchhari, Guimara, Matiranga and Panchhari upazilas. In Rangamati district, Marmas live in Sadar, Kaptai, Kaukhali, Rajsthali, Bilaichhari and a very small number of Naniachar upazilas. Rangunia and Fatikchhari upazilas of Chittagong district and Baraghona in Barisal district In cox’s Bazar and Patuakhali mostly are Rakhain. There are about 35 smaller groups of Indigenous communities in Bangladesh covering about two percent of the total population have been living in different pockets of the hilly zones and some plain lands of the country. On the other hand according to the Bangladesh Adivasi Forum, there are 45 ethnic groups with approximately 2.5 million living side by side with the Bengali majority people. According to the government statistics the total number of Adivasi is 12,05,978 which is only 1.03 percent of the total population. They areChakma, Marma, Tripura, Tanchanga, Bawm, Chak, Khyang, Khumi, Lushai, Mro. Pangkhoa, and Rakhain, in Chttagong Hill Tracts regions. Bhuimale, Lahra, Mahali, Monda, Noonia, Oraro, Pahan, Palia, Rabidas, Raybansi, Ranjoarh, Rana KIarmaker, Santal, in the North Bengal Region and Been, Bhumig, Boraj, Barman, Dalu, Garo, Hajongn, Haleam, Kharia, Khari, Koch,Konda, Kurmi, Manipuri, Nayek, Pangan, Patra, Shabar in the Mymensingh and Sylhet . The primary census report of 2011 gives the number of ethnic population groups of Bangladesh. Although the Marma tribe of Bangladesh has been somewhat influenced by modern living in that they use make use of aluminum cookware and glass or china crockery in place of their traditional pottery, bamboo and wood utensils, they still follow many of the traditional ways of life. Their bamboo, straw and wild grass houses are built on wooden or bamboo platforms raised above the ground. The space below the floor is used for storage, or as shelter for livestock. Their clothing typically consists of a sarong for both men and women, with women wearing a blouse and men - 31 - wearing a type of waistcoat. Traditionally, fabric is woven on handlooms and clothing is generally handmade. However, it is reportedly becoming more common to see Marmas wearing ready-made clothing bought from the local market. Marma communities consist of nuclear families, with the husband as head of the household. Family and community ties going back through generations are respected, and both sons and daughters can inherit their parent’s property, although not necessarily equally. With rice and vegetables as their staple food, Marmas are subsistence farmers, and are skilled at basketry and weaving. The traditional three-tier system of political administration continues among the Marmas, with a Raja as the chief, a headman below the Raja and village level authority resting with a karbari. These authoritative figures are entrusted with resolving disputes and maintaining law and order among those under their jurisdiction, continuing a long-held tradition of the Marma Tribe of Bangladesh. 12. Homeland of Marma: The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in the southeastern part of Bangladesh comprises a total area of 5,093 sq. miles (13,189 sq. km.) encompassing three hill districts: Rangamati, Khagrachari and Bandarban. It shares borders with Myanmar on the south and southeast, India on the north and northeast, and the Chittagong district of Bangladesh on the west. It is different in georgaphical features, agricultural practices, and soil conditions from the rest of the country due to its mountainous landscape. CHT is located between 21°-40′ degrees and 23°-47′ degrees north latitude and 91°-40′ degrees and 92°-42′ degrees east longitude. It is a unique territory with marked socio-economic and cultural differences from the rest of Bangladesh. - 32 - 13. The Chittagong Hill Tracts into three Circles Chiefs: In Bandarban, Rangamati and Khagrachari of the Chittagong Hill Tracts there is still a king system. For hundreds of years, the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts have been following the orders of the three kings. But the kings do not have much power now. They have no choice but to issue permanent resident certificates, collect taxes, and do some social justice. But the three kings have a long history. Although they call themselves kings in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, according to the law, their real position is 'Circle Chief'. The term was created during the British rule in accordance with the Chittagong Hilltracks Regulation 1900 Act or the Chittagong Hilltracks Manual. Being a remote hilly area, they divided the Chittagong Hill Tracts into three circles or areas for the purpose of collecting rent and suppressing the Chakma rebellion. In 1860, the British government divided the Chittagong Hill Tracts into three circles, Chakma, Bomang and Mong. Bomang Circle is located in Bandarban, Chakma Circle in Rangamati and Mong Circle in Khagrachari. From then on the circle system was introduced. According to the rules of the Chakma and Mong circles, the eldest son of the royal family was anointed as the king in the lineage, but in the Bomang circle of Bandarban, the eldest member of the dynasty became the king. Barrister Debashish Roy is currently serving as the Chakma Raja in Rangamati, KS Pru is serving as the Raja of Bandarban Bomang Circle and Saching Pru Chowdhury is serving as the Mong Raja in Khagrachari. It is learned that Debashish Roy was arrested on November 25, 1987 in Rangamati It is learned that Debashish Roy officially took over as the king on November 25, 1977 in Rangamati. He is the 51st king of the Chakma circle. After the death of 16 Bomang Raja KS Pru, his successor Uch Pru was appointed as Bomang Raja by the government on 24 April 2013. He has been in charge since then. Prior to that, he served as a Civil Engineer in various organizations. Saching Pru, the current king of the Mong Circle in Khagrachari. When Raja Paiha Pru Chowdhury died in a road accident last year, Saching Pru was appointed king. He is the 9th king of the Mong circle. Meanwhile, there are 178 mouzas in Chakma circle, 97 in Bomang circle and 100 in Mong circle. The headmen act as the head of each mouza. In each neighborhood there is a trader as the king's representative. The king appoints headmen and merchants. And the headman and the traders 32 collect taxes including maintaining law and order in the area. Meanwhile, every year during the winter, three kings organize Rajpunyah. At this time the tenants paid rent for their land. A royal ceremony was organized on the occasion. However, in Rangamati and Khagrachari there is not much circulation of Rajpunyah. But in Bandarban Rajpunyah is held at a certain time every year. And 42 per cent of the rent collected in Rajpunya is deposited in the king's treasury, 37 per cent in the headman and 21 per cent in the government treasury. The kings were very powerful during the British rule. The rights of the kings have been curtailed at different times since the time of Pakistan. Since independence, their power has been declining. Meanwhile, the kings still get only 5 thousand rupees. And Headman 500 and Karbari 300 rupees. There is anger among the king, headman and traders about this. Bomang Raja said, "Even if we are kings, we do not get any benefits." 14. The king of Marma (Chief of the Bohmang Circle and Mong Circle): 14.1.1. The custom of being king of Bohmang; Other dynasties have the policy of anointing a prince. But not the prince in the Bomang dynasty, the oldest member of the dynasty inherits the throne of the Bomang dynasty. The tradition of having the oldest member Rajapada from the sixth Bomang king was introduced. 14.1.2. The custom of being king of Mong; The Mong Circle is the name of the traditional government body in the administrative district of Khagrachari in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Headed by the Mong Chief, or Raja, the Mong Circle is responsible for the operation of customary law within the 88 Mouza areas, and for the management of land and natural resources such as forests and water sources. These vital functions are delivered through an extensive network of 88 Headman and 950 Karbari, with one Headmen governing a Mouza of up to 40 villages. The Karbari are local community leaders who resolve disputes, coordinate development projects and act as a link between village governance and the various formal agencies of the CHT. 14.1.3. Rajpunyah; The festival of collecting rent from the Jum farmers of Bomang Circle has been celebrated since 185. The festival is usually held in December or January every year. Leads in various matters of social justice and tradition in their respective areas. Moreover, after collecting rent from the zoom farmers, they keep their share and deposit the rest in the government's revenue fund. The name of this rent collection ceremony is Rajpunyah. 33 Although the Chakma Circle of Rangamati and the Rajpunyah Joulus of the Mong Circle of Khagrachari lost over time, it is still celebrated with great pomp in the Bomang Circle of Bandarban. On the occasion of Rajpunyah, a folk fair was organized at the local Rajbari ground. Thousands of hill-Bengali citizens from far and wide of the district attended the festival. Will make. The fair usually lasts for 3 days at Rajpunyah and the surrounding areas including the king's field. Apart from shops and stalls, various sports and events including Jatra songs, Bichitra programs, circus, puppet dances, house games and death wells have been organized at the fair. At present, the festival has become one of the leading brands in the cultural identity and tourism of Bandarban. At a recent conference, the three kings demanded a bodyguard and a car for the kings. Meanwhile, although the king did not have much power, the royal tradition and the old history of the kings still attract the tourists who come to visit the Chittagong Hill Tracts. So everyone who comes to visit from home and abroad, even if it is at a glance, see the palace. If possible, meet with the king. 14.1.4. The Bohmang Circle: Raja Maung Saw Pru (also spelt Mong Saw Pru) was a son of King Nanda Bayin (Nanda Bayin, was king of Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1581 to 1599) and grandson of Bayinnaung (Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta was king of the Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1550 to 1581). He was the 1st Governor of the Bohmong Circle (modern-day Bandarban District) from 1599 to 1631 appointed by Arakan king Min Razagyi during the Toungoo dynasty. Maung Saw Pru is the first ruler of Bohmong Htaung (Circle) who was the son of King Nanda Bayin of Pegu and grandson of Bayinnaung. In 1599, Min Razagyi (Min Razagyi was king of Arakan from 1593 to 1612.), the King of Arakan led to the capitulation of Hanshawaddy Kingdom (The Hanthawaddy Kingdom was the Mon kingdom that ruled lower Burma (Myanmar) from 1287 to 1539 and from 1550 to 1552). Nanda Bayin, the King of Pegu was defeated and perished in the war. Daughter of Nanda Bayin, Princess Thien Daw Hnang and minor Prince Maung Saw Prue were taken into Mrauk U Kingdom, the capital of Arakan, as captive along with other booties. Some 3000 families from Pegu followed 34 the scion of their ruler and settled in Arakan. The Arakanese King Min Razagyi appointed a Prince of Pegu Maung Saw Pru as the governor of newly established Bohmong Htaung (Circle) by giving the title of "Bohmong" Raja in 1599. Son of the Min Razagyi, King Khamaung (Min Khamaung; was a king of Arakan from 1612 to 1622) of Mrauk U married the Princess Thien Daw Hnang and appointed his brother-in-law Prince Maung Saw Pru as Governor of Chittagong in 1614. In 1614, King Khamaung, the king of Arakan, appointed Maung Saw Pru as Governor of Chittagong. In 1620, who repulsed the Portuguese invasion with extreme courage and valor, King Khamaung conferred the title "Bohmong" (means the Great General) to Maung Saw Pru. As a consequence, the Arakanese king Khamaung awarded Maung Saw Pru the title of Bohmong meaning "Great General". Once Bohmong Htaung was ruled by Bohmong Rajas who were the subordinates to the Arakanese kings. Ancestors of the present Bohmong dynasty were the successor of the Pegu King of Burma under the Arakan's rule in Chittagong. After the death of Maung Saw Pru two successors retained the Bohmong title. During the time of Bohmong Hari Gneo in 1710, the Arakanese King Sanda Wizaya (Candavijaya) recaptured Chittagong from the Mughals. Bohmong Hari Gneo helped King Sanda Vijaya in recapturing Chittagong and as a mark of gratitude the latter conferred on Bohmong Hari Gneo the grand title of Bohmong Gree which means "great Commander-in-Chief". Bohmong Htaung is Now Bandarban District, Chittagong Division, and South-Eastern Bangladesh. Bandarban Hill District was once called Bohmong Htaung since the Arakanese rule. A son of King Nanda Bayin (son of Bayinnaung) was placed in charge of an area around Chittagong by the King of Arakan in 1599 (after the successful Arakanese attack on Pegu). He was Maung Saw Pru and reigned until 1631. Ever since, his descendants have ruled over what's become known as the "Bohmong Circle", home to over 200,000 people of Arakanese, Burmese, and Mon ancestry in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, now in Bangladesh. The Bohmang Dynasty: 1. Mong Saw Pru Bomang (1614-1630 AD) 2. Mong Grai Bomang (1630-1665 AD) 3. Hery Prue Bomang (1665-1687 AD) 35 4. Hery Nyo Bomangri (1687-1727 AD) 5. Kong Hla Prue Bomangri (1727-1811 AD) 6. Shak Thai Prue Bomangri (1811-1840 AD) 7. Kong Hla Nyo Bomangri (1840-1866 AD) 8. Mong Prue Bomangri (1866-1875 AD) 9. Sha Nhong Nyo Bomangri (1875-1901 AD) 10. Cha Hla Prue Bomangri (1901-1916 AD) 11. Mong Sa Nyo Bomangri (1916-1923 AD) 12. Kya Jai Prue Bomangri (1923-1933 AD) 13. Kya Jaw Shain Bomangri (1933-1959 AD) 14. Mong Sowe Prue Bomangri (1959-1996 AD) 15. Aung Showi Prue Chowdhury Bomangri (1998- 8 August 2012 AD) 16. Kya Sain Prue Chowdhury Bomangri (18 September 2012- 6 February 2013) 17. U Cha Prue Chowdhury Bomangri (24 April 2013- Continue) The Bohmong chieftains claim descent from Tabinshwehti and Nanda Bayin of the Toungoo Empire. During British rule, the Chittagong Hill Tracts were administratively divided into three circles in 1884, namely the Chakma Circle, the Bohmong Circle, and the Mong Circles, each presided over by a hereditary chief from the Chakma and Marma peoples.The circles were codified into law with the Chittagong Hill Tract Regulations, 1900, eased revenue collection and administrative burdens on British authorities by delegating tax collection, land administration management and social arbitration responsibilities to the chieftains. In 1901, the Bohmong Circle extended 2,064 square miles (5,350 km2). This administrative structure remained in place until 1964, when the introduction of local self-government abolished the special status of these circles and brought local administration under the control of the central government. The Marma inhabitants in the Bohmong Circle are known as ragraisa (Khyong-Sa). 14.1.5. The Mong Dynasty: The Mong Circle is one of three hereditary chiefdoms (or "circles") in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of modern-day Bangladesh. The jurisdiction of the Mong Circle encompasses parts of Khagrachhari District. The chiefdom's members are of Marma descent and are known as phalansa. 36 Most inhabitants of the Mong Circle settled in the northwest during a migration wave from the Kingdom of Mrauk U (modern-day Arakan State in Myanmar) between the 16th and 18th centuries. The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was an independent coastal kingdom of Arakan which existed for over 350 years. It was based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The kingdom from 1429 to 1785 ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar and Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. From 1429 to 1531 it was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. After gaining independence from Bengal, it prospered with help from the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its reign continued until the 18th century, when it fell to the invasion of the Burmese Empire. The Mong Circle dates to 1782 with the first chieftain, Mrachai. During British rule, the British authorities designated the Mong Circle in 1871, to encompass an ethnically mixed population in the Feni valley. In 1881, the Chittagong Hill Tracts were administratively divided into three circles, namely the Chakma Circle, the Bohmong Circle, and the Mong Circles, each presided over by a hereditary chief from the Chakma and Marma peoples. The circles were codified into law with the Chittagong Hill Tract Regulations, 1900, eased revenue collection and administrative burdens on British authorities by delegating tax collection, land administration management and social arbitration responsibilities to the chieftains. In 1901, the Mong Circle extended 653 square miles (1,690 km2). This administrative structure remained in place until 1964, when the introduction of local self-government abolished the special status of these circles and brought local administration under the control of the central government. The Dynasty of Mong circle: The Mong Dynasty can be traced through British records from the 17th Centery. The first Chief of the Mong was Raja Kong Joy, who ruled in the 17th century. In 1826, the Prince Kyo Jo Sin became the second Raja at the age of 6. The third Raja succeeded the throne in 1870 and continued his rule until 1879 July 1883, after the death of Raja Nirobhodhi his younger brother the Prince Keeojaprue Sin became the 4th king of the Mong Circle. On his death his niece Ni-u-mah was installed at the throne as the 5th Raja of the Mong Circle. A ruler from the age of 13, she remains the only woman to have led the Mong Dynasty, indeed the only woman Raja to have ruled any Circle in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. 37 In 1922 her son Mong Prue Sin, became the sixth Raja of Mong circle and continued his reign till 1984. Raja Mong Prue Sin joined the Freedom Fighters of Bangladesh in 1971, and was awarded the highest honour as a “BIR” by the government. His service to the nation was widely recognised, on his death Government and the Bangladeshi police honoured him. In 1984, Raja Paihala Prue Chowdhury, son of former Raja Ni-u-mah Sin’s cousin was appointed as 7th Mong Raja. Raja Paihala Prue was known as a kind and fair Leader, who commanded the respect of Headmen, Karbari and residents. Under his leadership, the Mong Circle started the process of modernization, providing training to the Headmen on their duties and successfully managing the build of 5 new Multi Purpose Community Centres. In 2008, he died tragically in an accident on his return journey from a study tour hosted by the Australian Government. Raja Saching Prue Chowdhury was confirmed as 8th Mong Raja and continues his rule today. The young Raja aims to create a Mong Circle that serves and represents all residents of the Khagrachari area. 15. Marma Population: 15.1.1. Marma population in Bangladesh: Marmas are the second largest ethnic group in Bangladesh. The primary census report of 2011 gives the number of ethnic population groups of Bangladesh as 27. The first is Chakma, consisting of 444,748 people while the Marma, the second largest ethnic group compares with 202,974 persons. In 2007, around 150,000 Marma were lived in Bangladesh. In 1991 census recorded the number of Marma population in Bangladesh at about 157,301. More than eighty per cent of them lived in Bandaarban, Rangamati, Khagrachari and Rest of live in Patuakhali, Moheshkhali, Teknaf, Ramu, Cox's Bazar and Chittagong (Rangunia, Fatikchari). The Magh / Marma population as a whole declined over the years, particularly in the districts of Bandarban, Chittagong and Patuakhali. It is recorded that in 1872, there were 4,049 Marmas in the Patuakhali region and later the number increased to 16,394 in 1951, but reduced to 3,713 in 1979 15.1.2. Marma/Mogh population in India: As per the 2011 Census of India, Marma had a total population of 4,640 of which 2,411 (52%) were males and 2,221 (48%) were females. Population below 6 years was 699. The total number of literates in Marma was 2,669 (67.72% of the 38 population over 6 years). In 2001 Indian census, 30,600 Marma were lived in the Mizoram and Tripura areas of India. 16. Marma Groups/Sub-Community: The Marmas are divided into several groups. It is believed that the groups were named after the place where the ancestors of these groups first came and settled. Below is a brief introduction and list of the groups of Marmas currently found in the CHT: Rgre-sa/Rege-sa/Khyong-sa, Plaing-sa, Kokdain-sa, Longdung-sa, Frang-sa/Frangra-sa, Oyoi-sa, Chiring-sa, Marok-sa/Marong-sa, Sbok-sa, Lemro-sa, Kyakfya-sa, Kronkyong-sa, and Sakpregyasa. 16.1.1. Rgre-sa/Rege-sa/Khyong-sa: Lives on the banks of "Rugre / Rage Kya" or Sangundi. Rugre or Rikrai Khang means river of clear water. They are known as Rugresa or Khangsa as they live on the coast of Rugre Khang. However, there are some settlements of Khangs in Benchhari, Kalabania and Kwaikhyang and Narachari of Kaptai upazila of Rangamati hill district. 16.1.2. Plaing-sa; It is said that before migrating to the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the "Plengsa" predecessors lived on the banks of a mountain river called Peleng Khyang / Pelo Khyong in northern Arakan. Plainsa lives in the entire Khagrachhari district. 16.1.3. Kokdain-sa; the ancestors of this group of Marmas, who have passed down the lineage, first came from Arakan and settled in the "Kakdain Tong" or Kakdain hills. That is why the name of this group became Kokdainsa. Another explanation is given behind this naming. It is said that their predecessors were tax (Fainda) collector (Koksa). It is thought to have originated from Fainda Koksa. The Kakdain-as are scattered in Raikhali Union of Kaptai Upazila and Slebukkya or Betbunia Union of Kaukhali Upazila. 16.1.4. Longdung-sa; what the "Landuksa" say is that they had to push the boat while fleeing Arakan. The Marma word Long Thosa (Long = boat in Bengali, Thosa = that which pushes away) has been distorted and become Longduk-sa. They mainly live in Kaukhali upazila of Rangamati district. However, they have several settlements in Balukhali, Burighat, Jibatali and Bilaichhari upazilas of the same district. 39 16.1.5. Frang-sa/Frangra-sa; the group came to be known as "Frang-sa" or "Franrasa" from the Marma word "prang re" ((Brave in Bengali). The "Frangsas" themselves claim that the "Frangsas" are naturally humble. They have large settlements in Kaukhali upazila of Rangamati district "Chingangambra" (Betbunia) and Dong Krong (Dongnala) in Kaptai upazila. 16.1.6. Oyoi-sa; wherever they live, they first plant fruits, vegetables, etc. around the house and build a garden. The garden is called "U-yoin" in Marma. The origin of the name "Oyoi-sa" is from this "U-Yoin". They are settled in Bandeya (Bangalhalia) area of Rajsthali upazila under Rangamati district. 16.1.7. Chiring-sa; At present they live in Shilak, Chiring Barkhola of Sarafbhata Union and Pekua in Padua Union of Rangunia Upazila under Chittagong District. 16.1.8. Marok-sa/Marong-sa; at present they live in Rajvila, Udalbania (Thaingkhyang) of Rajvila Union in Sadar upazila of Bandarban district and Khik Phya in Rangamati Sadar. 16.1.9. Sbok-sa, they live on the banks of the river Sabok. The upper reaches of the Burmese border of the Sangu River (Rugre Khyang) of Bandarban district are known as "Subok Khyang". 16.2.0. Lemro-sa; the group became known as the "Lemrosa" after migrating from the "Lemro" region of Arakan. Their habitat is mainly concentrated in Lama and Naikhyangchhari upazilas of Bandarban district. 16.2.1. Kyakfya-sa; the group is known as the "Kyakfyassa" because it comes from the "Kyak Fru" region of Arakan. They have settlements at Chingmrong, Wagang (Wagga) and Kamlong in Kaptai upazila. 16.2.2. Kronkyong-sa; their ancestors lived along the hill rhyme "Krong Khyang". They are known to live in the Krong Khyang area. 16.2.3. Sakpregya-sa; they live about 10 miles east of Harbang in Chuk Kra or Chakoria upazila of Chittagong district. 40 17. Marma Language: Marmas have their own dialect, which has close resemblance with Burmese and Arakanese. Their written characters is Burmese. Marma language belongs to the Burma-Arakan group within the broad classifications of Tibet-Burma languages. In recent times, Marmas in urban areas and nearby settlements speak the corrupt local language of Chittagonian language. Counting numerals, name of the days, months and years of Marmas are similar to those of the Burmese and Arakanese. They do not have in general any rich literature of their own. 17.1.1. Marm use Tibeto-Burman languages: Tibeto-Burman languages uers community are Achang, Arakanese, Balti, Bantawa, Bisu, Drung, Dzongkha, Garo, Hajong, Hani, Hmar, Jingpho, Karen, Kayah Li, Ladakhi, Lahu, Lepcha, Limbu, Lipo, Lisu, Manipuri, Marma, Mro, Naxi, Nepal Bhasa / Newari, Sikkimese, Sunuwar, Tangkhul Naga, Tibetan, Tshangla, Tujia, Yi etc. 17.1.2. Marma alphabet: The Marma languages written with the Burmese script and alphabet. The community peoples who are use the languages written with the Burmese script are Arakanese, Burmese, Jingpho, Karen, Marma and Palaung. The Marma alphabet are as bellow: 41 18. Linguistic Relation among Burmese, Rakhain and Marma: The linguistic relationship of Burmese, Rakhine and Marma is an inportant for research. Burmese is a Tibeto-Burman (TB), Lolo-Burmese, South Burmish language. Rakhine as part of the Burmish language family. Marma also belongs to the Southern Burmish language family; Rakhine and Marma as dialects of Burmese. All three are spoken primarily in Myanmar and Bangladesh; Burmese is the most well-known language of the Southern Burmish. While much has been documented and written about Burmese, there is not much information available about Rakhine and Marma. The Marma languages of Bangladesh, and some initial observations about the historical relationship between Burmese, Rakhine and Marma are as bellow: Tibeto-Burman Lolo Burmese Loloish Burmish Maru Atsi Achang Lashi Burmic Bola Xiandao Old Burmese Standard Burmese Rakhain Marma The Burmish language family 18.1.1. Burmese: Burmese is the national language of Myanmar (formerly Burma) the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia; Yangon (formerly Rangoon) is the capital and largest city. There are around 30 million first language (L1) speakers of Burmese, and around 10 million second language (L2) speakers spread throughout the country (Lewis et al. 2014). Burmese is spoken 42 throughout most of Myanmar, and is widely used in central Myanmar. “Myanmar” is also the official language name of Burmese. Burmese people use “Bama” as an ethnonym for ethnic Burmans and “Myanmar” as an ethnonym to refer to all groups that comprise a part of the country of Myanmar. The spoken form of Burmese is called “Bama” and the written form is called “Myanma” (or Myanmar); in English, both forms of the language are called Burmese. The dialects of Burmese as Beik, Mandalay Burmese, Yangon Burmese and Yaw; Bomang is a version spoken in Bangladesh. The dialect of Yangon Burmese is considered standard (spoken) Burmese. The government uses the High or literary version of Burmese which is older and dissimilar to the spoken Low version; school textbooks are also written in High Burmese. Burmese is written using Myanmar (Burmese) script. 18.1.2. Rakhine: The Rakhine people live mainly in western Myanmar and in southeastern Bangladesh. In Myanmar, they live in Rakhine State and in Chin State. In Rakhine State, Rakhine people live as far south as Gwa, in Thandwe, on the islands of Ramree and Man Aung and extending north up through Sittwe and Mrauk-U to the southeastern border of Bangladesh. In Chin State, they live in Paletwa Township. Rakhine also live in southeastern Bangladesh. In the 18th century, many Rakhine migrated from their homes in Rakhine (Arakan) State, Burma, due to political turmoil; they settled in southeastern Bangladesh and southern Tripura in India. The majority of Rakhine in Bangladesh live in Cox’s Bazar, Patuakhali and Barguna districts. Rakhine is considered a regional dialect of Burmese by many researchers; while others claim it is sufficiently different from standard Burmese to be a separate language. Rakhine pronunciation corresponds more to Written Burmese (WB) than does modern spoken Burmese (SB). Rakhine is one of the officially-recognized large minority groups in Myanmar; it has the second-largest number of speakers there and is used by bout 4.4% of Myanmer’s total population. In the past, Rakhine were known as Arakanese but since 1989 those in Myanmar are referred to as “Rakhine”. This group has also been called Rakhain, Rakhaing and Rakkhaine in the scholarly literature. In Bangladesh, “Arakanese” who live in the coastal areas are called Rakhine. From the 17th to early in the 20th century, Rakhine speakers in Bangladesh were called Mogh, but this term is no longer used. Rakhine is used in all but formal domains in Rakhine State; school books are in written Burmese, 43 but children are taught by Rakhine teachers using Rakhine pronunciation. Most Rakhine there speak Burmese as L2; the Rohingya language5 is used as L2 in Buthidaung and Maungdaw townships. In Bangladesh, many Rakhine men use Bengali as L2; other L2s for Rakhine in Bangladesh are Burmese and Chittagonian. In Myanmar, Rakhine is written using Myanmar (Burmese) script, however the script is not standardized and is used informally. A small number of Rakhine speakers in Bangladesh are literate in Burmese script; most Rakhine in Bangladesh are literate only in Bengali. Rakhine children from several communities are becoming literate in Burmese script through their use of Rakhine kindergarten primers. 18.1.3. Marma: Bradley says that the “Mrama are a remnant of the Arakanese court who fled over 200 years ago when the Burmans seized Arakan.” In Bangladesh, “Arakanese” who live in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) are called Marma. In much of the literature Marma is considered a dialect of Burmese virtually identical to Rakhine. In the past, “Mogh” was used for Marma speakers as well as for Rakhine, but it is no longer used, as it is a pejorative term. Kilgo and Moore write about the term Mogh: In the literature and through the years the Arakanese in Bangladesh have been given many different names including Mogh, Magh, Mugh, etc. For the Bengalis the word Magh (and its various forms) historically signifies a race of pirates who left a bitter memory of plunder and persecution. It is reported that for this reason in the Census sheets of 1951 the “Moghs” requested that they be referred to as Marma... The Marma are one of the largest and earliest language groups to settle in the CHT. Marma is used as LWC in the Cox’s Bazar and Bandarban districts by several other language groups. In Bangladesh, Marma speak Bengali and Chittagonian as L2; in Rangamati and Khagrachari districts, the Chakma language is an L2 of some Marma. As with Rakhine speakers in Bangladesh, most Marma speakers are only literate in Bengali; literacy in Burmese script among the Marma is also increasing through the use of Marma kindergarten primers. Marma is a member of the Lolo-Burmese branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family. It is spoken by about 180,600 people in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh, particularly in Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrachari districts. It is considered one of the dialects of Arakanese, along with Ramree and Sandowa. 44 19. Education of the Marma: The Buddhist monk is called “Phongyee”, Temple is “Kyong” and the village is called “Roa” in Marma language. The Phongyee play an important role for the maintenance of traditional education system in the Marma society. The Phongyee give them both spiritual and formal education in the temple. From the child-hood Marma childred receive both religious and linguistic education from their religious teacher in the temple. As a result, compared to other religious groups, the literacy rate among Marmas is very high due to the existence of Phongyee and Buddhist temple in every villages and localities. Every member of the Marma society can read and speak the Burmese fluently. Yet the system is inadequate, for which many boys and girls are found studying in normal schools and colleges in and outside their locality. 20. Culture of the Marma: The Marmas are subdivided into 12 clans, named after the place from where they migrated. These clans include the Ragraisa, consisting of Marmas living south of the Karnaphuli River, the Palaingsa from Ramgarh Upazila, the Khyongsa from riverside communities, the Toungsa from the hill ridges, and smaller clans including the Longdusa, the Frangsa, the Kyokara-sa, and the Talongsa. The culture of the Marmas is similar to that of the Rakhine people, including their language, food, clothes, religion, dance, and funeral rites. Marma men wear a sarong called lungyi, while Marma women wear a sarong called thabein. The Marma mostly depends on agriculture, traditionally practicing slash-and-burn cultivation on the hills. Their belief in Theravada Buddhism is as deep as the Rakhine society's, with an emphasis on ritual practices in deities. Some Marmas also practice animism and Islam. The Marma follows the Burmese calendar. They celebrate the New Year, called Sangrain, which begins on the first day of Bohag. They make sangraimu, which is a form of traditional cakes. They take part in Sangrain Relong Pwe (Water Festival/water pouring), where young Marma men and women spray each other with water. Sangrai is celebrated in three days, on the 1st day, called Painchwai or Akro, homes are decorated with flowers. On the 2nd day, Sangrai Akya, Marmas participate in traditional sports, dances, cultural activities and hold meetings regarding community issues. They also go to monasteries to participate in the Buddha statue's bathing (cleansing) ritual 45 on this day. On the 3rd day, called Sangrai Atada, they cook a vegetable dish made out of more than 100 ingredients, called hangbong (pachan in Bangla). Historically it is believed that the Arakanese emperor has invaded the south-eastern region of the current Bangladesh. Since then the region was ruled under the Burmese emperor and Marma ethnic groups were established from that period. Their cultural traits are connected to their ancestral heritage, including dress (which is called thumbui—the lower part, and angi—the upper part), food (mostly spicy, sour, and hot), writing (Burmese script), traditional songs and musical instruments (for example, kappya, jjea, and kharra). They speak Marma, and the majority are Theravada Buddhist. They have many festivals during the year, but Sangrai is regarded as the biggest celebration among them. It is a tradition to welcome the New Year according to the Buddhist lunar calendar. This festival held for three days, and the popular ritual during the second and third day of the festival is to splash water on each other. They believe that the water takes away all the sorrow and pure up our soul and body, so one must to greet others (even strangers) by splashing water on them. But the culture of marma is unique. It has also their own language, tradition, culture etc. 21. Traditional Dresses of the Marma: Marma men usually wear “Lungi” or “Sarong” which is long skirts and shirts. Lungis made of coarse cloth and a shirt without collar but having several pockets. At the time of festivals, senior member of the society use close fitting coat called “Prakha Angyi” over the shirt buttoned at the thro on the head they use a white kerchief known as “Goung Poung”. Some Marmas prefer “Matoray” (tattooing) for the beauty of the body. Educated sections use trousers, shirts and shoes. The common traditional dress constitute for the Marma women as “Thami” for the lower part of the body till bottom of the ankle and the “Ngyi” (blouse) wear for upper parts. To make them attractive and charming, the female keep tuft called “Chaing Thung” on the head. Sometimes, they decorate their heads with flowers and jewels. “Saloar and Kamiz” are also popular dress of young Marma girls. Marma men and women typically wear ‘thami’ (sarong) and ‘angi’ (blouse). However, the angi used by the men is more a waistcoat than a blouse. Marmas make their own DRESSES using traditional weaving technology, although many now purchase common Bangali dresses from the market. 46 They usually do not wear shoes, but this tradition, too is not in vogue now thanks to increased association with other peoples. Kitchen utensils in a Marma family are mostly earthen or made of bamboo and wood. Many families, however, use aluminum wares like pots, pans, plates and glasses. In the evolution of time, there has been a radical change in the dress of the Marmas. In today's Marma society, almost everyone uses "lungi". Adolescent boys are seen wearing "lungi" as well as pants-shirts. Girls of all ages except older women like to wear colorful patterned dresses. The use of "Rangai" (bras) by Marma women has gone up. Instead, colorful "thubuins" designed on the lower part and advanced tops, blouses and modern bassiers on the upper part are seen to be used. 22. Religion of the Marma: Religion is one of the defining characteristics of Marma ethnicity in the CHT. Together with language and other cultural characteristics, religion constitutes and important feature of the Marma ethnic identity. Marma ethnicity has always been closely associated with Theravada Buddhist institutionalism, a type of Buddhist institutional tradition that is practiced in Sri Langka, Burma, and Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia. Like the Buddhists of South and South-east Asia, Marmas are Theravada Buddhists. Written in Pali, the Tripitaka is the sacred book of Marmas. In religious matters they have been divided in two groups: the Monastic Community and the Laity. The Buddhist monks maintain celibacy, wear yellow robes called “Civara” and live in the temple, while the Laity leads a family life with wife, children and relatives. Marmas believe that their birth, death, reincarnation and all activities in life take place under the influence of a supernatural power, which they try to satisfy through their rites and rituals. Animism is also in practice among them, like other tribes and sub-tribes, believe in superstitions, magic and supernatural powers, which they try to satisfy through their rites and rituals. They are Buddhists in faith. Animism is also in practice among them. They perform all the important Buddhist religious festivals and also various rituals and worships to satisfy different gods. Dreams have a very strong influence in decision making in their everyday life. The marma religious ceremony was Buddha Purnia/Modhu Purnima (Pyachowai Puye), Ashari 47 Purnima (Wachhu-puye), Ashini Purnima (Wagyai-puye), Kathin Chibor Dan (Kthing-puye) and Celebrate Marma New Year and Water Festival (Sangrai-puye), Boishakhi Purnima (Nyongri Long- Puye), Modhu Purnima (Pyare Long-puye), and Probojya (Sahng pru-puye). 23. Property Distribution of the Marma: The nuclear family is predominant in the Marma community. Although the husband is the head of the household, the wife also has a significant role in the family. Kinship ties are quite strong in the Marma society. Such ties are both affinity and consanguineous. The property inheritance, in general, follows the old Burmese line of inheritance called “Thamohada”. Both sons and daughters inherit parental properties. The “Auroth” (most favourite) child gets the ownership of the house and has to take care of the parents. In recent times, however, inheritance of landed property follows a rule according to which the property is distributed in the ratio of 2:1 between sons and daughters. Though the father is the formal head of the family, both male and female members have equal rights. Sons and daughters inherit parental property in equal proportion. 24. Food Habits of the Marma: Rice and boiled vegetables are major food items of the Marma people. ‘Nappi’ a paste of dried fish, is a favourite. They enjoy rice bear and smoke indigenous cigars. The marmas take fish, meat and variety of vegetables with rice. They prepare a delicious soup of chiken and Dillenia indica. Boiled vegetables mixed with chillies called Tohza are a favorable menu to them. They use nappi/awangpi made from dried fish to cook curries. They also supplement their food requirement by gathering tree leaves, roots, and tubers from the forests. They also eat vegetables, fish and meat as an adjunct to rice. Vegetables include farm-grown vegetables as well as a variety of herbs and fruits that grow naturally in the forest. The young tips of bamboo and a few species of wool are very favorite food of the Marmas. They often use different types of “Shutki” (dry fish), “Nappi” (a paste of dried fish,) in their curry. In addition to fish in aquatic animals, crabs, oysters, snails, cuckoos and amphibians, golden frogs and turtles are their delicacies. Meat includes domesticated chickens, cows, goats, buffaloes, pigs, ducks and pigeons. Marmaras also eat wild boar, deer, guisap, hedgehog, pigeons etc. 48 25. Economic condition of the Marma: Agriculture is the main occupation of Marmas. Jhum cultivation is their primary agricultural pursuit. Small-scale homestead gardening is also common among them. Other important economic activities of Marmas include basketry, brewing and wage labor. Weaving is a very common activity of Marma women. Marmas were not market oriented in the past. Their economic activities and production system were geared to their subsistence. Recently they have become involved in trade and commerce. Produces of the Marma people are sold mostly through middlemen. Some Marma families now operate small retail stores. The Marma practice shifting cultivation, and many cut wood and bamboo which are sold to the Bengalis. The Marma tend to be rather isolated from the majority population, though this has been changing as more and more Bengalis move into the hill tract areas.Some of educated marmas are do job as well as business. 26. House Structure of the Marma: The Marma people believe that east-facing houses are the best. For this reason, in some areas inhabited by the Marmas, the construction of road-facing houses is seen in the middle of the village, but in most of the areas, the houses of the Marmas are facing east. It is customary in Marma society to perform certain rituals before constructing a house. The houses of Marma people are made of bamboo, wild grass and straw. These are built on elevated bamboo or wooden platforms (machang). Every room of the house is a bed room-cumstore. The space underneath the machang is used for various purposes such as keeping livestock, storing fuel wood, or accommodating handlooms for weaving. Some houses, however, are made of mud and built without machangs. 27. Social Administration of the Marma: The traditional political administrative system in the Marma community is a three-tier one. Village level administration is headed by a Karbari. The Mouza level is headed by a Headman and the Circle level is headed by the Circle chief called “Raja”. The main responsibilities of the village Karbari, the Headman and the Raja are collection of jhum tax. In addition, each is entrusted with various socio-cultural responsibilities including mitigation of disputes, pronouncing judgements, and maintaining law and order at their respective levels of administration. 49 28. Rituals during the birth of the Marma: In some areas of the Marma society, as soon as the child is taken in the mother's womb, in order to prevent the evil eye from falling on the mother and the newborn, they go to the healer (Voidya) and judge/calculate the sign of zodiac, misfortune of the mother. If necessary, these deities are worshiped with various Worship materials for their satisfaction. In many cases pregnant mother is allowed to hold amulets / charms. 28.1.1. "Mui Jang" (Delivery room): At the time of childbirth, the pregnant woman is kept in a separate room. This room is called "Mui Jang" / Mui Kheng” in Marma language. A "Chhra-ma" (midwife) stays in this room all the time. "Chhra-ma" is accompanied by a couple of elderly relatives. After the baby is born, the umbilical cord is cut with a "Klaisyong" (a thin, sharp slice of bamboo bark) and the remnants of the umbilical cord and the fabric used in the lower part of the maternal mother are buried in a corner of the yard. The newborn's body is then wiped with lukewarm water. At the same time the mother is bathed with lukewarm water. 28.1.2. Things to do during prolong labor/delivery: If for some reason the child is late to be born or if the mother seems to be having a hard labor pain, then a hen are cut and worshiped in the nearby river / stream for baby born smoothly. From the time the baby is born, a "chfo" (stove) is made in a corner beside to the maternal mother and a fire is lit Ein it, and hot water is kept in a clay pot for maternal mother use as needed. If there is pain in the abdomen of the mother, hot shake is given. At this time, if the mother has a headache, she is allowed to sniff by crushing "Chamuknak" (fenugreek) and "Jaduk-si" (nutmeg). In the southern part of the Chittagong Hill Tracts the maternal mother of the Marmas has to stay in "Mui Jang"(Delivery/labor room) for 7 days. The newborn is given a haircut within those seven days and the ears are pricked in the case of a doughter. The maternity mother of the "Plaisa" Marmas had to stay near the "chafo" (stove) for three days. After three days had passed, a piece of wood, along with some freshly cooked rice and a fire in the maternity stove, was placed on a banana leaf on one side of the junction of several roads near the house. In many cases, small baskets made of cane made from bamboo are used for worshiping with rice, parched rice, banana, etc., and at the same time new stoves are made by breaking the maternity stove. It is called "Mingboik" in Marma language. 28.1.3. "Pkha-Tang" (Cradle inauguration): Three days after the birth of the child, the newborn is raised in a cradle and formally rocked. It is called "Pkha-Tang" (Cradle inauguration) in Marma 50 language. During the inauguration of the cradle, first a small stone, a piece of iron and cotton are placed in an empty cradle in a convenient place and the cradle has to be rocked three times. Then the newborn child is made to swing and the cradle has to be rocked three times with stones, iron and cotton. The purpose of placing a stone in a cradle is to make the child as patient as a stone. The purpose of having a piece of iron is to make the child's body as strong and strong as iron. And the purpose of keeping cotton is to make the child in his mind as transparent and soft as cotton. The word that has to be swayed is "Kyah-nyang kyaing, sai-nyang mraing, gowai nyang-pao" (Be as hard as stone, be strong as iron, float like cotton) "Plaingsa"(Marma of Khagrachari) trim the newborn's hair a month after birth. Its name is "Chengu-boy" which means to cut new hair. A barber is called for this job. Then the cut hair in the new cloth is kept in a clean place at the base of the banana tree. The purpose is to make the child's life as smooth as the shade of a banana tree. 28.1.4. "Mdetang-poye" (apology ceremony): In some areas of Marma society, "Mdetang-poye" (apology ceremony) is an essential ritual after the birth of a child. Relatives, friends and children are invited to attend the ceremony. In particular, those who have collaborated with "Chhra-ma" (midwife) and "Chhra-ma" on the birth of the newborn are invited. On this occasion, the parents of the child are apologized for the act of giving birth to their child with gift items to the "Chhrama" (midwife). On this occasion food is served for the welfare of mother and child and the guests bless for the welfare of mother and child after the meal. 28.1.5. "Muingkyang Poye"/ Baby naming: Astrology judgments are then considered with the birth date of the child through Vaidya to name the newborn. Many have resorted to Buddhist monks in Kyang (Bihar) for this work. "U" is usually added to the name of the first child born in the Marma family and "Thui" is added to the name in the case of the youngest child. In some areas, it is customary to hold a ceremony called "Muingkyang Poye" during child naming. 29. “Shangpru-poe” (Shramana initiation ceremony): ”Shangpru-poye” means initiation of the son into Shramana. In Marma society, every boy must stay in a Buddhist monastery for at least seven days before marriage as a shramana. During this time he has to be monogamous and is not allowed to participate in any family or social activities. It is the social and religious sacred duty of parents to initiate their children as laborers. It is very 51 common in Marma society for a boy to take such initiation more than once for the purpose of recovery. In some cases, after the death of his parents or close relatives, initiation is arranged as a shramana for the well-being of his disembodied soul and for liberation from some incurable and future dangers. Usually when the son is 10/12 years old or before the marriage, the parents organize a ceremony after seeing a good day. According to religious law, such initiation can be given to boys of any age above 7 years. After taking a bath, the boy's head is wrapped at home on a certain day for initiation and new clothes are taught. The parents then took the boy to a Buddhist monastery in the company of their close relatives. There are eight types of items to be worn and used by a monk while leaving, namely: 1. "Sangbai" or "Sangraing" (chibar worn by monks), 2. "Sabuik" (pind pot), 3. "Tangmuing" / "Lathah-duru" (stick), 4. Thih (umbrella), 5. "Yhai” (fan), 6. “Sangthung” (razor), 7. “Rizik” (water filter), 8. “Ai-khre (needle thread) is to be taken along with the necessary alms and worship materials. Upon arrival in Bihar (Temple), in front of the monks stationed in Bihar, the items brought from the house (eight cleaners, alms and worship items) are respectfully arranged. Then the boy was initiated as a Shramana following all the formalities. As soon as the formality of initiation was completed, the boy was taught Chibar. At the end of the allotted time, the "Fungri" (monk) and "Mangsang" (Shramana) who are staying in Bihar as religious affiliations are given pangs (invitations) at home and donations are made to bring the boy out of the working life. Following the necessary formalities that afternoon, the boy was brought out of working life. Many also organize meals for the neighbors that day. 30. "Paingjangkhaing-Poye"(Monk initiation ceremony): Although "Shangpru" and "Paingjangkhai" seem to be the same, there are systematic and religious differences between the two. Religiously the level of "Paingjang" is above "Shang". Shang's initiation can be taken at any temple on any auspicious day. But the initiation of "Paingjang" cannot take place in any temple. Only in the monasteries where the "singh" (Boundary house) is made, the initiation of "pingjang" is done by following various formalities. The initiation of "Shang" can be taken by anyone of any age, starting from a seven-year-old boy. But in order to take the initiation of "Paingjang", the boy / man must be at least 20 years old and must have taken "Shang" initiation at least once before that. "Shang" is considered to be at the level of "Mangsang" and "Paingjang" is considered to be at the level of Bhikku / Bhante (Monk) above the level of Mangsang. If "Sing" 52 is not made in Bihar or elsewhere in any area, there is a provision to give "Paingjang" initiation by following the required religious formalities by constructing "Paingjang Khaing-Chang" (Paingjang Initiation Stage) in the middle of the river where there is a stream. 31. "Rangtang-poye" (Bra holding ceremony): This ceremony can be called "Bakkhabondani" ceremony in Bengali. In Marma language it is called "Rangatang-poye" or "Rangaitang-poye". Through this ceremony, Marma gives a girl recognition in the society that the girl has entered her youth and has become marriageable. This event can take place on any auspicious date. However, this event is more common during Sangraing and Chaitra Sankranti. This ceremony is mainly for girls. The ceremony was organized by the parents as soon as the girl entered her youth. On the morning of the day set aside for the ceremony, the young girl in the village was taken to the Buddhist monastery in the village wearing new clothes. At the same time a new hand-woven design “Rangai” (Bra holder: A kind of cloth scarf) was also taken away. Two unmarried young women are needed to perform this ceremony. One of the two will lift the bra and the other will put it on the girl's chest. These two girls are already selected. Because no girl can do this. A girl who is born two days before her birth will be able to lift her “Rangai” (Bra holder: A kind of cloth scarf) and a girl born the day before will be able to wear it on her chest. The first or second person cannot perform the task alone. After arriving at the Buddhist monastery, one of the two previously selected girls formally lifts the “Rangai” (Bra holder: A kind of cloth scarf) and the other wears it on his chest after prostrating in front of the statue of Mahamati Gautam Buddha. At this time, laughter and jokes continued among the accompanying girls. Then the ceremony came to an end with the adoption of Panchasila. In some areas there is no custom of taking Panchashir before or after wearing “Rangai”. In some areas, it is customary to sing at the end of the “Rangai”. In some areas, apart from Buddhist monasteries, the ceremony can be seen at home in a very simple manner. In the evolution of time, this practice is on the way of extinction today. Nowadays, it is not seen anywhere. Adolescents do not know that such a custom was prevalent in Marma society. 53 32. Marriage Rituals of the Marma: Marriage is a very important part of the social life of Marmas. The marma socially completes the marriage ritual with the consent of both parties. In Marma society, the marriage ceremony is called "Wing thang khya" in some areas and "Wingthangpru" in others. Child marriage is practically forbidden. Pre-marriage love is common. Both men and women have equal rights to divorce. Although the final settlement is to be made in the court of karbari (village leader) or of the headman (MOUZA or area leader). Living conjugal life without marriage is a social crime in this society.Although wedding ceremonies vary from area to area, it is important for everyone to follow certain customs. E.g. A) The bride and groom must come of age and must attain adulthood; B) Marriage should be outside the scope of prohibited relationship; C) Must abide by prohibitions relating to blood relations; D) No marital relationship can be established between Wachho Labre (Asarhi Purnima) and Wagyoai Labre (Ashwini Purnima); E) Above all, social recognition should be taken through marriage ceremony (Laithai / Laichung). Dowry system does not exist in Marma society. However, in case of irregular or runaway marriage, there is a custom of paying "da-fa" (bet) to the bride, and "no-kha" (For breast feeding) to the bride's mother as a symbol of milk consumption. In Marma society, there is no age limit for a boy or a girl to get married. The measure of adulthood depends on conjecture. So while the trend of marriage among the adult children can be noticed in Conscious quarters, but in the remote rural areas it is seen that there is marriage between the younger children, which is also accepted by the society. 32.1.1. Types of marriage in Marma Society: Two types of marriage are commonly observed in Marma society. Namely: (1) Regular marriage with the consent of social or both parties, (2) Escape marriage / Irregular marriage. Although some trends of court marriages and mixed marriages can be observed in the modern educated society, the Marmas do not allow such marriages in the society unless they are socialized through the "lawthai-poye / lawchung poye" ceremony according to the customs and traditions of the society. 54 32.1.2 Social or Regular marriage: The marriage is performed according to the social norms of the parents or guardians of the couple. Such marriages are also arranged with the consent of the parents or guardians by the choice of the bride and groom. There are several steps involved in such a marriage. Firstly, the proposal of the bridegroom. This eteps starts with the initiative of the groom’s. Deliver the marriage proposal to the known and trusted person of the couple or to any close or distant relative. Go to the bride's house with 1 bira betel, binni rice, sweets, sugar, sugar cane, 1 pair of coconuts. There they offer a bottle of wine as a gift to the bride's parents and propose marriage. After the consent of the parents of the bride, the opinion of the daughter is taken. If the consent of the daughter is obtained, the bottle of wine given by the groom's party is accepted by the bride's party and another similar bottle of wine is given to the groom's party from the bride's family. At this time, the marriage was discussed with the help of laughter and tea on both sides. When everything is auspicious, the bride and groom bow down to the elders and receive blessings. At this time the groom’s party blesses the bride with a thami, a silver or gold ring and finally the "lawthai-poye / lawchung poye". 32.1.3. Escape marriage/Irregular marriage: In Marma society, due to the disagreement of parents or guardians, young men and women run away from home due to love affair and get married. In the Marma language, such a marriage is called "Akhohnajai Khrang". It can be called an irregular marriage as the socially prevalent rules in Marma society are not observed in such marriages. Such irregular marriages are seen to be due to various reasons. Although young men and women want to marry each other out of love, either side of the family opposes it due to unequal economic status and social status or prohibited marriage. Or if the parents of the bride have fixed the bride elsewhere or the bride has fixed the bride elsewhere, then out of love the son or daughter runs away without the knowledge of the parents or guardian and takes shelter in the house of a relative. When the family of both the parties became known through the shelter or friends, the people of the boy's side took initiative to settle the matter by contacting the parents of the girl. If there is an agreement between the two parties, that is, if the demands of the girl party are accepted by the boy party, then the society accepts the marriage by fleeing by following the social customs. But if the relationship of the fugitive couple is close to the first generation marriage, then the society does not accept such marriage at all. 55 32.1.4. Court marriage: Among the educated children in the Marma society, nowadays couples who want to get married without the consent of their parents are seen marrying by swearing in front of a first class magistrate or notary public. 32.1.5. “Smaw-Tang” (Ghorjamai): Marma society also has a custom of marrying a girl to the groom. Such marriages are solemnized with the consent of both parties. Usually, because of not having a son, the house is set up to take care of the household chores and only the children of poor families agree to be housed. In such a marriage, the couple does not have to bear any expenses and the wedding ceremony is not very stylish. The marriage ceremony is performed in the social neon after the bridegroom arrives at the house and the bride's parents have to bear all the expenses. Such marriages are called “Smaw-Taw” in Marma. 32.1.6. Forbidden Relationships for marriage: In Marma society, blood relations / clan relations or kinship which cannot take place on the stage of marriage are the same siblings born of the same father, cousins, uncles, nephews, sister, aunt, niece, mother-in-law, son-daughter of different mothers born in the same age, wife of niece, relative of aunt etc. Also, in the case of relatives belonging to the same clan, the relatives cannot be re-married until the man has passed away. In Marma society, a woman leaves her father's family after marriage and comes to her husband's family. Married couples in forbidden blood relations are excluded from Marma society. Although polygamy and sanctioned marriages are practiced in Marma society, these marriages are not considered as recognized marriages in Marma society. There are no restrictions on the marriage of widows. At present in the urban Marma society there is a tendency to declare themselves as husband and wife in the form of affidavit through notary public instead of fleeing marriage, which is commonly known as court marriage. However, such court marriages are not customary and allowed in Marma society. In the case of social marriages, the opinion of the father or the male guardian usually prevails in the decision and consent of the spouses. The list of invited guests for the wedding, especially in rural areas, is more representative of men including dignitaries and Headman, Karbury. 56 33. Wedding ceremony of the Marma/"Lakthai Mangala Prukhrang": 34.1.1. Match the zodiac sign between bride's and grooms: In Marma society, it is customary to match the bride's birthday with the groom's birthday. Their firm belief is that if the zodiac sign is tied on the basis of the bride and groom's birthday, the couple's marital life will always be friendly, loving and will be attached to each other for the rest of their lives. Moreover, there will be no shortage in their worldly life, there will be no national unrest due to illness. On the other hand, if a man and a woman of different zodiac signs get married, their family will not be happy, the quarrel will continue and in the end the marriage may break up. In addition, there are some discrepancies in the zodiac sign that the marriage will not last in any way if the birth of the zodiac sign. It can even lead to the untimely death of a husband or wife. For this reason, judging the zodiac sign by matching the birthday of the bride with the birthday of the bridegroom by the doctor at the stage of seeing the bride is an essential aspect of marriage. 34.1.2. Marriage proposal given as per marma custom: This eteps starts with the initiative of the groom’s. Deliver the marriage proposal to the known and trusted person of the couple or to any close or distant relative. In Marma society, the consent of the spouses is given priority in performing socially customary marriages. For this reason, in choosing a bride, the parents find out if the marriageable son has a daughter of his choice. If the answer is yes, then after knowing the girl's behavior, manners, temperament, etc., the next step is taken. If any girl is preferred, marriage proposal is arranged to be sent to the parents of the bride with the consent of the bride. With the consent of both the parties, on an auspicious day, the groom's parents, relatives, friends and elders along with an odd number of people, according to the tradition, 25 betel nuts, 1 bira betel, binni rice homemade cake, sugar, cooked binni rice, 1 sugar cane, and 1 pair of coconuts and 1 bottle of wine were given to the bride's parents and the marriage was formally proposed. After the consent of the parents of the bride, the opinion of the daughter is taken. If the consent of the daughter is obtained, the bottle of wine given by the groom's party is accepted by the bride's party and another similar bottle of wine is given to the groom's party from the bride's family. At this time, the marriage was discussed with the help of laughter and tea on both sides. When everything is auspicious, the bride and groom bow down to the elders and receive blessings. At this time the groom’s party blesses the bride with a thami, a silver or gold ring and finally the "lawthai-poye / lawchung poye". 57 33.1.3. "Khmrah Khyah Poye"/Bride giving ceremony: Then the astrologer "Bidangchara" (enumerator) was invited. He informed the result to all present by matching the zodiac sign with the date of birth of the bride and groom and also fix the auspicious day of marriage and lagna. After enumerat, if everything is auspicious, the bride bows to the elders of the bride and receives blessings. At this time the bridegroom blesses by wearing a gold ring on any finger. On the appointed day of the wedding, at the entrance of the groom's house, two banana saplings are placed on either side and beside them are placed "rijango" (water jug twisted with white thread) and "sifaiko" (intoxicating drink made with binni rice). After completing all the wedding ceremonies at the groom's house, the groom's parents or relatives, friends and elite person of villages go to the village to bring the bride to the bride's house with 1 bottle of wine, clothes, ornaments and cosmetics for the bride. Led by one of them, they went to the bride's ancestral home with band party and made necessary preparations to bring the bride as his wife by decorating her with cosmetics including costumes and ornaments. The bride's party organizes "Khmrah Khyah Poye" / "Maya Khyah Poye" (bride/wife donation) ceremony at her house. 33.1.4. "Kangchhi"(Way obstacles): While fetching the bride, the young men and women of the same age in the bride's village threw bamboo in the road and created obstacles. At this time, according to their demands, if wine or cash is given as a gift, they enjoy the obstacles. The custom of having fun by creating multiple such obstacles is prevalent in the society till the bride leaves the village. This practice is called "Laikhoachikhrang" / "Kangchikhrang" in Marma language. 33.1.5. "Lauthai mangla-poye"(The main episode of the wedding): On the appointed day of the wedding, two young banana saplings are placed at the entrance of the bride's house and next to it are placed 'Rizango' (two water jugs full of white thread) and “Sifaik” (drinks made from different rice). Step-1. Upon reaching the groom's house, the mother-in-law picks up the bride with her right hand at the entrance / stairs of the house wearing the bride's right hand wrapped in seven twisted manglik yarn. Step-2. In the evening, a marital relationship is established by a Buddhist monk reciting the Mangal Sutra. During this time, the bride and groom receive Panchasila, recite Mangar Sutras by 58 Buddhist monks, donate Pinds and perform other religious rituals. Thus ended the religious marriage ceremony. Step-3. An ‘Ubadidai’ / “Mde Chhara” is arranged to conduct the wedding ceremony, who is not unmarried or divorced. Then the bridegroom is brought to perform the wedding ceremony and seated on the right side of the bride by placing it in the place designated for the social ceremony. This episode is basically done at midnight (11-12pm). According to the custom, a "Sbhasa Gong" (youth leader) and a "Pyuma Gang" (young leader) from the groom's neighborhood / village are present on the wedding stage. The young man is placed next to the groom and the young woman next to the bride. "Mde Chhara" started the formality of marriage. In the main part of the wedding ceremony, he recited the marriage principle and said, "A girl from a certain village is getting married to a certain boy from a certain village. Can the people of the neighborhood hear it?" Say this three times, until the people present say "yes". But if the people present do not say "yes" three times, then the marriage will not take place. After saying "yes" the rest of the formality begins. "Mde chhara" The bride's call is to combine the little finger of the groom's left hand with the little finger of the hand. In Marma language it is called "Laithai-poye" / "Laithai mangla poye". Marriage is recognized as socialized through 'Lak Thek Poi' ceremony. 33.1.6. “Kraw-Chainga” (Tongue of hen) Seen: Then "Mde Chhara" pulls the tongue part (Chainga) of a pre-cooked rooster of hen and shows it first to the parents of the groom and then to the relatives and all present. If “Chainga” is tilted to the left, it is assumed that the bride will have predominance in conjugal life; and if it is tilted to the right, then the groom will be predominant. In some Marmas it is believed that if the "chainga" is tilted to the left, the bride's relatives will make the most of their living together, and if it is tilted to the right, it will be the other way around. The boiled rooster is then served in a plate with rice for the bride and groom with the necessary cooking ingredients. At this stage, "Mde Chhara" will take a little rice with chicken meat in both hands and feed the left hand food to the bride and the right hand food to the groom with both hands horizontally. Then the bride and groom bote will eat in the same plate. This ceremony is essential in a social marriage to recognize in social status. 33.1.7. Blessing episod in wedding ceremonies: In the case of wedding blessing ceremonies, some variations can be observed in different areas. The coils of yarn twisted into five patches, round and round by "Mde Chhara", are tied to a bamboo stick. From there, the groom's parents 59 first put the twisted thread coil in the hands of the bride and groom. Then the elders of the village, who came to the ceremony in a row, bowed to the bride and groom, while the bride and groom wore the twisted thread and blessed them with money or gifts. In some areas, the "Mde Chhara" is a round sword in his hand, rounded with five coiled yarn coils, from which it is first worn on the groom's hand in such a way that there is no gap between the sword and the hand. The groom then puts a thread coil in the bride's hand in the same manner, the bride bows to the groom and accepts it. Afterwards, the guests also blessed the bride and groom in the same manner by wearing thread coils and sprinkling rice on their heads. At this time, "Mde Chhara" serves a finger of wine to the guest who came for the blessing. Thus the marriage ceremony came to an end and the newlyweds were recognized in the society as husband and wife. The main purpose of these marriage ceremonies is to gain the approval of the society for the purpose of socially living as a husband and wife of a pair of men and women. There is no custom of marriage registration in Marma society. The socialist present at the wedding, the dignitaries of the society, the person conducting the pairing (Laithai mangla-poye) are the witnesses and approvers of the marriage. 34. Rituals at the time of the death of the Marma: Marmas burn the bodies after the death and bury the remains. If the Buddhist monks or rich men died, their bodies burn with fanfare and organise big ceremony. The funeral ceremony for the dead person is held after seven days from death. A dance party called 'Saing' carries the coffin (Talah) to the crematorium at the death of a men in this society. They arrange a feast called 'Lakaprecgchuai' after 7 days of death. After death, Marma elderlies are cremated, while younger deceased Marmas are buried. In Marma society, death is divided into two parts. Be it normal death and abnormal death. Although both types of Formalities after death vary slightly difference by region or area, there is no difference in the original formalities. 34.1.1. Ritual in case of death of common people: In case of normal death, the dead body is first bathed in a new earthen pot with tolerable hot water. The dead body is then laid in new clothes with the head facing north on top of the "sikhai" (coffin) perpendicular to the north-south. Binni rice husk is sprinkled in some places along with perfumes. The two toes of the dead person are joined together and tied with white thread. If the deceased is the head of the family or if he is an elder, he is taken to "Thala". When a young person or a parent dies while alive, the body is placed 60 on the floor without the use of "sikhai". The Buddhist monk of the village monastery was then "pang" (invited) and given a sermon, wishing for the happiness and peace of the departed soul. According to secular beliefs, it is customary to place a metal mudra (called "Rangfaitang" in Marma) on the chest of the corpse before meeting the needs of the soul, but nowadays it is placed in the hands of the dead person or in a container placed next to the dead body. People who come to see the dead person donate money according to their ability. In addition, rice is placed at the feet of the dead body, "khmaja" cooked separately with vegetables and "Rkhatong" (large basket of cane rice made from bamboo) is kept to keep the rice brought with the people who come to see the dead body. In some areas a pot filled with water is placed towards the head. Sitting next to the corpse, "Nihbai Suk" (various ballads related to the life and Parinirvana of Gautam Buddha) is recited and "Cheh" (a type of drum) is played in a special musical style. Usually the dead body is left at home for one day and cremated the next day. Before the body was taken to the crematorium, a Buddhist monk from the Kyang (temple) was invited to sit next to the Sidangkhaik (coffin) and be released in the presence of the people. At this time, "Narangchainghluk" (filling rice in a bamboo tube and shaking it loudly) is done near the ears of the dead body. At the same time another has to do “kunkhyo” (breaking a bamboo cane into pieces). In addition, the date of birth and the date of death, the cause of death, donated rice, money "talah / alhung" "kunkhyo" etc. with the information to be given to the corpse. When an unmarried man or woman dies, a banana tree has to be planted with the body while entering "Talah / Alhang". After that, while carrying the dead body to the crematorium in "talah / alang" (coffin), 8 carriers lifted "talah / alang" up to the knee three times. During the journey to the crematorium with "Talah / Alang" there is a "Tangkhoisa" (9/10 hand length 7 hand length-1 hand width white cloth hanging on one end of a bamboo); and behind him is "Cheh" and the neighbors and relatives going to the crematorium. In Marma society, fuel wood is arranged vertically in the north-south facing cheetah for cremation. Cheetahs are made by arranging fuel wood in three layers depending on the gender, that is, in the case of males and in the case of females. After reaching the crematorium, the body is placed in the cheetah three times before being taken to the cheetah. In the cheetah, the dead body is raised with its head facing north. The Buddhist monks who came to the crematorium in front of the cheetah gave Panchasila to the assembled people and preached the religion of liberation of the soul of the 61 deceased and good deeds. Then the "Rizakkhya" (sacrifice) ceremony is completed. If the deceased is married, the marriage is dissolved by leaving a symbolic witness on the leafe. "Tangkhoying" is rolled towards the head. In addition, a whole measuring 1 foot in length and 6 inches deep in width is placed in which 7 pieces of raw turmeric cut thinly on the banana leaves are placed. After completing all the formalities, the family members first set fire to the cheetah. Then others can set fire. On the way out of the crematorium, "Kangmuiri" (water mixed with 7 thin pieces of raw turmeric cut into bamboo tubes) is placed at the crematorium boundary. Everyone who comes to the crematorium has to touch this "kangmuiri" or sprinkle a little on their feet while going back. When someone dies in the village, "Foyemuing" (a burning fire of chalk in a pot) and "Kangmuiri" (water with 7 pieces of finely chopped raw turmeric in a small pot) are placed at the door of each house. No one can enter the house directly after returning from the crematorium. You have to take a bath or go to Kang to listen to Dharma Desna. "Kangmuiri" and "Kangmuiri" can enter the room after touching. In some areas, before entering the house, place the "m-sa-ri" (a little rice in a small pot, the roof of the house, the charcoal mixed with water) facing the house and take the "m-sa-ri" behind you with your left hand. Is thrown out. At this time, another person who has returned from the crematorium can enter the house after uttering the word "sa-saing-changbya" three times. The next morning after the cremation, the burnt bones of the deceased were collected and memorials were made at the crematorium or in a convenient place according to their ability. 34.1.2. Ritual in case of death of a monk: In Marma society, when a monk dies, "mahng" (large bronze bell with a convex in the middle) is played instead of "cheh". In Marma society, the funerals of Mahatheru or old Buddhist monks are not performed immediately. The funeral is performed in a very stylish manner with good preparation. In such cases, the body is first bathed in lukewarm water and then neatly chewed and placed in a pre-constructed "charait" or "nibainkyang" on the premises of the monastery or any other convenient place. In order to prevent the body from becoming foul smelling, all measures are taken to preserve the corpse at that time. The day before the funeral, the body was taken to Alang (Shabadar) and lavishly brought to Chaingyang / Chaingkyong (a special monastery built near the crematorium). There, the pilgrims perform various religious rituals including reciting religious verses throughout the night. The next day also, religious devotees from far and wide perform religious rites throughout the day. In the afternoon, before cremation, the chariot is pulled by chariot with "Alang" from "Chaingyang" / "Chaingyang". 62 When the chariot pulling episode is over, the dance is again lifted from that Alang chariot to "Talah / Saing". Then the next step of cremation was taken by placing the body in "Muidayai Talah" (Cheetah made in a special way in the style of Bihar). At this stage, 2/3 of the very thick wire of the "Muidai Talah" is tied to a very thick wire and the other end of the wire is farther away (approximately 100 yards) and pulled by another pole so that there is no bend or crookedness in the wire. The gunpowder is then hung in a special way with the wire on that end, so that, as soon as the gunpowder is set on fire, the firecracker rushes at high speed and explodes, hitting "Muidai Talah". Incoming guests and pilgrims lined up to set fire to the fireworks and the firecrackers rushed at high speed, hitting one firecracker after another in "Muidai Talah" and at one stage the intense heat of the exploding firecrackers caught fire. Thus the cremation of the monk's body was completed. 34.1.3. Death occurs outside the house/village: Unnatural deaths such as death due to poisoning, death by drowning, death by falling from a tree, death due to accident. If such death occurs outside the house / village, the body is not placed in the village / house. Even those who died in hospital were considered to have died outside the village. They are taken directly to the crematorium for necessary formalities or left outside the village for the next day's funeral. However, nowadays in some cases even unnatural death is seen to be cremated at the end of the necessary formalities like normal death. And the ancient tradition is considered inhuman by the present educated Marma society. 34.1.4. "Choyaing" (pindana)/ Funeral: Within 7 days of the funeral, "choyaing" (pindana) is obligatory at the home of the deceased seeking the well-being of the deceased's soul. If he has a son of the deceased with him, any one of them, and if he does not have one, then with any one of his close relatives, the vow is observed by taking 7 days of "Mashangpru" (Shramana Diksha) initiation. In case of abnormal death of children or adults, "choyaing" (pindana) ceremony is not held at home. In this case, edible items including donations are donated to the Kyang (temple) in raw form. Such a pindana is called "Choyaingjing". 63 35. Conclusion: The Marmas is originally came from Arakan from sixteenth century through the eighteenth century. Burmese history further reveals that there were two waves of migration and relocation of the Arakanese-Marma about the same time one which settled in the Mong circle in the North (e.g. Khagrachri District) and other which moved to the Bohmang circle in the south (e.g. Bandarban district). Ethnically, Marmas are Mongoloid race and culturally, they are very close to the Rakhines in the state Arakan of Myanmar. The Marmas migrated from present-day Rakhine State to the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) between the 16th and 18th centuries. Records of the East India Company and others indicate that the Marmas migrated from the Kingdom of Mrauk U to Chittagong of Bangladesh in two phases of migrations during 14th to 17th centuries in the golden period of Mrauk U. In the first phase, during the Mrauk U Kingdom expanded to some parts of Chittagong Division. Secondly, Marma ancestors fled to Chittagong and settled down as the Arakanese kingdom was conquered and annexed by Burmese king Bodawpaya in 1785. In the early days of the 15th century, the Arakanese kingdom, where Mrauk U was the capital, expanded its territories to the Chittagong area of Bengal. After the victory of Arakan over Burma's Pegu kingdom in 1599 AD, the Arakanese king Min Razagyi appointed a Prince of Pegu, Maung Saw Pru, as the governor of newly established Bohmong Htaung (Circle) by giving the title of "Bohmong" Raja. During the British reign in 1790 "The Raide of Frontier Tribes Act −22" was passed which among other things envisaged the creation of Chittagong Hill Tracts District comprising the entire hilly region along the south eastern border of present-day Bangladesh, stretching right from Tripura in the north and Myanmar in the south. The act also provided for the appointment of a superintendent to discharge the administrative functions under the direct control and supervision of Divisional Commissioner of Chittagong. However, seven years later in 1797, the post of superintendent was re-designated as that of Deputy Commissioner. In 1900 the "Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulations 1900" was enacted to provide a consolidated and broader legal framework for the administrative system. This Act with minor modifications constituted the fundamentals for the administration of three hill districts. Recognizing the special historical and geographical features of the place as well as uniqueness of tribal population, the 64 Regulation of 1900 divided the entire district into three circles. Each circle was to be headed by a circle chief whose primary responsibility was to collect revenue, assisted by a Headman (Head of a Mouza) and a Karbari (Head of a Village) respectively at Mouza and village level. At present, The Marma people are the second-largest ethnic community in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts, primarily residing in the Bandarban, Khagrachari and Rangamati Hill Districts. There are over 210,000 Marmas living in Bangladesh. Since the 16th century, the Marma have considered the Chittagong Hill Tracts their home, where they have established the Bohmong and Mong Circles (Circle chief). References 1. Bangladesher Etihas (History of Bengladesh) by Four Doctors namely Dr. Mohammad Abdur Rahim, Dr. Abdul Momin Chowdhury, Dr. A.B.M Mahmud and Dr. Sirajul Islam. 2. Marma: Itihas o Songskhrity (Marma History and Culture) by Mongsanu Chowdhury and U Kyaw Zan. http://www.ebbd.info/marma.html https://sites.google.com/site/voiceofjummaland/marma http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Marma,_The https://www.bangladesh.com/blog/the-marma-tribe-of-bangladesh/ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marma https://www.britannica.com/place/Arakanese-Kingdom-of-Mrohaung https://www.britannica.com/place/Pegu-historical-city-Myanmar https://www.academia.edu/9188865/details_about_marma?email_work_card=view-paper https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maung_Saw_Pru https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Bangladesh http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marma_language http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marma_people https://www.ethnologue.com/language/rmz/ https://www.facebook.com/marma.bd 65 https://www.artofliving.org/in-en/ayurveda/therapies/marma https://www.britannica.com/place/Arakan https://www.kaladanpress.org/index.php/scholar-column-mainmenu-36/60-arakan/878-arakanrule-in-chittagong-1550-1666-ad.html https://www.britannica.com/place/Arakanese-Kingdom-of-Mrohaung https://www.britannica.com/biography/Narameikhla https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mrauk_U History_of_Marmas20200525-81401-1lapblj.pdf https://mongraja.wordpress.com/history/?fbclid=IwAR1p3cVO8Nn6huB7vDPZ2rYWM_qvtHAWcQR2 MNdmOP1Ukme_7PsZB0G3OD4 ------------End------------- 66 

History of Marma’s This is a Social, Cultural history of the marmas in Bangladesh ByMongwaiching Marma B.A Hons, M.A in History University of Chittagong BANGLADESH JUNE 1, 2020 @ Dongnala, Kaptai, Rangamati, Bangladesh. E-mail-mongwaiching@gmail.com Table of Content: Page No 1. Introduction 5 2. Marma and Mugh/Mogh Controversy 6 3. The origin of the marma 7 4. Marma Identity in CHT (Choitgong Tongma Marma Lumyo), Bangladesh 8 5. The original residence of the Marmas 11 6. Relationship of the Magh (Marma) people with the rulers of Bengal: 17 6.1.1. Mogh (Marma) during Sultan rules in Bengal 17 6.1.2. Magh (Marma) during Afghan rule in Bengal 17 6.1.3. Mogh (Marma) during Mughal rule in Bengal 18 6.1.4. Magh/Marma during Arakan rule in Chittagong (1550--1666 A.D) 19 7. The expulsion of the Mogh/Mugh (Marma) from Chittagong 26 8. The Pegu from where the Marma of Bomaong Circle arrived (Bohmaong Hthong) 28 9. The Mrauk-U Where from the Marma of Mong Circle (Palai Mang Hthong) 29 10. About Arakane from where the Marma arrived 29 11. Situation of Marma in Bangladesh 30 12. Homeland of Marma 32 13. The Chittagong Hill Tracts into three Circles Chiefe 32 14. The king of Marma (Chief of the Bomang Circle and Mong Circle) 33 14.1.1. The custom of being king of Bomang 33 14.1.2. The custom of being king of Mong 33 14.1.3. Rajpunyah 33 14.1.4. The Bohmong Circle 34 14.1.5. The Mong Circle 36 15. Marma Population 38 16.1.1. Marma population in Bangladesh 38 16.1.2. Marma population in India 38 16. Marma Groups/Sub-Community 39 16.1.1. Rgre-sa/Rege-sa/Khyong-sa, 39 16.1.2. Plaing-sa 39 16.1.3. Kokdain-sa 39 -2- 16.1.4. Longdung-sa 39 16.1.5. Frang-sa/Frangra-sa 40 16.1.6. Oyoi-sa 40 16.1.7. Chiring-sa 40 16.1.8. Marok-sa/Marong-sa 40 16.1.9. Sbok-sa 40 16.2.0. Lemro-sa 40 16.2.1. Kyakfya-sa 40 16.2.2. Kronkyong-sa 40 16.2.3. Sakpregya-sa 40 17. Marma Language 41 18.1.1. Marma use Tibeto-Burman languages 41 18.1.2. Marma alphabet 41 18. Linguistic Relation among Burmese, Rakhain and Marma 42 18.1.1. Burmese 42 18.1.2. Arakane 43 18.1.3. Marma 44 19. Education of the Marma’s 45 20. Culture of the Marma’s 45 21. Traditional Dresses of the Marma’s 46 22. Religion of the Marma’s 47 23. Property Distribution of the Marma’s 48 24. Food Habits of the Marma’s 48 25. Economic condition of the Marma’s 49 26. House Structure of the Marma’s 49 27. Social Administration of Marma 49 28. Rituals during birth of the Marma’s: 50 28.1.1. Mui Jang" (Delivery room) 50 28.1.2. Things to do during prolong labor/delivery 50 28.1.3. Pkha-Tang" (Cradle inauguration) 50 28.1.4. "Mdetang-poye" (apology ceremony) 51 -3- 28.1.5. "Muingkyang Poye"/ Baby naming 51 29. “Shangpru-poye” (Shramana initiation ceremony) 51 30. "Paingjangkhaing-Poye"(Monk initiation ceremony) 52 31. "Rangtang-poye" (Bra holding ceremony) 53 32. Marriage Rituals of the Marma’s 54 33.1.1. Types of marriage in Marma Society 54 33.1.2. Social or Regular marriage 55 33.1.3. Escape marriage/Irregular marriage 55 33.1.4. Court marriage 56 33.1.5. “Smaw-Tang” (Ghorjamai) 56 33.1.7. Forbidden Relationships for marriage 56 33. Wedding ceremony of the Marma’s/"Lakthai Mangala Prukhrang" 57 33.1.1. Match the zodiac sign between brides and grooms 57 33.1.2. Marriage proposal given as per marma custom 57 33.1.3. "Khmrah Khyah Poye"/Bride giving ceremony 57 33.1.4. "Kangchhi"(Way obstacles) 57 33.1.5. "Lauthai mangla-poye"(The main episode of the wedding) 57 33.1.6. “Kraw-Chainga” (Tongue of hen) Seen 59 33.1.7. Blessing episod in wedding ceremonies 59 34. Rituals at the time of the death of the Marma’s 60 34.1.1. Ritual in case of death of common people 60 34.1.2. Ritual in case of death of a monk 62 34.1.3. Death occurs outside the house/village 63 34.1.4. "Choyaing" (pindana)/ Funeral 63 35. Conclusion 64 36. References 65 -4- 1. Introduction: The Marma people are the second-largest ethnic community/ indigenous minority group in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts, primarily residing in the Bandarban, Khagrachari and Rangamati Hill Districts. Some Marmas live in Chittagong border area of CHT like Rangunia and Fatikchari as well as Some Marmas live in Bangladesh's coastal districts of Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali, while others live in State of Tripura, India and Myanmar. They are living both in the plain and hill areas. There are over 210,000 Marmas living in Bangladesh. Since the 16th century, the Marma have considered the Chittagong Hill Tracts their home, where they have established the Bohmong and Mong Circles (chiefdoms). There has been a long-standing desire to learn about the history and culture of the Marma people, but this has not been possible due to the lack of written books or documents on the subject. When I studied history at the University of Chittagong, I felt terrible for knowing about the history of the Marma community. Because we can learn about the ancient civilizations of different nations and community about their social, cultural, economic and religious activities from different history books. But it was not possible to know about the ancient civilization of the Marma people as there was no written history book of the history of the Marma people. I completed BA Honors and Masters in History from Chittagong University in 2004, then wanted to study Marma history with a higher degree. It was no longer possible due to family financial difficulties. I have been involved with various NGOs, INGOs and UN agencies for almost 12 years. Today the corona virus suddenly came and the whole world came to a standstill, all the offices were closed and locked down. During these three months of lockdown, there has been an opportunity to conduct fact-finding research on the history of the Marmas by collecting data from accessible history books and online. I have tried to write the history of the Marma people by incorporating the knowledge and information gained from this online based research. It is difficult to write detailed research in a short time. If the history of the Marma people revealed in this study is of any use to anyone, it is the result of my three months of untiring work and hard work. Hopefully, those who are interested in learning about the Marma people or the Marma tribes will find this information very useful. If I have the opportunity to do research on the Marma community in the future, I will probably try to write more detailed data. This research work focusing on the historical, cultural, and social history of the Marma people in Bangladesh. -5- 2. Marma and Mugh/Mogh Controversy: There is considerable controversy over marma and mughs. Many call the Marma people Mughs/Moghs. The Portuguese used the word "Mugo" to refer to the Rakhine people, the Rakhine king, and the Rakhine language. "Mugo" and "Mugh" have the same meaning. Foley refers to the Rakhine people as Mughs or Magas in 1835. Medieval Arakanese Buddhists, especially those living east of the eastern border of Bengal, are widely known as "Mughs" and It is believed that the name was given to the people of Chittagong. Ahmed Sharif writes that "mugh" is a pouring word (blanket term) used to refer to Buddhists. The people of Chittagong generally use the name "mugh" to refer to the followers of the Buddha and the Buddhists living in Chittagong or Arakan or anywhere in the world. In fact, "Rakhine", "Marma", "Barua" etc. are confusing the unique identities of the people and everyone is being called by the name of Mugh. There is also an attempt to show them as separate groups by using names like "Jumia Mug", "Roang Mug", "Bhuiyan Mug", "Barua Mug" etc. But the origin of the word "Mugh" is unknown and the meaning is controversial. It is difficult to get an idea of the actual origin and meaning of this word as there are various assumptions and interpretations of this word. As a result, there has been little research on the etymology of the word mugh. Domestic and foreign historians / writers have different views on the origin of the Mugh term. For example, D.G.E Hall thinks that the word Mugh originates from the word Mongol. Because the Arakanese have similarities in appearance and appearance with the Mongols. The definition of the word "mugh" in the Bengali dictionary is "mughs" are the inhabitants of Arakan or Burma. The term "mugh" comes from the Burmese word "Mong". At one time, pirates on the coast of the Bay of Bengal were considered a “deadly nuisance” for their violence, cruelty, and barbarism. They were a group of Portuguese and Arakanese thugs who made a living by piracy in the 16th and 17th centuries. Since the word “Mugh” was used to refer to the Arakanese, Arakanese pirates were also known as "Mugh pirates". As a result, pirate and mugh became synonymous. The Mugh has become a disgusting, derogatory and derogatory term, being used as an insult in the 16th and 17th centuries, and the two words "mugh" and "muger mulluk" have become synonymous as oppressive and anarchic, respectively. According to Tibetan sources, Muslim invaders destroyed Buddhist monasteries in Magadha and -6- killed Buddhist monks. As a result, the Buddhists fled to Arakan and East Bengal as refugees. The Arakanese predecessors fled Magadha in the face of Muslim aggression and took refuge in Arakan. For this reason, their descendants became known as "Mughs" as their successors. The Rakhine state claims they came from the Buddhist land of Magadha. Phayre, who has long served as commissioner in Arakan, has come to the conclusion after extensive and in-depth research that the word Mugh does not exist in the vocabulary of the Mongoloid Arakanese and that they have never referred to themselves as mughs. In Arakan and in the whole of Burma there is no such thing as a Magh. There are a total of 135 officially recognized communities in Burma, of which there is no Magh. So, it is clear from the above discussion that the term “Mugh” is an externally imposed (exonym) i.e. a name imposed by foreigners, not in any way self-imposed (ethnonym). That is to say, the word mugh is being used to refer to a people, it is by no means a name given to that people and there is no such word in their vocabulary. 3. The origin of the marma: The word “Marma” originates from the Burmese word “Myanma”, which means “Burmese Nationals” and is pronounced as “Marma” by the people of the CHT. In other explanation the word “Marma” is derived from the Burmese word “Mraima” which means “Be Strong”. Hence, the predecessors of the Marma tribes were from Burma and as such, they came to be known as “Marma” or “Mraima”. The Marmas were previously known as Moghs or Maghs for centuries because they were called Mogh/Magh by Bengalis for joining hands with Dutch and Portuguese pirates during their invasion in Chittagong. The Marmas considered these names to be pejorative, because it means "pirate”. Some Marmas in the Indian state of Tripura continue to self-identify as Marima, or as Moghs or Maghs, considering these terms to have derived from Magadha, the name of a historic Indian kingdom. Some researchers opine that the Buddhists of Arakan now known as Marmas and Maghs are the same group of people. The Marma people of CHT, however, do not like to identify themselves with Maghs. Maghs were originally pirates and that Marmas, far from being pirates, hated this occupation. -7- So, the term "Marma" is derived from "Myanmar." In the Marma and Arakanese languages, Myanmar is pronounced Mranma, not Myanma. In the Burmese language, the Marma are known as the Marama.The word 'Marma' originates from the Burmese word 'myanma'. 4. Marma Identity in CHT (Choitgong Tongma Marma Lumyo), Bangladesh: Their ethnic designation “Marma” already clearly indicates they have a historical and geopolitical link and cultural closeness to Arakan and Burma/Myanmar, but the precise relationship between the tow remains to be fully investigated. The word “Marm” Like the word “Burma.” can be traced back to the old description “Mranma” which the Burmese used for themselves for centuries. The “Mage”/Mogh is another odd term for Marma mentioned in older sources. The term “Magh” is also believed to have derived from the ancient kingdom of Magadha, the kingdom where the Buddha lived and taught for more than four decades. However, there is no evidence to support such a claim. There are two polemic versions of the ancestral history of the Marma of the CHT. The Bohmang version reveal that the forefathers of the Marma were Talain people of Pegu, while other source reveals that contemporary Marma are rather Arakanese descendants. The Pegu/Bago was once the center of commerce and the capital city of the Mon people. In the Pali Buddhist chronicles of Southeast Asia, the Pegu was formally known as Hanthwady and Ramannadesa, which later became a strong political center of Mons. The “Talain” is derogatory term, which in Mon language, means “bastard” or “downtrodden” and used by Burmese to refer to the Mons. Talain people of Pegu claimed by Bohmang family and the Marma of Bandarban as their ancestors were the prisoners brought to the CHT after the fall of Pegu 1799. The popular belief among the Marmas is they originally came from Arakan from sixteenth century through the eighteenth century. Burmese history tells us that in the later part of the eighteenth century, the Burmese invaded the Arakanese ingdom, as a result of which two thirds of the population of Arakan migrated to the CHT. Burmese history further reveals that there were two waves of migration and relocation of the Arakanese-Marma about the same time one which settled in the Mong circle in the North (e.g. Khagrachri District) and other which moved to the Bohmang circle in the south (e.g. Bandarban district). -8- By 1869, the Marma were divided into rival groups, each group had their main chief locally regarded as Mong (raja) – the king who ironically appears more to be a representative of the Marma society than a leader. The Marma in the South of the Karnafulli River are headed by the Bohmang circle of Bandarban are called Ragrai-sa, those in North are under the Mong circle of Khagrachaari belong to the Palaing-sa. The Marma is also further divided and the terms Khyong-sa and Toungsa are used to refer the people for those who live on the ridges of hills and those of in the riverside. The Marma men wear Longi and women wear thoboing (sheets of soft cotton/silk clotes). Other little-known Marma groups Longdu-sa, Fran-sa, Kyapyai-sa, Kodaing-sa, Weyoi-sa and Maroi-sa, Palai-sa, Khyong-sa and so forth are scattered in Rangamati. Along with history, dress, manners, and cultural attributes that are typical to them, the Marma construct their ethnic identity through distinct language. Their names are similar to that of Arakanese and Burmese. The contemporary Marma communities are divided into eleven clan and groups living in different localities. Each group have their own regional dialect, but their dialects are connected to Arakanese vermacular and written in Burmese/Arakanese characters. Earlier in the Buddhist temples Arakanese language are taught to the Marma children, but it was discontinued since the 1970s. Today, most Marma can’t read and write their language. On this account, the Marma language, both written and spoken, is a great danger of being lost due to disuse and overuse of Bengali language. As a part of assimilation and homogenization of Bangla as national language. The Marma adopted Bangla as the only means of communication and method of education, putting the survival of their own language into danger. Marma, also called Magh, or Mogh, people of the Chittagong Hills region of Bangladesh. The Marma numbered approximately 210,000 in the late 20th century. One group, the Jhumia Marma, have long settled in this southeastern region of Bengal; the other group, the Rakhaing Marma, are recent immigrants, having come from Arakan toward the end of the 16th- 18th century, when their kingdom was conquered by the Burmese. Most of the Marma came under Bengali influence, but in the south of the Chittagong Hills region, where their culture remains comparatively pure, the script and dress are Burmese and the language an Arakanese dialect. Elsewhere the Bengali dress and language prevail. The religion of the Arakanese-speaking Marma is animistic Buddhism. The people are divided into endogamous clans, and in modern times there were still strong traces of a political organization under clan -9- chiefs. In the hills, shifting cultivation was still preferred to plow agriculture in modern times, but the villages, containing from 10 to 50 houses, were invariably built on the banks of streams. The houses were light structures on bamboo piles, and a relic of the communal house for men was sometimes found in the form of a roofed platform built at the end of the village street. The Marma have their own distinctive heritages –identity, culture, religion, language and tradition. Since they made their first settlement in the eighteenth century, religion, ethnic identity, and language have been three major driving forces for their continuity and survival in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The Marma dwell on high mountains and valleys of the CHT. The CHT consists of three hill district; Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrachari sharing the international borders with Tripura and Muzuram state of India to the north and Myanmar to the East. Karnafuli River (Kaisa Khyong) is the most largest and important river in the CHT. Origination from Lusai Hill of Mizoram in India. It runs 270 kilometers through CHT into the Bay of Bengal. The Marma use these teaks, timbers, and bamboos for construction of their houses for exterior/interior manufacture and furniture of home as well as for commercial commodities. Various other ceciduous forest plants, fruit trees, and herbs are used by the Marma as food, medicine, and daily supplies. Scaattered around and along this mountain range dwell a variety of ethnic minority and tribal groups. Historically, the CHT is the traditional home of eleven diverse ethnic groups of indigenous people. They are Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Tangchangya, Mru, Khumi, Lusai, Bowm, Chak, Khyang and Pankhua. The Marma are the second largest ethnic group among these tribal communities who, shince their arrival in the CHT in sixteenth century, have constructed a dynamic cultural and political word of the Marma. The Marmaare radically different from the Bengali majority in language, physical appearance, religion, dress, culture, and social norms. The Marma share a closer ethno-cultural affinity to the Mongolic, Burmese. Myanmar and Combodia and belong to the Tibetu-Bumese Language family. The Marma also differ from tribal groups in terms of language, cultures, and mannerism. The - 10 - Marma consider themselves as one particular group of indigenous people who openly claim their identity as “Marma” and prefer to be perceived/recognized as such by other ethnic groups in the region. The Marma ethnic identity is the notion of a Marma culture as embodied in the language, religion, tradition and other cultural elements considered to be typical Marma trhough the phrase “Marma Lomyo” meaning the Marma nationality, they identify and construct their identity. 5. The original residence of the Marmas: The Marmas of CHT were migrated from ancient Burma (Myanmar). The original and ancestral land of the Marma tribe was in the ancient Pegu city of Myanmar. The people of Pegu were known as “Talaing or Tai Luang” meaning “Greater Tai”, a branch of the Great Tai race, which, according to some historians, lived in southern and central China as early as 2200 BC.Arakan had firmly established its authority over Chittagong by the middle of the 16th century and retained its control for over a hundred years. The Burmese do not seem to have settled in Arakan until the 10th century. The Arakan king, TsuLa-Taing- Tsandra (951-957 A.D.), invaded Chittagong and defeated the local chieftain (probably a successor of Kanti Deva) in 953 A.D. in memory of this victory, he erected a monument with the words Tsit-ta-gung (there shall be no war) inscribed on it. It is said that this monument had been erected on the south of Kaunia Charra near Kumira. According some historians the modern name of Chittagong is derived from the inscription on this monument. Anawrahta (1044-77 A.D), one of the greatest king of Pagan in Burma, visited the Indian land of Bengal in course of his expedition. Harvey thinks that he visited Chittagong and planted magical image of men there. According Burmese history, the Burmese king Alaungsitha (1112-62 A.D) who was a very powerful monarch visited "the Indian land of Bengal" -- probably Chittagong -where he found the images set up by Anawrahta. According to Rajmala the Tipperah king Mukut Manikya sent some presents to the Arakan king Mengdi in 1395. Presumably, Chittagong was at that time under the control of Arakan king. According to Harvey, Sithabin was on the throne of Arakan in 1395 and Myinhsxinggyi in 1397. In 1406 the Arakan king Meng, Soamwan (Nara Meikhla, 1404-34) was dethrone by the army of Burmese king. He then fled to Gaur and sought the protection of the king there. The Arakan king - 11 - resided at Gaur for 24 years. When army of Ibrahiim Sharqi, king of Jaunpur, invaded Gaur in 818 A.H., (1416 A.D), the refugee king, at the request of Nur Qutbul 'Alam, rendered Raja Ganesa assistance. At last in 1430 A.D. Jalaluddin Mohammad dispatched an army to restore the Arakanese king on the throne. Wli Khan the general, who was sent restore the Arakan king, betrayed his trust. He came to terms with usurper (Shua Mangji) and took possession of Chittagong for himself. Nara Meikhla escaped to Gaur. The Sultan sent a second army who restored the king on the throne after killing Wali Khan. The Arakan king became a tributary to the Sultan of Bengal and undertook to assume a Muslim name and strike coins with Kalima. An increase Bengali Muslim influence is undoubtedly noticeable in Arakanese life from that period. This practice probably was first introduced in fulfilment of the promise made by Meng Soamwan but was continued in later times as a token of sovereignty in Chittagong which was recognised as being geographically beyond the country of the Arakanese race. Though Meng Khari (1434-59), successor of Nara Meikhla, occupied Ramu and Chittagong and shook off the Muslim authority. When Meng Khari occupied Ramu in 1434-35 the Chakmas on the frontier had put up a strong resistance on behalf of Muslims. But as nore-inforcement arrived from Gaur, the Chakmas were compelled to cede some part of Ramu to the Arakan king. The village of Rajakul and Chakmarkul near Ramu commemorate that invasion. However, the Muslims were not long in shaking off the authority of the Arakan kings from Chittagong. In the beginning of sixteenth century there was a triangular fight between Hussain Shah, Tippera King Dhanya Manikya (1463-1515) and the Arakan king Minyaza (1501-23) for the conquest of Chittagong. The Tippera king's army under general Chaychag in which Tippera army captured the fort at Meherkul and advanced upto the capital at Rangamati, (Dr. S.K. Chatterjee 6 thinks Chaychag was a tribal chief). Acording to Rajmal, Dhanya Manikya captured Chittagong in 1513 and extended his domain upto Ramu and Chatrasik in Arakan in 1515. He struck coins to signify his victory in Chittagong. The Tipperah king's general in this campaign was named Rasagaamardan (victory of Arakan). According to Arakanese history, the Arakan king, Min Yaza in 1517-18 sent an invasion to conquer Chittagong in charge general Sendaija who travelled by land with 4000 soldiers. The Arakan prince, Iremong, commanded the navy. The Mughal governor of Chittagong, (Yasin?) fled to Sonargaon. Prince Iremong occupied Sandwip and Hatiya and established his headquarters at - 12 - Lakhipur. The Arakan king visited the newly conquered territory of Chittagong and Dacca in 1517. In 1518 the Chakma king Chanui made submission to the Magh king and sent four ministers with two white elephants. Dharangri, the Magh governor of Chittagong, reported this to the Magh king who was at Dacca. Meantime General Sendaija who was on a visit to Chittagong, examine the gift of elephants and found that these were not really white elephants but ordinary elephants rubbed over with lime. He became annoyed and detained the ministers of the Chakma king. When came to the notice of the Magh king he took his general to task saying that the Chakma king had followed the tradition of making presents of white elephants to the Magh king and should not be punished. The Magh king was pleased to bestow the title, "Kulangphru" to the Chakma king. When the Magh king was returning to Arakan in 1520 he married the daughter of the Chakma king at Chittagong. According to Rajmala, the Tipperaa king Debmanikya occupied Chittagong in 1522 after defeating Maghs. The Arakan king Minbin (153-53), who was a capable ruler, occupied Ramu and Chittagong in 1531 and struck coins in which Chittagong and his Muslim name Zabauk Shah were inscribed. It was during Minbin's time that the Maghi system of land measurement in drones was introduced in Chittagong district. The Maghi calander is still in vogue in Chittagong and was mentioned in documents till recently. It is 35 years behind the Bengali year. Arakan entered the greatest period of her history with the accession of Minbin in 1531. The king of Arakan firmly established their authority in Chittagong during the great part of the sixteenth century. Only for a short period during the reign of Mahmud Shah and Sher Shah in Bengal, Chittagong was in Muslim hands. According to an inscription in a sliver plate found in a Buddhist Kyang (Temple) in Chittagong, the Kyang (Temple) was built in 1542 by Chandilah Raja who was probably Arakanese governor for the Chittagong. According to Arakanese history, Nusrat Khan Son of Hamza Khan, the Pathan governor of Chittagong made submission to the Arakanese king Sawlha (1553-64) and sent him presents, Nusrat Khan had clashes with the Minseyta (1554-71), successor of Sawlha, and was killed by the Portuguese, who were supporting the Arakanese, in 1569-70. Caeser Frederico has also referred to this incident. Ralph Fitch who was in Chittagong in 1585 expressly stated that it was often under the Arakan king. The Maghs entered Udaypur, looted it and camped there for 15 days in 1586 AD when Meng- 13 - Phalaung (1571-93) was the king of Arakan. He held all Chiltagong, and parts of Noakhali and Tippera. His son, Minnala, was the governor of Cbittagong. When the Tipperah king, Amar Manikya, was defeated in 1586, Jalal Khan is said to have died out of fear. Jalal's son, Ibrahim Khan, was the Uzir of Chittagong only in name. The real power was exercised by the Magh governor who was usually the second son of the Magh king. In 1599 the Arakan king, Meng Razagvi (1593-1612) attacked Pegu. During the Arakanese occupation of Chittagong there were forts at Hinguli, Kumira, Garjis and Koterpara (near Hathazari). The Arakan king, Meng Radzagyi, who called himself king of Bengala and Tippera, issued from Chittagong trilingual coins in 1601 in Arabic, Burmese and Devanagri characters with his Burmese and Muslim titles. For a short time during his reign the Arakan dominion extended from Dacca and the Sunderbans upto Moulmein. Under the Mugh kings Chittagong was divided into three principalities e. g. Dianga, Chakrasals and Ramu. Under Arakanese occupation the governor of Chittagong was either a son, brother or faithful kinsman of the Arakan king who was supported by an Arakanese garrison. Every year the king sent a hundred boats full of troops, powder and ball and then the garrison, and boats sent in the previous year returned home to Arakan. Imports, and exports were subject to taxation during, the Arakanese rule in Chittagong. Taxes were also levied on fisheries, salt, dry fish and fruitful trees. The king had a monopoly in minerals, teak wood etc- Fees were realised for granting permission to dig tanks and canals, erect bridges and temples, and make roads. The union of the Portuguese freebooters with the Arakanese ushered the greatest period in Arakanese history (1550-1666) during which Chittagong was mostly in Arakanese hands. Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese settlement at Chittagong was in a flourishing state.The king of Arakan who held it, was favourably disposed towards the Portuguese. According to Ain-i- Akbari (1590) "To the east and south of Bengal is an extensive kingdom called Arakhang. The port of Chittagong belongs to it." Two days after the tide turned, as Carvalho came with relief from Sandwip. He and Mattos got up 50 vessels among which were 2 foists, 4 catures, 3 barques, and the rest being jaleas. With this fleet they set out early in the morning and made surprise attack on enemy's ships with such fury and violence that they were completely routed. They became masters of all the Arakanese ships numbering 149 with all ammunition muskets and other implements of war. Many Arakanese lost - 14 - their lives in this engagement, notably Sinabadi, the uncle of the king of Arakan who was governor of Chittagong. Some escaped by jumping into the sea and swimming across to land. In 1609 dispute arose between the heir apparent of Arakan and his brother Anaporan. The prince actually fought a battle against his brother, who, being defeated, fled to Gonsalves, ruler of Sandwip. Gonsalves promised to succour him and kept his daughter as a hostage. He and Anaporan combining their armies marched against the king of Arakan but as the latter came with an army of 80000 men and 700 fighting elephants, they returned to Sandwip. In the sea fight, however, Gonsalves's brother Antonio captured 100 sails of the enemy with only 5 vessels on his side. Anaporan brought over to Sandwip his wife, children and all his treasure. Gonsalves married Anaporan's daughter. Shortly after Anaporan died and as Gonsalves seized his treasure it was suspected he caused his death. The Portuguese took the son of Anaporan who was 8 years old and a minor daughter to Hughli. In 1614 Meng Soa Pya, son of Nandabayon, king- of Pegu, succeeded Anaporan as governor of Chittagong. In, 1630 for war service against the Mughal he was given the tittle of Bohmong. Raja Maung Saw Pru (also spelt Mong Saw Pru) was a son of King Nanda Bayin (Nanda Bayin, was king of Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1581 to 1599) and grandson of Bayinnaung (Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta was king of the Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1550 to 1581). He was the 1st Governor of the Bohmong Circle (modern-day Bandarban District) from 1599 to 1631 appointed by Arakan king Min Razagyi during the Toungoo dynasty. Maung Saw Pru is the first ruler of Bohmong Htaung (Circle) who was the son of King Nanda Bayin of Pegu and grandson of Bayinnaung. In 1599, Min Razagyi (Min Razagyi was king of Arakan from 1593 to 1612.), the King of Arakan led to the capitulation of Hanshawaddy Kingdom (The Hanthawaddy Kingdom was the Mon kingdom that ruled lower Burma (Myanmar) from 1287 to 1539 and from 1550 to 1552). Nanda Bayin, the King of Pegu was defeated and perished in the war. Daughter of Nanda Bayin, Princess Thien Daw Hnang and minor Prince Maung Saw Prue were taken into Mrauk U Kingdom, the capital of Arakan, as captive along with other booties. Some 3000 families from Pegu followed the scion of their ruler and settled in Arakan. - 15 - The Arakanese King Min Razagyi appointed a Prince of Pegu Maung Saw Pru as the governor of newly established Bohmong Htaung (Circle) by giving the title of "Bohmong" Raja in 1599. Son of the Min Razagyi, King Khamaung (Min Khamaung; was a king of Arakan from 1612 to 1622) of Mrauk U married the Princess Thien Daw Hnang and appointed his brother-in-law Prince Maung Saw Pru as Governor of Chittagong in 1614. The Mong Circle, chiefdom's members are of Marma descent and are known as phalansa. Most inhabitants of the Mong Circle settled in the northwest during a migration wave from the Kingdom of Mrauk U (modern-day Arakan State in Myanmar) between the 16th and 18th centuries, while inhabitants of the other Marma chiefdom, the Bohmong Circle settled in the south and are known as ragraisa. The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was an independent coastal kingdom of Arakan which existed for over 350 years. It was based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The kingdom from 1429 to 1785 ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar and Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. From 1429 to 1531 it was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. After gaining independence from Bengal, it prospered with help from the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its reign continued until the 18th century, when it fell to the invasion of the Burmese Empire. The Mong Circle dates to 1782 with the first chieftain, Mrachai. During British rule, the British authorities designated the Mong Circle in 1871, to encompass an ethnically mixed population in the Feni valley. In 1881, the Chittagong Hill Tracts were administratively divided into three circles, namely the Chakma Circle, the Bohmong Circle, and the Mong Circles, each presided over by a hereditary chief from the Chakma and Marma peoples. The circles were codified into law with the Chittagong Hill Tract Regulations, 1900, eased revenue collection and administrative burdens on British authorities by delegating tax collection, land administration management and social arbitration responsibilities to the chieftains. In 1901, the Mong Circle extended 653 square miles (1,690 km2). This administrative structure remained in place until 1964, when the introduction of local self-government abolished the special status of these circles and brought local administration under the control of the central government. - 16 - 6. Relationship of the Magh (Marma) people with the rulers of Bengal: 6.1.1. Mogh (Marma) during Sultan rules in Bengal: During the twenty-six years of the reign of Alauddin Hussain Shah, the Muslim kingdom in Bangladesh expanded enormously. By restoring internal peace and order, Sultan Alauddin Hussain Shah concentrated on expanding the territory. Hussein Shah's military achievements can be divided into five parts: - 1. Sikandar Lodi's Martyrdom Treaty and the capture of North Bihar, II. Kamata-Kamrup and Assam expedition, 3. Orissa expedition, 4. Conflict with Tripura and 5. Conquest of Chittagong. There was a long-running war between Husain Shah and the king of Tripura. The history of the kings of Tripura mentions this conflict in "Rajmala". It is known from Rajmala that Tripura Raja Dhanya-Manikya dominated Chittagong for some time. There is also mention of the occupation of Chittagong by the Arakanese Raj for some time. However, there is ample evidence of the permanent rights of Hussain Shah in Chittagong in contemporary Bengali literature and other sources. So it is believed that the kings of Tripura and Arakan clashed with Hussain Shah over the occupation of Chittagong. Due to the location and commercial situation in Chittagong, these clashes are very normal. However, it can be said without any doubt that the occupation of the kings of Arakan over Chittagong were very short-lived and the rights of the Husain Shahi rulers over Chittagong were intact from 1517 to 1538 AD. Nasrat Shah, son of Husain Shah, and most probably later Paragal Khan Chhuti Khan was the ruler of Chittagong. 6.1.2. Magh during Afghan rule in Bengal: Sher Khan Sur was the founder of the Afghan rule in Bengal. After the victory in the battle of Tosar, Sher Khan took the title of Sher Shah and declared independence in Bihar. He hastily attacked Gaur and captured the capital of Bengal by killing the Mughal ruler Jahangir Quli and his followers. By dominating Bengal and Bihar, Sher Shah occupied many parts of northern India. Humayun marched with his army to capture him. A battle was fought with Humayun near Sher Shah's Kanauj. Humayun was defeated in the battle of Kanauj (May 17, 1540 AD). As a result of this battle, Sher Shah ascended the throne of Delhi and established the Sur Afghan Empire in northern India by dispersing Humayun. From this Bangladesh again became part of the Delhi Empire. Bangladesh belonged to Sher Shah's empire till Chittagong and Shrihat. Until the reign of Sher Shah's son and successor Islam Shah (1545-53 - 17 - AD) Bangladesh was under Delhi. After the death of Islam Shah, the Afghan Empire was divided in the fierce civil war that broke out among the Afghans over the throne of Delhi. At this time Muhammad Khan Sur, the ruler of Bengal, declared independence and Muhammad Shah took the title of Sur. Meng Bang, the Mugh king of Arakan, captured Chittagong on the occasion of the Afghan Civil War. Muhammad Shah Sur defeated the Maghs and recaptured Chittagong and conquered Arakan. But his rule over Arakan did not last long. 6.1.3. Mogh (Marma) during Mughal rule in Bengal: During the reign of Emperor Akbar, nominal Bangladesh became part of the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule could not be established in this province. Mughal rule was confined to the cities and forts of north-west Bengal. The great zamindars (Land lords) of Bengal did not accept the Mughal rule. They adopted independence in their zamindari (land lord) after the end of Karrani rule. These zamindars (Land Lords) are known as Bar Bhuiyan. Most of the Bar Bhuiyans were Muslims. Emperor Akbar appointed Shahbaz Khan, one of his most famous generals, as the subaddar (Head of Administration) of Bengal in 1583 AD to establish Mughal rule in Bangladesh by suppressing the Bar Bhuiyans. Shahbaz Khan organized a massive campaign against Isa Khan and Masum Kabuli, the leaders of the Bar Bhuiyans. Isa Khan and Masum Kabuli expelled the Mughals from their zamindari. Subadar Sadiq Khan (1585 AD) and Wazir Khan (1586 AD), the successors of Shahbaz Khan, could not benefit from fighting against the zamindars for a long time. In 1608 AD Islam Khan was appointed Subadar. Subaddar Islam Khan (1608-1613 AD) suppressed the Bar Bhuiyans and established Mughal rule in the province. After the death of Subaddar Islam Khan, his younger brother Qasim Khan was appointed Subadar of Bengal (1613 AD). In 1616, Meng Beng, king of Arakan, joined the Portuguese pirates and attacked Bhuluya. Qasim Khan marched against them with a large navy. In the meantime, there was a rift between Meng Bang and his Firingi allies. On this occasion the Mughal army attacked the Arakanese forces and drove them out of Bhuluya. Kashim Khan tried to conquer Chittagong. His expedition to Chittagong failed. Emperor Jahangir appointed Ibrahim Khan Fateh Jung as subaddar of Bengal in 1617 AD in place of Qasim Khan. Ibrahim Khan was the brother of Empress Nurjahan Begum. Emperor Jahangir instructed him to take possession of this neighboring kingdom. In 1618 AD, Ibrahim Khan under Mirza Isfandiar and Mirza Nuruddin sent expeditions to the state of Tripura by land and water. The - 18 - Mughal forces advanced towards Udaipur, the capital of Tripura, via Meherpur and Comilla. King Yasomanikya resists them, but he suffers many losses in battle. He took refuge in Udaipur. Mughal forces attacked Udaipur and captured it. Yasomanikya fled to Arakan. At this time King Meng Khamang of Arakan was seizing the Sandhip from the Firingis and plundering the land on the banks of the Meghna River. Ibrahim Khan marched with a strong fleet to punish the Maghs of Arakan and drove them out of the Meghna. A few months later he organized an expedition from Tripura to Arakan. Leaving the fleet on the Feni iver, he proceeded towards Chittagong by land. On the way to the dense jungle his soldiers suffered great hardships and an epidemic broke out among them. Due to this the Arakan expedition was stopped. After the accession of Emperor Shahjahan to the throne, Fidai Khan was replaced by Kashim Khan Juniy as Subaddar of Bengal (04 February 1628). After Kashim Khan Jr., Azam Khan was the subaddar of Bengal for three years. After this Islam Khan Mashadi (1635-39 AD) was appointed Subadar. King Thudhamma of Arakan died during the reign of Subaddar Islam Khan Mashadi (1638 AD). King Thudhamma's son and his successor were killed and an official took over the throne. Thudhamma's brother and the ruler of Chittagong, Mangatara, fought against the usurper of the throne. Defeated in Mangatara, he fled and took refuge with the people in Jahangirnagar. The Mograja entered the Meghna River with a large navy and plundered the coastal areas. The Subadar advanced with a strong fleet to intercept the Maghs. Frightened, the king returned to his kingdom. For the several times the rulers of Bengal tried to occupy Chittagong by attacking the Mugh kings, the rulers of greater Chittagong, in order to extend their territory. Because then Chittagong was under Arakan state and was ruled by Mugh king. 6.1.4. Magh/Marma during Arakan rule in Chittagong (1550--1666 A.D): Arakan entered the greatest period of her history with the accession of Minbin in 1531. The king of Arakan firmly established their authority in Chittagong during the great part of the sixteenth century. Only for a short period during the reign of Mahmud Shah and Sher Shah in Bengal, Chittagong was in Muslim hands. According to an inscription in a sliver plate found in a Buddhist Kyang (Temple) in Chittagong, the Kyang (Temple) was built in 1542 by Chandilah Raja who was probably Arakanese governor for the Chittagong. - 19 - Minseyta (1554-71): According to Arakanese history, Nusrat Khan Son of Hamza Khan, the Pathan governor of Chittagong made submission to the Arakanese king Sawlha (1553-64) and sent him presents, Nusrat Khan had clashes with the Minseyta (1554-71), successor of Sawlha, and was killed by the Portuguese, who were supporting the Arakanese, in 1569-70. Caeser Frederico has also referred to this incident. Ralph Fitch who was in Chittagong in 1585 expressly stated that it was often under the Arakan king. Meng-Phalaung (1571-93): The Maghs entered Udaypur, looted it and camped there for 15 days in 1586 AD when Meng-Phalaung (1571-93) was the king of Arakan. He held all Chiltagong, and parts of Noakhali and Tippera. His son, Minnala, was the governor of Cbittagong. When the Tipperah king, Amar Manikya, was defeated in 1586, Jalal Khan is said to have died out of fear. Jalal's son, Ibrahim Khan, was the Uzir of Chittagong only in name. The real power was exercised by the Magh governor who was usually the second son of the Magh king. Meng Razagvi (1593-1612): In 1599 the Arakan king, Meng Razagvi (1593-1612) attacked Pegu. During the Arakanese occupation of Chittagong there were forts at Hinguli, Kumira, Garjis and Koterpara (near Hathazari). The Arakan king, Meng Radzagyi, who called himself king of Bengala and Tippera, issued from Chittagong trilingual coins in 1601 in Arabic, Burmese and Devanagri characters with his Burmese and Muslim titles. For a short time during his reign the Arakan dominion extended from Dacca and the Sunderbans upto Moulmein. Under the Mugh kings Chittagong was divided into three principalities e. g. Dianga, Chakrasals and Ramu. Under Arakanese occupation the governor of Chittagong was either a son, brother or faithful kinsman of the Arakan king who was supported by an Arakanese garrison. Every year the king sent a hundred boats full of troops, powder and ball and then the garrison, and boats sent in the previous year returned home to Arakan. Imports, and exports were subject to taxation during, the Arakanese rule in Chittagong. Taxes were also levied on fisheries, salt, dry fish and fruitful trees. The king had a monopoly in minerals, teak wood etc- Fees were realised for granting permission to dig tanks and canals, erect bridges and temples, and make roads. The union of the Portuguese freebooters with the Arakanese ushered the greatest period in Arakanese history (1550-1666) during which Chittagong was mostly in Arakanese hands. Towards the latter part of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese settlement at Chittagong was in a - 20 - flourishing state.The king of Arakan who held it, was favourably disposed towards the Portuguese. According to Ain-i- Akbari (1590) "To the east and south of Bengal is an extensive kingdom called Arakhang. The port of Chittagong belongs to it." Two days after the tide turned, as Carvalho came with relief from Sandwip. He and Mattos got up 50 vessels among which were 2 foists, 4 catures, 3 barques, and the rest being jaleas. With this fleet they set out early in the morning and made surprise attack on enemy's ships with such fury and violence that they were completely routed. They became masters of all the Arakanese ships numbering 149 with all ammunition muskets and other implements of war. Many Arakanese lost their lives in this engagement, notably Sinabadi, the uncle of the king of Arakan who was governor of Chittagong. Some escaped by jumping into the sea and swimming across to land. Meng Soa Pya (1614): In 1609 dispute arose between the heir apparent of Arakan and his brother Anaporan. The prince actually fought a battle against his brother, who, being defeated, fled to Gonsalves, ruler of Sandwip. Gonsalves promised to succour him and kept his daughter as a hostage. He and Anaporan combining their armies marched against the king of Arakan but as the latter came with an army of 80000 men and 700 fighting elephants, they returned to Sandwip. In the sea fight, however, Gonsalves's brother Antonio captured 100 sails of the enemy with only 5 vessels on his side. Anaporan brought over to Sandwip his wife, children and all his treasure. Gonsalves married Anaporan's daughter. Shortly after Anaporan died and as Gonsalves seized his treasure it was suspected he caused his death. The Portuguese took the son of Anaporan who was 8 years old and a minor daughter to Hughli. In 1614 Meng Soa Pya, son of Nandabayon, king- of Pegu, succeeded Anaporan as governor of Chittagong. In, 1630 for war service against the Mughal he was given the tittle of Bohmong. The Mughals since the death, of Daud Khan in 1575 were in possession of Bengal and had over thrown the Bhuiyans by 1612. They were now planning the conquest of Bhulua. As this place was close to Sandwip, Gonsalves and the king of Arakan, thinking that the Mughals would be a danger to their kingdoms, forgot their enmity and entered, into a mutual agreement to combat them. They planned in 1614 to invade. Bengal the Portuguese in a fleet by sea, and the king of Arakan, Meng Khamaung, with an army by land. The king of Arakan entrusted the whole of his fleet to Gonsalves keeping his nephew as hostage. During these negotiations Gonsalves gave back the widow of Anaporan who afterwards married the governor of Chittagong. The king of Arakan and the - 21 - Portuguese attacked in. 1614-15 the Mughals and drove them out of the principality of Bhulua and took Lakhipur, while Gonsalves barred their advance from the sea. In 1616 Quasim Khan, Subhadar of Bengal, launched an offensive against the Raja of Arakan with Chittagong as first objective. He himself advanced to Bhulua (February, 1616), whence he despatched Abdun Nabi with a force of 5000 cavalry, 5000 musketeers, 200 war elephants and a fleet of 1000 war boats towards Chittagong. The Arakan king, Meng Khamaung (Hussein Shah ) decided to check their advance by making a fort at Katghar, a strategic point about 20 miles north west of Chittagong( a village 2 miles south of Barabakunda ). He sent his chief officer Karamgiri with a force of 100,000 infantry besides 400 elephants and 1000 war boats to complete the fort and bold it. He personally started from his capital for the defence of his stronghold of Chittagong with an army of 300,000 infantry and 10,000 calalry, besides a large number of elephants and war boats. Informed by spies that the new fort was not yet complete and that the garrison in the fort of Chittagong was also very small as the Arakan king had not yet reached with his force, Abd-unNabi hastened to Katghar leaving behind Sarbad Khan and Shaik Kamal to make a fort and hold it for the purpose of keeping up communication and food supply to the invading army, and delivered a vigorous assault on the unfinished fort in the early hours of the morning. The Arakanese were taken by surprise and though they greeted the Mughals with a .heavy shower of shells, bullets, arrows, bombs and stones the latter quickly overcame the resistance and pressed the garrison,so hard that the fall of the fort seemed imminent. At this stage, the Mughal commander, owing to his want of experience and judgment, was easily induced by some of his officers to suspend hostilities for the day, and this single mistake turned the tide of the whole campaign. When the attack was resumed next morning, the situation had entirely changed. The garrison bad recovered from the shock of the sudden assault and offered such a determined resistance that the idea of storming the fort bad to be abandoned, and a siege decided on. But the siege operations dragged on and the besiegers themselves were soon reduced to the position of the besieged as a result of the activity of the commandant of the enemy fort. At the threat to the food supply of the main army, the Mughal commander raised the siege and retreated towards Dacca, leaving behind his heavy artillery and destroying about 500 mds. of gun powder (May, 1616). The Imperial army had halted at Nizampur which had been in possession of the Arakanese. The local zaminder (Land lord) surrendered to the Mughal commander. But after the departure of the Mughal army, the - 22 - pargana with a revenue of Rs. 600/- was re-occupied by the Mughs. In March, 1621 Ibrstnm Khan launched his long deferred Arakan campaign with Cbittagong as his objective from his new base at Tipperah. The route was more direct no doubt but it lay through a hilly region clad with dense forests, with a bad climate, and involving considerable difficulties in regard to transport and food supply, Ibrahim Khan was ill-advised to adopt this new route and the expedition failed, primarily because of his initial mistake in regard to the choice of the route. Leaving the fleet in the big Feni river, the viceroy proceeded with the land army slowly along the new route to Chittagong, clearing the forest as be passed by. In some places the forest was so thick that even the horses and the elephants could not move without great difficulty. The scarcity of food and pestilence in his camp forced Ibrahim Khan to withdraw with the ranks much depleted and the morale of the army much shaken. In 1625 the twelve chiefs who ruled Chittagong on behalf of the Magh governor rebelled at the instigation of the Mugbal viceroy. Thiri Thudamma marched with his army, the navy following him, and crushed the rebellion. He raided Bhulua during this campaign.10 He then proceeded unopposed to Khizirpur along the Dulai to the out-skirts of Dacca, defeated the Mughal officers who had at last come out to face them, entered the city and sacked it and retired with a large booty and a number of captives. At this time Mahabat Khan was the governor of Bengal but the administration of Bengal was in charge of Khanzad Khan, son of Mahabat Khan, a lazy, pleasure-see king youth. This was the last raid by Mughs during the reign of Jahangir. Though Mirza Bagis, the Bhulna tbanadar had been11 supplied with 700 cavalry and 300 war boats he could not check the Arakan force. During the Arakan occupation Chittagong there was close contact between the peoples of Chittagong and Arakan. A large number of Muslim noblemen who had left Gaur after its fall had gone to Arakan and settled in the capital. They were the chief courtiers of the Arakan king whose court followed Muslim manners and customs. The Muslim courtiers of the Arakan king were great patrons of Bengali literature. Poets like Daulat Qadi and Alawal flourished at Arakan during this period and received patronage from Syed Musa, Magan Thakur and others. Magan Thakur, who practically exercised the powers of a chief minister, was himself a poet. Thiri Thudamma (1622-38): Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) had rebelled against his father and occupied Dacca after killing Ibrahim Khan, the subahdar in 1624. At this time Thiri Thudamma (1622-38) sent his envoy to Dacca with rare gifts worth rupees one lac as peshkash. The Arakan - 23 - raja through his envoy swore loyalty to the prince. The prince sent a valuable dress of honour with many precious gifts to the Arakan king and issued a Farman confirming the sovereignty of his territory which then included Chittagong. An event occurred in 1638 which gave an additional impetus to the game of piracy in its most frightful form. Mangat Ray or Mukut Ray, governor of Chittagong, rebelled against the king of Arakan. After an unsuccessful attempt to raid Arakan he fled to Bengal for safety along with his leading partisans. He marched towards Bhulua and wrote to the Imperial thanadar of the frontier post of Jugdia for protection from the pursuing Magh fleet. By Islam Khan's command the thanadar of Jugdia drove away by gun fire 200 Magh jalias which were obstructing Mangat Rai and ferried him over the Feni River into Mughal territory. Taking advantage of the confusion of civil war in Chittagong over 10,000 people of Bengal who were held in slavery there by the Feringhis escaped to their home land. The Feringhi settlers and pirates of Chittagong who had backed Mangat Rai in his abortive rising, now abandoned that city in fear of the Magh king's vengeance. Most of them migrated to the Portuguese possessions and a few came over to the Mughals with their families and boats. In course of time most of the latter embraced Islam and became merged in the local population. Shaista Khan conquered Chittagong: Mangat Rgi's family and supporters with 14 elephants and nearly 9000 men (both Arakanese and Tailang) reached Dacca and were welcomed and provided for by the Subahdar. To revenge on the Bengal kingdom, the king of Arakan made friends with the Portuguese adventurers, took them into his service, paid those high salaries and settled them in Dianga. With their help he built vessels large enough, to carry cannons. Thus equipped he began ravaging and laying waste the Mughal territory and launched a naval attack which was repulsed by Islam Khan.12 These cruel practices of the Arakanese and the Portuguese to which the people of Bengal were subjected continued till 1666 when Shaista Khan conquered Chittagong and broke their power for ever. When the luckless prince Shah Shuja was defeated by Mir Jumla, he proceeded from Chittagong by road to Arakan for shelter. On his way to Arakan he is said to have visited Govinda Manikya, the exiled king of Tripura in Chittagong Hill Tracts. Govinda Manikya gave him a warm reception and helped him as far as he could in the circumstances, Shnja was so pleased with the reception - 24 - that he presented Govinda Msnikya with a diamond ring and a Neemcha sword as token of gratitude. There is a mosque called after Shaja in Comilla. According to tradition Shuja conquered Coniilla and built this mosque as memento of his conquest. It is said that the village Shuja-nagar in Tipperah contained the property given in waqf for the maintenance of this mosque. The place in Cox's Bazar subdivision where Shuja had said his Eidul Fitr prayers in 1660 during his ill-fated journey is known as Idgaown. The high road from Daudkandi in Tipperah district to Arakan through Chittagong is still known as Shah Shuja's Road. Presumably, it was built during Shah Shuja's viceroyalty in Bengal. There are a number of mosques on the side of the road from Daudkandi to Comilla which are said to have been built by the camp followers of Shah Shuja. Shah Shuja requested the king of Arakan to give him shelter and provide ships so that he could go to Mecca. Sandathudamma (1652-84): The king Sandathudamma (1652-84) consented and Shuja with his family and followers were brought to Mrouhaung, the capital city of Arakan, in Portuguese gelasses from Teknaf. He arrived at Mrohaung on 26th August, 1660 and was favourably received by the king who assigned him a residence near the city. Shuja kept aloof from the king repelled by his table manners. The Arakanese had never seen the like of his treasure, six or eight camel loads of gold and jewels; moreover the Mughals offered large sums for his extradition. Eight months went by, yet the king never provided the ships he had promised. Finally he asked for Shuja's eldest daughter, and .Shuja, a blue-blooded Mughal of the Imperial house, felt that his cup of bitterness was full. He was helpless and could not get away. Shah Shuja, realising his peril, made a desperate attempt to escape from the country. But his plans miscarried, and when the populace got upon his followers the latter ran amok and set fire to a large part of the city before they were rounded up and massacred. It was given out that Shah .Shuja had attempted to seize the place. The king, it was said, had been dissuaded by his mother from having him killed. She argued that killing princes was a dangerous sport for which his own subjects might acquire a taste. But on 7-2-1661 Shah Shuja's residence was attacked and there was another massacre. Shah Shuja was never seen again. It was rumoured that he had fled to the .hills with his sons but had been caught and put to death. The chief of the Dutch factory at Mrohang reported (the prince Shah Shuja is believed, though with no certainty, to .have perished in the first fury, but his body was made unrecognisable by the grandees in order the better to be able to deck their persons with the costly jewels he wore. His three sons, together with his wives and daughters, have been taken ; the wives and daughters have - 25 - been brought to the King's palace and the sons after being imprisoned for some time, have been released and permitted to live in a little house. Every day the .gold and silver which the Arakanese have taken, are brought into the King's treasury to be melted down.') As soon as Mir Jumla heard through the Dutch factory at Dacca of Shah Shuja's murder he commanded a Dutch ship to carry an envoy to Mrohaung with a peremptory demand for the surrender of Shah Shuja's children. It was refused and the king protested to Batavia against the use of Dutch ship by a Mughal envoy. In July 1663 a desperate attempt to rescue the three captive princes failed. Thereupon the king burnt his boats 'by having them beheaded and slaughtering a large number of Bengalees and Moslems at the capital. A mournful ballad about the tragic life of the daughter of Shuja is current in Chitta-gong and Arakan and has been collected in East Bengal Ballads published by the Calcutta University. 7. The expulsion of the Mogh/Mugh (Marma) from Chittagong: The expulsion of the Mogh/Mugh from Bangladesh and the conquest of Chittagong was a particularly memorable and meritorious deed of Shaista Khan's subadari. Chittagong was ruled by the Arakanese king. In 1617, the Arakanese king seized the Sandhip from the Portuguese. As a result, it was very convenient for the Mugh/Mogh pirates to plunder the Meghna region up to Dhaka. Mogh/Mugh and Firingi pirates used to come together and cause havoc in this area. The Portuguese and Firingi pirates were called Harmads. These pirates captured men and women and sold them as slaves to European merchants. European merchants sent them to different countries as commodities. The Maghs/Mughs took many to Arakan and employed men as laborers and kept girls as slaves. Subedar Shaista Khan felt the urgent need to take measures to protect the lives and property of the people from the intrusion of the Mogh and Firingi pirates. To repel them, he built many warships and collected warships from different places. In this way he equipped 300 warships and prepared for the campaign against the pirates. His mission was to conquer Sandhip and Chittagong. Shortly before the expedition, a fugitive naval chief of the Mughal navy named Dilayar snatched Sandhip from the Arakanese and established his dominance there. Ibn Husain, the Mughal naval commander, attacked Sandhip with his navy and defeated and captured Dilayar and captured Sandhip (November 1665 AD). At this time a dispute arose between the Mogh rulers of Chittagong - 26 - and the Portuguese and the Mughal officials of Noakhali took advantage of this. The Firingis of Chittagong took refuge in Noakhali in 42 fishing boats with their families and treasures. Subedar Shaista Khan sent an expedition from Dhaka to conquer Chittagong on 24 December 1665 AD. Buzurg Umed Khan, the eldest son of Subadar, was appointed chief of the expedition. Ibn Husayn, the commander of the navy, set sail for the river with 288 warships. The Firingis joined him with 40 warships. Buzurg Umed's army advanced from Noakhali and Ibn Husain's navy marched towards Chittagong from the coast of Bahia. On 14 January the Mughal troops crossed the Feni River and entered the Chittagong area. When the Mughal fleet left Comilla and approached the Kathalia canal, it was stopped by the Mogh navy. On 23th and 24th January 1666 AD, a naval battle was fought between the two sides near Kathalia canal. The Mogh naval fleet suffered heavy losses in this battle and it fell into the Karnafuli River. The Mogh navy was ready to resist the Mughals on the Karnafuli River. Ibn Husayn's navy entered the Karnafuli River and attacked the Maghs. Several ships of the Arakanese sank in the Mughal shelling. They were completely defeated and 135 of their warships were captured by the Mughals. The victorious Mughal naval commander besieged the port of Chittagong by river. At this time the army of Buzurg Umed was near Chittagong. One day after the battle, the Mogh army became helpless and surrendered to Ibn Husain. On 26 January 1666 AD, the victorious Mughal general Buzurg Umed entered the Chittagong fort. 2000 Moghs were captured by the Mughals. The Mogh pirates captured thousands of Bengali peasants and enslaved them, but they were released after the Mughal conquest of Chittagong. Chittagong became part of the Mughal Empire and its rule was vested in a faujdar. By the order of the emperor, the name of Chittagong was changed to Islamabad. After the occupation of the Chittagong region of the Arakan state by the ruler of Bengal, most of the Arakanese Maghs/Marmas settled in the Chittagong Hill Tracts along with the Magh / Marma and other ethnic groups. As Greater Chittagong was formerly part of the Arakan Empire, the Arakanese Maghs settled in Bandarban, Rangamati and various parts of Khagrachhari district and Rangunia, Satkania and Eidgaon in Chittagong district and the Rakhine settled in Cox's Bazar, Maheshkhali, Ukhia and Teknaf. Mugs / Marmas stay permanently in these places. The Mughs/Marmas lived in the river valleys like Sangu River, Karnafuli River, Matamuhri River and Zum farmers lived in the hills. - 27 - In 1760 AD, Chittagong district was transferred to East India Company. In 1781 AD, The Chittagong Hill Tracts were blocked or economically isolated. Thus the war lasted for about 10 years. Finally tired, the government of the company made a treaty with the Chakma king in 16 AD. In that treaty the internal independence of the king of the Chittagong Hill Tracts was recognized. The year 1937-48 is very important in the history of political evolution of the Indian subcontinent. Towards the end of this period, the British government decided to hand over power, which resulted in the creation of two independent and sovereign states, India and Pakistan. Pakistan became independence on 14 August 1947. The state of Pakistan was born on 14 August 1947 on the basis of biracialism. Bangladesh became independence on 16 December 1971. 8. Pegu from where the Marma of Bomaong Circle arrived (Bohmaong Hthong): Pegu, Burmese Bago (Bago formerly spelt Pegu) formerly known as Hanthawaddy is a city and the capital of the Bago Region in Myanmar. The pegu city, on the Pegu River, 47 miles (76 km) northeast of Yangon (Rangoon). Pegu was the capital of the Mon kingdom and is surrounded by the ruins of its old wall and moat, which formed a square, with 1.5-mile (2.4-kilometre) sides. On the Yangon–Mandalay railway, it is the start of a branch line southeast along the Gulf of Martaban, an inlet of the Bay of Bengal, and has extensive road links in all directions. In 1369, King Binnya U made Bago the capital. The city remained the capital until the kingdom's fall in 1538. During the reign of King Razadarit, Bago and Ava Kingdom were engaged in the Forty Years' War. The peaceful reign of Queen Shin Sawbu came to an end when she chose the Buddhist monk Dhammazedi (1471–1492) to succeed her. Under Dhammazedi, Bago became a centre of commerce and Theravada Buddhism. In 1519, António Correia, then a merchant from the Portuguese casados settlement at Cochin landed in Bago, then known to the Portuguese as Pegu, looking for new markets for pepper from Cochin. A year later, Portuguese India Governor Diogo Lopes de Sequeira sent an ambassador to Pegu. The Portuguese conquest of Pegu, following the destruction caused by the kings of Tangot and Arrakan in 1599. - 28 - The capital was looted by the viceroy of Toungoo, Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo, and then burned by the viceroy of Arakin during the Burmese–Siamese War (1594–1605). Anaukpetlun wanted to rebuild Hangsawadi, which had been deserted since Nanda Bayin had abandoned it. He was only able to build a temporary palace, however. The Burmese capital relocated to Ava in 1634. In 1740, the Mon revolted and founded the Restored Hansawaddy Kingdom. However, a Bamar king, Alaungpaya, captured the city in May 1757. Bago was rebuilt by King Bodawpaya (r. 1782-1819), but by then the river had shifted course, cutting the city off from the sea. It never regained its previous importance. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War, the British annexed Bago in 1852. In 1862, the province of British Burma was formed, and the capital moved to Yangon. The substantial differences between the colloquial and literary pronunciations, as with Burmese words, was a reason of the British corruption "Pegu". 9. The Mrauk-U Where from the Marma of Mong Circle (Palai Mang Hthong): The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was an independent coastal kingdom of Arakan which existed for over 350 years. It was based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The kingdom from 1429 to 1785 ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar and Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. From 1429 to 1531 it was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. After gaining independence from Bengal, it prospered with help from the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its reign continued until the 18th century, when it fell to the invasion of the Burmese Empire. It was home to a multiethnic population with the city of Mrauk U being home to mosques, temples, shrines, seminaries and libraries. The kingdom was also a center of piracy and the slave trade. It was frequented by Arab, Danish, Dutch and Portuguese traders. 10. About Arakane from where the Marma arrived: Arakan, coastal geographic region in southern Myanmar (Burma). It comprises a long, narrow strip of land along the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal and stretches from the Nāf estuary on the border of the Chittagong Hills area (in Bangladesh) in the north to the Gwa River in the south. The Arakan region is about 400 miles (640 km) long from north to south and is about 90 miles (145 km) wide at its broadest. The Arakan Yoma, a range that forms the eastern boundary of the region, - 29 - to some extent isolates it from the rest of southern Myanmar. The coast has several sizable offshore islands, including Cheduba and Ramree. The region’s principal rivers are the Nāf estuary and the Mayu, Kaladan, and Lemro rivers. Only one-tenth of Arakan’s generally hilly land is cultivated. Rice is the dominant crop in the delta areas, where most of the population is concentrated. Other crops include fruits, chilies, dhani (thatch), and tobacco. The natural hillside vegetation of evergreen forest has been destroyed over wide areas by shifting cultivation (slashing and burning to clear land for cultivation) and has been replaced by a useless tangle of bamboo. The main towns are coastal and include Sittwe (Akyab), Sandoway, Kyaukpyu, and Taungup. Long accessible only by sea, the Arakan region is now linked by air and road with the rest of the country. An all-weather road running through a pass in the Arakan Yoma connects Taungup with Pyè on the Irrawaddy River. Arakanese, also called Rakhine, ethnic group centred in the Arakan coastal region of Myanmar (Burma), in the state of Rakhine. Most Arakanese speak an unusual variety of the Burmese language that includes significant differences from Burmese pronunciation and vocabulary. An independent Arakanese kingdom was probably established as early as the 4th century CE and was led at various times by Muslim as well as Buddhist rulers. Modern Arakanese continue to follow distinctive traditions and to celebrate this part of their history. The huge Mahamuni statue (now in Mandalay) is considered by Buddhist Arakanese to be their national image and is alleged to predate the Burmese kingdom centred at Pagan (1044–1287 CE) by a millennium. Eventually the Mongols, and later the Portuguese, invaded Arakan. In 1785 Burmese forces conquered the Arakanese kingdom and carried the Mahamuni statue off to Mandalay. The Arakan region was ceded to the British in 1826 through the Treaty of Yandabo. When Myanmar became independent from British rule in 1948, the province in which the Arakanese are dominant was named Arakan. This name was changed to Rakhine in the 1990s. 11. Situation of Marma in Bangladesh: The Marma people are the second-largest ethnic community in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts, primarily residing in the Bandarban, Khagrachari and Rangamati Hill Districts. Some - 30 - Marmas live in Bangladesh's coastal districts of Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali, while others live in State of Tripura, India and Myanmar. There are over 210,000 Marmas living in Bangladesh. Since the 16th century, the Marma have considered the Chittagong Hill Tracts their home, where they have established the Bohmong and Mong Circles (Circle chief). Marma inhabited areas in Bangladesh are - in Bandraban district - Sadar, Roangchhari, Ruma, Thanchi, Lama, Alikadam and Naikhyangchhari. In Khagrachhari Sadar, Ramgarh, Laxichhari, Manikchhari, Guimara, Matiranga and Panchhari upazilas. In Rangamati district, Marmas live in Sadar, Kaptai, Kaukhali, Rajsthali, Bilaichhari and a very small number of Naniachar upazilas. Rangunia and Fatikchhari upazilas of Chittagong district and Baraghona in Barisal district In cox’s Bazar and Patuakhali mostly are Rakhain. There are about 35 smaller groups of Indigenous communities in Bangladesh covering about two percent of the total population have been living in different pockets of the hilly zones and some plain lands of the country. On the other hand according to the Bangladesh Adivasi Forum, there are 45 ethnic groups with approximately 2.5 million living side by side with the Bengali majority people. According to the government statistics the total number of Adivasi is 12,05,978 which is only 1.03 percent of the total population. They areChakma, Marma, Tripura, Tanchanga, Bawm, Chak, Khyang, Khumi, Lushai, Mro. Pangkhoa, and Rakhain, in Chttagong Hill Tracts regions. Bhuimale, Lahra, Mahali, Monda, Noonia, Oraro, Pahan, Palia, Rabidas, Raybansi, Ranjoarh, Rana KIarmaker, Santal, in the North Bengal Region and Been, Bhumig, Boraj, Barman, Dalu, Garo, Hajongn, Haleam, Kharia, Khari, Koch,Konda, Kurmi, Manipuri, Nayek, Pangan, Patra, Shabar in the Mymensingh and Sylhet . The primary census report of 2011 gives the number of ethnic population groups of Bangladesh. Although the Marma tribe of Bangladesh has been somewhat influenced by modern living in that they use make use of aluminum cookware and glass or china crockery in place of their traditional pottery, bamboo and wood utensils, they still follow many of the traditional ways of life. Their bamboo, straw and wild grass houses are built on wooden or bamboo platforms raised above the ground. The space below the floor is used for storage, or as shelter for livestock. Their clothing typically consists of a sarong for both men and women, with women wearing a blouse and men - 31 - wearing a type of waistcoat. Traditionally, fabric is woven on handlooms and clothing is generally handmade. However, it is reportedly becoming more common to see Marmas wearing ready-made clothing bought from the local market. Marma communities consist of nuclear families, with the husband as head of the household. Family and community ties going back through generations are respected, and both sons and daughters can inherit their parent’s property, although not necessarily equally. With rice and vegetables as their staple food, Marmas are subsistence farmers, and are skilled at basketry and weaving. The traditional three-tier system of political administration continues among the Marmas, with a Raja as the chief, a headman below the Raja and village level authority resting with a karbari. These authoritative figures are entrusted with resolving disputes and maintaining law and order among those under their jurisdiction, continuing a long-held tradition of the Marma Tribe of Bangladesh. 12. Homeland of Marma: The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in the southeastern part of Bangladesh comprises a total area of 5,093 sq. miles (13,189 sq. km.) encompassing three hill districts: Rangamati, Khagrachari and Bandarban. It shares borders with Myanmar on the south and southeast, India on the north and northeast, and the Chittagong district of Bangladesh on the west. It is different in georgaphical features, agricultural practices, and soil conditions from the rest of the country due to its mountainous landscape. CHT is located between 21°-40′ degrees and 23°-47′ degrees north latitude and 91°-40′ degrees and 92°-42′ degrees east longitude. It is a unique territory with marked socio-economic and cultural differences from the rest of Bangladesh. - 32 - 13. The Chittagong Hill Tracts into three Circles Chiefs: In Bandarban, Rangamati and Khagrachari of the Chittagong Hill Tracts there is still a king system. For hundreds of years, the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts have been following the orders of the three kings. But the kings do not have much power now. They have no choice but to issue permanent resident certificates, collect taxes, and do some social justice. But the three kings have a long history. Although they call themselves kings in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, according to the law, their real position is 'Circle Chief'. The term was created during the British rule in accordance with the Chittagong Hilltracks Regulation 1900 Act or the Chittagong Hilltracks Manual. Being a remote hilly area, they divided the Chittagong Hill Tracts into three circles or areas for the purpose of collecting rent and suppressing the Chakma rebellion. In 1860, the British government divided the Chittagong Hill Tracts into three circles, Chakma, Bomang and Mong. Bomang Circle is located in Bandarban, Chakma Circle in Rangamati and Mong Circle in Khagrachari. From then on the circle system was introduced. According to the rules of the Chakma and Mong circles, the eldest son of the royal family was anointed as the king in the lineage, but in the Bomang circle of Bandarban, the eldest member of the dynasty became the king. Barrister Debashish Roy is currently serving as the Chakma Raja in Rangamati, KS Pru is serving as the Raja of Bandarban Bomang Circle and Saching Pru Chowdhury is serving as the Mong Raja in Khagrachari. It is learned that Debashish Roy was arrested on November 25, 1987 in Rangamati It is learned that Debashish Roy officially took over as the king on November 25, 1977 in Rangamati. He is the 51st king of the Chakma circle. After the death of 16 Bomang Raja KS Pru, his successor Uch Pru was appointed as Bomang Raja by the government on 24 April 2013. He has been in charge since then. Prior to that, he served as a Civil Engineer in various organizations. Saching Pru, the current king of the Mong Circle in Khagrachari. When Raja Paiha Pru Chowdhury died in a road accident last year, Saching Pru was appointed king. He is the 9th king of the Mong circle. Meanwhile, there are 178 mouzas in Chakma circle, 97 in Bomang circle and 100 in Mong circle. The headmen act as the head of each mouza. In each neighborhood there is a trader as the king's representative. The king appoints headmen and merchants. And the headman and the traders 32 collect taxes including maintaining law and order in the area. Meanwhile, every year during the winter, three kings organize Rajpunyah. At this time the tenants paid rent for their land. A royal ceremony was organized on the occasion. However, in Rangamati and Khagrachari there is not much circulation of Rajpunyah. But in Bandarban Rajpunyah is held at a certain time every year. And 42 per cent of the rent collected in Rajpunya is deposited in the king's treasury, 37 per cent in the headman and 21 per cent in the government treasury. The kings were very powerful during the British rule. The rights of the kings have been curtailed at different times since the time of Pakistan. Since independence, their power has been declining. Meanwhile, the kings still get only 5 thousand rupees. And Headman 500 and Karbari 300 rupees. There is anger among the king, headman and traders about this. Bomang Raja said, "Even if we are kings, we do not get any benefits." 14. The king of Marma (Chief of the Bomang Circle and Mong Circle): 14.1.1. The custom of being king of Bomang; Other dynasties have the policy of anointing a prince. But not the prince in the Bomang dynasty, the oldest member of the dynasty inherits the throne of the Bomang dynasty. The tradition of having the oldest member Rajapada from the sixth Bomang king was introduced. 14.1.2. The custom of being king of Mong; The Mong Circle is the name of the traditional government body in the administrative district of Khagrachari in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Headed by the Mong Chief, or Raja, the Mong Circle is responsible for the operation of customary law within the 88 Mouza areas, and for the management of land and natural resources such as forests and water sources. These vital functions are delivered through an extensive network of 88 Headman and 950 Karbari, with one Headmen governing a Mouza of up to 40 villages. The Karbari are local community leaders who resolve disputes, coordinate development projects and act as a link between village governance and the various formal agencies of the CHT. 14.1.3. Rajpunyah; The festival of collecting rent from the Jum farmers of Bomang Circle has been celebrated since 185. The festival is usually held in December or January every year. Leads in various matters of social justice and tradition in their respective areas. Moreover, after collecting rent from the zoom farmers, they keep their share and deposit the rest in the government's revenue fund. The name of this rent collection ceremony is Rajpunyah. 33 Although the Chakma Circle of Rangamati and the Rajpunyah Joulus of the Mong Circle of Khagrachari lost over time, it is still celebrated with great pomp in the Bomang Circle of Bandarban. On the occasion of Rajpunyah, a folk fair was organized at the local Rajbari ground. Thousands of hill-Bengali citizens from far and wide of the district attended the festival. Will make. The fair usually lasts for 3 days at Rajpunyah and the surrounding areas including the king's field. Apart from shops and stalls, various sports and events including Jatra songs, Bichitra programs, circus, puppet dances, house games and death wells have been organized at the fair. At present, the festival has become one of the leading brands in the cultural identity and tourism of Bandarban. At a recent conference, the three kings demanded a bodyguard and a car for the kings. Meanwhile, although the king did not have much power, the royal tradition and the old history of the kings still attract the tourists who come to visit the Chittagong Hill Tracts. So everyone who comes to visit from home and abroad, even if it is at a glance, see the palace. If possible, meet with the king. 14.1.4. The Bohmong Circle: Raja Maung Saw Pru (also spelt Mong Saw Pru) was a son of King Nanda Bayin (Nanda Bayin, was king of Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1581 to 1599) and grandson of Bayinnaung (Bayinnaung Kyawhtin Nawrahta was king of the Toungoo Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from 1550 to 1581). He was the 1st Governor of the Bohmong Circle (modern-day Bandarban District) from 1599 to 1631 appointed by Arakan king Min Razagyi during the Toungoo dynasty. Maung Saw Pru is the first ruler of Bohmong Htaung (Circle) who was the son of King Nanda Bayin of Pegu and grandson of Bayinnaung. In 1599, Min Razagyi (Min Razagyi was king of Arakan from 1593 to 1612.), the King of Arakan led to the capitulation of Hanshawaddy Kingdom (The Hanthawaddy Kingdom was the Mon kingdom that ruled lower Burma (Myanmar) from 1287 to 1539 and from 1550 to 1552). Nanda Bayin, the King of Pegu was defeated and perished in the war. Daughter of Nanda Bayin, Princess Thien Daw Hnang and minor Prince Maung Saw Prue were taken into Mrauk U Kingdom, the capital of Arakan, as captive along with other booties. Some 3000 families from Pegu followed 34 the scion of their ruler and settled in Arakan. The Arakanese King Min Razagyi appointed a Prince of Pegu Maung Saw Pru as the governor of newly established Bohmong Htaung (Circle) by giving the title of "Bohmong" Raja in 1599. Son of the Min Razagyi, King Khamaung (Min Khamaung; was a king of Arakan from 1612 to 1622) of Mrauk U married the Princess Thien Daw Hnang and appointed his brother-in-law Prince Maung Saw Pru as Governor of Chittagong in 1614. In 1614, King Khamaung, the king of Arakan, appointed Maung Saw Pru as Governor of Chittagong. In 1620, who repulsed the Portuguese invasion with extreme courage and valor, King Khamaung conferred the title "Bohmong" (means the Great General) to Maung Saw Pru. As a consequence, the Arakanese king Khamaung awarded Maung Saw Pru the title of Bohmong meaning "Great General". Once Bohmong Htaung was ruled by Bohmong Rajas who were the subordinates to the Arakanese kings. Ancestors of the present Bohmong dynasty were the successor of the Pegu King of Burma under the Arakan's rule in Chittagong. After the death of Maung Saw Pru two successors retained the Bohmong title. During the time of Bohmong Hari Gneo in 1710, the Arakanese King Sanda Wizaya (Candavijaya) recaptured Chittagong from the Mughals. Bohmong Hari Gneo helped King Sanda Vijaya in recapturing Chittagong and as a mark of gratitude the latter conferred on Bohmong Hari Gneo the grand title of Bohmong Gree which means "great Commander-in-Chief". Bohmong Htaung is Now Bandarban District, Chittagong Division, and South-Eastern Bangladesh. Bandarban Hill District was once called Bohmong Htaung since the Arakanese rule. A son of King Nanda Bayin (son of Bayinnaung) was placed in charge of an area around Chittagong by the King of Arakan in 1599 (after the successful Arakanese attack on Pegu). He was Maung Saw Pru and reigned until 1631. Ever since, his descendants have ruled over what's become known as the "Bohmong Circle", home to over 200,000 people of Arakanese, Burmese, and Mon ancestry in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, now in Bangladesh. The dynesty of Bomang Circle: 1. Mong Saw Pru Bomang (1614-1630 AD) 2. Mong Grai Bomang (1630-1665 AD) 3. Hery Prue Bomang (1665-1687 AD) 35 4. Hery Nyo Bomangri (1687-1727 AD) 5. Kong Hla Prue Bomangri (1727-1811 AD) 6. Shak Thai Prue Bomangri (1811-1840 AD) 7. Kong Hla Nyo Bomangri (1840-1866 AD) 8. Mong Prue Bomangri (1866-1875 AD) 9. Sha Nhong Nyo Bomangri (1875-1901 AD) 10. Cha Hla Prue Bomangri (1901-1916 AD) 11. Mong Sa Nyo Bomangri (1916-1923 AD) 12. Kya Jai Prue Bomangri (1923-1933 AD) 13. Kya Jaw Shain Bomangri (1933-1959 AD) 14. Mong Sowe Prue Bomangri (1959-1996 AD) 15. Aung Showi Prue Chowdhury Bomangri (1998- 8 August 2012 AD) 16. Kya Sain Prue Chowdhury Bomangri (18 September 2012- 6 February 2013) 17. U Cha Prue Chowdhury Bomangri (24 April 2013- Continue) The Bohmong chieftains claim descent from Tabinshwehti and Nanda Bayin of the Toungoo Empire. During British rule, the Chittagong Hill Tracts were administratively divided into three circles in 1884, namely the Chakma Circle, the Bohmong Circle, and the Mong Circles, each presided over by a hereditary chief from the Chakma and Marma peoples.The circles were codified into law with the Chittagong Hill Tract Regulations, 1900, eased revenue collection and administrative burdens on British authorities by delegating tax collection, land administration management and social arbitration responsibilities to the chieftains. In 1901, the Bohmong Circle extended 2,064 square miles (5,350 km2). This administrative structure remained in place until 1964, when the introduction of local self-government abolished the special status of these circles and brought local administration under the control of the central government. The Marma inhabitants in the Bohmong Circle are known as ragraisa (Khyong-Sa). 14.1.5. The Mong Circle: The Mong Circle is one of three hereditary chiefdoms (or "circles") in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of modern-day Bangladesh. The jurisdiction of the Mong Circle encompasses parts of Khagrachhari District. The chiefdom's members are of Marma descent and are known as phalansa. 36 Most inhabitants of the Mong Circle settled in the northwest during a migration wave from the Kingdom of Mrauk U (modern-day Arakan State in Myanmar) between the 16th and 18th centuries. The Kingdom of Mrauk-U was an independent coastal kingdom of Arakan which existed for over 350 years. It was based in the city of Mrauk-U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. The kingdom from 1429 to 1785 ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar and Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. From 1429 to 1531 it was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. After gaining independence from Bengal, it prospered with help from the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its reign continued until the 18th century, when it fell to the invasion of the Burmese Empire. The Mong Circle dates to 1782 with the first chieftain, Mrachai. During British rule, the British authorities designated the Mong Circle in 1871, to encompass an ethnically mixed population in the Feni valley. In 1881, the Chittagong Hill Tracts were administratively divided into three circles, namely the Chakma Circle, the Bohmong Circle, and the Mong Circles, each presided over by a hereditary chief from the Chakma and Marma peoples. The circles were codified into law with the Chittagong Hill Tract Regulations, 1900, eased revenue collection and administrative burdens on British authorities by delegating tax collection, land administration management and social arbitration responsibilities to the chieftains. In 1901, the Mong Circle extended 653 square miles (1,690 km2). This administrative structure remained in place until 1964, when the introduction of local self-government abolished the special status of these circles and brought local administration under the control of the central government. The Dynasty of Mong circle: The Mong Dynasty can be traced through British records from the 17th Centery. The first Chief of the Mong was Raja Kong Joy, who ruled in the 17th century. In 1826, the Prince Kyo Jo Sin became the second Raja at the age of 6. The third Raja succeeded the throne in 1870 and continued his rule until 1879 July 1883, after the death of Raja Nirobhodhi his younger brother the Prince Keeojaprue Sin became the 4th king of the Mong Circle. On his death his niece Ni-u-mah was installed at the throne as the 5th Raja of the Mong Circle. A ruler from the age of 13, she remains the only woman to have led the Mong Dynasty, indeed the only woman Raja to have ruled any Circle in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. 37 In 1922 her son Mong Prue Sin, became the sixth Raja of Mong circle and continued his reign till 1984. Raja Mong Prue Sin joined the Freedom Fighters of Bangladesh in 1971, and was awarded the highest honour as a “BIR” by the government. His service to the nation was widely recognised, on his death Government and the Bangladeshi police honoured him. In 1984, Raja Paihala Prue Chowdhury, son of former Raja Ni-u-mah Sin’s cousin was appointed as 7th Mong Raja. Raja Paihala Prue was known as a kind and fair Leader, who commanded the respect of Headmen, Karbari and residents. Under his leadership, the Mong Circle started the process of modernization, providing training to the Headmen on their duties and successfully managing the build of 5 new Multi Purpose Community Centres. In 2008, he died tragically in an accident on his return journey from a study tour hosted by the Australian Government. Raja Saching Prue Chowdhury was confirmed as 8th Mong Raja and continues his rule today. The young Raja aims to create a Mong Circle that serves and represents all residents of the Khagrachari area. 15. Marma Population: 15.1.1. Marma population in Bangladesh: Marmas are the second largest ethnic group in Bangladesh. The primary census report of 2011 gives the number of ethnic population groups of Bangladesh as 27. The first is Chakma, consisting of 444,748 people while the Marma, the second largest ethnic group compares with 202,974 persons. In 2007, around 150,000 Marma were lived in Bangladesh. In 1991 census recorded the number of Marma population in Bangladesh at about 157,301. More than eighty per cent of them lived in Bandaarban, Rangamati, Khagrachari and Rest of live in Patuakhali, Moheshkhali, Teknaf, Ramu, Cox's Bazar and Chittagong (Rangunia, Fatikchari). The Magh / Marma population as a whole declined over the years, particularly in the districts of Bandarban, Chittagong and Patuakhali. It is recorded that in 1872, there were 4,049 Marmas in the Patuakhali region and later the number increased to 16,394 in 1951, but reduced to 3,713 in 1979 15.1.2. Marma/Magh population in India: As per the 2011 Census of India, Marma had a total population of 4,640 of which 2,411 (52%) were males and 2,221 (48%) were females. Population below 6 years was 699. The total number of literates in Marma was 2,669 (67.72% of the 38 population over 6 years). In 2001 Indian census, 30,600 Marma were lived in the Mizoram and Tripura areas of India. 16. Marma Groups/Sub-Community: The Marmas are divided into several groups. It is believed that the groups were named after the place where the ancestors of these groups first came and settled. Below is a brief introduction and list of the groups of Marmas currently found in the CHT: Rgre-sa/Rege-sa/Khyong-sa, Plaing-sa, Kokdain-sa, Longdung-sa, Frang-sa/Frangra-sa, Oyoi-sa, Chiring-sa, Marok-sa/Marong-sa, Sbok-sa, Lemro-sa, Kyakfya-sa, Kronkyong-sa, and Sakpregyasa. 16.1.1. Rgre-sa/Rege-sa/Khyong-sa: Lives on the banks of "Rugre / Rage Kya" or Sangundi. Rugre or Rikrai Khang means river of clear water. They are known as Rugresa or Khangsa as they live on the coast of Rugre Khang. However, there are some settlements of Khangs in Benchhari, Kalabania and Kwaikhyang and Narachari of Kaptai upazila of Rangamati hill district. 16.1.2. Plaing-sa; It is said that before migrating to the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the "Plengsa" predecessors lived on the banks of a mountain river called Peleng Khyang / Pelo Khyong in northern Arakan. Plainsa lives in the entire Khagrachhari district. 16.1.3. Kokdain-sa; the ancestors of this group of Marmas, who have passed down the lineage, first came from Arakan and settled in the "Kakdain Tong" or Kakdain hills. That is why the name of this group became Kokdainsa. Another explanation is given behind this naming. It is said that their predecessors were tax (Fainda) collector (Koksa). It is thought to have originated from Fainda Koksa. The Kakdain-as are scattered in Raikhali Union of Kaptai Upazila and Slebukkya or Betbunia Union of Kaukhali Upazila. 16.1.4. Longdung-sa; what the "Landuksa" say is that they had to push the boat while fleeing Arakan. The Marma word Long Thosa (Long = boat in Bengali, Thosa = that which pushes away) has been distorted and become Longduk-sa. They mainly live in Kaukhali upazila of Rangamati district. However, they have several settlements in Balukhali, Burighat, Jibatali and Bilaichhari upazilas of the same district. 39 16.1.5. Frang-sa/Frangra-sa; the group came to be known as "Frang-sa" or "Franrasa" from the Marma word "prang re" ((Brave in Bengali). The "Frangsas" themselves claim that the "Frangsas" are naturally humble. They have large settlements in Kaukhali upazila of Rangamati district "Chingangambra" (Betbunia) and Dong Krong (Dongnala) in Kaptai upazila. 16.1.6. Oyoi-sa; wherever they live, they first plant fruits, vegetables, etc. around the house and build a garden. The garden is called "U-yoin" in Marma. The origin of the name "Oyoi-sa" is from this "U-Yoin". They are settled in Bandeya (Bangalhalia) area of Rajsthali upazila under Rangamati district. 16.1.7. Chiring-sa; At present they live in Shilak, Chiring Barkhola of Sarafbhata Union and Pekua in Padua Union of Rangunia Upazila under Chittagong District. 16.1.8. Marok-sa/Marong-sa; at present they live in Rajvila, Udalbania (Thaingkhyang) of Rajvila Union in Sadar upazila of Bandarban district and Khik Phya in Rangamati Sadar. 16.1.9. Sbok-sa, they live on the banks of the river Sabok. The upper reaches of the Burmese border of the Sangu River (Rugre Khyang) of Bandarban district are known as "Subok Khyang". 16.2.0. Lemro-sa; the group became known as the "Lemrosa" after migrating from the "Lemro" region of Arakan. Their habitat is mainly concentrated in Lama and Naikhyangchhari upazilas of Bandarban district. 16.2.1. Kyakfya-sa; the group is known as the "Kyakfyassa" because it comes from the "Kyak Fru" region of Arakan. They have settlements at Chingmrong, Wagang (Wagga) and Kamlong in Kaptai upazila. 16.2.2. Kronkyong-sa; their ancestors lived along the hill rhyme "Krong Khyang". They are known to live in the Krong Khyang area. 16.2.3. Sakpregya-sa; they live about 10 miles east of Harbang in Chuk Kra or Chakoria upazila of Chittagong district. 40 17. Marma Language: Marmas have their own dialect, which has close resemblance with Burmese and Arakanese. Their written characters is Burmese. Marma language belongs to the Burma-Arakan group within the broad classifications of Tibet-Burma languages. In recent times, Marmas in urban areas and nearby settlements speak the corrupt local language of Chittagonian language. Counting numerals, name of the days, months and years of Marmas are similar to those of the Burmese and Arakanese. They do not have in general any rich literature of their own. 17.1.1. Marm use Tibeto-Burman languages: Tibeto-Burman languages uers community are Achang, Arakanese, Balti, Bantawa, Bisu, Drung, Dzongkha, Garo, Hajong, Hani, Hmar, Jingpho, Karen, Kayah Li, Ladakhi, Lahu, Lepcha, Limbu, Lipo, Lisu, Manipuri, Marma, Mro, Naxi, Nepal Bhasa / Newari, Sikkimese, Sunuwar, Tangkhul Naga, Tibetan, Tshangla, Tujia, Yi etc. 17.1.2. Marma alphabet: The Marma languages written with the Burmese script and alphabet. The community peoples who are use the languages written with the Burmese script are Arakanese, Burmese, Jingpho, Karen, Marma and Palaung. The Marma alphabet are as bellow: 41 18. Linguistic Relation among Burmese, Rakhain and Marma: The linguistic relationship of Burmese, Rakhine and Marma is an inportant for research. Burmese is a Tibeto-Burman (TB), Lolo-Burmese, South Burmish language. Rakhine as part of the Burmish language family. Marma also belongs to the Southern Burmish language family; Rakhine and Marma as dialects of Burmese. All three are spoken primarily in Myanmar and Bangladesh; Burmese is the most well-known language of the Southern Burmish. While much has been documented and written about Burmese, there is not much information available about Rakhine and Marma. The Marma languages of Bangladesh, and some initial observations about the historical relationship between Burmese, Rakhine and Marma are as bellow: Tibeto-Burman Lolo Burmese Loloish Burmish Maru Atsi Achang Lashi Burmic Bola Xiandao Old Burmese Standard Burmese Rakhain Marma The Burmish language family 18.1.1. Burmese: Burmese is the national language of Myanmar (formerly Burma) the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia; Yangon (formerly Rangoon) is the capital and largest city. There are around 30 million first language (L1) speakers of Burmese, and around 10 million second language (L2) speakers spread throughout the country (Lewis et al. 2014). Burmese is spoken 42 throughout most of Myanmar, and is widely used in central Myanmar. “Myanmar” is also the official language name of Burmese. Burmese people use “Bama” as an ethnonym for ethnic Burmans and “Myanmar” as an ethnonym to refer to all groups that comprise a part of the country of Myanmar. The spoken form of Burmese is called “Bama” and the written form is called “Myanma” (or Myanmar); in English, both forms of the language are called Burmese. The dialects of Burmese as Beik, Mandalay Burmese, Yangon Burmese and Yaw; Bomang is a version spoken in Bangladesh. The dialect of Yangon Burmese is considered standard (spoken) Burmese. The government uses the High or literary version of Burmese which is older and dissimilar to the spoken Low version; school textbooks are also written in High Burmese. Burmese is written using Myanmar (Burmese) script. 18.1.2. Rakhine: The Rakhine people live mainly in western Myanmar and in southeastern Bangladesh. In Myanmar, they live in Rakhine State and in Chin State. In Rakhine State, Rakhine people live as far south as Gwa, in Thandwe, on the islands of Ramree and Man Aung and extending north up through Sittwe and Mrauk-U to the southeastern border of Bangladesh. In Chin State, they live in Paletwa Township. Rakhine also live in southeastern Bangladesh. In the 18th century, many Rakhine migrated from their homes in Rakhine (Arakan) State, Burma, due to political turmoil; they settled in southeastern Bangladesh and southern Tripura in India. The majority of Rakhine in Bangladesh live in Cox’s Bazar, Patuakhali and Barguna districts. Rakhine is considered a regional dialect of Burmese by many researchers; while others claim it is sufficiently different from standard Burmese to be a separate language. Rakhine pronunciation corresponds more to Written Burmese (WB) than does modern spoken Burmese (SB). Rakhine is one of the officially-recognized large minority groups in Myanmar; it has the second-largest number of speakers there and is used by bout 4.4% of Myanmer’s total population. In the past, Rakhine were known as Arakanese but since 1989 those in Myanmar are referred to as “Rakhine”. This group has also been called Rakhain, Rakhaing and Rakkhaine in the scholarly literature. In Bangladesh, “Arakanese” who live in the coastal areas are called Rakhine. From the 17th to early in the 20th century, Rakhine speakers in Bangladesh were called Mogh, but this term is no longer used. Rakhine is used in all but formal domains in Rakhine State; school books are in written Burmese, 43 but children are taught by Rakhine teachers using Rakhine pronunciation. Most Rakhine there speak Burmese as L2; the Rohingya language5 is used as L2 in Buthidaung and Maungdaw townships. In Bangladesh, many Rakhine men use Bengali as L2; other L2s for Rakhine in Bangladesh are Burmese and Chittagonian. In Myanmar, Rakhine is written using Myanmar (Burmese) script, however the script is not standardized and is used informally. A small number of Rakhine speakers in Bangladesh are literate in Burmese script; most Rakhine in Bangladesh are literate only in Bengali. Rakhine children from several communities are becoming literate in Burmese script through their use of Rakhine kindergarten primers. 18.1.3. Marma: Bradley says that the “Mrama are a remnant of the Arakanese court who fled over 200 years ago when the Burmans seized Arakan.” In Bangladesh, “Arakanese” who live in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) are called Marma. In much of the literature Marma is considered a dialect of Burmese virtually identical to Rakhine. In the past, “Mogh” was used for Marma speakers as well as for Rakhine, but it is no longer used, as it is a pejorative term. Kilgo and Moore write about the term Mogh: In the literature and through the years the Arakanese in Bangladesh have been given many different names including Mogh, Magh, Mugh, etc. For the Bengalis the word Magh (and its various forms) historically signifies a race of pirates who left a bitter memory of plunder and persecution. It is reported that for this reason in the Census sheets of 1951 the “Moghs” requested that they be referred to as Marma... The Marma are one of the largest and earliest language groups to settle in the CHT. Marma is used as LWC in the Cox’s Bazar and Bandarban districts by several other language groups. In Bangladesh, Marma speak Bengali and Chittagonian as L2; in Rangamati and Khagrachari districts, the Chakma language is an L2 of some Marma. As with Rakhine speakers in Bangladesh, most Marma speakers are only literate in Bengali; literacy in Burmese script among the Marma is also increasing through the use of Marma kindergarten primers. Marma is a member of the Lolo-Burmese branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family. It is spoken by about 180,600 people in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh, particularly in Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrachari districts. It is considered one of the dialects of Arakanese, along with Ramree and Sandowa. 44 19. Education of the Mara’s: The Buddhist monk is called “Phongyee”, Temple is “Kyong” and the village is called “Roa” in Marma language. The Phongyee play an important role for the maintenance of traditional education system in the Marma society. The Phongyee give them both spiritual and formal education in the temple. From the child-hood Marma childred receive both religious and linguistic education from their religious teacher in the temple. As a result, compared to other religious groups, the literacy rate among Marmas is very high due to the existence of Phongyee and Buddhist temple in every villages and localities. Every member of the Marma society can read and speak the Burmese fluently. Yet the system is inadequate, for which many boys and girls are found studying in normal schools and colleges in and outside their locality. 20. Culture of the Marma’s: The Marmas are subdivided into 12 clans, named after the place from where they migrated. These clans include the Ragraisa, consisting of Marmas living south of the Karnaphuli River, the Palaingsa from Ramgarh Upazila, the Khyongsa from riverside communities, the Toungsa from the hill ridges, and smaller clans including the Longdusa, the Frangsa, the Kyokara-sa, and the Talongsa. The culture of the Marmas is similar to that of the Rakhine people, including their language, food, clothes, religion, dance, and funeral rites. Marma men wear a sarong called lungyi, while Marma women wear a sarong called thabein. Marmas mostly depend on agriculture, traditionally practicing slash-and-burn cultivation on the hills. Their belief in Theravada Buddhism is as deep as the Rakhine society's, with an emphasis on ritual practices in deities. Some Marmas also practice animism and Islam. Marmas follow the Burmese calendar. They celebrate the New Year, called Sangrain, which begins on the first day of Bohag. They make sangraimu, which is a form of traditional cakes. They take part in Sangrain Relong Pwe (Water Festival/water pouring), where young Marma men and women spray each other with water. Sangrai is celebrated in three days, on the 1st day, called Painchwai or Akro, homes are decorated with flowers. On the 2nd day, Sangrai Akya, Marmas participate in traditional sports, dances, cultural activities and hold meetings regarding community issues. They also go to monasteries to participate in the Buddha statue's bathing (cleansing) ritual on this day. 45 On the 3rd day, called Sangrai Atada, they cook a vegetable dish made out of more than 100 ingredients, called hangbong (pachan in Bangla). Historically it is believed that the Arakanese emperor has invaded the south-eastern region of the current Bangladesh. Since then the region was ruled under the Burmese emperor and Marma ethnic groups were established from that period. Their cultural traits are connected to their ancestral heritage, including dress (which is called thumbui—the lower part, and angi—the upper part), food (mostly spicy, sour, and hot), writing (Burmese script), traditional songs and musical instruments (for example, kappya, jjea, and kharra). They speak Marma, and the majority are Theravada Buddhist. They have many festivals during the year, but Sangrai is regarded as the biggest celebration among them. It is a tradition to welcome the New Year according to the Buddhist lunar calendar. This festival held for three days, and the popular ritual during the second and third day of the festival is to splash water on each other. They believe that the water takes away all the sorrow and pure up our soul and body, so one must to greet others (even strangers) by splashing water on them. But the culture of marma is unique. It has also their own language, tradition, culture etc. 21. Traditional Dresses of the Marma’s: Marma men usually wear “Lungi” or “Sarong” which is long skirts and shirts. Lungis made of coarse cloth and a shirt without collar but having several pockets. At the time of festivals, senior member of the society use close fitting coat called “Prakha Angyi” over the shirt buttoned at the thro on the head they use a white kerchief known as “Goung Poung”. Some Marmas prefer “Matoray” (tattooing) for the beauty of the body. Educated sections use trousers, shirts and shoes. The common traditional dress constitute for the Marma women as “Thami” for the lower part of the body till bottom of the ankle and the “Ngyi” (blouse) wear for upper parts. To make them attractive and charming, the female keep tuft called “Chaing Thung” on the head. Sometimes, they decorate their heads with flowers and jewels. “Saloar and Kamiz” are also popular dress of young Marma girls. Marma men and women typically wear ‘thami’ (sarong) and ‘angi’ (blouse). However, the angi used by the men is more a waistcoat than a blouse. Marmas make their own DRESSES using traditional weaving technology, although many now purchase common Bangali dresses from the market. 46 They usually do not wear shoes, but this tradition, too is not in vogue now thanks to increased association with other peoples. Kitchen utensils in a Marma family are mostly earthen or made of bamboo and wood. Many families, however, use aluminum wares like pots, pans, plates and glasses. In the evolution of time, there has been a radical change in the dress of the Marmas. In today's Marma society, almost everyone uses "lungi". Adolescent boys are seen wearing "lungi" as well as pants-shirts. Girls of all ages except older women like to wear colorful patterned dresses. The use of "Rangai" (bras) by Marma women has gone up. Instead, colorful "thubuins" designed on the lower part and advanced tops, blouses and modern bassiers on the upper part are seen to be used. 22. Religion of the Marma’s: Religion is one of the defining characteristics of Marma ethnicity in the CHT. Together with language and other cultural characteristics, religion constitutes and important feature of the Marma ethnic identity. Marma ethnicity has always been closely associated with Theravada Buddhist institutionalism, a type of Buddhist institutional tradition that is practiced in Sri Langka, Burma, and Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia. Like the Buddhists of South and South-east Asia, Marmas are Theravada Buddhists. Written in Pali, the Tripitaka is the sacred book of Marmas. In religious matters they have been divided in two groups: the Monastic Community and the Laity. The Buddhist monks maintain celibacy, wear yellow robes called “Civara” and live in the temple, while the Laity leads a family life with wife, children and relatives. Marmas believe that their birth, death, reincarnation and all activities in life take place under the influence of a supernatural power, which they try to satisfy through their rites and rituals. Animism is also in practice among them, like other tribes and sub-tribes, believe in superstitions, magic and supernatural powers, which they try to satisfy through their rites and rituals. They are Buddhists in faith. Animism is also in practice among them. They perform all the important Buddhist religious festivals and also various rituals and worships to satisfy different gods. Dreams have a very strong influence in decision making in their everyday life. The marma religious ceremony was Buddha Purnia/Modhu Purnima (Pyachowai Puye), Ashari 47 Purnima (Wachhu-puye), Ashini Purnima (Wagyai-puye), Kathin Chibor Dan (Kthing-puye) and Celebrate Marma New Year and Water Festival (Sangrai-puye), Boishakhi Purnima (Nyongri Long- Puye), Modhu Purnima (Pyare Long-puye), and Probojya (Sahng pru-puye). 23. Property Distribution of the Marma’s: The nuclear family is predominant in the Marma community. Although the husband is the head of the household, the wife also has a significant role in the family. Kinship ties are quite strong in the Marma society. Such ties are both affinity and consanguineous. The property inheritance, in general, follows the old Burmese line of inheritance called “Thamohada”. Both sons and daughters inherit parental properties. The “Auroth” (most favourite) child gets the ownership of the house and has to take care of the parents. In recent times, however, inheritance of landed property follows a rule according to which the property is distributed in the ratio of 2:1 between sons and daughters. Though the father is the formal head of the family, both male and female members have equal rights. Sons and daughters inherit parental property in equal proportion. 24. Food Habits of the Marma’s: Rice and boiled vegetables are major food items of the Marma people. ‘Nappi’ a paste of dried fish, is a favourite. They enjoy rice bear and smoke indigenous cigars. The marmas take fish, meat and variety of vegetables with rice. They prepare a delicious soup of chiken and Dillenia indica. Boiled vegetables mixed with chillies called Tohza are a favorable menu to them. They use nappi/awangpi made from dried fish to cook curries. They also supplement their food requirement by gathering tree leaves, roots, and tubers from the forests. They also eat vegetables, fish and meat as an adjunct to rice. Vegetables include farm-grown vegetables as well as a variety of herbs and fruits that grow naturally in the forest. The young tips of bamboo and a few species of wool are very favorite food of the Marmas. They often use different types of “Shutki” (dry fish), “Nappi” (a paste of dried fish,) in their curry. In addition to fish in aquatic animals, crabs, oysters, snails, cuckoos and amphibians, golden frogs and turtles are their delicacies. Meat includes domesticated chickens, cows, goats, buffaloes, pigs, ducks and pigeons. Marmaras also eat wild boar, deer, guisap, hedgehog, pigeons etc. 48 25. Economic condition of the Marma’s: Agriculture is the main occupation of Marmas. Jhum cultivation is their primary agricultural pursuit. Small-scale homestead gardening is also common among them. Other important economic activities of Marmas include basketry, brewing and wage labor. Weaving is a very common activity of Marma women. Marmas were not market oriented in the past. Their economic activities and production system were geared to their subsistence. Recently they have become involved in trade and commerce. Produces of the Marma people are sold mostly through middlemen. Some Marma families now operate small retail stores. The Marma practice shifting cultivation, and many cut wood and bamboo which are sold to the Bengalis. The Marma tend to be rather isolated from the majority population, though this has been changing as more and more Bengalis move into the hill tract areas.Some of educated marmas are do job as well as business. 26. House Structure of the Marma’s: The Marma people believe that east-facing houses are the best. For this reason, in some areas inhabited by the Marmas, the construction of road-facing houses is seen in the middle of the village, but in most of the areas, the houses of the Marmas are facing east. It is customary in Marma society to perform certain rituals before constructing a house. The houses of Marma people are made of bamboo, wild grass and straw. These are built on elevated bamboo or wooden platforms (machang). Every room of the house is a bed room-cumstore. The space underneath the machang is used for various purposes such as keeping livestock, storing fuel wood, or accommodating handlooms for weaving. Some houses, however, are made of mud and built without machangs. 27. Social Administration of the Marma’s: The traditional political administrative system in the Marma community is a three-tier one. Village level administration is headed by a Karbari. The Mouza level is headed by a Headman and the Circle level is headed by the Circle chief called “Raja”. The main responsibilities of the village Karbari, the Headman and the Raja are collection of jhum tax. In addition, each is entrusted with various socio-cultural responsibilities including mitigation of disputes, pronouncing judgements, and maintaining law and order at their respective levels of administration. 49 28. Rituals during the birth of the Marma’s: In some areas of the Marma society, as soon as the child is taken in the mother's womb, in order to prevent the evil eye from falling on the mother and the newborn, they go to the healer (Voidya) and judge/calculate the sign of zodiac, misfortune of the mother. If necessary, these deities are worshiped with various Worship materials for their satisfaction. In many cases pregnant mother is allowed to hold amulets / charms. 28.1.1. "Mui Jang" (Delivery room): At the time of childbirth, the pregnant woman is kept in a separate room. This room is called "Mui Jang" / Mui Kheng” in Marma language. A "Chhra-ma" (midwife) stays in this room all the time. "Chhra-ma" is accompanied by a couple of elderly relatives. After the baby is born, the umbilical cord is cut with a "Klaisyong" (a thin, sharp slice of bamboo bark) and the remnants of the umbilical cord and the fabric used in the lower part of the maternal mother are buried in a corner of the yard. The newborn's body is then wiped with lukewarm water. At the same time the mother is bathed with lukewarm water. 28.1.2. Things to do during prolong labor/delivery: If for some reason the child is late to be born or if the mother seems to be having a hard labor pain, then a hen are cut and worshiped in the nearby river / stream for baby born smoothly. From the time the baby is born, a "chfo" (stove) is made in a corner beside to the maternal mother and a fire is lit Ein it, and hot water is kept in a clay pot for maternal mother use as needed. If there is pain in the abdomen of the mother, hot shake is given. At this time, if the mother has a headache, she is allowed to sniff by crushing "Chamuknak" (fenugreek) and "Jaduk-si" (nutmeg). In the southern part of the Chittagong Hill Tracts the maternal mother of the Marmas has to stay in "Mui Jang"(Delivery/labor room) for 7 days. The newborn is given a haircut within those seven days and the ears are pricked in the case of a doughter. The maternity mother of the "Plaisa" Marmas had to stay near the "chafo" (stove) for three days. After three days had passed, a piece of wood, along with some freshly cooked rice and a fire in the maternity stove, was placed on a banana leaf on one side of the junction of several roads near the house. In many cases, small baskets made of cane made from bamboo are used for worshiping with rice, parched rice, banana, etc., and at the same time new stoves are made by breaking the maternity stove. It is called "Mingboik" in Marma language. 28.1.3. "Pkha-Tang" (Cradle inauguration): Three days after the birth of the child, the newborn is raised in a cradle and formally rocked. It is called "Pkha-Tang" (Cradle inauguration) in Marma 50 language. During the inauguration of the cradle, first a small stone, a piece of iron and cotton are placed in an empty cradle in a convenient place and the cradle has to be rocked three times. Then the newborn child is made to swing and the cradle has to be rocked three times with stones, iron and cotton. The purpose of placing a stone in a cradle is to make the child as patient as a stone. The purpose of having a piece of iron is to make the child's body as strong and strong as iron. And the purpose of keeping cotton is to make the child in his mind as transparent and soft as cotton. The word that has to be swayed is "Kyah-nyang kyaing, sai-nyang mraing, gowai nyang-pao" (Be as hard as stone, be strong as iron, float like cotton) "Plaingsa"(Marma of Khagrachari) trim the newborn's hair a month after birth. Its name is "Chengu-boy" which means to cut new hair. A barber is called for this job. Then the cut hair in the new cloth is kept in a clean place at the base of the banana tree. The purpose is to make the child's life as smooth as the shade of a banana tree. 28.1.4. "Mdetang-poye" (apology ceremony): In some areas of Marma society, "Mdetang-poye" (apology ceremony) is an essential ritual after the birth of a child. Relatives, friends and children are invited to attend the ceremony. In particular, those who have collaborated with "Chhra-ma" (midwife) and "Chhra-ma" on the birth of the newborn are invited. On this occasion, the parents of the child are apologized for the act of giving birth to their child with gift items to the "Chhrama" (midwife). On this occasion food is served for the welfare of mother and child and the guests bless for the welfare of mother and child after the meal. 28.1.5. "Muingkyang Poye"/ Baby naming: Astrology judgments are then considered with the birth date of the child through Vaidya to name the newborn. Many have resorted to Buddhist monks in Kyang (Bihar) for this work. "U" is usually added to the name of the first child born in the Marma family and "Thui" is added to the name in the case of the youngest child. In some areas, it is customary to hold a ceremony called "Muingkyang Poye" during child naming. 29. “Shangpru-poe” (Shramana initiation ceremony): ”Shangpru-poye” means initiation of the son into Shramana. In Marma society, every boy must stay in a Buddhist monastery for at least seven days before marriage as a shramana. During this time he has to be monogamous and is not allowed to participate in any family or social activities. It is the social and religious sacred duty of parents to initiate their children as laborers. It is very 51 common in Marma society for a boy to take such initiation more than once for the purpose of recovery. In some cases, after the death of his parents or close relatives, initiation is arranged as a shramana for the well-being of his disembodied soul and for liberation from some incurable and future dangers. Usually when the son is 10/12 years old or before the marriage, the parents organize a ceremony after seeing a good day. According to religious law, such initiation can be given to boys of any age above 7 years. After taking a bath, the boy's head is wrapped at home on a certain day for initiation and new clothes are taught. The parents then took the boy to a Buddhist monastery in the company of their close relatives. There are eight types of items to be worn and used by a monk while leaving, namely: 1. "Sangbai" or "Sangraing" (chibar worn by monks), 2. "Sabuik" (pind pot), 3. "Tangmuing" / "Lathah-duru" (stick), 4. Thih (umbrella), 5. "Yhai” (fan), 6. “Sangthung” (razor), 7. “Rizik” (water filter), 8. “Ai-khre (needle thread) is to be taken along with the necessary alms and worship materials. Upon arrival in Bihar (Temple), in front of the monks stationed in Bihar, the items brought from the house (eight cleaners, alms and worship items) are respectfully arranged. Then the boy was initiated as a Shramana following all the formalities. As soon as the formality of initiation was completed, the boy was taught Chibar. At the end of the allotted time, the "Fungri" (monk) and "Mangsang" (Shramana) who are staying in Bihar as religious affiliations are given pangs (invitations) at home and donations are made to bring the boy out of the working life. Following the necessary formalities that afternoon, the boy was brought out of working life. Many also organize meals for the neighbors that day. 30. "Paingjangkhaing-Poye"(Monk initiation ceremony): Although "Shangpru" and "Paingjangkhai" seem to be the same, there are systematic and religious differences between the two. Religiously the level of "Paingjang" is above "Shang". Shang's initiation can be taken at any temple on any auspicious day. But the initiation of "Paingjang" cannot take place in any temple. Only in the monasteries where the "singh" (Boundary house) is made, the initiation of "pingjang" is done by following various formalities. The initiation of "Shang" can be taken by anyone of any age, starting from a seven-year-old boy. But in order to take the initiation of "Paingjang", the boy / man must be at least 20 years old and must have taken "Shang" initiation at least once before that. "Shang" is considered to be at the level of "Mangsang" and "Paingjang" is considered to be at the level of Bhikku / Bhante (Monk) above the level of Mangsang. If "Sing" 52 is not made in Bihar or elsewhere in any area, there is a provision to give "Paingjang" initiation by following the required religious formalities by constructing "Paingjang Khaing-Chang" (Paingjang Initiation Stage) in the middle of the river where there is a stream. 31. "Rangtang-poye" (Bra holding ceremony): This ceremony can be called "Bakkhabondani" ceremony in Bengali. In Marma language it is called "Rangatang-poye" or "Rangaitang-poye". Through this ceremony, Marma gives a girl recognition in the society that the girl has entered her youth and has become marriageable. This event can take place on any auspicious date. However, this event is more common during Sangraing and Chaitra Sankranti. This ceremony is mainly for girls. The ceremony was organized by the parents as soon as the girl entered her youth. On the morning of the day set aside for the ceremony, the young girl in the village was taken to the Buddhist monastery in the village wearing new clothes. At the same time a new hand-woven design “Rangai” (Bra holder: A kind of cloth scarf) was also taken away. Two unmarried young women are needed to perform this ceremony. One of the two will lift the bra and the other will put it on the girl's chest. These two girls are already selected. Because no girl can do this. A girl who is born two days before her birth will be able to lift her “Rangai” (Bra holder: A kind of cloth scarf) and a girl born the day before will be able to wear it on her chest. The first or second person cannot perform the task alone. After arriving at the Buddhist monastery, one of the two previously selected girls formally lifts the “Rangai” (Bra holder: A kind of cloth scarf) and the other wears it on his chest after prostrating in front of the statue of Mahamati Gautam Buddha. At this time, laughter and jokes continued among the accompanying girls. Then the ceremony came to an end with the adoption of Panchasila. In some areas there is no custom of taking Panchashir before or after wearing “Rangai”. In some areas, it is customary to sing at the end of the “Rangai”. In some areas, apart from Buddhist monasteries, the ceremony can be seen at home in a very simple manner. In the evolution of time, this practice is on the way of extinction today. Nowadays, it is not seen anywhere. Adolescents do not know that such a custom was prevalent in Marma society. 53 32. Marriage Rituals of the Marma’s: Marriage is a very important part of the social life of Marmas. The marma socially completes the marriage ritual with the consent of both parties. In Marma society, the marriage ceremony is called "Wing thang khya" in some areas and "Wingthangpru" in others. Child marriage is practically forbidden. Pre-marriage love is common. Both men and women have equal rights to divorce. Although the final settlement is to be made in the court of karbari (village leader) or of the headman (MOUZA or area leader). Living conjugal life without marriage is a social crime in this society.Although wedding ceremonies vary from area to area, it is important for everyone to follow certain customs. E.g. A) The bride and groom must come of age and must attain adulthood; B) Marriage should be outside the scope of prohibited relationship; C) Must abide by prohibitions relating to blood relations; D) No marital relationship can be established between Wachho Labre (Asarhi Purnima) and Wagyoai Labre (Ashwini Purnima); E) Above all, social recognition should be taken through marriage ceremony (Laithai / Laichung). Dowry system does not exist in Marma society. However, in case of irregular or runaway marriage, there is a custom of paying "da-fa" (bet) to the bride, and "no-kha" (For breast feeding) to the bride's mother as a symbol of milk consumption. In Marma society, there is no age limit for a boy or a girl to get married. The measure of adulthood depends on conjecture. So while the trend of marriage among the adult children can be noticed in Conscious quarters, but in the remote rural areas it is seen that there is marriage between the younger children, which is also accepted by the society. 32.1.1. Types of marriage in Marma Society: Two types of marriage are commonly observed in Marma society. Namely: (1) Regular marriage with the consent of social or both parties, (2) Escape marriage / Irregular marriage. Although some trends of court marriages and mixed marriages can be observed in the modern educated society, the Marmas do not allow such marriages in the society unless they are socialized through the "lawthai-poye / lawchung poye" ceremony according to the customs and traditions of the society. 54 32.1.2 Social or Regular marriage: The marriage is performed according to the social norms of the parents or guardians of the couple. Such marriages are also arranged with the consent of the parents or guardians by the choice of the bride and groom. There are several steps involved in such a marriage. Firstly, the proposal of the bridegroom. This eteps starts with the initiative of the groom’s. Deliver the marriage proposal to the known and trusted person of the couple or to any close or distant relative. Go to the bride's house with 1 bira betel, binni rice, sweets, sugar, sugar cane, 1 pair of coconuts. There they offer a bottle of wine as a gift to the bride's parents and propose marriage. After the consent of the parents of the bride, the opinion of the daughter is taken. If the consent of the daughter is obtained, the bottle of wine given by the groom's party is accepted by the bride's party and another similar bottle of wine is given to the groom's party from the bride's family. At this time, the marriage was discussed with the help of laughter and tea on both sides. When everything is auspicious, the bride and groom bow down to the elders and receive blessings. At this time the groom’s party blesses the bride with a thami, a silver or gold ring and finally the "lawthai-poye / lawchung poye". 32.1.3. Escape marriage/Irregular marriage: In Marma society, due to the disagreement of parents or guardians, young men and women run away from home due to love affair and get married. In the Marma language, such a marriage is called "Akhohnajai Khrang". It can be called an irregular marriage as the socially prevalent rules in Marma society are not observed in such marriages. Such irregular marriages are seen to be due to various reasons. Although young men and women want to marry each other out of love, either side of the family opposes it due to unequal economic status and social status or prohibited marriage. Or if the parents of the bride have fixed the bride elsewhere or the bride has fixed the bride elsewhere, then out of love the son or daughter runs away without the knowledge of the parents or guardian and takes shelter in the house of a relative. When the family of both the parties became known through the shelter or friends, the people of the boy's side took initiative to settle the matter by contacting the parents of the girl. If there is an agreement between the two parties, that is, if the demands of the girl party are accepted by the boy party, then the society accepts the marriage by fleeing by following the social customs. But if the relationship of the fugitive couple is close to the first generation marriage, then the society does not accept such marriage at all. 55 32.1.4. Court marriage: Among the educated children in the Marma society, nowadays couples who want to get married without the consent of their parents are seen marrying by swearing in front of a first class magistrate or notary public. 32.1.5. “Smaw-Tang” (Ghorjamai): Marma society also has a custom of marrying a girl to the groom. Such marriages are solemnized with the consent of both parties. Usually, because of not having a son, the house is set up to take care of the household chores and only the children of poor families agree to be housed. In such a marriage, the couple does not have to bear any expenses and the wedding ceremony is not very stylish. The marriage ceremony is performed in the social neon after the bridegroom arrives at the house and the bride's parents have to bear all the expenses. Such marriages are called “Smaw-Taw” in Marma. 32.1.6. Forbidden Relationships for marriage: In Marma society, blood relations / clan relations or kinship which cannot take place on the stage of marriage are the same siblings born of the same father, cousins, uncles, nephews, sister, aunt, niece, mother-in-law, son-daughter of different mothers born in the same age, wife of niece, relative of aunt etc. Also, in the case of relatives belonging to the same clan, the relatives cannot be re-married until the man has passed away. In Marma society, a woman leaves her father's family after marriage and comes to her husband's family. Married couples in forbidden blood relations are excluded from Marma society. Although polygamy and sanctioned marriages are practiced in Marma society, these marriages are not considered as recognized marriages in Marma society. There are no restrictions on the marriage of widows. At present in the urban Marma society there is a tendency to declare themselves as husband and wife in the form of affidavit through notary public instead of fleeing marriage, which is commonly known as court marriage. However, such court marriages are not customary and allowed in Marma society. In the case of social marriages, the opinion of the father or the male guardian usually prevails in the decision and consent of the spouses. The list of invited guests for the wedding, especially in rural areas, is more representative of men including dignitaries and Headman, Karbury. 56 33. Wedding ceremony of the Marma’s/"Lakthai Mangala Prukhrang": 34.1.1. Match the zodiac sign between bride's and grooms: In Marma society, it is customary to match the bride's birthday with the groom's birthday. Their firm belief is that if the zodiac sign is tied on the basis of the bride and groom's birthday, the couple's marital life will always be friendly, loving and will be attached to each other for the rest of their lives. Moreover, there will be no shortage in their worldly life, there will be no national unrest due to illness. On the other hand, if a man and a woman of different zodiac signs get married, their family will not be happy, the quarrel will continue and in the end the marriage may break up. In addition, there are some discrepancies in the zodiac sign that the marriage will not last in any way if the birth of the zodiac sign. It can even lead to the untimely death of a husband or wife. For this reason, judging the zodiac sign by matching the birthday of the bride with the birthday of the bridegroom by the doctor at the stage of seeing the bride is an essential aspect of marriage. 34.1.2. Marriage proposal given as per marma custom: This eteps starts with the initiative of the groom’s. Deliver the marriage proposal to the known and trusted person of the couple or to any close or distant relative. In Marma society, the consent of the spouses is given priority in performing socially customary marriages. For this reason, in choosing a bride, the parents find out if the marriageable son has a daughter of his choice. If the answer is yes, then after knowing the girl's behavior, manners, temperament, etc., the next step is taken. If any girl is preferred, marriage proposal is arranged to be sent to the parents of the bride with the consent of the bride. With the consent of both the parties, on an auspicious day, the groom's parents, relatives, friends and elders along with an odd number of people, according to the tradition, 25 betel nuts, 1 bira betel, binni rice homemade cake, sugar, cooked binni rice, 1 sugar cane, and 1 pair of coconuts and 1 bottle of wine were given to the bride's parents and the marriage was formally proposed. After the consent of the parents of the bride, the opinion of the daughter is taken. If the consent of the daughter is obtained, the bottle of wine given by the groom's party is accepted by the bride's party and another similar bottle of wine is given to the groom's party from the bride's family. At this time, the marriage was discussed with the help of laughter and tea on both sides. When everything is auspicious, the bride and groom bow down to the elders and receive blessings. At this time the groom’s party blesses the bride with a thami, a silver or gold ring and finally the "lawthai-poye / lawchung poye". 57 33.1.3. "Khmrah Khyah Poye"/Bride giving ceremony: Then the astrologer "Bidangchara" (enumerator) was invited. He informed the result to all present by matching the zodiac sign with the date of birth of the bride and groom and also fix the auspicious day of marriage and lagna. After enumerat, if everything is auspicious, the bride bows to the elders of the bride and receives blessings. At this time the bridegroom blesses by wearing a gold ring on any finger. On the appointed day of the wedding, at the entrance of the groom's house, two banana saplings are placed on either side and beside them are placed "rijango" (water jug twisted with white thread) and "sifaiko" (intoxicating drink made with binni rice). After completing all the wedding ceremonies at the groom's house, the groom's parents or relatives, friends and elite person of villages go to the village to bring the bride to the bride's house with 1 bottle of wine, clothes, ornaments and cosmetics for the bride. Led by one of them, they went to the bride's ancestral home with band party and made necessary preparations to bring the bride as his wife by decorating her with cosmetics including costumes and ornaments. The bride's party organizes "Khmrah Khyah Poye" / "Maya Khyah Poye" (bride/wife donation) ceremony at her house. 33.1.4. "Kangchhi"(Way obstacles): While fetching the bride, the young men and women of the same age in the bride's village threw bamboo in the road and created obstacles. At this time, according to their demands, if wine or cash is given as a gift, they enjoy the obstacles. The custom of having fun by creating multiple such obstacles is prevalent in the society till the bride leaves the village. This practice is called "Laikhoachikhrang" / "Kangchikhrang" in Marma language. 33.1.5. "Lauthai mangla-poye"(The main episode of the wedding): On the appointed day of the wedding, two young banana saplings are placed at the entrance of the bride's house and next to it are placed 'Rizango' (two water jugs full of white thread) and “Sifaik” (drinks made from different rice). Step-1. Upon reaching the groom's house, the mother-in-law picks up the bride with her right hand at the entrance / stairs of the house wearing the bride's right hand wrapped in seven twisted manglik yarn. Step-2. In the evening, a marital relationship is established by a Buddhist monk reciting the Mangal Sutra. During this time, the bride and groom receive Panchasila, recite Mangar Sutras by 58 Buddhist monks, donate Pinds and perform other religious rituals. Thus ended the religious marriage ceremony. Step-3. An ‘Ubadidai’ / “Mde Chhara” is arranged to conduct the wedding ceremony, who is not unmarried or divorced. Then the bridegroom is brought to perform the wedding ceremony and seated on the right side of the bride by placing it in the place designated for the social ceremony. This episode is basically done at midnight (11-12pm). According to the custom, a "Sbhasa Gong" (youth leader) and a "Pyuma Gang" (young leader) from the groom's neighborhood / village are present on the wedding stage. The young man is placed next to the groom and the young woman next to the bride. "Mde Chhara" started the formality of marriage. In the main part of the wedding ceremony, he recited the marriage principle and said, "A girl from a certain village is getting married to a certain boy from a certain village. Can the people of the neighborhood hear it?" Say this three times, until the people present say "yes". But if the people present do not say "yes" three times, then the marriage will not take place. After saying "yes" the rest of the formality begins. "Mde chhara" The bride's call is to combine the little finger of the groom's left hand with the little finger of the hand. In Marma language it is called "Laithai-poye" / "Laithai mangla poye". Marriage is recognized as socialized through 'Lak Thek Poi' ceremony. 33.1.6. “Kraw-Chainga” (Tongue of hen) Seen: Then "Mde Chhara" pulls the tongue part (Chainga) of a pre-cooked rooster of hen and shows it first to the parents of the groom and then to the relatives and all present. If “Chainga” is tilted to the left, it is assumed that the bride will have predominance in conjugal life; and if it is tilted to the right, then the groom will be predominant. In some Marmas it is believed that if the "chainga" is tilted to the left, the bride's relatives will make the most of their living together, and if it is tilted to the right, it will be the other way around. The boiled rooster is then served in a plate with rice for the bride and groom with the necessary cooking ingredients. At this stage, "Mde Chhara" will take a little rice with chicken meat in both hands and feed the left hand food to the bride and the right hand food to the groom with both hands horizontally. Then the bride and groom bote will eat in the same plate. This ceremony is essential in a social marriage to recognize in social status. 33.1.7. Blessing episod in wedding ceremonies: In the case of wedding blessing ceremonies, some variations can be observed in different areas. The coils of yarn twisted into five patches, round and round by "Mde Chhara", are tied to a bamboo stick. From there, the groom's parents 59 first put the twisted thread coil in the hands of the bride and groom. Then the elders of the village, who came to the ceremony in a row, bowed to the bride and groom, while the bride and groom wore the twisted thread and blessed them with money or gifts. In some areas, the "Mde Chhara" is a round sword in his hand, rounded with five coiled yarn coils, from which it is first worn on the groom's hand in such a way that there is no gap between the sword and the hand. The groom then puts a thread coil in the bride's hand in the same manner, the bride bows to the groom and accepts it. Afterwards, the guests also blessed the bride and groom in the same manner by wearing thread coils and sprinkling rice on their heads. At this time, "Mde Chhara" serves a finger of wine to the guest who came for the blessing. Thus the marriage ceremony came to an end and the newlyweds were recognized in the society as husband and wife. The main purpose of these marriage ceremonies is to gain the approval of the society for the purpose of socially living as a husband and wife of a pair of men and women. There is no custom of marriage registration in Marma society. The socialist present at the wedding, the dignitaries of the society, the person conducting the pairing (Laithai mangla-poye) are the witnesses and approvers of the marriage. 34. Rituals at the time of the death of the Marma’s: Marmas burn the bodies after the death and bury the remains. If the Buddhist monks or rich men died, their bodies burn with fanfare and organise big ceremony. The funeral ceremony for the dead person is held after seven days from death. A dance party called 'Saing' carries the coffin (Talah) to the crematorium at the death of a men in this society. They arrange a feast called 'Lakaprecgchuai' after 7 days of death. After death, Marma elderlies are cremated, while younger deceased Marmas are buried. In Marma society, death is divided into two parts. Be it normal death and abnormal death. Although both types of Formalities after death vary slightly difference by region or area, there is no difference in the original formalities. 34.1.1. Ritual in case of death of common people: In case of normal death, the dead body is first bathed in a new earthen pot with tolerable hot water. The dead body is then laid in new clothes with the head facing north on top of the "sikhai" (coffin) perpendicular to the north-south. Binni rice husk is sprinkled in some places along with perfumes. The two toes of the dead person are joined together and tied with white thread. If the deceased is the head of the family or if he is an elder, he is taken to "Thala". When a young person or a parent dies while alive, the body is placed 60 on the floor without the use of "sikhai". The Buddhist monk of the village monastery was then "pang" (invited) and given a sermon, wishing for the happiness and peace of the departed soul. According to secular beliefs, it is customary to place a metal mudra (called "Rangfaitang" in Marma) on the chest of the corpse before meeting the needs of the soul, but nowadays it is placed in the hands of the dead person or in a container placed next to the dead body. People who come to see the dead person donate money according to their ability. In addition, rice is placed at the feet of the dead body, "khmaja" cooked separately with vegetables and "Rkhatong" (large basket of cane rice made from bamboo) is kept to keep the rice brought with the people who come to see the dead body. In some areas a pot filled with water is placed towards the head. Sitting next to the corpse, "Nihbai Suk" (various ballads related to the life and Parinirvana of Gautam Buddha) is recited and "Cheh" (a type of drum) is played in a special musical style. Usually the dead body is left at home for one day and cremated the next day. Before the body was taken to the crematorium, a Buddhist monk from the Kyang (temple) was invited to sit next to the Sidangkhaik (coffin) and be released in the presence of the people. At this time, "Narangchainghluk" (filling rice in a bamboo tube and shaking it loudly) is done near the ears of the dead body. At the same time another has to do “kunkhyo” (breaking a bamboo cane into pieces). In addition, the date of birth and the date of death, the cause of death, donated rice, money "talah / alhung" "kunkhyo" etc. with the information to be given to the corpse. When an unmarried man or woman dies, a banana tree has to be planted with the body while entering "Talah / Alhang". After that, while carrying the dead body to the crematorium in "talah / alang" (coffin), 8 carriers lifted "talah / alang" up to the knee three times. During the journey to the crematorium with "Talah / Alang" there is a "Tangkhoisa" (9/10 hand length 7 hand length-1 hand width white cloth hanging on one end of a bamboo); and behind him is "Cheh" and the neighbors and relatives going to the crematorium. In Marma society, fuel wood is arranged vertically in the north-south facing cheetah for cremation. Cheetahs are made by arranging fuel wood in three layers depending on the gender, that is, in the case of males and in the case of females. After reaching the crematorium, the body is placed in the cheetah three times before being taken to the cheetah. In the cheetah, the dead body is raised with its head facing north. The Buddhist monks who came to the crematorium in front of the cheetah gave Panchasila to the assembled people and preached the religion of liberation of the soul of the 61 deceased and good deeds. Then the "Rizakkhya" (sacrifice) ceremony is completed. If the deceased is married, the marriage is dissolved by leaving a symbolic witness on the leafe. "Tangkhoying" is rolled towards the head. In addition, a whole measuring 1 foot in length and 6 inches deep in width is placed in which 7 pieces of raw turmeric cut thinly on the banana leaves are placed. After completing all the formalities, the family members first set fire to the cheetah. Then others can set fire. On the way out of the crematorium, "Kangmuiri" (water mixed with 7 thin pieces of raw turmeric cut into bamboo tubes) is placed at the crematorium boundary. Everyone who comes to the crematorium has to touch this "kangmuiri" or sprinkle a little on their feet while going back. When someone dies in the village, "Foyemuing" (a burning fire of chalk in a pot) and "Kangmuiri" (water with 7 pieces of finely chopped raw turmeric in a small pot) are placed at the door of each house. No one can enter the house directly after returning from the crematorium. You have to take a bath or go to Kang to listen to Dharma Desna. "Kangmuiri" and "Kangmuiri" can enter the room after touching. In some areas, before entering the house, place the "m-sa-ri" (a little rice in a small pot, the roof of the house, the charcoal mixed with water) facing the house and take the "m-sa-ri" behind you with your left hand. Is thrown out. At this time, another person who has returned from the crematorium can enter the house after uttering the word "sa-saing-changbya" three times. The next morning after the cremation, the burnt bones of the deceased were collected and memorials were made at the crematorium or in a convenient place according to their ability. 34.1.2. Ritual in case of death of a monk: In Marma society, when a monk dies, "mahng" (large bronze bell with a convex in the middle) is played instead of "cheh". In Marma society, the funerals of Mahatheru or old Buddhist monks are not performed immediately. The funeral is performed in a very stylish manner with good preparation. In such cases, the body is first bathed in lukewarm water and then neatly chewed and placed in a pre-constructed "charait" or "nibainkyang" on the premises of the monastery or any other convenient place. In order to prevent the body from becoming foul smelling, all measures are taken to preserve the corpse at that time. The day before the funeral, the body was taken to Alang (Shabadar) and lavishly brought to Chaingyang / Chaingkyong (a special monastery built near the crematorium). There, the pilgrims perform various religious rituals including reciting religious verses throughout the night. The next day also, religious devotees from far and wide perform religious rites throughout the day. In the afternoon, before cremation, the chariot is pulled by chariot with "Alang" from "Chaingyang" / "Chaingyang". 62 When the chariot pulling episode is over, the dance is again lifted from that Alang chariot to "Talah / Saing". Then the next step of cremation was taken by placing the body in "Muidayai Talah" (Cheetah made in a special way in the style of Bihar). At this stage, 2/3 of the very thick wire of the "Muidai Talah" is tied to a very thick wire and the other end of the wire is farther away (approximately 100 yards) and pulled by another pole so that there is no bend or crookedness in the wire. The gunpowder is then hung in a special way with the wire on that end, so that, as soon as the gunpowder is set on fire, the firecracker rushes at high speed and explodes, hitting "Muidai Talah". Incoming guests and pilgrims lined up to set fire to the fireworks and the firecrackers rushed at high speed, hitting one firecracker after another in "Muidai Talah" and at one stage the intense heat of the exploding firecrackers caught fire. Thus the cremation of the monk's body was completed. 34.1.3. Death occurs outside the house/village: Unnatural deaths such as death due to poisoning, death by drowning, death by falling from a tree, death due to accident. If such death occurs outside the house / village, the body is not placed in the village / house. Even those who died in hospital were considered to have died outside the village. They are taken directly to the crematorium for necessary formalities or left outside the village for the next day's funeral. However, nowadays in some cases even unnatural death is seen to be cremated at the end of the necessary formalities like normal death. And the ancient tradition is considered inhuman by the present educated Marma society. 34.1.4. "Choyaing" (pindana)/ Funeral: Within 7 days of the funeral, "choyaing" (pindana) is obligatory at the home of the deceased seeking the well-being of the deceased's soul. If he has a son of the deceased with him, any one of them, and if he does not have one, then with any one of his close relatives, the vow is observed by taking 7 days of "Mashangpru" (Shramana Diksha) initiation. In case of abnormal death of children or adults, "choyaing" (pindana) ceremony is not held at home. In this case, edible items including donations are donated to the Kyang (temple) in raw form. Such a pindana is called "Choyaingjing". 63 35. Conclusion: The Marmas is originally came from Arakan from sixteenth century through the eighteenth century. Burmese history further reveals that there were two waves of migration and relocation of the Arakanese-Marma about the same time one which settled in the Mong circle in the North (e.g. Khagrachri District) and other which moved to the Bohmang circle in the south (e.g. Bandarban district). Ethnically, Marmas are Mongoloid race and culturally, they are very close to the Rakhines in the state Arakan of Myanmar. The Marmas migrated from present-day Rakhine State to the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) between the 16th and 18th centuries. Records of the East India Company and others indicate that the Marmas migrated from the Kingdom of Mrauk U to Chittagong of Bangladesh in two phases of migrations during 14th to 17th centuries in the golden period of Mrauk U. In the first phase, during the Mrauk U Kingdom expanded to some parts of Chittagong Division. Secondly, Marma ancestors fled to Chittagong and settled down as the Arakanese kingdom was conquered and annexed by Burmese king Bodawpaya in 1785. In the early days of the 15th century, the Arakanese kingdom, where Mrauk U was the capital, expanded its territories to the Chittagong area of Bengal. After the victory of Arakan over Burma's Pegu kingdom in 1599 AD, the Arakanese king Min Razagyi appointed a Prince of Pegu, Maung Saw Pru, as the governor of newly established Bohmong Htaung (Circle) by giving the title of "Bohmong" Raja. During the British reign in 1790 "The Raide of Frontier Tribes Act −22" was passed which among other things envisaged the creation of Chittagong Hill Tracts District comprising the entire hilly region along the south eastern border of present-day Bangladesh, stretching right from Tripura in the north and Myanmar in the south. The act also provided for the appointment of a superintendent to discharge the administrative functions under the direct control and supervision of Divisional Commissioner of Chittagong. However, seven years later in 1797, the post of superintendent was re-designated as that of Deputy Commissioner. In 1900 the "Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulations 1900" was enacted to provide a consolidated and broader legal framework for the administrative system. This Act with minor modifications constituted the fundamentals for the administration of three hill districts. Recognizing the special historical and geographical features of the place as well as uniqueness of tribal population, the 64 Regulation of 1900 divided the entire district into three circles. Each circle was to be headed by a circle chief whose primary responsibility was to collect revenue, assisted by a Headman (Head of a Mouza) and a Karbari (Head of a Village) respectively at Mouza and village level. At present, The Marma people are the second-largest ethnic community in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts, primarily residing in the Bandarban, Khagrachari and Rangamati Hill Districts. There are over 210,000 Marmas living in Bangladesh. Since the 16th century, the Marma have considered the Chittagong Hill Tracts their home, where they have established the Bohmong and Mong Circles (Circle chief). References 1. Bangladesher Etihas (History of Bengladesh) by Four Doctors namely Dr. Mohammad Abdur Rahim, Dr. Abdul Momin Chowdhury, Dr. A.B.M Mahmud and Dr. Sirajul Islam. 2. Marma: Itihas o Songskhrity (Marma History and Culture) by Mongsanu Chowdhury and U Kyaw Zan. http://www.ebbd.info/marma.html https://sites.google.com/site/voiceofjummaland/marma http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Marma,_The https://www.bangladesh.com/blog/the-marma-tribe-of-bangladesh/ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marma https://www.britannica.com/place/Arakanese-Kingdom-of-Mrohaung https://www.britannica.com/place/Pegu-historical-city-Myanmar https://www.academia.edu/9188865/details_about_marma?email_work_card=view-paper https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maung_Saw_Pru https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Bangladesh http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marma_language http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marma_people https://www.ethnologue.com/language/rmz/ https://www.facebook.com/marma.bd 65 https://www.artofliving.org/in-en/ayurveda/therapies/marma https://www.britannica.com/place/Arakan https://www.kaladanpress.org/index.php/scholar-column-mainmenu-36/60-arakan/878-arakanrule-in-chittagong-1550-1666-ad.html https://www.britannica.com/place/Arakanese-Kingdom-of-Mrohaung https://www.britannica.com/biography/Narameikhla https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mrauk_U History_of_Marmas20200525-81401-1lapblj.pdf https://mongraja.wordpress.com/history/?fbclid=IwAR1p3cVO8Nn6huB7vDPZ2rYWM_qvtHAWcQR2 MNdmOP1Ukme_7PsZB0G3OD4 ------------End------------- 66