The unique perspective on intention (cetanā), ethics, agency, and the self in Buddhism Chand r. sirimanne

The unique perspective on intention (cetanā), ethics, agency, and the self in Buddhism

Chand r. sirimanne

AbstrAct

this chapter investigates the central role that intention (cetanā) plays in Buddhist ethics, the unique perspective into the nature of the self and agency from a theravāda Buddhist stance. Intention is paramount in determining every mental, verbal, and physical action as wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral in the Buddhist ethico-psychology. Buddhist ethics offer an inclusive, compassionate, and non-theistic perspective into the many moral dilemmas we face today as the mind and its processes, the underlying volition of a thought, context, and circumstances all determine the nature of an action. this is of relevance particularly in the digital age where agency is often imperceptible from societal, legal, and materialistic stances. the virtual world is perceived to be distinct from concrete reality and hence unethical actions considered to be less negative and destructive, and the perpetrators often difficult to trace or made to pay the consequences as societies and legal systems struggle to deal with this new reality. Buddhism has little to say about reforming society but on the other hand provides a refined investigative system of categorization of ethical and unethical actions through its theory of kamma (action) originating in a seed

or negative intention in the mind, and the consequences are said to be unavoidable although subject to manifold variations. although the influence of Buddhism is still fragmented in the West with debates on its relevance, what to adopt, adapt, and discard, it can offer a fresh perspective on ethics, intention, agency, and the self.

Keywords: Buddhism; ethics; intention (cetanā); agency; kamma

INTROdUCtION

this chapter explores the core significance of intention (cetanā in Pāli) in Buddhist ethics and psychology, the nature of the self and implications for agency from a theravāda perspective. Buddha means the awakened one and what he discovered at enlightenment were the four noble truths: (i) the truth of suffering in the entirety of existence, (ii) the causes for this, (iii) the extinction of suffering, and (iv) the way to end suffering. the soteriological path he taught was essentially the way out of suffering in putting an end to existence called the eightfold path consisting of eight links: (i) right views, (ii) right intention (also translated as thought), (iii) right speech, (iv) right action, (v) right livelihood, (vi) right effort, (vii) right mindfulness, and (viii) right Concentration (narada, 1973). the path aims to dispel delusion enabling one to see the reality of all matter and phenomena including in the non-dual mind–body complex as evidenced by the breath, other sensations, thoughts and emotions, characterized by impermanence (anicca), suffering or unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), and non-self (anattā) (nyanaponika, 1992).

ethics and psychology are indivisible in Buddhism, and the mind, according to the Buddha, is the source and forerunner of all phenomena in existence (dhp. i, i–ii, Kaviratne 1980). cetanā is the first seed that arises in the mind before a mental, verbal, or physical action is impelled (cetanā Sutta). therefore, it is the nature of the cetanā that colors an action as positive or negative, which in turn gives rise to corresponding kammic results (narada, 1978). Pāli and Sanskrit words are often difficult to translate accurately and cetanā is translated variously as intention, will, motivation, volition, purposive or directional thought, and even emotion, but intention comes closest in meaning (heim, 2014). given the fundamental importance of cetanā, every single moment is of significance in Buddhism from an ethical and psychological point of view and therefore for its salvific path leading to its ultimate goal of enlightenment (Vibhanga). theravāda Buddhism especially has little to say explicitly about reforming society or finding solutions to ethical dilemmas in lay life, but it provides an ethico-psychology for the individual and an ethical framework reflected in its manifold tenets, cultivation of the mind, and an unfailing justice system based on the universal law of cause and effect. While admittedly this system is not something that can be observed or concretely measured in the material world, it does provide an alternative ethical perspective that is more nuanced and, in some ways greatly relevant to an era where agency is becoming increasingly distorted and indistinct where virtual reality is fast becoming indistinguishable from the concrete one.

INtENtION (CEtANā) ANd Its SIGNIFICANCE

it is the supreme and fundamental importance given to intention that makes it abundantly clear that in Buddhism ethics and psychology, its many precepts for leading a moral life and its meditative practice for cultivating the mind are inextricably intertwined. cetanā is defined in the Buddhist Dictionary (nyanatiloka, 1980) as:

cetanā: “volition,” will, is one of the seven mental factors (cetasika, q.v.) inseparably bound up with all consciousness… With regard to karmical volition (i.e. wholesome or unwholesome karma) it is said in a.vi, 13: “volition is action (karma), thus i say, o monks; for as soon as volition arises, one does the action, be it by body, speech or mind.” (p. 82)

in abhidhamma Pitaka (higher teaching) where consciousness is catego-rized into 89 types, the intention specifies whether a moment of consciousness is wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral. right (wholesome) intention or thought (sammā sankappa) is also the second link of the eightfold path that the Buddha taught as the way out of the suffering inherent in existence and leading to enlightenment or liberation (nibbhāna). Bodhi (2013) notes that “intention” is a more accurate translation of sankappa or cetanā as:

from the Buddhist perspective, the cognitive and purposive sides of the mind do not remain isolated in separate compartments but intertwine and interact in close correlation. emotional predilections influence views, and views determine predilections. thus a penetrating view of the nature of existence, gained through deep reflection and validated through investigation, brings with it a restructuring of values which sets the mind moving towards goals commensurate with the new vision. the application of mind needed to achieve those goals is what is meant by right intention. (chap. iii: para. 1) in the context of right intention, the Pāli canon outlines three types: (i) intention of renunciation, (ii) intention of good will, and (iii) intention of harmlessness. these directly act as antidotes to the three wrong types of intentions characterized by the three toxins, craving/greed (lobha), ill will (dosa), and moha (delusion) that entrap beings in existence and generate suffering (de silva, 2006). in the first link of the eightfold path, right views (sammā ditthi) are essentially the texture/soil of the mind, its habitual cognitive patterns, from which the intentions spring forth (Sammāditthi Sūtta). however, Buddhist psychology states that these moments of consciousness are immeasurably short and only skilled observers of the mind can glimpse them. the belief that there is an abiding and concrete self or identity is the core delusion of each being, responsible for the “faulty” filter that warps the perception of reality (thanissaro, 1997). thus, the cultivation of the mind or meditation essentially aims to eradicate these poisons including the delusion of the self, which is the most deeply ingrained and last to be cast aside at enlightenment.

KAMMA ANd DEPENDENT ORIGINAtION

Kamma and dependent origination along with Buddhist cosmology are the least popular aspects of Buddhism today in the largely secular West where they may be regarded as superstitious aspects acquired from its asian heritage that mar Buddhism’s rationality (Batchelor, 1997). however, cetanā, along with the theory of kamma and dependent origination are the cornerstones of the Buddhist ethico-psychological system and its salvific path, and once these are removed, the entire system begins to unravel (nanamoli, 1993; thanissaro, 2012). Buddha is said to have declared that one who understands dependent origination, understands the four noble truths that lead to enlightenment (piyadassi, 2008). Kamma is also a concept that is often misunderstood as meaning “negative results” or an automatic and inflexible system of cause and effect that is universally and uniformly applied. however, kamma is none of these things, and it is defined as (nyanatiloka, 1980):

karma (sanskrit), pāli: kamma: “action,” correctly speaking denotes the wholesome and unwholesome volitions (kusala- and akusala-cetanā) and their concomitant mental factors, causing rebirth and shaping the destiny of beings. these karmical volitions (kamma cetanā) become manifest as wholesome or unwholesome actions by body (kāya-kamma), speech (vacīkamma) and mind (mano-kamma). thus the Buddhist term “karma” by no means signifies the result of actions, and quite certainly not the fate of man, or perhaps even of whole nations (the so-called wholesale or mass-karma)…. (p. 149) the Pāli canon describes the many types of kamma and the manifold ways in which they bear fruit, and the crucial point is that it is never automatic nor set in stone (nyanaponika, 1975). as the mind reaches higher levels of purification, kammic results can be lessened or even nullified completely, and more to the point, the way the mind reacts to vicissitudes change radically. this is where the question of free will in Buddhism arises providing a view that avoids both extremes of determinism and free will. Buddha never claimed to be a god or a savior – he was a human being but became an extraordinary being through his own striving. he clearly stated that one’s destiny is in one’s hands and that he could only point the way but that even his teachings should be subject to questioning, analysis, and testing (Kalāma Sūtta). thus, self-reflection, self-discipline, decision making, effort, and the path one chooses is of great importance, and Wallace (2011) notes about free will:

…Buddhist tradition takes a more pragmatic approach, exploring ways in which we can acquire greater freedom to make wise choices that are truly conducive to our own and others’ genuine well-being. one key to achieving such freedom is the cultivation of attentional skills so that one can deliberately focus one’s attention with continuity and clarity on one’s chosen object. a second theme is the cultivation of insight into the manner in which our own attitudes shape experience, allowing for the possibility of altering not only the way we experience events in the present, but also how we are influenced by our memories of the past…. (p. 217)

BHāVANā (MEdITATION) IN buddhIsm

the translation of bhāvanā as meditation, contemplation and self-reflection are somewhat inadequate as bhāvanā denotes something much more pro-active than the english terms. a more accurate term is “the cultivation of the mind” with its connotations of enriching the soil, weeding and growing – interestingly, the resulting consciousness of the spiritual milestones on the Buddhist salvific path are called phala (fruit/fruition). the current debate in psychotherapy using meditation (specifically mindfulness) as a secular technique is on whether meditation should simply be non-judgmental attention without ethics being involved (Chiesa, 2012; fulton & siegel, 2013). in Buddhism, however, fostering positive emotions/thoughts such as mettā (loving kindness) as antidotes to negative and unethical mental, verbal, and physical conduct are fundamental to the cultivation of the mind, and though there are no neatly designated steps/stages in its doctrine, a widely accepted formula for progress on the path is: (i) sīla (ethical conduct), samādhi (concentration/tranquillity), and pannā (insight/wisdom). Bhāvanā is thus considered to be the most advanced stage in the Buddhist spiritual path in traditional Buddhism. the Buddhist soteriological path focuses on eliminating the defilements of the

mind – the root causes (mūla) of craving, ill-will, and delusion – all based essentially on ignorance (avijjā). thus, the entire meditative system of Buddhism, consisting of 40 meditative subjects and techniques in theravāda, is tailored toward dispelling this ignorance (vajiranāna, 1987). in other words, in seeing reality as it is both within one’s mind–body complex and in the external world. therefore, deeper the meditation and more skilled in the observation of the mind, one’s true intentions become clearer as the delusions decrease (Brahm, 2006). it is in this context of understanding the true nature of reality that cetanā and anattā become so important.

ANATTā (NON-sELF) AND THE FIVE AGGREGATES (KHANDHA)

anattā (non-self) is the unique concept in Buddhism that is often misunderstood as agency being of little consequence. nyanatiloka (1980) defines anattā (non-self/ egolessness/impersonality) as

the anatta doctrine teaches that neither within the bodily and mental phenomena of existence, nor outside of them, can be found anything that in the ultimate sense could be regarded as a self-existing real ego-entity, soul or any other abiding substance. this is the central doctrine of Buddhism, without understanding of which a real knowledge of Buddhism is altogether impossible. (pp. 33–34) if there is no soul, an abiding entity, what then actually traverses existence

from life to life? the simple answer is that it is an illusion created by the interactive processes of the five aggregates (khandha) consisting of: (i) form/corporality (rūpa), (ii) sensation/feeling (vedanā), (iii) perception (sannā), (iv) mental formations (sankhāra), and (v) consciousness (vinnāna). it is thus a stream of consciousness (vinnāna sota) flowing continuously, changing from moment to moment, and from life to life that through its kammic volition creates destinies as different beings in different realms (Khandha Sūtta; anatta-lakkhana Sūtta). the oft quoted verse found in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga (Buddhaghosa n.d.) is perhaps the most lucid yet simple description of anattā and existence as quoted and translated by nyanatiloka (1980): mere suffering exists, no sufferer is found; th e deeds are, but no doer of the deeds is there; nibbāna is, but not the man that enters it; the path is, but no traveller on it is seen. (p. 34)

THE APPEAL OF buddhIsm TODAY IN thE WEST

the popularity of Buddhism is increasing rapidly throughout the West – in particular, its meditative techniques and to a lesser degree its ethics (Wallace, 2012) in a fragmented fashion. however, in Buddhism psychology and ethics are inextricable, and the development of both in tandem is essential to achieve its ultimate salvific goal – enlightenment or cessation of existence (nyanaponika, 1994). the main reasons for its popularity in the West could be summed up briefly as: there is no omniscient creator deity at its center and the onus of salvation is on the individual; it is a belief system that does not require unquestioning and unshakable faith; there are no moral absolutes and every ethical issue is unique – no set solutions or kammic repercussions; it is a very personal ethicopsychology rational in its overall approach and open for questioning and experimentation. in addition, Buddhism advocates developing unconditional universal loving kindness, compassion, tolerance, and harmlessness extending to all sentient beings, and thereby offering a more inclusive ethical framework (Karaniya Metta Sūtta; sujiva, 1998). the underlying intention is of importance in many of the principal Western ethical theories too, and virtue ethics resembles Buddhist ethics most closely while there are similarities with certain aspects of Consequentialism and its branch utilitarianism (harvey, 2000; Keown, 2005a, 1996a; Whitehill, 1994). of especial interest is the premise in virtue ethics, particularly in its eudaimonist branch, of equating happiness, wellbeing, or flourishing with good conduct and seeing the good of the agent and good of others as indivisible. it is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss the similarities in detail, although it is noteworthy that scholars like Keown (2005a) point out the problematic nature of striving to fit a complex, many-layered belief system like Buddhism into a specific Western ethical theory:

…With the above caveats entered, i think it fair to say that the growing consensus among scholars is that Buddhist ethics bears a greater resemblance to virtue ethics than any other Western theory. there are sufficient points in common to speak at least of a “family resemblance” between the two systems. this is because Buddhism is foremost a path of self-transformation that seeks the elimination of negative states (vices) and their replacement by positive or wholesome ones (virtues). (p. 25)

harvey (2000, p. 50) too notes that “in both aristotelian and Buddhist ethics, an action is right because it embodies a virtue which conduces to and “participates” in the goal of human perfection,” but points out the inappropriateness of striving to force Buddhist ethics into a Western framework while acknowledging the shared aspects (harvey 2000, p. 51). the biggest impediment to a close match is the theory of kamma and dependent origination focusing on the individual (hallisey, 1996), which are the two elements foreign to Western ethics. the influence of Buddhism is still very much fragmented in the West with environmentalists, advocates for gender equality, lesbian, gay, Bisexual, transgender and queer rights, animal rights, and others facing discrimination focusing on the more inclusive Buddhist ethics, and mindfulness meditation becoming a mainstream secular psychotherapeutic technique with a burgeoning body of empirical evidence showing positive results for a wide range of psychopathologies (Baer, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 2013; mindfulnessnet.org). in the context of cetanā, in traditional Buddhist societies, centuries of institutionalization have given rise to a warping of its central doctrine of eradicating greed, ill-will, and delusion in order to escape existence and its inherent suffering. instead dāna (generosity) and rituals have become the central focus for the majority of the lay community with the purpose of creating positive kamma for a favorable rebirth often tacitly endorsed by some in the monastic community. thus, the original concept of dāna as a limitlessly expansive frame of mind and generous conduct has been whittled away to the offering of alms to the monastics, and “good works” such as the building of temples and various rituals promoted as means of “deleting” negative kamma, giving rise to a culture of accumulating kammic merits akin to collecting frequent flyer points. this ignores the central premise that cetanā conditions every action, and a misapprehension of kamma and its workings. undoubtedly Buddhist ethics can provide a fresh perspective to complex and

contentious issues as evidenced in some of the positive aspects in Buddhist communities although the teachings mainly target the monastic community who have distanced themselves from society, and therefore there is little explicit material on societal issues, but much can be gleaned from its overall doctrinal base and training methods. the central doctrine of anattā (non-self), dependent origination and absence of moral absolutes, and the fact that there is no Creator or omniscient deity in control at the center of Buddhism all have implications for its ethical stance as they remove the sacredness attached to the human body and the central standing ascribed to human beings. Buddha’s acceptance of women into his monastic order and acknowledging their intellectual and spiritual equality set a crucial example for gender equality and is also evidenced by the comparative freedom enjoyed by women in countries where Buddhism has been a major influence (dewaraja, 1994; sirimanne, 2016) outside of the West. these factors also contribute to a more flexible attitude to issues such as suicide, euthanasia, abortion, organ transplant, stem cell research, homosexuality, gender and racial discrimination, contraception, and animal rights (Keown, 1996b, 2005b; phelps, 2004; sponberg, 1992). nevertheless, Keown and Keown (1995) also note the surprising degree of agreement with other religions at a basic level about such matters as end of life issues:

…What is particularly striking in the case of Buddhism (3)1 is that despite its different theological premises (most radically its denial of both a supreme being and the soul), it reaches ethical conclusions which are very similar to those of the semitic religions. (p. 265) With euthanasia and abortion, both harvey (2000), Keown (1995) and others note that the sanctity of life in Buddhism is founded not on a divine origin but on its potential for achieving the ultimate goal of nibbhāna, and more importantly the psychological harm done to those who harm or destroy life. thus, abortion is a negative action engendering negative kamma with few exceptions as it breaks the first tenet that applies to both lay and monastic communities prohibiting the harming of any sentient being. however, there is no set or automatic consequence as much depends on the motive and circumstances (Barnhart, 1998; Keown, 1998). ratanakul (1999, 2004) raises a few important points about euthanasia based on compassion, saying that it is paternalistic to decide to end another’s life as everyone has different thresholds for both physical and psychological pain. he explores “compassion” on the part of others in carrying out mercy killing from a Buddhist psychological perspective. Buddhism identifies the near enemies of karunā (compassion – one of the four key mental states necessary for advancement on the path) as pity and grief where the self is heavily involved in either looking down on another’s suffering, repulsed by it or becoming totally immersed in it – clouding one’s judgment (ratanakul, 1999, p. 126). the question then arises as to whose suffering we really wish to end – that of our loved one or our own, and cetanā once more is the defining factor. suicide, while generally considered an unskillful act, does not carry with it the same negative kamma as harming or killing another, but again the underlying intention and circumstances play a significant role. furthermore, vibhava-tanhā (craving for non-existence) is part of the root defilement of craving, which again is a means of perpetuating rebirth as it entails hatred of the current life and desire for a better one. thus, from a Buddhist perspective suicide is based on an unskillful intention and futile as a means of escape as the suffering (one’s kammic due) would continue in another existence – especially as the last frame of mind, crucial in shaping the next birth (Paticcasamuppada-vibhanga Sūtta), is unlikely to be a positive one in the case of suicide. therefore, a “good death” for a Buddhist is of great importance – peacefully accepting death, not being overwhelmed by pain but preferably conscious and alert (hughes, 2007, pp. 129–130). harvey (2000) comments on suicide and euthanasia in general based on the overall Buddhist outlook as reflected in the Pāli canon:

overall, it can be seen that Buddhism regards human life as a precious quality that should not be thrown away by suicide, and maintains that people should not incite or aid others to kill themselves. euthanasia scenarios present a test for the implications of Buddhist compassion, but the central Buddhist response is one of aiding a person to continue to make the best of his or her “precious human rebirth,” even in very difficult circumstances, rather than prematurely ending this. (pp. 309–310)

harvey points out that from a Buddhist perspective it may be acceptable to refrain from continuing futile treatments simply prolonging life without any thought to the suffering entailed and degraded quality of life (harvey, 2000, p. 310), and that Buddhist beliefs support the ideals of the hospice movement (Keown, 2005b, p. 954).

according to kamma and dependent origination, one could have been and would potentially be born into any type of body/being – hence any type of discrimination, including gender and racial, and mistreating any sentient creature become unethical. two other areas where Buddhism provides a different stance are on sexuality and contraception as there is no “sacredness” attached to the human form and norms of sexual behavior. de silva (2003) discusses the implied attitude of theravāda to lgBtq sexuality stating that the same rules apply as to heterosexual misconduct – the intention (cetanā) is crucial as always and that as long as sex is between consensual adults and does not involve adultery or harm to oneself or others, there is no indication of negative kamma involved and the same prohibitions apply as for heterosexual misconduct. as to preventative contraceptive methods, Buddhism has nothing against them – hughes (2007) underlines the rationale for Buddhist attitudes to matters of reproduction in general, quoting loy (2003): “…more fundamentally, Buddhism rejects any notion of a “natural” and inviolate human body or procreative act which needs protection from “artificial” contraception, genetic engineering or reproductive technologies” (p. 130).

GOVERNANCE, INtENTION, ANd AGENCY IN thE DIGITAL AGE

Buddha’s attitude to governance and societal issues is well illustrated by the title of an article “only a fool becomes a king” by Zimmerman (2015). the title comes from one of the birth stories of the Buddha, themiya Jataka, illustrating the moral dilemmas inevitably faced by leaders as they cannot avoid actions that are kammically unwholesome, being ultimately responsible for decisions such as punishing criminals and waging wars. in democracies, this becomes a much more complex issue as those who elected a leader or support a particular issue too would have a share, no matter how tiny, of the responsibility. for example, an interesting ethical issue in terms of cetanā and agency is the way most politicians today are influenced by polls, and a large segment of society by news and views shaped by 24/7 media coverage and social media. What is clear from a Buddhist perspective is that individual motives and actions attract kammic consequences no matter how convoluted and distant agency is.

several scholars, both Western and asian, (essen, 2010; macy, 1994; payutto, 1994; schumacher, 1973) have explored the application of Buddhist principles and attitudes to economics in today’s world ruled by consumerism, the free market and economic rationalism as the underlying causes of widespread environmental degradation, injustice, poverty, violence, conflict, and discrimination. schumacher applies the Buddhist view of greed, hatred, and delusion as primary toxins of the mind and right livelihood in the eightfold path to critique contemporary economics (schumacher, 1973): …economically, our wrong living consists primarily in systematically cultivating greed and envy and thus building up a vast array of totally unwarrantable wants. it is the sin of greed that has delivered us over into the power of the machine. (p. 23)

according to payutto, the three interconnected spheres of the individual, society, and environment/nature need to be considered by any type of economic activity as opposed to looking only at supply and demand and profit margins (payutto, 1994, p. 17). he notes that both modern economics and Buddhism agree that humanity has unlimited wants that can never be satisfied. payutto (1994, p. 12) also points out that in Buddhism the end does not justify the means but rather the means condition the end, and that the internal, subject values are directly linked to the “dynamic of external objectives” conditioning everything – the intention being the defining conditioning agency.

it is in Western psychology and psychotherapy that Buddhist meditation,

the concept of the self and the workings of the mind have made the most significant impact although it is still an evolving and controversial influence. in terms of ethics, however, intention and agency in Buddhism can offer a unique take on human behavior and consequences of actions in the contemporary world although admittedly at the individual level. What is different today from the time of the Buddha is neither the human psyche nor its workings but the immensely complex and convoluted nature of societies, the world and the breathtaking advances in science and technology with increasing potential for destructive behavior as well as unimagined benefits. the virtual world is still considered to be somehow different to concrete reality and therefore a realm where normal ethical standards do not apply and difficult, if not impossible, to control through guidelines and laws. the internet, 24/7 connectivity and social media have not only empowered the individual but also brought out the worst in humanity as evidenced by increasing cybercrime and trolling as the virtual world provides anonymity and cloaking of agency, as well as encouraging unbridled narcissism. anonymity and technology also impact the way in which governments and leaders behave with cyber warfare between nations becoming increasingly pervasive. in addition, advancement in robotics and other technologies has seen the increasing use of guided missiles and drones to destroy adversaries or those perceived to be such in distant locations further obscuring agency and culpability. Words and spin have always aided in disguising agency and intentions – making the truth more palatable using phrases such as “surgical strikes,” “clean bombs,” “friendly fire,” and “collateral damage” camouflaging the horrific injuries, death and destruction caused, and public relations and vacuous cooperation often used by organizations as substitutes for genuine compassion and helpfulness. thus, increasingly there is distrust and fear at both individual and societal levels as established systems of justice and ethical norms seem helpless in identifying wrong doers/doings and enforce consequences. it is in this context that intention shaping every mental, verbal, and physical act and the kammic merits or demerits it attracts provide an alternative justice system although not a practical one in the material world.

CONCLUSIONS

Buddhism arose close to 26 centuries ago in a simple, agrarian society and a question asked often today is what relevance it has in the globalized societies of the twenty-first century dominated by limitless consumerism, ever evolving technology and scientific advances. the Buddhist ethico-psychology does offer an alternative ethical perspective that is more nuanced and sophisticated as discussed. it is the core significance of cetanā in the cultivation of the mind and the theory of kamma with its unavoidable and distinct justice system that can resonate in a world where agency is becoming increasingly distorted, often buried in mountains of complex structures and multiple agents with tangled objectives as societies and states become ever more fragmented and complex, and the virtual and concrete worlds overlap and merge and where perpetrators are rarely caught or pay the consequences. the detection and understanding of one’s true intention in Buddhism goes much further than what our current legal systems can provide in establishing a motive as it involves an in-depth understanding and insight into one’s mental processes that requires far more than simple self-reflection as bhāvanā in Buddhism involves deconstructing every facet of the mind – a constantly changing, volatile process, and a stream of consciousness that flows not simply from the beginning of one lifetime but from countless existences as well. thus, Buddhism offers a deeply personal ethico-psychology and a unique ethical perspective shaped by its core concept of non-self, the primacy of the mind, and the significance of intention shaping every facet of behavior providing a guaranteed justice system where every mental, verbal, and physical action carries consequences, although it is a spiritual process that cannot be observed or made use of in the material world.

NOtES

1. there are several schools of Buddhism and no central authority on matters of doctrine nor a single canon. there is, however, a consensus on the main ethical points among the main schools. for the purpose of this chapter, the theravāda school, which is the oldest and most orthodox of the surviving traditions, is taken as representative of the Buddhist perspective. the Buddhist tradition is to provide the scriptures of the canon and Commentaries free including most english translations now available online. the access to Insight site (http://www.accesstoinsight.org) contains a vast amount of english translations and articles by Buddhist scholars. the nikāyas of the Pāli canon are commonly abbreviated and cited as for example, an or a for anguttara nikāya, and other sources cited here - Dhammapada (Dhp) and (Vibh) for Vibhanga). there are several translations of Buddhaghosa Bhadantācariya’s Visuddhimagga (the Path of Purification) but the one cited here is by nanamoli Bhikkhu (2010) available online. the Sūttas cited in this chapter (by the same and sometimes different translators) are also available in print: Bodhi, B. (2012) the numerical Discourses of the Buddha. a translation of the anguttara nikāya. Wisdom publications, somerville ma. Bodhi, B. (oct 16, 2012) the connected Discourses of the Buddha. a translation of the Samyutta nikāya. Wisdom publications, somerville ma. nanamoli, B. and Bodhi, B. (1995; 2015) the Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha. a translation of the Majjhima nikāya. Wisdom publications, somerville ma. Bodhi, B. (2017) the Suttanipāta. an ancient collection of the Buddha’s Discourses together with its commentaries. translated from the Pāli by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Wisdom publications, somerville ma.


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