Difference between revisions of "Bhairava and the Eight Charnel Grounds On the History of a Monumental Painting at the Jayavag TsvarT Temple, Kathmandu"
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The focus of this paper is the large mural of [[Bhairava]] on the northern wall of the [[JayavagTsvarT Temple]] in Deupatan, [[Kathmandu]]. | The focus of this paper is the large mural of [[Bhairava]] on the northern wall of the [[JayavagTsvarT Temple]] in Deupatan, [[Kathmandu]]. | ||
| − | A recently discovered artist’s sketch shows that the colourful painting, far from being a modem creation, is the product of a tradition of renewal dating back to at least 1755/56 CE. | + | A recently discovered artist’s sketch shows that the colourful painting, far from being a modem creation, is the product of a [[tradition]] of renewal dating back to at least 1755/56 CE. |
| − | The paper also analyses the representation of the Eight Charnel Grounds in the painting, which features a directional guardian, a Mahasiddha with a female attendant, a Mother Goddess, a bhuta tending a funeral pyre, a caitya, a sivalinga, a tree and a characteristic animal. Such a detailed representation is rare in Saiva works of art and was possibly modelled on Buddhist iconographic practice | + | The paper also analyses the [[representation]] of the [[Eight Charnel Grounds]] in the painting, which features a directional guardian, a [[Mahasiddha]] with a {{Wiki|female}} attendant, a [[Mother Goddess]], a [[bhuta]] tending a [[funeral]] pyre, a [[caitya]], a sivalinga, a [[tree]] and a [[characteristic]] [[animal]]. Such a detailed [[representation]] is rare in {{Wiki|Saiva}} works of [[art]] and was possibly modelled on [[Buddhist]] iconographic practice |
| − | ====[The Layout of the Temple]]==== | + | ====[[The Layout of the Temple]]==== |
| − | The temple of JayavagTsvarT1 (Fig. 1) in the western part of Deupatan (Deo-patan) is located up the hill from the Pasupatinath Temple in Kathmandu on what is now the busy Ring Road. It dates at least from the last part of the seventeenth century.2 The nineteenth-century chronicle BhasavamsavalT (vol. 2, 94) | + | The [[temple]] of JayavagTsvarT1 (Fig. 1) in the [[western]] part of Deupatan (Deo-patan) is located up the [[hill]] from the Pasupatinath [[Temple]] in [[Kathmandu]] on what is now the busy Ring Road. It dates at least from the last part of the seventeenth century.2 The nineteenth-century chronicle BhasavamsavalT (vol. 2, 94) |
| − | reports that Nrpendramalla of Kathmandu (r. 1674-80 CE) renovated the temple. Regmi (1965-66, vol. 3, pt. 2, p. 9 [fol. 21] and vol. 2, p. 94) provides evidence that the Harasiddhi dance was performed on the temple’s main platform by a troupe from Harasiddhi village (near Patan) in Nepala | + | reports that Nrpendramalla of [[Kathmandu]] (r. 1674-80 CE) renovated the [[temple]]. Regmi (1965-66, vol. 3, pt. 2, p. 9 [fol. 21] and vol. 2, p. 94) provides {{Wiki|evidence}} that the Harasiddhi [[dance]] was performed on the temple’s main platform by a troupe from Harasiddhi village (near [[Patan]]) in Nepala |
| − | 1 The name is sometimes written as Jaibageswari. Jayabagesvari. Jayabageshwori or even Jayabhagesvari. | + | 1 The [[name]] is sometimes written as Jaibageswari. Jayabagesvari. Jayabageshwori or even Jayabhagesvari. |
| − | 2 Rao (1984: 243) writes that the temple dates from the sixteenth century but does not provide any supporting evidence. | + | 2 Rao (1984: 243) writes that the [[temple]] dates from the sixteenth century but does not provide any supporting {{Wiki|evidence}}. |
| − | Berliner Indologische Studien | Berlin Indological Studies 21 • 2013: 307-326 | + | Berliner Indologische Studien | [[Berlin]] Indological Studies 21 • 2013: 307-326 |
| − | samvat 800 (which corresponds to 1680 CE). Records in the Newari language document elaborate ritual activities that took place at the temple in December of 1755 CE, including purification rites, the coating of the image of Jayavagisvari with gold and silver and the ritual of infusing life (prana-pratistha) | + | samvat 800 (which corresponds to 1680 CE). Records in the [[Newari]] [[language]] document elaborate [[ritual]] [[activities]] that took place at the [[temple]] in December of 1755 CE, [[including]] [[purification rites]], the coating of the image of Jayavagisvari with {{Wiki|gold}} and {{Wiki|silver}} and the [[ritual]] of infusing [[life]] (prana-pratistha) |
| − | (SHAKYA 2001: 30, 37-38, 47). It is thus evident that in the eighteenth century the Jayavagisvari Temple was being accorded the respect due to an important shrine. | + | ([[SHAKYA]] 2001: 30, 37-38, 47). It is thus evident that in the eighteenth century the Jayavagisvari [[Temple]] was being accorded the [[respect]] due to an important [[shrine]]. |
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| + | The sanctum houses three [[statues]]. | ||
| − | |||
The one in the centre, with a now grey but what was originally likely a white face (said to be of clay and renewed and repainted every twelve years)3 is worshipped as Jayavagisvari. A commercially reproduced photograph of the statue put up on the wall of | The one in the centre, with a now grey but what was originally likely a white face (said to be of clay and renewed and repainted every twelve years)3 is worshipped as Jayavagisvari. A commercially reproduced photograph of the statue put up on the wall of | ||
| − | |||
| − | + | 3 Michaels (1994/1: 81, 95) reports that the feet of the statue are made of stone and that the parts which are made of clay and the statue’s [[robes]] are replaced every twelve years, at the same time the {{Wiki|Bhairava}} painting is touched up. | |
| − | temple’s | + | the temple’s bhajan hall labels the [[goddess]] alternatively as ‘Swet Sarash-woti’ (i.e., Svetasarasvati, the white [[Sarasvati]]). The statue is draped with a long robe and scarves. Only one of the hand-held [[attributes]] is discernible: the sword in the upper right hand. One of two pendants suspended from the |
| − | + | temple’s roof, however, features a medallion displaying a miniature [[representation]] of the [[goddess]] holding a sword and shield in her upper pair of hands and a hammer (or knife) and [[mirror]] in her two lower hands | |
| − | + | On the statue’s pedestal (but according to MICHAELS 1994/1: 94, on the statue’s stone feet) an undated [[Licchavi]] inscription was found (VAJRACARYA 1973: | |
| − | A pendant suspended from the temple’s roof with a representation of Jayavaglsvari. Photograph: G. Bilhnemann | + | 124), possibly dating from the late fifth or early sixth century. It mentions one Guhasoma as the {{Wiki|donor}}. The inscription was not discernible during my visits to the [[temple]] in June of 2011, since [[offerings]] were then regularly being placed in front of the statue.4 |
| + | |||
| + | A pendant suspended from the temple’s roof with a [[representation]] of Jayavaglsvari. Photograph: G. Bilhnemann | ||
To Jayavaglsvari’s proper right is a smaller statue with a disproportionately large head. The priest-in-charge refers to it as NTlabhairava,5 but this is | To Jayavaglsvari’s proper right is a smaller statue with a disproportionately large head. The priest-in-charge refers to it as NTlabhairava,5 but this is | ||
| − | likely based on no more than the statue’s blue face. Tandan (1996-99, pt. 1: 570) and Shakya (2008: 209) call it Svetabhairava, the white Bhairava, perhaps because the statue in the middle goes by the name Svetasarasvati. The smaller statue to the goddess’s proper left is said to be an unusual form of | + | likely based on no more than the statue’s blue face. Tandan (1996-99, pt. 1: 570) and [[Shakya]] (2008: 209) call it Svetabhairava, the white {{Wiki|Bhairava}}, perhaps because the statue in the middle goes by the [[name]] Svetasarasvati. The smaller statue to the goddess’s proper left is said to be an unusual [[form]] of |
| − | |||
| − | + | 5 A commercially reproduced photograph hung in the temple’s bhajan hall labels the statue ‘Nil Bhairav’. Rau (1984: 243) renders the [[name]] as Bilabhairava, which must be a misprint for NTlabhairava. | |
| − | + | [[Ganesa]] as a child, before he had a trunk. A trunkless [[Ganesa]] has never been heard of, but since it is not possible to enter the sanctum and examine the | |
| − | + | statue closely and without its [[robes]], it remains unclear what [[deity]] it may actually represent. A commercially reproduced photograph hung in the temple’s bhajan hall labels it ‘Adhi [[Ganesh]]’. These two smaller figures appear not to be full-length figures but rather heads placed on parts | |
| − | + | of torsos covered by garments. The nineteenth-century chronicle edited by WRIGHT (p. 127) refers to an image of {{Wiki|Bhairava}} Navalingesvara (perhaps named after a locality?) and of Gajakarnaka (i.e., [[Ganesa]]) in [[connection]] with the ‘village [[goddess]]’ (gramadevl) Jayavaglsvari. It is possible that the two | |
| − | + | smaller [[statues]] currently flanking Jayavaglsvari in the [[temple]] represent these two [[deities]], even though they may have replaced [[statues]] of what were originally different [[deities]]. | |
| − | According to Slusser (1982/1: 178), it was originally “the halved plinth of a Licchavi caitya.” | + | A stone serving as a stair step to the temple’s entrance (Fig. 4) features a well-known [[Buddhist]] motif, the flaming [[wheel]] flanked by two couchant {{Wiki|deer}}. |
| + | |||
| + | According to Slusser (1982/1: 178), it was originally “the halved plinth of a [[Licchavi]] [[caitya]].” | ||
The top part of the tympanum features a [[Garuda] with a human face holding an amrtakalasa in his two main hands in front of his chest and clutching | The top part of the tympanum features a [[Garuda] with a human face holding an amrtakalasa in his two main hands in front of his chest and clutching | ||
| − | two winged nagas with his claws. The tympanum’s sides bear images of Surya (proper right) and Candra (proper left) and two makaras. The centre shows three forms of [[Durga]], each with four visible heads: | + | two winged nagas with his claws. The tympanum’s sides bear images of Surya (proper right) and Candra (proper left) and two makaras. The centre shows three forms of [[Durga]], each with four [[visible]] heads: |
| − | 6 For a sketch of the historical development of the three manifestations, see Brown 1990: 132-154. Mahakali, Mahalaksmi and Mahasarasvati are worshipped successively at the time of the recitation of the Devimahatmya or Durgasaptasatl, a text ascribed to the Markandeya-Purana (ca. 500-600 CE). The goddesses are associated with the colours dark, red and white respectively, with the qualities (gwwa) darkness (tarn as), | + | 6 For a sketch of the historical [[development]] of the three [[manifestations]], see Brown 1990: 132-154. [[Mahakali]], Mahalaksmi and Mahasarasvati are worshipped [[successively]] at the time of the {{Wiki|recitation}} of the Devimahatmya or Durgasaptasatl, a text ascribed to the Markandeya-Purana (ca. 500-600 CE). The [[goddesses]] are associated with the colours dark, [[red]] and white respectively, with the qualities (gwwa) {{Wiki|darkness}} (tarn as), |
| − | passion (rajas) and purity/goodness (sattva), and with the cosmic functions of reabsorption, maintenance and creation, which are usually attributed to Siva, Visnu and Brahma. The text of the Devimahatmya does not contain descriptions of the goddesses. They appear later in the Rahasyatraya, a text of unknown date, which is appended to the Devimahatmya and is considered an integral part of it by commentators. These | + | [[passion]] ([[rajas]]) and purity/goodness ([[sattva]]), and with the [[cosmic]] functions of reabsorption, maintenance and creation, which are usually attributed to [[Siva]], {{Wiki|Visnu}} and [[Brahma]]. The text of the Devimahatmya does not contain descriptions of the [[goddesses]]. They appear later in the Rahasyatraya, a text of unknown date, which is appended to the Devimahatmya and is considered an integral part of it by commentators. These |
| − | iconographic descriptions are also found in Devlbhagavata-Purana 9.50.65-72, which is part of a section of the Purana assigned to the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries (Brown 1990: 225). Contemporary editions of the Devimahatmya prefix the iconographic descriptions of the goddesses to the three mam sections of the Devimahatmya, as explained in more detail in Buhnemann (2000-01, vol. 1: 186-191). The verse describing | + | iconographic descriptions are also found in Devlbhagavata-Purana 9.50.65-72, which is part of a section of the {{Wiki|Purana}} assigned to the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries (Brown 1990: 225). Contemporary editions of the Devimahatmya prefix the iconographic descriptions of the [[goddesses]] to the three mam [[sections]] of the Devimahatmya, as explained in more detail in Buhnemann (2000-01, vol. 1: 186-191). The verse describing |
| − | Mahakali precedes the ‘first account’ (prathamacaritra) of the text, the one addressing Mahalaksmi precedes the ‘middle account’ (madhyamacaritra), and the one on Mahasarasvati is inserted before the ‘final account’ (uttamacaritra). However, the descriptions do not agree in every detail with the iconography of | + | [[Mahakali]] precedes the ‘first account’ (prathamacaritra) of the text, the one addressing Mahalaksmi precedes the ‘middle account’ (madhyamacaritra), and the one on Mahasarasvati is inserted before the ‘final account’ (uttamacaritra). However, the descriptions do not agree in every detail with the [[iconography]] of |
| − | the three goddesses on the tympanum, especially in the case of Mahasarasvati. The iconography of Mahasarasvati on the tympanum also differs from that of the statue in the temple. | + | the three [[goddesses]] on the tympanum, especially in the case of Mahasarasvati. The [[iconography]] of Mahasarasvati on the tympanum also differs from that of the statue in the [[temple]]. |
| − | larger figure of Mahalaksmi on a lion in the middle, and a smaller figure of Mahakali on a corpse to Mahalaksmi’s proper right and of Mahasarasvati on a peacock (instead of a goose) to Mahalaksmi’s proper left. According to an inscription below the three figures, the tympanum dates from the month of marga in N.S. 980 (1859 CE). | + | larger figure of Mahalaksmi on a [[lion]] in the middle, and a smaller figure of [[Mahakali]] on a corpse to Mahalaksmi’s proper right and of Mahasarasvati on a [[peacock]] (instead of a {{Wiki|goose}}) to Mahalaksmi’s proper left. According to an inscription below the three figures, the tympanum dates from the month of [[marga]] in N.S. 980 (1859 CE). |
| − | On the front (or western) side of the temple, wooden carvings of the charnel grounds can be seen, three on either side of the entrance. They feature Bhairavas, funeral pyres and characteristic animals. Though recent works, they may have replaced similar carvings from an earlier time. The four wooden | + | On the front (or [[western]]) side of the [[temple]], wooden carvings of the [[charnel grounds]] can be seen, three on either side of the entrance. They feature [[Bhairavas]], [[funeral]] pyres and [[characteristic]] [[animals]]. Though recent works, they may have replaced similar carvings from an earlier time. The four wooden |
| − | struts on this side of the temple display Mother Goddesses and, on their lower parts, Mahasiddhas with their female attendants. These struts are also new but again may have replaced older ones with similar carvings. | + | struts on this side of the [[temple]] display Mother [[Goddesses]] and, on their lower parts, [[Mahasiddhas]] with their {{Wiki|female}} attendants. These struts are also new but again may have replaced older ones with similar carvings. |
| − | An adjacent shrine on the south-western corner of the temple houses ancient stone sculptures of the Mother Goddesses (Michaels 1994/1: 95, pl. 28); animals are sacrificed there regularly. One of the sikhara shrines in the temple compound currently houses an image of Surya on a chariot pulled by seven horses. | + | An adjacent [[shrine]] on the south-western corner of the [[temple]] houses [[ancient]] stone sculptures of the Mother [[Goddesses]] (Michaels 1994/1: 95, pl. 28); [[animals]] are sacrificed there regularly. One of the sikhara [[shrines]] in the [[temple]] compound currently houses an image of [[Surya]] on a [[chariot]] pulled by seven [[horses]]. |
| − | This image, locally known as Surya-Narayana, is not likely to be the original one. Numerous complex goddess figures are found on the outer facade of the | + | This image, locally known as Surya-Narayana, is not likely to be the original one. Numerous complex [[goddess]] figures are found on the outer facade of the |
| − | shrine, which may indicate that it was originally dedicated to a goddess. A sculpture of Dhanvantari is found in the sanctum of another shrine located near a sunken stepped fountain on the other side of the road. | + | [[shrine]], which may indicate that it was originally dedicated to a [[goddess]]. A {{Wiki|sculpture}} of [[Dhanvantari]] is found in the sanctum of another [[shrine]] located near a sunken stepped fountain on the other side of the road. |
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| − | The northern wall of the temple bears a large colourful mural of a Bhairava-like figure surrounded by the Eight Charnel Grounds (Fig. 6). It is covered by a protective screen, already visible in photographs taken by John C. Huntington in 1970 (Fig. 7).7 Below the painting is a wooden shrine of Nasadya, the | + | The northern wall of the [[temple]] bears a large colourful mural of a Bhairava-like figure surrounded by the [[Eight Charnel Grounds]] (Fig. 6). It is covered by a protective screen, already [[visible]] in photographs taken by John C. [[Huntington]] in 1970 (Fig. 7).7 Below the painting is a wooden [[shrine]] of Nasadya, the |
| − | god of dance, identified in Nepal with Siva Nataraja, and to its sides, paintings relating to the theme of witchcraft, featuring women leading their husbands on a leash to a sacrifice. One rather similar painting is seen in Patan’s Momadu-galli (“the lane of | + | [[god]] of [[dance]], identified in [[Nepal]] with [[Siva]] [[Nataraja]], and to its sides, paintings relating to the theme of {{Wiki|witchcraft}}, featuring women leading their husbands on a leash to a [[Wikipedia:sacrifice|sacrifice]]. One rather similar painting is seen in Patan’s Momadu-galli (“the lane of [[Chinnamasta]]”). |
| − | In an appreciation of the Bhairava painting, Ronald M. Bernier (1978: 139) wrote, | + | In an [[appreciation]] of the {{Wiki|Bhairava}} painting, Ronald M. Bernier (1978: 139) wrote, |
| − | The mural on the outside of the temple is another unusual feature. Recent in date, the painting is very large, covering an entire projecting wall from base to cornice. It shows a large figure of a fierce god encircled by flames and many attendant figures. The figure, which is bright blue in color, appears to | + | The mural on the outside of the [[temple]] is another unusual feature. Recent in date, the painting is very large, covering an entire projecting wall from base to cornice. It shows a large figure of a fierce [[god]] encircled by flames and many attendant figures. The figure, which is bright blue in {{Wiki|color}}, appears to |
| − | represent Bhairava, who is associated with the goddess for whom the temple is named. The implements held in the god’s many arms suggest this also. Several Shiva symbols are also found around the structure, but the large exterior painting of Bhairava is by far the most outstanding iconographic element as well | + | represent {{Wiki|Bhairava}}, who is associated with the [[goddess]] for whom the [[temple]] is named. The implements held in the [[god’s]] many arms suggest this also. Several [[Shiva]] [[symbols]] are also found around the {{Wiki|structure}}, but the large exterior painting of {{Wiki|Bhairava}} is by far the most outstanding iconographic [[element]] as well |
| − | as one of the most colorful exterior temple paintings in Kathmandu Valley. Like the lithographed holy pictures that flood Nepal from India, the mural has universal appeal no doubt. | + | as one of the most colorful exterior [[temple]] paintings in [[Kathmandu Valley]]. Like the lithographed {{Wiki|holy}} pictures that flood [[Nepal]] from [[India]], the mural has [[universal]] appeal no [[doubt]]. |
The mural is indeed quite unique, as I will show below. | The mural is indeed quite unique, as I will show below. | ||
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| − | the goddess was very beautiful he started following her. When Jayavagisvari noticed this, she ordered her son Ganesa to deal with him. Ganesa cut off the | + | the [[goddess]] was very beautiful he started following her. When Jayavagisvari noticed this, she ordered her son [[Ganesa]] to deal with him. [[Ganesa]] cut off the |
| − | Bhairava’s head and peeled the skin off his body. The mother and son affixed the skin to the wall of the temple and it turned into the Bhairava painting. In conformity with this legend, a photograph displayed in the temple’s bhajan hall (Fig. 8), which reproduces the mural without a protective screen, labels | + | Bhairava’s head and peeled the {{Wiki|skin}} off his [[body]]. The mother and son affixed the {{Wiki|skin}} to the wall of the [[temple]] and it turned into the {{Wiki|Bhairava}} painting. In conformity with this legend, a photograph displayed in the temple’s bhajan hall (Fig. 8), which reproduces the mural without a protective screen, labels |
| − | the Bhairava ‘Tusal Bhairav’. MICHAELS (1994/1: 81-82) records a slightly different version of the legend, according to which Jayavagisvari requested protection from Siva, who proceeded to tear the skin off of the Bhairava. Michaels does not record the name Tusal, and refers to this Bhairava as | + | the {{Wiki|Bhairava}} ‘Tusal Bhairav’. MICHAELS (1994/1: 81-82) records a slightly different version of the legend, according to which Jayavagisvari requested [[protection]] from [[Siva]], who proceeded to tear the {{Wiki|skin}} off of the {{Wiki|Bhairava}}. Michaels does not record the [[name]] Tusal, and refers to this {{Wiki|Bhairava}} as |
| − | Nilabhairava. This is likely a popular name given to the deity because of his blue complexion. As noted before, this label is occasionally also applied to the blue-faced Bhairava inside the temple’s sanctum. However, the name Nilabhairava does not seem to be attested in manuscripts or printed texts, the name | + | Nilabhairava. This is likely a popular [[name]] given to the [[deity]] because of his blue complexion. As noted before, this label is occasionally also applied to the blue-faced {{Wiki|Bhairava}} inside the temple’s sanctum. However, the [[name]] Nilabhairava does not seem to be attested in [[manuscripts]] or printed texts, the [[name]] |
Kalabhairava being the common one. | Kalabhairava being the common one. | ||
| − | The mural is renewed every twelve years. MICHAELS (1994/1: 81, 96, fig. 29) describes a renewal in 1989/90 which lasted about six months and during which period the outer walls of the temple were covered with white | + | The mural is renewed every twelve years. MICHAELS (1994/1: 81, 96, fig. 29) describes a renewal in 1989/90 which lasted about six months and during which period the outer walls of the [[temple]] were covered with white |
| − | cloths . That the tradition of renewing the painting was already in place by V.S. 1904 (1848 CE) follows from a decree of Surendra Vikram Sah, which guaranteed that those involved in the process were released from unpaid labour (text and translation in MICHAELS 1994/1: 156, 349). A sketch prepared | + | cloths . That the [[tradition]] of renewing the painting was already in place by V.S. 1904 (1848 CE) follows from a decree of [[Surendra]] [[Vikram]] Sah, which guaranteed that those involved in the process were released from unpaid labour (text and translation in MICHAELS 1994/1: 156, 349). A sketch prepared |
for the mural (Fig. 11), which I recently discovered in an artist’s sketchbook in the Newark Museum (acc.no. 82.253), allows us to push this date back by almost one hundred years. | for the mural (Fig. 11), which I recently discovered in an artist’s sketchbook in the Newark Museum (acc.no. 82.253), allows us to push this date back by almost one hundred years. | ||
| − | The mural was photographed by John C. Huntington in 1970 (Fig. 7), by Axel Michaels in 1981 or 1982 (Michaels 1994/1: 81, pl. 19; Michaels/ Tandan in Hutt et al. 1994: 190) and by myself, most recently, in 2011 (Fig. 6). When one compares the photographs, which show the mural in different cycles of | + | The mural was photographed by John C. [[Huntington]] in 1970 (Fig. 7), by Axel Michaels in 1981 or 1982 (Michaels 1994/1: 81, pl. 19; Michaels/ Tandan in Hutt et al. 1994: 190) and by myself, most recently, in 2011 (Fig. 6). When one compares the photographs, which show the mural in different cycles of |
| − | renewal, it becomes clear that the iconography has changed little over time. In the mural photographed in 2011 three of the eight matrkas and five of the Mahasiddhas appear in different charnel grounds, and some of the characteristic animals are found in different spots. Unlike the sketch, the mural as | + | renewal, it becomes clear that the [[iconography]] has changed little over time. In the mural photographed in 2011 three of the eight [[matrkas]] and five of the [[Mahasiddhas]] appear in different [[charnel grounds]], and some of the [[characteristic]] [[animals]] are found in different spots. Unlike the sketch, the mural as |
| − | photographed in 2011 features various species of trees, and the bhutas can be distinguished on the basis of the hand-held attributes. One should, however, keep in mind that painters have the freedom to add details not outlined in a sketch. | + | photographed in 2011 features various {{Wiki|species}} of [[trees]], and the [[bhutas]] can be {{Wiki|distinguished}} on the basis of the hand-held [[attributes]]. One should, however, keep in [[mind]] that painters have the freedom to add details not outlined in a sketch. |
| − | The sketch in the Newark Museum contains the following five lines of text in the Newari language: | + | The sketch in the Newark Museum contains the following five lines of text in the [[Newari]] [[language]]: |
| − | (Text inscribed on Bhairava's lower right leg:) | + | (Text inscribed on [[Bhairava's]] lower right leg:) |
| − | \siddhi sign] goraya jayava geseriya phuta da yakam taya jura | + | \[[siddhi]] sign] goraya jayava geseriya phuta da yakam taya jura |
| − | (Text inscribed on the right arm of the corpse on which Bhairava is standing:) | + | (Text inscribed on the right arm of the corpse on which {{Wiki|Bhairava}} is [[standing]]:) |
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| − | “Hail! The representation (phuta) was made for Jayavagisvari (‘Jayavageseri’) of Gola (‘Gora’, i.e., Deupatan). | + | “Hail! The [[representation]] (phuta) was made for Jayavagisvari (‘Jayavageseri’) of [[Gola]] (‘Gora’, i.e., Deupatan). |
| + | |||
Hail! Samvat | Hail! Samvat | ||
| − | It is quite possible that the unknown artist made the sketch before the mural was first painted on the northern wall of the temple, although it could also be that the drawing was used when the mural was renewed in | + | It is quite possible that the unknown artist made the sketch before the mural was first painted on the northern wall of the [[temple]], although it could also be that the drawing was used when the mural was renewed in |
| − | As noted before, records in the Newari language attest to complex ritual activities conducted at the temple during exactly this time period (SHAKYA 2001: 30, 37-38, 47). | + | As noted before, records in the [[Newari]] [[language]] attest to complex [[ritual]] [[activities]] conducted at the [[temple]] during exactly this time period ([[SHAKYA]] 2001: 30, 37-38, 47). |
| − | The sketch features an eight-armed Bhairava with flame-like hair standing in a militant stance on a male corpse which rests on a lotus. Bhairava holds a sword and shield along with an elephant hide in his upper (posterior) pair of hands; a rattle drum and a skull-topped staff (khatvdnga) in the second pair | + | The sketch features an eight-armed {{Wiki|Bhairava}} with flame-like [[hair]] [[standing]] in a militant stance on a {{Wiki|male}} corpse which rests on a [[lotus]]. {{Wiki|Bhairava}} holds a sword and shield along with an [[elephant]] hide in his upper (posterior) pair of hands; a rattle [[drum]] and a [[skull-topped staff]] (khatvdnga) in the second pair |
| − | of hands; and a trident and the severed head (of the god Brahma) with four faces in the third pair of hands. His lower (front) right hand holds a skull cup (kapalapatra) and the lower left displays the bindumudra. The bindumudra is the mudra of offering as libations (tarpana) - by flicking the fingers of one | + | of hands; and a [[trident]] and the [[severed head]] (of the [[god]] [[Brahma]]) with four faces in the third pair of hands. His lower (front) right hand holds a [[skull cup]] (kapalapatra) and the lower left displays the bindumudra. The bindumudra is the [[mudra]] of [[offering]] as libations ([[tarpana]]) - by flicking the fingers of one |
| − | hand - drops (bindu) of a liquid (an alcoholic beverage or blood) contained in a skull-cup held in the opposing hand. Bhairava’s body is adorned with snake ornaments and a garland of skulls. Two smaller emaciated figures holding a skull cup and flaying knife stand near his feet. Their complexion is specified | + | hand - drops ([[bindu]]) of a liquid (an alcoholic beverage or {{Wiki|blood}}) contained in a [[skull-cup]] held in the opposing hand. Bhairava’s [[body]] is adorned with {{Wiki|snake}} ornaments and a [[garland of skulls]]. Two smaller emaciated figures holding a [[skull cup]] and [[flaying knife]] stand near his feet. Their complexion is specified |
| − | as ni (nila, dark blue) and ra (rakta, red). These figures are attendants who commonly serve Bhairava or other wrathful deities.10 | + | as ni ([[nila]], [[dark blue]]) and ra ([[rakta]], [[red]]). These figures are attendants who commonly serve {{Wiki|Bhairava}} or other [[wrathful]] deities.10 |
| − | In the background are seen the Eight Charnel Grounds, four on either side. In the version of the painting photographed in 2011 (Fig. 6) they are separated | + | In the background are seen the [[Eight Charnel Grounds]], four on either side. In the version of the painting photographed in 2011 (Fig. 6) they are separated |
| − | by a river containing makaras. All charnel grounds feature a directional guardian (dikpala) seated on a mount; a Mother Goddess (matrka) standing on an animal mount; a Mahasiddha with a female attendant; and a characteristic animal. In addition, in each of them there are an unspecified | + | by a [[river]] containing [[makaras]]. All [[charnel grounds]] feature a directional guardian (dikpala) seated on a mount; a [[Mother Goddess]] ([[matrka]]) [[standing]] on an [[animal]] mount; a [[Mahasiddha]] with a {{Wiki|female}} attendant; and a [[characteristic]] [[animal]]. In addition, in each of them there are an unspecified |
9 For the term Gola/Gvala referring to Deupatan, see Michaels 1994/1: 24-25 and 2008: 42-43. | 9 For the term Gola/Gvala referring to Deupatan, see Michaels 1994/1: 24-25 and 2008: 42-43. | ||
| − | 10 For a Nepalese painting (whose date corresponds to 1754/55 CE) of a similar Bhairava figure flanked by two attendants in a charnel grounds setting featuring two funeral pyres, scattered bones and skeletons, | + | 10 For a [[Nepalese]] painting (whose date corresponds to 1754/55 CE) of a similar {{Wiki|Bhairava}} figure flanked by two attendants in a [[charnel grounds]] setting featuring two [[funeral]] pyres, scattered [[bones]] and [[skeletons]], |
| − | |||
| − | naked bhuta, labelled as sii (grey), tending a funeral pyre; a caitya; a | + | naked [[bhuta]], labelled as sii (grey), tending a [[funeral]] pyre; a [[caitya]]; a [[shivalinga]]; and a [[tree]]. While some texts specify the names of the [[charnel grounds]] and the names of the entities that inhabit or occupy them, [[including]] [[caityas]], [[trees]], lakes with [[nagas]], [[mountains]] and clouds, the sketch does not do so. |
| Line 188: | Line 192: | ||
ni: mla - dark | ni: mla - dark | ||
| − | pi or vi: pita - yellow ra: | + | pi or vi: [[pita]] - [[yellow]] ra: |
| − | rakta - red | + | [[rakta]] - [[red]] |
| − | rd or la: launa, Newari - ‘flesh | + | rd or la: launa, [[Newari]] - ‘flesh {{Wiki|colour}}’, {{Wiki|light}} [[red]] |
| − | sii: siyu, Newari - grey | + | sii: siyu, [[Newari]] - grey |
| − | to: toyu, Newari - white | + | to: toyu, [[Newari]] - white |
| Line 203: | Line 207: | ||
| − | In the sketch, the figures of the dikpalas in the charnel grounds enable us to determine the cardinal directions. Accordingly, the east, presided over by Indra, who is mounted on an elephant, is off to Bhairava’s lower right side. Proceeding clockwise we then arrive at the following arrangement: | + | In the sketch, the figures of the dikpalas in the [[charnel grounds]] enable us to determine the [[cardinal directions]]. Accordingly, the [[east]], presided over by [[Indra]], who is mounted on an [[elephant]], is off to [[Bhairava’s] lower right side. |
| + | |||
| + | Proceeding clockwise we then arrive at the following arrangement: | ||
| Line 214: | Line 220: | ||
4. [[South-west]] ([[Nairrta]]) . | 4. [[South-west]] ([[Nairrta]]) . | ||
| − | 5.[[ Wes]]t ([[Varuna]]) [[Bhairava]] | + | 5. [[ Wes]]t ([[Varuna]]) [[Bhairava]] |
| − | 6. [[North-west]] ([[Vayu]]) | + | 6. [[North-west]] ([[Vayu]]) |
| − | 7. [[North]] ([[Kubera]]) | + | 7. [[North]] ([[Kubera]]) |
8. [[North-east]] ([[Isana]]) | 8. [[North-east]] ([[Isana]]) | ||
| Line 224: | Line 230: | ||
| − | The individual [[charnel grounds are inhabited by the following types of beings: | + | The {{Wiki|individual}} [[charnel grounds]] are inhabited by the following types of [[beings]]: |
| − | 1. Eastern charnel ground]] | + | ====1. [[Eastern charnel ground]]==== |
| Line 234: | Line 240: | ||
| − | ====[[Mother goddess]]: [[Brahmani]] (called [[Brahmayani]] in [[Nepal]]), pi (yellow), on a goose==== | + | ====[[Mother goddess]]: [[Brahmani]] (called [[Brahmayani]] in [[Nepal]]), pi ([[yellow]]), on a {{Wiki|goose}}==== |
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | ====[[Mahasiddha]]: [[Indrabhutipa]]; with attendant, rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]])==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | ====[[Characteristic animal]]: [[crow]]==== | ||
| − | |||
| + | 11 I have discussed texts on and artistic {{Wiki|representations}} of the [[charnel grounds]] in [[Buddhist]] and {{Wiki|Saiva}} sources in Buhnemann 2007. For descriptions of [[charnel grounds]] in [[Buddhist texts]], see Meisezahl 1974, Tsuda 1990 and English 2002: 136-143, 347. For an art-historical study of the [[charnel grounds]] in early [[Tibetan]] [[mandalas]], see Neumann 2002. | ||
| − | |||
| − | + | ====2. [[South-eastern charnel ground]]==== | |
| + | ====[[Directional guardian]]: [[Agni]], ra ([[red]]), on a goat/ram==== | ||
| − | ==== | + | ====[[Mother goddess]]: [[Mahesvari]], to (white), on a bull==== |
| + | ====[[Mahasiddha]]: [[Dombipa]]/[[Dombi Heruka]], riding a [[tiger]]; with attendant, rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]])==== | ||
| − | + | ====[[Characteristic animal]]: [[snake]]==== | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | ====3. [[Southern charnel ground]]==== | |
| − | ==== | + | ====[[Directional guardian]]: [[Yama]], on a [[buffalo]]==== |
| + | [[Mother goddess]]: Kauman, ra ([[red]]), on a [[peacock]] (2011 mural: Vaisnavi?) [[Mahasiddha]]: [[Virupa]]; with attendant, rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]]) (2011 mural: [[Kukkuripa]]) [[Characteristic]] [[animal]]: {{Wiki|dog}} | ||
| − | |||
| − | |||
| + | ====4. [[South-western charnel ground]]==== | ||
| − | ==== | + | ====[[Directional guardian]]: [[Nairrta]], rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]]), on a corpse==== |
| + | ====[[Mother goddess]]: [[Vaisnavi]], va ([[green]]), on [[Garuda]] (2011 mural: [[Varalli] on a buffalo)==== | ||
| − | + | ====[[Mahasiddha]]: [[Luipa]], ni (dark) (2011 mural: unidentified [[Siddha]]); with attendant, rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]])==== | |
| − | + | ====[[Characteristic animal]]: jackal==== | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| + | ====5. [[Western charnel ground]]==== | ||
| − | |||
| + | ====[[Directional guardian]]: [[Varuna]], to (white), on a[[ makara]]==== | ||
| − | + | ====[[Mother goddess]]: [[Varahi]], ra ([[red]]), on a [[buffalo]] (2011 mural: [[[Wikipedia:Matrikas|Kaumari]]]] on a [[peacock]])==== | |
| − | + | ====[[Mahasiddha]]: [[Nagarjuna]], with {{Wiki|snake}} hood, pi ([[yellow]]); with attendant==== | |
| − | + | ====[[Characteristic animal]]: [[horse]] (2011 mural:[ [[horse]]]], [[elephant]] and [[crow]])==== | |
| − | |||
| + | ====6. [[North-western charnel ground]]==== | ||
| − | |||
| + | ====[[Directional guardian]]: [[Vayu]] (often called [[Vayavya]] in [[Nepal]]), va ([[green]]), on a deer/gazelle==== | ||
| − | + | ====[[Mother goddess]]: [[Indrani]] (called [[Indrayani]] in [[Nepal]]), on an [[elephant]] (the paper is slightly broken off)==== | |
| − | + | ====[[Mahasiddha]]: [[Ghantapa]], rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]]); with attendant, rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]]) (2011 mural: [[Virupa]]?)==== | |
| − | + | ====[[Characteristic animal]]: [[lion]]==== | |
| − | |||
| + | ====7. [[Northern charnel ground]]==== | ||
| − | |||
| + | ====[[Directional guardian]]: [[Kubera]], pi ([[yellow]]), on a [[horse]]==== | ||
| − | + | ====[[Mother goddess]]:[[Camunda]], ra ([[red]]), on a corpse==== | |
| − | + | ====[[Mahasiddha]]: [[Kukkuripa]], rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]]); with attendant rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]]) (2011 mural: unidentified [[Siddha]])==== | |
| − | + | ====[[Characteristic animal]]: [[vulture]] (The edge of the paper is broken off.) (2011 mural: no [[animal]])==== | |
| − | |||
| + | ====8. [[North-eastern charnel ground]]==== | ||
| − | |||
| + | ====[[Directional guardian]]: [[Isana]], to (white), on a bull==== | ||
| − | + | ====[[Mother goddess]]: [[Mahalaksmi]], ku (golden), on a [[lion]]==== | |
| − | + | ====[[Mahasiddha]]: [[Saraha]] (or [[Savaripa]]), vi ([[yellow]]); with attendant rd ({{Wiki|light}} [[red]]) (2011 mural: [[Luipa]])==== | |
| − | + | ====[[Characteristic animal]]: {{Wiki|boar}}==== | |
| − | |||
| − | As noted before, all charnel grounds feature a caitya as well as a sivalihga. As I have shown in Buhnemann 2007, the combined appearance of these two prominent objects of worship became popular in Buddhist as well as in Saiva texts and images in mid-seventeenth-century Nepal. Older Buddhist sources | + | As noted before, all [[charnel grounds]] feature a [[caitya]] as well as a sivalihga. As I have shown in Buhnemann 2007, the combined [[appearance]] of these two prominent [[objects]] of {{Wiki|worship}} became popular in [[Buddhist]] as well as in {{Wiki|Saiva}} texts and images in mid-seventeenth-century [[Nepal]]. Older [[Buddhist]] sources |
| − | describe or feature merely stupas! caityas as part of charnel grounds, and Saiva sources merely sivalirigas. The earliest example of the combination of caityas and sivalirigas in such representations in Newar Buddhist art is in a painted mandala of Cakrasamvara (reproduced in PAL 2003: 219) whose date | + | describe or feature merely [[stupas]]! [[caityas]] as part of [[charnel grounds]], and {{Wiki|Saiva}} sources merely sivalirigas. The earliest example of the combination of [[caityas]] and sivalirigas in such {{Wiki|representations}} in [[Newar]] [[Buddhist art]] is in a painted[[ mandala]] of [[Cakrasamvara]] (reproduced in PAL 2003: 219) whose date |
| − | corresponds to 1648. PAL (1975: 97, pl. 64) ascribes a group of metal figures (featuring entities situated within the charnel grounds, including 1 ingas and caityas) to the fourteenth century or even earlier. This date, however, is far too early and should be reconsidered. | + | corresponds to 1648. PAL (1975: 97, pl. 64) ascribes a group of metal figures (featuring entities situated within the [[charnel grounds]], [[including]] 1 ingas and [[caityas]]) to the fourteenth century or even earlier. This date, however, is far too early and should be reconsidered. |
| − | The series of Eight Mahasiddhas consisting of Indrabhutipa, Dombipa, Virupa, Luipa, | + | The series of [[Eight Mahasiddhas]] consisting of [[Indrabhutipa]], [[Dombipa]], [[Virupa]], [[Luipa]], [[Nagarjuna]], [[Ghantapa]], [[Kukkuripa]] and [[Saraha]] is the one found in many |
| − | Buddhist mandala paintings (Luczanits 2006: 88-89), especially those of Cakrasamvara prepared by Newar artists (Huntington/Bangdel 2003: 267; Buhnemann 2012: 67-68, 154-155). These Mahasiddhas can be discerned clearly, for example, in a paubha dating from ca. 1812 CE (Huntington/Bangdel 2003: 287). | + | [[Buddhist]] [[mandala]] paintings (Luczanits 2006: 88-89), especially those of[[ Cakrasamvara]] prepared by {{Wiki|Newar}} {{Wiki|artists}} (Huntington/Bangdel 2003: 267; Buhnemann 2012: 67-68, 154-155). These [[Mahasiddhas]] can be discerned clearly, for example, in a paubha dating from ca. 1812 CE (Huntington/Bangdel 2003: 287). |
| − | The Brahmanical group of the Eight Mothers ( | + | The [[Brahmanical]] group of the [[Eight Mothers]] ([[matrikas]]) which inhabits the [[charnel grounds]] came to be accepted in [[Buddhist]] circles in [[Nepal]] early on but is not included in descriptions of the [[charnel grounds]] in [[Buddhist texts]] from [[India]] or [[Tibet]]. |
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| − | How does the Bhairava mural on the northern wall of the temple fit in with the statue of Jayavagisvari in the sanctum and the representations of the other divinities in the temple complex? The chronicle of Padmagiri (p. 25) and Wright’s chronicle (p. 130) report that Jayavagisvari came to Nepal from | + | How does the [[Bhairava]] mural on the northern wall of the [[temple]] fit in with the statue of [[Jayavagisvari]] in the sanctum and the {{Wiki|representations}} of the other [[divinities]] in the [[temple]] complex? The chronicle of [[Padmagiri]] (p. 25) and Wright’s chronicle (p. 130) report that Jayavagisvari came to [[Nepal]] from |
| − | Manasarovara (in Tibet), crossing the Sila (i.e., the Gandaki) River. It is clear that she is not a regular form of Sarasvati but rather a form of Durga, namely Mahasarasvati as described in the Devimahatmya. As Durga, she can then be associated with Bhairava. However, given the eclectic nature of the | + | [[Manasarovara]] ([[in Tibet]]), crossing the [[Sila]] (i.e., the [[Gandaki]]) [[River]]. It is clear that she is not a regular [[form]] of [[Sarasvati]] but rather a [[form]] of [[Durga]], namely Mahasarasvati as described in the Devimahatmya. As [[Durga]], she can then be associated with [[Bhairava]]. However, given the eclectic [[nature]] of the |
| − | Jayavagisvari Temple complex, which contains shrines and elements from different religious groups and time periods, it may be pointless to try to find such a connection. | + | Jayavagisvari [[Temple]] complex, which contains [[shrines]] and [[elements]] from different [[religious]] groups and time periods, it may be pointless to try to find such a [[connection]]. |
| − | The Bhairava in the centre of the mural displays his characteristic attributes, but the detailed representation of the charnel grounds is rare in Saiva works of art, and possibly adopted from Buddhist iconography. It is also possible that Bhairava’s iconography was conflated with that of a Buddhist figure | + | The [[Bhairava]] in the centre of the mural displays his [[characteristic]] [[attributes]], but the detailed [[representation]] of the [[charnel grounds]] is rare in {{Wiki|Saiva}} works of [[art]], and possibly adopted from [[Buddhist iconography]]. It is also possible that Bhairava’s [[iconography]] was conflated with that of a [[Buddhist]] figure |
| − | such as Mahakala. Mahakala, who can be represented as surrounded by the Eight Charnel Grounds, is also known as Mahakala-bhairava in Nepal, where Bhairava is a common element attached to the names of wrathful male divinities. | + | such as [[Mahakala]]. [[Mahakala]], who can be represented as surrounded by the [[Eight Charnel Grounds]], is also known as Mahakala-bhairava in [[Nepal]], where {{Wiki|Bhairava}} is a common [[element]] [[attached]] to the names of [[wrathful]] {{Wiki|male}} [[divinities]]. |
| − | That Bhairava and perhaps Mahakala were conflated in seventeenth-century Nepal can be assumed from a paubha previously in the possession of S. Lienhard (Macdonald/Vergati Stahl 1979: 130, pl. 99). Details of the inscription with its date (said to correspond to 1689 CE) cannot be discerned in the published | + | That {{Wiki|Bhairava}} and perhaps [[Mahakala]] were conflated in seventeenth-century [[Nepal]] can be assumed from a paubha previously in the possession of S. Lienhard (Macdonald/Vergati Stahl 1979: 130, pl. 99). Details of the inscription with its date (said to correspond to 1689 CE) cannot be discerned in the published |
| − | photograph. It features an eight-armed wrathful deity, identified as Bhairava by Macdonald/Vergati Stahl,12 surrounded by simple representations of the Eight Charnel Grounds, four on either side. All charnel grounds feature a caitya and a funeral pyre, and all have identical features. Given the | + | photograph. It features an eight-armed [[wrathful deity]], identified as {{Wiki|Bhairava}} by Macdonald/Vergati Stahl,12 surrounded by simple {{Wiki|representations}} of the [[Eight Charnel Grounds]], four on either side. All [[charnel grounds]] feature a [[caitya]] and a [[funeral]] pyre, and all have [[identical]] features. Given the |
| − | representation of the five Buddhist figures in the top register of the painting, however, and of the Siddhas Virupa and Luipa further below, it is likely that the figure in the centre is actually a Buddhist divinity, possibly a form of Mahakala. | + | [[representation]] of the five [[Buddhist]] figures in the top register of the painting, however, and of the [[Siddhas]] [[Virupa]] and [[Luipa]] further below, it is likely that the figure in the centre is actually a [[Buddhist]] [[divinity]], possibly a [[form]] of [[Mahakala]]. |
| − | 12 Si 1AK YA (2008: 210) reports that he saw a similar painting in Bhaktapur in 1990. It was likely because of the presence of the charnel grounds that SHAKYA assumed that the figure in the centre is ‘Masana’ | + | 12 Si 1AK YA (2008: 210) reports that he saw a similar painting in {{Wiki|Bhaktapur}} in 1990. It was likely because of the presence of the [[charnel grounds]] that [[SHAKYA]] assumed that the figure in the centre is ‘Masana’ |
| − | Tibetan prayer-flags now decorate the mural at the Jayavagisvari Temple, perhaps indicating that some Buddhists worship there, too. If so, they may perhaps consider the central figure to be, or confuse it with, Mahakala. | + | [[Tibetan]] [[prayer-flags]] now decorate the mural at the Jayavagisvari [[Temple]], perhaps indicating that some [[Buddhists]] {{Wiki|worship}} there, too. If so, they may perhaps consider the central figure to be, or confuse it with, [[Mahakala]]. |
| − | The representation of charnel grounds in the painting may ultimately have been inspired by the burning ghats of the nearby Pasupatinath Temple, on the route to which the Jayavagisvari Temple is located. It is said that women committing sati changed their clothes and offered their jewellery at the | + | The [[representation]] of [[charnel grounds]] in the painting may ultimately have been inspired by the burning ghats of the nearby Pasupatinath [[Temple]], on the route to which the Jayavagisvari [[Temple]] is located. It is said that women committing [[sati]] changed their [[clothes]] and [[offered]] their jewellery at the |
| − | Jayavagisvari Temple on their way to these ghats (Slusser 1982/1: 178, note 86; Michaels 1994/1: 151). A song in the Newari language (Lienhard 1974: 119-121,230-232, no. 95) narrates how Queen Bijyalaksmi, in the eighteenth century, made an offering to Jayavagisvari before committing sati. | + | Jayavagisvari [[Temple]] on their way to these ghats (Slusser 1982/1: 178, note 86; Michaels 1994/1: 151). A song in the [[Newari]] [[language]] (Lienhard 1974: 119-121,230-232, no. 95) narrates how [[Queen]] Bijyalaksmi, in the eighteenth century, made an [[offering]] to Jayavagisvari before committing [[sati]]. |
| − | The painting can be compared to two large well-known Bhairava murals on the outer walls of temples or shrines in Nepal: the wall painting outside the Candesvari Temple, Banepa (Slusser 1982/2: pl. 368) and the one of Tika Bhairava near Lele village (ibid.: pl. 361). These paintings, however, do not | + | The painting can be compared to two large well-known {{Wiki|Bhairava}} murals on the outer walls of [[temples]] or [[shrines]] in [[Nepal]]: the wall painting outside the Candesvari [[Temple]], Banepa (Slusser 1982/2: pl. 368) and the one of Tika {{Wiki|Bhairava}} near Lele village (ibid.: pl. 361). These paintings, however, do not |
| − | feature the charnel grounds. The monumental seventeenth-century stone sculpture of Kalabhairava on Kathmandu’s Darbar Square, although only sixarmed and stepping in the other direction, also comes to mind, but again, no charnel grounds are represented. | + | feature the [[charnel grounds]]. The monumental seventeenth-century stone {{Wiki|sculpture}} of Kalabhairava on [[Kathmandu’s]] Darbar [[Square]], although only sixarmed and stepping in the other [[direction]], also comes to [[mind]], but again, no [[charnel grounds]] are represented. |
| − | Thus the mural at the Jayavagisvari Temple with its detailed representation of the Eight Charnel Grounds is quite unique, and the artist’s sketch is an important find proving not only that the tradition of the painting goes back to at least 1755/56 CE but also that the iconography has changed little over the centuries. | + | Thus the mural at the Jayavagisvari [[Temple]] with its detailed [[representation]] of the [[Eight Charnel Grounds]] is quite unique, and the artist’s sketch is an important find proving not only that the [[tradition]] of the painting goes back to at least 1755/56 CE but also that the [[iconography]] has changed little over the centuries. |
| Line 382: | Line 391: | ||
| − | I would like to thank Kashinath Tamot for help with the Newari material and Govind Tandan, Mukund Vaidya and Manik Bajracharya for providing useful information. I am indebted to Gerd Mevissen for suggestions on an earlier version of this paper and Katherine Paul for permission to reproduce a line | + | I would like to thank Kashinath Tamot for help with the [[Newari]] material and Govind Tandan, Mukund [[Vaidya]] and Manik [[Bajracharya]] for providing useful [[information]]. I am indebted to Gerd Mevissen for suggestions on an earlier version of this paper and Katherine Paul for permission to reproduce a line |
| − | drawing from the collection of the Newark Museum. Special thanks are extended to Axel Michaels and John C. Huntington and The Huntington Archive at The Ohio State University for providing photographs. | + | drawing from the collection of the Newark Museum. Special thanks are extended to Axel Michaels and John C. [[Huntington]] and The [[Huntington]] Archive at The [[Ohio State University]] for providing photographs. |
| Line 390: | Line 399: | ||
| − | Bhasavamsavali. Bhasa Vamsavali. Part 1, edited by N. Paudel. Part 2, edited by D. Lamsal. Kathmandu, 1963-66. | + | Bhasavamsavali. [[Bhasa]] Vamsavali. Part 1, edited by N. Paudel. Part 2, edited by D. Lamsal. [[Kathmandu]], 1963-66. |
| − | Vamsavali (of Padmagiri). History of Nepal as Told by its Own and Contemporary Chronicles. Edited with a Prolegomena by B.J. Hasrat. Hoshiarpur, 1970. | + | Vamsavali (of Padmagiri). History of [[Nepal]] as Told by its [[Own]] and Contemporary Chronicles. Edited with a {{Wiki|Prolegomena}} by B.J. Hasrat. Hoshiarpur, 1970. |
| − | WRIGHT’s Chronicle. History of Nepal, Translatedfrom the Parbatiya by M.S.S. Singh and S. Gunanand, with an Introductory Sketch of the Country and People of Nepal by the Editor, D. Wright. Kathmandu, 1972 (reprint of the edition of 1877). | + | WRIGHT’s Chronicle. History of [[Nepal]], Translatedfrom the Parbatiya by M.S.S. Singh and S. Gunanand, with an Introductory Sketch of the Country and [[People]] of [[Nepal]] by the Editor, D. Wright. [[Kathmandu]], 1972 (reprint of the edition of 1877). |
| Line 400: | Line 409: | ||
| − | BERNIER, R.M. (1978) The Temples of Nepal: An Introductory Survey. New Delhi (second revised edition). | + | BERNIER, R.M. (1978) The [[Temples]] of [[Nepal]]: An Introductory Survey. {{Wiki|New Delhi}} (second revised edition). |
| − | BROWN, C.M. (1990) The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Pur ana. Albany, New York. | + | BROWN, C.M. (1990) The {{Wiki|Triumph}} of the [[Goddess]]: The {{Wiki|Canonical}} Models and {{Wiki|Theological}} [[Visions]] of the Devi-Bhagavata Pur ana. [[Albany]], [[New York]]. |
| − | BUHNEMANN, G. (2000-01) The Iconography of Hindu Tantric Deities. Volume I: The Pantheon of the Mantramahodadhi. Volume II: The Pantheons of the Pra-pahcasara and the Saradatilaka. Groningen. | + | BUHNEMANN, G. (2000-01) The [[Iconography]] of [[Hindu]] [[Tantric Deities]]. Volume I: The [[Pantheon]] of the Mantramahodadhi. Volume II: The [[Pantheons]] of the Pra-pahcasara and the Saradatilaka. Groningen. |
| − | ---- (2007) Sivalingas and Caityas in Representations of the Eight Cremation Grounds from Nepal. Pramanaklrtih: Papers Dedicated to Ernst Steinkellner on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, edited by B. Kellner et al. Wien, Part 1: 23-35. | + | ---- (2007) Sivalingas and [[Caityas]] in {{Wiki|Representations}} of the Eight [[Cremation Grounds]] from [[Nepal]]. Pramanaklrtih: Papers Dedicated to [[Ernst Steinkellner]] on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, edited by B. Kellner et al. [[Wien]], Part 1: 23-35. |
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Latest revision as of 12:33, 30 January 2020
Bhairava and the Eight Charnel Grounds On the History of a Monumental Painting at the Jayavag TsvarT Temple, Kathmandu
by Gudrun Biihnemann
The focus of this paper is the large mural of Bhairava on the northern wall of the JayavagTsvarT Temple in Deupatan, Kathmandu.
A recently discovered artist’s sketch shows that the colourful painting, far from being a modem creation, is the product of a tradition of renewal dating back to at least 1755/56 CE.
The paper also analyses the representation of the Eight Charnel Grounds in the painting, which features a directional guardian, a Mahasiddha with a female attendant, a Mother Goddess, a bhuta tending a funeral pyre, a caitya, a sivalinga, a tree and a characteristic animal. Such a detailed representation is rare in Saiva works of art and was possibly modelled on Buddhist iconographic practice
The Layout of the Temple
The temple of JayavagTsvarT1 (Fig. 1) in the western part of Deupatan (Deo-patan) is located up the hill from the Pasupatinath Temple in Kathmandu on what is now the busy Ring Road. It dates at least from the last part of the seventeenth century.2 The nineteenth-century chronicle BhasavamsavalT (vol. 2, 94)
reports that Nrpendramalla of Kathmandu (r. 1674-80 CE) renovated the temple. Regmi (1965-66, vol. 3, pt. 2, p. 9 [fol. 21] and vol. 2, p. 94) provides evidence that the Harasiddhi dance was performed on the temple’s main platform by a troupe from Harasiddhi village (near Patan) in Nepala
1 The name is sometimes written as Jaibageswari. Jayabagesvari. Jayabageshwori or even Jayabhagesvari.
2 Rao (1984: 243) writes that the temple dates from the sixteenth century but does not provide any supporting evidence.
Berliner Indologische Studien | Berlin Indological Studies 21 • 2013: 307-326
samvat 800 (which corresponds to 1680 CE). Records in the Newari language document elaborate ritual activities that took place at the temple in December of 1755 CE, including purification rites, the coating of the image of Jayavagisvari with gold and silver and the ritual of infusing life (prana-pratistha)
(SHAKYA 2001: 30, 37-38, 47). It is thus evident that in the eighteenth century the Jayavagisvari Temple was being accorded the respect due to an important shrine.
The sanctum houses three statues.
The one in the centre, with a now grey but what was originally likely a white face (said to be of clay and renewed and repainted every twelve years)3 is worshipped as Jayavagisvari. A commercially reproduced photograph of the statue put up on the wall of
3 Michaels (1994/1: 81, 95) reports that the feet of the statue are made of stone and that the parts which are made of clay and the statue’s robes are replaced every twelve years, at the same time the Bhairava painting is touched up.
the temple’s bhajan hall labels the goddess alternatively as ‘Swet Sarash-woti’ (i.e., Svetasarasvati, the white Sarasvati). The statue is draped with a long robe and scarves. Only one of the hand-held attributes is discernible: the sword in the upper right hand. One of two pendants suspended from the
temple’s roof, however, features a medallion displaying a miniature representation of the goddess holding a sword and shield in her upper pair of hands and a hammer (or knife) and mirror in her two lower hands
On the statue’s pedestal (but according to MICHAELS 1994/1: 94, on the statue’s stone feet) an undated Licchavi inscription was found (VAJRACARYA 1973:
124), possibly dating from the late fifth or early sixth century. It mentions one Guhasoma as the donor. The inscription was not discernible during my visits to the temple in June of 2011, since offerings were then regularly being placed in front of the statue.4
A pendant suspended from the temple’s roof with a representation of Jayavaglsvari. Photograph: G. Bilhnemann To Jayavaglsvari’s proper right is a smaller statue with a disproportionately large head. The priest-in-charge refers to it as NTlabhairava,5 but this is
likely based on no more than the statue’s blue face. Tandan (1996-99, pt. 1: 570) and Shakya (2008: 209) call it Svetabhairava, the white Bhairava, perhaps because the statue in the middle goes by the name Svetasarasvati. The smaller statue to the goddess’s proper left is said to be an unusual form of
5 A commercially reproduced photograph hung in the temple’s bhajan hall labels the statue ‘Nil Bhairav’. Rau (1984: 243) renders the name as Bilabhairava, which must be a misprint for NTlabhairava.
Ganesa as a child, before he had a trunk. A trunkless Ganesa has never been heard of, but since it is not possible to enter the sanctum and examine the
statue closely and without its robes, it remains unclear what deity it may actually represent. A commercially reproduced photograph hung in the temple’s bhajan hall labels it ‘Adhi Ganesh’. These two smaller figures appear not to be full-length figures but rather heads placed on parts
of torsos covered by garments. The nineteenth-century chronicle edited by WRIGHT (p. 127) refers to an image of Bhairava Navalingesvara (perhaps named after a locality?) and of Gajakarnaka (i.e., Ganesa) in connection with the ‘village goddess’ (gramadevl) Jayavaglsvari. It is possible that the two
smaller statues currently flanking Jayavaglsvari in the temple represent these two deities, even though they may have replaced statues of what were originally different deities.
A stone serving as a stair step to the temple’s entrance (Fig. 4) features a well-known Buddhist motif, the flaming wheel flanked by two couchant deer.
According to Slusser (1982/1: 178), it was originally “the halved plinth of a Licchavi caitya.”
The top part of the tympanum features a [[Garuda] with a human face holding an amrtakalasa in his two main hands in front of his chest and clutching
two winged nagas with his claws. The tympanum’s sides bear images of Surya (proper right) and Candra (proper left) and two makaras. The centre shows three forms of Durga, each with four visible heads:
6 For a sketch of the historical development of the three manifestations, see Brown 1990: 132-154. Mahakali, Mahalaksmi and Mahasarasvati are worshipped successively at the time of the recitation of the Devimahatmya or Durgasaptasatl, a text ascribed to the Markandeya-Purana (ca. 500-600 CE). The goddesses are associated with the colours dark, red and white respectively, with the qualities (gwwa) darkness (tarn as),
passion (rajas) and purity/goodness (sattva), and with the cosmic functions of reabsorption, maintenance and creation, which are usually attributed to Siva, Visnu and Brahma. The text of the Devimahatmya does not contain descriptions of the goddesses. They appear later in the Rahasyatraya, a text of unknown date, which is appended to the Devimahatmya and is considered an integral part of it by commentators. These
iconographic descriptions are also found in Devlbhagavata-Purana 9.50.65-72, which is part of a section of the Purana assigned to the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries (Brown 1990: 225). Contemporary editions of the Devimahatmya prefix the iconographic descriptions of the goddesses to the three mam sections of the Devimahatmya, as explained in more detail in Buhnemann (2000-01, vol. 1: 186-191). The verse describing
Mahakali precedes the ‘first account’ (prathamacaritra) of the text, the one addressing Mahalaksmi precedes the ‘middle account’ (madhyamacaritra), and the one on Mahasarasvati is inserted before the ‘final account’ (uttamacaritra). However, the descriptions do not agree in every detail with the iconography of
the three goddesses on the tympanum, especially in the case of Mahasarasvati. The iconography of Mahasarasvati on the tympanum also differs from that of the statue in the temple.
larger figure of Mahalaksmi on a lion in the middle, and a smaller figure of Mahakali on a corpse to Mahalaksmi’s proper right and of Mahasarasvati on a peacock (instead of a goose) to Mahalaksmi’s proper left. According to an inscription below the three figures, the tympanum dates from the month of marga in N.S. 980 (1859 CE).
On the front (or western) side of the temple, wooden carvings of the charnel grounds can be seen, three on either side of the entrance. They feature Bhairavas, funeral pyres and characteristic animals. Though recent works, they may have replaced similar carvings from an earlier time. The four wooden
struts on this side of the temple display Mother Goddesses and, on their lower parts, Mahasiddhas with their female attendants. These struts are also new but again may have replaced older ones with similar carvings.
An adjacent shrine on the south-western corner of the temple houses ancient stone sculptures of the Mother Goddesses (Michaels 1994/1: 95, pl. 28); animals are sacrificed there regularly. One of the sikhara shrines in the temple compound currently houses an image of Surya on a chariot pulled by seven horses.
This image, locally known as Surya-Narayana, is not likely to be the original one. Numerous complex goddess figures are found on the outer facade of the
shrine, which may indicate that it was originally dedicated to a goddess. A sculpture of Dhanvantari is found in the sanctum of another shrine located near a sunken stepped fountain on the other side of the road.
The Bhairava Mural
The northern wall of the temple bears a large colourful mural of a Bhairava-like figure surrounded by the Eight Charnel Grounds (Fig. 6). It is covered by a protective screen, already visible in photographs taken by John C. Huntington in 1970 (Fig. 7).7 Below the painting is a wooden shrine of Nasadya, the
god of dance, identified in Nepal with Siva Nataraja, and to its sides, paintings relating to the theme of witchcraft, featuring women leading their husbands on a leash to a sacrifice. One rather similar painting is seen in Patan’s Momadu-galli (“the lane of Chinnamasta”). In an appreciation of the Bhairava painting, Ronald M. Bernier (1978: 139) wrote,
The mural on the outside of the temple is another unusual feature. Recent in date, the painting is very large, covering an entire projecting wall from base to cornice. It shows a large figure of a fierce god encircled by flames and many attendant figures. The figure, which is bright blue in color, appears to
represent Bhairava, who is associated with the goddess for whom the temple is named. The implements held in the god’s many arms suggest this also. Several Shiva symbols are also found around the structure, but the large exterior painting of Bhairava is by far the most outstanding iconographic element as well
as one of the most colorful exterior temple paintings in Kathmandu Valley. Like the lithographed holy pictures that flood Nepal from India, the mural has universal appeal no doubt. The mural is indeed quite unique, as I will show below.
An informant8 reported the following legend about the mural’s origin.
8 Interview with Mukunda Vaidya, who oversees the temple’s bhajan program, on June 19, 2011
the goddess was very beautiful he started following her. When Jayavagisvari noticed this, she ordered her son Ganesa to deal with him. Ganesa cut off the
Bhairava’s head and peeled the skin off his body. The mother and son affixed the skin to the wall of the temple and it turned into the Bhairava painting. In conformity with this legend, a photograph displayed in the temple’s bhajan hall (Fig. 8), which reproduces the mural without a protective screen, labels
the Bhairava ‘Tusal Bhairav’. MICHAELS (1994/1: 81-82) records a slightly different version of the legend, according to which Jayavagisvari requested protection from Siva, who proceeded to tear the skin off of the Bhairava. Michaels does not record the name Tusal, and refers to this Bhairava as
Nilabhairava. This is likely a popular name given to the deity because of his blue complexion. As noted before, this label is occasionally also applied to the blue-faced Bhairava inside the temple’s sanctum. However, the name Nilabhairava does not seem to be attested in manuscripts or printed texts, the name Kalabhairava being the common one.
The mural is renewed every twelve years. MICHAELS (1994/1: 81, 96, fig. 29) describes a renewal in 1989/90 which lasted about six months and during which period the outer walls of the temple were covered with white
cloths . That the tradition of renewing the painting was already in place by V.S. 1904 (1848 CE) follows from a decree of Surendra Vikram Sah, which guaranteed that those involved in the process were released from unpaid labour (text and translation in MICHAELS 1994/1: 156, 349). A sketch prepared
for the mural (Fig. 11), which I recently discovered in an artist’s sketchbook in the Newark Museum (acc.no. 82.253), allows us to push this date back by almost one hundred years.
The mural was photographed by John C. Huntington in 1970 (Fig. 7), by Axel Michaels in 1981 or 1982 (Michaels 1994/1: 81, pl. 19; Michaels/ Tandan in Hutt et al. 1994: 190) and by myself, most recently, in 2011 (Fig. 6). When one compares the photographs, which show the mural in different cycles of
renewal, it becomes clear that the iconography has changed little over time. In the mural photographed in 2011 three of the eight matrkas and five of the Mahasiddhas appear in different charnel grounds, and some of the characteristic animals are found in different spots. Unlike the sketch, the mural as
photographed in 2011 features various species of trees, and the bhutas can be distinguished on the basis of the hand-held attributes. One should, however, keep in mind that painters have the freedom to add details not outlined in a sketch.
The sketch in the Newark Museum contains the following five lines of text in the Newari language:
(Text inscribed on Bhairava's lower right leg:)
\siddhi sign] goraya jayava geseriya phuta da yakam taya jura
(Text inscribed on the right arm of the corpse on which Bhairava is standing:)
(Translation:)
“Hail! The representation (phuta) was made for Jayavagisvari (‘Jayavageseri’) of Gola (‘Gora’, i.e., Deupatan).
Hail! Samvat
It is quite possible that the unknown artist made the sketch before the mural was first painted on the northern wall of the temple, although it could also be that the drawing was used when the mural was renewed in
As noted before, records in the Newari language attest to complex ritual activities conducted at the temple during exactly this time period (SHAKYA 2001: 30, 37-38, 47).
The sketch features an eight-armed Bhairava with flame-like hair standing in a militant stance on a male corpse which rests on a lotus. Bhairava holds a sword and shield along with an elephant hide in his upper (posterior) pair of hands; a rattle drum and a skull-topped staff (khatvdnga) in the second pair
of hands; and a trident and the severed head (of the god Brahma) with four faces in the third pair of hands. His lower (front) right hand holds a skull cup (kapalapatra) and the lower left displays the bindumudra. The bindumudra is the mudra of offering as libations (tarpana) - by flicking the fingers of one
hand - drops (bindu) of a liquid (an alcoholic beverage or blood) contained in a skull-cup held in the opposing hand. Bhairava’s body is adorned with snake ornaments and a garland of skulls. Two smaller emaciated figures holding a skull cup and flaying knife stand near his feet. Their complexion is specified
as ni (nila, dark blue) and ra (rakta, red). These figures are attendants who commonly serve Bhairava or other wrathful deities.10 In the background are seen the Eight Charnel Grounds, four on either side. In the version of the painting photographed in 2011 (Fig. 6) they are separated
by a river containing makaras. All charnel grounds feature a directional guardian (dikpala) seated on a mount; a Mother Goddess (matrka) standing on an animal mount; a Mahasiddha with a female attendant; and a characteristic animal. In addition, in each of them there are an unspecified
9 For the term Gola/Gvala referring to Deupatan, see Michaels 1994/1: 24-25 and 2008: 42-43.
10 For a Nepalese painting (whose date corresponds to 1754/55 CE) of a similar Bhairava figure flanked by two attendants in a charnel grounds setting featuring two funeral pyres, scattered bones and skeletons,
naked bhuta, labelled as sii (grey), tending a funeral pyre; a caitya; a shivalinga; and a tree. While some texts specify the names of the charnel grounds and the names of the entities that inhabit or occupy them, including caityas, trees, lakes with nagas, mountains and clouds, the sketch does not do so.
Only colours are occasionally indicated, using the following abbreviations:
ku: kufikuma - golden
ni: mla - dark
rd or la: launa, Newari - ‘flesh colour’, light red
sii: siyu, Newari - grey
to: toyu, Newari - white
The Eight Charnel Grounds
In the sketch, the figures of the dikpalas in the charnel grounds enable us to determine the cardinal directions. Accordingly, the east, presided over by Indra, who is mounted on an elephant, is off to [[Bhairava’s] lower right side.
Proceeding clockwise we then arrive at the following arrangement:
1. East ([[Indra])
2. South-east (Agni)
4. South-west (Nairrta) .
6. North-west (Vayu)
8. North-east (Isana)
The individual charnel grounds are inhabited by the following types of beings:
1. Eastern charnel ground
Directional guardian: Indra, ku (golden), on an elephant
Mother goddess: Brahmani (called Brahmayani in Nepal), pi (yellow), on a goose
Mahasiddha: Indrabhutipa; with attendant, rd (light red)
Characteristic animal: crow
11 I have discussed texts on and artistic representations of the charnel grounds in Buddhist and Saiva sources in Buhnemann 2007. For descriptions of charnel grounds in Buddhist texts, see Meisezahl 1974, Tsuda 1990 and English 2002: 136-143, 347. For an art-historical study of the charnel grounds in early Tibetan mandalas, see Neumann 2002.
2. South-eastern charnel ground
Directional guardian: Agni, ra (red), on a goat/ram
Mother goddess: Mahesvari, to (white), on a bull
Mahasiddha: Dombipa/Dombi Heruka, riding a tiger; with attendant, rd (light red)
Characteristic animal: snake
3. Southern charnel ground
Directional guardian: Yama, on a buffalo
Mother goddess: Kauman, ra (red), on a peacock (2011 mural: Vaisnavi?) Mahasiddha: Virupa; with attendant, rd (light red) (2011 mural: Kukkuripa) Characteristic animal: dog
4. South-western charnel ground
Directional guardian: Nairrta, rd (light red), on a corpse
Mahasiddha: Luipa, ni (dark) (2011 mural: unidentified Siddha); with attendant, rd (light red)
Characteristic animal: jackal
5. Western charnel ground
Directional guardian: Varuna, to (white), on amakara
Mother goddess: Varahi, ra (red), on a buffalo (2011 mural: [[[Wikipedia:Matrikas|Kaumari]]]] on a peacock)
Mahasiddha: Nagarjuna, with snake hood, pi (yellow); with attendant
Characteristic animal: horse (2011 mural:[ horse]], elephant and crow)
6. North-western charnel ground
Directional guardian: Vayu (often called Vayavya in Nepal), va (green), on a deer/gazelle
Mother goddess: Indrani (called Indrayani in Nepal), on an elephant (the paper is slightly broken off)
Mahasiddha: Ghantapa, rd (light red); with attendant, rd (light red) (2011 mural: Virupa?)
Characteristic animal: lion
7. Northern charnel ground
Directional guardian: Kubera, pi (yellow), on a horse
Mother goddess:Camunda, ra (red), on a corpse
Mahasiddha: Kukkuripa, rd (light red); with attendant rd (light red) (2011 mural: unidentified Siddha)
Characteristic animal: vulture (The edge of the paper is broken off.) (2011 mural: no animal)
8. North-eastern charnel ground
Directional guardian: Isana, to (white), on a bull
Mother goddess: Mahalaksmi, ku (golden), on a lion
Mahasiddha: Saraha (or Savaripa), vi (yellow); with attendant rd (light red) (2011 mural: Luipa)
Characteristic animal: boar
As noted before, all charnel grounds feature a caitya as well as a sivalihga. As I have shown in Buhnemann 2007, the combined appearance of these two prominent objects of worship became popular in Buddhist as well as in Saiva texts and images in mid-seventeenth-century Nepal. Older Buddhist sources
describe or feature merely stupas! caityas as part of charnel grounds, and Saiva sources merely sivalirigas. The earliest example of the combination of caityas and sivalirigas in such representations in Newar Buddhist art is in a paintedmandala of Cakrasamvara (reproduced in PAL 2003: 219) whose date
corresponds to 1648. PAL (1975: 97, pl. 64) ascribes a group of metal figures (featuring entities situated within the charnel grounds, including 1 ingas and caityas) to the fourteenth century or even earlier. This date, however, is far too early and should be reconsidered.
The series of Eight Mahasiddhas consisting of Indrabhutipa, Dombipa, Virupa, Luipa, Nagarjuna, Ghantapa, Kukkuripa and Saraha is the one found in many
Buddhist mandala paintings (Luczanits 2006: 88-89), especially those ofCakrasamvara prepared by Newar artists (Huntington/Bangdel 2003: 267; Buhnemann 2012: 67-68, 154-155). These Mahasiddhas can be discerned clearly, for example, in a paubha dating from ca. 1812 CE (Huntington/Bangdel 2003: 287).
The Brahmanical group of the Eight Mothers (matrikas) which inhabits the charnel grounds came to be accepted in Buddhist circles in Nepal early on but is not included in descriptions of the charnel grounds in Buddhist texts from India or Tibet.
Conclusion
How does the Bhairava mural on the northern wall of the temple fit in with the statue of Jayavagisvari in the sanctum and the representations of the other divinities in the temple complex? The chronicle of Padmagiri (p. 25) and Wright’s chronicle (p. 130) report that Jayavagisvari came to Nepal from
Manasarovara (in Tibet), crossing the Sila (i.e., the Gandaki) River. It is clear that she is not a regular form of Sarasvati but rather a form of Durga, namely Mahasarasvati as described in the Devimahatmya. As Durga, she can then be associated with Bhairava. However, given the eclectic nature of the
Jayavagisvari Temple complex, which contains shrines and elements from different religious groups and time periods, it may be pointless to try to find such a connection.
The Bhairava in the centre of the mural displays his characteristic attributes, but the detailed representation of the charnel grounds is rare in Saiva works of art, and possibly adopted from Buddhist iconography. It is also possible that Bhairava’s iconography was conflated with that of a Buddhist figure
such as Mahakala. Mahakala, who can be represented as surrounded by the Eight Charnel Grounds, is also known as Mahakala-bhairava in Nepal, where Bhairava is a common element attached to the names of wrathful male divinities.
That Bhairava and perhaps Mahakala were conflated in seventeenth-century Nepal can be assumed from a paubha previously in the possession of S. Lienhard (Macdonald/Vergati Stahl 1979: 130, pl. 99). Details of the inscription with its date (said to correspond to 1689 CE) cannot be discerned in the published
photograph. It features an eight-armed wrathful deity, identified as Bhairava by Macdonald/Vergati Stahl,12 surrounded by simple representations of the Eight Charnel Grounds, four on either side. All charnel grounds feature a caitya and a funeral pyre, and all have identical features. Given the
representation of the five Buddhist figures in the top register of the painting, however, and of the Siddhas Virupa and Luipa further below, it is likely that the figure in the centre is actually a Buddhist divinity, possibly a form of Mahakala.
12 Si 1AK YA (2008: 210) reports that he saw a similar painting in Bhaktapur in 1990. It was likely because of the presence of the charnel grounds that SHAKYA assumed that the figure in the centre is ‘Masana’
Tibetan prayer-flags now decorate the mural at the Jayavagisvari Temple, perhaps indicating that some Buddhists worship there, too. If so, they may perhaps consider the central figure to be, or confuse it with, Mahakala.
The representation of charnel grounds in the painting may ultimately have been inspired by the burning ghats of the nearby Pasupatinath Temple, on the route to which the Jayavagisvari Temple is located. It is said that women committing sati changed their clothes and offered their jewellery at the
Jayavagisvari Temple on their way to these ghats (Slusser 1982/1: 178, note 86; Michaels 1994/1: 151). A song in the Newari language (Lienhard 1974: 119-121,230-232, no. 95) narrates how Queen Bijyalaksmi, in the eighteenth century, made an offering to Jayavagisvari before committing sati.
The painting can be compared to two large well-known Bhairava murals on the outer walls of temples or shrines in Nepal: the wall painting outside the Candesvari Temple, Banepa (Slusser 1982/2: pl. 368) and the one of Tika Bhairava near Lele village (ibid.: pl. 361). These paintings, however, do not
feature the charnel grounds. The monumental seventeenth-century stone sculpture of Kalabhairava on Kathmandu’s Darbar Square, although only sixarmed and stepping in the other direction, also comes to mind, but again, no charnel grounds are represented.
Thus the mural at the Jayavagisvari Temple with its detailed representation of the Eight Charnel Grounds is quite unique, and the artist’s sketch is an important find proving not only that the tradition of the painting goes back to at least 1755/56 CE but also that the iconography has changed little over the centuries.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Kashinath Tamot for help with the Newari material and Govind Tandan, Mukund Vaidya and Manik Bajracharya for providing useful information. I am indebted to Gerd Mevissen for suggestions on an earlier version of this paper and Katherine Paul for permission to reproduce a line
drawing from the collection of the Newark Museum. Special thanks are extended to Axel Michaels and John C. Huntington and The Huntington Archive at The Ohio State University for providing photographs.
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