Cacâ Songs and Newâr Buddhists: Ritual Singing in Vajrayâna Buddhism of Nepal

Prof. Shanker Thapa

Central Department of History Tribhuvan University

Newâr Buddhism: The Extension of Indian Tradition

Vajrayâna Buddhism of Nepal is linked with the tantric Buddhist tradition that was developed in Nâlandâ and Vikramœ îla monasteries in India. In fact, it is the extension of Indian Buddhism in the Himalayan region. Buddhism that prevailed in the Pâla Kingdom has overall impact on Buddhism of Nepal. Tantric Buddhism which the Newâr Buddhists of Kathmandu valley preserved in the country after it arrived sometime before seventh century maintained many of its original features. Newâr Buddhism is a highly institutionalized religion with well defined hierarchical social structure. Vajrâcâryas, who are the priests, are Buddhist equivalent of Hindu Brâhmins.

The Newâr Buddhists of Kathmandu follow Vajrayâna Buddhism. Their intellectual history and scholastic tradition rendered invaluable contribution particularly in ritualizing of Nepalese version of Vajrayâna tradition, preservation and proliferation of Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts, development of Buddhism in Tibet, and maintain the tradition based on original sources of Sanskrit literary heritage.

The practice of Tantra among the Buddhists has diverse characteristics. However, after 13th Century, Newâr Buddhism marked significant changes. The historic transformation was ritual transformation of Newâr Buddhism. Consequently, the practice of celibate monasticism came to an end; and turned into ritual Buddhism. Ritual alone was focused in the practice of religion. Ritual performance is believed to help in attaining enlightenment. Thus, Vajrayâna itself is believed to be the speedy path to enlightenment. Among many rituals, Caryâ (Cacâ in Newârî) singing and performing Caryâ dances became integral part of tantric rituals. It exists even now in Nepal as the lively Vajrayâna culture. They are sung in various tantric Pûjâ and rituals.

Newâr community is one of the hundreds of ethnic groups of Nepal, who mostly live in cities and towns in the Kathmandu valley and other parts of Nepal. A large section of Newârs are the Shaivite Hindus whereas a small section of them are Buddhists. Their religion is Vajrayâna imported from Northern India. Nepal’s Vajrayâna Buddhism is called Newâr Buddhism. Newâr Buddhism as such is a specific term to denote the Vajrayâna form of

Buddhism. Vajrayâna Buddhism is believed to be the speedy path to enlightenment. Buddhism which prevails in Nepal particularly in the valley of Kathmandu is the Vajrayâna tradition. Its characteristics and historical contexts are enough for Buddhist Newârs to feel proud of their religion. Vajrayâna Buddhism of Nepal is also called Indo-Newâr Buddhism with close links to the Buddhism that lingered on in remote corners of Bengal and Indonesia.

Its canonical language is Sanskrit although preaching and interpretation of the religious matters took place in old Newârî. Newâr Buddhism is an intensely a conservative tradition which always understood itself to be part of a profound and extensive Indic tradition, and sought its authority from Indic precedents. However, pertinent changes occurred has transformed Nepalese Buddhism into ritual Buddhism ceasing the practice of monasticism since the 12th century.2 The accumulation and preservation of Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts for more than 1000 years is great pride of Nepal. It is the most precious gift of Nepal to the world community. The study of authentic ‘Sanskrit Buddhism’ became possible only due to the availability of Nepalese Buddhist manuscripts containing numerous titles and full text in size.

Newâr Buddhism depicts two significant traditions

1. The intellectual history of the Buddhist Newârs that led to the development of Buddhist scholarship during the medieval period,3 and,

2. The literary tradition that materialized preservation of Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts

of Indian origin as well as the corpus of indigenous literary heritage written in Newârî scripts.

The development of Buddhist scholarship has contributed in producing enormous body of Newâr Buddhist texts in Sanskrit. The Newâr Buddhists were experts in producing and maintaining the intellectual products of the greater cultural region. The forms of indigenous Newâr texts are Purâna, Cacâ, Vrata Vidhi, Pûjâ Vidhi, eulogies, hymns, Avadâna, Sûtra and so on. These texts are, no doubt, very important, which contributed in the

1 Will Tuladhar-Douglas, Buddhism in Medieval Nepal: The Fifteenth Century Reformation of Newâr Buddhism, London: Routledge, 2007, pp. 8-9. 2 a). Min Bahadur Shakya, ‘A Historical Analysis of Monasticism in Newâr Buddhism’, Voice of History, Vol. XV, No. 1, June 2000, pp. 65-80; b). Min Bahadur Shakya, ‘Monasticism in Newâr Buddhism’, In: Shanker Thapa (ed.), Newâr Buddhism: The Vajrayâna Tradition of Nepal, Lalitpur: Nagarjuna Institute, 2005, pp. 62-88. 3 a). Shanker Thapa, Newâr Buddhism: History, Literature and Scholarship, Lalitpur: Nagarjuna Publication, 2005; b). Shanker Thapa, ‘Degradation of Buddhist Scholarship of Nepal,’ Samakâlin Mâtribhûmî, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2060, pp. 36-45; c). Shanker Thapa, 'Newâr Scholars and Tibetan Buddhists: Contribution in the Development of Scholastic Buddhism in Tibet, Journal of Daesoon Thought, Vol. 19, 2005, Daejin University, pp. 81-98.

continuity of the Indic Buddhism in the Himalayan region and beyond. Thus, Nepal has contributed a lot in the preservation and proliferation of Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts after the Muslim invasion of Northern India in the 12th century.

Cacâ [Caryâ] Songs

The Siddhas of Bengal used poetry as a vehicle for teaching the mystic religion that is known as the Shahaja School of Buddhism.4 The poems are part of the cultural and religious

heritage of Bengal, Nepal, and Tibet. But these songs are still the part of Tantric rituals in Nepal. Therefore, various Caryâs are sung by the Vajrâcâryas in Nepal. Caryâpada is the Buddhist mystic song originally from Bengal composed during 8th to 12th centuries. Caryâgîti (Vajragîti) belongs to the Vajrayâna tantric tradition. Caryâgîti is the ‘Songs of Realization’ where as Caryâ dance is considered as ‘Meditation in Action’. The tradition of Caryâ songs started with the Siddhâs in Bengal. Those songs represent the realized state of a practitioner. They are spontaneously composed verses that express experience of enlightenment. Caryâgîti is an inseparable part of Tantric Pujâ and also an element of ritual gathering of practitioners in tantric feasts. The feast culminates in the performance of tantric dances and music that must never be disclosed to the outsiders. The revelers may also improvise Caryâgîti to express heightened clarity and blissful raptures in spontaneous verses.5 They are the products of the state of spiritual realization of the Siddhas of Sahaja tradition.6 Caryâgîti is described as - 7

The feast culminates in the performance of tantric dances and music that must never be disclosed to outsiders. The revelers may also improvise ‘songs of realization’ (Caryâgîti) to express their heightened clarity and blissful raptures in spontaneous verse. The Siddhas composed Caryâ songs in Apabhramœ a language. Caryâgîti are ‘the Songs of Realization’. Those songs are spontaneously composed verses that express

4 Sahaja is the intrinsic nature that abides in the practitioner, and this ideology maintains that practitioner will realize awakening in the natural way. Dasgupta defines Sahaja as … that which is born or which originates with the birth or origination of any entity. Sahaja is the state where all constructed thought is dead, and where the defiled nature of Citta is seen through, and its purified nature is found. Sahaja exists in the unity of the female and male principles. It is the state of non-duality that is inexpressible in words. It is state of supreme bliss (Mahasukha). It is another name for Buddha nature,o the awakened state. Sashi Bhusan Dassgupta, Obscure Religious Cults, Calcutta: K. L. Mukhopadhyaya, 1962, p. 73; Rupa Bhattacharjee, ‘Multivariant Levels of Interpretations on Selected Caryas’, Master’s Thesis submitted to the Department of Religious Studies, University of Calgary, 2000, pp. 57-58. 5 Miranda Shaw, Passionate Enlightenment: Women in Tantric Buddhism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, p. 81. 6 For descriptions on Siddhas, see: a). Keith Dowman, Buddhist Masters of Enchantment: The Lives and Legends of the Mahâsiddhas, New York: Inner Traditions, 1998; b). Keith Dowman, Masters of Mahâmudrâ: Songs and Histories of the Eighty-four Buddhist Siddhas, New York: SUNY Press, 1985. 7 Shaw, f. n. no. 5, p. 81.

practitioner’s experience of the enlightened state. Thus, they are the reflection of experience of the Supreme bliss.

Caryâ songs are called Caryâgîti, (performance songs) or Vajragîti (Tib: rDo-rje gan sung). Sometimes, they are also called Dohâ songs, distinguished from the unsung Indian poetry form of Dohâ. Caryâgîti differ generically from Dohâ because of their different contexts and functions, Dohâs being primarily spiritual aphorisms expressed in the form of rhyming couples whilst Caryâgîti stand-alone as performance songs. These are the songs that can be understood in the context of a Ganacakra (tantric feast).8 Apart from numerous

original manuscripts availed in Nepal, Caryâ songs are preserved in the Tibetan Buddhist canon as well. However, many of these texts have yet to be translated from Tibetan. References of Caryâgîti are found in tantric texts such as Catupîtha Tantra and Hevajra Tantra. A Caryâ called ‘Tribhuvana Jvalita’ is referred in the former where as the later contains ‘Kolâyire’.9 It is mentioned in the Hevajra Tantra If in joy songs are sung, then let them be excellent Vajra songs, and if one dances when joy has arisen, let it be done with release as its object. ... Song replaces mantra, dance represents meditation... 10

Songs are interpreted as mantras, the divine power which is essentially independent of literal meaning. Caryâ dance is interpreted as a form of ‘meditation in action’ in which a dancer becomes identified with the deity whom he represents.11 The adepts perform dance at

festive gathering as meditation in action aiming at expressing exalted spiritual state, a state transcending mere entertainment.12 8 Roger Jackson, Tantric Treasures from Three Collections of Mystical Verses from Buddhist India. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 10; Also see: Hugh B. Urban, Songs of Ecstasy: Tantric and Devotional Songs from Colonial Bengal, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001; David Templeman, ‘Dohâ, Vajragîti and Caryâ Songs’, In Geoffrey Samuel, Hamish Gregor and Elisabeth Stutchbury (eds.), Tantra and Popular Religion in Tibet, Sata-Pitaka Series 376, 1994, pp. 15–38. 9 Hevajra Tantra, II:IV:6, David L. Snellgrove, The Hevajra Tantra: A Critical Study, Part I, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959, 10 Hevajra Tantra, I.VI.10-16; Snellgrove, f. n. no. 9, pp. 101-102.

Yadi [gîtam] gîyata ânandât tarhi vajrânvitaè param II Yady ânande samutpanne nrityate mokshahetunâ II Tarhi vajrapade nâtyam kuryâd yogî samâhitath II (10) Aksobhyah cakrîrupenâmitâbhah kundalâtmakah II Ratneœ ah kanthamâlâyâm hasteh Vairocanah smritah II (11) Mekhalâyâm sthito 'moghah prajñâ khatvângarupinî II Damarupâyarupena yogî dveœ aviœ uddhitah II (12) Mantra[vi]œ uddhyî sthitî gîtâ nartanâ bhâvanâ smritâ II Tasmâd gitañca nâtyâñca kuryâd yogî sadâ sadâ II(13) 11 Hevajra Tantra, I. VI.10, Snellgrove, f. n. no. 9, pp. 18 and 46. 12 Richard Widdess, ‘Caryâ and Cacâ: Change and Continuity in Newâr Buddhist Ritual Song’, Asian Music,

The Caryâpatala in Hevajra Tantra mentions that performance of Caryâ song and dances lead to attain Siddhi. It obviously means attainment of Nirvâna. Thus, these sorts of activities lead to enlightenment even in this lifetime. However, Caryâgîti has also been looked as an out and out rejection of orthodox Buddhism and a reaction to it.13 Caryâ Culture of Buddhist Newârs

Caryâgîti is an important part of tantric rituals and performances. They are sung as the necessary component of Tantric rituals. Caryâgiti and Caryâ nritya constitute potential treasure of Newâr Vajrayâna Buddhism. Caryâ singing has been a secret act by the Newârs. Thus, only the initiated Vajrâcâryas are allowed to sing or observe it. However, it is also sung in public during various festivals and life-cycle rituals. When Caryâ songs traveled outside Bengal, for instance to Nepal, its adaptation and growth in the local religio-social context marked significant changes in expression and composition. It is true in the case of Caryâ composed by the Newâr Vajrâcâryas as well as the act of singing.14 Cacâ Singing in Nepal maintains much of its original features. Some Vajrâcâryas in Nepal, who frequently view Vajrayâna as an indigenous tradition of the Newârs, also claim Caryâ to be their indigenous system. However, this idea cannot be corroborated historically. The Cacâ tradition in Nepal is the extension of Caryâgîti tradition of Bengal.

Cacâ singing among the Newârs has been adapted within the Vajrayâna ritual structure. Thus, there are certain rules of singing, singers, participants, typology to be set in specific Pûjâs and so on. Even there are rules for learners of Cacâ singing, Newâr Buddhism underwent a critical phase of ritual transformation around 13th century.15 Since then, practice of celibate monasticism ceased to exist.16 Therefore, it has turned into ritual Buddhism. As a matter of fact, ritual alone is believed to lead to enlightenment. Therefore, other forms of practices are considered not necessary in Newâr Buddhism to attain the highest goal. Very interesting point to be noted here is that the ten elders in a Saìgha attain Bhûmî and Pâramitâ not by practice but by the virtue of seniority. Thus, change in the hierarchy automatically changes in the attained Bhûmî and Pâramitâ.17

Ritual transformation of Newâr Buddhism has developed various forms of cultural practices within the religious lives of the Newâr Buddhists. Caryâgîti, which has largely been a 13 Lee Siegel, ‘Bengal Blackie and the Sacred Slut: A Sahajayâna Buddhist Song’, Buddhist-Christian Studies, Vol. 1, 1981, p. 54. 14 Ratna Kaji Bajracharya, ‘Tradition of Newâr Buddhist Culture’ paper presented at a seminar ‘Newâ Buddhist Culture Preservation’, Lotus Research Center, 1993, p. 6 15 For details see: Thapa, f. n. no. 3a, pp. 1-47; Shanker Thapa, f. n. no. 3b, pp. 36-45. 16 Shakya, f. n. no. 2a, pp. 65-80. 17 Thapa, f. n. no. 3b, pp.36-45.

philosophical matter and expression of realization, has also been adapted within the cultural domain of Newâr Buddhism. No doubt, Newâr Buddhism played significant role to continue the tradition of Caryâgîti and Caryâ dances. In Nepal, the Siddhas served as models, and sometimes as deities, for the Vajrâcâryas of Kathmandu valley, who have maintained the tradition of Caryâ singing. Its original features and ritual singing prevails in Nepal. However, it still remains a secret ritual performance in tantric Pujâs etc. that can be listened behind closed doors.

History and Significance

Caryâ is called Cacâ in Newârî terminology. In Patan, it is also called Caca. Both Cacâ and Caca are the corrupt forms of Caryâ. In various Pûjâvidhi texts, Cacâs are written as songs - such as Gîta Mahâmeru, Gîta Hâdâbharana and so on. The general history of Cacâ culture prevailed during the later Malla dynasty and its content had close connection with the intellectual history of Buddhist Newârs. At that time, the Newâr Buddhist society had developed a sophisticated intellectual tradition that produced a large number of eminent Buddhist scholars.

Cacâ singing is a spiritual act preserved almost for 1000 years in Nepal. According to the tradition, it is believed by the Buddhists that Manjuœ rî visited Kathmandu valley from Wu Tai Shan and cut a gorge in the south of the valley to drain water. Then Khâganana Devî <Nairâtmâ Devî/Guhyeœ varî> emerged from the source of water and guided Manjuœ rî. The Newâr Buddhists traditionally believe that Mañjuœ rî composed ‘Sodshabhuja Cacâ’ and performed Pujâ of Hevajra Nairâtmâ. However, no historical or philological evidences corroborate this tradition. This tradition is believed in the Buddhist society as the beginning of Cacâ singing in Nepal. It is important to note that Buddhist myth still plays significant role in the belief system of Buddhist Newârs of Kathmandu valley. The actual history of Cacâ singing goes back to 11th century. Caryâgîti took no time to reach Kathmandu valley as there was frequent interaction with the Buddhists of Northern India. It became popular among the Buddhist Newârs and became part of tantric practices. Newârs became acquainted with Caryâ singing as early as 11th century. Among several Indian

Pandits, Atiœ a Dipankara Œ rî Jñâna also visited Kathmandu. He lived in Vikramœ îla Vihâra in Thamel for some time. He had profound and epoch making impact on Newâr Buddhism.18

Upon return after completing his education from Siddha Nâropâ, Marpâ arranged a Ganacakra to honour his Guru Paindapâ. Both Guru and the disciple sang Cacâ at that time to 18 The ritual transformation of Newâr Buddhism and cessation of celibate monasticism is also attributed to Atisa. His Bodhipathapradipah had profound impact on religious practice of Buddhist Newâr s

explain Mahâmudrâ. The Ganacakra have been held at Ratnâkar Mahâvihâra in Patan, where Mârpâ lived for three years and studied Tantra with the Nepalese Gurus.19 This event is the earliest known Caryâ singing in the history of Buddhism in Nepal. Caryâgîti is the song used as accompaniments for dance in tantric rites. Solo and chorus singing are accompanied by musical instruments – cymbals and pellet drums. Caryâgîti still have significant ritual value in Newâr Buddhism. Different Cacâs are sung in Tantric rituals and Buddhist ceremonies. It aims at merit making as well as to deliver offerings to the deity. It is an essential part of Vajrayâna rituals and Tantric Pujâs.

Composition of Cacâ

The first composers of the Caryâ songs were the Siddhas, however, its composition and singing by the Tantric adepts continued among the Newâr Vajrâcâryas in Nepal. The songs composed by the Siddhas served as a part of the liturgy of Newâr Vajracârya priests for a millennium. The Newâr intellectuality has contributed to great extent in the development of Cacâ singing. Hundreds of Cacâs were written by the Newâr Buddhist scholars. The Cacâs composed in Nepal are prototype of the songs of the Siddhas. It is said that writing Cacâ in Nepal started right by the time of Pt. Vâkvajra Vajrâcârya or Suratvajra Vajrâcârya (17th C).20

Since then, many Vajrâcâryas composed hundreds of Cacâ songs. In modern times, some of the noted Vajrâcâryas mainly Jogmuni Vajrâcârya, Harsha Nrisingha Vajrâcârya, Âsâ Kâjî Vajrâcârya, Pt. Badri Ratna Vajrâcârya, Pt. Ratna Kâjî Vajrâcârya and many others continued the tradition of composing Cacâs in Newârî and mixed languages. Those Cacâs are also considered profound in theme. It is said that Pt. Badri Ratna Vajrâcârya has composed some one hundred Cacâs for the purpose of Tantric Pujâs and ritual singing. Since, the Cacâs are considered esoteric (Guhya), they are not yet made public.21 So we have no evidence to

corroborate it. One of the prominent Vajrâcâryas to compose popular Cacâ songs is Harsha 19 Shanker Thapa and Indra Kumari Vajracharya, Ratnâkar Mahâvihâra: A Newâr Buddhist Monastery in Pâtan, New Delhi: Adroit Publisher, 2005, p.151. 20 Acarya Dharmavajra Sridhar Rana, ‘Madhyamaka Buddhism vis-a-vis Hindu Vedâânta - A Paradigm Shift’, Buddhist Himalaya, Vol. 6, Nos. 1-2, 1996. But Saphalya Amatya views the date as 15th Century. Shaphalya Amatya, ‘Cultural Tourism in Medieval Nepal’, The Rising Nepal - Friday Supplement, 2012.1.23. 21 Phanindra Ratna Vajrâcârya, ‘Caryagit wa Nritya (Caryâ Songs and Dance)’, In: Prem Shanti Tuladhar (ed.), Nepâ yâ Œ âstriya Caryâ Pyâkhan – Chhapulu (Views on Classical carya Dance of Nepal), Patan: Lok Sahitya Parishad, 2008, p. 27 singha Vajrâcârya who has composed more than fifty songs that are extremely popular in Patan. Those songs are compiled in Cacâ Munâ (the Collection of Cacâ Songs).22 Although it still maintains original characteristics, indigenous features have been integrated in contents, ritual elaboration, instruments and so on. Cacâ is an indispensable element of Newâr Buddhist culture of Kathmandu Valley. Cacâ songs as such in composition, philology, themes, expression, spirituality and ritual integration are associated with the identity of Newâr Buddhist society. The old Cacâ songs maintain original

characteristics, however, modern Cacâ writers failed to maintain such features. Many of the Cacâs were written, literally, without realization of the ‘Supreme Bliss.’ A large number of Cacâ songs written by Newâr Vajrâcâryas are extant in Nepal.23 Nepal is the only place where the tradition of Caryâ singing has been continuing as the living Buddhist tradition. It also has greater religious and philosophical significance. The Cacâ songs written by the Newâr Vajrâcâryas are numerous. Those songs mainly picked up themes such as elaborated description of deities, devotion, prayer, iconography etc. They not only wrote philosophical treatises and ritual books or other indigenous Newâr Buddhist texts but also composed a great deal of Cacâ songs.24 Cacâs composed by eminent Newâr Vajrâcâryas such as Vâkvajra, Lilâvajra, Suratavajra, Amoghavajra, Ratnavajra, Omkârvajra, Humkâravajram Sâsvatvajra, Paramâdivajra, Siddivajra, Hâsavajra, Anupamvajra, Kuladattâcarya, Advayavajra, Ratnakulisa, Suratânanda, Jogmuni, Harsha Nrisingha and Sundarânanda are still sung in various rituals and Tantric performances in Vihâras and other places. It is said that, Cacâs that the Newârs sing in Pûjâs belong to Hevajra Tantra category.25 This Tantra as such has been highly esteemed in the Newâr Buddhist society. There are hundreds of Cacâs available in the Buddhist society which are anonymous.

22 Ratna Kaji Vajracarya, Cacâ Munâ Nigugu Bwa (Collection of Cacâ Songs - Part 2) Kathmandu: Briddi Man Shakya and Badri Man Shakya, 1999, pp. 132-222. 23 A). Vijay Raj Vajrâcârya, ‘Nepal ke Siddha Vajrâcâryayon ki Jîvani Evam Kritiyân’, Dhih – A Review of Rare Buddhist Texts, Vol.14, Sarnath: CIHTS, 1993, pp. 149-154; b). Vijay Raj Vajrâcârya, ‘Nepal ke Siddha Vajrâcâryayon ki Jîvani Evam Kritiyân - 2’, Dhih – A Review of Rare Buddhist Texts, Vol. 15, Sarnath: CIHTS, 1992, pp. 303-310; c). Vijay Raj Vajrâcârya, ‘Nepal ke Siddha Vajrâcâryayon ki Jîvani Evam Kritiyân - 3’, Dhih – A Review of Rare Buddhist Texts, Vol. 17, Sarnath: CIHTS, 1994, pp. 125-136; d). Vijay Raj Vajrâcârya, ‘Nepal ke Siddha Vajrâcâryayon ki Jîvani Evam Kritiyân’, Dhih – A Review of Rare Buddhist Texts, Vol. 19, Sarnath: CIHTS, 1995, pp. 109-122; 24 For literary history see: Shanker Thapa, ‘Historical and Religious Significance of Buddhist Sanskrit Literature of Nepal: Nepal’s Role in the Development of Buddhism Through Preservation and Proliferation of Literary Tradition of Sanskrit Buddhist Manuscripts’, Faculty Research, The University Grants Commission, Nepal, 2010. 25 Yagyamân Pati Vajrâcârya, ‘Caryâ Geet’, Paper presented at the seminar - Buddhist Heritage of Nepal Mandala’, organized by Lotus Research Center, 1998.

There is thematic variation in Cacâ songs written by the Newârs. Cacâs generally describe deities and also pray for them. It usually contains six emotions. Thus, Cacâ is selected according to the deity to be worshipped. The first group of Cacâ contains philosophical themes. The other type of Cacâ glorify Vajrayâna deities and also describe their iconography, colour pattern, appearance etc. Some other Cacâs elaborate processes and techniques of Pûjâ offered to various deities. The Cacâ composers have also considered textual aspects while composing Cacâs. Most of the Cacâ songs of Newârî origin describe appearance, qualities and power of individual deities. The descriptions also include colour pattern (Varna), nature, face, hands, body, attire, headgear, ornaments, attributes holding in hands and so on. Themes such as Bhava, Satya, Anitya, Voidness, Compassion, Enlightenment, Kleœ a, etc are also included in Cacâs composed by Newâr Vajrâcâryas. There are several themes that Cacâ songs were written. Subjects such as experience of realization, iconography of deities, their qualities and power, description of cosmology etc. are the themes of Cacâ songs.

Vajrayâna Buddhism of Nepal has very colourful rituals; Caryâgîti and Caryâ dances are part of religious behaviour among the Vajrayâna Buddhist Newârs. It has become an integral part of Vajrayâna Buddhist culture of Nepal. They sing Cacâ of the Siddhas as well as written by eminent Newâr Vajrâcâryas. The Vajrâcâryas wrot e many Cacâs in different times, which are extant in manuscripts preserved in Nepal.

Language

Mostly language of Cacâ written in Nepal is old Newârî. The Vajrâcâryas composed Cacâ songs in mixed Sanskrit also. But Cacâ in later decades were composed in vernacular Newârî.26 However, some fanatic Vajrâcâryas in Kathmandu city composed Cacâ in contemporary Newârî and tried to include those songs within the ritual structure. Along with old Cacâs, contemporary Cacâs are also included in the training manuals where ever young Vajrâcâryas are trained. However, this is not the case among the Vajrâcâryas in Patan, who are said to maintain much of the original characteristic of Cacâ singing. Cacâ Singing: the Newârî Way

Cacâ has been a supplementary act of main Pujâ. While singing Cacâ, Tah (cymbal) and Damaru (pellet drum) are played in rhythm. In every Cacâ singing, the main priest starts after completion of Pujâ then all accompanying Vajrâcâryas follow him and sing Cacâ. In addition to cymbals and pellet drum, hand bell is also played while singing. At the beginning and the end of singing, they take hold of the Râga (Râga Kâyegu). 26 For details on various forms of Cacä of Nepal see: Ratna Kaji Vajräcärya, f. n. no. 22, pp. 1-253.

Selection of Songs Some of the Caryâs of the Siddhas are still remain within the ritual singing in Nepal. The Siddhas are quite famous among the Vajrayâna Buddhist Newârs of Nepal. They sing Caryâs of the Siddhas during various religious occasions. The songs composed by Siddhas Sarahapâ, Karnapâ, Nâropâ, Tilopâ and Dârikâpâda are still quite popular in ritual singing. They are also adapted with high esteem by the Vajrâcaryas. The old Cacâ songs that prevail in the Newâr Buddhist society are in Apabhramœ a language. Ironically, Vajracâryas or other singers are ignorant of the meaning of songs. Even the singers have changed the pronunciation of Apabhramœ a diction. But still those texts bear religious significance. During the medieval times when scholastic tradition was well developed in Kathmandu valley, many Vajrâcârya scholars were interested in composing Cacâ songs. Consequently, hundreds of Cacâ songs were composed. Those songs still exist and are also adapted in ritual singing.

Cacâ is selected according to the type of Pujâ or ritual. Basically, there are tantric Pujâs in which only Vajrâcâryas can participate. It is Tantric therefore it is secret and performed behind closed doors. The other type of singing is open in which all related families can participate and also request particular Cacâs to sing. For an instance, while performing Cakrasamvara Pujâ at the conclusion of initiation ritual, all related families participate in the function. Various Cacâs are sung at that time. Even the audience can request particular Cacâ to be sung for which they have to offer foods or snacks to the Vajrâcâryas and participating audience. At this time, they generally sing Cacâs of Vajrasattva, Nairâtmâ, Cakrasamvara, Candamahâroñana, Chvâskâminî, Lambodara, Karunâmaya along with many other forms. But during the Âcârya consecration, Cacâ of Cakrasamvara, Hevajra and Vajravârâhî are sung.

Newâr Buddhists sing different Cacâ songs in various occasions. Typology of Cacâ is determined by the type of ritual or Pujâ performances. The popular Cacâs in the Newâr Buddhist society are of two types - firstly, Caryâ songs of the Siddhas; and secondly, those composed by eminent native Vajrâcâryas.

1. Caryâ Songs Composed by the Siddhas

Namâmî Œ rî Yogâmvara (Sarahapâ), Namoham (Sarahapâ), Cakrikundala (Kriñnapâ),

Koire Vaœ â (Dârakapâ), Candograœmaœ âna (Karnapâ), Cinnlocana (Karnapâ), Kasatyogini

27 The development of Buddhist scholarship in Nepal after 12th century also marked development in composing Cacâ songs. But significant changes were notice in the themes of Cacâ composed in Nepal. Although they are the ‘Songs of Realization’, later Cacâs also covered the themes such as iconography of Tantric deities, prayers and so on. For development of composing Cacâ songs in the Newâr society see: a). Shanker Thapa, Buddhist Sanskrit Literature of Nepal, Seoul: Minjoksa Publishing Co., 2005, pp. 55-84; b). Shanker Thapa, Buddhist Scholarship and Proliferation of Buddhist Sanskrit Literature in Nepal, (Research report), Kirtipur: CNAS, 2002; Thapa, f. n. no. 3c, pp. 81-98.

(Karnapâ), Urdhvarakta (Karnapâ), Gokudahana (Karnapâ), Cakrikundala (Karnapâ), Sata Sata hâthey (Karnapâ), Sarva Buddha (Karnapâ), Purva Dvâre (Tilopâ) Alakhapanirañjana (Jâlandharapâ) Upratimandita (Naropâ), and Tri Handâ (Godârî)

2. Cacâ Composed by Vajrâcrâya Pundits Madhyameru (Advayavajra), Pañcakapâla (Sâsvatvajra), Raktavarna (Vâkvajra), Hevajra Nairâtmâ (Lilâvajra), Uragabharana (Amoghavajra), Medanî (Vil✠avajra), Vâma Khappara (Vajravârâhî), Viœ vasaroruha (Paramâdivajra), Œ ihârdi, Hâdbharana, Tribhuvanajvalita, Tri-cakra, Vajrayoginî, Avaninihitavâmajânu, Vajrayoginî, Sahaja Saroruha, Purvâdigsthita (Pañcarakshâ) and Lambodara Cacâ.

Trainings on Cacâ Singing As similar to singing learning how to sing Cacâ is also a ritual act. While learning Cacâ from a Guru, the incumbents have to follow certain processes and rules. They first go to the temple of Nrityanâtha to offer Pujâ. Then they receive Tîkâ from the Guru to whom they offer Kisali (small earthen bowl full of rice decorated with a coin and a small nut on the top) as token of respect. Then the Guru provides them with a book of Cacâ songs. They follow him on a single line singing Cacâ while playing wooden tâh and clapping hands in rhythm. Then their training begins for some time. The learning process begins with the Gurumandala Pujâ. The learners go to the Vajrasattva shrine to offer Pujâ. The Guru takes them to Padmanrityeœ vara shrine (Nâsa Dyo), where a brief consecration is conferred upon them.28 At the completion of the training, again Gurumandala Pujâ is performed. They again visit the shrine of Vajrasattva and the temple of Padmanrityeœ vara to offer Pujâ. They sing Cacâ. It concludes training. These people are then authorized to sing Cacâ in rituals.

Singers and Singing Not only Cacâ songs, the singers, places and the contexts are equally important. Vajrâcâryas are the composers, Cacâ Masters (Gîtâcârya) and Cacâ singers (Cacâpâ). The Cacâ master (Mu Cacâpâ) along with some assistants (Cacâpâ) consists of a team of singers. This kind of hierarchy is required in Tantric Pujâs like Âgama Pujâ. The Cacâ singers are called Cacâpâ. They sing Cacâ as mantra recitation in rituals in various occasions. Most of the singers memorize the text of individual Cacâs for singing. Those who do not memorize use manuscripts to sing. 28 The incumbents pray Padmanrityeœ vara and recite – Om Padmanrityeœ varâya ! Ânandaœ akti parivartita mantra garbham; Tattvânurupam nisilârtha vidhâna hetuh ! Ashtânga sâdhanakaram parameœ vara ca; Nâtyaœ varam sakalasiddibaram namâmî !!

Cacâ is sung in Âgama, Bahâ, Bahi, places of religious celebration. It is not sung without performing Pujâ. Mainly, the Vajrâcâryas sing Cacâ. But Shakyas and Uray29 (Tulâdhars) also sing Cacâ in some occasions. Most importantly, only the Vajracâryas and consecrated Shakyas and Urays are allowed to sing Cacâ in Tantric Pujâs, and perform Caryâ dance (Cacâ Pyâkhan).30 In the Newâr Buddhist social hierarchy, Vajrâcâryas are placed at the top whereas Shakyas and Urays considered lower in the hierarchical rung. Therefore, Vajrâcâryas are the only authorized Cacâ singers (Cacâpa). They sing Cacâ during Tantric rituals such as - Âgama (lineage deity), Disi (Samvarodaya) and Digu Pûjâ (clan deity), Pancâbhiœ eka, Catudaœ âbhiœ eka, Acalâbhiœ eka, Dekhâ, Mahâsamvara Pujâ, Kâlacakra Pujâ and other sacred performances. Cacâ singing itself is a part of esoteric performances. Only the consecrated Vajrâcâryas are allowed to participate. In various Tantric Pûjâs, Vajrâcârya priests recite mantras. The Cacâ pâ hold Râga Bhairavî while performing dedication (Sankalpa). Then they pray to the deities and sing ‘Madhyameru’ Cacâ. During Pûjâ offering to the sacred vases, the ‘Anuttara Cacâ’ is sung.31 In other cases, deities are offered with singing special Cacâs of deities. For Cakrasamvara ‘Tricakra’ Cacâ is preferred to sing.32 Generally, Cacâ is sung during Âgama Pûjâ, Disi Pûjâ, Digu Pujâ and other Guthî gatherings. It is also sung in other Pûjâs sponsored by patrons. Cacâ is always sung in group. In addition to regular Pujâs, there are other regular festive occasions when Cacâ singing is mandatory. However, now a days, number of Cacâ singers and also persons acquainted with the rituals associated with it has been decreasing. This trend has been leading the lively Cacâ culture of Newâr Vajrayâna Buddhism into disintegration and disappearance.

Cacâ Manuscripts

A large number of Cacâ songs are preserved in Nepal in manuscripts in archives and individual collections. Cacâ manuscripts are one of the common manuscripts which individual Buddhists included in their collection. Cacâ songs are also published in book

29 Uray (Tulâdhar) is a Newâr Buddhist caste in Kathmandu. Traditionally, they were the Tibet traders. It made them acquainted with Tibetan Buddhism. They also contributed in the development of Buddhism in the Kathmandu valley. See: Todd T. Lewis, ‘Religious Belief in a Buddhist Merchant Community, Nepal’; Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 55, 1996, pp. 237-270. 30 Now a days, Cacâ songs and dances both came out of the shrines in the public. Professional singers and dancers started commercial doing performances as well as universities also started to train students. It is beyond the traditional framework. Although commercial performances are becoming popular, Cacâ signing has still ritual significance. 31 Types of the sacred vase are – Vicitra, Sahaja, Vipâtra, Hâdâbîja and Vimala. 32 Text of this Cacâ is – Tricakrarviœ asimandalamâjhe sthiti ânandamurtidharâ Vajravârâhî âlinganasavarâ nânâraœmîmahojjala I Nîlavarna caturvaktra pratimukha trinetra paramânandamûrti dharâ Viœ vavajra ardha candra jatâmukutadharâ hâdâbharana suœ obhitâ II See: Ratnakaji Vajrâcârya, f. n. no. 22, p. 6.

forms. However, the Cacâ pâ use songs written on Nepali paper while singing instead of printed forms.

The Muslim invasion of northern India, which devastated Buddhist Vihâras, provided Nepal an opportunity to interact with eminent Buddhist Pundits and scholarly monks from Nâlandâ, Vikramœ îla and other famous monasteries. Many of them escaped Muslim invasion and took asylum in Nepal in search of safe heavens. Nepal offered warm welcome to all of the expatriate Buddhists. The Indian monks who fled to Nepal carried with them large corpus of Mahâyâna texts.33 The valuable Caryâpada was there in the corpus of Buddhist texts. From the colophon of a manuscript of Saraha’s Dohâkoœ a, copied in NS 221 (1101 CE) and found in Durbar Library, Nepal (most probably the earliest manuscript of Dohâkoœ a), we know that many Dohâ of Sarahapâ were extant by that time. Some of them are intact and preserved until now. In 1907, H. P. Shastri discovered the Caryâpada manuscript in Nepal. His work published in 1916 on the manuscript determined historicity of Bâìglâ.34 Those songs were preserved in the form of manuscripts for a long time. Shastri recovered those songs from the Durbâr Library collection. This manuscript is important text of Caryâ songs. In 1929, P. C. Bagchi also found a fragment of still another Apabhramœ a version of Caryâpada in Nepal that does not coincide with other editions at all.35 Nepal has abundance of Cacâ manuscripts of various kinds written mainly in Newârî and Devnâgarî scripts in Sanskrit and also Newârî, Maithili, Apabhramœ a, Bânglâ and Hindi languages. Âsâ Saphû Kuthî and National Archives preserved hundreds of manuscripts of Cacâ songs. In addition, individual Buddhists also maintain collections of Caryâ songs.

National Archives has manuscripts entitled Caryâgîti, Caryâgîti Nirdeœ akrama, Caryâgîti Saìgraha, and Caryâcaryatîkâ.36 Similarly, Âsâ Saphû Kuthî collection of Cacâ manuscripts

includes - Caryâgîti, Caryâgîta, Cajâ Saphu, Bauddhacaryâ, Madhyameru Cacâ, Viœ varuhagîta, Bauddhacajâmye, Caryâcaryaviniœ caya, and Caryâcaryaviniœ cayatîkâ.37 These manuscripts contain hundreds of Caryâ songs. Songs of Indian origin are also there but composition of native Vajrâcâryas is overwhelming. The impact of Buddhist tradition of northern India contributed in the development of Buddhist scholarship in 33 For details: Thapa, f. n. no. 27a, pp. 1-30; Thapa, f. n. no. 24b. 34 Hara Prasad Shastri recovered Caryâpada in the National Archives of Nepal. H. P. Shastri, Hajar Bacharer Purana Bangala Bhasay Bauddha Gaan O Doha (Buddhist songs and couplets in one thousand year old Bengali language') Calcutta: Bangiya Sahitya Parishad, 1916; Benoytosh Bhattacharya, ‘The Date of Bauddha Gan O Doha’, Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol. 14, pt. 3, Patna: 1928. 35 Jackson, f. n. no. 8, p. 21. 36 Jagannath Upadhyaya and Sukadev Sharma, Sucîpatra - Bauddha Viñayak Granthaharu ko (Catalogue of Buddhist Texts), Kathmandu: Râstriya Abhilekhâlaya, 2054 VS, pp. 101-106. 37 Raja Shakya, Asa Saphu Kuthiya Saphu Dhala: A Short Catalogue of Asa Saphu Kuthu: Kathmandu: Asa Saphu Kuthi Guthi, 2000, pp. 10-14.

medieval Nepal under the Malla dynasty. This situation had positive impact on vast collections of manuscripts songs in Nepal. Thus, manuscript archives such as National Archives and Âsâ Saphû Kuthî have preserved hundreds of Cacâ manuscripts at present. In the same way, individual collections also contain thousands of Cacâ manuscripts.

Present Status of Cacâ Singing

Cacâ singing is a part of Vajrayâna practice in Nepal. It has maintained unbroken tradition since it arrived in Nepal. The history of Cacâ singing in Nepal is traced to 11th century. Since it became an integral part of Tantric practice of Newâr Buddhists, both composing and singing in Tantric ritual were taken in high esteem. But it has also undergone changes in practice etc. Present status of Cacâ singing in Newâr Buddhism is as follows – 1. Cacâ singing in Newâr Buddhism is maintained according to the tradition that arrived in Nepal from Bengal.

2. In spite of its religious significance, the Newâr society in modern times laid less importance. Therefore, it has been in degrading condition because the tradition is in the state of extinction due to the lack of interest of the new generation in old religious practices.

3. The focus of Vajrâcâryas in contemporary time to compose Cacâ has lost the prime feature of to be the ‘songs of realization’. Modern compositions have lost original features of Caryâ songs. This situation also prevails in terms of Caryâ dances.

4. There are attempts to revive the old culture. For instance, Hiranya Varna Mahâvihâra has established ‘Vajrayâna Caryâ Adhyayan Mandal’ to train youths in Cacâ singing and Caryâ dances.

5. Even in a changed context, the Newâr Buddhists in cities and towns such as Kathmandu, Patan, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur, Thimi and others sing Cacâ in various Tantric Pujâ and rituals.

Caryâ Dance Caryâpatala of Hevajra Tantra briefly mentions about Caryâ dance. It describes –38 Yady ânande samutpanne nrityate mokshahetunâ II Tarhi vajrapade nâtyam kuryâd yogî samâhitath II If in the Ânanda or bliss, one dances for the sake of salvation, let it be performed with the songs of Vajra in the company of Yogîs. Caryâ dance as such is not merely a dance but ‘meditation in action’. Nepal still has the lively culture of Caryâ dance performed by initiated Vajrâcâryas on various Tantric 38 Hevajra Tantra - I: VI: p.10.

rituals. This dance is a part of Vajrayâna ritual performance. Even in contemporary times, there are Newâr Vajrâcâryas who have good knowledge of rules and techniques of Caryâ dance.

Some of the popular dances are - Pancabuddha, Vajrasattva, Vajravîra Mahâkâla, Manjuœ rî, Œ imhamukhî, Vajravârâhî, Sodañalâsyâ, Vajrayoginî, Avalokiteœ vara, Nairâtmâ, Vajrapânnî, Ârya Târâ, Rakta Ganeœ a, Yogini Mandala and Târâ-Amoghasiddi Caryâ. Caryâ dance performance is lively in Nepal among the Newâr Buddhists. It is the Buddhist Ritual dance of Vajrayânî Newârs. This is a part of Tantric practice. It has been preserved since centuries. Caryâ dances are performed for Vajrayâna deities, which display the deity himself performing various postures, steps and actions to reveal meditation in action. Caryâ dance is accompanied by Cacâ singing playing cymbals and pellet drums. A dancer, while performing Caryâ dance, transforms into the deity he is performing, and displays postures (Mudrâ) etc. The dance as such is regarded as meditation in action. It has greater significance in Vajrayana practices.

Conclusion

Both Cacâ songs and dances are significant in Vajrayâna Buddhism. These performances still prevail in Nepal and are alive in Vajrayâna rituals. Nepal is the place where original Sanskrit Buddhist texts have been preserved for thousands of years. The Vajrâcâryas of Nepal have preserved much of the original characteristics of Vajrayâna practices. Vajrayâna Buddhism in Nepal marked significant changes in the 13th century. The ritual transformation of Newâr Buddhism turned Newâr Buddhists into the ritual performers. The Vajrâcâryas are the main actors. Their relationship with the followers is merely the client patron relationship. It is structured in such a way which cannot be changed to other forms for the betterment of Buddhism. Vajrayâna Buddhism is the speedy path to enlightenment. Cacâ singing is a part of this. Therefore, Cacâ singing and performing Caryâ dances have greater religious significance in Tantric practices. Both the Caryâs are significant part of tantric Pujâ and rituals.

Newâr Buddhists have continued the tradition of singing Cacâ and performing Caryâ dance since it arrived in Nepal. The religiosity and spirituality of Buddhist Newârs of Kathmandu valley contributed significantly in keeping Caryâ culture still alive as part of the religious behaviour.