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Difference between revisions of "Three Baskets ( Tipitaka) In Buddhism"

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CONTENTS
 
CONTENTS
  
1.  What is the Tipitaka?
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1.  What is the [[Tipitaka]]?
2.  Language of Buddha’s words (Buddhavacana)
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2.  [[Language]] of [[Buddha’s words]] ([[Buddhavacana]])
3.  What is Pali?
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3.  What is [[Pali]]?
4.  The First Council
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4.  The [[First Council]]
5.  The Second Council
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5.  The [[Second Council]]
6.  The Great Schism
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6.  The [[Great Schism]]
7.  Origin of the Eighteen Nikayas (Schools of Buddhism)
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7.  Origin of the Eighteen [[Nikayas]] ([[Schools of Buddhism]])
8.  The Third Council
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8.  The [[Third Council]]
9.  Committing the Tipitaka to Memory
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9.  Committing the [[Tipitaka]] to [[Memory]]
10. Fourth Council: Committing the Tipitaka to Writing
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10. [[Fourth Council]]: Committing the [[Tipitaka]] to [[Writing]]
11. Fifth and Sixth Councils in Myanmar
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11. Fifth and Sixth Councils in [[Myanmar]]
 
12. Conclusion
 
12. Conclusion
13. Appendix: Contents of the Tipitaka or Three Baskets
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13. Appendix: Contents of the [[Tipitaka]] or [[Three Baskets]]
 
14. Explanatory Notes
 
14. Explanatory Notes
 
15. References
 
15. References
 
   
 
   
1. What is the Tipitaka?
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1. What is the [[Tipitaka]]?
  
The word of the Buddha, which is originally called the Dhamma, consists of three aspects, namely: Doctrine (Pariyatti), Practice (Patipatti) and Realization (Pativedha). The Doctrine is preserved in the Scriptures called the Tipitaka. English translators of the Tipitaka have estimated it to be eleven times the size of the Christian Bible. It contains the Teachings of the Buddha expounded from the time of His Enlightenment to Parinibbana  over forty-five years.
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The [[word of the Buddha]], which is originally called the [[Dhamma]], consists of three aspects, namely: [[Doctrine]] ([[Pariyatti]]), Practice ([[Patipatti]]) and [[Realization]] ([[Pativedha]]). The [[Doctrine]] is preserved in the [[Scriptures]] called the [[Tipitaka]]. English [[translators]] of the [[Tipitaka]] have estimated it to be eleven times the size of the [[Christian]] Bible. It contains the [[Teachings of the Buddha]] expounded from the time of His [[Enlightenment]] to [[Parinibbana]] over forty-five years.
  
Tipitaka in Pali means Three Baskets (Ti = Three, Pitaka = Basket), not in the sense of function of storing but of handing  down, just like workers carry earth with the aid of baskets handed on from worker to worker, posted in a long line from point of removal to point of deposit, so the Baskets of Teachings are handed down over the centuries from teacher to pupil.
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[[Tipitaka]] in [[Pali]] means [[Three Baskets]] (Ti = Three, [[Pitaka]] = Basket), not in the [[sense]] of function of storing but of handing  down, just like workers carry [[earth]] with the aid of [[baskets]] handed on from worker to worker, posted in a long line from point of removal to point of deposit, so the [[Baskets]] of Teachings are handed down over the centuries from [[teacher]] to pupil.
 
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[[File:111.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
The Three Baskets are: Basket of Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), which deals mainly with the rules and regulations of the Order of monks and nuns; Basket of Discourses (Sutta Pitaka) which contains the discourses delivered by the Buddha to individuals or assemblies of different ranks in the course of his ministry; Basket of Ultimate Things  (Abhidhamma Pitaka)  which consists of the four ultimate things: Mind (Citta), Mental-factors (Cetasikas), Matter (Rupa) and Nibbana. The contents of the Pali Tipitaka are shown in the Appendix.
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The [[Three Baskets]] are: [[Basket of Discipline]] ([[Vinaya Pitaka]]), which deals mainly with the {{Wiki|rules}} and regulations of the [[Order of monks]] and [[nuns]]; [[Basket of Discourses]] ([[Sutta Pitaka]]) which contains the [[discourses]] delivered by the [[Buddha]] to {{Wiki|individuals}} or assemblies of different ranks in the course of his ministry; Basket of {{Wiki|Ultimate}} Things  ([[Abhidhamma Pitaka]])  which consists of the four [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] things: [[Mind]] ([[Citta]]), Mental-factors ([[Cetasikas]]), Matter ([[Rupa]]) and [[Nibbana]]. The contents of the [[Pali Tipitaka]] are shown in the Appendix.
  
According to Ven. Sayadaw U Thittila1,  the versions of the Pali Canon existing in Theravada countries such as Burma, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos differ very slightly, with only a few minor grammatical forms and spelling. In substance and meaning and even the phrases used, they are in complete agreement. The Pali Tipitaka contains everything necessary to show forth the Path to the ultimate goal of Nibbana, the cessation of all suffering.
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According to Ven. [[Sayadaw U]] Thittila1,  the versions of the [[Pali Canon]] [[existing]] in [[Theravada]] countries such as [[Burma]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Laos]] differ very slightly, with only a few minor {{Wiki|grammatical}} [[forms]] and spelling. In [[substance]] and meaning and even the phrases used, they are in complete agreement. The [[Pali Tipitaka]] contains everything necessary to show forth the [[Path]] to the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] goal of [[Nibbana]], the [[cessation]] of all [[suffering]].
 
   
 
   
a) Each Tradition has its own Version of the Tipitaka
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a) Each [[Tradition]] has its [[own]] Version of the [[Tipitaka]]
  
There  are  three  versions  of  the  Tipitaka  adopted  by  the  three branches of Buddhism in existence today, namely: (i) the Pali Tipitaka of the Theravada tradition, (ii) the vast Mahayana Tripitaka in Chinese consisting primarily of translations of Sanskrit Texts and (iii) the Tibetan Tripitaka in the Tibetan language, called the Kagyur (consisting of translations of Sanskrit Texts & the Four Great Tantras) and Tangyur (consisting of works of Indian and Tibetan scholars). Theravada, the orthodox Buddhist school which traces its origin to the Buddha’s time, rejects the Mahayana and Tibetan scriptures as later creations that do not reflect the Buddha’s Teachings.
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There  are  three  versions  of  the  [[Tipitaka]] adopted  by  the  three branches of [[Buddhism]] in [[existence]] today, namely: (i) the [[Pali Tipitaka]] of the [[Theravada tradition]], (ii) the vast [[Mahayana]] [[Tripitaka]] in {{Wiki|Chinese}} consisting primarily of translations of [[Sanskrit]] Texts and (iii) the [[Tibetan Tripitaka]] in the [[Tibetan language]], called the [[Kagyur]] (consisting of translations of [[Sanskrit]] Texts & the Four Great [[Tantras]]) and [[Tangyur]] (consisting of works of [[Indian]] and [[Tibetan scholars]]). [[Theravada]], the [[orthodox]] [[Buddhist]] school which traces its origin to the [[Buddha’s]] time, rejects the [[Mahayana]] and [[Tibetan]] [[scriptures]] as later creations that do not reflect the [[Buddha’s Teachings]].
  
According to Warder2, although Mahayana claims to have been founded by the Buddha himself, the consensus of the evidence is that Mahayana teachings originated in South India somewhere in Andhra Pradesh during the 1st century AD. Several of its leading teachers were born in South India, studied there and afterwards went to the North to teach, one of whom was Nagarjuna. The idea that the sutras had been confined to the South was a convenient way for Mahayanists to explain to Buddhists in the North why it was that they had not heard these texts directly from their own teachers, without admitting that they were recent fabrications.
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According to Warder2, although [[Mahayana]] claims to have been founded by the [[Buddha]] himself, the consensus of the {{Wiki|evidence}} is that [[Mahayana teachings]] originated in {{Wiki|South India}} somewhere in [[Andhra Pradesh]] during the 1st century AD. Several of its leading [[teachers]] were born in {{Wiki|South India}}, studied there and afterwards went to the [[North]] to teach, one of whom was [[Nagarjuna]]. The [[idea]] that the [[sutras]] had been confined to the [[South]] was a convenient way for [[Mahayanists]] to explain to [[Buddhists]] in the [[North]] why it was that they had not heard these texts directly from their [[own]] [[teachers]], without admitting that they were recent [[fabrications]].
  
Another alternative explanation recorded by the Tibetan historian Taranatha was that though the Buddha had taught the Mahayana sutras, they were not in circulation in the world of men for many centuries, there being no competent teachers and no intelligent students. The sutras were transmitted secretly to various supernatural beings and preserved by the gods and nagas (dragons). These secret teachings were brought out from their hiding places when Mahayana teachers  who  were  capable  of  interpreting  these  sacred  texts appeared around the 2nd  century AD. This is as good as admitting that no Mahayana texts existed until the 2nd century AD!
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Another alternative explanation recorded by the [[Tibetan]] historian [[Taranatha]] was that though the [[Buddha]] had [[taught]] the [[Mahayana sutras]], they were not in circulation in the [[world]] of men for many centuries, there being no competent [[teachers]] and no {{Wiki|intelligent}} students. The [[sutras]] were transmitted secretly to various [[supernatural beings]] and preserved by the [[gods]] and [[nagas]] ([[dragons]]). These [[secret teachings]] were brought out from their hiding places when [[Mahayana]] [[teachers]] who  were  capable  of  interpreting  these  [[sacred]] texts appeared around the 2nd  century AD. This is as good as admitting that no [[Mahayana texts]] existed until the 2nd century AD!
  
As pointed out by Warder2, such fanciful accounts cannot be accepted as historical facts. Since everything about early Buddhism suggests that the Buddha’s Teaching was never meant to be secret, the possibility of a secret transmission amounts to an aspersion on the powers of the Buddha that he failed to do what others were able to accomplish 600 years later. Also, in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, the Buddha had declared that there was nothing with regard to the teaching that he held to the last with the closed fist of the teacher who keeps some things back.
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As pointed out by Warder2, such fanciful accounts cannot be accepted as historical facts. Since everything about [[early Buddhism]] suggests that the [[Buddha’s Teaching]] was never meant to be secret, the possibility of a secret [[transmission]] amounts to an aspersion on the [[powers]] of the [[Buddha]] that he failed to do what others were able to accomplish 600 years later. Also, in the [[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]], the [[Buddha]] had declared that there was nothing with regard to the [[teaching]] that he held to the last with the closed fist of the [[teacher]] who keeps some things back.
 
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The claim by Mahayana that there were no competent teachers and intelligent students during Buddha’s time is aimed at exalting their own status and disparaging the accomplishments of the Chief Disciples and Arahants. In fact, one of the earliest Mahayana sutras, the Ratnakuta Sutra denounces the pupils (Savakas or Arahants) as not really ‘sons’ of the Buddha i.e. not really Buddhists! Practically every  Mahayana sutra  repeats  this  denunciation  of  the  ‘inferior (hina)’ way of the pupil rather unpleasantly in sharp contrast to the tolerance  and  understanding characteristic of most of the earlier Buddhist texts that display the true spirit of the Dhamma taught by the Buddha.
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The claim by [[Mahayana]] that there were no competent [[teachers]] and {{Wiki|intelligent}} students during [[Buddha’s]] time is aimed at exalting their [[own]] {{Wiki|status}} and disparaging the accomplishments of the Chief [[Disciples]] and [[Arahants]]. In fact, one of the earliest [[Mahayana sutras]], the [[Ratnakuta Sutra]] denounces the pupils ([[Savakas]] or [[Arahants]]) as not really ‘sons’ of the [[Buddha]] i.e. not really [[Buddhists]]! Practically every  [[Mahayana sutra]] repeats  this  [[denunciation]] of  the  ‘{{Wiki|inferior}} (hina)’ way of the pupil rather unpleasantly in sharp contrast to the [[tolerance]] and  [[understanding]] [[characteristic]] of most of the earlier [[Buddhist texts]] that display the [[true spirit]] of the [[Dhamma]] [[taught]] by the [[Buddha]].
  
b) Reliability of Tipitaka compared with other Religious Records
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b) Reliability of [[Tipitaka]] compared with other [[Religious]] Records
  
In ‘The Life of the Buddha’ by Ven. Bhikkhu Nanamoli3,  the Pali scholar, T.W. Rhys Davids, made the relevant observation that:
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In ‘The [[Life]] of the [[Buddha]]’ by Ven. [[Bhikkhu]] Nanamoli3,  the [[Pali]] [[scholar]], T.W. [[Wikipedia:Thomas William Rhys Davids|Rhys Davids]], made the relevant observation that:
  
“The Buddha did not leave behind a number of deep simple sayings, from which his disciples subsequently expanded on to build up a system  or  systems  of  their  own,  but  had  himself  thoroughly elaborated his doctrine and during his long career (45 years of ministry), he had ample time to repeat the principles and details of the system over and over again to his disciples, to test their knowledge of it until finally his leading disciples were accustomed to the subtlest metaphysical distinctions and trained in the wonderful command of memory which Indian ascetics then possessed. When these facts are recalled to mind, it will be seen that much more reliance may be placed upon the doctrinal parts of the Buddhist Scriptures than the corresponding late records of other religions.”
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“The [[Buddha]] did not leave behind a number of deep simple sayings, from which his [[disciples]] subsequently expanded on [[to build]] up a system  or  systems  of  their  [[own]],  but  had  himself  thoroughly elaborated his [[doctrine]] and during his long career (45 years of ministry), he had ample time to repeat the {{Wiki|principles}} and details of the system over and over again to his [[disciples]], to test their [[knowledge]] of it until finally his leading [[disciples]] were accustomed to the subtlest [[metaphysical]] {{Wiki|distinctions}} and trained in the wonderful command of [[memory]] which [[Indian]] [[ascetics]] then possessed. When these facts are recalled to [[mind]], it will be seen that much more reliance may be placed upon the [[doctrinal]] parts of the [[Buddhist Scriptures]] than the [[corresponding]] late records of other [[religions]].”
 
   
 
   
2 . Language  of Buddha’s  Words (Buddhavacana)
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2 . [[Language]] of [[Buddha’s]] Words ([[Buddhavacana]])
  
In Cullavagga V, 33 of the Book of Discipline4, the Buddha made an injunction allowing monks to learn his Teachings in ‘saka nirutti’ or ‘own dialect’, which the great Pali commentator Ven. Buddhaghosa had interpreted to mean the Magadhi  dialect spoken by  the  Buddha,  and  forbidding  them  to  put  the  teachings  into Sanskrit verses. It appears that two brothers, both bhikkhus named Yamelu and Tekula, once approached the Buddha complaining that monks of different castes and clans were corrupting the Buddha’s words by preaching them in their own dialects. They wanted to put his words into Sanskrit verses (chandaso), but the Buddha forbade them with this injunction. For the last two thousand four hundred years, the term ‘saka nirutti’ had signified the Magadhi language.
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In [[Cullavagga]] V, 33 of the [[Book]] of Discipline4, the [[Buddha]] made an injunction allowing [[monks]] to learn his Teachings in ‘[[saka]] [[nirutti]]’ or ‘[[own]] {{Wiki|dialect}}’, which the great [[Pali]] commentator Ven. [[Buddhaghosa]] had interpreted to mean the [[Magadhi]] {{Wiki|dialect}} spoken by  the  [[Buddha]],  and  forbidding  them  to  put  the  teachings  into [[Sanskrit]] verses. It appears that two brothers, both [[bhikkhus]] named Yamelu and Tekula, once approached the [[Buddha]] complaining that [[monks]] of different [[castes]] and [[clans]] were corrupting the [[Buddha’s words]] by preaching them in their [[own]] {{Wiki|dialects}}. They wanted to put his words into [[Sanskrit]] verses ([[chandaso]]), but the [[Buddha]] forbade them with this injunction. For the last two thousand four hundred years, the term ‘[[saka]] [[nirutti]]’ had signified the [[Magadhi language]].
  
During the later part of the 19th century, Western scholars began to show an interest in Buddhism and when the Pali scholars Rhys Davids  and Oldenberg began translating the Vinaya  Texts5  into English, they translated the Buddha’s injunction as “I allow you, O Bhikkhus, to learn the words of the Buddha each in his own dialect”, to mean each monk’s own dialect. Most scholars have tended to accept this interpretation, except Geiger, who concurred with Ven. Buddhaghosa  that  it  meant  the  Buddha’s  own  language.  Rhys Davids, on second thought, appears to have been convinced of the interpretation  of  Ven.  Buddhaghosa.  Consequently  in  his  later works, he accepted ‘saka nirutti’ as the Buddha’s own language but with an ingenious modification. In his Foreword to the Pali-English Dictionary by T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede first published in London 1921-1925, he argues that the Pali of the canonical books is based on vernacular Kosalan, the Buddha’s native dialect.
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During the later part of the 19th century, [[Western]] [[scholars]] began to show an [[interest]] in [[Buddhism]] and when the [[Pali]] [[scholars]] [[Wikipedia:Thomas William Rhys Davids|Rhys Davids]] and [[Oldenberg]] began translating the [[Vinaya]] Texts5  into English, they translated the [[Buddha’s]] injunction as “I allow you, O [[Bhikkhus]], to learn the [[words of the Buddha]] each in his [[own]] {{Wiki|dialect}}”, to mean each [[monk’s]] [[own]] {{Wiki|dialect}}. Most [[scholars]] have tended to accept this [[interpretation]], except Geiger, who concurred with Ven. [[Buddhaghosa]] that  it  meant  the  [[Buddha’s]] [[own]] [[language]][[Wikipedia:Thomas William Rhys Davids|Rhys Davids]], on second [[thought]], appears to have been convinced of the [[interpretation]] of  Ven.  [[Buddhaghosa]].  Consequently  in  his  later works, he accepted ‘[[saka]] [[nirutti]]’ as the [[Buddha’s]] [[own]] [[language]] but with an ingenious modification. In his Foreword to the Pali-English {{Wiki|Dictionary}} by T.W. [[Wikipedia:Thomas William Rhys Davids|Rhys Davids]] and William Stede first published in {{Wiki|London}} 1921-1925, he argues that the [[Pali]] of the [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] [[books]] is based on {{Wiki|vernacular}} [[Kosalan]], the [[Buddha’s]] native {{Wiki|dialect}}.
  
Recently, Law6, in his book entitled ‘A History of Pali Literature’ is of the opinion that Buddhaghosa had taken the term ‘chandasa’ indiscriminately as a synonym for the Sanskrit language and the term ‘saka nirutti’ as a synonym for the Magadhi dialect used as a medium of instruction (vacanamagga) by the Buddha. According to Law, the Sanskrit language was divided into Vedic and current usage and the Buddha’s injunction directed against Vedic only and not current Sanskrit. “It is beyond our comprehension how Buddhaghosa went so far as to suggest that by the term saka nirutti, the Buddha meant his own medium of instruction and nothing but the Magadhi dialect.  It  would  be  irrational,  erroneous  and  dogmatic  of  the Buddha to promulgate this rule that Magadhi is the only correct form of speech to learn  his teaching and that every other dialect would be the incorrect form”, wrote Law.
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Recently, Law6, in his [[book]] entitled ‘A History of [[Pali Literature]]’ is of the opinion that [[Buddhaghosa]] had taken the term ‘chandasa’ indiscriminately as a {{Wiki|synonym}} for the [[Sanskrit]] [[language]] and the term ‘[[saka]] [[nirutti]]’ as a {{Wiki|synonym}} for the [[Magadhi]] {{Wiki|dialect}} used as a {{Wiki|medium}} of instruction (vacanamagga) by the [[Buddha]]. According to Law, the [[Sanskrit]] [[language]] was divided into {{Wiki|Vedic}} and current usage and the [[Buddha’s]] injunction directed against {{Wiki|Vedic}} only and not current [[Sanskrit]]. “It is beyond our [[comprehension]] how [[Buddhaghosa]] went so far as to suggest that by the term [[saka]] [[nirutti]], the [[Buddha]] meant his [[own]] {{Wiki|medium}} of instruction and nothing but the [[Magadhi]] {{Wiki|dialect}}.  It  would  be  irrational,  erroneous  and  [[dogmatic]] of  the [[Buddha]] to promulgate this {{Wiki|rule}} that [[Magadhi]] is the only correct [[form]] of {{Wiki|speech}} to learn  his [[teaching]] and that every other {{Wiki|dialect}} would be the incorrect [[form]]”, wrote Law.
 
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[[File:220d36.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
a) Medium of Instruction for Monks
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a) {{Wiki|Medium}} of Instruction for [[Monks]]
  
Despite his strong sentiment, Law’s argument does not appear to have taken into consideration the prevailing conditions with regard to the system of learning in ancient times. Back then, it was the custom for pupils who wish to study under a certain master to live with the master and learn the doctrine by oral tradition in the latter’s language. Venerable Buddhaghosa’s interpretation is certainly in consonance with the Indian spirit that there can be no other form of the Buddha’s words than in which the Master himself had preached. In an oral tradition it is imperative for the pupils to be able to learn, recite and remember the teachings in a common  language,  for in this way any mistake or distortion can be quickly detected and corrected by rehearsing together in that language. This was what actually took place in the Buddhist Councils after the Buddha’s Parinibbana  to ensure that the true teachings were preserved. Just imagine the chaos if various dialects were employed to rehearse the Master’s teachings in the Buddhist Councils. When these factors are considered, it certainly appears logical why the Buddha made this injunction allowing the monks to learn his teachings in the common dialect  of  his  time,  Magadhi,  although  his  native  dialect  was Kosalan, the Sakyan kingdom being a vassal state of Kosala.
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Despite his strong sentiment, Law’s argument does not appear to have taken into [[consideration]] the prevailing [[conditions]] with regard to the system of {{Wiki|learning}} in [[ancient]] times. Back then, it was the {{Wiki|custom}} for pupils who wish to study under a certain [[master]] to live with the [[master]] and learn the [[doctrine]] by [[oral tradition]] in the latter’s [[language]]. [[Venerable]] [[Buddhaghosa’s]] [[interpretation]] is certainly in consonance with the [[Indian]] [[spirit]] that there can be no other [[form]] of the [[Buddha’s words]] than in which the [[Master]] himself had [[preached]]. In an [[oral tradition]] it is {{Wiki|imperative}} for the pupils to be able to learn, recite and remember the teachings in a common  [[language]],  for in this way any mistake or [[distortion]] can be quickly detected and corrected by rehearsing together in that [[language]]. This was what actually took place in the [[Buddhist Councils]] after the [[Buddha’s]] [[Parinibbana]] to ensure that the true teachings were preserved. Just [[imagine]] the {{Wiki|chaos}} if various {{Wiki|dialects}} were employed to rehearse the [[Master’s]] teachings in the [[Buddhist Councils]]. When these factors are considered, it certainly appears [[logical]] why the [[Buddha]] made this injunction allowing the [[monks]] to learn his teachings in the common {{Wiki|dialect}}   of  his  time,  [[Magadhi]],  although  his  native  {{Wiki|dialect}} was [[Kosalan]], the [[Sakyan]] {{Wiki|kingdom}} being a vassal [[state]] of [[Kosala]].
  
According to Ven. Anagarika Dharmapala7, the Blessed One wished that the language used to convey the message of Buddha should be the language of the people, and not Sanskrit.
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According to Ven. [[Anagarika]] Dharmapala7, the [[Blessed One]] wished that the [[language]] used to convey the message of [[Buddha]] should be the [[language]] of the [[people]], and not [[Sanskrit]].
 
   
 
   
Sanskrit was and still is the language exclusively of Brahmins. In fact even in recent times before India became independent in 1947, high-caste Hindu teachers would not teach Sanskrit to children of low-caste Hindus and Untouchables in school! (Note: This happened to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the Greatest Champion of the Untouchables of India, while in high school because the Sanskrit teacher refused to teach Sanskrit to untouchables.)
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[[Sanskrit]] was and still is the [[language]] exclusively of [[Brahmins]]. In fact even in recent times before [[India]] became {{Wiki|independent}} in 1947, high-caste [[Hindu]] [[teachers]] would not teach [[Sanskrit]] to children of low-caste [[Hindus]] and Untouchables in school! (Note: This happened to Dr. B.R. [[Ambedkar]], the Greatest Champion of the Untouchables of [[India]], while in high school because the [[Sanskrit]] [[teacher]] refused to teach [[Sanskrit]] to untouchables.)
  
Knowing well that the majority of the population in his time could not understand Sanskrit, the Buddha decided to use Magadhi as the medium of instruction in order to benefit the common people. So important is this point that the Buddha even made it an offence (dukkata) for monks to put his words in Sanskrit!
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[[Knowing]] well that the majority of the population in his time could not understand [[Sanskrit]], the [[Buddha]] decided to use [[Magadhi]] as the {{Wiki|medium}} of instruction in order to [[benefit]] the [[common people]]. So important is this point that the [[Buddha]] even made it an offence ([[dukkata]]) for [[monks]] to put his words in [[Sanskrit]]!
  
b) Saka Nirutti − Our Own Language
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b) [[Saka]] [[Nirutti]] − Our [[Own]] [[Language]]
  
Lately, Indian scholar Dr. Mauli Chand  Prasad8 has come up with a more sensible reappraisal of the controversy. According to him, Magadhi was the most popular dialect or vernacular used for local communication during the Buddha’s time in the same sense as Hindi is adopted in present day India as the ‘nij bhasa’ (lit. own language). He translates the term ‘saka nirutti’ to mean ‘our own language’ and the Buddha’s injunction as “I allow, O monks, the words of the Buddha to be learnt in (our) own language”, meaning  Magadhi. This interpretation is in consonance with Ven. Buddhaghosa’s interpretation and at the same time vindicates the Buddha’s stand in disapproving the proposals of the monks Yamelu and Tekula to put the words of the Buddha into Sanskrit verses. Thus the terms ‘saka nirutti’ and ‘nij bhasa’ convey the same sense. Despite a long lapse of time between their uses, both of them denote the dialect or vernacular adopted for local communication of their respective ages.
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Lately, [[Indian]] [[scholar]] Dr. Mauli Chand  Prasad8 has come up with a more sensible reappraisal of the [[controversy]]. According to him, [[Magadhi]] was the most popular {{Wiki|dialect}} or {{Wiki|vernacular}} used for local [[communication]] during the [[Buddha’s]] time in the same [[sense]] as {{Wiki|Hindi}} is adopted in {{Wiki|present}} day [[India]] as the ‘nij [[bhasa]]’ (lit. [[own]] [[language]]). He translates the term ‘[[saka]] [[nirutti]]’ to mean ‘our [[own]] [[language]]’ and the [[Buddha’s]] injunction as “I allow, O [[monks]], the [[words of the Buddha]] to be learnt in (our) [[own]] [[language]]”, meaning  [[Magadhi]]. This [[interpretation]] is in consonance with Ven. [[Buddhaghosa’s]] [[interpretation]] and at the same time vindicates the [[Buddha’s]] stand in disapproving the proposals of the [[monks]] Yamelu and Tekula to put the [[words of the Buddha]] into [[Sanskrit]] verses. Thus the terms ‘[[saka]] [[nirutti]]’ and ‘nij [[bhasa]]’ convey the same [[sense]]. Despite a long lapse of time between their uses, both of them denote the {{Wiki|dialect}} or {{Wiki|vernacular}} adopted for local [[communication]] of their respective ages.
 
[[File:221.jpg|thumb|250px|]]  
 
[[File:221.jpg|thumb|250px|]]  
3. What is Pali?
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3. What is [[Pali]]?
  
According to Childers9, Magadhi was one of the Prakrits or Aryan vernaculars of ancient India. It was spoken in the sixth century BC in Magadha, the region around modern Bihar, which was one of the most important centres of Indian civilization in the Buddha’s time. Magadhi has been a dead language for about two thousand years. The word ‘pali’ in Sanskrit means ‘line, row or series’ and the Theravada extended its use to mean a series of books that form the text of the Buddhist Scriptures. So the Pali Text is synonymous with the Scriptures of the Theravada tradition. Palibhasa  therefore means the ‘language of the texts’, which of course is equivalent to saying
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According to Childers9, [[Magadhi]] was one of the [[Prakrits]] or [[Aryan]] vernaculars of {{Wiki|ancient India}}. It was spoken in the sixth century BC in [[Magadha]], the region around {{Wiki|modern}} [[Bihar]], which was one of the most important centres of [[Indian]] {{Wiki|civilization}} in the [[Buddha’s]] time. [[Magadhi]] has been a [[dead]] [[language]] for about two thousand years. The [[word]] ‘[[pali]]’ in [[Sanskrit]] means ‘line, row or series’ and the [[Theravada]] extended its use to mean a series of [[books]] that [[form]] the text of the [[Buddhist Scriptures]]. So the [[Pali]] Text is {{Wiki|synonymous}} with the [[Scriptures]] of the [[Theravada tradition]]. Palibhasa  therefore means the ‘[[language]] of the texts’, which of course is {{Wiki|equivalent}} to saying
‘Magadhi  language’. The term ‘pali’ in the sense of the sacred texts is ancient enough, but the term ‘Palibhasa’  as the language of the Scriptures is of modern introduction by the Singhalese from which the English word is derived. ‘Magadhi’ is the only name used in the old Theravada texts for the sacred language of Buddhism.
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‘[[Magadhi language]]’. The term ‘[[pali]]’ in the [[sense]] of the [[sacred]] texts is [[ancient]] enough, but the term ‘Palibhasa’  as the [[language]] of the [[Scriptures]] is of {{Wiki|modern}} introduction by the [[Wikipedia:Sinhala people|Singhalese]] from which the English [[word]] is derived. ‘[[Magadhi]]’ is the only [[name]] used in the old [[Theravada]] texts for the [[sacred]] [[language]] of [[Buddhism]].
  
As a language, Pali is unique in the sense that it is reserved entirely to one subject,  namely, the Buddha’s Teachings. This has probably led some scholars to even speculate that it was a kind of lingua franca created by Buddhist monks, for how else can one explain this paradox? On the contrary, it may very well mean that the ancient Elders (Theras) had truly memorized the Dhamma and Vinaya in the original dialect of the Buddha, which is now a dead language! Theravada monks are reputed to be the most orthodox so it is highly improbable that they would change the original language of the Buddha’s teaching unlike the other sects who switched to Sanskrit or mixed Sanskrit, something forbidden by the Buddha! This second explanation is more logical given the religious zeal, dedication  and legendary memory skills of the ancient monks in preserving and perpetuating the Teachings of the Buddha by oral tradition.
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As a [[language]], [[Pali]] is unique in the [[sense]] that it is reserved entirely to one [[subject]],  namely, the [[Buddha’s Teachings]]. This has probably led some [[scholars]] to even speculate that it was a kind of {{Wiki|lingua franca}} created by [[Buddhist monks]], for how else can one explain this [[paradox]]? On the contrary, it may very well mean that the [[ancient]] [[Elders]] ([[Theras]]) had truly memorized the [[Dhamma]] and [[Vinaya]] in the original {{Wiki|dialect}} of the [[Buddha]], which is now a [[dead]] [[language]]! [[Theravada]] [[monks]] are reputed to be the most [[orthodox]] so it is highly improbable that they would change the original [[language]] of the [[Buddha’s teaching]] unlike the other sects who switched to [[Sanskrit]] or mixed [[Sanskrit]], something forbidden by the [[Buddha]]! This second explanation is more [[logical]] given the [[religious]] [[zeal]], [[dedication]] and legendary [[memory]] skills of the [[ancient]] [[monks]] in preserving and perpetuating the [[Teachings of the Buddha]] by [[oral tradition]].
  
As a spoken dialect, Pali does not have its own script and in each of the countries in which it is the sacred language of the inhabitants, namely: Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand, it is written in the script of that country. In modern times, the Roman alphabets are widely used, so it is usual to print Pali texts in Roman letters, which are clear, simple and easily computerized, leading to the widespread learning and dissemination of the Pali Texts.
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As a spoken {{Wiki|dialect}}, [[Pali]] does not have its [[own]] [[script]] and in each of the countries in which it is the [[sacred]] [[language]] of the inhabitants, namely: [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and [[Thailand]], it is written in the [[script]] of that country. In {{Wiki|modern}} times, the {{Wiki|Roman}} alphabets are widely used, so it is usual to print [[Pali]] texts in {{Wiki|Roman}} letters, which are clear, simple and easily computerized, leading to the widespread {{Wiki|learning}} and dissemination of the [[Pali]] Texts.
  
a) The Origin and Home of Pali
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a) The Origin and Home of [[Pali]]
  
There are many theories hatched by scholars regarding the original home of Pali. Early Pali scholars were of the opinion that literary Pali is the vernacular Magadhi  used by the Buddha to preach the Dhamma. Later scholars based their opinion on philological grounds that Pali bears some resemblances to Paisaci, which they claimed is a western dialect while Magadhi is an eastern dialect. So Pali cannot be the Magadhi dialect spoken by the Buddha. But the Magadhi  that scholars know of today is the language of the Asoka Edicts carved on rocks and pillars that were drafted by his scribes at the time when the majority of the populace could hardly read or write, as recent studies by Salomon19  suggest that there was no written language during the Buddha’s time. On the other hand, the dialect spoken by the Buddha was the vernacular Magadhi  (Note 1) understood by the common people, by which the monks transmitted his Teaching and later became known as the Pali language of the Scriptures. An exhaustive review by the Indian scholar Law5  concluded that it is difficult to come to a definite conclusion about the original home of Pali. According to Ven. Bhikkhu  Bodhi10  current scholarly opinion holds that Pali was probably created as a kind of lingua franca for use by Buddhist monks in Northern India two hundred years after Parinibbana  and may not be identical with the one used by the Buddha! Evidently these are scholars’ conjectures and new theories are  often  proposed  as  academic  exercises,  many  of  which  lack proper understanding of the traditions and practices of the Sangha.
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There are many theories hatched by [[scholars]] regarding the original home of [[Pali]]. Early [[Pali]] [[scholars]] were of the opinion that {{Wiki|literary}} [[Pali]] is the {{Wiki|vernacular}} [[Magadhi]] used by the [[Buddha]] to {{Wiki|preach}} the [[Dhamma]]. Later [[scholars]] based their opinion on philological grounds that [[Pali]] bears some resemblances to [[Paisaci]], which they claimed is a [[western]] {{Wiki|dialect}} while [[Magadhi]] is an eastern {{Wiki|dialect}}. So [[Pali]] cannot be the [[Magadhi]] {{Wiki|dialect}} spoken by the [[Buddha]]. But the [[Magadhi]] that [[scholars]] know of today is the [[language]] of the [[Asoka]] Edicts carved on rocks and pillars that were drafted by his scribes at the time when the majority of the populace could hardly read or write, as recent studies by Salomon19  suggest that there was no written [[language]] during the [[Buddha’s]] time. On the other hand, the {{Wiki|dialect}} spoken by the [[Buddha]] was the {{Wiki|vernacular}} [[Magadhi]] (Note 1) understood by the [[common people]], by which the [[monks]] transmitted his [[Teaching]] and later became known as the [[Pali language]] of the [[Scriptures]]. An exhaustive review by the [[Indian]] [[scholar]] Law5  concluded that it is difficult to come to a definite conclusion about the original home of [[Pali]]. According to Ven. [[Bhikkhu]] Bodhi10  current [[scholarly]] opinion holds that [[Pali]] was probably created as a kind of {{Wiki|lingua franca}} for use by [[Buddhist monks]] in {{Wiki|Northern India}} two hundred years after [[Parinibbana]] and may not be [[identical]] with the one used by the [[Buddha]]! Evidently these are [[scholars]]’ conjectures and new theories are  often  proposed  as  {{Wiki|academic}}   exercises,  many  of  which  lack proper [[understanding]] of the [[traditions]] and practices of the [[Sangha]].
 
[[File:2as.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:2as.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
b) Role of the Buddhist Councils in Maintaining the Language
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b) Role of the [[Buddhist Councils]] in Maintaining the [[Language]]
  
Concerning the language of the Pali Canon, most Western scholars appeared to have ignored the role of the Buddhist Councils in ascertaining the medium of transmission of the Buddha’s teaching. As the authority of the Scriptures rests on its ratification by the Buddhist Councils, so the language employed by the Councils plays the prime role in the transmission of the Scriptures. All schools of Buddhism agree that the three Buddhist Councils are historical facts, so the pertinent question that one should asked is: “What dialect would the Arahants from the East or West, employ to rehearse the Buddha’s teachings in the First, Second and Third Councils?
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Concerning the [[language]] of the [[Pali Canon]], most [[Western]] [[scholars]] appeared to have ignored the role of the [[Buddhist Councils]] in ascertaining the {{Wiki|medium}} of [[transmission]] of the [[Buddha’s teaching]]. As the authority of the [[Scriptures]] rests on its ratification by the [[Buddhist Councils]], so the [[language]] employed by the Councils plays the prime role in the [[transmission]] of the [[Scriptures]]. All [[schools of Buddhism]] agree that the three [[Buddhist Councils]] are historical facts, so the pertinent question that one should asked is: “What {{Wiki|dialect}} would the [[Arahants]] from the [[East]] or [[West]], employ to rehearse the [[Buddha’s teachings]] in the First, Second and [[Third Councils]]?
  
For the First Council, there is no doubt it was the Magadhi  dialect, as all council members were conversant with that dialect having learnt from the Master himself. During the Second Council, monks from both the Eastern and Western regions got together to rehearse the Dhamma and Vinaya at Vesali. All the eight senior monks selected to settle the Ten Points were disciples of Ven. Ananda and Ven. Anuraddha. The most senior monk, Ven. Sabbakami who adjudged the issue, lived during the Buddha’s time. Having learnt the teachings from the two Great Disciples of the Buddha, they would have used the same dialect to rehearse the Dhamma and Vinaya in the Second Council.
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For the [[First Council]], there is no [[doubt]] it was the [[Magadhi]] {{Wiki|dialect}}, as all council members were conversant with that {{Wiki|dialect}} having learnt from the [[Master]] himself. During the [[Second Council]], [[monks]] from both the Eastern and [[Western]] regions got together to rehearse the [[Dhamma]] and [[Vinaya]] at [[Vesali]]. All the eight [[senior monks]] selected to settle the [[Ten Points]] were [[disciples]] of Ven. [[Ananda]] and Ven. [[Anuraddha]]. The most [[senior monk]], Ven. [[Sabbakami]] who adjudged the issue, lived during the [[Buddha’s]] time. Having learnt the teachings from the two Great [[Disciples]] of the [[Buddha]], they would have used the same {{Wiki|dialect}} to rehearse the [[Dhamma]] and [[Vinaya]] in the [[Second Council]].
  
All the theories linking Pali with Ujjaini or Paisaci or even a new language created by the monks as a kind of lingua franca after the Second Council  appeared  to  have  ignored  two  important  facts. Firstly the Theravadin monks (Sthavarivada) who convened the Buddhist Councils are reputed to be the most orthodox (so-called
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All the theories linking [[Pali]] with [[Ujjaini]] or [[Paisaci]] or even a new [[language]] created by the [[monks]] as a kind of {{Wiki|lingua franca}} after the [[Second Council]] appeared  to  have  ignored  two  important  facts. Firstly the [[Theravadin]] [[monks]] (Sthavarivada) who convened the [[Buddhist Councils]] are reputed to be the most [[orthodox]] (so-called
‘no changers’) of all the schools in the observance of the monastic rules and would certainly have retained the Vinaya in its original form  and  language  for  their  fortnightly  Uposatha  ceremony. Secondly,  Ven.  Moggaliputta Tissa,  who  convened  the  Third Council in Pataliputta would still maintain the original dialect in the tradition of his lineage of Vinaya teachers (Acaryaparampara).  So when the Arahant  Mahinda and other members of the Sangha were sent to propagate the religion in Sri Lanka, they would have transmitted the Teachings in the language of the Third Council in order to maintain the lineage and avoid any misinterpretation.
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‘no changers’) of all the schools in the [[observance]] of the [[monastic rules]] and would certainly have retained the [[Vinaya]] in its original [[form]] and  [[language]]   for  their  fortnightly  [[Uposatha]]   {{Wiki|ceremony}}. Secondly,  Ven.  [[Moggaliputta Tissa]],  who  convened  the  [[Third Council]] in [[Pataliputta]] would still maintain the original {{Wiki|dialect}} in the [[tradition]] of his [[lineage]] of [[Vinaya]] [[teachers]] (Acaryaparampara).  So when the [[Arahant]] [[Mahinda]] and other members of the [[Sangha]] were sent to propagate the [[religion]] in [[Sri Lanka]], they would have transmitted the Teachings in the [[language]] of the [[Third Council]] in order to maintain the [[lineage]] and avoid any misinterpretation.
  
In the light of these facts, it is improbable and irrational that the ancient Elders would want to change the language of the Buddha’s words let alone invent some new language that will lead to misinterpretation of the Blessed One’s unique teachings.
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In the {{Wiki|light}} of these facts, it is improbable and irrational that the [[ancient]] [[Elders]] would want to change the [[language]] of the [[Buddha’s words]] let alone invent some new [[language]] that will lead to misinterpretation of the [[Blessed One’s]] unique teachings.
  
4. The First Council
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4. The [[First Council]]
  
According to Cullavagga  Kh. XI of the Book of Discipline4,  the Ven. Maha Kassapa, on seeing an unhealthy trend among some monks immediately upon the Parinibbana  of the Buddha, decided to convene a Council to compile the Dhamma & Vinaya (Doctrine & Discipline) to prevent the true doctrine from being submerged by false doctrines. This historic event took place at Rajagaha (Rajgir) three months after the Buddha’s Parinibbana. Five hundred leading Arahants  attended  the  First Council,  which  lasted  over  seven months outside the Sattapanni caves on top of Vebhara hill in Rajagaha. Ven  Maha Kassapa  presided over the meeting. Ven. Upali was chosen to rehearse the Vinaya Pitaka or Basket of Discipline. He began each account with the words ‘Tena Samayena’
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According to [[Cullavagga]] Kh. XI of the [[Book]] of Discipline4,  the Ven. [[Maha Kassapa]], on [[seeing]] an [[unhealthy]] trend among some [[monks]] immediately upon the [[Parinibbana]] of the [[Buddha]], decided to convene a Council to compile the [[Dhamma]] & [[Vinaya]] ([[Doctrine]] & [[Discipline]]) to prevent the true [[doctrine]] from being submerged by false [[doctrines]]. This historic event took place at [[Rajagaha]] ([[Rajgir]]) three months after the [[Buddha’s]] [[Parinibbana]]. Five hundred leading [[Arahants]] attended  the  [[First Council]],  which  lasted  over  seven months outside the [[Sattapanni caves]] on top of [[Vebhara]] [[hill]] in [[Rajagaha]]. Ven  [[Maha Kassapa]] presided over the meeting. Ven. [[Upali]] was chosen to rehearse the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] or [[Basket of Discipline]]. He began each account with the words ‘Tena Samayena’
 
— ‘the occasion was this’.
 
— ‘the occasion was this’.
 
[[File:33015 n.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:33015 n.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
Although Ven. Ananda  was not an Arahant before the convocation, he was chosen to rehearse the Sutta Pitaka or Basket of Discourses because of his moral purity and his knowledge of the Scriptures which he heard directly from the Buddha’s own mouth when he was the  Buddha’s  personal  attendant.  As  he  was  expected to  play a leading part in the assembly composed only of Arahants, Ven. Ananda  made  strenuous  effort  and  attained  Arahantship  in  an inclined position with feet off the ground as he lay down to rest after a  whole  night’s  practice of meditation  on  the  eve  of  the  First Council. The Book of Discipline states that he was the only disciple to attain Arahantship free from the postures of sitting, standing, walking or lying down. At the First Council, Ven. Ananda prefaced each discourse with an account of where and to whom it was spoken, beginning with the words ‘Evam me sutam’ — ‘thus have I heard’.
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Although Ven. [[Ananda]] was not an [[Arahant]] before the [[convocation]], he was chosen to rehearse the [[Sutta Pitaka]] or [[Basket of Discourses]] because of his [[moral]] [[purity]] and his [[knowledge]] of the [[Scriptures]] which he heard directly from the [[Buddha’s]] [[own]] {{Wiki|mouth}} when he was the  [[Buddha’s]] personal  attendant.  As  he  was  expected to  play a leading part in the assembly composed only of [[Arahants]], Ven. [[Ananda]] made  strenuous  [[effort]] and  [[attained]] [[Arahantship]] in  an inclined position with feet off the ground as he lay down to rest after a  whole  night’s  [[practice of meditation]] on  the  eve  of  the  [[First Council]]. The [[Book of Discipline]] states that he was the only [[disciple]] to attain [[Arahantship]] free from the [[postures]] of sitting, [[standing]], walking or {{Wiki|lying}} down. At the [[First Council]], Ven. [[Ananda]] prefaced each [[discourse]] with an account of where and to whom it was spoken, beginning with the words ‘[[Evam me sutam]]’ — ‘thus have I heard’.
  
a) Was the Abhidhamma Pitaka recited in the First Council?
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a) Was the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] recited in the [[First Council]]?
  
On the 3rd  Basket of the Tipitaka, there is disagreement. According to Warder2, Theravada and Mahasanghika versions did not mention the recitation of Abhidhamma but Sarvastavadin and Dhammagupta sects said that Ananda recited the Abhidhamma. Other accounts mentioned that the Matikas or Abhidhamma Outlines were recited. There is no doubt about the recitation of the Matikas as the Pali Scriptures mentioned that the Buddha preached the Abhidhamma to his mother in heaven and taught them to Ven. Sariputta when he returned to earth daily for his meals. It is very likely that the Abhidhamma Pitaka as we know today consisted simply of some set of Matika headings, propounded by the Buddha himself when giving systematic instructions to his followers, and that this was later fully elaborated into Abhidhamma expositions. Since the agreement between  the  two  oldest  schools,  Theravada  and  Mahasanghika, should  establish  the  oldest  available  textual  tradition,  it  would appear that only two Pitakas were recited at the First Council with the Matikas recited as part of the Suttas by Ven. Ananda.
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On the 3rd  Basket of the [[Tipitaka]], there is disagreement. According to Warder2, [[Theravada]] and [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]] versions did not mention the {{Wiki|recitation}} of [[Abhidhamma]] but [[Sarvastavadin]] and Dhammagupta sects said that [[Ananda]] recited the [[Abhidhamma]]. Other accounts mentioned that the [[Matikas]] or [[Abhidhamma]] Outlines were recited. There is no [[doubt]] about the {{Wiki|recitation}} of the [[Matikas]] as the [[Pali Scriptures]] mentioned that the [[Buddha]] [[preached]] the [[Abhidhamma]] to his mother in [[heaven]] and [[taught]] them to Ven. [[Sariputta]] when he returned to [[earth]] daily for his meals. It is very likely that the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] as we know today consisted simply of some set of [[Matika]] headings, propounded by the [[Buddha]] himself when giving systematic instructions to his followers, and that this was later fully elaborated into [[Abhidhamma]] [[expositions]]. Since the agreement between  the  two  oldest  schools,  [[Theravada]] and  [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]], should  establish  the  oldest  available  textual  [[tradition]],  it  would appear that only two [[Pitakas]] were recited at the [[First Council]] with the [[Matikas]] recited as part of the [[Suttas]] by Ven. [[Ananda]].
  
With regard to doubts about the authenticity of the Abhidhamma Pitaka,  one  fact  often  overlooked  is  that  the  Sutta Pitaka  too contains  a  considerable  amount  of  pure  Abhidhamma.  This comprises all those numerous suttas and passages where ultimate (paramattha)  terms are used, expressing the non-self (anatta) or functional way of thinking, for example, when dealing with the khandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, etc.
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With regard to [[doubts]] about the authenticity of the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]],  one  fact  often  overlooked  is  that  the  [[Sutta Pitaka]] too contains  a  considerable  amount  of  [[pure]]   [[Abhidhamma]].  This comprises all those numerous [[suttas]] and passages where [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] ([[paramattha]])  terms are used, expressing the [[non-self]] ([[anatta]]) or functional way of [[thinking]], for example, when dealing with the [[khandhas]], [[dhatus]], [[ayatanas]], etc.
  
Concerning Ven. Sariputta’s mastery and exposition of the Dhamma, the Buddha described it in Nidana Samyutta XII, 32.  “The Essence of the Dhamma (Dhammadhatu) has been so well penetrated by Sariputta, O monks, that if I were to question him therein for one day in different words and phrases, Sariputta would reply likewise for one day in various words and phrases. And if I were to question him for one night, one day and a night, or for two days and nights, even up to seven days and nights, Sariputta would expound the matter for the same period of time in various words and phrases.”
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Concerning Ven. [[Sariputta’s]] [[mastery]] and [[exposition]] of the [[Dhamma]], the [[Buddha]] described it in [[Nidana Samyutta]] XII, 32.  “The [[Essence]] of the [[Dhamma]] ([[Dhammadhatu]]) has been so well penetrated by [[Sariputta]], O [[monks]], that if I were to question him therein for one day in different [[words and phrases]], [[Sariputta]] would reply likewise for one day in various [[words and phrases]]. And if I were to question him for one night, one day and a night, or for two days and nights, even up to seven days and nights, [[Sariputta]] would expound the {{Wiki|matter}} for the same period of time in various [[words and phrases]].”
  
The Expositor11  (Atthasalini) says: “Thus the giving of the method (naya) to the Chief Disciple who was endowed with analytical knowledge, was as though the Buddha stood on the edge of the shore and pointed out the ocean with his open hand. To the elder, the doctrine taught by the Blessed One in hundreds and thousands of methods became very clear.”
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The Expositor11  ([[Atthasalini]]) says: “Thus the giving of the method ([[naya]]) to the Chief [[Disciple]] who was endowed with [[analytical knowledge]], was as though the [[Buddha]] stood on the edge of the shore and pointed out the ocean with his open hand. To the elder, the [[doctrine]] [[taught]] by the [[Blessed One]] in hundreds and thousands of [[methods]] became very clear.”
 
[[File:36.jpg|thumb|250px|]]  
 
[[File:36.jpg|thumb|250px|]]  
Thereafter Ven. Sariputta repeated this doctrine to 500 select pupils, who memorized it. According to the Expositor, the textual order of the Abhidhamma originated with Ven. Sariputta who also laid down the numerical series in order to make it easy to learn, study, and teach the Dhamma.
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Thereafter Ven. [[Sariputta]] repeated this [[doctrine]] to 500 select pupils, who memorized it. According to the [[Expositor]], the textual order of the [[Abhidhamma]] originated with Ven. [[Sariputta]] who also laid down the numerical series in order to make it easy to learn, study, and teach the [[Dhamma]].
  
It was then conveyed by oral tradition up till the time of the Third Council by the Elders: Sariputta, Bhaddaji, Sobhita, Piyapala, Piyadassi, Kosiyaputta, Siggava, Sandeha, Moggaliputta Tissa, Visudatta,  Dhammiya,  Dasaka,  Sonaka,  Revata  and  others.  The reason why so many teachers were involved was because the Abhidhamma is a very profound teaching and required various teachers to memorize the various books. After that, it was conveyed by a succession of their pupils. Thus in India, it has been conveyed by an unbroken line of teachers. When Buddhism came to Sri Lanka, the Elders Mahinda, Iddhiya,  Uttiya, Bhaddanama and Sambala brought it from India and from then on the Abhidhamma was conveyed in succession up till the Fourth Council when it was documented on palm leaves.
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It was then conveyed by [[oral tradition]] up till the time of the [[Third Council]] by the [[Elders]]: [[Sariputta]], [[Bhaddaji]], [[Sobhita]], [[Piyapala]], [[Piyadassi]], [[Kosiyaputta]], [[Siggava]], [[Sandeha]], [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], [[Visudatta]][[Dhammiya]][[Dasaka]][[Sonaka]][[Revata]] and  others.  The [[reason]] why so many [[teachers]] were involved was because the [[Abhidhamma]] is a very profound [[teaching]] and required various [[teachers]] to memorize the various [[books]]. After that, it was conveyed by a succession of their pupils. Thus in [[India]], it has been conveyed by an unbroken line of [[teachers]]. When [[Buddhism]] came to [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Elders]] [[Mahinda]], [[Iddhiya]][[Uttiya]], [[Bhaddanama]] and [[Sambala]] brought it from [[India]] and from then on the [[Abhidhamma]] was conveyed in succession up till the [[Fourth Council]] when it was documented on palm leaves.
  
b) Charges against Venerable Ananda
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b) Charges against [[Venerable]] [[Ananda]]
  
After the recitation of the Dhamma and Vinaya, the monks made five charges against Ven. Ananda. He explained the circumstances behind each incident and said that he did not see any fault on his part but acknowledged them as wrongdoing out of faith in the Sangha.
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After the {{Wiki|recitation}} of the [[Dhamma]] and [[Vinaya]], the [[monks]] made five charges against Ven. [[Ananda]]. He explained the circumstances behind each incident and said that he did not see any fault on his part but [[acknowledged]] them as wrongdoing out of [[faith]] in the [[Sangha]].
  
i)    He  did  not  ask  the  Buddha  which  of  the  lesser  and  minor precepts the monks could abolish after the Buddha was gone because he had not thought of asking through forgetfulness. As the Council was unable to agree as to what constituted the minor rules, Ven. Maha Kassapa finally ruled that no disciplinary rule laid by the Buddha should be changed, and no new ones should be  introduced.  No  intrinsic  reason  was  given.  Ven.  Maha Kassapa did say one thing, however: “If we changed the rules, people will say that Ven. Gotama's disciples changed the rules even before the fire from his funeral pyre has ceased burning.”
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i)    He  did  not  ask  the  [[Buddha]] which  of  the  lesser  and  minor [[precepts]] the [[monks]] could abolish after the [[Buddha]] was gone because he had not [[thought]] of asking through [[forgetfulness]]. As the Council was unable to agree as to what constituted the minor {{Wiki|rules}}, Ven. [[Maha Kassapa]] finally ruled that no disciplinary {{Wiki|rule}} laid by the [[Buddha]] should be changed, and no new ones should be  introduced.  No  intrinsic  [[reason]] was  given.  Ven.  [[Maha Kassapa]] did say one thing, however: “If we changed the {{Wiki|rules}}, [[people]] will say that Ven. [[Gotama's]] [[disciples]] changed the {{Wiki|rules}} even before the [[fire]] from his [[funeral]] pyre has ceased burning.”
 
   
 
   
ii)  He had stepped on the Buddha’s robe while sewing but it was not out of disrespect and he did not see any fault in it.
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ii)  He had stepped on the [[Buddha’s]] robe while sewing but it was not out of {{Wiki|disrespect}} and he did not see any fault in it.
  
iii) He had allowed the body of the Buddha to be saluted by women first whose weeping had smeared the body with tears because he did not want to detain them for too long.
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iii) He had allowed the [[body]] of the [[Buddha]] to be saluted by women first whose weeping had smeared the [[body]] with {{Wiki|tears}} because he did not want to detain them for too long.
  
iv)  He did not plead to the Buddha to live out His lifespan because his (Ananda’s) mind was under the influence of Mara.
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iv)  He did not plead to the [[Buddha]] to live out His [[lifespan]] because his ([[Ananda’s]]) [[mind]] was under the influence of [[Mara]].
  
v)  He pleaded for the admission of women into the Order out of compassion  for  Mahapajapati Gotami  who  had  nursed  the Buddha in His infancy when His own mother died.
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v)  He pleaded for the admission of women into the Order out of [[compassion]] for  [[Mahapajapati Gotami]] who  had  nursed  the [[Buddha]] in His infancy when His [[own]] mother [[died]].
  
c) Imposition  of Higher Penalty on Ven. Channa
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c) Imposition  of Higher Penalty on Ven. [[Channa]]
  
The next item concerned the imposition of the higher penalty amounting  to  complete  ostracism,  which  the  Buddha  had pronounced on Ven. Channa before His Mahaparinibbana.  This monk was the charioteer of the Master when He was a prince and was very arrogant, having slighted every member of the Order. Ven. Ananda travelled to Ghositarama in Kosambi  to inform Ven. Channa, who fainted and fell when he heard the decision of the Sangha to ostracize him. Thereafter, he was so seized with grief and repentance that he remained alone and became earnest, zealous and resolute in his practice until he eventually won Arahantship. With Ven. Channa’s attainment of Arahantship, the punishment achieved the  desired  result  that  the  Buddha  wanted  for  him  and  it automatically lapsed.
+
The next item concerned the imposition of the higher penalty amounting  to  complete  ostracism,  which  the  [[Buddha]] had pronounced on Ven. [[Channa]] before His [[Mahaparinibbana]].  This [[monk]] was the charioteer of the [[Master]] when He was a {{Wiki|prince}} and was very [[arrogant]], having slighted every member of the Order. Ven. [[Ananda]] travelled to [[Ghositarama]] in [[Kosambi]] to inform Ven. [[Channa]], who fainted and fell when he heard the [[decision]] of the [[Sangha]] to ostracize him. Thereafter, he was so seized with [[grief]] and repentance that he remained alone and became earnest, zealous and resolute in his practice until he eventually won [[Arahantship]]. With Ven. Channa’s [[attainment]] of [[Arahantship]], the {{Wiki|punishment}} achieved the  [[desired]]   result  that  the  [[Buddha]]   wanted  for  him  and  it automatically lapsed.
 
[[File:41642 n.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:41642 n.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
d) Ven. Purana and the Eight Indulgences  on Food
+
d) Ven. {{Wiki|Purana}} and the Eight Indulgences  on [[Food]]
  
After the monks had completed the Rehearsal of the Doctrine and Discipline, Ven. Purana who was wandering in the Southern Hills (Dakkhinagiri) during the meeting, arrived at Rajagaha with a large company of monks. When asked by the Elders whether he supported the Rehearsal and would learn the text so rehearsed by them, Ven. Purana replied that the Doctrine and Discipline were well rehearsed by the Elders but he, however, would only remember them as he had heard personally from the Buddha. According to some Chinese translations quoted by Teitaro Suzuki12, Ven. Purana expressed his satisfaction with the general proceedings of the Council, except as to the insertion of the following eight indulgences,  which he remembered had been approved by Buddha. The eight things were: (1) keeping food indoors; (2) cooking indoors; (3) cooking of one's own accord; (4) taking food of one's own accord; (5) receiving food when rising early in the morning; (6) carrying food home according to the wish of a giver; (7) having miscellaneous fruits; (8) eating things grown in a pond.
+
After the [[monks]] had completed the Rehearsal of the [[Doctrine and Discipline]], Ven. {{Wiki|Purana}} who was wandering in the Southern Hills ([[Dakkhinagiri]]) during the meeting, arrived at [[Rajagaha]] with a large company of [[monks]]. When asked by the [[Elders]] whether he supported the Rehearsal and would learn the text so rehearsed by them, Ven. {{Wiki|Purana}} replied that the [[Doctrine and Discipline]] were well rehearsed by the [[Elders]] but he, however, would only remember them as he had heard personally from the [[Buddha]]. According to some {{Wiki|Chinese}} translations quoted by Teitaro Suzuki12, Ven. {{Wiki|Purana}} expressed his [[satisfaction]] with the general proceedings of the Council, except as to the insertion of the following eight indulgences,  which he remembered had been approved by [[Buddha]]. The eight things were: (1) keeping [[food]] indoors; (2) cooking indoors; (3) cooking of one's [[own]] accord; (4) taking [[food]] of one's [[own]] accord; (5) receiving [[food]] when [[rising]] early in the morning; (6) carrying [[food]] home according to the wish of a giver; (7) having miscellaneous {{Wiki|fruits}}; (8) eating things grown in a pond.
  
He pointed out that these indulgences were not against the rule that forbids the taking of remnant of food. Ven. Maha Kassapa explained that he was correct in saying so, but that Buddha permitted them only on account of a scarcity of food, when the bhikkhus could not get a sufficient supply of it in their alms-rounds, and that therefore when this circumstance was removed, Buddha again bade them to abstain from these eight indulgences. Ven. Purana, however, protested,  declaring  that  Buddha,  who  was  all-wise,  would  not permit what was otherwise forbidden, nor would he forbid what otherwise was permitted. To this Ven. Maha Kassapa replied: “The very reason of his being all-wise has enabled him to permit what otherwise  was  forbidden,  and  to  forbid  what  otherwise  was permitted. Ven. Purana, we will now make this decision: That whatever Buddha did not forbid shall not be forbidden, and whatever Buddha forbade shall not be disregarded. Let us train ourselves in accordance with the disciplinary rules established by Buddha.”
+
He pointed out that these indulgences were not against the {{Wiki|rule}} that forbids the taking of remnant of [[food]]. Ven. [[Maha Kassapa]] explained that he was correct in saying so, but that [[Buddha]] permitted them only on account of a scarcity of [[food]], when the [[bhikkhus]] could not get a sufficient supply of it in their [[alms-rounds]], and that therefore when this circumstance was removed, [[Buddha]] again bade them to abstain from these eight indulgences. Ven. {{Wiki|Purana}}, however, protested,  declaring  that  [[Buddha]],  who  was  all-wise,  would  not permit what was otherwise forbidden, nor would he forbid what otherwise was permitted. To this Ven. [[Maha Kassapa]] replied: “The very [[reason]] of his being all-wise has enabled him to permit what otherwise  was  forbidden,  and  to  forbid  what  otherwise  was permitted. Ven. {{Wiki|Purana}}, we will now make this [[decision]]: That whatever [[Buddha]] did not forbid shall not be forbidden, and whatever [[Buddha]] forbade shall not be disregarded. Let us train ourselves in accordance with the disciplinary {{Wiki|rules}} established by [[Buddha]].”
  
There is no mention that Ven. Purana raised any further objection after Ven. Maha Kassapa’s explanation. When the Mahisasaka seceded from Theravada, they incorporated these eight indulgences in their Vinaya and this incident of Ven. Purana has been misconstrued by certain scholars, as the seed of dissension to explain the reason for the secession.
+
There is no mention that Ven. {{Wiki|Purana}} raised any further objection after Ven. [[Maha Kassapa’s]] explanation. When the [[Mahisasaka]] seceded from [[Theravada]], they incorporated these eight indulgences in their [[Vinaya]] and this incident of Ven. {{Wiki|Purana}} has been misconstrued by certain [[scholars]], as the seed of dissension to explain the [[reason]] for the secession.
 
   
 
   
e) Achievements of First Council
+
e) Achievements of [[First Council]]
  
The first council called the Council of Rajagaha was held three months after the Parinibbana  under the sponsorship of King Ajatasattu of Magadha during the eighth year of his reign. The proceedings achieved four results, namely:
+
The [[first council]] called the Council of [[Rajagaha]] was held three months after the [[Parinibbana]] under the sponsorship of [[King Ajatasattu]] of [[Magadha]] during the eighth year of his reign. The proceedings achieved four results, namely:
  
i) Compilation of the Vinaya Pitaka by Ven. Upali. ii)  Compilation of the Sutta Pitaka by Ven. Ananda.
+
i) Compilation of the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] by Ven. [[Upali]]. ii)  Compilation of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] by Ven. [[Ananda]].
iii) Acknowledgement of Wrongdoing by Ven. Ananda. iv)  Imposition of Higher Penalty on Ven. Channa.
+
iii) Acknowledgement of Wrongdoing by Ven. [[Ananda]]. iv)  Imposition of Higher Penalty on Ven. [[Channa]].
  
After the compilation of the Doctrine and Discipline for oral transmission,  the  senior monks  or  Elders  would  have  devised  a system  whereby  certain  monks  in  the  same  locality  would  be charged with the duty to memorize certain portions of the Doctrine and Disciple in Magadhi and by combining all the portions memorized, the Sangha in that locality would be able to recite the whole Doctrine and Discipline together. This is confirmed by the Gopaka Moggallana Sutta in the Majjhima Nikaya in which the Venerable Ananda attributed the harmony of the Sangha to the fact that monks in each village observed the practice of assembling every fortnight to recite the Patimokkha.
+
After the compilation of the [[Doctrine and Discipline]] for [[oral transmission]],  the  [[senior monks]] or  [[Elders]] would  have  devised  a system  whereby  certain  [[monks]] in  the  same  locality  would  be charged with the [[duty]] to memorize certain portions of the [[Doctrine]] and [[Disciple]] in [[Magadhi]] and by [[combining]] all the portions memorized, the [[Sangha]] in that locality would be able to recite the whole [[Doctrine and Discipline]] together. This is confirmed by the [[Gopaka]] [[Moggallana Sutta]] in the [[Majjhima Nikaya]] in which the [[Venerable]] [[Ananda]] attributed the [[harmony]] of the [[Sangha]] to the fact that [[monks]] in each village observed the practice of assembling every fortnight to recite the [[Patimokkha]].
 
   
 
   
5 . The Second Council
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5 . The [[Second Council]]
 
[[File:542.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:542.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
About a century after the Parinibbana,  some shameless monks of the Vajjian clan at Vesali were indulging in the Ten Points or Dasa Vatthuni that were against the Vinaya or Rules of Discipline. Venerable Yasa, son of the Brahmin Kakandaka and Vinaya expert from Kosambi, who was staying in Kutagara Hall at the Mahavana saw them asking for money from the laity and objected to it. Still the laity gave money to the monks who divided the takings at the end of the day among themselves and gave Ven Yasa his due share. When he refused to accept the money and reprimanded them, they passed a motion of censure (Patisaraniya  kamma) against him whereby he had to apologize to the laity for forbidding them to perform dana (charity) to the Vajjian monks. Ven. Yasa, fully conversant with the law, demanded another monk to accompany him as witness to the reconciliation with the laity of Vesali, during which he defended his own view before the laity and won them over. When the accompanying monk reported the matter to the Vajjian monks, they charged Ven Yasa with proclaiming a false doctrine to laymen and pronounced an Act of Suspension (Ukkhepaniya kamma), effectively expelling him from the Sangha.
+
About a century after the [[Parinibbana]],  some shameless [[monks]] of the [[Vajjian]] {{Wiki|clan}} at [[Vesali]] were indulging in the [[Ten Points]] or [[Dasa]] Vatthuni that were against the [[Vinaya]] or Rules of [[Discipline]]. [[Venerable]] [[Yasa]], son of the [[Brahmin]] [[Kakandaka]] and [[Vinaya]] expert from [[Kosambi]], who was staying in Kutagara Hall at the [[Mahavana]] saw them asking for [[money]] from the laity and objected to it. Still the laity gave [[money]] to the [[monks]] who divided the takings at the end of the day among themselves and gave Ven [[Yasa]] his due share. When he refused to accept the [[money]] and reprimanded them, they passed a {{Wiki|motion}} of censure (Patisaraniya  [[kamma]]) against him whereby he had to [[apologize]] to the laity for forbidding them to perform [[dana]] ([[charity]]) to the [[Vajjian monks]]. Ven. [[Yasa]], fully conversant with the law, demanded another [[monk]] to accompany him as {{Wiki|witness}} to the reconciliation with the laity of [[Vesali]], during which he defended his [[own]] view before the laity and won them over. When the accompanying [[monk]] reported the {{Wiki|matter}} to the [[Vajjian monks]], they charged Ven [[Yasa]] with proclaiming a false [[doctrine]] to [[laymen]] and pronounced an Act of [[Suspension]] ([[Ukkhepaniya kamma]]), effectively expelling him from the [[Sangha]].
  
a)  Ten Points (Dasa Vatthuni) of the Vajjian  Monks
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a)  [[Ten Points]] ([[Dasa]] Vatthuni) of the [[Vajjian]] [[Monks]]
  
The Ten Points or Indulgences that Ven. Yasa openly declared as unlawful were:
+
The [[Ten Points]] or Indulgences that Ven. [[Yasa]] openly declared as unlawful were:
i)    Singilona kappa: The custom of putting salt in a horn vessel, in
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i)    Singilona [[kappa]]: The {{Wiki|custom}} of putting [[salt]] in a horn vessel, in
order to season unsalted foods when received. (Against Pacittiya
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order to season unsalted [[foods]] when received. (Against [[Pacittiya]]
38 which prohibits the storing of food unless used as medicine)
+
38 which prohibits the storing of [[food]] unless used as [[medicine]])
ii)  Dvangula  kappa: The custom of taking the midday meal, even after the prescribed time, as long as the sun’s shadow had not
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ii)  Dvangula  [[kappa]]: The {{Wiki|custom}} of taking the midday meal, even after the prescribed time, as long as the sun’s shadow had not
 
pass the meridian by more than two-fingers’ breadth. (Against
 
pass the meridian by more than two-fingers’ breadth. (Against
Pacittiya 37 which prohibits eating after noon and before dawn) iii) Gamantara kappa:  The custom of going into the village after the meal and there eating again, if invited. (Contrary to Pacittiya 35 which prohibits over-eating)
+
[[Pacittiya]] 37 which prohibits eating after noon and before dawn) iii) Gamantara [[kappa]]:  The {{Wiki|custom}} of going into the village after the meal and there eating again, if invited. (Contrary to [[Pacittiya]] 35 which prohibits over-eating)
 
   
 
   
iv) Avasa kappa: The custom of holding the Uposatha ceremony separately by monks dwelling in the same parish (sima). (Contravenes Mahavagga II, 8, 3: rules of residence in a parish)
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iv) Avasa [[kappa]]: The {{Wiki|custom}} of holding the [[Uposatha]] {{Wiki|ceremony}} separately by [[monks]] dwelling in the same parish ([[sima]]). (Contravenes [[Mahavagga]] II, 8, 3: {{Wiki|rules}} of residence in a parish)
v)  Anumati  kappa:  The  carrying  out  of  official  acts  by  an incomplete chapter on the supposition that the consent of absent
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v)  [[Anumati]]   [[kappa]]:  The  carrying  out  of  official  acts  by  an incomplete [[chapter]] on the supposition that the consent of absent
bhikkhus  was  obtained  afterwards.  (Unlawful  according  to
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[[bhikkhus]] was  obtained  afterwards.  (Unlawful  according  to
Mahavagga IX, 3, 5)
+
[[Mahavagga]] IX, 3, 5)
vi) Acinna kappa: It was permissible for a monk to do anything adopted as a practice by his preceptor. (Contrary to the rules)
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vi) Acinna [[kappa]]: It was permissible for a [[monk]] to do anything adopted as a practice by his [[preceptor]]. (Contrary to the {{Wiki|rules}})
vii) Amathita kappa: The practice of drinking milk-curds even after the mealtime. (Against Pacittiya 35 which prohibits over-eating)
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vii) Amathita [[kappa]]: The practice of drinking milk-curds even after the mealtime. (Against [[Pacittiya]] 35 which prohibits over-eating)
viii) Jalogi kappa:  The practice of drinking palm-juice, which is
+
viii) Jalogi [[kappa]]:  The practice of drinking palm-juice, which is
fermenting but is not yet toddy. (Against Pacittiya  51 which prohibits the drinking of intoxicants)
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fermenting but is not yet toddy. (Against [[Pacittiya]] 51 which prohibits the drinking of [[intoxicants]])
ix)  Adasakam nisidanam:  The  practice  of  using  mats  to  sit  on which were not of the prescribed size, if they were without
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ix)  [[Adasakam nisidanam]]:  The  practice  of  using  mats  to  sit  on which were not of the prescribed size, if they were without
fringe. (Contrary to Pacittiya 89 prohibiting the use of a fringed sitting cloth exceeding the prescribed size)
+
fringe. (Contrary to [[Pacittiya]] 89 prohibiting the use of a fringed sitting cloth exceeding the prescribed size)
x)  Jatarupam rajatam:  The practice of accepting gold and silver.
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x)  Jatarupam rajatam:  The practice of accepting {{Wiki|gold}} and {{Wiki|silver}}.
(Prohibited in Nissaggiya 18, an offence involving forfeiture of the object relating to the offence)
+
(Prohibited in [[Nissaggiya]] 18, an offence involving forfeiture of the [[object]] relating to the offence)
 
[[File:7de.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:7de.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
After the Act of Suspension (Ukkhepaniya kamma) was pronounced, Ven Yasa went to Kosambi and sent messengers to the bhikkhus of the Western country, of Avanti and of the Southern country to enlist their support to stop the deterioration of the religion and ensure the preservation of the Vinaya. Next he went to the Ahoganga hill in the Upper Ganges to consult Ven. Sambhuta Sanavasi  of Mathura and team up with sixty bhikkhus from the Western country (Pava) and eighty-eight from Avanti and the Southern country. Ven. Sambhuta Sanavasi advised them to consult Ven. Revata of Soreyya (Kanauj), a leading monk recognized for his piety and learning. Accompanied by him, they traveled to Soreyya to meet Ven. Revata. But he was aware of their mission and was on the way to Vesali to meet them. Both parties finally met at Sahajati where Ven. Yasa asked for his opinion regarding the Ten Points. Each one of them was declared to be unlawful by Ven. Revata.
+
After the Act of [[Suspension]] ([[Ukkhepaniya kamma]]) was pronounced, Ven [[Yasa]] went to [[Kosambi]] and sent messengers to the [[bhikkhus]] of the [[Western]] country, of [[Avanti]] and of the Southern country to enlist their support to stop the deterioration of the [[religion]] and ensure the preservation of the [[Vinaya]]. Next he went to the [[Ahoganga hill]] in the Upper [[Ganges]] to consult Ven. [[Sambhuta Sanavasi]] of [[Mathura]] and team up with sixty [[bhikkhus]] from the [[Western]] country ([[Pava]]) and eighty-eight from [[Avanti]] and the Southern country. Ven. [[Sambhuta Sanavasi]] advised them to consult Ven. [[Revata]] of [[Soreyya]] ([[Kanauj]]), a leading [[monk]] [[recognized]] for his piety and {{Wiki|learning}}. Accompanied by him, they traveled to [[Soreyya]] to meet Ven. [[Revata]]. But he was {{Wiki|aware}} of their [[mission]] and was on the way to [[Vesali]] to meet them. Both parties finally met at [[Sahajati]] where Ven. [[Yasa]] asked for his opinion regarding the [[Ten Points]]. Each one of them was declared to be unlawful by Ven. [[Revata]].
 
   
 
   
b) Ten Points Declared Unlawful by Second Council
+
b) [[Ten Points]] Declared Unlawful by [[Second Council]]
  
Meanwhile the Vajjian monks were following the developments of Ven. Yasa and they too went to Sahajati to enlist the support of Ven. Revata hoping to win him over with presents but he refused to accept them. So they induced his disciple, Uttara, to take up their cause but that too failed. When the Sangha met together to decide on the matter, Ven Revata suggested that it should be settled at the place where the dispute originated. So the elders went to Vesali where the Sangha assembled to settle the dispute but no progress was  made  due  to  much  talk  and  fruitless  discussion.  So  it  was decided to settle the matter by referring it to a body of referees. Ven. Revata chose four bhikkhus of the East and four of the West. The referees of the East were the Venerable Sabbakami, Salha, Khujjasobhita and Vasabhagamika. Those of the West were the Venerable Revata,  Sambhuta Sanavasi,  Yasa and Sumana.  Of the eight, six were pupils of Ven. Ananda (who lived to 120 years) while Ven. Vasabhagamika and Sumana were pupils of Ven. Anuruddha (said to have lived to 150 years). When the referees convened, Ven. Sabbakami, the most senior Arahant with 120 vassas (rains retreat) questioned by Ven. Revata, adjudged the Ten Points as unlawful according to the Vinaya. The same hearing was re-enacted before the full assembly and the verdict unanimously upheld.
+
Meanwhile the [[Vajjian monks]] were following the developments of Ven. [[Yasa]] and they too went to [[Sahajati]] to enlist the support of Ven. [[Revata]] hoping to win him over with presents but he refused to accept them. So they induced his [[disciple]], [[Uttara]], to take up their [[cause]] but that too failed. When the [[Sangha]] met together to decide on the {{Wiki|matter}}, Ven [[Revata]] suggested that it should be settled at the place where the dispute originated. So the [[elders]] went to [[Vesali]] where the [[Sangha]] assembled to settle the dispute but no progress was  made  due  to  much  talk  and  fruitless  [[discussion]].  So  it  was decided to settle the {{Wiki|matter}} by referring it to a [[body]] of referees. Ven. [[Revata]] chose four [[bhikkhus]] of the [[East]] and four of the [[West]]. The referees of the [[East]] were the [[Venerable]] [[Sabbakami]], Salha, Khujjasobhita and Vasabhagamika. Those of the [[West]] were the [[Venerable]] [[Revata]][[Sambhuta Sanavasi]][[Yasa]] and [[Sumana]].  Of the eight, six were pupils of Ven. [[Ananda]] (who lived to 120 years) while Ven. Vasabhagamika and [[Sumana]] were pupils of Ven. [[Anuruddha]] (said to have lived to 150 years). When the referees convened, Ven. [[Sabbakami]], the most senior [[Arahant]] with 120 [[vassas]] ([[rains retreat]]) questioned by Ven. [[Revata]], adjudged the [[Ten Points]] as unlawful according to the [[Vinaya]]. The same hearing was re-enacted before the full assembly and the verdict unanimously upheld.
  
According to Mahavamsa13, after settling this issue, Ven. Revata, chose seven hundred Arahants in order to hold a council to prevent the deterioration of the religion. The Council spent eight months rehearsing the Dhamma & Vinaya to ensure that the true doctrine was preserved and handed down to future generations. The Second Council is also called Yasatthera  Sangiti (Elder Yasa’s Rehearsal) because of the major role played by the Elder Yasa in his zeal to safeguard  the  Vinaya.  It  was  held  at  Valukarama  in  Vesali  a century after the Parinibbana  during the reign of King Kalasoka.
+
According to Mahavamsa13, after settling this issue, Ven. [[Revata]], chose seven hundred [[Arahants]] in order to hold a council to prevent the deterioration of the [[religion]]. The Council spent eight months rehearsing the [[Dhamma]] & [[Vinaya]] to ensure that the true [[doctrine]] was preserved and handed down to {{Wiki|future}} generations. The [[Second Council]] is also called Yasatthera  [[Sangiti]] (Elder [[Yasa’s]] Rehearsal) because of the major role played by the Elder [[Yasa]] in his [[zeal]] to safeguard  the  [[Vinaya]].  It  was  held  at  [[Valukarama]] in  [[Vesali]] a century after the [[Parinibbana]] during the reign of [[King]] [[Kalasoka]].
 
   
 
   
6. The Great Schism
+
6. The [[Great Schism]]
  
According to Mahavamsa13, the Vajjian monks did not accept the verdict but held an assembly of their own attended by ten thousand calling it a Mahasangiti  (great convocation) from which the sect derived its name Mahasanghika. From then on, further schisms led to the formation of different sub-sects, and in the course of time, 12 sub-sects arose from Theravada while 6 issued from Mahasanghika.
+
According to Mahavamsa13, the [[Vajjian monks]] did not accept the verdict but held an assembly of their [[own]] attended by ten thousand calling it a [[Mahasangiti]] ([[great convocation]]) from which the [[sect]] derived its [[name]] [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]]. From then on, further {{Wiki|schisms}} led to the formation of different sub-sects, and in the course of time, 12 sub-sects arose from [[Theravada]] while 6 issued from [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]].
  
a) Five Theories of Mahadeva
+
a) Five Theories of [[Mahadeva]]
 
[[File:871830 n.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:871830 n.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
According to the Sanskrit Pratimoksa Sutra of Mahasamghikas discovered by Rahula Sankrtyayana in Tibet in 1934 and translated into English by Charles S. Prebish14, all its Vinaya rules, except the 75 sekhiyas rules of training for novices (67 in Mahasanghika) are exactly the same as the Theravadin Vinaya. This means that the schism did not result from the differences in Vinaya or Disciplinary Code. According to the Sammitiya School, the first schism took place a few decades after the Second Council. The founder of Mahasanghika was Bhadra also known as Mahadeva, who came out with five theories concerning the Arahant. According to information collected by Watters (see Dutt15, page 28), Mahadeva was the son of a Brahmin merchant of Mathura who was ordained at Kukkutarama in Pataliputra. By his zeal and abilities, he soon became head of the establishment, with the ruling king as his friend and patron. With the king’s help, he was able to oust the senior orthodox monks and put forward his five theories, namely:
+
According to the [[Sanskrit]] [[Pratimoksa]] [[Sutra]] of [[Mahasamghikas]] discovered by [[Rahula]] [[Sankrtyayana]] in [[Tibet]] in 1934 and translated into English by Charles S. Prebish14, all its [[Vinaya]] {{Wiki|rules}}, except the [[75 sekhiyas]] {{Wiki|rules}} of {{Wiki|training}} for novices (67 in [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]]) are exactly the same as the [[Theravadin Vinaya]]. This means that the [[schism]] did not result from the differences in [[Vinaya]] or [[Disciplinary Code]]. According to the [[Sammitiya]] School, the first [[schism]] took place a few decades after the [[Second Council]]. The founder of [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]] was [[Bhadra]] also known as [[Mahadeva]], who came out with five theories concerning the [[Arahant]]. According to [[information]] collected by Watters (see Dutt15, page 28), [[Mahadeva]] was the son of a [[Brahmin]] {{Wiki|merchant}} of [[Mathura]] who was [[ordained]] at [[Kukkutarama]] in [[Pataliputra]]. By his [[zeal]] and {{Wiki|abilities}}, he soon became head of the establishment, with the ruling [[king]] as his [[friend]] and {{Wiki|patron}}. With the king’s help, he was able to oust the senior [[orthodox]] [[monks]] and put forward his five theories, namely:
i) Arahants are subject to lust when having an erotic dream. (Atthi arahato rago ti).
+
i) [[Arahants]] are [[subject]] to [[lust]] when having an {{Wiki|erotic}} [[dream]]. ([[Atthi]] [[arahato]] rago ti).
ii)  Arahants  may  have  residue  of  ignorance.  (Atthi  arahato
+
ii)  [[Arahants]]   may  have  residue  of  [[ignorance]].  ([[Atthi]] [[arahato]]
 
aññānanti)
 
aññānanti)
iii) Arahants may have still have doubts. (Atthi arahato kankha ti)
+
iii) [[Arahants]] may have still have [[doubts]]. ([[Atthi]] [[arahato]] kankha ti)
iv)  Arahants may be excelled because they may need other’s help. (Atthi arahato paravitarana ti)
+
iv)  [[Arahants]] may be excelled because they may need other’s help. ([[Atthi]] [[arahato]] paravitarana ti)
v)  Attainment of the Path is accompanied by an exclamation  (as‘aho’).
+
v)  [[Attainment]] of the [[Path]] is accompanied by an exclamation  (as‘aho’).
 
   
 
   
Rebuttal (Refer to Kathavatthu, Book II16)
+
Rebuttal (Refer to [[Kathavatthu]], [[Book]] II16)
  
• Theravada completely rejected the first theory as the Arahant has eradicated craving and ignorance in his mental continuum. So lust cannot arise even while asleep.
+
[[Theravada]] completely rejected the first {{Wiki|theory}} as the [[Arahant]] has eradicated [[craving]] and [[ignorance]] in his [[mental]] {{Wiki|continuum}}. So [[lust]] cannot arise even while asleep.
  
• The second, third and fourth theories of Mahadeva maintained that (1) because an Arahant has no knowledge of such things of others as the name, family, etc., he is liable to be ignorant. (2) He is liable to get perplexed about facts concerning everyday life.  (3) He is liable to be surpassed in such knowledge by others because it comes to him, is explained and disclosed by others. Theravada rejected them because those things mentioned are conventional truths having no bearing on the Arahant’s knowledge and attainment since the Arahant is absolutely  free from delusive Ignorance and skeptical Doubt.
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• The second, third and fourth theories of [[Mahadeva]] maintained that (1) because an [[Arahant]] has no [[knowledge]] of such things of others as the [[name]], [[family]], etc., he is liable to be [[ignorant]]. (2) He is liable to get perplexed about facts concerning everyday [[life]].  (3) He is liable to be surpassed in such [[knowledge]] by others because it comes to him, is explained and disclosed by others. [[Theravada]] rejected them because those things mentioned are [[conventional truths]] having no bearing on the [[Arahant’s]] [[knowledge]] and [[attainment]] since the [[Arahant]] is absolutely  free from delusive [[Ignorance]] and [[skeptical Doubt]].
  
• On the fifth theory, Theravada maintained that speech was not involved in the attainment of Path Consciousness.
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• On the fifth {{Wiki|theory}}, [[Theravada]] maintained that {{Wiki|speech}} was not involved in the [[attainment]] of [[Path]] [[Consciousness]].
  
• Obviously the Theravada elders would not accept these heretical views. With the help of the king, Mahadeva convened a great assembly (Mahasangiti) reportedly consisting of Arahants and non-Arahants that ratified his ideas and broke off from the original Sangha effectively creating the first schism. The idea that  Arahants  attended  the  Mahasangiti  appears  far-fetched since true Arahants  would certainly have disagreed with these heretical propositions.
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• Obviously the [[Theravada]] [[elders]] would not accept these [[heretical views]]. With the help of the [[king]], [[Mahadeva]] convened a [[great assembly]] ([[Mahasangiti]]) reportedly consisting of [[Arahants]] and non-Arahants that ratified his [[ideas]] and broke off from the original [[Sangha]] effectively creating the first [[schism]]. The [[idea]] that  [[Arahants]] attended  the  [[Mahasangiti]] appears  far-fetched since true [[Arahants]] would certainly have disagreed with these {{Wiki|heretical}} propositions.
  
b) Primary Cause of Schism
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b) Primary [[Cause]] of [[Schism]]
 
[[File:87250-84352.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:87250-84352.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
Some  scholars  (see  Dutt15)  have  theorized  that  the  Vaisalians wanted a certain amount of latitude and freedom in the interpretation and observance of the rules and to introduce into their organization and general governance a democratic spirit, which was gradually disappearing from the Sangha. The exclusive power and privileges, which the Arahants had claimed were looked upon with distrust and disfavour by the Vaisalians, who preferred a democratic rule to a monarchial government. The claim of the Arahants to become the exclusive members of the important Councils and to arrive at decisions, which were binding on non Arahants could not appeal to the Vajjians − a clan imbued with a democratic spirit.
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Some  [[scholars]] (see  Dutt15)  have  theorized  that  the  Vaisalians wanted a certain amount of latitude and freedom in the [[interpretation]] and [[observance]] of the {{Wiki|rules}} and to introduce into their [[organization]] and general governance a democratic [[spirit]], which was gradually disappearing from the [[Sangha]]. The exclusive power and privileges, which the [[Arahants]] had claimed were looked upon with [[distrust]] and disfavour by the Vaisalians, who preferred a democratic {{Wiki|rule}} to a monarchial government. The claim of the [[Arahants]] to become the exclusive members of the important Councils and to arrive at decisions, which were binding on non [[Arahants]] could not appeal to the [[Vajjians]] − a {{Wiki|clan}} imbued with a democratic [[spirit]].
  
The reasons given by scholars obviously represent the grievances of the Vaisalian monks from the secular point of view. When examined in the context of the Vinaya which governs the monastic order, they appear spurious and without merit, as discussed below:
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The [[reasons]] given by [[scholars]] obviously represent the grievances of the Vaisalian [[monks]] from the {{Wiki|secular}} point of view. When examined in the context of the [[Vinaya]] which governs the [[monastic order]], they appear spurious and without [[merit]], as discussed below:
  
• As  far  as  the  constitution  of  the  Sangha  is  concerned,  the conduct of a bhikkhu is governed by the Vinaya rules drawn up by the Buddha himself. After his Parinibbana,  no locus of authority competent to be a source of law could exist in the Sangha because the Buddha did not appoint anyone to succeed him. Instead He directed the monks to regard the Teaching and Discipline as their teacher after He was gone. Thus each member of the Sangha stood on an equal footing in relation to the rest. The elders could advise and instruct but not direct or compel; each member was a refuge unto himself, having the Teaching as his refuge. When a dispute arises over the Dhamma and Vinaya, any decision should be arrived at through consensus by referring to the Four Great Authorities (Note 2). So the question of a democratic  or  a  monarchial  system  of  government  does  not arise.
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• As  far  as  the  constitution  of  the  [[Sangha]] is  concerned,  the conduct of a [[bhikkhu]] is governed by the [[Vinaya]] {{Wiki|rules}} drawn up by the [[Buddha]] himself. After his [[Parinibbana]],  no locus of authority competent to be a source of law could [[exist]] in the [[Sangha]] because the [[Buddha]] did not appoint anyone to succeed him. Instead He directed the [[monks]] to regard the [[Teaching]] and [[Discipline]] as their [[teacher]] after He was gone. Thus each member of the [[Sangha]] stood on an {{Wiki|equal}} footing in [[relation]] to the rest. The [[elders]] could advise and instruct but not direct or compel; each member was a [[refuge]] unto himself, having the [[Teaching]] as his [[refuge]]. When a dispute arises over the [[Dhamma]] and [[Vinaya]], any [[decision]] should be arrived at through consensus by referring to the Four Great Authorities (Note 2). So the question of a democratic  or  a  monarchial  system  of  government  does  not arise.
  
• Secondly, Arahants by virtue of the eradication of greed, hatred and delusion have no interest in power or privileges. It is a well- known fact that within the Sangha, respect is accorded based on seniority not on attainment. In the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, the Buddha had stressed that for the growth of the bhikkhus “they should show respect, honour, esteem and veneration towards the elder bhikkhus, those of long standing, long gone forth, the fathers and leaders  of the Sangha, and deem it worthwhile to listen to them”.
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• Secondly, [[Arahants]] by [[virtue]] of the eradication of [[greed]], [[hatred]] and [[delusion]] have no [[interest]] in power or privileges. It is a well- known fact that within the [[Sangha]], [[respect]] is accorded based on seniority not on [[attainment]]. In the [[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]], the [[Buddha]] had stressed that for the growth of the [[bhikkhus]] “they should show [[respect]], honour, esteem and veneration towards the elder [[bhikkhus]], those of long [[standing]], long gone forth, the fathers and leaders  of the [[Sangha]], and deem it worthwhile to listen to them”.
 
   
 
   
• It appears that the Second Council followed this injunction by appointing the most senior bhikkhus present as referees to adjudge the Ten Points.
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• It appears that the [[Second Council]] followed this injunction by appointing the most senior [[bhikkhus]] {{Wiki|present}} as referees to adjudge the [[Ten Points]].
  
• As  for  the  cause  of  the  Schism,  it  is  unlikely to  be  due  to differences in the interpretation of vinaya (disciplinary rules). Frauwallner17, who made a study of the similarities and divergences of the vinaya of six schools, namely: Theravada, Mahasanghika,  Mula-sarvastivada,  Mahisasaka,  Dharmagupta and Sarvastivada, concluded: “We can see at once that the agreement of the texts reaches deep into the particulars.”
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• As  for  the  [[cause]] of  the  [[Schism]],  it  is  unlikely to  be  due  to differences in the [[interpretation]] of [[vinaya]] (disciplinary {{Wiki|rules}}). Frauwallner17, who made a study of the similarities and divergences of the [[vinaya]] of six schools, namely: [[Theravada]], [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]][[Mula-sarvastivada]][[Mahisasaka]][[Dharmagupta]] and [[Sarvastivada]], concluded: “We can see at once that the agreement of the texts reaches deep into the particulars.”
  
• Hence there is no doubt that the theories proposed by Mahadeva were primarily responsible for the Schism. As these five theories were  based  on  worldly  knowledge  and  concepts,  meant  to create disrespect towards the Arahants, they were certainly unacceptable to the orthodox monks and this led to the Great Schism.
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• Hence there is no [[doubt]] that the theories proposed by [[Mahadeva]] were primarily responsible for the [[Schism]]. As these five theories were  based  on  [[worldly]] [[knowledge]] and  [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]],  meant  to create {{Wiki|disrespect}} towards the [[Arahants]], they were certainly unacceptable to the [[orthodox]] [[monks]] and this led to the [[Great Schism]].
  
c) Transformation of the Buddha  and his Doctrine by Mahayana
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c) [[Transformation]] of the [[Buddha]] and his [[Doctrine]] by [[Mahayana]]
 
[[File:95563.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:95563.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
In the Tipitaka, the Buddha is not distinguished from any other Arahant except his extraordinary genius to be able to discover the Truths unaided, while others realized the Truths by his guidance. Theravada has remained closer to this conception though they later elevated His status to complete ‘Omniscience’.  The Mahasanghika, having  ‘downgraded’  the  attainment  of  the  Arahant  found  it desirable to make a clear distinction in the case of the Buddha.
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In the [[Tipitaka]], the [[Buddha]] is not {{Wiki|distinguished}} from any other [[Arahant]] except his [[extraordinary]] genius to be able to discover the [[Truths]] unaided, while others [[realized]] the [[Truths]] by his guidance. [[Theravada]] has remained closer to this {{Wiki|conception}} though they later elevated His {{Wiki|status}} to complete ‘[[Omniscience]]’.  The [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]], having  ‘downgraded’  the  [[attainment]] of  the  [[Arahant]]   found  it desirable to make a clear {{Wiki|distinction}} in the case of the [[Buddha]].
  
According to the Kathavatthu15,  the Mahasanghikas held the view that a Buddha exists everywhere in all directions of the firmament. Its offshoot, the Andhakas, even considered that a Buddha’s daily habits notably speech, was supra-mundane. Out of indiscriminate affection for the Buddha, some even held that the excreta of the Exalted One excelled all other odorous things! Yet in spite of their divergent views on the nature of the Buddha, the schismatic schools or Nikayas, all aspired to the same goal — Arahantship as the ideal.
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According to the Kathavatthu15,  the [[Mahasanghikas]] held the view that a [[Buddha]] [[exists]] everywhere in all [[directions]] of the {{Wiki|firmament}}. Its offshoot, the [[Andhakas]], even considered that a [[Buddha’s]] daily [[habits]] notably {{Wiki|speech}}, was [[supra-mundane]]. Out of indiscriminate {{Wiki|affection}} for the [[Buddha]], some even held that the excreta of the [[Exalted One]] excelled all other odorous things! Yet in spite of their divergent [[views]] on the [[nature]] of the [[Buddha]], the schismatic schools or [[Nikayas]], all aspired to the same goal — [[Arahantship]] as the {{Wiki|ideal}}.
  
According to Warder2, the Mahayana movement started with the appearance of Sutras of anonymous  and doubtful  origin,  around the beginning of the Christian era in Andhra Pradesh in South India. The Saddharma-pundarika  or ‘Lotus of the  Good  Law’  claimed that after attaining Enlightenment, the Buddha decided to preach his doctrines in a modified form for the mediocre searchers of Truth to enable them to achieve their desired end. This modified teaching consists of the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and Dependent Origination, subjects of the First Sermon. The Mahayana took this to mean that only an Omniscient One could realize the highest Truth while his disciples or Savakas, who could only attain perfection by observing the instructions of the discourse, realized only  the  absence  of  individual soul  (anatta)  and  not  the  non- existence or Emptiness  (dhamma-sunnata). According to Rhys Davids18,  “Arahatship is explicitly  condemned and Bodhisatship held up as the goal at which every good Buddhist has to aim; and the whole exposition of this theory, so subversive of the original Buddhism, is actually placed in the mouth of Gotama himself.”
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According to Warder2, the [[Mahayana]] {{Wiki|movement}} started with the [[appearance]] of [[Sutras]] of anonymous  and [[doubtful]] origin,  around the beginning of the [[Christian]] {{Wiki|era}} in [[Andhra Pradesh]] in {{Wiki|South India}}. The [[Saddharma-pundarika]] or ‘[[Lotus]] of the  Good  Law’  claimed that after [[attaining]] [[Enlightenment]], the [[Buddha]] decided to {{Wiki|preach}} his [[doctrines]] in a modified [[form]] for the mediocre searchers of [[Truth]] to enable them to achieve their [[desired]] end. This modified [[teaching]] consists of the [[Four Noble Truths]], the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] and [[Dependent Origination]], [[subjects]] of the First {{Wiki|Sermon}}. The [[Mahayana]] took this to mean that only an [[Omniscient One]] could realize the [[highest]] [[Truth]] while his [[disciples]] or [[Savakas]], who could only attain [[perfection]] by observing the instructions of the [[discourse]], [[realized]] only  the  absence  of  [[individual soul]] ([[anatta]])  and  not  the  non- [[existence]] or [[Emptiness]] (dhamma-sunnata). According to Rhys Davids18,  “[[Arahatship]] is explicitly  condemned and Bodhisatship held up as the goal at which every good [[Buddhist]] has to aim; and the whole [[exposition]] of this {{Wiki|theory}}, so subversive of the original [[Buddhism]], is actually placed in the {{Wiki|mouth}} of [[Gotama]] himself.”
  
Thus began the transformation of the Buddha and His Dhamma by Mahayanist  logic  and  ratiocination  that  led  step  by  step  to Mahayana; from the humanism and realization of the Four Noble Truths and Nibbana of the original Teachings to the supernaturalism and  fantasy  of  the  Mahayana sutras and Emptiness   doctrine in which long metaphysical and philosophical treatises in Sanskrit are created by scholars like Nagarjuna and Asvaghosa, which are hardly intelligible  to the common masses, and are meant only for Sanskrit knowing scholars. Being well aware that the laity could hardly understand their abstract theories, the Mahayanist teachers created a new Mahayana Pantheon in order attract the masses to their ‘Great Vehicle’. According to Ven. Bhikkhu  Kashyap1,  “after a time, in the Mahayana tradition, the philosophical speculations were symbolized  by  various  Bodhisattas  and  gods  such  as Avalokitesvara (Bodhisatta of Great Compassion), Tara (Goddess of Mercy), Manjusri (Bodhisatta of Meditation), and Amitabha (Buddha of Sukhavati or Western Paradise).”
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Thus began the [[transformation]] of the [[Buddha]] and His [[Dhamma]] by [[Mahayanist]] [[logic]] and  ratiocination  that  led  step  by  step  to [[Mahayana]]; from the {{Wiki|humanism}} and [[realization]] of the [[Four Noble Truths]] and [[Nibbana]] of the original Teachings to the [[supernaturalism]] and  [[fantasy]] of  the  [[Mahayana sutras]] and [[Emptiness doctrine]] in which long [[metaphysical]] and [[philosophical]] treatises in [[Sanskrit]] are created by [[scholars]] like [[Nagarjuna]] and [[Asvaghosa]], which are hardly intelligible  to the common masses, and are meant only for [[Sanskrit]] [[knowing]] [[scholars]]. Being well {{Wiki|aware}} that the laity could hardly understand their abstract theories, the [[Mahayanist]] [[teachers]] created a new [[Mahayana]] [[Pantheon]] in order attract the masses to their ‘[[Great Vehicle]]’. According to Ven. [[Bhikkhu]] Kashyap1,  “after a time, in the [[Mahayana tradition]], the [[philosophical]] speculations were [[symbolized]] by  various  [[Bodhisattas]] and  [[gods]] such  as [[Avalokitesvara]] ([[Bodhisatta]] of [[Great Compassion]]), [[Tara]] ([[Goddess of Mercy]]), [[Manjusri]] ([[Bodhisatta]] of [[Meditation]]), and [[Amitabha]] ([[Buddha]] of [[Sukhavati]] or [[Western Paradise]]).”
 
   
 
   
7. Origin of the Eighteen Nikayas (Schools)
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7. Origin of the Eighteen [[Nikayas]] (Schools)
  
The Eighteen  Nikayas or Schools of Buddhism arose sometime between one hundred to two hundred years after Parinibbana  i.e., sometime between the Second and Third Buddhist Councils. They were called “Hinayana” (Mean or Inferior Vehicle), a contemptuous term tantamount to verbal abuse coined by followers of Mahayana who wanted to exalt their own doctrines and belittle the earlier forms of Buddhism. It should be pointed out that the Buddha had never preached any “superior or inferior vehicle” to his disciples, only the Noble Eightfold Path  to  end  suffering.  Due  to  its  derogatory nature, the term ‘Hinayana’ should be avoided when referring to the Nikayas or Early Schools of Buddhism.
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The Eighteen  [[Nikayas]] or [[Schools of Buddhism]] arose sometime between one hundred to two hundred years after [[Parinibbana]] i.e., sometime between the Second and Third [[Buddhist Councils]]. They were called “[[Hinayana]]” (Mean or [[Inferior Vehicle]]), a contemptuous term tantamount to [[verbal]] abuse coined by followers of [[Mahayana]] who wanted to exalt their [[own]] [[doctrines]] and belittle the earlier [[forms]] of [[Buddhism]]. It should be pointed out that the [[Buddha]] had never [[preached]] any “{{Wiki|superior}} or [[inferior vehicle]]” to his [[disciples]], only the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] to  end  [[suffering]].  Due  to  its  derogatory [[nature]], the term ‘[[Hinayana]]’ should be avoided when referring to the [[Nikayas]] or [[Early Schools]] of [[Buddhism]].
 
[[File:97b8 z.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:97b8 z.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
According to the Mahavamsa13, after the Second Council, (1) Mahasanghika seceded from the original Sangha and produced two schools (2) Gokulika and (3) Ekavyoharika. From Gokulika, arose (4) Pannatti and (5) Bahulika or Bahussutiya and from these the (6) Cetiya sect making with the Mahasanghika a total of six. From the (7) Theravada, two more groups seceded, namely (8) Mahimsasaka and (9) Vajjiputtaka. The latter produced (10) Dhammuttariya, (11) Bhaddayanika, (12) Channagarika and (13) Sammitiya while the former produced (14) Sabbathivada and (15) Dhammaguttika. From Sabbathivada, (16) Kassapiya split off and later produced (17) Samkantika and from this (18) Suttavada. (Note 3)
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According to the Mahavamsa13, after the [[Second Council]], (1) [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]] seceded from the original [[Sangha]] and produced two schools (2) [[Gokulika]] and (3) Ekavyoharika. From [[Gokulika]], arose (4) [[Pannatti]] and (5) Bahulika or Bahussutiya and from these the (6) [[Cetiya]] [[sect]] making with the [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]] a total of six. From the (7) [[Theravada]], two more groups seceded, namely (8) [[Mahimsasaka]] and (9) [[Vajjiputtaka]]. The [[latter]] produced (10) Dhammuttariya, (11) Bhaddayanika, (12) Channagarika and (13) [[Sammitiya]] while the former produced (14) Sabbathivada and (15) Dhammaguttika. From Sabbathivada, (16) Kassapiya split off and later produced (17) Samkantika and from this (18) Suttavada. (Note 3)
  
According  to  Rhys  Davids18,  evidence  from the  Mahavastu,  the main text of the Lokuttaravadins (an offshoot of the Mahasanghika furthest removed from Theravada) shows very little of its teaching that could not have been developed from Theravada. The difference was  the  prominence  given  to  legendary  matters  and  in  the consequent inattention to ethical points. In fact, all the early schools looked upon Arahantship not Bodhisattaship, as the ideal of a good Buddhist. However their concept of the Arahant and other doctrinal matters differed from the Theravada giving rise to the composition of the Kathavatthu16  by Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, President of the Third Council. The reader should refer to the Kathavatthu for the full refutation of the heretical views held by the various schools.
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According  to  Rhys  Davids18,  {{Wiki|evidence}} from the  [[Mahavastu]],  the main text of the Lokuttaravadins (an offshoot of the [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]] furthest removed from [[Theravada]]) shows very little of its [[teaching]] that could not have been developed from [[Theravada]]. The difference was  the  prominence  given  to  legendary  matters  and  in  the consequent [[inattention]] to [[ethical]] points. In fact, all the [[early schools]] looked upon [[Arahantship]] not Bodhisattaship, as the {{Wiki|ideal}} of a good [[Buddhist]]. However their {{Wiki|concept}} of the [[Arahant]] and other [[doctrinal]] matters differed from the [[Theravada]] giving rise to the composition of the Kathavatthu16  by Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], [[President]] of the [[Third Council]]. The reader should refer to the [[Kathavatthu]] for the full refutation of the [[heretical views]] held by the various schools.
 
   
 
   
In most of the cases, the difference between one school and another may be ascribed to geographical factors rather than to doctrinal differences. The first serious differences before the Schism found the Buddhists tending to separate into a western group around the great triangle of Kosambi–Mathura–Ujjaini and an eastern group at Vesali. In the case of Theravada, events of the Second Council showed that the monks of the west, especially of Kosambi  and Avanti dominated this group. The first group to secede, namely, the Mahasanghikas remained in and around Pataliputta as their main centre while Theravada dominated at Avanti and spread rapidly into Maharashtra, Andhra and down to the Chola country as well as Ceylon. Soon after the Second Council, Mathura became the first centre of the Sabbathivadins and from there their influence radiated all over Northern India, particularly in Kashmir and Gandhara. The Kassapiyas  in fact were a group of Theravada cut off from the mainstream Theravada by the seceded Sabbathivadins and for a long time they maintained contact with their original base at Sanchi near Bhopal. More widespread were the Sammitiyas,  who spread across Avanti and Gujarat to form their main centre at Sindhu  while the Lokuttaravadins branched out as far away as Bactria.
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In most of the cases, the difference between one school and another may be ascribed to geographical factors rather than to [[doctrinal]] differences. The first serious differences before the [[Schism]] found the [[Buddhists]] tending to separate into a [[western]] group around the great triangle of Kosambi–Mathura–Ujjaini and an eastern group at [[Vesali]]. In the case of [[Theravada]], events of the [[Second Council]] showed that the [[monks]] of the [[west]], especially of [[Kosambi]] and [[Avanti]] dominated this group. The first group to secede, namely, the [[Mahasanghikas]] remained in and around [[Pataliputta]] as their main centre while [[Theravada]] dominated at [[Avanti]] and spread rapidly into {{Wiki|Maharashtra}}, [[Andhra]] and down to the [[Chola]] country as well as [[Ceylon]]. Soon after the [[Second Council]], [[Mathura]] became the first centre of the Sabbathivadins and from there their influence radiated all over {{Wiki|Northern India}}, particularly in [[Kashmir]] and [[Gandhara]]. The Kassapiyas  in fact were a group of [[Theravada]] cut off from the {{Wiki|mainstream}} [[Theravada]] by the seceded Sabbathivadins and for a long time they maintained [[contact]] with their original base at [[Sanchi]] near Bhopal. More widespread were the [[Sammitiyas]],  who spread across [[Avanti]] and {{Wiki|Gujarat}} to [[form]] their main centre at [[Sindhu]] while the Lokuttaravadins branched out as far away as {{Wiki|Bactria}}.
  
The majority of the Eighteen Nikayas were short-lived but some grew in strength and survived for several centuries, notably: Theravada, Sabbathivadin, Mahasanghika, Sammitiya  and Lokottaravadins. Hsuan Tsang who visited India in AD 629-645 estimated the Buddhist bhikkhus in India and the adjacent countries to the Northwest at less than two hundred thousand, ¾ of whom belonged to the above five Nikayas and the remaining ¼ belonged to Mahayana. Eventually the Mahayana expanded northwards and eastwards to {{Wiki|Central Asia}} and China, eclipsing the Nikayas. Of the remaining Nikayas, Theravada established itself in Sri Lanka and Burma and has survived to this day after Buddhism disappeared from India following the Muslim conquest in the 12th century AD.
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The majority of the Eighteen [[Nikayas]] were short-lived but some grew in strength and survived for several centuries, notably: [[Theravada]], Sabbathivadin, [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]], [[Sammitiya]] and [[Lokottaravadins]]. [[Hsuan Tsang]] who visited [[India]] in AD 629-645 estimated the [[Buddhist]] [[bhikkhus]] in [[India]] and the adjacent countries to the [[Northwest]] at less than two hundred thousand, ¾ of whom belonged to the above five [[Nikayas]] and the remaining ¼ belonged to [[Mahayana]]. Eventually the [[Mahayana]] expanded northwards and eastwards to {{Wiki|Central Asia}} and [[China]], eclipsing the [[Nikayas]]. Of the remaining [[Nikayas]], [[Theravada]] established itself in [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Burma]] and has survived to this day after [[Buddhism]] disappeared from [[India]] following the {{Wiki|Muslim}} conquest in the 12th century AD.
 
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[[File:A36.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
8 . The Third Council
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8 . The [[Third Council]]
  
The Third Council was held 236 years after Parinibbana  during the reign of Emperor Asoka. The Mauryan king who ruled India from Kashmir  to  the  Ganges valley  and  south  almost  to  Madras  had become a Buddhist and was doing everything within his power to aid Buddhism. This royal patronage attracted thousands of heretics to don the yellow robe for worldly gain. Although they dwelt with the bhikkhus yet they continued to preach their false doctrines and caused confusion in the religion. By reason of their great numbers and unruliness, the bhikkhus could not restrain them by the Vinaya rules so that no Uposatha-ceremony (fortnightly recitation of the Patimokkha) or Pavarana  (invitation) was held for 7 years.
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The [[Third Council]] was held 236 years after [[Parinibbana]] during the reign of [[Emperor]] [[Asoka]]. The [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] [[king]] who ruled [[India]] from [[Kashmir]] to  the  {{Wiki|Ganges valley}} and  [[south]] almost  to  [[Madras]] had become a [[Buddhist]] and was doing everything within his power to aid [[Buddhism]]. This {{Wiki|royal}} {{Wiki|patronage}} attracted thousands of {{Wiki|heretics}} to don the [[yellow robe]] for [[worldly]] gain. Although they dwelt with the [[bhikkhus]] yet they continued to {{Wiki|preach}} their false [[doctrines]] and [[caused]] [[confusion]] in the [[religion]]. By [[reason]] of their great numbers and unruliness, the [[bhikkhus]] could not restrain them by the [[Vinaya]] {{Wiki|rules}} so that no Uposatha-ceremony (fortnightly {{Wiki|recitation}} of the [[Patimokkha]]) or [[Pavarana]] (invitation) was held for 7 years.
  
When Asoka sent his minister to investigate and settle the matter, the foolish official killed several monks. Hearing of the misdeed, Asoka was filled with remorse and doubts lingered in his mind whether he was responsible for the crime. He was told that the Arahant Moggaliputta Tissa, who was living in solitary retreat on the Ahoganga Mountain further up the Ganges, could resolve his doubt. Asoka had to invite the Arahant three times before the latter came to Pataliputra. There he was received with great honour by the king who accommodated him in Asokarama and for seven days, the king received instructions at the feet of the Arahant. The bhikkhus were then tested on their views and the heretics were expelled from the Sangha. The pure bhikkhus who remained performed the Uposatha- ceremony after a lapse of seven years.
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When [[Asoka]] sent his [[minister]] to investigate and settle the {{Wiki|matter}}, the [[foolish]] official killed several [[monks]]. Hearing of the misdeed, [[Asoka]] was filled with [[remorse]] and [[doubts]] lingered in his [[mind]] whether he was responsible for the [[crime]]. He was told that the [[Arahant]] [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], who was living in [[solitary retreat]] on the [[Ahoganga]] Mountain further up the [[Ganges]], could resolve his [[doubt]]. [[Asoka]] had to invite the [[Arahant]] three times before the [[latter]] came to [[Pataliputra]]. There he was received with great honour by the [[king]] who accommodated him in [[Asokarama]] and for seven days, the [[king]] received instructions at the feet of the [[Arahant]]. The [[bhikkhus]] were then tested on their [[views]] and the {{Wiki|heretics}} were expelled from the [[Sangha]]. The [[pure]] [[bhikkhus]] who remained performed the [[Uposatha]]- {{Wiki|ceremony}} after a lapse of seven years.
  
a) Compiling the Final Recension of the Tipitaka
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a) Compiling the Final Recension of the [[Tipitaka]]
  
The Arahant Moggaliputta Tissa took the opportunity to hold the Third Council  in order to compile the true doctrine. One thousand Arahants  took  part  in  the  Council  held  at  Asokarama  in Pataliputra (modern Patna) in the 18th  year of Asoka’s reign, 236 years after the Parinibbana.  Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa presided over the meeting in which controversial doctrines of various Buddhist sects were examined and refuted leading to the composition of the Kathavathu  (Points of Controversy), one of the seven books of the Abhidhamma. The assembly took nine months to rehearse the Teaching after which the Pali Tipitaka was compiled and closed.
+
The [[Arahant]] [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] took the opportunity to hold the [[Third Council]] in order to compile the true [[doctrine]]. One thousand [[Arahants]]   took  part  in  the  Council  held  at  [[Asokarama]] in [[Pataliputra]] ({{Wiki|modern}} [[Patna]]) in the 18th  year of Asoka’s reign, 236 years after the [[Parinibbana]].  Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] presided over the meeting in which controversial [[doctrines]] of various [[Buddhist]] sects were examined and refuted leading to the composition of the Kathavathu  ([[Points of Controversy]]), one of the seven [[books]] of the [[Abhidhamma]]. The assembly took nine months to rehearse the [[Teaching]] after which the [[Pali Tipitaka]] was compiled and closed.
  
b) Propagation of the Religion outside India
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b) [[Propagation]] of the [[Religion]] outside [[India]]
  
With the Buddhist king Asoka being the supreme ruler of nearly all of India as the chief patron, the time was now ripe for expansion. Accordingly, Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa, the recognized leader of Theravada, decided to send competent Arahants to propagate the Buddha’s Teaching  all  over  India  and  beyond.  Each  team  was headed  by  an  Elder  and  consisted  of  five  monks,  the  quorum required to confer higher ordination in remote regions. The names of the Elders and the nine places where they were deputed are given in the  Mahavamsa13.  Archeology  has  confirmed  the  historicity  of these missions. In Stupa No. 2 at Sanchi near Bhopal, were found two relic caskets from the 2nd  or 1st  century BC, inscribed with the names of some of the missionaries. In this way the Buddha’s Teachings spread in the four directions after the Third Council.
+
With the [[Buddhist king]] [[Asoka]] being the supreme [[ruler]] of nearly all of [[India]] as the chief {{Wiki|patron}}, the time was now ripe for expansion. Accordingly, [[Venerable]] [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], the [[recognized]] leader of [[Theravada]], decided to send competent [[Arahants]] to propagate the [[Buddha’s Teaching]] all  over  [[India]] and  beyond.  Each  team  was headed  by  an  Elder  and  consisted  of  five  [[monks]],  the  quorum required to confer [[higher ordination]] in remote regions. The names of the [[Elders]] and the nine places where they were deputed are given in the  Mahavamsa13.  Archeology  has  confirmed  the  historicity  of these missions. In [[Stupa]] No. 2 at [[Sanchi]] near Bhopal, were found two [[relic]] caskets from the 2nd  or 1st  century BC, inscribed with the names of some of the [[missionaries]]. In this way the [[Buddha’s Teachings]] spread in the four [[directions]] after the [[Third Council]].
  
 
MISSIONARIES PLACE
 
MISSIONARIES PLACE
1. Majjhantika Thera Kasmira & Gandhara1
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1. [[Majjhantika]] [[Thera]] {{Wiki|Kasmira}} & Gandhara1
2. Mahadeva Thera Mahimsamandala2
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2. [[Mahadeva]] [[Thera]] Mahimsamandala2
3. Rakkhita Thera Vanavasi3
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3. [[Rakkhita]] [[Thera]] Vanavasi3
4. Yonaka Dhammarakkhita Thera Aparantaka4
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4. [[Yonaka Dhammarakkhita Thera]] Aparantaka4
5. Maha Dhammarakkhita Thera Maharattha5
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5. [[Maha]] [[Dhammarakkhita]] [[Thera]] Maharattha5
6. Maha Rakkhita Thera Yonaka6
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6. [[Maha]] [[Rakkhita]] [[Thera]] Yonaka6
7. Majjhima Thera Himavantapadesa7
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7. [[Majjhima]] [[Thera]] Himavantapadesa7
8. Sonaka and Uttara Theras Suvannabhumi8
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8. [[Sonaka]] and [[Uttara]] [[Theras]] Suvannabhumi8
9. Mahinda, Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala Theras Tambapannidipa9
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9. [[Mahinda]], [[Itthiya]], [[Uttiya]], [[Sambala]] and [[Bhaddasala]] [[Theras]] Tambapannidipa9
 
[[File:Ajapati-03.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:Ajapati-03.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
1 Gandhara comprises the districts of Peshawar & Rawalpindi in Pakistan. Kasmira is modern Kashmir.
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1 [[Gandhara]] comprises the districts of [[Peshawar]] & [[Rawalpindi]] in {{Wiki|Pakistan}}. {{Wiki|Kasmira}} is {{Wiki|modern}} [[Kashmir]].
2 Mahimsamandala is generally taken as modern Mysore.
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2 Mahimsamandala is generally taken as {{Wiki|modern}} {{Wiki|Mysore}}.
3 Vanavasi was composed of coastal regions such as Kerala and Malabar.
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3 [[Vanavasi]] was composed of coastal regions such as {{Wiki|Kerala}} and Malabar.
 
   
 
   
4 Aparantaka  or  the  ‘western ends’  comprise  the  Mumbai  (Bombay) region, northern Gujarat, Kachchh and Sind.
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4 [[Aparantaka]] or  the  ‘[[western]] ends’  comprise  the  {{Wiki|Mumbai}} ({{Wiki|Bombay}}) region, northern {{Wiki|Gujarat}}, Kachchh and Sind.
5 Mararattha is modern Maharashtra.
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5 Mararattha is {{Wiki|modern}} {{Wiki|Maharashtra}}.
6 Yonaka  (Sanskrit Yavana) together with the Kambojas means clans of foreign race in the northwest frontier included in Asoka’s empire.
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6 [[Yonaka]] ([[Sanskrit]] [[Yavana]]) together with the [[Kambojas]] means [[clans]] of foreign race in the [[northwest]] frontier included in Asoka’s [[empire]].
7 Himavantapadesa is the Himalayan country.
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7 [[Himavantapadesa]] is the [[Himalayan]] country.
8 Suvannabhumi  or  ‘golden  land’  is  Bago  (Pegu)  and  Mawlamyine (Moulmein) district in Mon state of Myanmar (Burma).
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8 [[Suvannabhumi]] or  ‘golden  land’  is  Bago  ([[Pegu]])  and  Mawlamyine ([[Moulmein]]) district in [[Mon state]] of [[Myanmar]] ([[Burma]]).
9 Tambapannidipa is the island of Sri Lanka.
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9 Tambapannidipa is the [[island]] of [[Sri Lanka]].
  
c) Achievements of the Third Council
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c) Achievements of the [[Third Council]]
  
The Third Council refuted and eliminated  all the tendencies which were no longer regarded as consistent with the faith and brought the Pali Canon to a close. However, its greatest achievement  was the sending of missionaries to other countries to propagate the faith because prior to this, Buddhism was basically a local religion confined mainly to a few states of Northern India. Thanks to the wisdom and foresight of Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa, the royal patronage of Emperor Asoka and the teams of highly dedicated missionaries, the Buddha Sasana has spread beyond the borders of its narrower home. Thus when Buddhism disappeared from India for six hundred years after the Muslim conquest during the 12th century AD, the light of the Dhamma still shone in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and other  Theravada  countries  where  the  Sasana  had  been  founded. Today we are witnessing a new phenomenon whereby monks from other Buddhist countries are returning to India to revive the Buddha Sasana in its country of origin!
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The [[Third Council]] refuted and eliminated  all the {{Wiki|tendencies}} which were no longer regarded as consistent with the [[faith]] and brought the [[Pali Canon]] to a close. However, its greatest [[achievement]] was the sending of [[missionaries]] to other countries to propagate the [[faith]] because prior to this, [[Buddhism]] was basically a local [[religion]] confined mainly to a few states of {{Wiki|Northern India}}. Thanks to the [[wisdom]] and foresight of [[Venerable]] [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], the {{Wiki|royal}} {{Wiki|patronage}} of [[Emperor]] [[Asoka]] and the teams of highly dedicated [[missionaries]], the [[Buddha]] [[Sasana]] has spread beyond the borders of its narrower home. Thus when [[Buddhism]] disappeared from [[India]] for six hundred years after the {{Wiki|Muslim}} conquest during the 12th century AD, the {{Wiki|light}} of the [[Dhamma]] still shone in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] and other  [[Theravada]] countries  where  the  [[Sasana]] had  been  founded. Today we are witnessing a new [[phenomenon]] whereby [[monks]] from other [[Buddhist]] countries are returning to [[India]] to revive the [[Buddha]] [[Sasana]] in its country of origin!
  
Strangely enough, a story in the Mahavamsa written during the 6th century AD (Note 4) tells us that Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa was a Brahma-god called Tissa in his previous existence. At the time of the Second Council, the Arahants, foreseeing danger to the religion in the future, approached him for help as his lifespan in the Brahma realm was coming to an end. He consented to be born in the world of men in order to prevent the downfall of the Buddha's religion. Subsequent events appear to confirm the prophecy of the Arahants of the Second Council.
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Strangely enough, a story in the [[Mahavamsa]] written during the 6th century AD (Note 4) tells us that [[Venerable]] [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] was a Brahma-god called [[Tissa]] in his previous [[existence]]. At the time of the [[Second Council]], the [[Arahants]], foreseeing [[danger]] to the [[religion]] in the {{Wiki|future}}, approached him for help as his [[lifespan]] in the [[Brahma realm]] was coming to an end. He consented to be born in the [[world]] of men in order to prevent the downfall of the [[Buddha's]] [[religion]]. Subsequent events appear to confirm the {{Wiki|prophecy}} of the [[Arahants]] of the [[Second Council]].
 
   
 
   
9. Committing the Tipitaka to Memory
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9. Committing the [[Tipitaka]] to [[Memory]]
  
The Tipitaka, which contains all the Teachings of the Buddha during his 45-years ministry, is about 11 times the size of the Bible. Its sheer volume has led some scholars to think that the First Council was pure fiction and that the huge mass of the Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka recited was impossible. It is just beyond the comprehension of the skeptical scholar that someone like Ven. Ananda could be able to  remember  so  much!  However  monks  with  such  prodigious memory are found in the Sangha. During the Sixth Buddhist Council held  in  Yangon  in  1956,  the  late  Venerable  Mingun   Sayadaw Ashin Vicittasarabhivamsa had committed the whole Tipitaka to memory and was able to answer all questions related to it when questioned by the chief questioner of the Synod, the late Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw  Ashin Sobhana.  Today, Myanmar has produced several living Tipitakadharas,  or persons who have committed the whole Tipitaka to memory! (Note 5)
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The [[Tipitaka]], which contains all the [[Teachings of the Buddha]] during his 45-years ministry, is about 11 times the size of the Bible. Its sheer volume has led some [[scholars]] to think that the [[First Council]] was [[pure]] {{Wiki|fiction}} and that the huge {{Wiki|mass}} of the [[Vinaya]] and [[Sutta Pitaka]] recited was impossible. It is just beyond the [[comprehension]] of the skeptical [[scholar]] that someone like Ven. [[Ananda]] could be able to  remember  so  much!  However  [[monks]] with  such  [[prodigious]] [[memory]] are found in the [[Sangha]]. During the [[Sixth Buddhist Council]] held  in  {{Wiki|Yangon}} in  1956,  the  late  [[Venerable]] [[Mingun Sayadaw]] [[Ashin]] [[Vicittasarabhivamsa]] had committed the whole [[Tipitaka]] to [[memory]] and was able to answer all questions related to it when questioned by the chief questioner of the Synod, the late [[Venerable]] [[Mahasi Sayadaw]] [[Ashin Sobhana]].  Today, [[Myanmar]] has produced several living Tipitakadharas,  or persons who have committed the whole [[Tipitaka]] to [[memory]]! (Note 5)
 
[[File:Amentos.jpg18.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:Amentos.jpg18.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
Recent studies by Salomon19  suggest that there was no written language during the Buddha’s time. The early Indian Brahmi and Karosthi scripts appeared to originate from the Mauryan era based on the testimony of Megasthenes  to the absence of writing in the early Mauryan period and the persistent failure to find and identify actual specimens of pre-Asokan writing. However, such evidence is by no means conclusive. Although the art of writing was employed later to give instructions, it did not become popular, the emphasis of education being on the development of memory and the retentive power. Therefore, the oral tradition continued to be the established custom to transmit the Teaching. Monks were still required to memorize the Teaching even after the written language appeared, just as it is still practised today by Theravada monks in Burma.
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Recent studies by Salomon19  suggest that there was no written [[language]] during the [[Buddha’s]] time. The early [[Indian]] [[Brahmi]] and Karosthi scripts appeared to originate from the [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] {{Wiki|era}} based on the testimony of [[Megasthenes]] to the absence of [[writing]] in the early [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] period and the persistent failure to find and identify actual specimens of pre-Asokan [[writing]]. However, such {{Wiki|evidence}} is by no means conclusive. Although the [[art]] of [[writing]] was employed later to give instructions, it did not become popular, the {{Wiki|emphasis}} of [[education]] being on the [[development]] of [[memory]] and the retentive power. Therefore, the [[oral tradition]] continued to be the established {{Wiki|custom}} to transmit the [[Teaching]]. [[Monks]] were still required to memorize the [[Teaching]] even after the written [[language]] appeared, just as it is still practised today by [[Theravada]] [[monks]] in [[Burma]].
  
Although the majority of the sects started to use Sanskrit or mixed- Sanskrit as the language of transmission, the orthodox Theravada kept strictly to Pali. Thus, Theravada monks became very adept in reciting the Pali texts, aided by their highly developed memory skills so well attested in ancient and modern India. With different groups of monks specializing in their respective sections of the Tipitaka, it would not be difficult for them to recite the whole Tipitaka by combining  their expertise. The Pali literature is replete with terms describing the areas of specialization of monks with respect to the Tipitaka, such as:
+
Although the majority of the sects started to use [[Sanskrit]] or mixed- [[Sanskrit]] as the [[language]] of [[transmission]], the [[orthodox]] [[Theravada]] kept strictly to [[Pali]]. Thus, [[Theravada]] [[monks]] became very {{Wiki|adept}} in reciting the [[Pali]] texts, aided by their highly developed [[memory]] skills so well attested in [[ancient]] and {{Wiki|modern India}}. With different groups of [[monks]] specializing in their respective [[sections]] of the [[Tipitaka]], it would not be difficult for them to recite the whole [[Tipitaka]] by [[combining]] their expertise. The [[Pali literature]] is replete with terms describing the areas of specialization of [[monks]] with [[respect]] to the [[Tipitaka]], such as:
  
  i)    Suttantika or master of the Sutta Pitaka
+
  i)    [[Suttantika]] or [[master]] of the [[Sutta Pitaka]]
  ii)  Vinaya-dhara or one versed in the Vinaya or Discipline iii) Matika-dhara or one versed in matika or Abhidhamma
+
  ii)  Vinaya-dhara or one versed in the [[Vinaya]] or [[Discipline]] iii) Matika-dhara or one versed in [[matika]] or [[Abhidhamma]]
  iv)  Digha-bhanaka  and Majjhima-bhanaka  (Reciters of the Digha and Majjhima Nikayas)
+
  iv)  Digha-bhanaka  and Majjhima-bhanaka  (Reciters of the [[Digha]] and [[Majjhima Nikayas]])
  
This demonstrates that the ancient theras (monks) had developed a system whereby they could collectively preserve the entire Tipitaka intact from memory. Some of them were Arahants, and so by definition, ‘pure ones’ free from lust, ill-will or aversion, and delusion.  With  such  purity  of  mind,  they  were  without  doubt, capable of retaining perfectly the Buddha's words in their minds. Thus they ensured that the Buddha's teachings would be preserved faithfully for posterity.
+
This demonstrates that the [[ancient]] [[theras]] ([[monks]]) had developed a system whereby they could collectively preserve the entire [[Tipitaka]] intact from [[memory]]. Some of them were [[Arahants]], and so by [[definition]], ‘[[pure]] ones’ free from [[lust]], [[ill-will]] or [[aversion]], and [[delusion]].  With  such  [[purity]] of  [[mind]],  they  were  without  [[doubt]], capable of retaining perfectly the [[Buddha's words]] in their [[minds]]. Thus they ensured that the [[Buddha's teachings]] would be preserved faithfully for posterity.
 
   
 
   
10. Fourth Council:  Committing  the  Tpitaka to Writing
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10. [[Fourth Council]]:  Committing  the  Tpitaka to [[Writing]]
  
Situated off the main road about 40 km from Kandy in Sri Lanka is a village called Matale.  Although lesser known to ordinary tourists, it is well-known to Buddhist scholars because here one can find the International  Buddhist  Library  &  Museum  and  the  historic Aloka Cave, site of the Fourth Council, where the Buddha’s Teachings were committed from oral transmission into writing on ola palm leaves. Visitors to the Museum will be able to view the process in which ola leaves are dried, smoothened and observe the technique of writing with ink on the leaves. There is a showcase, where a set of the Pali Tipitaka written on ola leaves is kept.
+
Situated off the main road about 40 km from {{Wiki|Kandy}} in [[Sri Lanka]] is a village called [[Matale]].  Although lesser known to ordinary tourists, it is well-known to [[Buddhist scholars]] because here one can find the International  [[Buddhist]]   Library  &  Museum  and  the  historic [[Aloka Cave]], site of the [[Fourth Council]], where the [[Buddha’s Teachings]] were committed from [[oral transmission]] into [[writing]] on ola palm leaves. Visitors to the Museum will be able to view the process in which ola leaves are dried, smoothened and observe the technique of [[writing]] with ink on the leaves. There is a showcase, where a set of the [[Pali Tipitaka]] written on ola leaves is kept.
 
[[File:Amitabha sutra 13.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:Amitabha sutra 13.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
According to the History of the Religion20  (Sasanavamsa), at one time a famine arose in the island of Sinhala (Ceylon) and many monks left the island as they feared they would not be able to learn the three Pitakas due to lack of food. However, 60 monks stayed behind by the seashore and studied together living on roots, fruits and the like. Being oppressed by hunger and weakness, they lay down on the sandy ground while keeping their heads facing each other and without uttering a word they studied the scriptures in their minds. Thus did they preserve the three Pitakas together with the commentary for twelve years, and help the Religion forward. At the end of twelve years, 700 monks returned from India and studied the Teachings together with the 60 monks who had stayed behind. At that time they agreed with each other and did not differ. This was how  the  great  Elders  or  Mahatheras  (monks  of  twenty  years standing or more) accomplished the difficult task of remembering precisely the three Pitakas orally in this way.
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According to the History of the Religion20  ([[Sasanavamsa]]), at one time a famine arose in the [[island]] of [[Sinhala]] ([[Ceylon]]) and many [[monks]] left the [[island]] as they feared they would not be able to learn the [[three Pitakas]] due to lack of [[food]]. However, 60 [[monks]] stayed behind by the seashore and studied together living on [[roots]], {{Wiki|fruits}} and the like. Being oppressed by hunger and weakness, they lay down on the sandy ground while keeping their heads facing each other and without uttering a [[word]] they studied the [[scriptures]] in their [[minds]]. Thus did they preserve the [[three Pitakas]] together with the commentary for twelve years, and help the [[Religion]] forward. At the end of twelve years, 700 [[monks]] returned from [[India]] and studied the Teachings together with the 60 [[monks]] who had stayed behind. At that time they agreed with each other and did not differ. This was how  the  great  [[Elders]] or  [[Mahatheras]]   ([[monks]] of  twenty  years [[standing]] or more) accomplished the difficult task of remembering precisely the [[three Pitakas]] orally in this way.
  
The zeal and dedication of the ancient theras in the learning of the canonical texts without missing a single word is illustrated by the following story. After he had learnt the Buddha’s words from the Elder Dhammarakkhita of Yona country in India, the Elder Tissa, son of a landlord Punabbasu, took leave to return to Ceylon. While traveling to the port to board a ship to sail home, he had some doubts regarding a certain verse in the Tipitaka. So he retraced the journey back to his teacher, a distance of 100 yojanas (1 yojana = 8 to 12 miles) in order to remove his doubt before his teacher. In this way, it should be understood how very difficult a task it was to bear in mind, the canonical texts without missing a single word. And whatever they could not learn by heart, they preserved by way of study, remembrance and the like, in order that it might neither disappear nor be confused. In this way, for a long time since the First Council, the succession of great Elders handed down the canonical texts even orally.
+
The [[zeal]] and [[dedication]] of the [[ancient]] [[theras]] in the {{Wiki|learning}} of the [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] texts without missing a single [[word]] is illustrated by the following story. After he had learnt the [[Buddha’s words]] from the Elder [[Dhammarakkhita]] of [[Yona]] country in [[India]], the Elder [[Tissa]], son of a landlord Punabbasu, took leave to return to [[Ceylon]]. While traveling to the port to board a ship to sail home, he had some [[doubts]] regarding a certain verse in the [[Tipitaka]]. So he retraced the journey back to his [[teacher]], a distance of 100 [[yojanas]] (1 [[yojana]] = 8 to 12 {{Wiki|miles}}) in order to remove his [[doubt]] before his [[teacher]]. In this way, it should be understood how very difficult a task it was to bear in [[mind]], the [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] texts without missing a single [[word]]. And whatever they could not learn by [[heart]], they preserved by way of study, [[remembrance]] and the like, in order that it might neither disappear nor be confused. In this way, for a long time since the [[First Council]], the succession of great [[Elders]] handed down the [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] texts even orally.
  
a) Documentation of the Tipitaka on Palm Leaves
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a) Documentation of the [[Tipitaka]] on Palm Leaves
  
According to records compiled by Ven. Nanamoli  21, four months after Vattagamini Abhaya  became king of Lanka (104-88BC) his reign  was  interrupted  by  the  rebellion  of  the  Brahman  Tissa, followed by famine, invasion by the Tamils and the king’s exile. The bhikkhus from the Mahavihara or Great Monastery all dispersed to the south and to India. After fourteen years, the king returned and defeated the Tamils. With the restoration of the king, the bhikkhus returned to Sri Lanka. Filled with religious zeal, Vattagamini built the Abhayagiri vihara and offered it to the thera  Mahatissa who had assisted him in his bid to regain his kingdom. Later on, the monks of the Abhayagiri seceded from the Mahavihara and became schismatic. Sensing insecurity, the Mahavihara took the precaution to commit the Tipitaka for the first time to writing, doing it in the provinces away from the king’s presence.
+
According to records compiled by Ven. [[Nanamoli]] 21, four months after Vattagamini [[Abhaya]] became [[king of Lanka]] (104-88BC) his reign  was  interrupted  by  the  rebellion  of  the  [[Brahman]] [[Tissa]], followed by famine, invasion by the [[Tamils]] and the king’s exile. The [[bhikkhus]] from the [[Mahavihara]] or Great [[Monastery]] all dispersed to the [[south]] and to [[India]]. After fourteen years, the [[king]] returned and defeated the [[Tamils]]. With the restoration of the [[king]], the [[bhikkhus]] returned to [[Sri Lanka]]. Filled with [[religious]] [[zeal]], Vattagamini built the [[Abhayagiri vihara]] and [[offered]] it to the [[thera]] [[Mahatissa]] who had assisted him in his bid to regain his {{Wiki|kingdom}}. Later on, the [[monks]] of the [[Abhayagiri]] seceded from the [[Mahavihara]] and became schismatic. Sensing insecurity, the [[Mahavihara]] took the precaution to commit the [[Tipitaka]] for the first time to [[writing]], doing it in the provinces away from the king’s presence.
  
About four hundred and fifty years after the Parinibbana,  during the reign  of  King Vattagamini  in  89  BC  (*see  footnote),  500  great Elders held a Council presided by Ven. Rakkhita Mahathera and thinking, “In future, beings of poor mindfulness, wisdom and concentration, will not be able to bear in mind (the canonical texts) orally”, decided that the three Pitakas together with the commentary should be written in books. It was a time when the viharas were deserted and oral transmission of the texts was difficult. The art of writing had, by this time developed substantially, so it was thought expedient and necessary to have the entire body of the Buddha's teaching written down to prevent confusion or disappearance of the
+
About four hundred and fifty years after the [[Parinibbana]],  during the reign  of  [[King]] Vattagamini  in  89  BC  (*see  footnote),  500  great [[Elders]] held a Council presided by Ven. [[Rakkhita]] [[Mahathera]] and [[thinking]], “In {{Wiki|future}}, [[beings]] of poor [[mindfulness]], [[wisdom]] and [[concentration]], will not be able to bear in [[mind]] (the [[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]] texts) orally”, decided that the [[three Pitakas]] together with the commentary should be written in [[books]]. It was a time when the [[viharas]] were deserted and [[oral transmission]] of the texts was difficult. The [[art]] of [[writing]] had, by this time developed substantially, so it was [[thought]] expedient and necessary to have the entire [[body]] of the [[Buddha's teaching]] written down to prevent [[confusion]] or [[disappearance]] of the
True Religion.
+
True [[Religion]].
 
[[File:Amitabha.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
 
[[File:Amitabha.jpg|thumb|250px|]]
The historic event took place at the Aloka cave Vihara or Aluvihara in the Malaya country (Matale), a place in the island of Tambapanni (Ceylon). This council is considered to be the Fourth by the Theravada school although in India, another council held under the patronage of the Kushan  king Kanishka (Note 6) around 100 AD is considered as the Fourth Council.
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The historic event took place at the [[Aloka]] {{Wiki|cave}} [[Vihara]] or [[Aluvihara]] in the [[Malaya]] country ([[Matale]]), a place in the [[island]] of [[Tambapanni]] ([[Ceylon]]). This council is considered to be the Fourth by the [[Theravada school]] although in [[India]], another council held under the {{Wiki|patronage}} of the [[Kushan]] [[king]] [[Kanishka]] (Note 6) around 100 AD is considered as the [[Fourth Council]].
  
At the end of this Council, the texts along with the Attha-kathas (commentaries) were inscribed on ola palm leaves and the scriptures were thoroughly checked and rechecked to ensure their authenticity. This was how the three Pitakas  were preserved. A visit to Aloka Cave will certainly evoke a deep sense of gratitude to the Sangha for their wisdom and compassion in authenticating and documenting the Buddha’s teachings for future generations. Thanks to the foresight and indefatigable efforts of these great Elders, there is no room either now or in the future for self-styled ‘progressive monks or scholars’ to adulterate the pure Teaching.
+
At the end of this Council, the texts along with the Attha-kathas (commentaries) were inscribed on ola palm leaves and the [[scriptures]] were thoroughly checked and rechecked to ensure their authenticity. This was how the [[three Pitakas]] were preserved. A visit to [[Aloka Cave]] will certainly evoke a deep [[sense]] of [[gratitude]] to the [[Sangha]] for their [[wisdom]] and [[compassion]] in authenticating and documenting the [[Buddha’s teachings]] for {{Wiki|future}} generations. Thanks to the foresight and indefatigable efforts of these great [[Elders]], there is no room either now or in the {{Wiki|future}} for self-styled ‘progressive [[monks]] or [[scholars]]’ to adulterate the [[pure]] [[Teaching]].
  
*(The dates are calculated according to the Theravada tradition, which places the Buddha’s Parinibbana  in 543BC. Western sources place the Buddha’s Parinibbana  in 483BC, 60 years later.)
+
*(The dates are calculated according to the [[Theravada tradition]], which places the [[Buddha’s]] [[Parinibbana]] in 543BC. [[Western]] sources place the [[Buddha’s]] [[Parinibbana]] in 483BC, 60 years later.)
 
   
 
   
 
11. Fifth and Sixth Councils in Myanmar22
 
11. Fifth and Sixth Councils in Myanmar22
  
According to the Mahavamsa13, at the end of the Third Council, missionary monks were sent to various countries neighbouring India by the Council President Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa to propagate the Buddha’s Teaching. Two monks, Ven. Sona and Ven. Uttara were sent to Suvannabhumi, which is Bago and Mawlamyine (Moulmein) district in Mon state  of Myanmar, with the objective of founding the Buddha Sasana  there. They converted the Myanmar people in that region to the religion by preaching the Brahmajala Sutta. Thereafter the Buddha Sasana was firmly established in Myanmar for over two thousand years. Hence it is not surprising that Myanmar has  taken  the  leading  role  in  preserving,  propagating  and perpetuating the Buddha’s Teaching in modern times by holding two Buddhist councils during the last two centuries.
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According to the Mahavamsa13, at the end of the [[Third Council]], {{Wiki|missionary}} [[monks]] were sent to various countries neighbouring [[India]] by the Council [[President]] Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] to propagate the [[Buddha’s Teaching]]. Two [[monks]], Ven. [[Sona]] and Ven. [[Uttara]] were sent to [[Suvannabhumi]], which is Bago and Mawlamyine ([[Moulmein]]) district in [[Mon state]] of [[Myanmar]], with the [[objective]] of founding the [[Buddha]] [[Sasana]] there. They converted the [[Myanmar]] [[people]] in that region to the [[religion]] by preaching the [[Brahmajala Sutta]]. Thereafter the [[Buddha]] [[Sasana]] was firmly established in [[Myanmar]] for over two thousand years. Hence it is not surprising that [[Myanmar]] has  taken  the  leading  role  in  preserving,  {{Wiki|propagating}}   and perpetuating the [[Buddha’s Teaching]] in {{Wiki|modern}} times by holding two [[Buddhist]] councils during the last two centuries.
  
a) The Fifth Council (Panca Sangiti)
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a) The [[Fifth Council]] ([[Panca]] [[Sangiti]])
  
According to the Theravada tradition, the Fifth Council took place in Mandalay, Myanmar in 1871AD during the reign of King Mindon. The chief objective of this Synod was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha and examine them in minute detail for errors, alterations and  omissions.  Three  Great  Elders,  Ven.  Mahathera Jagarabhivamsa, Ven. Narindabhidhaja, and Ven. Mahathera Sumangalasami led this council attended by 2,400 monks. Their joint Dhamma recitation (Dhamma Sangiti) lasted five months.
+
According to the [[Theravada tradition]], the [[Fifth Council]] took place in [[Mandalay]], [[Myanmar]] in 1871AD during the reign of [[King]] [[Mindon]]. The chief [[objective]] of this Synod was to recite all the [[teachings of the Buddha]] and examine them in minute detail for errors, alterations and  omissions.  Three  Great  [[Elders]],  Ven.  [[Mahathera]] [[Jagarabhivamsa]], Ven. [[Narindabhidhaja]], and Ven. [[Mahathera]] [[Sumangalasami]] led this council attended by 2,400 [[monks]]. Their joint [[Dhamma]] {{Wiki|recitation}} ([[Dhamma]] [[Sangiti]]) lasted five months.
  
At the end of the Fifth Council, the entire Tipitaka was inscribed on 729 marble slabs in the Myanmar script for posterity. Each marble slab measured 1.68m high, 1.07m wide and about 0.13m thick and this  monumental  task  was  executed  by  many  skillful  craftsmen. Upon completion, each slab was housed in a beautiful miniature pagoda on a special site in the grounds of King Mindon's Kuthodaw Pagoda at the foot of Mandalay Hill. According to the Guinness Book of Records, these 729 slabs represent the largest book in the world today.
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At the end of the [[Fifth Council]], the entire [[Tipitaka]] was inscribed on 729 marble slabs in the [[Myanmar]] [[script]] for posterity. Each marble slab measured 1.68m high, 1.07m wide and about 0.13m thick and this  monumental  task  was  executed  by  many  [[skillful]] craftsmen. Upon completion, each slab was housed in a beautiful miniature [[pagoda]] on a special site in the grounds of [[King]] [[Mindon's]] [[Kuthodaw Pagoda]] at the foot of [[Mandalay]] [[Hill]]. According to the Guinness [[Book]] of Records, these 729 slabs represent the largest [[book]] in the [[world]] today.
 
   
 
   
b) The Sixth Council (Chattha Sangiti)
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b) The [[Sixth Council]] (Chattha [[Sangiti]])
  
The Sixth Council was held from 1954 to 1956 under the auspices of the Burmese Government led by the then Prime Minister, U Nu. It was held at Kaba Aye, Yangon in the Maha Passana Guha, a huge assembly hall resembling the great cave at Sattapanni in Rajagaha, venue of the First Council. Like the preceding councils, the objective was to authenticate and preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya. A total of 2473 monks from Myanmar and 144 monks from seven other countries, namely, Cambodia, India, Laos, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam took part in the Rehearsal.
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The [[Sixth Council]] was held from 1954 to 1956 under the {{Wiki|auspices}} of the [[Burmese]] Government led by the then [[Prime Minister]], [[U Nu]]. It was held at [[Kaba Aye]], {{Wiki|Yangon}} in the [[Maha Passana Guha]], a huge assembly hall resembling the great {{Wiki|cave}} at [[Sattapanni]] in [[Rajagaha]], venue of the [[First Council]]. Like the preceding councils, the [[objective]] was to authenticate and preserve the genuine [[Dhamma]] and [[Vinaya]]. A total of 2473 [[monks]] from [[Myanmar]] and 144 [[monks]] from seven other countries, namely, [[Cambodia]], [[India]], [[Laos]], [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]] took part in the Rehearsal.
  
Preliminary preparations lasted three years from 1951-1954 whereby the Tipitaka and its allied literature in all scripts were painstakingly examined with their differences noted, the necessary corrections made, and collated. It was found that there was not much difference in the content of any of the texts. Then having agreed upon the final version, approved unanimously by all the parties concerned, the full Assembly met on the full-moon day of May 1954. All the 40 books of authenticated, accepted version of the Pali Pitaka were chanted by
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Preliminary preparations lasted three years from 1951-1954 whereby the [[Tipitaka]] and its allied {{Wiki|literature}} in all scripts were painstakingly examined with their differences noted, the necessary corrections made, and collated. It was found that there was not much difference in the content of any of the texts. Then having agreed upon the final version, approved unanimously by all the parties concerned, the full Assembly met on the [[full-moon day]] of May 1954. All the 40 [[books]] of authenticated, accepted version of the [[Pali]] [[Pitaka]] were chanted by
2600 bhikkhus in five sessions spread out over two years from 1954 to 1956. The late Mahasi Sayadaw  Bhadanta Sobhana  acted as Pucchaka  (Questioner) while the late Mingun Sayadaw  Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa acted as Vissajjhaka (Answerer) answering correctly all questions related to the Tipitaka from memory. Finally, after the Council had officially approved the texts, all of the books of the Tipitaka and their Commentaries were prepared for printing. This notable achievement was made possible through the dedicated efforts of the 2,600 monks and numerous lay people. Their noble task came to completion on the full-moon day of May 1956, to coincide with the 2,500th Anniversary of the Lord Buddha's Mahaparinibbana.  The  version  of  the  Tipitaka  of  this  Council known  as  the  Sixth  Synod  Edition  has  been  recognized  as  the pristine teachings of the Buddha. It is the most authoritative rendering today. After the scriptures had been examined thoroughly several times, they were put into print, covering 52 treatises in 40 volumes, or 8026 pages in total. At the end of this Council, all the participating  countries  had  the  Pali Tipitaka  rendered  into  their native scripts, with the exception of India.
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2600 [[bhikkhus]] in five sessions spread out over two years from 1954 to 1956. The late [[Mahasi Sayadaw]] [[Bhadanta Sobhana]] acted as Pucchaka  (Questioner) while the late [[Mingun Sayadaw]] [[Bhadanta]] [[Vicittasarabhivamsa]] acted as Vissajjhaka (Answerer) answering correctly all questions related to the [[Tipitaka]] from [[memory]]. Finally, after the Council had officially approved the texts, all of the [[books]] of the [[Tipitaka]] and their Commentaries were prepared for [[printing]]. This notable [[achievement]] was made possible through the dedicated efforts of the 2,600 [[monks]] and numerous [[lay people]]. Their [[noble]] task came to completion on the [[full-moon day]] of May 1956, to coincide with the 2,500th Anniversary of the [[Lord Buddha's]] [[Mahaparinibbana]].  The  version  of  the  [[Tipitaka]] of  this  Council known  as  the  Sixth  Synod  Edition  has  been  [[recognized]] as  the pristine [[teachings of the Buddha]]. It is the most authoritative rendering today. After the [[scriptures]] had been examined thoroughly several times, they were put into print, covering 52 treatises in 40 volumes, or 8026 pages in total. At the end of this Council, all the participating  countries  had  the  [[Pali Tipitaka]] rendered  into  their native scripts, with the exception of [[India]].
 
   
 
   
 
Conclusion
 
Conclusion
  
The  Buddhist Councils  were  crucial  in  ensuring  that  the  true doctrines of the Buddha were preserved for future generations. Each council authenticated the Pali Tipitaka by rehearsing them in an assembly comprising hundreds of learned monks and Arahants, whereby false doctrines were purged and points of controversy settled. The Pali Canon or Tipitaka is generally considered to be the oldest body of Scriptures documenting the Buddha’s teachings, somewhat older than its Sanskrit counterpart, though some Sanskrit scholars resist this opinion. According to Childers9, the Pali version of the Buddhist Scriptures is the only genuine and original one.
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The  [[Buddhist Councils]] were  crucial  in  ensuring  that  the  true [[doctrines]] of the [[Buddha]] were preserved for {{Wiki|future}} generations. Each council authenticated the [[Pali Tipitaka]] by rehearsing them in an assembly comprising hundreds of learned [[monks]] and [[Arahants]], whereby false [[doctrines]] were purged and [[points of controversy]] settled. The [[Pali Canon]] or [[Tipitaka]] is generally considered to be the oldest [[body]] of [[Scriptures]] documenting the [[Buddha’s teachings]], somewhat older than its [[Sanskrit]] counterpart, though some [[Sanskrit]] [[scholars]] resist this opinion. According to Childers9, the [[Pali]] version of the [[Buddhist Scriptures]] is the only genuine and original one.
  
When the Buddha made the injunction that monks were to learn his teaching in ‘saka nirutti’ (own language) meaning Magadhi,  the common dialect of the region in his time, it was in consonance with the ancient method of learning by oral tradition whereby pupils were required to learn the master’s doctrine in the language that the latter preached by. In an oral tradition, mistakes and distortions are bound to arise frequently. By adopting a common medium  of instruction, these mistakes and distortions can be quickly detected and corrected by rehearsing together. This was what actually took place in the Buddhist Councils after the Buddha’s Parinibbana  to ensure that the true teachings were preserved.
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When the [[Buddha]] made the injunction that [[monks]] were to learn his [[teaching]] in ‘[[saka]] [[nirutti]]’ ([[own]] [[language]]) meaning [[Magadhi]],  the common {{Wiki|dialect}} of the region in his time, it was in consonance with the [[ancient]] method of {{Wiki|learning}} by [[oral tradition]] whereby pupils were required to learn the [[master’s]] [[doctrine]] in the [[language]] that the [[latter]] [[preached]] by. In an [[oral tradition]], mistakes and [[distortions]] are [[bound]] to arise frequently. By adopting a common {{Wiki|medium}} of instruction, these mistakes and [[distortions]] can be quickly detected and corrected by rehearsing together. This was what actually took place in the [[Buddhist Councils]] after the [[Buddha’s]] [[Parinibbana]] to ensure that the true teachings were preserved.
  
There is much controversy among scholars regarding the origin of Pali, the language of Theravada Scriptures. However to Theravada Buddhists, it is a non-issue. As pointed out by Sayadaw U Thittila1, the Pali Canon contains everything necessary to show forth the Path to the ultimate goal of Nibbana, the cessation of all suffering. This can only mean one thing, namely, that the Buddha’s  true teachings have been preserved in its pristine form in the Pali Canon. For this we are indebted to the religious zeal, dedication  and prodigious memory of the ancient monks (Theras) in preserving, propagating and perpetuating the Teachings of the Buddha, from his Mahaparinibbana  till the present day.
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There is much [[controversy]] among [[scholars]] regarding the origin of [[Pali]], the [[language]] of [[Theravada]] [[Scriptures]]. However to [[Theravada Buddhists]], it is a non-issue. As pointed out by [[Sayadaw U]] Thittila1, the [[Pali Canon]] contains everything necessary to show forth the [[Path]] to the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] goal of [[Nibbana]], the [[cessation]] of all [[suffering]]. This can only mean one thing, namely, that the [[Buddha’s]] true teachings have been preserved in its pristine [[form]] in the [[Pali Canon]]. For this we are indebted to the [[religious]] [[zeal]], [[dedication]] and [[prodigious]] [[memory]] of the [[ancient]] [[monks]] ([[Theras]]) in preserving, {{Wiki|propagating}} and perpetuating the [[Teachings of the Buddha]], from his [[Mahaparinibbana]] till the {{Wiki|present}} day.
 
   
 
   
 
Appendix
 
Appendix
  
Contents  of the Tipitaka or Three Baskets
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Contents  of the [[Tipitaka]] or [[Three Baskets]]
  
  a)  Vinaya Pitaka or Basket of Discipline
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  a)  [[Vinaya Pitaka]] or [[Basket of Discipline]]
Made  up  of  rules  of  discipline  laid  down  by  the  Buddha  for regulating the conduct of disciples who have been ordained into the Order as bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis (nuns) Consists of 5 books, namely:
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Made  up  of  {{Wiki|rules}} of  [[discipline]] laid  down  by  the  [[Buddha]] for regulating the conduct of [[disciples]] who have been [[ordained]] into the Order as [[bhikkhus]] ([[monks]]) and [[bhikkhunis]] ([[nuns]]) Consists of 5 [[books]], namely:
  1)  Major Offences (Parajika)  ─ including explanation of how each rule was promulgated and listing special cases and exceptions.
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  1)  [[Major Offences]] ([[Parajika]])  ─ [[including]] explanation of how each {{Wiki|rule}} was promulgated and listing special cases and exceptions.
  2)  Minor  Offences  (Pacittiya)  ─  including  explanations  and exceptions.
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  2)  Minor  Offences  ([[Pacittiya]])  ─  [[including]] explanations  and exceptions.
  3)  Great Section (Mahavagga)  ─ giving rules for admission into the  Sangha,  ordination,  dress-code,  residence,  and  rules  for performance of special monastic activities.
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  3)  [[Great Section]] ([[Mahavagga]])  ─ giving {{Wiki|rules}} for admission into the  [[Sangha]][[ordination]],  dress-code,  residence,  and  {{Wiki|rules}} for performance of special [[monastic]] [[activities]].
  4)  Smaller  Section  (Cullavagga)  ─  dealing  with  the  treatment, offences, and duties of teachers and novices, with special rules for nuns.
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  4)  Smaller  Section  ([[Cullavagga]])  ─  dealing  with  the  treatment, offences, and duties of [[teachers]] and novices, with special {{Wiki|rules}} for [[nuns]].
  5)  Epitome   of   the   Vinaya  Pitaka  (Parivara)    ─  containing commentary primarily on the Great Section and stories about the events following the Buddha’s Enlightenment.
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  5)  [[Epitome of the Vinaya]]   [[Pitaka]]   ([[Parivara]])    ─  containing commentary primarily on the [[Great Section]] and stories about the events following the [[Buddha’s Enlightenment]].
  
  b)  Sutta Pitaka or Basket of Discourses
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  b)  [[Sutta Pitaka]] or [[Basket of Discourses]]
Contains  the  discourses  delivered  by  the  Buddha  on  various occasions as well as some discourse delivered by his disciples. It is divided into 5 Collections or Nikayas.
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Contains  the  [[discourses]] delivered  by  the  [[Buddha]] on  various occasions as well as some [[discourse]] delivered by his [[disciples]]. It is divided into 5 Collections or [[Nikayas]].
  1)  Collection of Long Discourses (Digha Nikaya) ─ 34 discourses divided into 3 sections dealing with training of the disciple.
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  1)  [[Collection of Long Discourses]] ([[Digha Nikaya]]) ─ 34 [[discourses]] divided into 3 [[sections]] dealing with {{Wiki|training}} of the [[disciple]].
  2)  Collection of Medium-Length Discourses (Majjhima Nikaya) ─152 discourses, many of which tell of the Buddha’s austerities, Enlightenment and early teachings.
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  2)  Collection of Medium-Length [[Discourses]] ([[Majjhima Nikaya]]) ─152 [[discourses]], many of which tell of the [[Buddha’s]] austerities, [[Enlightenment]] and early teachings.
  3)  Collection of Connected Discourses (Samyutta Nikaya) ─ these are divided according to subject matter into 5 divisions
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  3)  Collection of [[Connected Discourses]] ([[Samyutta Nikaya]]) ─ these are divided according to [[subject]] {{Wiki|matter}} into [[5 divisions]]
 
   
 
   
  4)  Collection  of  Discourses  from  Gradual Sayings  (Anguttara Nikaya) ─ 9557 short discourses in 11 divisions, beginning with discourses on 1 subject in first division, 2  subjects  in second division and moving up to discourses containing 11 subjects in the last division. The name Anguttara means ‘increasing by one item’.
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  4)  Collection  of  [[Discourses]] from  [[Gradual Sayings]] ([[Anguttara Nikaya]]) ─ 9557 short [[discourses]] in 11 divisions, beginning with [[discourses]] on 1 [[subject]] in first [[division]], 2  [[subjects]] in second [[division]] and moving up to [[discourses]] containing 11 [[subjects]] in the last [[division]]. The [[name]] [[Anguttara]] means ‘[[increasing by one item]]’.
  5)  Collection of Short Discourses (Khuddaka Nikaya) ─ This is the biggest volume, made up of 15 books which contains the most
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  5)  Collection of Short [[Discourses]] ([[Khuddaka Nikaya]]) ─ This is the biggest volume, made up of 15 [[books]] which contains the most
exquisite parts of the entire canon:
+
exquisite parts of the entire [[canon]]:
  i) Shorter Texts (Khuddaka Patha)
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  i) [[Shorter Texts]] ([[Khuddaka Patha]])
  ii) The Way of Truth (Dhammapada)
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  ii) The [[Way of Truth]] ([[Dhammapada]])
  iii) Solemn Utterances (Udana)
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  iii) [[Solemn Utterances]] ([[Udana]])
  iv) Thus it was said (Iti-vuttaka)
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  iv) Thus it was said ([[Iti-vuttaka]])
  v) Collected Discourses (Sutta Nipata)
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  v) [[Collected Discourses]] ([[Sutta Nipata]])
  vi) Stories of Celestial Mansions (Vimana Vatthu)
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  vi) [[Stories of Celestial Mansions]] ([[Vimana Vatthu]])
  vii) Stories of Departed Spirits (Peta Vatthu)
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  vii) Stories of Departed [[Spirits]] ([[Peta Vatthu]])
  viii) Psalms of the Brethen (Theragatha)
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  viii) Psalms of the Brethen ([[Theragatha]])
  ix) Psalms of the Sisters (Therigatha)
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  ix) [[Psalms of the Sisters]] ([[Therigatha]])
  x) Birth Stories (Jataka)
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  x) [[Birth Stories]] ([[Jataka]])
  xi) Expositions (Niddesa)
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  xi) [[Expositions]] ([[Niddesa]])
  xii) Analytical Knowledge (Patisambhida)
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  xii) [[Analytical Knowledge]] ([[Patisambhida]])
  xiii) Lives of Arahants (Apadana)
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  xiii) [[Lives]] of [[Arahants]] ([[Apadana]])
  xiv) Chronicle of Buddhas (Buddhavamsa)
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  xiv) [[Chronicle of Buddhas]] ([[Buddhavamsa]])
  xv) Basket of Conduct (Cariya Pitaka)
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  xv) [[Basket of Conduct]] ([[Cariya Pitaka]])
  
  c) Abhidhamma Pitaka or Basket of Ultimate Things
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  c) [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] or Basket of {{Wiki|Ultimate}} Things
The Abhidhamma was incorporated as the Third Basket during the Third Council held in the 3rd  century BC. It deals with the higher philosophy of the Buddha and contains these seven books:
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The [[Abhidhamma]] was incorporated as the [[Third Basket]] during the [[Third Council]] held in the 3rd  century BC. It deals with the higher [[philosophy]] of the [[Buddha]] and contains these seven [[books]]:
  1)  Enumeration of Phenomena (Dhammasangani)
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  1)  [[Enumeration of Phenomena]] ([[Dhammasangani]])
  2)  Book of Analysis (Vibhanga)
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  2)  [[Book of Analysis]] ([[Vibhanga]])
  3)  Treatise on the Elements (Dhatukatha)
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  3)  Treatise on the [[Elements]] ([[Dhatukatha]])
  4)  Book of Human Types (Puggala Pannati)
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  4)  [[Book]] of [[Human]] Types ([[Puggala]] [[Pannati]])
  5)  Points of Controversy (Kathavatthu)
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  5)  [[Points of Controversy]] ([[Kathavatthu]])
  6)  Book of Pairs (Yamaka)
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  6)  [[Book of Pairs]] ([[Yamaka]])
  7)  Conditional Relations (Patthana)
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  7)  [[Conditional]] Relations ([[Patthana]])
 
   
 
   
  
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Explanatory Notes
 
Explanatory Notes
  
Note 1: Pali and Magadhi
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Note 1: [[Pali]] and [[Magadhi]]
  
Many theories have been proposed by scholars regarding the original home of Pali. According to Ven. Anagarika Dharmapala7, Oldenburg is of opinion that Pali had for its home the country south of the Vindhya Mountains. Another noted critic of Pali Dr. Franke is of the view that the home of Pali may be found between the middle and western Vindhya mountains. Yet another critic Dr. Windisch  differs in his conclusions with Franke and Oldenburg and says that the Buddha used the language of Magadha. Many Pali scholars are of the opinion that literary Pali is the vernacular Magadhi used by the Buddha to preach the Dhamma and the use of the word Pali as the name of the language in which the Buddhist texts are composed is purely figurative and that its real name is Magadhi.
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Many theories have been proposed by [[scholars]] regarding the original home of [[Pali]]. According to Ven. [[Anagarika]] Dharmapala7, [[Oldenburg]] is of opinion that [[Pali]] had for its home the country [[south]] of the [[Vindhya]] [[Mountains]]. Another noted critic of [[Pali]] Dr. Franke is of the view that the home of [[Pali]] may be found between the middle and [[western]] [[Vindhya]] [[mountains]]. Yet another critic Dr. Windisch  differs in his conclusions with Franke and [[Oldenburg]] and says that the [[Buddha]] used the [[language]] of [[Magadha]]. Many [[Pali]] [[scholars]] are of the opinion that {{Wiki|literary}} [[Pali]] is the {{Wiki|vernacular}} [[Magadhi]] used by the [[Buddha]] to {{Wiki|preach}} the [[Dhamma]] and the use of the [[word]] [[Pali]] as the [[name]] of the [[language]] in which the [[Buddhist texts]] are composed is purely figurative and that its real [[name]] is [[Magadhi]].
  
The Blessed One wished that the language used to convey the message of Buddha should be the language of the people, and not Sanskrit. Magadhi, Suraseni, Paisaci,  Maharashtri, Prakrit were the dialects spoken by the people at the time, and the Blessed One beautified the vernacular by inventing expressions and terms to expound His wonderful Doctrine of the Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma.  Pali may be called the middle  language  which was used by the Blessed One to expound the Doctrine of the, Middle Path. The ornate and embellished Sanskrit and the vulgar Paisaci Prakrit He avoided, and made a classic of purified Magadhi,  which was called Pali to designate the language that He used as different from existing dialects. Pali is the language of the Buddha which could easily be understood by the natives of Magadha, Kosala, Suraseni, Kasi, and Gandhara.
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The [[Blessed One]] wished that the [[language]] used to convey the message of [[Buddha]] should be the [[language]] of the [[people]], and not [[Sanskrit]]. [[Magadhi]], Suraseni, [[Paisaci]][[Maharashtri]], {{Wiki|Prakrit}} were the {{Wiki|dialects}} spoken by the [[people]] at the time, and the [[Blessed One]] beautified the {{Wiki|vernacular}} by inventing {{Wiki|expressions}} and terms to expound His wonderful [[Doctrine]] of the [[Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma]][[Pali]] may be called the middle  [[language]] which was used by the [[Blessed One]] to expound the [[Doctrine]] of the, [[Middle Path]]. The ornate and embellished [[Sanskrit]] and the [[vulgar]] [[Paisaci]] {{Wiki|Prakrit}} He avoided, and made a classic of [[purified]] [[Magadhi]],  which was called [[Pali]] to designate the [[language]] that He used as different from [[existing]] {{Wiki|dialects}}. [[Pali]] is the [[language]] of the [[Buddha]] which could easily be understood by the natives of [[Magadha]], [[Kosala]], Suraseni, [[Kasi]], and [[Gandhara]].
  
Sten Konow has shown the resemblances that exist between Pali words and Paisaci. Sir George Grierson, at one time Collector of Gaya and an expert of Hindi dialects, agrees with Windisch  that literary Pali is Magadhi. He gives a list of the places where the Paisaci dialects were spoken, namely: Kancidesiya, Pandya Pancala; Gauda, Magadha, Vracada, Dakshinatya, Saurasena, Kaikeya, Sabara, Dravida. Pandya, Kekaya, Bahlika, Simhala, Nepala, Kuntala, Sudhesna, Bota, Gandhara, Haiva and Kannojana.
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Sten Konow has shown the resemblances that [[exist]] between [[Pali]] words and [[Paisaci]]. Sir George Grierson, at one time Collector of [[Gaya]] and an expert of {{Wiki|Hindi}} {{Wiki|dialects}}, agrees with Windisch  that {{Wiki|literary}} [[Pali]] is [[Magadhi]]. He gives a list of the places where the [[Paisaci]] {{Wiki|dialects}} were spoken, namely: Kancidesiya, {{Wiki|Pandya}} [[Pancala]]; Gauda, [[Magadha]], Vracada, Dakshinatya, Saurasena, Kaikeya, [[Sabara]], [[Dravida]]. {{Wiki|Pandya}}, Kekaya, [[Bahlika]], [[Simhala]], Nepala, Kuntala, Sudhesna, Bota, [[Gandhara]], Haiva and Kannojana.
  
Says Dr. Grierson: "The first thing that strikes one about these three lists is the great extent of country that they cover. If we are to accept them in their entirety, Paisaci Prakrit was spoken over nearly the whole of India and also in Tibet." Since the time of the Blessed One the Pali language began spreading not only in India, but beyond. Wherever the Buddhist Bhikkhus went there arose centres of literary culture, and they transplanted Indian art, agriculture, gardening, floriculture, architecture, etc.
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Says Dr. Grierson: "The first thing that strikes one about these three lists is the great extent of country that they cover. If we are to accept them in their entirety, [[Paisaci]] {{Wiki|Prakrit}} was spoken over nearly the whole of [[India]] and also in [[Tibet]]." Since the time of the [[Blessed One]] the [[Pali language]] began spreading not only in [[India]], but beyond. Wherever the [[Buddhist]] [[Bhikkhus]] went there arose centres of {{Wiki|literary}} {{Wiki|culture}}, and they transplanted [[Indian art]], {{Wiki|agriculture}}, gardening, floriculture, [[architecture]], etc.
  
Note 2: The Four Great Authorities (Mahaparinibbana Sutta)
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Note 2: The Four Great Authorities ([[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]])
  
During the journey to his final resting place in Kusinara, the Buddha stayed at the Ananda shrine in Bhoganagara (present day Kesariya) and taught the four standards by which his disciples would be able to decide whether a certain teaching was actually his words or not. These standards, called the Four Great Authorities are:
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During the journey to his final resting place in [[Kusinara]], the [[Buddha]] stayed at the [[Ananda]] [[shrine]] in Bhoganagara ({{Wiki|present}} day [[Kesariya]]) and [[taught]] the four standards by which his [[disciples]] would be able to decide whether a certain [[teaching]] was actually his words or not. These standards, called the Four Great Authorities are:
(a)  A bhikkhu may say: “I heard and learned it from the Blessed One’s own lips; this is the Law, this is the Discipline, this is the Master’s teaching”.
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(a)  A [[bhikkhu]] may say: “I heard and learned it from the [[Blessed One’s]] [[own]] lips; this is the Law, this is the [[Discipline]], this is the [[Master’s]] [[teaching]]”.
(b)  A bhikkhu may say: “In a certain dwelling place there is a community of elders and a chief; I heard and learned it from the lips of that community;  this is the Law, this is the Discipline, this is the Master’s teaching”.
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(b)  A [[bhikkhu]] may say: “In a certain dwelling place there is a {{Wiki|community}} of [[elders]] and a chief; I heard and learned it from the lips of that {{Wiki|community}};  this is the Law, this is the [[Discipline]], this is the [[Master’s]] [[teaching]]”.
(c)  A bhikkhu may say: “In a certain dwelling place many elder bhikkhus live who are learned, expert in the traditions, memorizers of the Discipline, memorizers of the Codes; I heard and learned it from those elders’ own lips; this is the Law, this is the Discipline, this is the Master’s teaching”.
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(c)  A [[bhikkhu]] may say: “In a certain dwelling place many elder [[bhikkhus]] live who are learned, expert in the [[traditions]], memorizers of the [[Discipline]], memorizers of the {{Wiki|Codes}}; I heard and learned it from those [[elders]]’ [[own]] lips; this is the Law, this is the [[Discipline]], this is the [[Master’s]] [[teaching]]”.
(d)  A bhikkhu may say: “In a certain dwelling place an elder bhikkhu lives who is learned, expert in the traditions, memorizer of the Discipline, memorizer of the Codes; I heard and learned it from that  elder’s own lips;  this  is  the  Law,  this  is  the  Discipline,  this  is  the  Master’s teaching”.
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(d)  A [[bhikkhu]] may say: “In a certain dwelling place an elder [[bhikkhu]] [[lives]] who is learned, expert in the [[traditions]], memorizer of the [[Discipline]], memorizer of the {{Wiki|Codes}}; I heard and learned it from that  elder’s [[own]] lips;  this  is  the  Law,  this  is  the  [[Discipline]],  this  is  the  [[Master’s]] [[teaching]]”.
  
In such a case, the declaration of this bhikkhu should be neither approved nor disapproved but carefully studied  word by word and then verified in the Vinaya Discipline or confirmed in the Sutta Discourses.
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In such a case, the declaration of this [[bhikkhu]] should be neither approved nor disapproved but carefully studied  [[word]] by [[word]] and then verified in the [[Vinaya]] [[Discipline]] or confirmed in the [[Sutta]] [[Discourses]].
  
If they are found to be not  verified  in the Vinaya or confirmed in the Suttas, one can conclude that they are not the Blessed One’s word, they are wrongly learned by that bhikkhu or that community or by those elders or by that elder. One should accordingly reject them.
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If they are found to be not  verified  in the [[Vinaya]] or confirmed in the [[Suttas]], one can conclude that they are not the [[Blessed One’s]] [[word]], they are wrongly learned by that [[bhikkhu]] or that {{Wiki|community}} or by those [[elders]] or by that elder. One should accordingly reject them.
  
If however, they are found to be verified in the Vinaya and confirmed in the Suttas, one can conclude that they are the Blessed One’s word, they are rightly learned by that bhikkhu or that community or by those elders or by that elder. One should accordingly accept them.
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If however, they are found to be verified in the [[Vinaya]] and confirmed in the [[Suttas]], one can conclude that they are the [[Blessed One’s]] [[word]], they are rightly learned by that [[bhikkhu]] or that {{Wiki|community}} or by those [[elders]] or by that elder. One should accordingly accept them.
 
   
 
   
Note 3: Eighteen Nikayas (Ancient Schools of Buddhism)
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Note 3: Eighteen [[Nikayas]] ([[Ancient]] [[Schools of Buddhism]])
  
A) Mahasanghika and Related Schools.
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A) [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]] and Related Schools.
  
Mahasanghika  or  School  of  the  Great Assembly  (attended  by  ten thousand heretical monks) is acknowledged as the first Nikaya to secede from the original Sangha after the Second Council. They had their main centre at Pataliputta but later on migrated from Magadha in two streams, one northwards and the other towards the south. The southern group settled down  in  Andhra Pradesh  around  Amaravati  and  Dhanakataka,  their branches concentrating at Nagarjunikonda, dwelling on the mountains around. The Pali version has been fully borne out by the inscriptions discovered in these areas, namely, the Pubbaseliyas, Uttaraseliyas or Aparaseliyas, Siddhatthikas and Rajagirikas, collectively designated as Andhakas by Buddhaghosa in his commentary on the Kathavatthu. Of the northern Mahasanghikas, he mentioned the Ekabboharikas, Gokulikas, Pannattivadins and Bahusuttika. However except for the Gokulikas, their views have not been referred to in the Kathavatthu, indicating perhaps they ceased to retain any practical importance at all.
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[[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]] or  School  of  the  [[Great Assembly]]   (attended  by  ten thousand {{Wiki|heretical}} [[monks]]) is [[acknowledged]] as the first [[Nikaya]] to secede from the original [[Sangha]] after the [[Second Council]]. They had their main centre at [[Pataliputta]] but later on migrated from [[Magadha]] in two streams, one northwards and the other towards the [[south]]. The southern group settled down  in  [[Andhra Pradesh]] around  [[Amaravati]] and  [[Dhanakataka]],  their branches {{Wiki|concentrating}} at Nagarjunikonda, dwelling on the [[mountains]] around. The [[Pali]] version has been fully borne out by the {{Wiki|inscriptions}} discovered in these areas, namely, the Pubbaseliyas, Uttaraseliyas or Aparaseliyas, Siddhatthikas and Rajagirikas, collectively designated as [[Andhakas]] by [[Buddhaghosa]] in his commentary on the [[Kathavatthu]]. Of the northern [[Mahasanghikas]], he mentioned the [[Ekabboharikas]], [[Gokulikas]], Pannattivadins and Bahusuttika. However except for the [[Gokulikas]], their [[views]] have not been referred to in the [[Kathavatthu]], indicating perhaps they ceased to retain any {{Wiki|practical}} importance at all.
  
1)  Gokulika  (Kukkulika) — The doctrine of this school considered the world to be red-hot with misery and devoid of happiness, a kukkula, due to the misunderstanding of the Fire Sermon.
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1)  [[Gokulika]] ([[Kukkulika]]) — The [[doctrine]] of this school considered the [[world]] to be red-hot with [[misery]] and [[devoid of happiness]], a kukkula, due to the {{Wiki|misunderstanding}} of the [[Fire Sermon]].
  
2)  Ekavyoharika (Ekavyavaharika) — This school was hardly known in later times and was probably reabsorbed into the Mahasanghika.
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2)  Ekavyoharika ([[Ekavyavaharika]]) — This school was hardly known in later times and was probably reabsorbed into the [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]].
  
3)  Bahulika  (Bahusrutiya)  —  This  school  emphasized  religious knowledge and erudition (bahusutta = learning).
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3)  Bahulika  ([[Bahusrutiya]])  —  This  school  emphasized  [[religious knowledge]] and erudition (bahusutta = {{Wiki|learning}}).
  
4)  Cetiyavada (Chaitiyavada) — This school emphasized the cetiya or shrine worship. It is identified with the Lokottaravadins because the Mahavastu, which is an avowed text of the Lokottaravadins, gives prominence to the worship of cetiyas.
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4)  Cetiyavada (Chaitiyavada) — This school emphasized the [[cetiya]] or [[shrine]] {{Wiki|worship}}. It is identified with the [[Lokottaravadins]] because the [[Mahavastu]], which is an avowed text of the [[Lokottaravadins]], gives prominence to the {{Wiki|worship}} of [[cetiyas]].
  
5)  Pannattivada (Prajnaptivada) — the concept (= pannatti) school
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5)  Pannattivada ([[Prajnaptivada]]) — the {{Wiki|concept}} (= [[pannatti]]) school
  
6)  Purvasaila and Aparasaila (= Uttarasaila) — refer to the schools of Andhra country whose followers were called the “East-Cliffmen” and “Opposite Cliffmen” respectively. Part of the Andhaka schools.
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6)  [[Purvasaila]] and [[Aparasaila]] (= [[Uttarasaila]]) — refer to the schools of [[Andhra]] country whose followers were called the “East-Cliffmen” and “Opposite Cliffmen” respectively. Part of the [[Andhaka]] schools.
 
   
 
   
B) Theravada (Sthavira) and Related Schools
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B) [[Theravada]] ([[Sthavira]]) and Related Schools
  
Theravada means the doctrine of the Elders and was the original Sangha from which the other schools seceded. Its texts are written in Pali, recognized as the vernacular language used by the Buddha.
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[[Theravada]] means the [[doctrine]] of the [[Elders]] and was the original [[Sangha]] from which the other schools seceded. Its texts are written in [[Pali]], [[recognized]] as the {{Wiki|vernacular}} [[language]] used by the [[Buddha]].
  
1)  Mahisasaka — named after Mahisaka country where this school was formed. Like Theravada, the Mahisasaka adhere to the view that an Arahant is beyond the reach of any seduction and cannot relapse.
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1)  [[Mahisasaka]] — named after Mahisaka country where this school was formed. Like [[Theravada]], the [[Mahisasaka]] adhere to the view that an [[Arahant]] is beyond the reach of any seduction and cannot relapse.
  
2)  Vajjiputaka (Vatsiputriya) — probably formed by Vajjian monks who did not join the Mahasanghika but branched out independently later. They prepared a new recension of the Abhidhamma based on the belief of the existence of a personality or puggala, a belief shared by the Sammitiyas. Both schools were also called Puggalavadins.
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2)  Vajjiputaka ([[Vatsiputriya]]) — probably formed by [[Vajjian monks]] who did not join the [[Wikipedia:Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasanghika]] but branched out {{Wiki|independently}} later. They prepared a new recension of the [[Abhidhamma]] based on the [[belief]] of the [[existence]] of a [[personality]] or [[puggala]], a [[belief]] shared by the [[Sammitiyas]]. Both schools were also called [[Puggalavadins]].
  
3)  Dhammuttarika  (Dharmottariya)  —  Higher  Dhamma  school  an offshoot of the Vajjiputtakas and were found in Aparanta on the coast of Maharastra at the port of Soparaka and places nearby.
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3)  Dhammuttarika  ([[Dharmottariya]])  —  Higher  [[Dhamma]] school  an offshoot of the [[Vajjiputtakas]] and were found in [[Aparanta]] on the coast of {{Wiki|Maharastra}} at the port of Soparaka and places nearby.
  
4)  Bhaddayanika  (Bhadrayanika)  —  the  “Auspicious”   vehicle,  an offshoot  of  Vajjiputtaka.  To  the  Bhaddayanikas  is  attributed  the doctrine of “anupubbabhisamaya” – that realization of the Four Noble Truths is acquired in segmentary order
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4)  Bhaddayanika  (Bhadrayanika)  —  the  “[[Auspicious]]”   [[vehicle]],  an offshoot  of  [[Vajjiputtaka]].  To  the  Bhaddayanikas  is  attributed  the [[doctrine]] of “anupubbabhisamaya” – that [[realization]] of the [[Four Noble Truths]] is acquired in segmentary order
  
5)  Channagarika (Sannagarika) — School of six towns, an offshoot of Vajjiputtaka. To them is attributed the doctrine of Dukkhaharoti, the utterance of the word “dukkha” leads to knowledge (nana).
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5)  Channagarika ([[Sannagarika]]) — School of six towns, an offshoot of [[Vajjiputtaka]]. To them is attributed the [[doctrine]] of Dukkhaharoti, the utterance of the [[word]] “[[dukkha]]” leads to [[knowledge]] ([[nana]]).
  
6)  Sammitiya  (Sammatiya) — from “samma ditthi” means the school of Right View. It ascribes its origin to Mahakaccana but Mahavamsa puts it as an offshoot of Vajjiputtaka. The only remarkable doctrine of the Sammitiyas is that regarding the nature of the puggala, which served as the carrier of the five kandhas or aggregates through births and rebirths of beings. Like the Sabbathivadins they also held that there is an antarabhava  i.e. an intermediate state between the death of a being and its rebirth.
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6)  [[Sammitiya]] ([[Sammatiya]]) — from “[[samma ditthi]]” means the school of [[Right View]]. It ascribes its origin to [[Mahakaccana]] but [[Mahavamsa]] puts it as an offshoot of [[Vajjiputtaka]]. The only remarkable [[doctrine]] of the [[Sammitiyas]] is that regarding the [[nature]] of the [[puggala]], which served as the carrier of the five kandhas or [[aggregates]] through [[births]] and [[rebirths]] of [[beings]]. Like the Sabbathivadins they also held that there is an [[antarabhava]] i.e. an [[intermediate state]] between the [[death]] of a being and its [[rebirth]].
7)  Sabbathivada (Sarvastivadin) — derived from “sabba athi” or “everything exists” and refers to the doctrine of this school. They held almost the same views about the human life and the universe as the Theravadins, in the non-existence of soul, in impermanence and the law of Kamma. However the Sabbathivadins believed in the reality of the five aggregates (khandhas)  that compose a being as against the Theravadin’s view of their unreality. Thus they admitted the reality of khandhas as existing in all times – past, present and future.
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7)  Sabbathivada ([[Sarvastivadin]]) — derived from “[[sabba]] athi” or “everything [[exists]]” and refers to the [[doctrine]] of this school. They held almost the same [[views]] about the [[Wikipedia:Human life|human life]] and the [[universe]] as the [[Theravadins]], in the [[non-existence]] of [[soul]], in [[impermanence]] and the law of [[Kamma]]. However the Sabbathivadins believed in the [[reality]] of the [[five aggregates]] ([[khandhas]])  that compose a being as against the Theravadin’s view of their [[unreality]]. Thus they admitted the [[reality]] of [[khandhas]] as [[existing]] in all times – {{Wiki|past}}, {{Wiki|present}} and {{Wiki|future}}.
  
  
8)  Dhammagutika (Dharmagupta) — started in Gujarat and Sindhu and named after the Greek missionary Dhammarakkhita or Dharmagupta who was sent there after the Third Council. This explains why it was not mentioned in the Kathavatthu.
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8)  Dhammagutika ([[Dharmagupta]]) — started in {{Wiki|Gujarat}} and [[Sindhu]] and named after the {{Wiki|Greek}} {{Wiki|missionary}} [[Dhammarakkhita]] or [[Dharmagupta]] who was sent there after the [[Third Council]]. This explains why it was not mentioned in the [[Kathavatthu]].
  
9)  Kassapiya  (Kasyapiya) — named after the founder Kassapagotta, who with Majjhima propagated Buddhism in the Himalayan region. It is identical with the Haimavata school.
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9)  Kassapiya  ([[Kasyapiya]]) — named after the founder [[Kassapagotta]], who with [[Majjhima]] propagated [[Buddhism]] in the [[Himalayan]] region. It is [[identical]] with the [[Haimavata]] school.
  
10) Samkantika (Sautrantika) — This school denied the authority of Abhidhamma and admitted only that of the suttas. Hence they were closer to the Suttavadins who followed the doctrine of the suttas.
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10) Samkantika ([[Sautrantika]]) — This school denied the authority of [[Abhidhamma]] and admitted only that of the [[suttas]]. Hence they were closer to the Suttavadins who followed the [[doctrine]] of the [[suttas]].
  
Note 4: Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa
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Note 4: [[Venerable]] [[Moggaliputta Tissa]]
  
According to Mahavamsa, the Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa, President of the Third Council, was a Brahma-god called Tissa in his previous existence. At the time of the Second Council, the Arahants, foreseeing danger to the religion in the future, approached him for help as his lifespan in the Brahma realm was coming to an end. He consented to be born in the world of men in order to prevent the downfall of the Buddha's religion and subsequently took rebirth as the son of the brahmin Moggali of Pataliputta. The Elders Siggava and Candavajji, both disciples of Sonaka  (himself a disciple of Dasaka, who received ordination from Ven. Upali) had been entrusted with the task of converting him. From the time of Tissa's birth, therefore, for seven years, Siggava went daily to the house of Moggali, but not even one word of welcome like “Go further on”, did he receive. In the eighth year someone said to him, “Go further on.” As he went out he met Moggali,  and  on  being  asked  whether  he  had  received  anything  at  his house, he said he had. Moggali inquired at home and the next day charged Siggava with lying. But hearing Siggava's explanation, he was greatly pleased and thereafter constantly offered Siggava hospitality at his house. One day, young Tissa, who was thoroughly proficient in the Vedas, was much annoyed at finding Siggava occupying his seat and spoke to him harshly. But Siggava started to talk to him and asked him a question from the Citta Yamaka.  Tissa could not answer it and in order to learn the Buddha's teachings, he entered the Order under Siggava, becoming a Sotapanna  or  Stream-winner  soon  after.  Siggava  instructed  him  in  the Vinaya and Candavajji in the Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas. In due course he attained Arahantship together with the supernormal powers and became the acknowledged leader of the monks at Pataliputta.
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According to [[Mahavamsa]], the [[Venerable]] [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], [[President]] of the [[Third Council]], was a Brahma-god called [[Tissa]] in his previous [[existence]]. At the time of the [[Second Council]], the [[Arahants]], foreseeing [[danger]] to the [[religion]] in the {{Wiki|future}}, approached him for help as his [[lifespan]] in the [[Brahma realm]] was coming to an end. He consented to be born in the [[world]] of men in order to prevent the downfall of the [[Buddha's]] [[religion]] and subsequently took [[rebirth]] as the son of the [[brahmin]] [[Moggali]] of [[Pataliputta]]. The [[Elders]] [[Siggava]] and [[Candavajji]], both [[disciples]] of [[Sonaka]] (himself a [[disciple]] of [[Dasaka]], who received [[ordination]] from Ven. [[Upali]]) had been entrusted with the task of converting him. From the time of [[Tissa's]] [[birth]], therefore, for seven years, [[Siggava]] went daily to the house of [[Moggali]], but not even one [[word]] of welcome like “Go further on”, did he receive. In the eighth year someone said to him, “Go further on.” As he went out he met [[Moggali]],  and  on  being  asked  whether  he  had  received  anything  at  his house, he said he had. [[Moggali]] inquired at home and the next day charged [[Siggava]] with {{Wiki|lying}}. But hearing [[Siggava's]] explanation, he was greatly [[pleased]] and thereafter constantly [[offered]] [[Siggava]] [[hospitality]] at his house. One day, young [[Tissa]], who was thoroughly {{Wiki|proficient}} in the [[Vedas]], was much annoyed at finding [[Siggava]] occupying his seat and spoke to him harshly. But [[Siggava]] started to talk to him and asked him a question from the [[Citta]] [[Yamaka]][[Tissa]] could not answer it and in order to learn the [[Buddha's teachings]], he entered the Order under [[Siggava]], becoming a [[Sotapanna]] or  [[Stream-winner]] soon  after.  [[Siggava]] instructed  him  in  the [[Vinaya]] and [[Candavajji]] in the [[Sutta]] and [[Abhidhamma Pitakas]]. In due course he [[attained]] [[Arahantship]] together with the [[supernormal powers]] and became the [[acknowledged]] leader of the [[monks]] at [[Pataliputta]].
  
At the festival of dedication of the Asokarama and the other monasteries built by King Asoka, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, in answer to a question by Asoka, said that even a lavish donor of gifts like him was not a kinsman of the Buddha but one becomes a kinsman of the Buddha's religion only by letting one's son or daughter enter the Order. Acting on this suggestion, Asoka had two of his children, Mahinda and Sanghamitta ordained. Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa acted as Mahinda's preceptor. Later, because of the great gains which accrued to the monks through Asoka's patronage of the Buddha's  religion,  the  Order  became  corrupted  as  heretics  donned  the yellow robe for material gain and dwelt together with the bhikkhus. Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa committed the monks to the charge of Mahinda, and for seven years lived in solitary retreat in the Ahoganga Mountain.
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At the {{Wiki|festival}} of [[dedication]] of the [[Asokarama]] and the other [[monasteries]] built by [[King Asoka]], Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], in answer to a question by [[Asoka]], said that even a lavish {{Wiki|donor}} of gifts like him was not a kinsman of the [[Buddha]] but one becomes a kinsman of the [[Buddha's]] [[religion]] only by letting one's son or daughter enter the Order. Acting on this suggestion, [[Asoka]] had two of his children, [[Mahinda]] and [[Sanghamitta]] [[ordained]]. Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] acted as [[Mahinda's]] [[preceptor]]. Later, because of the great gains which accrued to the [[monks]] through [[Asoka's]] {{Wiki|patronage}} of the [[Buddha's]] [[religion]],  the  Order  became  corrupted  as  {{Wiki|heretics}} donned  the [[yellow robe]] for material gain and dwelt together with the [[bhikkhus]]. Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] committed the [[monks]] to the charge of [[Mahinda]], and for seven years lived in [[solitary retreat]] in the [[Ahoganga]] Mountain.
  
Due to the great number of heretics and their unruliness, no Uposatha ceremony was held for seven years in all the monasteries. When Asoka sent his minister to investigate and settle the matter, the foolish official killed several monks. Hearing of the misdeed, Asoka was filled with remorse and doubts lingered in his mind whether he was responsible for the crime. He was told that Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, who was living in solitary retreat on the Ahoganga Mountain further up the Ganges, could resolve his doubt. From there Asoka sent for him to solve his doubts as to what measure of sin belonged to him owing to the killing of the monks by his minister. But Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa would not come until Asoka appealed to him that his services were needed to befriend the religion. The Elder traveled by boat to Pataliputta, and was met at the landing place by the king who helped him out by supporting him on his arm.
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Due to the great number of {{Wiki|heretics}} and their unruliness, no [[Uposatha]] {{Wiki|ceremony}} was held for seven years in all the [[monasteries]]. When [[Asoka]] sent his [[minister]] to investigate and settle the {{Wiki|matter}}, the [[foolish]] official killed several [[monks]]. Hearing of the misdeed, [[Asoka]] was filled with [[remorse]] and [[doubts]] lingered in his [[mind]] whether he was responsible for the [[crime]]. He was told that Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], who was living in [[solitary retreat]] on the [[Ahoganga]] Mountain further up the [[Ganges]], could resolve his [[doubt]]. From there [[Asoka]] sent for him to solve his [[doubts]] as to what measure of [[sin]] belonged to him owing to the {{Wiki|killing}} of the [[monks]] by his [[minister]]. But Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] would not come until [[Asoka]] appealed to him that his services were needed to befriend the [[religion]]. The Elder traveled by boat to [[Pataliputta]], and was met at the landing place by the [[king]] who helped him out by supporting him on his arm.
  
The  king then led  him to  Rativaddhana Park and  to  test  the  Elder’s faculty, begged him to perform a miracle, which the Elder consented to do and made the earth quake in a single region. To convince the king that the killing of the monks involved no guilt on himself, the Elder preached to him the Tittira Jataka. Within a week, with the aid of two yakkhas, the king had all the monks gathered together and held an assembly at the Asokarama. In the presence of Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, Asoka questioned the monks on their various doctrines, and all those holding heretical views were expelled from the Order, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa decreeing that the Vibhajjavada alone contained the teaching of the Buddha. Later, in association with 1,000 Arahants, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa convened the Third Council at Asokarama, and compiled the Kathavatthu (Points of Controversy), in refutation of false views. This was in the seventeenth year of Asoka's reign and Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa was seventy-two years old. At the conclusion of the Council in nine months, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa made  arrangements,  in  the  month  of  Kattika,  for  monks  to  go  to  the countries adjacent to India for the propagation of the religion.
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The  [[king]] then led  him to  Rativaddhana Park and  to  test  the  Elder’s {{Wiki|faculty}}, begged him to perform a [[miracle]], which the Elder consented to do and made the [[earth]] quake in a single region. To convince the [[king]] that the {{Wiki|killing}} of the [[monks]] involved no [[guilt]] on himself, the Elder [[preached]] to him the [[Tittira Jataka]]. Within a [[week]], with the aid of two [[yakkhas]], the [[king]] had all the [[monks]] [[gathered]] together and held an assembly at the [[Asokarama]]. In the presence of Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]], [[Asoka]] questioned the [[monks]] on their various [[doctrines]], and all those holding [[heretical views]] were expelled from the Order, Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] decreeing that the [[Vibhajjavada]] alone contained [[the teaching of the Buddha]]. Later, in association with 1,000 [[Arahants]], Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] convened the [[Third Council]] at [[Asokarama]], and compiled the [[Kathavatthu]] ([[Points of Controversy]]), in refutation of [[false views]]. This was in the seventeenth year of [[Asoka's]] reign and Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] was seventy-two years old. At the conclusion of the Council in nine months, Ven. [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] made  arrangements,  in  the  month  of  [[Kattika]],  for  [[monks]] to  go  to  the countries adjacent to [[India]] for the [[propagation]] of the [[religion]].
  
Note 5: Tipitakadharas of Myanmar Today
+
Note 5: Tipitakadharas of [[Myanmar]] Today
  
•  Tipitakadhara  = Bearer of the Tipitaka ('recitation')
+
•  [[Tipitakadhara]] = Bearer of the [[Tipitaka]] ('{{Wiki|recitation}}')
•  Tipitakakawida = Bearer of the Tipitaka ('oral' and 'written')
+
•  Tipitakakawida = Bearer of the [[Tipitaka]] ('oral' and 'written')
•  Maha Tipitakakawida = Passing the 'oral' and 'written' with distinction
+
•  [[Maha]] Tipitakakawida = Passing the 'oral' and 'written' with {{Wiki|distinction}}
•  Dhammabhandagarika = Keeper of the Dhamma Treasure
+
•  [[Dhammabhandagarika]] = Keeper of the [[Dhamma]] [[Treasure]]
  
The above Titles are awarded to successful Buddhist monks in Myanmar if the candidates can recite 8026 pages of the Buddhist Canon or Tipitaka and also pass the written examination, which includes the Commentaries and Sub-commentaries. Tipitakadhara Selection Examination is the most extensive, most difficult and highest. No one passed any of the categories in
+
The above Titles are awarded to successful [[Buddhist monks]] in [[Myanmar]] if the candidates can recite 8026 pages of the [[Buddhist Canon]] or [[Tipitaka]] and also pass the written {{Wiki|examination}}, which includes the Commentaries and Sub-commentaries. [[Tipitakadhara]] Selection Examination is the most extensive, most difficult and [[highest]]. No one passed any of the categories in
1948 when it was first held in Rangoon (Yangon) after the country gained Independence. The aim of the examination was to promote the emergence of the outstanding personalities who can memorize and recite the whole of the Tipitaka (8026 pages or about 2.4 million words in Myanmar Pali).
+
1948 when it was first held in [[Rangoon]] ({{Wiki|Yangon}}) after the country gained {{Wiki|Independence}}. The aim of the {{Wiki|examination}} was to promote the [[emergence]] of the outstanding personalities who can memorize and recite the whole of the [[Tipitaka]] (8026 pages or about 2.4 million words in [[Myanmar]] [[Pali]]).
  
It is the longest examination in the world and the entire examination is spread over five years. In the first and second year, the candidates are examined in Vinaya Pitaka (2260 Pages) lasting a total of 20 days (3 days each for 5 volumes plus 5 days for the written part covering the Commentaries and Sub-commentaries). In the third year the candidates are examined in 3 volumes of the Sutta Pitaka (779 pages). In the fourth and the fifth years, the examination on the first five (1390 pages) and the last two (3597 pages) of seven volumes of the Abhidhamma Pitaka is arranged. The total length of the examination used to be four years before.
+
It is the longest {{Wiki|examination}} in the [[world]] and the entire {{Wiki|examination}} is spread over five years. In the first and second year, the candidates are examined in [[Vinaya Pitaka]] (2260 Pages) lasting a total of 20 days (3 days each for 5 volumes plus 5 days for the written part covering the Commentaries and Sub-commentaries). In the third year the candidates are examined in 3 volumes of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] (779 pages). In [[the fourth]] and the fifth years, the {{Wiki|examination}} on the first five (1390 pages) and the last two (3597 pages) of seven volumes of the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] is arranged. The total length of the {{Wiki|examination}} used to be four years before.
  
The first successful candidate was Venerable U Vicittasarabhivamsa, who was later known as the 'Mingun Sayadaw'. He passed the Vinaya part in the
+
The first successful candidate was [[Venerable]] [[U Vicittasarabhivamsa]], who was later known as the '[[Mingun Sayadaw]]'. He passed the [[Vinaya]] part in the
1950 Examination. In 1953 he completed the final part at that time of the Pathika Vagga of the Sutta Pitaka and became the first ever 'Tipitakadhara' in Myanmar (Burma) at the age of 42 and his achievement was recorded in the Guinness Book of Records. Since then, more and more outstanding monks have been awarded full titles for their fabulous memory. Since 1948, the following candidates have earned the title of Tipitakadhara.
+
1950 Examination. In 1953 he completed the final part at that time of the Pathika [[Vagga]] of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] and became the first ever '[[Tipitakadhara]]' in [[Myanmar]] ([[Burma]]) at the age of 42 and his [[achievement]] was recorded in the Guinness [[Book]] of Records. Since then, more and more outstanding [[monks]] have been awarded full titles for their fabulous [[memory]]. Since 1948, the following candidates have earned the title of [[Tipitakadhara]].
 
   
 
   
 
Title Holders Titles* Year Age (First Title)
 
Title Holders Titles* Year Age (First Title)
Ven. Vicittasarabhivamsa 1,3,4 1953 42
+
Ven. [[Vicittasarabhivamsa]] 1,3,4 1953 42
 
Ven. Nemainda 1,2,4 1959 32
 
Ven. Nemainda 1,2,4 1959 32
Ven. Kosala 1,2,4 1963 36
+
Ven. [[Kosala]] 1,2,4 1963 36
 
Ven. Sumingalalankara 1,2 1973 27
 
Ven. Sumingalalankara 1,2 1973 27
 
Ven. Sirinandabhivamsa 1,2 1984 42
 
Ven. Sirinandabhivamsa 1,2 1984 42
 
Ven. Vayameindabhivamsa 1,2 1995 39
 
Ven. Vayameindabhivamsa 1,2 1995 39
Ven. Kondanna 1 1997 55
+
Ven. [[Kondanna]] 1 1997 55
 
Ven. Silakhandabhivamsa 1,2 1998, 2000 34
 
Ven. Silakhandabhivamsa 1,2 1998, 2000 34
 
Ven. Vamsapalalankara 1,2 1998, 2000 32
 
Ven. Vamsapalalankara 1,2 1998, 2000 32
 
Ven. Indapala 1 2001 40
 
Ven. Indapala 1 2001 40
Ven. Sundara 1 2001 45
+
Ven. [[Sundara]] 1 2001 45
  
*1 = Tipitakadhara, 2 = Tipitakakawida, 3 = Maha Tipitakakawida,
+
*1 = [[Tipitakadhara]], 2 = Tipitakakawida, 3 = [[Maha]] Tipitakakawida,
*4 = Dhammabhandagarika
+
*4 = [[Dhammabhandagarika]]
  
One may question the wisdom of arranging this extremely difficult examination now that we can put the Tipitaka texts on CD-ROM and there is no question of the Tipitaka texts disappearing from this world. But the actual rewards of the whole examination is reflected in the emergence of thousands of monks who have memorized all or some of the texts by heart and are able to help lay worshippers with their instant sermons and discourses, faster than the CD-Rom texts appear on the computer screen. Mastery of the Pali Canon will ensure that the monks transmit their knowledge with authority. So the ultimate aim of the Tipitaka Examination is to promote propagation of the Buddhist Teaching, which is the noblest of all the gifts, the Gift of the Dhamma in its purest form.
+
One may question the [[wisdom]] of arranging this extremely difficult {{Wiki|examination}} now that we can put the [[Tipitaka]] texts on CD-ROM and there is no question of the [[Tipitaka]] texts disappearing from this [[world]]. But the actual rewards of the whole {{Wiki|examination}} is reflected in the [[emergence]] of thousands of [[monks]] who have memorized all or some of the texts by [[heart]] and are able to help lay worshippers with their instant [[sermons]] and [[discourses]], faster than the CD-Rom texts appear on the {{Wiki|computer}} screen. [[Mastery]] of the [[Pali Canon]] will ensure that the [[monks]] transmit their [[knowledge]] with authority. So the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] aim of the [[Tipitaka]] Examination is to promote [[propagation]] of the [[Buddhist Teaching]], which is the noblest of all the gifts, the [[Gift]] of the [[Dhamma]] in its purest [[form]].
  
Reference:  Tipitaka  Golden  Jubilee  1948/49  –  1997/98  Magazine, Religious Affairs Directorate Press, Myanmar, 1998
+
Reference:  [[Tipitaka]]   Golden  Jubilee  1948/49  –  1997/98  Magazine, [[Religious]] Affairs Directorate Press, [[Myanmar]], 1998
  
Note 6: King Kanishka of the Kushans
+
Note 6: [[King]] [[Kanishka]] of the [[Kushans]]
  
The Kushans  belonged to the Yueh-chih  tribe, who originally lived in the western frontier of China between Tun-huang and Chi-lien-shan. They were driven out of China by the Hsiung-nu (the powerful Asiatic Huns of North China) around 177BC and the greater part of the group migrated westward into present-day eastern Kyrgyzstan around Lake Issyk Kul, driving south the local nomadic Sakas or Scythians. Not long after this, the Yueh-chih faced another round of attack by the Hsiung-nu, forcing them to flee to Sogdiana  (present day Uzbekistan, west of Ferghana) and Bactria (ancient country lying between the Hindu Kush and the Oxus River in what is now Afghanistan,  Uzbekistan  and  Tajikistan),  where  they  overran  the  local Sakas. They and related tribes are the Asiani and Tokharians of Western sources. In around 128BC, the Yueh-chih were recorded as living north of the Oxus River (Amu Darya) ruling over Bactria which they had divided into five divisions. A new dynasty, that of the Kushans was subsequently founded  by  one  of  the  five  chieftains  named  Kujula   Kadphises,  who united the other four divisions under his rule. Kujula Kadphises invaded Parthia (the country around Khorastan in Iran) and took Kabul.  His son V’ima Kadphises  succeeded him and inherited a large kingdom consisting of the Kushan homelands north of the Oxus and Kujula’s conquest – Kabul, Kashmir, Gandhara and Taxila. V’ima increased these holdings with the subjugation of northern India as far as Mathura.
+
The [[Kushans]] belonged to the Yueh-chih  tribe, who originally lived in the [[western]] frontier of [[China]] between [[Tun-huang]] and Chi-lien-shan. They were driven out of [[China]] by the [[Hsiung-nu]] (the powerful Asiatic {{Wiki|Huns}} of [[North China]]) around 177BC and the greater part of the group migrated westward into present-day eastern [[Kyrgyzstan]] around Lake [[Issyk Kul]], driving [[south]] the local [[nomadic]] [[Sakas]] or {{Wiki|Scythians}}. Not long after this, the Yueh-chih faced another round of attack by the [[Hsiung-nu]], forcing them to flee to [[Sogdiana]] ({{Wiki|present}} day [[Uzbekistan]], [[west]] of [[Ferghana]]) and {{Wiki|Bactria}} ([[ancient]] country {{Wiki|lying}} between the [[Hindu Kush]] and the {{Wiki|Oxus}} [[River]] in what is now {{Wiki|Afghanistan}}[[Uzbekistan]] and  [[Tajikistan]]),  where  they  overran  the  local [[Sakas]]. They and related tribes are the Asiani and [[Tokharians]] of [[Western]] sources. In around 128BC, the Yueh-chih were recorded as living [[north]] of the {{Wiki|Oxus}} [[River]] ([[Amu Darya]]) ruling over {{Wiki|Bactria}} which they had divided into five divisions. A new {{Wiki|dynasty}}, that of the [[Kushans]] was subsequently founded  by  one  of  the  five  chieftains  named  [[Kujula Kadphises]],  who united the other four divisions under his {{Wiki|rule}}. [[Kujula Kadphises]] invaded {{Wiki|Parthia}} (the country around Khorastan in {{Wiki|Iran}}) and took [[Kabul]].  His son V’ima Kadphises  succeeded him and inherited a large {{Wiki|kingdom}} consisting of the [[Kushan]] homelands [[north]] of the {{Wiki|Oxus}} and Kujula’s conquest – [[Kabul]], [[Kashmir]], [[Gandhara]] and [[Taxila]]. V’ima increased these holdings with the subjugation of {{Wiki|northern India}} as far as [[Mathura]].
  
The most famous Kushan king was Kanishka I (ruled 78 – 102AD) whose capital was at Purusapura near modern Peshawar. Kanishka succeeded to a large empire and made it even larger by further conquest of India as far as Bihar in the east, Sindh and Baluchistan in the southwest. He was later converted  to  Buddhism  and  supported  the  Sarvastivada,  one  of  the eighteen Nikayas, which dominated in Mathura and in the northwest. Daily he would invite monks to preach in his palace but found their views so contradictory that he became confused and consulted the Venerable Parsva about the true doctrine. At the latter’s advice, Kanishka decided to convene a Council in which the various Nikayas were represented. The aim of the Fourth Council was to put an end to the dissensions in the Sangha. It was presided by Vasumitra and reportedly held in Jalandhar or Kashmir around
+
The most famous [[Kushan]] [[king]] was [[Kanishka]] I (ruled 78 – 102AD) whose capital was at [[Purusapura]] near {{Wiki|modern}} [[Peshawar]]. [[Kanishka]] succeeded to a large [[empire]] and made it even larger by further conquest of [[India]] as far as [[Bihar]] in the [[east]], [[Sindh]] and [[Baluchistan]] in the [[southwest]]. He was later converted  to  [[Buddhism]] and  supported  the  [[Sarvastivada]],  one  of  the eighteen [[Nikayas]], which dominated in [[Mathura]] and in the [[northwest]]. Daily he would invite [[monks]] to {{Wiki|preach}} in his palace but found their [[views]] so [[contradictory]] that he became confused and consulted the [[Venerable]] [[Parsva]] about the true [[doctrine]]. At the latter’s advice, [[Kanishka]] decided to convene a Council in which the various [[Nikayas]] were represented. The aim of the [[Fourth Council]] was to put an end to the dissensions in the [[Sangha]]. It was presided by [[Vasumitra]] and reportedly held in [[Jalandhar]] or [[Kashmir]] around
100AD. The Theravadins do not recognize this council and there is no mention  of  it  in  the  Ceylonese  Chronicles.  According  to  the  Chinese pilgrim  Hsuan Tsang,  after  the  treatises  were  composed,  they  were engraved on sheets of red copper and stored in stone boxes, which were deposited in a stupa built for the purpose. These texts have survived only in Chinese translations and adaptations.
+
100AD. The [[Theravadins]] do not [[recognize]] this council and there is no mention  of  it  in  the  [[Ceylonese]] Chronicles.  According  to  the  {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[pilgrim]] [[Hsuan Tsang]],  after  the  treatises  were  composed,  they  were engraved on sheets of [[red]] {{Wiki|copper}} and stored in stone boxes, which were deposited in a [[stupa]] built for the {{Wiki|purpose}}. These texts have survived only in {{Wiki|Chinese}} translations and adaptations.
 
   
 
   
 
References
 
References
  
1)  Chapter  One  −  Origin  and  Expansion  of  Buddhism  by  Ven.  J.
+
1)  [[Chapter]] One  −  Origin  and  Expansion  of  [[Buddhism]] by  Ven.  J.
Kashyap. Chapter Two − The Fundamental Principles of Theravada Buddhism by Ven. Sayadaw U Thittila. The Path of the Buddha edited by Kenneth W. Morgan. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1986.
+
[[Kashyap]]. [[Chapter]] Two − The Fundamental {{Wiki|Principles}} of [[Theravada Buddhism]] by Ven. [[Sayadaw U Thittila]]. The [[Path]] of the [[Buddha]] edited by Kenneth W. Morgan. {{Wiki|Motilal Banarsidass}}, {{Wiki|Delhi}}, 1986.
  
2)  Indian Buddhism  (Chapters  One  &  Ten)  by A.K. Warder.  Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi 2000.
+
2)  [[Indian Buddhism]] (Chapters  One  &  Ten)  by [[A.K. Warder]]{{Wiki|Motilal Banarsidass}} Publishers Private Limited, {{Wiki|Delhi}} 2000.
  
3)  The  Life  of the  Buddha  According to  the  Pali Canon by Bhikkhu Nanamoli. Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
+
3)  The  [[Life]] of the  [[Buddha]] According to  the  [[Pali Canon]] by [[Bhikkhu Nanamoli]]. [[Buddhist Publication Society]], {{Wiki|Kandy}}, [[Sri Lanka]].
  
4)  The Book of Discipline, Vinayapitaka Cullavagga V, 33 translated by I.B. Horner. Published by the Pali Text Society, Oxford, England.
+
4)  The [[Book of Discipline]], [[Vinayapitaka]] [[Cullavagga]] V, 33 translated by [[I.B. Horner]]. Published by the [[Pali Text Society]], {{Wiki|Oxford}}, {{Wiki|England}}.
  
5)  Vinaya Texts, Cullavagga  V, 33, translated from Pali by T.W. RhysDavds and Hermann Oldenberg. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi 1988.
+
5)  [[Vinaya Texts]], [[Cullavagga]] V, 33, translated from [[Pali]] by T.W. RhysDavds and {{Wiki|Hermann Oldenberg}}. {{Wiki|Motilal Banarsidass}} Publishers, {{Wiki|Delhi}} 1988.
  
6)  Introduction:  A  History  of  Pali Literature  by  Bimala  Churn  Law. Indica Books, Varanasi, India 2000.
+
6)  Introduction:  A  History  of  [[Pali Literature]] by  [[Bimala]] Churn  Law. [[Indica]] [[Books]], [[Varanasi]], [[India]] 2000.
  
7)  The Arya Dharma of Sakya Muni, Gautama Buddha or the Ethics of Self  Discipline.  By  the  Venerable  the  Anagarika   Dharmapala. Published  by  Maha Bodhi  Book  Agency,  4-A,  Bankim  Chatterjee Street, Calcutta 700 073, India.  First Published 1917, Reprinted 1989
+
7)  The [[Arya]] [[Dharma]] of [[Sakya Muni]], [[Gautama Buddha]] or the [[Ethics]] of [[Self]]   [[Discipline]].  By  the  [[Venerable]]   the  [[Anagarika Dharmapala]]. Published  by  [[Maha Bodhi]] [[Book]] Agency,  4-A,  Bankim  [[Chatterjee]] Street, [[Calcutta]] 700 073, [[India]].  First Published 1917, Reprinted 1989
  
8)  The  Import  of Sakaya Nirutti: A Reappraisal  by Dr.  Mauli  Chand Prasad in ‘Homage to Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap (Commemoration Volume)’. Published by Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar, India 1986.
+
8)  The  Import  of Sakaya [[Nirutti]]: A Reappraisal  by Dr.  Mauli  Chand [[Prasad]] in ‘Homage to [[Bhikkhu]] [[Jagdish Kashyap]] (Commemoration Volume)’. Published by Nava [[Nalanda Mahavihara]], [[Bihar]], [[India]] 1986.
  
9)  A Dictionary of the Pali Language by Robert Caesar Childers.  1974 reprinted by Buddha Sasana Council, Yangon, Myanmar.
+
9)  A {{Wiki|Dictionary}} of the [[Pali Language]] by Robert [[Caesar]] Childers.  1974 reprinted by [[Buddha]] [[Sasana]] Council, {{Wiki|Yangon}}, [[Myanmar]].
  
10) Numerical Discourses  of  the  Buddha  by  Nyanaponika Thera  & Bhikkhu Bodhi.  The  Sacred  Literature  Series  of  the  International Sacred Literature Trust. Vistaar Publications, New Delhi, 2000.
+
10) [[Numerical Discourses]] of  the  [[Buddha]] by  [[Nyanaponika Thera]] & [[Bhikkhu Bodhi]].  The  [[Sacred]] {{Wiki|Literature}} Series  of  the  International [[Sacred]] {{Wiki|Literature}} [[Trust]]. Vistaar Publications, {{Wiki|New Delhi}}, 2000.
  
11) The Expositor (Atthasalini) – Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Dhammasangani, the First Book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka Volumes I, II. Translated by Pe Maung Tin, PTS, London, 1976.
+
11) The [[Expositor]] ([[Atthasalini]]) – [[Buddhaghosa’s]] Commentary on the [[Dhammasangani]], the First [[Book]] of the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] Volumes I, II. Translated by Pe [[Maung Tin]], PTS, {{Wiki|London}}, 1976.
 
   
 
   
12) The  First Buddhist Council  by  Teitaro  Suzuki.  The  Monist  –  A Quarterly Magazine  Devoted to the Philosophy of Science Volume XIV Chicago the Open Court Publishing Company 1904. Scanned & edited by Christopher M. Weimer, April 2002.
+
12) The  [[First Buddhist Council]] by  Teitaro  Suzuki.  The  Monist  –  A Quarterly Magazine  Devoted to the [[Philosophy]] of [[Science]] Volume XIV {{Wiki|Chicago}} the Open Court Publishing Company 1904. Scanned & edited by Christopher M. Weimer, April 2002.
  
13) Mahavamsa or Great Chronicle of Ceylon. Translated into English by Wilhelm Geiger. Published by the Pali Text Society, London. First published, 1912.
+
13) [[Mahavamsa]] or [[Great Chronicle]] of [[Ceylon]]. Translated into English by [[Wilhelm Geiger]]. Published by the [[Pali Text Society]], {{Wiki|London}}. First published, 1912.
  
14) Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit Pratimoksa Sutras of the Mahasamghikas and Mulasarvastivadins by Charles S. Prebish. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 1996.
+
14) [[Buddhist Monastic Discipline]]: The [[Sanskrit]] [[Pratimoksa]] [[Sutras]] of the [[Mahasamghikas]] and [[Mulasarvastivadins]] by [[Charles S. Prebish]]. {{Wiki|Motilal Banarsidass}} Publishers Pvt. Ltd., {{Wiki|Delhi}}, 1996.
  
15) Buddhist Sects in India by Nalinaksha Dutt. Motilal Banarsidass, 2nd Edition, Delhi 1978.
+
15) [[Buddhist]] Sects in [[India]] by [[Nalinaksha Dutt]]. {{Wiki|Motilal Banarsidass}}, 2nd Edition, {{Wiki|Delhi}} 1978.
  
16) Points of Controversy – A Translation of the Katha-Vatthu by Shwe Zan Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids. Published by the Pali Texts Society, London, 1979.
+
16) [[Points of Controversy]] – A Translation of the [[Katha-Vatthu]] by [[Shwe Zan Aung]] and Mrs. [[Wikipedia:Thomas William Rhys Davids|Rhys Davids]]. Published by the [[Pali]] Texts [[Society]], {{Wiki|London}}, 1979.
  
17) Buddhist Monks and Monasteries in India (page 79) by Sukumar Dutt. Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi 1988.
+
17) [[Buddhist]] [[Monks]] and [[Monasteries]] in [[India]] (page 79) by Sukumar Dutt. Reprinted by {{Wiki|Motilal Banarsidass}}, {{Wiki|Delhi}} 1988.
  
18) Davids. T. W. Rhys: The Sects of the Buddhists in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1891, pp. 409-422. The History and Literature of Buddhism. Bharatiya Publishing House, Varanasi, India 1975
+
18) Davids. T. W. Rhys: The Sects of the [[Buddhists]] in Journal of the {{Wiki|Royal Asiatic Society}} 1891, pp. 409-422. The History and {{Wiki|Literature}} of [[Buddhism]]. Bharatiya Publishing House, [[Varanasi]], [[India]] 1975
  
19) The Origin of the Early Indian Scripts: A Review Article by Richard Salomon, University of Washington. Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995), 271-279.
+
19) The Origin of the Early [[Indian]] Scripts: A Review Article by Richard Salomon, {{Wiki|University of Washington}}. [[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] 115.2 (1995), 271-279.
  
20) The  History  of  the  Religion  (Sasanavamsa)  translated  by  Bimala Churn Law. Sacred Books of the Buddhists, Vol. 1033. Luzac & Co. Ltd., London 1952.
+
20) The  History  of  the  [[Religion]] ([[Sasanavamsa]])  translated  by  [[Bimala]] Churn Law. [[Sacred Books]] of the [[Buddhists]], Vol. 1033. Luzac & Co. Ltd., {{Wiki|London}} 1952.
  
21) The Path of Purification --Visuddhi Magga. Translated from the Pali by  Bhikkhu Nanamoli.  Buddhist Publication Society,  Kandy,  Sri Lanka.
+
21) The [[Path of Purification]] --[[Visuddhi Magga]]. Translated from the [[Pali]] by  [[Bhikkhu Nanamoli]][[Buddhist Publication Society]]{{Wiki|Kandy}}[[Sri Lanka]].
  
22) The Myanmar Contribution to the Spread of Theravada Buddhism throughout the World by U Ko Lay, Professor, Vipassana Department, Faculty of Pattipatti, Yangon 1998.
+
22) The [[Myanmar]] Contribution to the Spread of [[Theravada Buddhism]] throughout the [[World]] by [[U Ko Lay]], [[Professor]], [[Vipassana]] Department, Faculty of Pattipatti, {{Wiki|Yangon}} 1998.
 
</poem>
 
</poem>
 
{{R}}
 
{{R}}
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[[Category:Buddhist Terms]]
 
[[Category:Buddhist Terms]]
 
[[Category:An Introductory Course on Early Buddhism]]
 
[[Category:An Introductory Course on Early Buddhism]]
[[Category:Tripitaka]]
+
[[Category:Tripitaka]]{{BuddhismbyNumber}}

Latest revision as of 21:57, 11 April 2024

0450.jpg

 




CONTENTS

1. What is the Tipitaka?
2. Language of Buddha’s words (Buddhavacana)
3. What is Pali?
4. The First Council
5. The Second Council
6. The Great Schism
7. Origin of the Eighteen Nikayas (Schools of Buddhism)
8. The Third Council
9. Committing the Tipitaka to Memory
10. Fourth Council: Committing the Tipitaka to Writing
11. Fifth and Sixth Councils in Myanmar
12. Conclusion
13. Appendix: Contents of the Tipitaka or Three Baskets
14. Explanatory Notes
15. References
 
1. What is the Tipitaka?

The word of the Buddha, which is originally called the Dhamma, consists of three aspects, namely: Doctrine (Pariyatti), Practice (Patipatti) and Realization (Pativedha). The Doctrine is preserved in the Scriptures called the Tipitaka. English translators of the Tipitaka have estimated it to be eleven times the size of the Christian Bible. It contains the Teachings of the Buddha expounded from the time of His Enlightenment to Parinibbana over forty-five years.

Tipitaka in Pali means Three Baskets (Ti = Three, Pitaka = Basket), not in the sense of function of storing but of handing down, just like workers carry earth with the aid of baskets handed on from worker to worker, posted in a long line from point of removal to point of deposit, so the Baskets of Teachings are handed down over the centuries from teacher to pupil.

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The Three Baskets are: Basket of Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), which deals mainly with the rules and regulations of the Order of monks and nuns; Basket of Discourses (Sutta Pitaka) which contains the discourses delivered by the Buddha to individuals or assemblies of different ranks in the course of his ministry; Basket of Ultimate Things (Abhidhamma Pitaka) which consists of the four ultimate things: Mind (Citta), Mental-factors (Cetasikas), Matter (Rupa) and Nibbana. The contents of the Pali Tipitaka are shown in the Appendix.

According to Ven. Sayadaw U Thittila1, the versions of the Pali Canon existing in Theravada countries such as Burma, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos differ very slightly, with only a few minor grammatical forms and spelling. In substance and meaning and even the phrases used, they are in complete agreement. The Pali Tipitaka contains everything necessary to show forth the Path to the ultimate goal of Nibbana, the cessation of all suffering.
 
a) Each Tradition has its own Version of the Tipitaka

There are three versions of the Tipitaka adopted by the three branches of Buddhism in existence today, namely: (i) the Pali Tipitaka of the Theravada tradition, (ii) the vast Mahayana Tripitaka in Chinese consisting primarily of translations of Sanskrit Texts and (iii) the Tibetan Tripitaka in the Tibetan language, called the Kagyur (consisting of translations of Sanskrit Texts & the Four Great Tantras) and Tangyur (consisting of works of Indian and Tibetan scholars). Theravada, the orthodox Buddhist school which traces its origin to the Buddha’s time, rejects the Mahayana and Tibetan scriptures as later creations that do not reflect the Buddha’s Teachings.

According to Warder2, although Mahayana claims to have been founded by the Buddha himself, the consensus of the evidence is that Mahayana teachings originated in South India somewhere in Andhra Pradesh during the 1st century AD. Several of its leading teachers were born in South India, studied there and afterwards went to the North to teach, one of whom was Nagarjuna. The idea that the sutras had been confined to the South was a convenient way for Mahayanists to explain to Buddhists in the North why it was that they had not heard these texts directly from their own teachers, without admitting that they were recent fabrications.

Another alternative explanation recorded by the Tibetan historian Taranatha was that though the Buddha had taught the Mahayana sutras, they were not in circulation in the world of men for many centuries, there being no competent teachers and no intelligent students. The sutras were transmitted secretly to various supernatural beings and preserved by the gods and nagas (dragons). These secret teachings were brought out from their hiding places when Mahayana teachers who were capable of interpreting these sacred texts appeared around the 2nd century AD. This is as good as admitting that no Mahayana texts existed until the 2nd century AD!

As pointed out by Warder2, such fanciful accounts cannot be accepted as historical facts. Since everything about early Buddhism suggests that the Buddha’s Teaching was never meant to be secret, the possibility of a secret transmission amounts to an aspersion on the powers of the Buddha that he failed to do what others were able to accomplish 600 years later. Also, in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, the Buddha had declared that there was nothing with regard to the teaching that he held to the last with the closed fist of the teacher who keeps some things back.

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The claim by Mahayana that there were no competent teachers and intelligent students during Buddha’s time is aimed at exalting their own status and disparaging the accomplishments of the Chief Disciples and Arahants. In fact, one of the earliest Mahayana sutras, the Ratnakuta Sutra denounces the pupils (Savakas or Arahants) as not really ‘sons’ of the Buddha i.e. not really Buddhists! Practically every Mahayana sutra repeats this denunciation of the ‘inferior (hina)’ way of the pupil rather unpleasantly in sharp contrast to the tolerance and understanding characteristic of most of the earlier Buddhist texts that display the true spirit of the Dhamma taught by the Buddha.

b) Reliability of Tipitaka compared with other Religious Records

In ‘The Life of the Buddha’ by Ven. Bhikkhu Nanamoli3, the Pali scholar, T.W. Rhys Davids, made the relevant observation that:

“The Buddha did not leave behind a number of deep simple sayings, from which his disciples subsequently expanded on to build up a system or systems of their own, but had himself thoroughly elaborated his doctrine and during his long career (45 years of ministry), he had ample time to repeat the principles and details of the system over and over again to his disciples, to test their knowledge of it until finally his leading disciples were accustomed to the subtlest metaphysical distinctions and trained in the wonderful command of memory which Indian ascetics then possessed. When these facts are recalled to mind, it will be seen that much more reliance may be placed upon the doctrinal parts of the Buddhist Scriptures than the corresponding late records of other religions.”
 
2 . Language of Buddha’s Words (Buddhavacana)

In Cullavagga V, 33 of the Book of Discipline4, the Buddha made an injunction allowing monks to learn his Teachings in ‘saka nirutti’ or ‘own dialect’, which the great Pali commentator Ven. Buddhaghosa had interpreted to mean the Magadhi dialect spoken by the Buddha, and forbidding them to put the teachings into Sanskrit verses. It appears that two brothers, both bhikkhus named Yamelu and Tekula, once approached the Buddha complaining that monks of different castes and clans were corrupting the Buddha’s words by preaching them in their own dialects. They wanted to put his words into Sanskrit verses (chandaso), but the Buddha forbade them with this injunction. For the last two thousand four hundred years, the term ‘saka nirutti’ had signified the Magadhi language.

During the later part of the 19th century, Western scholars began to show an interest in Buddhism and when the Pali scholars Rhys Davids and Oldenberg began translating the Vinaya Texts5 into English, they translated the Buddha’s injunction as “I allow you, O Bhikkhus, to learn the words of the Buddha each in his own dialect”, to mean each monk’s own dialect. Most scholars have tended to accept this interpretation, except Geiger, who concurred with Ven. Buddhaghosa that it meant the Buddha’s own language. Rhys Davids, on second thought, appears to have been convinced of the interpretation of Ven. Buddhaghosa. Consequently in his later works, he accepted ‘saka nirutti’ as the Buddha’s own language but with an ingenious modification. In his Foreword to the Pali-English Dictionary by T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede first published in London 1921-1925, he argues that the Pali of the canonical books is based on vernacular Kosalan, the Buddha’s native dialect.

Recently, Law6, in his book entitled ‘A History of Pali Literature’ is of the opinion that Buddhaghosa had taken the term ‘chandasa’ indiscriminately as a synonym for the Sanskrit language and the term ‘saka nirutti’ as a synonym for the Magadhi dialect used as a medium of instruction (vacanamagga) by the Buddha. According to Law, the Sanskrit language was divided into Vedic and current usage and the Buddha’s injunction directed against Vedic only and not current Sanskrit. “It is beyond our comprehension how Buddhaghosa went so far as to suggest that by the term saka nirutti, the Buddha meant his own medium of instruction and nothing but the Magadhi dialect. It would be irrational, erroneous and dogmatic of the Buddha to promulgate this rule that Magadhi is the only correct form of speech to learn his teaching and that every other dialect would be the incorrect form”, wrote Law.

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a) Medium of Instruction for Monks

Despite his strong sentiment, Law’s argument does not appear to have taken into consideration the prevailing conditions with regard to the system of learning in ancient times. Back then, it was the custom for pupils who wish to study under a certain master to live with the master and learn the doctrine by oral tradition in the latter’s language. Venerable Buddhaghosa’s interpretation is certainly in consonance with the Indian spirit that there can be no other form of the Buddha’s words than in which the Master himself had preached. In an oral tradition it is imperative for the pupils to be able to learn, recite and remember the teachings in a common language, for in this way any mistake or distortion can be quickly detected and corrected by rehearsing together in that language. This was what actually took place in the Buddhist Councils after the Buddha’s Parinibbana to ensure that the true teachings were preserved. Just imagine the chaos if various dialects were employed to rehearse the Master’s teachings in the Buddhist Councils. When these factors are considered, it certainly appears logical why the Buddha made this injunction allowing the monks to learn his teachings in the common dialect of his time, Magadhi, although his native dialect was Kosalan, the Sakyan kingdom being a vassal state of Kosala.

According to Ven. Anagarika Dharmapala7, the Blessed One wished that the language used to convey the message of Buddha should be the language of the people, and not Sanskrit.
 
Sanskrit was and still is the language exclusively of Brahmins. In fact even in recent times before India became independent in 1947, high-caste Hindu teachers would not teach Sanskrit to children of low-caste Hindus and Untouchables in school! (Note: This happened to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the Greatest Champion of the Untouchables of India, while in high school because the Sanskrit teacher refused to teach Sanskrit to untouchables.)

Knowing well that the majority of the population in his time could not understand Sanskrit, the Buddha decided to use Magadhi as the medium of instruction in order to benefit the common people. So important is this point that the Buddha even made it an offence (dukkata) for monks to put his words in Sanskrit!

b) Saka Nirutti − Our Own Language

Lately, Indian scholar Dr. Mauli Chand Prasad8 has come up with a more sensible reappraisal of the controversy. According to him, Magadhi was the most popular dialect or vernacular used for local communication during the Buddha’s time in the same sense as Hindi is adopted in present day India as the ‘nij bhasa’ (lit. own language). He translates the term ‘saka nirutti’ to mean ‘our own language’ and the Buddha’s injunction as “I allow, O monks, the words of the Buddha to be learnt in (our) own language”, meaning Magadhi. This interpretation is in consonance with Ven. Buddhaghosa’s interpretation and at the same time vindicates the Buddha’s stand in disapproving the proposals of the monks Yamelu and Tekula to put the words of the Buddha into Sanskrit verses. Thus the terms ‘saka nirutti’ and ‘nij bhasa’ convey the same sense. Despite a long lapse of time between their uses, both of them denote the dialect or vernacular adopted for local communication of their respective ages.

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3. What is Pali?

According to Childers9, Magadhi was one of the Prakrits or Aryan vernaculars of ancient India. It was spoken in the sixth century BC in Magadha, the region around modern Bihar, which was one of the most important centres of Indian civilization in the Buddha’s time. Magadhi has been a dead language for about two thousand years. The wordpali’ in Sanskrit means ‘line, row or series’ and the Theravada extended its use to mean a series of books that form the text of the Buddhist Scriptures. So the Pali Text is synonymous with the Scriptures of the Theravada tradition. Palibhasa therefore means the ‘language of the texts’, which of course is equivalent to saying
Magadhi language’. The term ‘pali’ in the sense of the sacred texts is ancient enough, but the term ‘Palibhasa’ as the language of the Scriptures is of modern introduction by the Singhalese from which the English word is derived. ‘Magadhi’ is the only name used in the old Theravada texts for the sacred language of Buddhism.

As a language, Pali is unique in the sense that it is reserved entirely to one subject, namely, the Buddha’s Teachings. This has probably led some scholars to even speculate that it was a kind of lingua franca created by Buddhist monks, for how else can one explain this paradox? On the contrary, it may very well mean that the ancient Elders (Theras) had truly memorized the Dhamma and Vinaya in the original dialect of the Buddha, which is now a dead language! Theravada monks are reputed to be the most orthodox so it is highly improbable that they would change the original language of the Buddha’s teaching unlike the other sects who switched to Sanskrit or mixed Sanskrit, something forbidden by the Buddha! This second explanation is more logical given the religious zeal, dedication and legendary memory skills of the ancient monks in preserving and perpetuating the Teachings of the Buddha by oral tradition.

As a spoken dialect, Pali does not have its own script and in each of the countries in which it is the sacred language of the inhabitants, namely: Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand, it is written in the script of that country. In modern times, the Roman alphabets are widely used, so it is usual to print Pali texts in Roman letters, which are clear, simple and easily computerized, leading to the widespread learning and dissemination of the Pali Texts.

a) The Origin and Home of Pali

There are many theories hatched by scholars regarding the original home of Pali. Early Pali scholars were of the opinion that literary Pali is the vernacular Magadhi used by the Buddha to preach the Dhamma. Later scholars based their opinion on philological grounds that Pali bears some resemblances to Paisaci, which they claimed is a western dialect while Magadhi is an eastern dialect. So Pali cannot be the Magadhi dialect spoken by the Buddha. But the Magadhi that scholars know of today is the language of the Asoka Edicts carved on rocks and pillars that were drafted by his scribes at the time when the majority of the populace could hardly read or write, as recent studies by Salomon19 suggest that there was no written language during the Buddha’s time. On the other hand, the dialect spoken by the Buddha was the vernacular Magadhi (Note 1) understood by the common people, by which the monks transmitted his Teaching and later became known as the Pali language of the Scriptures. An exhaustive review by the Indian scholar Law5 concluded that it is difficult to come to a definite conclusion about the original home of Pali. According to Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi10 current scholarly opinion holds that Pali was probably created as a kind of lingua franca for use by Buddhist monks in Northern India two hundred years after Parinibbana and may not be identical with the one used by the Buddha! Evidently these are scholars’ conjectures and new theories are often proposed as academic exercises, many of which lack proper understanding of the traditions and practices of the Sangha.

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b) Role of the Buddhist Councils in Maintaining the Language

Concerning the language of the Pali Canon, most Western scholars appeared to have ignored the role of the Buddhist Councils in ascertaining the medium of transmission of the Buddha’s teaching. As the authority of the Scriptures rests on its ratification by the Buddhist Councils, so the language employed by the Councils plays the prime role in the transmission of the Scriptures. All schools of Buddhism agree that the three Buddhist Councils are historical facts, so the pertinent question that one should asked is: “What dialect would the Arahants from the East or West, employ to rehearse the Buddha’s teachings in the First, Second and Third Councils?

For the First Council, there is no doubt it was the Magadhi dialect, as all council members were conversant with that dialect having learnt from the Master himself. During the Second Council, monks from both the Eastern and Western regions got together to rehearse the Dhamma and Vinaya at Vesali. All the eight senior monks selected to settle the Ten Points were disciples of Ven. Ananda and Ven. Anuraddha. The most senior monk, Ven. Sabbakami who adjudged the issue, lived during the Buddha’s time. Having learnt the teachings from the two Great Disciples of the Buddha, they would have used the same dialect to rehearse the Dhamma and Vinaya in the Second Council.

All the theories linking Pali with Ujjaini or Paisaci or even a new language created by the monks as a kind of lingua franca after the Second Council appeared to have ignored two important facts. Firstly the Theravadin monks (Sthavarivada) who convened the Buddhist Councils are reputed to be the most orthodox (so-called
‘no changers’) of all the schools in the observance of the monastic rules and would certainly have retained the Vinaya in its original form and language for their fortnightly Uposatha ceremony. Secondly, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, who convened the Third Council in Pataliputta would still maintain the original dialect in the tradition of his lineage of Vinaya teachers (Acaryaparampara). So when the Arahant Mahinda and other members of the Sangha were sent to propagate the religion in Sri Lanka, they would have transmitted the Teachings in the language of the Third Council in order to maintain the lineage and avoid any misinterpretation.

In the light of these facts, it is improbable and irrational that the ancient Elders would want to change the language of the Buddha’s words let alone invent some new language that will lead to misinterpretation of the Blessed One’s unique teachings.

4. The First Council

According to Cullavagga Kh. XI of the Book of Discipline4, the Ven. Maha Kassapa, on seeing an unhealthy trend among some monks immediately upon the Parinibbana of the Buddha, decided to convene a Council to compile the Dhamma & Vinaya (Doctrine & Discipline) to prevent the true doctrine from being submerged by false doctrines. This historic event took place at Rajagaha (Rajgir) three months after the Buddha’s Parinibbana. Five hundred leading Arahants attended the First Council, which lasted over seven months outside the Sattapanni caves on top of Vebhara hill in Rajagaha. Ven Maha Kassapa presided over the meeting. Ven. Upali was chosen to rehearse the Vinaya Pitaka or Basket of Discipline. He began each account with the words ‘Tena Samayena’
— ‘the occasion was this’.

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Although Ven. Ananda was not an Arahant before the convocation, he was chosen to rehearse the Sutta Pitaka or Basket of Discourses because of his moral purity and his knowledge of the Scriptures which he heard directly from the Buddha’s own mouth when he was the Buddha’s personal attendant. As he was expected to play a leading part in the assembly composed only of Arahants, Ven. Ananda made strenuous effort and attained Arahantship in an inclined position with feet off the ground as he lay down to rest after a whole night’s practice of meditation on the eve of the First Council. The Book of Discipline states that he was the only disciple to attain Arahantship free from the postures of sitting, standing, walking or lying down. At the First Council, Ven. Ananda prefaced each discourse with an account of where and to whom it was spoken, beginning with the words ‘Evam me sutam’ — ‘thus have I heard’.

a) Was the Abhidhamma Pitaka recited in the First Council?

On the 3rd Basket of the Tipitaka, there is disagreement. According to Warder2, Theravada and Mahasanghika versions did not mention the recitation of Abhidhamma but Sarvastavadin and Dhammagupta sects said that Ananda recited the Abhidhamma. Other accounts mentioned that the Matikas or Abhidhamma Outlines were recited. There is no doubt about the recitation of the Matikas as the Pali Scriptures mentioned that the Buddha preached the Abhidhamma to his mother in heaven and taught them to Ven. Sariputta when he returned to earth daily for his meals. It is very likely that the Abhidhamma Pitaka as we know today consisted simply of some set of Matika headings, propounded by the Buddha himself when giving systematic instructions to his followers, and that this was later fully elaborated into Abhidhamma expositions. Since the agreement between the two oldest schools, Theravada and Mahasanghika, should establish the oldest available textual tradition, it would appear that only two Pitakas were recited at the First Council with the Matikas recited as part of the Suttas by Ven. Ananda.

With regard to doubts about the authenticity of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, one fact often overlooked is that the Sutta Pitaka too contains a considerable amount of pure Abhidhamma. This comprises all those numerous suttas and passages where ultimate (paramattha) terms are used, expressing the non-self (anatta) or functional way of thinking, for example, when dealing with the khandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, etc.

Concerning Ven. Sariputta’s mastery and exposition of the Dhamma, the Buddha described it in Nidana Samyutta XII, 32. “The Essence of the Dhamma (Dhammadhatu) has been so well penetrated by Sariputta, O monks, that if I were to question him therein for one day in different words and phrases, Sariputta would reply likewise for one day in various words and phrases. And if I were to question him for one night, one day and a night, or for two days and nights, even up to seven days and nights, Sariputta would expound the matter for the same period of time in various words and phrases.”

The Expositor11 (Atthasalini) says: “Thus the giving of the method (naya) to the Chief Disciple who was endowed with analytical knowledge, was as though the Buddha stood on the edge of the shore and pointed out the ocean with his open hand. To the elder, the doctrine taught by the Blessed One in hundreds and thousands of methods became very clear.”

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Thereafter Ven. Sariputta repeated this doctrine to 500 select pupils, who memorized it. According to the Expositor, the textual order of the Abhidhamma originated with Ven. Sariputta who also laid down the numerical series in order to make it easy to learn, study, and teach the Dhamma.

It was then conveyed by oral tradition up till the time of the Third Council by the Elders: Sariputta, Bhaddaji, Sobhita, Piyapala, Piyadassi, Kosiyaputta, Siggava, Sandeha, Moggaliputta Tissa, Visudatta, Dhammiya, Dasaka, Sonaka, Revata and others. The reason why so many teachers were involved was because the Abhidhamma is a very profound teaching and required various teachers to memorize the various books. After that, it was conveyed by a succession of their pupils. Thus in India, it has been conveyed by an unbroken line of teachers. When Buddhism came to Sri Lanka, the Elders Mahinda, Iddhiya, Uttiya, Bhaddanama and Sambala brought it from India and from then on the Abhidhamma was conveyed in succession up till the Fourth Council when it was documented on palm leaves.

b) Charges against Venerable Ananda

After the recitation of the Dhamma and Vinaya, the monks made five charges against Ven. Ananda. He explained the circumstances behind each incident and said that he did not see any fault on his part but acknowledged them as wrongdoing out of faith in the Sangha.

i) He did not ask the Buddha which of the lesser and minor precepts the monks could abolish after the Buddha was gone because he had not thought of asking through forgetfulness. As the Council was unable to agree as to what constituted the minor rules, Ven. Maha Kassapa finally ruled that no disciplinary rule laid by the Buddha should be changed, and no new ones should be introduced. No intrinsic reason was given. Ven. Maha Kassapa did say one thing, however: “If we changed the rules, people will say that Ven. Gotama's disciples changed the rules even before the fire from his funeral pyre has ceased burning.”
 
ii) He had stepped on the Buddha’s robe while sewing but it was not out of disrespect and he did not see any fault in it.

iii) He had allowed the body of the Buddha to be saluted by women first whose weeping had smeared the body with tears because he did not want to detain them for too long.

iv) He did not plead to the Buddha to live out His lifespan because his (Ananda’s) mind was under the influence of Mara.

v) He pleaded for the admission of women into the Order out of compassion for Mahapajapati Gotami who had nursed the Buddha in His infancy when His own mother died.

c) Imposition of Higher Penalty on Ven. Channa

The next item concerned the imposition of the higher penalty amounting to complete ostracism, which the Buddha had pronounced on Ven. Channa before His Mahaparinibbana. This monk was the charioteer of the Master when He was a prince and was very arrogant, having slighted every member of the Order. Ven. Ananda travelled to Ghositarama in Kosambi to inform Ven. Channa, who fainted and fell when he heard the decision of the Sangha to ostracize him. Thereafter, he was so seized with grief and repentance that he remained alone and became earnest, zealous and resolute in his practice until he eventually won Arahantship. With Ven. Channa’s attainment of Arahantship, the punishment achieved the desired result that the Buddha wanted for him and it automatically lapsed.

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d) Ven. Purana and the Eight Indulgences on Food

After the monks had completed the Rehearsal of the Doctrine and Discipline, Ven. Purana who was wandering in the Southern Hills (Dakkhinagiri) during the meeting, arrived at Rajagaha with a large company of monks. When asked by the Elders whether he supported the Rehearsal and would learn the text so rehearsed by them, Ven. Purana replied that the Doctrine and Discipline were well rehearsed by the Elders but he, however, would only remember them as he had heard personally from the Buddha. According to some Chinese translations quoted by Teitaro Suzuki12, Ven. Purana expressed his satisfaction with the general proceedings of the Council, except as to the insertion of the following eight indulgences, which he remembered had been approved by Buddha. The eight things were: (1) keeping food indoors; (2) cooking indoors; (3) cooking of one's own accord; (4) taking food of one's own accord; (5) receiving food when rising early in the morning; (6) carrying food home according to the wish of a giver; (7) having miscellaneous fruits; (8) eating things grown in a pond.

He pointed out that these indulgences were not against the rule that forbids the taking of remnant of food. Ven. Maha Kassapa explained that he was correct in saying so, but that Buddha permitted them only on account of a scarcity of food, when the bhikkhus could not get a sufficient supply of it in their alms-rounds, and that therefore when this circumstance was removed, Buddha again bade them to abstain from these eight indulgences. Ven. Purana, however, protested, declaring that Buddha, who was all-wise, would not permit what was otherwise forbidden, nor would he forbid what otherwise was permitted. To this Ven. Maha Kassapa replied: “The very reason of his being all-wise has enabled him to permit what otherwise was forbidden, and to forbid what otherwise was permitted. Ven. Purana, we will now make this decision: That whatever Buddha did not forbid shall not be forbidden, and whatever Buddha forbade shall not be disregarded. Let us train ourselves in accordance with the disciplinary rules established by Buddha.”

There is no mention that Ven. Purana raised any further objection after Ven. Maha Kassapa’s explanation. When the Mahisasaka seceded from Theravada, they incorporated these eight indulgences in their Vinaya and this incident of Ven. Purana has been misconstrued by certain scholars, as the seed of dissension to explain the reason for the secession.
 
e) Achievements of First Council

The first council called the Council of Rajagaha was held three months after the Parinibbana under the sponsorship of King Ajatasattu of Magadha during the eighth year of his reign. The proceedings achieved four results, namely:

i) Compilation of the Vinaya Pitaka by Ven. Upali. ii) Compilation of the Sutta Pitaka by Ven. Ananda.
iii) Acknowledgement of Wrongdoing by Ven. Ananda. iv) Imposition of Higher Penalty on Ven. Channa.

After the compilation of the Doctrine and Discipline for oral transmission, the senior monks or Elders would have devised a system whereby certain monks in the same locality would be charged with the duty to memorize certain portions of the Doctrine and Disciple in Magadhi and by combining all the portions memorized, the Sangha in that locality would be able to recite the whole Doctrine and Discipline together. This is confirmed by the Gopaka Moggallana Sutta in the Majjhima Nikaya in which the Venerable Ananda attributed the harmony of the Sangha to the fact that monks in each village observed the practice of assembling every fortnight to recite the Patimokkha.
 
5 . The Second Council

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About a century after the Parinibbana, some shameless monks of the Vajjian clan at Vesali were indulging in the Ten Points or Dasa Vatthuni that were against the Vinaya or Rules of Discipline. Venerable Yasa, son of the Brahmin Kakandaka and Vinaya expert from Kosambi, who was staying in Kutagara Hall at the Mahavana saw them asking for money from the laity and objected to it. Still the laity gave money to the monks who divided the takings at the end of the day among themselves and gave Ven Yasa his due share. When he refused to accept the money and reprimanded them, they passed a motion of censure (Patisaraniya kamma) against him whereby he had to apologize to the laity for forbidding them to perform dana (charity) to the Vajjian monks. Ven. Yasa, fully conversant with the law, demanded another monk to accompany him as witness to the reconciliation with the laity of Vesali, during which he defended his own view before the laity and won them over. When the accompanying monk reported the matter to the Vajjian monks, they charged Ven Yasa with proclaiming a false doctrine to laymen and pronounced an Act of Suspension (Ukkhepaniya kamma), effectively expelling him from the Sangha.

a) Ten Points (Dasa Vatthuni) of the Vajjian Monks

The Ten Points or Indulgences that Ven. Yasa openly declared as unlawful were:
i) Singilona kappa: The custom of putting salt in a horn vessel, in
order to season unsalted foods when received. (Against Pacittiya
38 which prohibits the storing of food unless used as medicine)
ii) Dvangula kappa: The custom of taking the midday meal, even after the prescribed time, as long as the sun’s shadow had not
pass the meridian by more than two-fingers’ breadth. (Against
Pacittiya 37 which prohibits eating after noon and before dawn) iii) Gamantara kappa: The custom of going into the village after the meal and there eating again, if invited. (Contrary to Pacittiya 35 which prohibits over-eating)
 
iv) Avasa kappa: The custom of holding the Uposatha ceremony separately by monks dwelling in the same parish (sima). (Contravenes Mahavagga II, 8, 3: rules of residence in a parish)
v) Anumati kappa: The carrying out of official acts by an incomplete chapter on the supposition that the consent of absent
bhikkhus was obtained afterwards. (Unlawful according to
Mahavagga IX, 3, 5)
vi) Acinna kappa: It was permissible for a monk to do anything adopted as a practice by his preceptor. (Contrary to the rules)
vii) Amathita kappa: The practice of drinking milk-curds even after the mealtime. (Against Pacittiya 35 which prohibits over-eating)
viii) Jalogi kappa: The practice of drinking palm-juice, which is
fermenting but is not yet toddy. (Against Pacittiya 51 which prohibits the drinking of intoxicants)
ix) Adasakam nisidanam: The practice of using mats to sit on which were not of the prescribed size, if they were without
fringe. (Contrary to Pacittiya 89 prohibiting the use of a fringed sitting cloth exceeding the prescribed size)
x) Jatarupam rajatam: The practice of accepting gold and silver.
(Prohibited in Nissaggiya 18, an offence involving forfeiture of the object relating to the offence)

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After the Act of Suspension (Ukkhepaniya kamma) was pronounced, Ven Yasa went to Kosambi and sent messengers to the bhikkhus of the Western country, of Avanti and of the Southern country to enlist their support to stop the deterioration of the religion and ensure the preservation of the Vinaya. Next he went to the Ahoganga hill in the Upper Ganges to consult Ven. Sambhuta Sanavasi of Mathura and team up with sixty bhikkhus from the Western country (Pava) and eighty-eight from Avanti and the Southern country. Ven. Sambhuta Sanavasi advised them to consult Ven. Revata of Soreyya (Kanauj), a leading monk recognized for his piety and learning. Accompanied by him, they traveled to Soreyya to meet Ven. Revata. But he was aware of their mission and was on the way to Vesali to meet them. Both parties finally met at Sahajati where Ven. Yasa asked for his opinion regarding the Ten Points. Each one of them was declared to be unlawful by Ven. Revata.
 
b) Ten Points Declared Unlawful by Second Council

Meanwhile the Vajjian monks were following the developments of Ven. Yasa and they too went to Sahajati to enlist the support of Ven. Revata hoping to win him over with presents but he refused to accept them. So they induced his disciple, Uttara, to take up their cause but that too failed. When the Sangha met together to decide on the matter, Ven Revata suggested that it should be settled at the place where the dispute originated. So the elders went to Vesali where the Sangha assembled to settle the dispute but no progress was made due to much talk and fruitless discussion. So it was decided to settle the matter by referring it to a body of referees. Ven. Revata chose four bhikkhus of the East and four of the West. The referees of the East were the Venerable Sabbakami, Salha, Khujjasobhita and Vasabhagamika. Those of the West were the Venerable Revata, Sambhuta Sanavasi, Yasa and Sumana. Of the eight, six were pupils of Ven. Ananda (who lived to 120 years) while Ven. Vasabhagamika and Sumana were pupils of Ven. Anuruddha (said to have lived to 150 years). When the referees convened, Ven. Sabbakami, the most senior Arahant with 120 vassas (rains retreat) questioned by Ven. Revata, adjudged the Ten Points as unlawful according to the Vinaya. The same hearing was re-enacted before the full assembly and the verdict unanimously upheld.

According to Mahavamsa13, after settling this issue, Ven. Revata, chose seven hundred Arahants in order to hold a council to prevent the deterioration of the religion. The Council spent eight months rehearsing the Dhamma & Vinaya to ensure that the true doctrine was preserved and handed down to future generations. The Second Council is also called Yasatthera Sangiti (Elder Yasa’s Rehearsal) because of the major role played by the Elder Yasa in his zeal to safeguard the Vinaya. It was held at Valukarama in Vesali a century after the Parinibbana during the reign of King Kalasoka.
 
6. The Great Schism

According to Mahavamsa13, the Vajjian monks did not accept the verdict but held an assembly of their own attended by ten thousand calling it a Mahasangiti (great convocation) from which the sect derived its name Mahasanghika. From then on, further schisms led to the formation of different sub-sects, and in the course of time, 12 sub-sects arose from Theravada while 6 issued from Mahasanghika.

a) Five Theories of Mahadeva

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According to the Sanskrit Pratimoksa Sutra of Mahasamghikas discovered by Rahula Sankrtyayana in Tibet in 1934 and translated into English by Charles S. Prebish14, all its Vinaya rules, except the 75 sekhiyas rules of training for novices (67 in Mahasanghika) are exactly the same as the Theravadin Vinaya. This means that the schism did not result from the differences in Vinaya or Disciplinary Code. According to the Sammitiya School, the first schism took place a few decades after the Second Council. The founder of Mahasanghika was Bhadra also known as Mahadeva, who came out with five theories concerning the Arahant. According to information collected by Watters (see Dutt15, page 28), Mahadeva was the son of a Brahmin merchant of Mathura who was ordained at Kukkutarama in Pataliputra. By his zeal and abilities, he soon became head of the establishment, with the ruling king as his friend and patron. With the king’s help, he was able to oust the senior orthodox monks and put forward his five theories, namely:
i) Arahants are subject to lust when having an erotic dream. (Atthi arahato rago ti).
ii) Arahants may have residue of ignorance. (Atthi arahato
aññānanti)
iii) Arahants may have still have doubts. (Atthi arahato kankha ti)
iv) Arahants may be excelled because they may need other’s help. (Atthi arahato paravitarana ti)
v) Attainment of the Path is accompanied by an exclamation (as‘aho’).
 
Rebuttal (Refer to Kathavatthu, Book II16)

Theravada completely rejected the first theory as the Arahant has eradicated craving and ignorance in his mental continuum. So lust cannot arise even while asleep.

• The second, third and fourth theories of Mahadeva maintained that (1) because an Arahant has no knowledge of such things of others as the name, family, etc., he is liable to be ignorant. (2) He is liable to get perplexed about facts concerning everyday life. (3) He is liable to be surpassed in such knowledge by others because it comes to him, is explained and disclosed by others. Theravada rejected them because those things mentioned are conventional truths having no bearing on the Arahant’s knowledge and attainment since the Arahant is absolutely free from delusive Ignorance and skeptical Doubt.

• On the fifth theory, Theravada maintained that speech was not involved in the attainment of Path Consciousness.

• Obviously the Theravada elders would not accept these heretical views. With the help of the king, Mahadeva convened a great assembly (Mahasangiti) reportedly consisting of Arahants and non-Arahants that ratified his ideas and broke off from the original Sangha effectively creating the first schism. The idea that Arahants attended the Mahasangiti appears far-fetched since true Arahants would certainly have disagreed with these heretical propositions.

b) Primary Cause of Schism

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Some scholars (see Dutt15) have theorized that the Vaisalians wanted a certain amount of latitude and freedom in the interpretation and observance of the rules and to introduce into their organization and general governance a democratic spirit, which was gradually disappearing from the Sangha. The exclusive power and privileges, which the Arahants had claimed were looked upon with distrust and disfavour by the Vaisalians, who preferred a democratic rule to a monarchial government. The claim of the Arahants to become the exclusive members of the important Councils and to arrive at decisions, which were binding on non Arahants could not appeal to the Vajjians − a clan imbued with a democratic spirit.

The reasons given by scholars obviously represent the grievances of the Vaisalian monks from the secular point of view. When examined in the context of the Vinaya which governs the monastic order, they appear spurious and without merit, as discussed below:

• As far as the constitution of the Sangha is concerned, the conduct of a bhikkhu is governed by the Vinaya rules drawn up by the Buddha himself. After his Parinibbana, no locus of authority competent to be a source of law could exist in the Sangha because the Buddha did not appoint anyone to succeed him. Instead He directed the monks to regard the Teaching and Discipline as their teacher after He was gone. Thus each member of the Sangha stood on an equal footing in relation to the rest. The elders could advise and instruct but not direct or compel; each member was a refuge unto himself, having the Teaching as his refuge. When a dispute arises over the Dhamma and Vinaya, any decision should be arrived at through consensus by referring to the Four Great Authorities (Note 2). So the question of a democratic or a monarchial system of government does not arise.

• Secondly, Arahants by virtue of the eradication of greed, hatred and delusion have no interest in power or privileges. It is a well- known fact that within the Sangha, respect is accorded based on seniority not on attainment. In the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, the Buddha had stressed that for the growth of the bhikkhus “they should show respect, honour, esteem and veneration towards the elder bhikkhus, those of long standing, long gone forth, the fathers and leaders of the Sangha, and deem it worthwhile to listen to them”.
 
• It appears that the Second Council followed this injunction by appointing the most senior bhikkhus present as referees to adjudge the Ten Points.

• As for the cause of the Schism, it is unlikely to be due to differences in the interpretation of vinaya (disciplinary rules). Frauwallner17, who made a study of the similarities and divergences of the vinaya of six schools, namely: Theravada, Mahasanghika, Mula-sarvastivada, Mahisasaka, Dharmagupta and Sarvastivada, concluded: “We can see at once that the agreement of the texts reaches deep into the particulars.”

• Hence there is no doubt that the theories proposed by Mahadeva were primarily responsible for the Schism. As these five theories were based on worldly knowledge and concepts, meant to create disrespect towards the Arahants, they were certainly unacceptable to the orthodox monks and this led to the Great Schism.

c) Transformation of the Buddha and his Doctrine by Mahayana

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In the Tipitaka, the Buddha is not distinguished from any other Arahant except his extraordinary genius to be able to discover the Truths unaided, while others realized the Truths by his guidance. Theravada has remained closer to this conception though they later elevated His status to complete ‘Omniscience’. The Mahasanghika, having ‘downgraded’ the attainment of the Arahant found it desirable to make a clear distinction in the case of the Buddha.

According to the Kathavatthu15, the Mahasanghikas held the view that a Buddha exists everywhere in all directions of the firmament. Its offshoot, the Andhakas, even considered that a Buddha’s daily habits notably speech, was supra-mundane. Out of indiscriminate affection for the Buddha, some even held that the excreta of the Exalted One excelled all other odorous things! Yet in spite of their divergent views on the nature of the Buddha, the schismatic schools or Nikayas, all aspired to the same goal — Arahantship as the ideal.

According to Warder2, the Mahayana movement started with the appearance of Sutras of anonymous and doubtful origin, around the beginning of the Christian era in Andhra Pradesh in South India. The Saddharma-pundarika or ‘Lotus of the Good Law’ claimed that after attaining Enlightenment, the Buddha decided to preach his doctrines in a modified form for the mediocre searchers of Truth to enable them to achieve their desired end. This modified teaching consists of the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and Dependent Origination, subjects of the First Sermon. The Mahayana took this to mean that only an Omniscient One could realize the highest Truth while his disciples or Savakas, who could only attain perfection by observing the instructions of the discourse, realized only the absence of individual soul (anatta) and not the non- existence or Emptiness (dhamma-sunnata). According to Rhys Davids18, “Arahatship is explicitly condemned and Bodhisatship held up as the goal at which every good Buddhist has to aim; and the whole exposition of this theory, so subversive of the original Buddhism, is actually placed in the mouth of Gotama himself.”

Thus began the transformation of the Buddha and His Dhamma by Mahayanist logic and ratiocination that led step by step to Mahayana; from the humanism and realization of the Four Noble Truths and Nibbana of the original Teachings to the supernaturalism and fantasy of the Mahayana sutras and Emptiness doctrine in which long metaphysical and philosophical treatises in Sanskrit are created by scholars like Nagarjuna and Asvaghosa, which are hardly intelligible to the common masses, and are meant only for Sanskrit knowing scholars. Being well aware that the laity could hardly understand their abstract theories, the Mahayanist teachers created a new Mahayana Pantheon in order attract the masses to their ‘Great Vehicle’. According to Ven. Bhikkhu Kashyap1, “after a time, in the Mahayana tradition, the philosophical speculations were symbolized by various Bodhisattas and gods such as Avalokitesvara (Bodhisatta of Great Compassion), Tara (Goddess of Mercy), Manjusri (Bodhisatta of Meditation), and Amitabha (Buddha of Sukhavati or Western Paradise).”
 
7. Origin of the Eighteen Nikayas (Schools)

The Eighteen Nikayas or Schools of Buddhism arose sometime between one hundred to two hundred years after Parinibbana i.e., sometime between the Second and Third Buddhist Councils. They were called “Hinayana” (Mean or Inferior Vehicle), a contemptuous term tantamount to verbal abuse coined by followers of Mahayana who wanted to exalt their own doctrines and belittle the earlier forms of Buddhism. It should be pointed out that the Buddha had never preached any “superior or inferior vehicle” to his disciples, only the Noble Eightfold Path to end suffering. Due to its derogatory nature, the term ‘Hinayana’ should be avoided when referring to the Nikayas or Early Schools of Buddhism.

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According to the Mahavamsa13, after the Second Council, (1) Mahasanghika seceded from the original Sangha and produced two schools (2) Gokulika and (3) Ekavyoharika. From Gokulika, arose (4) Pannatti and (5) Bahulika or Bahussutiya and from these the (6) Cetiya sect making with the Mahasanghika a total of six. From the (7) Theravada, two more groups seceded, namely (8) Mahimsasaka and (9) Vajjiputtaka. The latter produced (10) Dhammuttariya, (11) Bhaddayanika, (12) Channagarika and (13) Sammitiya while the former produced (14) Sabbathivada and (15) Dhammaguttika. From Sabbathivada, (16) Kassapiya split off and later produced (17) Samkantika and from this (18) Suttavada. (Note 3)

According to Rhys Davids18, evidence from the Mahavastu, the main text of the Lokuttaravadins (an offshoot of the Mahasanghika furthest removed from Theravada) shows very little of its teaching that could not have been developed from Theravada. The difference was the prominence given to legendary matters and in the consequent inattention to ethical points. In fact, all the early schools looked upon Arahantship not Bodhisattaship, as the ideal of a good Buddhist. However their concept of the Arahant and other doctrinal matters differed from the Theravada giving rise to the composition of the Kathavatthu16 by Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, President of the Third Council. The reader should refer to the Kathavatthu for the full refutation of the heretical views held by the various schools.
 
In most of the cases, the difference between one school and another may be ascribed to geographical factors rather than to doctrinal differences. The first serious differences before the Schism found the Buddhists tending to separate into a western group around the great triangle of Kosambi–Mathura–Ujjaini and an eastern group at Vesali. In the case of Theravada, events of the Second Council showed that the monks of the west, especially of Kosambi and Avanti dominated this group. The first group to secede, namely, the Mahasanghikas remained in and around Pataliputta as their main centre while Theravada dominated at Avanti and spread rapidly into Maharashtra, Andhra and down to the Chola country as well as Ceylon. Soon after the Second Council, Mathura became the first centre of the Sabbathivadins and from there their influence radiated all over Northern India, particularly in Kashmir and Gandhara. The Kassapiyas in fact were a group of Theravada cut off from the mainstream Theravada by the seceded Sabbathivadins and for a long time they maintained contact with their original base at Sanchi near Bhopal. More widespread were the Sammitiyas, who spread across Avanti and Gujarat to form their main centre at Sindhu while the Lokuttaravadins branched out as far away as Bactria.

The majority of the Eighteen Nikayas were short-lived but some grew in strength and survived for several centuries, notably: Theravada, Sabbathivadin, Mahasanghika, Sammitiya and Lokottaravadins. Hsuan Tsang who visited India in AD 629-645 estimated the Buddhist bhikkhus in India and the adjacent countries to the Northwest at less than two hundred thousand, ¾ of whom belonged to the above five Nikayas and the remaining ¼ belonged to Mahayana. Eventually the Mahayana expanded northwards and eastwards to Central Asia and China, eclipsing the Nikayas. Of the remaining Nikayas, Theravada established itself in Sri Lanka and Burma and has survived to this day after Buddhism disappeared from India following the Muslim conquest in the 12th century AD.

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8 . The Third Council

The Third Council was held 236 years after Parinibbana during the reign of Emperor Asoka. The Mauryan king who ruled India from Kashmir to the Ganges valley and south almost to Madras had become a Buddhist and was doing everything within his power to aid Buddhism. This royal patronage attracted thousands of heretics to don the yellow robe for worldly gain. Although they dwelt with the bhikkhus yet they continued to preach their false doctrines and caused confusion in the religion. By reason of their great numbers and unruliness, the bhikkhus could not restrain them by the Vinaya rules so that no Uposatha-ceremony (fortnightly recitation of the Patimokkha) or Pavarana (invitation) was held for 7 years.

When Asoka sent his minister to investigate and settle the matter, the foolish official killed several monks. Hearing of the misdeed, Asoka was filled with remorse and doubts lingered in his mind whether he was responsible for the crime. He was told that the Arahant Moggaliputta Tissa, who was living in solitary retreat on the Ahoganga Mountain further up the Ganges, could resolve his doubt. Asoka had to invite the Arahant three times before the latter came to Pataliputra. There he was received with great honour by the king who accommodated him in Asokarama and for seven days, the king received instructions at the feet of the Arahant. The bhikkhus were then tested on their views and the heretics were expelled from the Sangha. The pure bhikkhus who remained performed the Uposatha- ceremony after a lapse of seven years.

a) Compiling the Final Recension of the Tipitaka

The Arahant Moggaliputta Tissa took the opportunity to hold the Third Council in order to compile the true doctrine. One thousand Arahants took part in the Council held at Asokarama in Pataliputra (modern Patna) in the 18th year of Asoka’s reign, 236 years after the Parinibbana. Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa presided over the meeting in which controversial doctrines of various Buddhist sects were examined and refuted leading to the composition of the Kathavathu (Points of Controversy), one of the seven books of the Abhidhamma. The assembly took nine months to rehearse the Teaching after which the Pali Tipitaka was compiled and closed.

b) Propagation of the Religion outside India

With the Buddhist king Asoka being the supreme ruler of nearly all of India as the chief patron, the time was now ripe for expansion. Accordingly, Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa, the recognized leader of Theravada, decided to send competent Arahants to propagate the Buddha’s Teaching all over India and beyond. Each team was headed by an Elder and consisted of five monks, the quorum required to confer higher ordination in remote regions. The names of the Elders and the nine places where they were deputed are given in the Mahavamsa13. Archeology has confirmed the historicity of these missions. In Stupa No. 2 at Sanchi near Bhopal, were found two relic caskets from the 2nd or 1st century BC, inscribed with the names of some of the missionaries. In this way the Buddha’s Teachings spread in the four directions after the Third Council.

MISSIONARIES PLACE
1. Majjhantika Thera Kasmira & Gandhara1
2. Mahadeva Thera Mahimsamandala2
3. Rakkhita Thera Vanavasi3
4. Yonaka Dhammarakkhita Thera Aparantaka4
5. Maha Dhammarakkhita Thera Maharattha5
6. Maha Rakkhita Thera Yonaka6
7. Majjhima Thera Himavantapadesa7
8. Sonaka and Uttara Theras Suvannabhumi8
9. Mahinda, Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala Theras Tambapannidipa9

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1 Gandhara comprises the districts of Peshawar & Rawalpindi in Pakistan. Kasmira is modern Kashmir.
2 Mahimsamandala is generally taken as modern Mysore.
3 Vanavasi was composed of coastal regions such as Kerala and Malabar.
 
4 Aparantaka or the ‘western ends’ comprise the Mumbai (Bombay) region, northern Gujarat, Kachchh and Sind.
5 Mararattha is modern Maharashtra.
6 Yonaka (Sanskrit Yavana) together with the Kambojas means clans of foreign race in the northwest frontier included in Asoka’s empire.
7 Himavantapadesa is the Himalayan country.
8 Suvannabhumi or ‘golden land’ is Bago (Pegu) and Mawlamyine (Moulmein) district in Mon state of Myanmar (Burma).
9 Tambapannidipa is the island of Sri Lanka.

c) Achievements of the Third Council

The Third Council refuted and eliminated all the tendencies which were no longer regarded as consistent with the faith and brought the Pali Canon to a close. However, its greatest achievement was the sending of missionaries to other countries to propagate the faith because prior to this, Buddhism was basically a local religion confined mainly to a few states of Northern India. Thanks to the wisdom and foresight of Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa, the royal patronage of Emperor Asoka and the teams of highly dedicated missionaries, the Buddha Sasana has spread beyond the borders of its narrower home. Thus when Buddhism disappeared from India for six hundred years after the Muslim conquest during the 12th century AD, the light of the Dhamma still shone in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and other Theravada countries where the Sasana had been founded. Today we are witnessing a new phenomenon whereby monks from other Buddhist countries are returning to India to revive the Buddha Sasana in its country of origin!

Strangely enough, a story in the Mahavamsa written during the 6th century AD (Note 4) tells us that Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa was a Brahma-god called Tissa in his previous existence. At the time of the Second Council, the Arahants, foreseeing danger to the religion in the future, approached him for help as his lifespan in the Brahma realm was coming to an end. He consented to be born in the world of men in order to prevent the downfall of the Buddha's religion. Subsequent events appear to confirm the prophecy of the Arahants of the Second Council.
 
9. Committing the Tipitaka to Memory

The Tipitaka, which contains all the Teachings of the Buddha during his 45-years ministry, is about 11 times the size of the Bible. Its sheer volume has led some scholars to think that the First Council was pure fiction and that the huge mass of the Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka recited was impossible. It is just beyond the comprehension of the skeptical scholar that someone like Ven. Ananda could be able to remember so much! However monks with such prodigious memory are found in the Sangha. During the Sixth Buddhist Council held in Yangon in 1956, the late Venerable Mingun Sayadaw Ashin Vicittasarabhivamsa had committed the whole Tipitaka to memory and was able to answer all questions related to it when questioned by the chief questioner of the Synod, the late Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw Ashin Sobhana. Today, Myanmar has produced several living Tipitakadharas, or persons who have committed the whole Tipitaka to memory! (Note 5)

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Recent studies by Salomon19 suggest that there was no written language during the Buddha’s time. The early Indian Brahmi and Karosthi scripts appeared to originate from the Mauryan era based on the testimony of Megasthenes to the absence of writing in the early Mauryan period and the persistent failure to find and identify actual specimens of pre-Asokan writing. However, such evidence is by no means conclusive. Although the art of writing was employed later to give instructions, it did not become popular, the emphasis of education being on the development of memory and the retentive power. Therefore, the oral tradition continued to be the established custom to transmit the Teaching. Monks were still required to memorize the Teaching even after the written language appeared, just as it is still practised today by Theravada monks in Burma.

Although the majority of the sects started to use Sanskrit or mixed- Sanskrit as the language of transmission, the orthodox Theravada kept strictly to Pali. Thus, Theravada monks became very adept in reciting the Pali texts, aided by their highly developed memory skills so well attested in ancient and modern India. With different groups of monks specializing in their respective sections of the Tipitaka, it would not be difficult for them to recite the whole Tipitaka by combining their expertise. The Pali literature is replete with terms describing the areas of specialization of monks with respect to the Tipitaka, such as:

 i) Suttantika or master of the Sutta Pitaka
 ii) Vinaya-dhara or one versed in the Vinaya or Discipline iii) Matika-dhara or one versed in matika or Abhidhamma
 iv) Digha-bhanaka and Majjhima-bhanaka (Reciters of the Digha and Majjhima Nikayas)

This demonstrates that the ancient theras (monks) had developed a system whereby they could collectively preserve the entire Tipitaka intact from memory. Some of them were Arahants, and so by definition, ‘pure ones’ free from lust, ill-will or aversion, and delusion. With such purity of mind, they were without doubt, capable of retaining perfectly the Buddha's words in their minds. Thus they ensured that the Buddha's teachings would be preserved faithfully for posterity.
 
10. Fourth Council: Committing the Tpitaka to Writing

Situated off the main road about 40 km from Kandy in Sri Lanka is a village called Matale. Although lesser known to ordinary tourists, it is well-known to Buddhist scholars because here one can find the International Buddhist Library & Museum and the historic Aloka Cave, site of the Fourth Council, where the Buddha’s Teachings were committed from oral transmission into writing on ola palm leaves. Visitors to the Museum will be able to view the process in which ola leaves are dried, smoothened and observe the technique of writing with ink on the leaves. There is a showcase, where a set of the Pali Tipitaka written on ola leaves is kept.

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According to the History of the Religion20 (Sasanavamsa), at one time a famine arose in the island of Sinhala (Ceylon) and many monks left the island as they feared they would not be able to learn the three Pitakas due to lack of food. However, 60 monks stayed behind by the seashore and studied together living on roots, fruits and the like. Being oppressed by hunger and weakness, they lay down on the sandy ground while keeping their heads facing each other and without uttering a word they studied the scriptures in their minds. Thus did they preserve the three Pitakas together with the commentary for twelve years, and help the Religion forward. At the end of twelve years, 700 monks returned from India and studied the Teachings together with the 60 monks who had stayed behind. At that time they agreed with each other and did not differ. This was how the great Elders or Mahatheras (monks of twenty years standing or more) accomplished the difficult task of remembering precisely the three Pitakas orally in this way.

The zeal and dedication of the ancient theras in the learning of the canonical texts without missing a single word is illustrated by the following story. After he had learnt the Buddha’s words from the Elder Dhammarakkhita of Yona country in India, the Elder Tissa, son of a landlord Punabbasu, took leave to return to Ceylon. While traveling to the port to board a ship to sail home, he had some doubts regarding a certain verse in the Tipitaka. So he retraced the journey back to his teacher, a distance of 100 yojanas (1 yojana = 8 to 12 miles) in order to remove his doubt before his teacher. In this way, it should be understood how very difficult a task it was to bear in mind, the canonical texts without missing a single word. And whatever they could not learn by heart, they preserved by way of study, remembrance and the like, in order that it might neither disappear nor be confused. In this way, for a long time since the First Council, the succession of great Elders handed down the canonical texts even orally.

a) Documentation of the Tipitaka on Palm Leaves

According to records compiled by Ven. Nanamoli 21, four months after Vattagamini Abhaya became king of Lanka (104-88BC) his reign was interrupted by the rebellion of the Brahman Tissa, followed by famine, invasion by the Tamils and the king’s exile. The bhikkhus from the Mahavihara or Great Monastery all dispersed to the south and to India. After fourteen years, the king returned and defeated the Tamils. With the restoration of the king, the bhikkhus returned to Sri Lanka. Filled with religious zeal, Vattagamini built the Abhayagiri vihara and offered it to the thera Mahatissa who had assisted him in his bid to regain his kingdom. Later on, the monks of the Abhayagiri seceded from the Mahavihara and became schismatic. Sensing insecurity, the Mahavihara took the precaution to commit the Tipitaka for the first time to writing, doing it in the provinces away from the king’s presence.

About four hundred and fifty years after the Parinibbana, during the reign of King Vattagamini in 89 BC (*see footnote), 500 great Elders held a Council presided by Ven. Rakkhita Mahathera and thinking, “In future, beings of poor mindfulness, wisdom and concentration, will not be able to bear in mind (the canonical texts) orally”, decided that the three Pitakas together with the commentary should be written in books. It was a time when the viharas were deserted and oral transmission of the texts was difficult. The art of writing had, by this time developed substantially, so it was thought expedient and necessary to have the entire body of the Buddha's teaching written down to prevent confusion or disappearance of the
True Religion.

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The historic event took place at the Aloka cave Vihara or Aluvihara in the Malaya country (Matale), a place in the island of Tambapanni (Ceylon). This council is considered to be the Fourth by the Theravada school although in India, another council held under the patronage of the Kushan king Kanishka (Note 6) around 100 AD is considered as the Fourth Council.

At the end of this Council, the texts along with the Attha-kathas (commentaries) were inscribed on ola palm leaves and the scriptures were thoroughly checked and rechecked to ensure their authenticity. This was how the three Pitakas were preserved. A visit to Aloka Cave will certainly evoke a deep sense of gratitude to the Sangha for their wisdom and compassion in authenticating and documenting the Buddha’s teachings for future generations. Thanks to the foresight and indefatigable efforts of these great Elders, there is no room either now or in the future for self-styled ‘progressive monks or scholars’ to adulterate the pure Teaching.

 
11. Fifth and Sixth Councils in Myanmar22

According to the Mahavamsa13, at the end of the Third Council, missionary monks were sent to various countries neighbouring India by the Council President Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa to propagate the Buddha’s Teaching. Two monks, Ven. Sona and Ven. Uttara were sent to Suvannabhumi, which is Bago and Mawlamyine (Moulmein) district in Mon state of Myanmar, with the objective of founding the Buddha Sasana there. They converted the Myanmar people in that region to the religion by preaching the Brahmajala Sutta. Thereafter the Buddha Sasana was firmly established in Myanmar for over two thousand years. Hence it is not surprising that Myanmar has taken the leading role in preserving, propagating and perpetuating the Buddha’s Teaching in modern times by holding two Buddhist councils during the last two centuries.

a) The Fifth Council (Panca Sangiti)

According to the Theravada tradition, the Fifth Council took place in Mandalay, Myanmar in 1871AD during the reign of King Mindon. The chief objective of this Synod was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha and examine them in minute detail for errors, alterations and omissions. Three Great Elders, Ven. Mahathera Jagarabhivamsa, Ven. Narindabhidhaja, and Ven. Mahathera Sumangalasami led this council attended by 2,400 monks. Their joint Dhamma recitation (Dhamma Sangiti) lasted five months.

At the end of the Fifth Council, the entire Tipitaka was inscribed on 729 marble slabs in the Myanmar script for posterity. Each marble slab measured 1.68m high, 1.07m wide and about 0.13m thick and this monumental task was executed by many skillful craftsmen. Upon completion, each slab was housed in a beautiful miniature pagoda on a special site in the grounds of King Mindon's Kuthodaw Pagoda at the foot of Mandalay Hill. According to the Guinness Book of Records, these 729 slabs represent the largest book in the world today.
 
b) The Sixth Council (Chattha Sangiti)

The Sixth Council was held from 1954 to 1956 under the auspices of the Burmese Government led by the then Prime Minister, U Nu. It was held at Kaba Aye, Yangon in the Maha Passana Guha, a huge assembly hall resembling the great cave at Sattapanni in Rajagaha, venue of the First Council. Like the preceding councils, the objective was to authenticate and preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya. A total of 2473 monks from Myanmar and 144 monks from seven other countries, namely, Cambodia, India, Laos, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam took part in the Rehearsal.

Preliminary preparations lasted three years from 1951-1954 whereby the Tipitaka and its allied literature in all scripts were painstakingly examined with their differences noted, the necessary corrections made, and collated. It was found that there was not much difference in the content of any of the texts. Then having agreed upon the final version, approved unanimously by all the parties concerned, the full Assembly met on the full-moon day of May 1954. All the 40 books of authenticated, accepted version of the Pali Pitaka were chanted by
2600 bhikkhus in five sessions spread out over two years from 1954 to 1956. The late Mahasi Sayadaw Bhadanta Sobhana acted as Pucchaka (Questioner) while the late Mingun Sayadaw Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa acted as Vissajjhaka (Answerer) answering correctly all questions related to the Tipitaka from memory. Finally, after the Council had officially approved the texts, all of the books of the Tipitaka and their Commentaries were prepared for printing. This notable achievement was made possible through the dedicated efforts of the 2,600 monks and numerous lay people. Their noble task came to completion on the full-moon day of May 1956, to coincide with the 2,500th Anniversary of the Lord Buddha's Mahaparinibbana. The version of the Tipitaka of this Council known as the Sixth Synod Edition has been recognized as the pristine teachings of the Buddha. It is the most authoritative rendering today. After the scriptures had been examined thoroughly several times, they were put into print, covering 52 treatises in 40 volumes, or 8026 pages in total. At the end of this Council, all the participating countries had the Pali Tipitaka rendered into their native scripts, with the exception of India.
 
Conclusion

The Buddhist Councils were crucial in ensuring that the true doctrines of the Buddha were preserved for future generations. Each council authenticated the Pali Tipitaka by rehearsing them in an assembly comprising hundreds of learned monks and Arahants, whereby false doctrines were purged and points of controversy settled. The Pali Canon or Tipitaka is generally considered to be the oldest body of Scriptures documenting the Buddha’s teachings, somewhat older than its Sanskrit counterpart, though some Sanskrit scholars resist this opinion. According to Childers9, the Pali version of the Buddhist Scriptures is the only genuine and original one.

When the Buddha made the injunction that monks were to learn his teaching in ‘saka nirutti’ (own language) meaning Magadhi, the common dialect of the region in his time, it was in consonance with the ancient method of learning by oral tradition whereby pupils were required to learn the master’s doctrine in the language that the latter preached by. In an oral tradition, mistakes and distortions are bound to arise frequently. By adopting a common medium of instruction, these mistakes and distortions can be quickly detected and corrected by rehearsing together. This was what actually took place in the Buddhist Councils after the Buddha’s Parinibbana to ensure that the true teachings were preserved.

There is much controversy among scholars regarding the origin of Pali, the language of Theravada Scriptures. However to Theravada Buddhists, it is a non-issue. As pointed out by Sayadaw U Thittila1, the Pali Canon contains everything necessary to show forth the Path to the ultimate goal of Nibbana, the cessation of all suffering. This can only mean one thing, namely, that the Buddha’s true teachings have been preserved in its pristine form in the Pali Canon. For this we are indebted to the religious zeal, dedication and prodigious memory of the ancient monks (Theras) in preserving, propagating and perpetuating the Teachings of the Buddha, from his Mahaparinibbana till the present day.
 
Appendix

Contents of the Tipitaka or Three Baskets

 a) Vinaya Pitaka or Basket of Discipline
Made up of rules of discipline laid down by the Buddha for regulating the conduct of disciples who have been ordained into the Order as bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis (nuns) Consists of 5 books, namely:
 1) Major Offences (Parajika) ─ including explanation of how each rule was promulgated and listing special cases and exceptions.
 2) Minor Offences (Pacittiya) ─ including explanations and exceptions.
 3) Great Section (Mahavagga) ─ giving rules for admission into the Sangha, ordination, dress-code, residence, and rules for performance of special monastic activities.
 4) Smaller Section (Cullavagga) ─ dealing with the treatment, offences, and duties of teachers and novices, with special rules for nuns.
 5) Epitome of the Vinaya Pitaka (Parivara) ─ containing commentary primarily on the Great Section and stories about the events following the Buddha’s Enlightenment.

 b) Sutta Pitaka or Basket of Discourses
Contains the discourses delivered by the Buddha on various occasions as well as some discourse delivered by his disciples. It is divided into 5 Collections or Nikayas.
 1) Collection of Long Discourses (Digha Nikaya) ─ 34 discourses divided into 3 sections dealing with training of the disciple.
 2) Collection of Medium-Length Discourses (Majjhima Nikaya) ─152 discourses, many of which tell of the Buddha’s austerities, Enlightenment and early teachings.
 3) Collection of Connected Discourses (Samyutta Nikaya) ─ these are divided according to subject matter into 5 divisions
 
 4) Collection of Discourses from Gradual Sayings (Anguttara Nikaya) ─ 9557 short discourses in 11 divisions, beginning with discourses on 1 subject in first division, 2 subjects in second division and moving up to discourses containing 11 subjects in the last division. The name Anguttara means ‘increasing by one item’.
 5) Collection of Short Discourses (Khuddaka Nikaya) ─ This is the biggest volume, made up of 15 books which contains the most
exquisite parts of the entire canon:
 i) Shorter Texts (Khuddaka Patha)
 ii) The Way of Truth (Dhammapada)
 iii) Solemn Utterances (Udana)
 iv) Thus it was said (Iti-vuttaka)
 v) Collected Discourses (Sutta Nipata)
 vi) Stories of Celestial Mansions (Vimana Vatthu)
 vii) Stories of Departed Spirits (Peta Vatthu)
 viii) Psalms of the Brethen (Theragatha)
 ix) Psalms of the Sisters (Therigatha)
 x) Birth Stories (Jataka)
 xi) Expositions (Niddesa)
 xii) Analytical Knowledge (Patisambhida)
 xiii) Lives of Arahants (Apadana)
 xiv) Chronicle of Buddhas (Buddhavamsa)
 xv) Basket of Conduct (Cariya Pitaka)

 c) Abhidhamma Pitaka or Basket of Ultimate Things
The Abhidhamma was incorporated as the Third Basket during the Third Council held in the 3rd century BC. It deals with the higher philosophy of the Buddha and contains these seven books:
 1) Enumeration of Phenomena (Dhammasangani)
 2) Book of Analysis (Vibhanga)
 3) Treatise on the Elements (Dhatukatha)
 4) Book of Human Types (Puggala Pannati)
 5) Points of Controversy (Kathavatthu)
 6) Book of Pairs (Yamaka)
 7) Conditional Relations (Patthana)
 


Explanatory Notes

Note 1: Pali and Magadhi

Many theories have been proposed by scholars regarding the original home of Pali. According to Ven. Anagarika Dharmapala7, Oldenburg is of opinion that Pali had for its home the country south of the Vindhya Mountains. Another noted critic of Pali Dr. Franke is of the view that the home of Pali may be found between the middle and western Vindhya mountains. Yet another critic Dr. Windisch differs in his conclusions with Franke and Oldenburg and says that the Buddha used the language of Magadha. Many Pali scholars are of the opinion that literary Pali is the vernacular Magadhi used by the Buddha to preach the Dhamma and the use of the word Pali as the name of the language in which the Buddhist texts are composed is purely figurative and that its real name is Magadhi.

The Blessed One wished that the language used to convey the message of Buddha should be the language of the people, and not Sanskrit. Magadhi, Suraseni, Paisaci, Maharashtri, Prakrit were the dialects spoken by the people at the time, and the Blessed One beautified the vernacular by inventing expressions and terms to expound His wonderful Doctrine of the Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma. Pali may be called the middle language which was used by the Blessed One to expound the Doctrine of the, Middle Path. The ornate and embellished Sanskrit and the vulgar Paisaci Prakrit He avoided, and made a classic of purified Magadhi, which was called Pali to designate the language that He used as different from existing dialects. Pali is the language of the Buddha which could easily be understood by the natives of Magadha, Kosala, Suraseni, Kasi, and Gandhara.

Sten Konow has shown the resemblances that exist between Pali words and Paisaci. Sir George Grierson, at one time Collector of Gaya and an expert of Hindi dialects, agrees with Windisch that literary Pali is Magadhi. He gives a list of the places where the Paisaci dialects were spoken, namely: Kancidesiya, Pandya Pancala; Gauda, Magadha, Vracada, Dakshinatya, Saurasena, Kaikeya, Sabara, Dravida. Pandya, Kekaya, Bahlika, Simhala, Nepala, Kuntala, Sudhesna, Bota, Gandhara, Haiva and Kannojana.

Says Dr. Grierson: "The first thing that strikes one about these three lists is the great extent of country that they cover. If we are to accept them in their entirety, Paisaci Prakrit was spoken over nearly the whole of India and also in Tibet." Since the time of the Blessed One the Pali language began spreading not only in India, but beyond. Wherever the Buddhist Bhikkhus went there arose centres of literary culture, and they transplanted Indian art, agriculture, gardening, floriculture, architecture, etc.

Note 2: The Four Great Authorities (Mahaparinibbana Sutta)

During the journey to his final resting place in Kusinara, the Buddha stayed at the Ananda shrine in Bhoganagara (present day Kesariya) and taught the four standards by which his disciples would be able to decide whether a certain teaching was actually his words or not. These standards, called the Four Great Authorities are:
(a) A bhikkhu may say: “I heard and learned it from the Blessed One’s own lips; this is the Law, this is the Discipline, this is the Master’s teaching”.
(b) A bhikkhu may say: “In a certain dwelling place there is a community of elders and a chief; I heard and learned it from the lips of that community; this is the Law, this is the Discipline, this is the Master’s teaching”.
(c) A bhikkhu may say: “In a certain dwelling place many elder bhikkhus live who are learned, expert in the traditions, memorizers of the Discipline, memorizers of the Codes; I heard and learned it from those eldersown lips; this is the Law, this is the Discipline, this is the Master’s teaching”.
(d) A bhikkhu may say: “In a certain dwelling place an elder bhikkhu lives who is learned, expert in the traditions, memorizer of the Discipline, memorizer of the Codes; I heard and learned it from that elder’s own lips; this is the Law, this is the Discipline, this is the Master’s teaching”.

In such a case, the declaration of this bhikkhu should be neither approved nor disapproved but carefully studied word by word and then verified in the Vinaya Discipline or confirmed in the Sutta Discourses.

If they are found to be not verified in the Vinaya or confirmed in the Suttas, one can conclude that they are not the Blessed One’s word, they are wrongly learned by that bhikkhu or that community or by those elders or by that elder. One should accordingly reject them.

If however, they are found to be verified in the Vinaya and confirmed in the Suttas, one can conclude that they are the Blessed One’s word, they are rightly learned by that bhikkhu or that community or by those elders or by that elder. One should accordingly accept them.
 
Note 3: Eighteen Nikayas (Ancient Schools of Buddhism)

A) Mahasanghika and Related Schools.

Mahasanghika or School of the Great Assembly (attended by ten thousand heretical monks) is acknowledged as the first Nikaya to secede from the original Sangha after the Second Council. They had their main centre at Pataliputta but later on migrated from Magadha in two streams, one northwards and the other towards the south. The southern group settled down in Andhra Pradesh around Amaravati and Dhanakataka, their branches concentrating at Nagarjunikonda, dwelling on the mountains around. The Pali version has been fully borne out by the inscriptions discovered in these areas, namely, the Pubbaseliyas, Uttaraseliyas or Aparaseliyas, Siddhatthikas and Rajagirikas, collectively designated as Andhakas by Buddhaghosa in his commentary on the Kathavatthu. Of the northern Mahasanghikas, he mentioned the Ekabboharikas, Gokulikas, Pannattivadins and Bahusuttika. However except for the Gokulikas, their views have not been referred to in the Kathavatthu, indicating perhaps they ceased to retain any practical importance at all.

1) Gokulika (Kukkulika) — The doctrine of this school considered the world to be red-hot with misery and devoid of happiness, a kukkula, due to the misunderstanding of the Fire Sermon.

2) Ekavyoharika (Ekavyavaharika) — This school was hardly known in later times and was probably reabsorbed into the Mahasanghika.

3) Bahulika (Bahusrutiya) — This school emphasized religious knowledge and erudition (bahusutta = learning).

4) Cetiyavada (Chaitiyavada) — This school emphasized the cetiya or shrine worship. It is identified with the Lokottaravadins because the Mahavastu, which is an avowed text of the Lokottaravadins, gives prominence to the worship of cetiyas.

5) Pannattivada (Prajnaptivada) — the concept (= pannatti) school

6) Purvasaila and Aparasaila (= Uttarasaila) — refer to the schools of Andhra country whose followers were called the “East-Cliffmen” and “Opposite Cliffmen” respectively. Part of the Andhaka schools.
 
B) Theravada (Sthavira) and Related Schools

Theravada means the doctrine of the Elders and was the original Sangha from which the other schools seceded. Its texts are written in Pali, recognized as the vernacular language used by the Buddha.

1) Mahisasaka — named after Mahisaka country where this school was formed. Like Theravada, the Mahisasaka adhere to the view that an Arahant is beyond the reach of any seduction and cannot relapse.

2) Vajjiputaka (Vatsiputriya) — probably formed by Vajjian monks who did not join the Mahasanghika but branched out independently later. They prepared a new recension of the Abhidhamma based on the belief of the existence of a personality or puggala, a belief shared by the Sammitiyas. Both schools were also called Puggalavadins.

3) Dhammuttarika (Dharmottariya) — Higher Dhamma school an offshoot of the Vajjiputtakas and were found in Aparanta on the coast of Maharastra at the port of Soparaka and places nearby.

4) Bhaddayanika (Bhadrayanika) — the “Auspiciousvehicle, an offshoot of Vajjiputtaka. To the Bhaddayanikas is attributed the doctrine of “anupubbabhisamaya” – that realization of the Four Noble Truths is acquired in segmentary order

5) Channagarika (Sannagarika) — School of six towns, an offshoot of Vajjiputtaka. To them is attributed the doctrine of Dukkhaharoti, the utterance of the worddukkha” leads to knowledge (nana).

6) Sammitiya (Sammatiya) — from “samma ditthi” means the school of Right View. It ascribes its origin to Mahakaccana but Mahavamsa puts it as an offshoot of Vajjiputtaka. The only remarkable doctrine of the Sammitiyas is that regarding the nature of the puggala, which served as the carrier of the five kandhas or aggregates through births and rebirths of beings. Like the Sabbathivadins they also held that there is an antarabhava i.e. an intermediate state between the death of a being and its rebirth.
7) Sabbathivada (Sarvastivadin) — derived from “sabba athi” or “everything exists” and refers to the doctrine of this school. They held almost the same views about the human life and the universe as the Theravadins, in the non-existence of soul, in impermanence and the law of Kamma. However the Sabbathivadins believed in the reality of the five aggregates (khandhas) that compose a being as against the Theravadin’s view of their unreality. Thus they admitted the reality of khandhas as existing in all times – past, present and future.


8) Dhammagutika (Dharmagupta) — started in Gujarat and Sindhu and named after the Greek missionary Dhammarakkhita or Dharmagupta who was sent there after the Third Council. This explains why it was not mentioned in the Kathavatthu.

9) Kassapiya (Kasyapiya) — named after the founder Kassapagotta, who with Majjhima propagated Buddhism in the Himalayan region. It is identical with the Haimavata school.

10) Samkantika (Sautrantika) — This school denied the authority of Abhidhamma and admitted only that of the suttas. Hence they were closer to the Suttavadins who followed the doctrine of the suttas.

Note 4: Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa

According to Mahavamsa, the Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa, President of the Third Council, was a Brahma-god called Tissa in his previous existence. At the time of the Second Council, the Arahants, foreseeing danger to the religion in the future, approached him for help as his lifespan in the Brahma realm was coming to an end. He consented to be born in the world of men in order to prevent the downfall of the Buddha's religion and subsequently took rebirth as the son of the brahmin Moggali of Pataliputta. The Elders Siggava and Candavajji, both disciples of Sonaka (himself a disciple of Dasaka, who received ordination from Ven. Upali) had been entrusted with the task of converting him. From the time of Tissa's birth, therefore, for seven years, Siggava went daily to the house of Moggali, but not even one word of welcome like “Go further on”, did he receive. In the eighth year someone said to him, “Go further on.” As he went out he met Moggali, and on being asked whether he had received anything at his house, he said he had. Moggali inquired at home and the next day charged Siggava with lying. But hearing Siggava's explanation, he was greatly pleased and thereafter constantly offered Siggava hospitality at his house. One day, young Tissa, who was thoroughly proficient in the Vedas, was much annoyed at finding Siggava occupying his seat and spoke to him harshly. But Siggava started to talk to him and asked him a question from the Citta Yamaka. Tissa could not answer it and in order to learn the Buddha's teachings, he entered the Order under Siggava, becoming a Sotapanna or Stream-winner soon after. Siggava instructed him in the Vinaya and Candavajji in the Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas. In due course he attained Arahantship together with the supernormal powers and became the acknowledged leader of the monks at Pataliputta.

At the festival of dedication of the Asokarama and the other monasteries built by King Asoka, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, in answer to a question by Asoka, said that even a lavish donor of gifts like him was not a kinsman of the Buddha but one becomes a kinsman of the Buddha's religion only by letting one's son or daughter enter the Order. Acting on this suggestion, Asoka had two of his children, Mahinda and Sanghamitta ordained. Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa acted as Mahinda's preceptor. Later, because of the great gains which accrued to the monks through Asoka's patronage of the Buddha's religion, the Order became corrupted as heretics donned the yellow robe for material gain and dwelt together with the bhikkhus. Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa committed the monks to the charge of Mahinda, and for seven years lived in solitary retreat in the Ahoganga Mountain.

Due to the great number of heretics and their unruliness, no Uposatha ceremony was held for seven years in all the monasteries. When Asoka sent his minister to investigate and settle the matter, the foolish official killed several monks. Hearing of the misdeed, Asoka was filled with remorse and doubts lingered in his mind whether he was responsible for the crime. He was told that Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, who was living in solitary retreat on the Ahoganga Mountain further up the Ganges, could resolve his doubt. From there Asoka sent for him to solve his doubts as to what measure of sin belonged to him owing to the killing of the monks by his minister. But Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa would not come until Asoka appealed to him that his services were needed to befriend the religion. The Elder traveled by boat to Pataliputta, and was met at the landing place by the king who helped him out by supporting him on his arm.

The king then led him to Rativaddhana Park and to test the Elder’s faculty, begged him to perform a miracle, which the Elder consented to do and made the earth quake in a single region. To convince the king that the killing of the monks involved no guilt on himself, the Elder preached to him the Tittira Jataka. Within a week, with the aid of two yakkhas, the king had all the monks gathered together and held an assembly at the Asokarama. In the presence of Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, Asoka questioned the monks on their various doctrines, and all those holding heretical views were expelled from the Order, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa decreeing that the Vibhajjavada alone contained the teaching of the Buddha. Later, in association with 1,000 Arahants, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa convened the Third Council at Asokarama, and compiled the Kathavatthu (Points of Controversy), in refutation of false views. This was in the seventeenth year of Asoka's reign and Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa was seventy-two years old. At the conclusion of the Council in nine months, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa made arrangements, in the month of Kattika, for monks to go to the countries adjacent to India for the propagation of the religion.

Note 5: Tipitakadharas of Myanmar Today

Tipitakadhara = Bearer of the Tipitaka ('recitation')
• Tipitakakawida = Bearer of the Tipitaka ('oral' and 'written')
Maha Tipitakakawida = Passing the 'oral' and 'written' with distinction
Dhammabhandagarika = Keeper of the Dhamma Treasure

The above Titles are awarded to successful Buddhist monks in Myanmar if the candidates can recite 8026 pages of the Buddhist Canon or Tipitaka and also pass the written examination, which includes the Commentaries and Sub-commentaries. Tipitakadhara Selection Examination is the most extensive, most difficult and highest. No one passed any of the categories in
1948 when it was first held in Rangoon (Yangon) after the country gained Independence. The aim of the examination was to promote the emergence of the outstanding personalities who can memorize and recite the whole of the Tipitaka (8026 pages or about 2.4 million words in Myanmar Pali).

It is the longest examination in the world and the entire examination is spread over five years. In the first and second year, the candidates are examined in Vinaya Pitaka (2260 Pages) lasting a total of 20 days (3 days each for 5 volumes plus 5 days for the written part covering the Commentaries and Sub-commentaries). In the third year the candidates are examined in 3 volumes of the Sutta Pitaka (779 pages). In the fourth and the fifth years, the examination on the first five (1390 pages) and the last two (3597 pages) of seven volumes of the Abhidhamma Pitaka is arranged. The total length of the examination used to be four years before.

The first successful candidate was Venerable U Vicittasarabhivamsa, who was later known as the 'Mingun Sayadaw'. He passed the Vinaya part in the
1950 Examination. In 1953 he completed the final part at that time of the Pathika Vagga of the Sutta Pitaka and became the first ever 'Tipitakadhara' in Myanmar (Burma) at the age of 42 and his achievement was recorded in the Guinness Book of Records. Since then, more and more outstanding monks have been awarded full titles for their fabulous memory. Since 1948, the following candidates have earned the title of Tipitakadhara.
 
Title Holders Titles* Year Age (First Title)
Ven. Vicittasarabhivamsa 1,3,4 1953 42
Ven. Nemainda 1,2,4 1959 32
Ven. Kosala 1,2,4 1963 36
Ven. Sumingalalankara 1,2 1973 27
Ven. Sirinandabhivamsa 1,2 1984 42
Ven. Vayameindabhivamsa 1,2 1995 39
Ven. Kondanna 1 1997 55
Ven. Silakhandabhivamsa 1,2 1998, 2000 34
Ven. Vamsapalalankara 1,2 1998, 2000 32
Ven. Indapala 1 2001 40
Ven. Sundara 1 2001 45


One may question the wisdom of arranging this extremely difficult examination now that we can put the Tipitaka texts on CD-ROM and there is no question of the Tipitaka texts disappearing from this world. But the actual rewards of the whole examination is reflected in the emergence of thousands of monks who have memorized all or some of the texts by heart and are able to help lay worshippers with their instant sermons and discourses, faster than the CD-Rom texts appear on the computer screen. Mastery of the Pali Canon will ensure that the monks transmit their knowledge with authority. So the ultimate aim of the Tipitaka Examination is to promote propagation of the Buddhist Teaching, which is the noblest of all the gifts, the Gift of the Dhamma in its purest form.

Reference: Tipitaka Golden Jubilee 1948/49 – 1997/98 Magazine, Religious Affairs Directorate Press, Myanmar, 1998

Note 6: King Kanishka of the Kushans

The Kushans belonged to the Yueh-chih tribe, who originally lived in the western frontier of China between Tun-huang and Chi-lien-shan. They were driven out of China by the Hsiung-nu (the powerful Asiatic Huns of North China) around 177BC and the greater part of the group migrated westward into present-day eastern Kyrgyzstan around Lake Issyk Kul, driving south the local nomadic Sakas or Scythians. Not long after this, the Yueh-chih faced another round of attack by the Hsiung-nu, forcing them to flee to Sogdiana (present day Uzbekistan, west of Ferghana) and Bactria (ancient country lying between the Hindu Kush and the Oxus River in what is now Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), where they overran the local Sakas. They and related tribes are the Asiani and Tokharians of Western sources. In around 128BC, the Yueh-chih were recorded as living north of the Oxus River (Amu Darya) ruling over Bactria which they had divided into five divisions. A new dynasty, that of the Kushans was subsequently founded by one of the five chieftains named Kujula Kadphises, who united the other four divisions under his rule. Kujula Kadphises invaded Parthia (the country around Khorastan in Iran) and took Kabul. His son V’ima Kadphises succeeded him and inherited a large kingdom consisting of the Kushan homelands north of the Oxus and Kujula’s conquest – Kabul, Kashmir, Gandhara and Taxila. V’ima increased these holdings with the subjugation of northern India as far as Mathura.

The most famous Kushan king was Kanishka I (ruled 78 – 102AD) whose capital was at Purusapura near modern Peshawar. Kanishka succeeded to a large empire and made it even larger by further conquest of India as far as Bihar in the east, Sindh and Baluchistan in the southwest. He was later converted to Buddhism and supported the Sarvastivada, one of the eighteen Nikayas, which dominated in Mathura and in the northwest. Daily he would invite monks to preach in his palace but found their views so contradictory that he became confused and consulted the Venerable Parsva about the true doctrine. At the latter’s advice, Kanishka decided to convene a Council in which the various Nikayas were represented. The aim of the Fourth Council was to put an end to the dissensions in the Sangha. It was presided by Vasumitra and reportedly held in Jalandhar or Kashmir around
100AD. The Theravadins do not recognize this council and there is no mention of it in the Ceylonese Chronicles. According to the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang, after the treatises were composed, they were engraved on sheets of red copper and stored in stone boxes, which were deposited in a stupa built for the purpose. These texts have survived only in Chinese translations and adaptations.
 
References

1) Chapter One − Origin and Expansion of Buddhism by Ven. J.
Kashyap. Chapter Two − The Fundamental Principles of Theravada Buddhism by Ven. Sayadaw U Thittila. The Path of the Buddha edited by Kenneth W. Morgan. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1986.

2) Indian Buddhism (Chapters One & Ten) by A.K. Warder. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi 2000.

3) The Life of the Buddha According to the Pali Canon by Bhikkhu Nanamoli. Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.

4) The Book of Discipline, Vinayapitaka Cullavagga V, 33 translated by I.B. Horner. Published by the Pali Text Society, Oxford, England.

5) Vinaya Texts, Cullavagga V, 33, translated from Pali by T.W. RhysDavds and Hermann Oldenberg. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi 1988.

6) Introduction: A History of Pali Literature by Bimala Churn Law. Indica Books, Varanasi, India 2000.

7) The Arya Dharma of Sakya Muni, Gautama Buddha or the Ethics of Self Discipline. By the Venerable the Anagarika Dharmapala. Published by Maha Bodhi Book Agency, 4-A, Bankim Chatterjee Street, Calcutta 700 073, India. First Published 1917, Reprinted 1989

8) The Import of Sakaya Nirutti: A Reappraisal by Dr. Mauli Chand Prasad in ‘Homage to Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap (Commemoration Volume)’. Published by Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar, India 1986.

9) A Dictionary of the Pali Language by Robert Caesar Childers. 1974 reprinted by Buddha Sasana Council, Yangon, Myanmar.

10) Numerical Discourses of the Buddha by Nyanaponika Thera & Bhikkhu Bodhi. The Sacred Literature Series of the International Sacred Literature Trust. Vistaar Publications, New Delhi, 2000.

11) The Expositor (Atthasalini) – Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Dhammasangani, the First Book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka Volumes I, II. Translated by Pe Maung Tin, PTS, London, 1976.
 
12) The First Buddhist Council by Teitaro Suzuki. The Monist – A Quarterly Magazine Devoted to the Philosophy of Science Volume XIV Chicago the Open Court Publishing Company 1904. Scanned & edited by Christopher M. Weimer, April 2002.

13) Mahavamsa or Great Chronicle of Ceylon. Translated into English by Wilhelm Geiger. Published by the Pali Text Society, London. First published, 1912.

14) Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit Pratimoksa Sutras of the Mahasamghikas and Mulasarvastivadins by Charles S. Prebish. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 1996.

15) Buddhist Sects in India by Nalinaksha Dutt. Motilal Banarsidass, 2nd Edition, Delhi 1978.

16) Points of Controversy – A Translation of the Katha-Vatthu by Shwe Zan Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids. Published by the Pali Texts Society, London, 1979.

17) Buddhist Monks and Monasteries in India (page 79) by Sukumar Dutt. Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi 1988.

18) Davids. T. W. Rhys: The Sects of the Buddhists in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1891, pp. 409-422. The History and Literature of Buddhism. Bharatiya Publishing House, Varanasi, India 1975

19) The Origin of the Early Indian Scripts: A Review Article by Richard Salomon, University of Washington. Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995), 271-279.

20) The History of the Religion (Sasanavamsa) translated by Bimala Churn Law. Sacred Books of the Buddhists, Vol. 1033. Luzac & Co. Ltd., London 1952.

21) The Path of Purification --Visuddhi Magga. Translated from the Pali by Bhikkhu Nanamoli. Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka.

22) The Myanmar Contribution to the Spread of Theravada Buddhism throughout the World by U Ko Lay, Professor, Vipassana Department, Faculty of Pattipatti, Yangon 1998.

Source

www.urbandharma.org