Aaa

The edition of BHSDhp contains two oddities worth mentioning: BHSDhp 247 and 260 contain seven and five pldas respectively - a unique instance in all the Dharmapadas. BHSDhp 204 is an extra stanza not found in PDhp - and yet both editors used the same manuscript. It remains to be mentioned that*. BHSDhp 203, 204 * Dhp 131, 132, and that these two stanzas form a complete

pair, that is are complementary in their contents^.

2. The view that the Dhammapada is an anthology of verses culled from various Buddhist texts has been prevalent since the last century***. No evidence whatsoever has been put forward to sus¬ tain this view except pointing to the parallels existing in the'canonica1 texts, which, as we have just seen above, account for only about 26% of the verses. As to the rest of the missing parallels, the opinion has been expressed lately that '... the other two-thirds seems to have been collected from losing [sic] sutras' 17 . Mizuno invokes, among other things, the testimony of Chinese authors (who expressed a vie# many centuries later than the events we are evaluating) as support for his opinion of ‘losing sutras*. (Curiously, a statistical argument against this thesis comes to mind: the above-mentioned 26% of stanzas are scattered throughout 25 volumes of texts in the PTS edition: with the same proportion of dispersion in view, the remaining 71% of stanzas would have to be scattered throughout 71 volumes of supposedly lost suttas - a mass of texts larger than the Tipi- taka itself 1 ).

I will try now to present some evidence which, I hope, will show that Dhp is an original work, and that we have no need to look for its verses elsewhere. When we scrutinise the earlier

and later texts of the Theravada school, we ascertain that no tradition related to any 'lost' texts has been handed down; nei¬ ther can it be inferred from the literature of other schools

wfiich are offshoots of the Sthaviras. Quite the contrary, the canonical as well as the extra-canonical accounts indicate that

the whole of the Buddha's teachings as then known to his immedi¬

ate disciples and remembered by them, has been rehearsed and recorded 18 . In the Vinaya of the Dharmaguptas (a branch of the Sarvastivadlns), in the passage about the First Council, among

Origin of Dhammapada Verses

the texts said to have been rehearsed a 'Dharmapada Sutra’ is

mentioned . Although it is unlikely that Dhp existed at the time in its present form, nonetheless it does point to it as an independent work of equal status to other suttas (see later on).

The testimony of the Jatakas - that they drew on the stanzas of Dhp - has already been mentioned above. It is worth noting that, in those Instances at least, the verses have no equivalents in the canonical texts except in the Dhp - additional evidence for the thesis proposed here. It is plausible to suppose that, should these verses have been found in other (later lost) suttas at the time, the compilers of the Ja would not have failed to indicate it*. It may‘also be observed from the tables that other non-canonical texts Include stanzas from Dhp which have no paral¬ lels in the -suttas. Another very significant fact is that about 2 34 stanza or 55% of the total, are not mentioned at all in any of the main texts of Pali or Sanskrit literature.

A thorough analysis of Dhp stanzas not found in the canonical texts (CT) would supply very instructive internal evidence as to their originality. Let me present a small sample of these;

- vv.1-2: manomaya. This term or expression is employed in the CT: (a) as an attribute of the form/nature of the devas, ’mind- made or 'made of/by mind' (M I 419; A III 122, etc.); b) as a psychic power acquired by the disciples of the Buddha as the result of roeditational practices, whereby, among other things, the ability is imparted to create 'mind-made' forms or bodies (M II 17; A I 24. etc.) As a psychological term, corresponding to its meaning in the present verses ('consisting of mind, pro¬ duced by mind, mind-made'), it is not found in the Tipitaka. To Brough this term 'seems only to imply a Vijnanavada view', with which Mizuno agrees 20 . It is significant enough that these verses appear in the MahakarmavibhaAga (Sarv3stivadin text), but not in the equivalent older MahakammavibhaAga Sutta (M, Ho. 136).No less important is the fact that none of the approximately 12 stanzas- in Dhp in which the term mana appears is traceable

to any canonical text. As we know, this term comes into promi-

2 1

nencee in the abhidhammic literature

Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

- vv.19*20: sahiiam. Generally translated as 'scriptureV f 'scrip¬ tural text', 'sacred text'; in this acceptance it is not found in CT-I 22 .

- v,25s 09 / 10 , In its literal sense of 'flood', it is unlikely to be found in CT, but appears in later texts (Vva 48, etc,).

- v,2V: almlassam. ‘Weak horse*. A;, expression that seems to be peculiar to Dhp (* dubbulassam DhA I, 262 , both given in CPD and tPTSD)•

v.301 Mayltova . A title of Sakka quite common in the Jat;*kas;

but it lie not met with in CT except indirectly when the

Buddha bays that Sakka, who visited him, and whose conversation Is recorded in the Sakkapanha Sutta, was also known as Maghava'*\

Vv.44-5: $ iamaloka. This expression is not found in CT, but is quite frequent in comacntarlal literature (PvA 33, 107, etc.),

- v.47: •aho 9 ho. See the remarks to ogho above (examples: Vism 5125 VvA 110, DhA II 274, etc.).

~ ^«70: kusagga , 'the point of a blade of grass'. Found in later literature (VvA 73; PvA 254, etc.). ‘ v

vv.97, 383: okjtonnu, 'knowing the uncreated/not made'CNibba- ha?) (Nd I 237). In this sense, it seems peculiar^ Dhp.

149* alapun cvn t 'gourd*. Brough (p.226) .says that 'the spelling with a -p- is probably a late pedantry.'

vv. 157*166: atta vacga 'On Self', The stanzas of this chapter do not have parallels in CT*I.

7 V.171: rSjoraUiupamam (rd jamthu ) . I could not find this term in CT-I.

v.218: anokkhStc, Usually thought to designate Nlbbana, is translated as 'Undeclared*, 'Ineffable*, etc. We will meet this word in three places in Hajjhima Nikaya (I 331; III 8 , 15), al¬ ways in its primary meaning of the ragular verb 'to tell, show, •point,* etc.) The above designation is, clearly, indicative of a later period. (The occurrences of this word in other canonl- cei texts always reflect the regular meaning.)

302: addhagu. Only in Thr 55 and Ja III 95. In S l 212 its form is ptnthagu .

v.322: Sindhavj ( a thoroughbred horse). Unknown in-~CT; men¬ tioned with some frequency in*Ja (I 175; II 96; III 278,'etc.).

- v.324; Dhanapalai.o (elephant's name). Only known to Ja (I

Origin of Dhamraapada Verses

66; III 293, etc.). According to Ja No.533, the famous elephant Nalagiri, after its conversion by the Buddha, came to be known as Dhanapalako (keeper of treasure).

- v.351: bbavasallo, ‘acebiddi bha va sa11 ani* ('who has cyt the thorns of existence'). No other instance of this expression has been observed in CT. In talitavistara 550, the Buddha is called mahaialyaharta 'the great remover of thorns'.

We could add to this sho't list the enigmatic vv. 294-5 - they eem to be tinged with a non-Buddhist colour; they resist any elucidation, despite the fair effort of the Commentaries to un¬ tangle their complexities by ascribing a symbolic meaning to

the words

A more profound contextual study of Dhp, if cairied out, could be expected to reveal additional clues to -Its ' originality . Ano¬ ther helpful source for the determination of the age of Dhp Is! its metrical structure. A.K. Warder, in his Pali Metre, deals extensively with this subject^. To sum up, '... Of the large collections we can say only that some of them contain a prepon¬ derance of older... or later (e.g. Dhp) texts... '(p.fc); ‘Dhp verses represent quite a long period of composition, overlapping some of the... [[[Wikipedia:canonical|canonical]]} texts...' (p.173). He calculates this to have occurred in the Hauryan Period, 300-200 a.C. (p. 225), The present writer has been working on a study ot the Pali metre in Dhp. Preliminary results indicate that the above , time span could be stretched backwards, at least, one century more (fifth to third century B.C.). The hypothesis that a Dhamma- pada text might have existed at the time of the First Council should not be discarded. If so, it would have been a short an* thology of verses that gradually expanded during the whole pe¬ riod of formation of the Canon itself, as reflected In its dif¬ ferent metres and their variants and some linguistic peculiari¬ ties, before it received its final polished form as ve have it now.

Indeed, it is possible to distinguish between three historical periods in the composition of Dhp: the earliest period is repre¬ sented by a small kernel of stanzas which, probably, originate with the Buddha's time. It Is characterised by ideas which con Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

stLtuted early Buddhism, such as (1) the unsettled, ereraetical life of a recluse (which prototype is the ’Rhinoceros* of Sn): 49. 90-92, 305, 395?; (2) emphasis on meditationa1 and allied

subjects: 209, 202 , 372 ; (3) contempt for the body: 146, 148-

50 (these develop the idea expressed in v.147, M* II 64); (4) doctrinal issues: 273-5, 277-9; (5) self-reliance/efforts, Tatha- gatas are only teachers, etc.: 158, 165, 166?, 276; (6) on the qualities of the (ideal) bhikkhu: 31, 360-1, 365-8; (7) associa¬ tion with virtuous ones: 207, 208, 375; (8) on the ideal of Nib-

bana: 2 3 , 75, 12 6 , 369 ; (9) qualities of the followers of the

Way: 57, 81-2, 296-301; (10) definition of a samana, recluse:

391;, (11) reverence to those who can make known the Dhamma: 391- 2*; (12) exhortations to laymen and bhikkhusi 53 , 283; (13) utter¬ ances of the Buddha, made after his Enlightenment: 153-4, 353.

The intermediate (pre-Mauryan) period, to which appertain about two-thirds of the stanzas; this is the formative period of the co-callcd 'primitive' text on which drew all the Dharma- padas, including Dhp.

During the last (mid-Mauryan) period, additional stanzas (40- 50?) were composed or incorporated into Dhp. During this same period occurred the first senism in the Sangha; and the final

redaction of Dhp, in the form we have it' now, probably took place around Asoka’s time. Due to the pressure and Influence of the

rival sects, the Sthaviras (or Theravadins) made efforts to popu¬ larise the Buddhist teachings. Accordingly, there is nothing in these latest stanzas about the fundamental tenets of the Bud¬ dha's teaching; the emphasis is on morality in general, on the fruits of kamma based on bad or good actions, on happiness in

this life and rebirth in heaven after death, echoes of the schis¬ matic discussions, etc. Some of the themes, briefly, are: (1) on the states of woe and bliss, on heaven and death, on the fruits ofr kamma: 17-18, 127-8, 174, 219-20, 237-8. 319 (this last com¬ plementary to vv.316-18); (2) on good and bad behaviour: 62,

129, 137-40, 247-8, 2 70, 340, 349, 355, 360; (3) association

with good friends: 78; (4) on the virtuous and wise: 95, 145 (cf. v.80), 347, 350-1; (5) on the fruit of a stream-winner,

longing for Nibbana: 178, 218; (6) echoes of the schismatic dis¬

cussions, criticism or complaints of other sects' behaviour,

Origin of Dhammapada Verses

5 etc.; 164, 195-6, 254-8, 268-9; (7) on the difficulty of renunci-

j ation: 302; (8) on.happiness and suffering: 202; (9) exhortations

| to bhikkhus: 343, 379, 381 ; (10) on the gift of Dhamma: 354 (one

of Asoka's inscriptions reads: 'There is no gift that can equal

l the gift of Dharma')^ 6 ; (11) the stanza (324) already mentioned

j above on Dhanapalako. Due to their late composition, these stan-

i as, with a few exceptions, could not be expected to have paral-

| leIs in canonical or non-canonical Pali or Sanskrit literature.

The metre in the older stanzas is, approximately: vatta, normal (pa thy a ) - 66%; vatta, mixed - 30%; tutthubha - 4%. In the last- period stanzas, the metre is: vatta (pat/iya) - 44%, vatta, mixed - 23%; tutthubha - 8% va 1 1 a-1 u 11 hubha - 2%; mattjc/iuiuids - 2 3%.

(The existence of a Targe quantity of the new metre mattachandas is very significant.)

Based on such contextual and literary evidence as above, I am induced to believe that the Pali Dhammapada is an original work and not a mere < ollection of canonical verses. The author ^‘or authors made use of some stanzas, culled from the CT, as seem¬ ed appropriate to the objectives and themes of the text. It may be adduced, in favour of this proposition, that original anthologies were not a novelty at the time - TheragathS and Therl- gatha are two such examples. As Dhp was a didactic and Imperson¬ al work, it had to maintain in anonymity the name(s) of the au-

thor(s) in line with canonical tradition . This point, obvious-

ly t will have to be investigated further; my aim here has been

to draw the attention of other researchers to the problem of the Dhammapada's origin which has not yet received serious consi¬ deration.

Wissim Cohen (Upasaka Dhammasari)

Sao Paulo, Brazil

Acknowledgements: The author wishes to express his appreciation to Mr K.R. Norman for his contribution in indicating the parallels to Dhp in the Culanid- desa, and to Mr R. Webb for his continued encouragement during the preparation of this article.

NOTES

1 A few years ago* after 1 had* drawn my conclusion concerning the second

Bucdhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

pirt of this article, I came across this passage: 'This is an anthology which dfcew on the more original parts of the SOtra and added further verses to ‘it f *(A.K. Warder, Indian buddhism, rev. ed., Delhi 1980, p.279). I take it to imply the same idea and so do not lay claim to originality.*

fit Mizuno, 'Dharmapadas of Various Buddhist Schools* (Studies in Pali and buddhism, cd. A.K. Narain, Delhi 1979) and *A Comparative Study of Dharmapadas*

1 Buddhist Studies in Honour of liammalava SaddhStissa, ed. G. Dhammapala et al., Nugcgoda 1984). In these articles, additional bibliography is included.

, ivintend to prepare, in the future, a list of these errors and submit them to any publishers interested in correcting them in new editions.

A siUf*.le Pali text, Apaddna, was not available to me for verification

astoihc presence of Dhp verses. However, wc would expect not more than

one or two parallels in it.

To render the tabulated statistical data more complete, in addition to Parallels of integral verses, parallels of partial stanzas found in the old canomicai texts arc also Included: 4^ and 5 pSdas cut of six-line stanzas;

2 amd J pldis out of four-line stanzas. v

There is evidence, however, to show that tho composition of some of the verses of Ja extended over a long period, overlapping that of Dhp.

See 'Dharmapadas of Various Buddhist Schools*, op. pit., p.258.

Brough (ed.), The candhdrl Dharmapada, London 1962, p.20.

W.U.Eockhlll (tr.), Uddnavarga, London 1883, repr, Taipei 1972 and New DfcH|i 1982#

h.S. Shukla (ed.). The buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dharmapada, Patna 1979; G. Roth fed.), *Tcxt of the Patna Dharmapada* in The Language of the Earliest Buddhist Tradition, cd. H. Bcchert, Gottingen 1980.

. Unlike CDhp and I’d and considering that SDhp is, in form and text, very akin to Dhp, wc perceive a lacuna where wc would expect to find parallel stanzas. Vv 130-1, 183, 222-3. 260, 278, 297-8 arc examples of this. It

s^r .iodicate that. in reality, the original text contained a larger number of stanzas.

See * A Comparative Study of Dharmapadas', op. cit.

To make it clearer, two distinct historical layers may be detected in lids'the older one, comprising about 300-350 stanzas, drew on the morn 'primi-

Origin of Dhammapada Verses

tlve* text of Dhp. It is this older layer - before it received additions, probably by the hand of Dharmatrata - that I consider older than CDhp.

14 The same may be said of PDhp 37 , 38; PDhp 63; PDhp 193, 194 and 1’Dhp 325, 326, which, rearranged, would make them parallels to Dhp 393, 401, 5*5,

121, 122; and 166 respectively.

15 In all but one case, Shukla follows the same structural division of vm. ', as that of Pali Dhp. The exception is BUS Dhp 63, 64 (4-6 -*■ 6-4 would BHSDhp 63 • Dhp 375 and BHSDhp 64 - Dhp 376 a-c).

T.W.Rhys Davids, The History and literature of Buddhism, repr. Varanasi

1973, pp.32, 45-6. - B.C. Law, A History of Pali Literature , repr. Varanasi

1974, Vol.I, p.214. - M. Wintcrnitz, A History of Indian Literature, repr.

New Delhi 1977, Vol.II. pp.83-4. - K. Mizuno, op. cit., p.256, etc.

17 K. Mizuno, op. cit., p.258. He was able to find no more than 20 addition¬ al gathas in the Chinese sources (p.259); hence his conclusion on lost text, mentioned here.

'In the Pali canon is recorded an interesting tradition in the tore, e: two appendices to the Vinaya-pitaka section (Cjllavayya, Khandhakas XI and «  XII) to the effect that the canon received In this way, by united congregatio¬ nal recital... and the lexts rectified were therefore the only definitive canon of Buddhism. Two famous occasions on which, not pun ions hut .

merely, but the whole of its Dhamma-vi/iaya contents was rehearsed. ..' * *

The Buddha and Five After-Centuries t repr. Calcutta 1978, p.100. The first rehearsal of the Tipitaka is dealt with in many books; sec. ion A. K, Warder, op. cit., p.20I ff.

19 The passage, in full, is given in E.J. Thomas, The History of Buddhist Thought, repr. London 1971, p.270.

20 J. Brough, op. cit., p.243; Mizuno, *A Comparative Study of Dharmapadas’. op. cit, p.172.

21 This w6rd (mananaya) poses a difficulty which seems unsurmountabie: in no place, not even in later commentarial literature, could 1 find a single example of the use of this word in its present meaning. 1 am, therefore, inclined to accept the original word to have been manojava (swift as thought), as in the other Dharmapadas. Contrary to the opinion of Mizuno. 1 do not consider this word 'illogical* within the context of the stanzas; m the words of Brough, 'This reading reflects the ksanika (momentary] nature o: the dharmas...* (p.243).

Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1939)

Although I myself translated it as such in my version of Dhp, I am now convinced Lhat the word should be rendered as in the suttas: to the point, coherently, consistently, sensibly.

G.P. Malalasckcra, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, repr. Pali Text Society, London 1974, Vol.il, p.406.

Some scholars are of the opinion that. Dhp has come to include some sayings

will

liuddh 1

St at all

. Gee,

for

Lnstnuc

25

A.K.

Uardcr, PaJi

1. hablc

influence

of Dhp

on

Asoka's

behaviour, sec

K.

Mult.:

sch, / nscript ion:>

of .

fir oka ,

repr. Dell

The

traditional v

i ew

of

the Sangh.i conci

rning

the

Dhp has

been expressed

by

l he

laic Narada

The;

Is preface

lo The Dh

ammopada

, London 1972,

ix.

That the Dhp

cou

Lid have

existed in

its present form

at the time of

the First Council is far from probable, and docs not tally with the evidence at our disposal.

Origin of Bhammapada Verses

1 Included here are all the verses to be found in the texts, Irrespective of whether they are mentioned in more than one text or not.

2 Registered by order of arrangement of canonical texts.

3 Source: The Gandharl Dharmapada, ed. by J.Brough, London 1962. Figure in brackets includes those fragmentary versos which, in all probability, were exact parallels to Pali Dhp in their original form.

4 Based on G. Roth, 'Text of the Patna Dharmapada', in The language of the Earliest Buddhist Tradition , ed. H, Bechert, Cottingen 1980; and The Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dharmapada, ed. N.S. Shukla, Patna 1979. Source*. Udanavarga, by Dharmatrata (tr. W.W. Rockhill), repr. Taipei 19 72.

Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

TABLE II - SOURCES TO PAL! WAWAPADA VERSES (coaplrU **

Dhp

SOURCE

BhP

SOURCE

Dhp

VERSES

VERSES

VERSES

CAM#lCAL TE1TS - I

Sutti-RipJU

Vimjri Pi taka

Snyutti Mikaya

Udiru

Origin of Dhammapada Verses

TABLE 111 - PARALLELS TO D*- 9 IK CHI, KMKAKOKICAl TEXTS AM OTHER WARAAPAMS*

Pali Dhp Canonical (CT-II) & Non-Canonical Texts

GSndhSrX

Dhp

Sanskrit

Dhp*

UdSnavarQa

Origin of Dhammapada Verses pan

Canonical (CT-1I) «.

G5ndh3rT Sanskrit'

Udanavarga Dhp Non-Canonical Texts

Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

Pali Canonical (CT-1I) It GSndhSrl Sanskrit UdSnavarga

Dhp Non-Canonical Texts Dhp Dhp* •

Origin of Dhammapada Verse anonical (CT Non-Canonical

Dhp

Sanskrit

Dhp*

UdSnavarga

Notes: 4 Repetitive verses considered#

Numbering of the stanzas follows that of BHSDhp. See next note.

The verses of PDhp corresponding to BHSDhp.195 through 205 and BHSDhp.24B through 414, are one higher. As a reminder, only the first occurrence is given here,

1 Fragmentary extant stanzas.

2 Different arrangement of the stanzas.

2 Variation in one of the pSda s.

• Extra stanza in BHSDhp, not found in PDhp.

I. ON TRANSLATING THE DHAMMAPADA

j K.R. Norman

The Dhammapada is one of the most, perhaps the most, popular of Therav5din Buddhist texts. As evidence of the popularity of texts of the same genre in ancient times we have extant, in part or whole, besides the Pali version, a version in the GBndhart Prakrit perhaps belonging to the Dharmaguptaka school, sections of a Maha- \ saftghika-Lokottaravadin version, a Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit ver-

\ sion (the so-called Patna Dharmapada), three versions of the Udana-

i varga in Sanskrit, a Tibetan version of the bdanavarga, and four

Chinese versions. We can guess that a Dharmapada of some sort

( was probably included in the canons of all the sects of Buddhism

i which have disappeared.

j There are various reasons for this popularity. There are

. those who have rated it among the masterpieces of Indian litera-

ture, although others have disagreed with this judgement. Some

- say that it can be regarded as the most succinct expression of

j the Buddha's teaching found in the Pali Canon, and the chief spir¬

itual testament of early Buddhism. It is (they say) a perfect compendium of the Buddha's teaching, comprising between its covers all the essential principles elaborated at length In the forty- odd volumes of the Pali Canon.

If this is so, then it is perhaps strange that -the Pali Text Society does not at present have an edition of the text in print., nor does it have a translation currently available. When John * Brough, one of the greatest British Sanskrit scholars of this century, had just spent several years producing his study of the Gandharl Dharmapada, and had the whole Dhammapada-related literature at his fingertips, he was asked if he would produce a translation of the Dhammapada for the PTS. He replied: 'I can¬ not. It is too difficult.'

It Is probable that many readers will find this hard to under¬ stand. After all, new translations of the Dhammapada appear al¬ most every year, and there are by now probably forty or more in existence in English alone. What, they may well ask, is so diffi¬ cult about it when so many translators seem to manage it? The thing to notice about most of these new renderings is that thev

Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

differ from other translations only in minor details, such as the word order in sentences, or the choice of words which are used to translate specific technical or semi-technical terms.

No translator is ever satisfied with the words which his predeces-

sors have used for such terms as dhamma, asava, nihbuta, etc., and a translator sometimes believes that he has made a better transla¬ tion because he has thought of a different word, without consider¬ ing whether he has obtained a better grasp of the meaning of the phrase or the sentence as a whole. Wc can very often get some idea about translators of the Dhammapada from the way in which they render the word dhamma in the very first verse. We get a broad range of equivalents such as: 'ideas, things, mental states, phenomena of existence, (mental) natures, Knowables*.

An advertisement has recently appeared for a translation in which Dhammapada 1 is rendered as: 'Our life is shaped by our mind; ,we become what we think.*

The intention of the two new translations which have recently appeared^ is to do more than this. They both aim at putting the Dhammapada into a framework and a background - Carter and Paliha- wadana (A CAP) into the framework of the Pali commentarial tradi¬ tion, and Kalupahana (« K) into the background of brahmanical Hindu thought contemporary with the Dhammapada.

Both these translations are to some extent inspired or, rather,

.stimulated by Brough's edition of the Gandharl Dharmapada , and their reaction to him and it is clearly visible. The reason for this is not hard to find. Brough believed that Buddhism had its own share of great art but he politely dissented with those who have rated (the Dhammapada] among the masterpieces of Indian li¬ terature (one wonders what he would have thought of the dust- jacket's statement 'ranks among the classics of the world's great religious literature’). He expressed his view that those who write in this way can hardly have made any serious comparison with great literature; nor could anyone with a sense of literary values describe the whole collection in terms scarcely merited by its best parts, if he had himself lived day and night close enough to those verses for long enough to arrive at an assessment of his own disencumbered of hearsay^. Brough was a poet in his own right, as his translations of Sanskrit poetry show, and his

On Translating the Dhammapada

view should not be disregarded lightly, for religious or other reasons, by those who, almost certainly, have not lived as close to the text as he did for several years while dealing with the Gandharl Dharmapada. On the other hand, it must be agreed.that some of his preferences for particular readings, based upon poetic considerations, are purely subjective and are unlikely to be ac¬ cepted by all.

Brough also shook his head sadly over those who despite all the discoveries of the last 100 years in Gilgit, Chinese Turkestan, and elsewhere, still thought that the Pali version of the Dhamma¬ pada and other canonical texts were the oldest and best. Of his decision to place the verses of the Pali Dhammapada alongside their parallels in the G|ndhari Dharmapada he wrote: '... it must not lead anyone to assume that there is a special degree of kin¬ ship between our'text and the Pali, still less that tne Pali re¬ presents a norm" from which other versions have deviated. Perhaps this last warning is superfluous, since any such theory has long

been obsolete; but 1 am not sure that it is entirely extinct' 4 .

After a brief introduction, dealing with the Buddhist literary tradition in Sri Lanka, problems regarding the received text, and the arrangement of verses in this volume, CAP begin by giving a complete translation of the Dhammapada (pp.13-82). Despite the statement on the (fust-jacket, this is not accompanied by the original Pali of the text, portions of the Commentary (excluding the narrative sections, which are already available in Burlingame's translation) 5 are then translated (pp.87-416). For each verse (or verses, since tue Commentary sometimes puts verses into groups of two or more) they repeat - a rather space-consuming exercise - the translation they have just given, and follow this with the original Pali. The explanatory portion of the Commentary, which follows the verses in the original edition of the Commentary, is then translated. Throughout the compilation there are numbers in square brackets, which presumably **efer to the pages of the edition of the Atthakatha which they are translating. I have searched through the book and cannot find any reference to the source volume, and am therefore unable to identify the edition. Their translation ends with very extensive notes (pp.417-512 ), a bibliography and an index. In the notes they explain where

Buddhist Studies Review 6* 2 (1989)

they are following a reading other than that found in the PTS edition**, and they quote from two medieval Sinhalese commentaries upon the Dhammapada, which give help with the interpretation of Pali terras. The earlier, at least, of these seems to have made use of old Slhala commentaries, now lost.

Their translation of the Dhammapada verses is set out in short lines, approximating to the pada structure of the Pali original. The order of the English words often follows the Pali order close¬ ly, which sometimes lends a somewhat archaic sound to the English, but their version is for the most part clear and straightforward, and one can see exactly how they are construing the Pali. The translation of the Commentary contains many extracts from the Pali original, and the English is expanded wherever necessary to make it intelligible, while the sequence of the comments is sometimes rearranged to make the translation read more smoothly.

It is, however, not always clear why they translate the way they do. In 11 'essential' is contrasted with ' nonessential *, but in 12 with 'superficial*. Only recourse to the Pali reveals that 'nonessential* and 'superficial* are both asara. In 56 they trans¬ late sllavatam as a genitive singular, despite the gloss sllavan- t anam , which they translate correctly, . ^

K begins with *a very extensive (pp.1-75) introduction, in which he develops his thec-ry that the Dhammapada was composed with the Bhagavadglta in mind. It is clear that the Buddha's teaching was Intended to be anti-brahmanical. with his rejection of the atman and vavna serving as the centre of his attack. Since the Bhagavadglta is a brahmanical text, one would expect that work and the Dhammapada to be diametrically opposed about these and other teachings. I cannot, however, see any evidence of the precise parallelism of content and order in the two texts which one woull look for if one wished to prove that the compilers of the Dhammapada actually chose and arranged the verses with the Bhagavadglta in mind.

K then gives (pp.79-U0) the text of the Dhammapada (using Fausbpll's second edition of 1900, but omitting Fausb0ll's some¬ what bizarre metrical emendations). He alludes to minor editorial changes he has made, giving suggestions made by Jayawickrama as his authority. The one Instance he mentions, however, viz. the

reading of noyati (presumably from n * oyati • na uyyati) in place of Fausbdll's no yati [in 179), is actually to be found in the Atthakatha. His translation follows (pp.113-53), and the notes (pp.157-92) and an index of Pali terms (pp.193-221) conclude the volume.

Despite the facts that C&P include all the grammatical com¬ ments from the Atthakatha and quote from two other commentaries, and their translation and that of K are both heavily annotated, these two translations of the Dhammapada (as I have already sug¬ gested) differ ^little from those already available. Although K states specifically (p.ix) that he thought that it was time for a new translation because the interpretation of the philosophy of the Dhammapada given by Radhakrishnan 7 (* R) In his translation had survived too long, his debt to R is especially evident, with occasional pSdas identical with his version. He sometimes agrees with R in interpreting the Pali in a way which cannot be justified without comment, e.g. viveke yattha duramam (87) translated *at a solitary freedom so hard to enjoy’, (R: *that retirement so hard to love'), which seems to assume that viveke is in agreement with duramam*, and dhlro ca sukhasajjivaso (207) translated as.'the amiable company of the sagacious ones' (R: 'association with the wise is... happiness'), which may be correct, but only if dfclro is taken as something other than a nominative singular. Where K differs from R in philosophical interpretation, it is more in the exegesis In the notes than In the actual translation. *

He occasionally departs from R’s translation,- sometimes cor¬ recting his mistakes, e.g. anivesano in 40 correctly translated^ 'free from attachment* instead of R's 'attached to it', and vive- kam anubruhaye in 75 translated as 'cultivate detachment' in place of R's 'strive after wisdom*. Sometimes there is no apparent reason for his change, and as his command of English is not of the same standard as R's, the results are occasionally somewhat opaque. It is not immediately obvious what one is meant to under¬ stand by: 'Neither a mother nor a father nor. other relatives vi'll do that (whereby) a rightly directed thought will make him one superior to it* (43); or 'even unto one there -nought is oneself' (62); or 'An ignorant man who is conceited as a wise one, he in¬ deed, is called an ignoramus' (63); or 'taking upon this refuge*

158 Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989) /

(189, 192).

K’s translation has other oddities, which are possibly based upon confusion of forms. He translates vannagandbam in 49 as ’colorful' and we may suspect that he has confused it with vanna- vantam in 51-52 which he renders in the same way..* In 44-45 he> translates dhammapadam sudesitam as ’the well-taught path of righ¬ teousness'. presumably confusing pada with patha , although in the notes (p. 164) he includes a reference to 'the well-taught verses of the doctrine'. In 168 he translates uttitthe na ppamajjayya ('one should stand up, one should not be careless') as 'let one net be indolent in (the gathering of) scraps (as alms)', which

looks a 3 though he has taken uttitt/ie to be uccbittho , perhaps

'helped by R's misprint utthitthe. In 188 bahum ve saranam y anti is translated as ’Many are they... that resort as refuge...',

which suggests that bahum is being taken as a nominative plural.

Sometimes K improves on R, although it is not always clear

that he knows how or why he is doing so. So in 74 he translates

'Let both householders and recluses know that this has been done by myself', where R and C&P have ’think’, translating mannantu, which is also read by the Commentary. Udanavarga XIII.5, however, reads janlyur 'let them know’, and it seems preferable to divide the word kata mannantu as katam annantu, where the latter word is the third plural imperative from Sjanati 'know'. In 179 he translates koci lokc as 'anywhere in the world', which is certain¬ ly correct, since koci stands for kvaci , whereas the Commentary (followed by R and C&P) takes it as a nominative s J ngular. In his notes, however, K gives no hint that he'is consciously depart¬ ing from R's interpretation.

Similarly, he translates vijessati in 44 as 'will compre¬ hend', i.e. the equivalent of vijanissati 'will know’, instead pf 'will conquer’ as R and C&P take it. He does this, he says, at Jayawickrama's suggestion (although this is in fact the explan¬ ation given in the Commentary), because "‘will conquer' makes no sense in the present context" although, as noted, other transla¬ tors find this a satisfactory interpretation. C&P read vijessati in the Dhammapada itself but vicessati for the lemma in the Commen¬ tary, and they have a note pointing out that the various tradi¬ tions are undecided about whether to read -c- or -j-. It is clear

On Translatina the Dhammapad

that there is a pun intended on vici - in pada a 'to distinguish, separate, understand* and pad - in pada d 'to pluck’. ’The various readings have come into existence because the verse has at some stage been transmitted through (and possibly even composed in) a dialect which turned intervocalic consonants into -y-. When the Pali redactors (or the redactors of the version upon which the Pali Dhammapada is based) were faced with this verse they were uncertain about the correct forms to adopt in their own dia¬ lect. When translating the pada about picking flowers there was no doubt - the verb there had to be ci-. In the first pada the decision was not so easy. Although the verb yici- existed and made very good sense, and must indeed have been the form which the commentator had in mind when he gave his explanation, never¬ theless (pace K) the idea of conquering the world and becoming a Jina was also very possible. Hence the ambivalence of the tra¬ dition.

Sometimes we may suspect that a departure by K from R's inter¬ pretation is based upon a misunderstanding of the Pali, e.g. in 34 roaradheyyam pahatave is translated 'The dominion of Mara should be eliminated’, which suggests that pahatave (an infinitive of purpose * 'to avoid the dominion of Mara') has been taken as though it were the future passive participle pahatabbam . C&P have a long note on this word (pp.435-6) which reveals that they were rather baffled by the inclusion of the form pahatabbam in the Commentary, They explain their efforts to reconcile this form with the infinitive which they correctly realise pahatave to be. Their confusion is hard to understand. The Commentary rightly explains pahatave by an alternative form of the infinitive (paha- tum), but in the exegesis of the verse the sentence is changed to the passive construction and reworded so that the future pas¬ sive participle is included. I do not think that the Commentary is trying to explain the infinitive by the future passive partici¬ ple as C&P seem to believe, and I cannot accept their translation ’[Fit) to discard [is] Mara’s sway'.

The possibility of the word amata having the meaning 'immorta¬ lity' has caused problems for both C&P and K. In his note on verse 21 K states: "amata-padam has been translated by R as the 'abode of eternal life'. Amata (Sanskrit amrta) t being the goal

Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

of the religious life, was assumed to be the avoidance of death, including death in this life, and the attainment of eternal rest in the future. Such a view of immortality seems incompatible with the rest of the teachings of the Buddha. Amata or immor¬ tality, therefore, could be taken only in the sense of absence

of rebirth.*' A reader may well feel that, although K has made

a good point here, 'absence of rebirth* is not the most obvious

way to define 'immortality', and it would have been helpful if

he had expanded his explanation.

The commentary on verse 27 explains that nibbana is called amata because, as a result of not being born, it dees not grow old and die. Such a statement makes no sense and must be incor¬ rect, because nibbana is the opposite of samsara , and yet it could equally well be said that samsara is r.ot born, and therefore will j not grow old and die. On the other hand, we cannot say that sam :

sara is born and will grow old and die. It is clear that the epithets must refer, not to nibbana , but to the conditions which

pertain in nibbana , which must be the opposite of those which pertain in samsara. In their translation C&P quote a later com- mentary "upon the Dhamraapada which seems to recognise this problem. i) It gives the information that nibbana Is called 'deathless' be¬

cause it is free from old age and death and because it destroys old age and death for the noble ones who have attained it. Ooce we realise that these epithets must refer to the condition of those beings, who have gained nibbana, then ve can see that the - translation 'immortality* for a/nata gives the wrong impression,

because it implies that such beings live for ever which, as K

has made clear, is aji untenable view. The correct translation

- must be ’where there is no death. 1

Strangely, although K has this lengthy note about amata and

ji C6P quote the explanation from one of the later commentaries,

both translations nevertheless follow their predecessors. K tran- slates the compound word a/nata-padam in 21 as 'the path to iromor- ! ! tality*; in 114 he renders amatam padam as 'path of immortality';

S > in 374 he translates amatam as 'Immortality*; in 411 he renders

| amat' - ogadham as 'immersed himseif in immortality*. C&P translate

fcj : 'the path to the Deathless', 'the immortal state*, 'ambrosia*

and 'the Deathless* respectively. They are clearly following

On Translating the Dhammapada

others: Max Muller translated the same passages as: ‘the path of immortality', 'the immortal place, ’the immortal’ and 'the ! Immortal* respectively. Radhakrishnan translated: 'the path to

'* eternal life', 'the deathless state', ‘life eternal* an3 'the

eternal' respectively.

It is noteworthy that GU J sometimes follow t..^ commonly accep¬ ted translation elsewhere loo, even when the Commentary gives i another explanation, and there is nothing which prevents them

i following it, e.g. in 175 they translate nlyanti as 'are led*,

\ although the presence of yanti twice in the first line shows clear¬

ly that we are dealing with a development of niryanti ’they go

forth', as the Commentary's explanation nissara/iti (’they go out*)

| shows. To translate as they do misses the whole point of the

verse, which means 'Geese can go high in the sky; men can go in the sky by supernormal powers; but the wise (i.e. the followers of the Buddha) can go away from this world (i.e. attain nibbana)*.

K gets this right, but he gives no note about his interpretation, and it may he that he is merely following the Commentary (see above). C&P usually draw attention to anomalies in the Commentary, e.g. while translating diso in 42 as 'foe', they point out that the Commentary explains it as 'thief*. On the other hand they

• sometimes ignore such anomalies, e.g. in 166 they translate sadat-

\ thapasuto as 'intent on the true purpose', and make no , comment

upon the Commentary, which must have interpreted sadattha as sa- -d-attba {< sva + artba with a sandhi -d-), since it explains ‘ this as 'engaged in one's own purpose’ ( sake attfte). K, on the

other hand, devotes a long note to the verse, justifying his re- | jectipn of the Commentary’s interpretation.

{ K's reaction to Brough leads him to make incorrect statements

about him - referring to 82 he says (p.167) that Brough thinks that the occurrence of the word dhammani in Jataka V 221 ,27* is incorrect. Brough actually says 'the neuter plural' occurs, and probably correctly... ,9 . On the same verse C&P take a more sober line, and agree that the plural is unusual (p.4$l). They are ? perhaps putting more trust in the Patna Dharmapada than is Justi-

| fled when they say its reading dhammani iottana decisively sup-

| ports the Pali reading. The Patna Dharmapada reading does nothing

more than show that th» — -* *

Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

sent in the version upon which the Patna Dharraapada is based. Although it suits C&P here to be able to say that 'the Patna Dhar¬ mapada decisively supports the Pali reading', I have not found anywhere in their translation a statement that 'the Patna Dharraa¬ pada here decisively refutes the Pali reading'. Elsewhere, how¬ ever, when the Patna Dharraapada, unknown to Brough when he made 1 his edition, agrees with the Pali against the Gandharl Dharmapada and the UdSnavarga they are often content merely to state the fact. In one place, however, their reaction leads C&P to forget their Sanskrit - on p.421 they reject Brough's suggestion that vahato in 1 is the genitive of the word vahatu 'draught ox’, on the grounds that the Udanavarga reads vahatah and the Patna Dhar¬ mapada reads vahato, 'both of which support the [traditional ex¬ planation in the) Pali commentary*. In saying this they overlook the fact that Patna vahato (like Pali vahato) is the expected development in the dialect of that text from Brough's conjectured vahatoh, while the Udanavarga vahatah represents the Buddhist Hy¬ brid Sanskrit’s redactor's 'translation' of the vahato which he received in his exemplar, and cannot be used as evidence one wa'y or the other. Bizarrely, having objected to Brough's explanation, they adopt his translation: *... as a wheel the draught ox's foot*.

C&P quote extensively from Brough. They do not do this merely to reject his views, but are prepared to discuss variant tradi¬ tions, e.g. svakhyata-cfharroa as opposed to *samAhya ta-dhamma in 70, although they do not consider *sams*rta-dharraa which, despite the note on p.447, would seem to be the only possible antecedent to the form sa/n^/iaca-dhafluna which they actually read in the verse. They seem, however, to be unacquainted with other literature about the Gandharl Dharmapada, and have a long note on sahkarabhutesu in 59, because they do not realise the possibility of separating su from sahAarabhute and taking it as a particle. They refer to Roth's edition of the Patna Dharmapada 10 and Bernhard's edition of the Udanavarga 11 , both unused by K, but neither their transla- tion nor K's seems to owe anything to LUders* work . There is, for example, no hint of any knowledge of the existence in Pali of an ablative singular in -am, and although C&P state that 'from a flower' would be a better translation for puppham in 49, and point to the existence of the ablative forms puspa and puspad

On Translating the Dhammapada

in the parallel texts, they do not suggest that puppham might be an ablative. Nor do the translators reveal any knowledge of an accusative plural in -am in Pali, with the result that both translations take kanham dhammam and suAAam in 87 as singu¬ lar (’a shady/shadowy dhamma . . . the bright'), whereas the Commen¬ tary on Samyutta-Nikaya V 24,21, where the verse recurs, makes it clear that it is referring to akusala and kusala dbammas . Patna Dharmapada 284 and Udanavarga XVI. 14 both have plural forms in the parallel versions of the verse.

K seems to have interpreted Brough's statement, quoted above, as meaning that the Gandharl Dharmapada was /more primitive* than the Dhammapada, although Brough quite clearly stated that

the Udanavarga, Pali Dhammapada and GSndharl Dharmapada 'show,

simply on Inspection, that no single one of them has a claim superior to the others to represent this section of a 'primitive* Buddhist canon’* 3 . K seems to believe that Brough was the first person'to V have stated that the Pali version was not necessarily superior to all others, which would suggest that he had not read -•.Brough's introduction very' carefully. He accuses Brough of ex- hibiting a 'prejudice which does not help towards a proper under¬ standing of the different versions and their relative positions* (p.vii).

It must be stressed that all the versions of the Dhammapada we possess are translations of earlier versions, all going back ultimately to a corpus of verses, the core of which came into existence at a very early stage of Buddhism, possibly at the time of the Buddha, although it is very likely that additions were made to the corpus after that time. Even if we could date the versions we have; we should be dating only the translation of an earlier version. If we look at any one of this group of texts we will find that each one of then has some features which might reasonably be surmised to be, if not original, then at least close to the original, and yet as the same time each one has features which are manifestly incorrect or late. The rela¬ tionship between Pali Dhammapada, Patna Dharmapada, Gandharl Dharraapada and Udanavarga is very complicated, with patterns of equivalence between them varying from verse to verse, and sometimes even from pada to pada. The fact that any two or more

Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

of them agree in some feature tells us only that in some way, in the history of the texts, they were dependent upon a common source for that particular feature. The number of verses each redactor selected, the numbers of vargas into'which they were sorted and the way in which verses were apportioned to each varga, give us no information whatsoever about the date at which each selection was made.

To translate the Dhararaapada one needs to be entirely without pre-conceived notions- about which version is ’best’; one must be thoroughly acquainted with all the other versions; one must know about all the secondcry literature which has been written about these, especially articles dealing with the relationship between them; one must be an expert in the grammar of Sanskrit, Pali and other Middle Indo-Aryan languages; one must have a flair for seeing a point which other translators have not even realised presents a difficulty and for be^ng able to solve the problem. Moreover, to translate the Dhammapada into English one must be able to write good, clear, unambiguous and idiomatic English. No wonder Brough said it was too difficult!

NOTES

1 David J. Kalupahana, A Path of Righteousness: Dhammapada : an introductory essay, together with the Pali text, English translation and commentary, xii, 221 pp. Lanharo, New York, London: University Press of America, 1986. $22.76, $12.60 (paperback).

John Ross Carter and Hahlnda Paliwadana, The Dhammapada : A new English trans¬ lation with the Pall text and the first English translation of th^ commentary's explanation of the verses, with notes translated from, Sinhala sources and critical textual comments, xii, 523 pp. New York, Oxford: OUP, 1987. $45.00.

2 John Brough, The Candhari Dharmapada , London 1962.

3 Ibid., p.xvii. •

Ibid., p.xvi.

E.W. Burlingame, Buddhist Legends , Harvard Oriental Series, Vols.28-30, 1921, repr. PTS 1979.

H.C. Norman, The commentary on the Dhamraapada, Vols 1-4, PTS 1906-14.

On Translating the Dhammapada 1$5

S. Radhakrishnan, The Dhammapada , Madras, OUP, 1950, repr. Delhi 1980.

Max Muller, The Dhammapada , Sacred Books of the East Vol.X, Oxford 1881, repr. Delhi 1980.

Op. cit., p.245. 0

10 G. Roth, ’Particular features of the language of the Arya-MahSsanghika- LokottaravSdins and their importance for early Buddhist tradition' in H. Bcchert (ed.). The Languages of the Earliest Buddhist Tradition , Gottingen 1980, pp.78-135.

• • F. Bernhard, UdSnavarga , Gottingen 1965.

12 ..

H. luders, Beobachtunycn uber die Sprachc des buddbisticbes Urkancns, Berlin L954 . « 

Op. cit., p.xiv.

THE DHAMMAPADA - EAST AND WEST

Russell Webb

The factors that have contributed to this text's continuing popu¬ larity are: (i) its self-sufficiency as r. auide to Buddhist \ thought and practice (i.e. it 'represents* the Sutta Pitaka to a greater degree than any other text); (ii) its readability, and (iii) its relative concision.

It is interesting to recall the vast number of editions and translations that have been produced, especially since the text in question is, in many cases, the only complete canonical work Uiat has appeared on a.commercial basis.

ASIAN EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS

Arabi c - Boulos Salama (tr. - unpublished) Khartoum 1959

Bengali - Charu Chandra Bose (ed. and tr., incl. Sanskrit tr.) MBS, Calcutta 1904, 1960

L.M. Joshi and Sharada Gandhi (tr. with text in Guru- ' mukhi script) Patiala 1969

Bhikshu Shilabhadra (tr.) MBS c.1960

Burmese (Rangoon)

Khuddakanikaya I, 1924

Chatthasanglti Pitakam (Sangayana ed.) Khuddakanikaya I 1961, 1972

Siriraangala-paritta-pali (ed.) 1986

Thingaza Hsaya Agga-DharamalaAkara (ed. and tr.) 1880 Hpo Lat (tr.) 1951 T.H. Levin (tr. ) 1873 Saya Tint (tr . ) 1925

Chinese - Fa-chu-ching (incl. 13 vargas from an Udanavarga) Nanjio , 1365

Dainihon Kotei DaizSkyo 24, Tokyo 1880-5 Dainihon Kotei Zokyo 26, Kyoto 1902-5 Taisho Shinsha DiazOkyo 210 Tokyo 1927 Fa-chii-p ’ i-yii-ching (T 211) - S. Beal (tr.), loc . sub. T. Adachi (tr.) Hokkugyb Kogi , Tokyo 1935

The Dhammapada - East and West

C. Akenuma and K. Nishio (tr.) Uokkuhiyugyo , Tokyo 1931 Bhikkhu Dharmakitti (Liao-chan, tr.) Nan ch'uan fa chu # Hong Kong 1961

Bhiksu Jan Hai (tr. Narada's English ed.) Taipei n.d.

(Related, apocryphal text - T 2901, tr. by H. Ui in his Saiiki Butten no Kenkyu - 'Study of the Buddhist Scriptures from Central Asia ' , Tokyo 1969]

Devanagarl

N.K. Bhagwat (ed. with English tr.) Bombay 1935 Vinoba Bhave (ed.) Nava samhita pada auchi-sahi ta , Ka$I (Benares] 1959

Rai Carat Das and Seelakkhanda Thera (ed.) Calcutta 1899

J. Kashyap (ed.) in Khuddakanikaya I, Nalanda Devanaga¬ rl Pali Series, 1959

C. Kunhan Raja (ed. with English tr.) Adyar 1956, 1984 P.l. Vaidya (ed . with English tr. by R.D. Shrikhande) Poona 1923 (rev. ed. with tr. by Vaidya) 1934

Hind 1 - Bhikshu K. Dharmarakshita (tr. with Devanagarl text)

MBS, Sarnath 1954 , 1^963; with tr. of stories from

Commentary, Varanasi 1971

RShula SaAkrtyayana (tr. with Devanagarl text) Allaha¬ bad 1933

Japanese (all tr. - published in Tokyo?)

Ryoda Miyata et al. in Nanden Daizokyo 23, 1937 Makoto Nagai Dhammapada, 1948

Hajime Nakamura Dudda no Shinri no Koioba , 1978

Shundo Tachibana in Kokuyaku Daizokyo 12, 1918 Entai Tomomatsu Dhammapada , 1961, 1969 Unrai Wogihara Hokku xyo, 1935

Khmer - Brah Traipitaka pall (with tr.) Phnom Penh 1938 Lao - (with Lao, English and French trss) Vientiane 1974 Slnhala (Colombo)

Buddha Jayanti Tripitaka Series 24, Khuddakanikaya I, 1960 (with Sinhalese tr.)

E.W. Adikaram (ed . with English tr.) 1954

168 Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

A.P. Buddhadatta (ed. and tr.) ,n.d.

A. P. de Soysa (tr.) 195—

Devamitta (tr.) Dhammapada-purana~sannaya , 1926

H. Devamitta (» H. Sri Dharmakirti Devamitra, ed.)

Sanna sahita dhammapada y a, 1879, 1911 U. Dhanmananda (tr.) Dhanwnapadartha-gatha-san/iaya, Alut- gama 1907

K. Dhammaratana (tr.) Dhammapada-purana-sannaya t 1926 M. Sri Wane6vara Dharmananda (ed. and tr . ) Saddharmakau- mud i nam bhava rt thavivaranasahita dhammapadapa1iya , 1927, 1946

B. Siri Sivali (ed. and tr . with English tr.), 1954,

1961

S. Sumahgala (tr.) o/iammapadartha-gatha-sannaya, 1899

Thai (Bangkok)

Udaya Devamoli et al. (ed.) Syamaratthassa Tepitakaro 25, 1926, 1980

Brah Traipitak-bhasa-daiy 38 (tr.) 1957 (ed. and tr.) Gatha Phra Thammabod garaglorn, Wat Ben- chamabopitr 1961 ^

Klong khatha thammabat (ed. and tr.) I9tt Sathienpeng Wonnapok (tr. with English tr.) 1979 Brah Dharmapad-caturbhag (Thai and roman texts, Thai and English trss) 1987

Nepali - Bh. Amritananda (tr.), Kalimpong 1950 Satya Mohan Joshi (tr.), Lalitpur 1956

Tibetan - Gedun Chomphel (tr.) Chos kyi tshigs su btad pa blugs so, Gangtok 1946, New Delhi 1976 and in an appendix to Derge Kanjur and Tanjur (ed.

Dharma Publishing), Berkeley 1980 - another tr., MBS, Sarnath 1964

Vietnamese

(Thfch) Minh Chau (tr. - unpublished?). Van Hanh Bud¬ dhist Institute, Saigon c.1975 (Thich) Thien Chau (tr.) Villebon-sur-Yvette (Paris)

The Dhammapada - East and West

WESTERN EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS

(N.B. All texts in roman script unless otherwise indicated) Suriyagoda Sumahgala (ed.) PTS, London 1914

Catalan - Joaquim Torres i Godori (tr.) La Sendcra de la Perfeccio , Montserrat 1982

Czech - Vincenp Lesny (tr.) Prague 1947

Danish - Chr. Lindtner (tr.) Buddhas laereord , Copenhagen 1981 Pcul Tuxen (tr.) Copenhagen 1920, 1953

4

Dutch - J.A. Blok (tr.) in woorden van don Bocddha, Deventer 19- 53, 1970

English - E.W. Adiharara (tr.) Colombo 1954 B. Ananda Maitreya (tr.) serialised in Pali Buddhist Re¬ view 1 and 2, London 1976-7, and offprinted as Law verses , Colombo 1978

J. Austin (comp.) The Buddhist Society, London 1945, 19-

Irving Babbitt (tr.) New York 1936, 1965 Bhadragaka (comp.) Collection of Verses on the Doctrine of the Buddha , ’ Bangkok 1952 * - printed 1965 N.K. Bhagvat (tr.) Bombay 1931, Hor.g Kong 1968 ,

A.P. Buddhadatta (ed. and tr.) Colombo 1954, Bangkok 19-

Buddharakkhita (tr.) MBS, Bangalore 1966; Buddhayoga Meditation Society, Fawnskin (California) and Syari- kat Dharma, Kuala Lumpur 1984; BPS, Kandy 1985 E.W. Burlingame (tr. incl. Commentary) Buddhist Legends , 3 vols. Harvard 1921, PTS 1979. Selected and rev. by Khantipalo for Buddhist Stories, 4 vols, BPS, Kandy 1982-8

Thomas Byrom (comp.) London 1976

John Ross Carter and Mahinda Palihavadana (ed. and tr.) New York 1987

J.P. Cooke and O.G. Pettis (tr.) Boston 1898 U. Dhamoajoti (tr.) MBS, Benares 1944

Eknath Easwaran (tr.) Blue Mountain Center, Berkeley

Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

1986, London 1987

Albert J. Edmunds (tr.) Hymns of the Faith , LaSalle (Il¬ linois) 1902 *

D.J. Gogerly (tr. vaggas 1-18) in The Friend IV (Colom¬ bo 1840), repr. in Ceylon Friend (Colombo 1881) and in his collected works, Ceylon Buddhism II (Lon¬ don 1908)

James Gray (tr.) Rangoon 1881, Calcutta 1887 K. Gunaratana (tr.) Penang 1937

Norton T.W. Hazeldine (tr.) The Dhammapada, or the Path of Rightcousncss , Denver 1902 Raghavan Iyer (cd. and tr.) Santa Barbara 1986 U.D. Jayasckera (tr. - unpublished) Colombo 1986 David J. Kalupahana (ed. and tr.) A Path of Righteous¬ ness , Lanham 1986

Suzanne Karpelbs (7 tr.) serialised in Advent (Pondi¬ cherry 1960-5) and repr. in Questions and Answers (Collected Works of the Mother 3, Pondicherry 1977) Harischandra Kaviratna (el.andtt.) wisdom of the Buddha , Theosophical University Press, Pasadena 1980 Khantipalc (tr.) Crowing the Dodhi Tree, Bangkok 1966 The Path of Truth, Bangkok 1977 C. Kunhan Raja (tr.) Adyar 1956, 1984 P. Lai (tr.) New York 1967 T. Latter (tr.) Moulmein 1850

Wesley La Violette (free rendering and interpretation) Los Angeles 1956

C.P. Malalasekcrc; \tr . - unpublished) folorabo 1969 Juan Mascar6 (tr.) Harmondsworth 1973

F. Max MUller (tr.) London 1870, SBE - Oxford 1881, New York 1887, Delhi 1980. Contained also in John B. A1 phonso-Karkala An Anthology of Indian Litera¬ ture (Harmondsworth 1971 - selection only), Lewis

Biownc The WorId's Greatest Scriptures (New York 19- 45, 1961 - selection only). E.A. Burtt The Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha (New York 1955, 1963),

Allie M. Frazier Readings in Eastern Religious cht U Philadelphia 1969 - selection only).

The Dhammapada - East and West

C.H. Hamilton Buddhism, a Religion of Infinite Compassion (New York 1952), Charles F. Horne The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East X (New York 1917, Delhi 1987), Raymond Van Over East¬ ern Mysticism I (New York 1977 - selection* only),

I in Yutang The wisdom of China and India (New York 1942) and The wisdom of India (London 1944,* Bombay 1966).

Narada (ed. and tr.) Kandy 1940, London 1954, 1972,

Saigon 1963, Calcutta 1970, Colombo and New Delhi 197-2, BMS, Kuala Lumpur 1978; and, with addition of summary of commentary to each verse by K. Sri Dhammananda, Kuala Lumpur 1988; tr. incl. in The Path of Buddhism , Colombo 1950 Piyadassi (tr.5 Selections from the Dhammapada , Colombo 1974

' (tr. incl. Commentary) Stories of Buddhist in - Tjia, 2 vols, Moratuwa 1949, 19 53 Swami Premananda (tr.) The Path of the Eternal Law, Self-Realization Fellowship, Washington (D.C.) 1942

S. Radhakrishnan (ed. and tr.) Madras 1950, 1987, Delhi 1980. Repr. in S. Radhakrishnan and Charles A, Moore (ed.) a Source Book in Indian Philosophy , Princeton and Oxford Univ. Presses 1957 C.A.F. Rhys Davids (ed. and tr.) .Verses on Dhammj , PTS, London 1931

Sangharakshita (tr.) vaggas 1-12 serialised in fwbo sews lot ter, London K69 ff.

S.E.A. Scherb (tr.) 'The golden verses of the Buddha’

- a selection for the Christian Register , Boston 18- 61 .

Sll&cSra (tr.) The way of Truth , The Buddhist Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London 1915 Silananda (ed. and tr.) The Eternal Message of Lord Buddha, Calcutta 1982 B. Siri Sivali (tr.) Colombo 1954, 1961 W. Somalokatissa (tr.) Colombo 1953, 1969

172 Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

D,tv Mya Tin (ed. and tr . ) Rangoon 1986

Roger Tite (comp. - unpublished) Southampton 1974

P. L. Valdya (tr.) Poona 1923 , 1934

W.D.C. Wagiswara and K.J. Saunders (tr.) The Buddha's way of virtue, London 1912, 192/

Sathienpong Wannapok (tr.) The Buddha‘s words , Bangkok 1979

S. W. Wijayatilake (tr.) The way of Truth, Madras 1934 F.L. Woodward (tr.) The Buddha's Path of virtue, Adyar

1921, 1949

[The Cunningham Press, Alhambra (California) 1955, rcpr. The Thcosophical Society, Bombay 1957, 1965]

Esperanto

La Dhamapado do Budhismo, Montevideo 1973

T. T. Anuruddha (tr.) La Vojo al Nirvano , Vung-Tau 1973 George Voxon (tr.) serialised In La Budhis/no (Heswall

1931-4) and La Budha Lumo (Prestatyn 1950-7)

Estonian - Llnnart Mall (tr.) Tallinn 1977

Finnish - Hugo Valvanne (tr.) ilyvecn Sanoja , Porvoo-Helsinki 1953

French - Centre d'Etudes Bouddhiques (tr.) Vcrsvts d u Dhamma, Grenoble 1976

Andre Ch6del (tr.) Les Vers de la Doctrine , Paris 1978 P.S. Dhamraararoa (ed. and tr.) BEFEO LI, 2, Paris 1963. Fernando Hu (tr.) Paris 1878

Suzanne Karpeles (tr.) Commentaires sur le Dhammapada ,

Pondicherry 1960, 1974 R. and M. de Maratray (tr.) Paris 193,1

Narada (ed. and tr. Prajnananda [R. Joly]) serialised, in Sagesse 1-4, Gretz 1968-9; offpr. (with text) as Dhammapada , Les Stances du Dhamma, Gretz 1983

German - Paul Dahlke (tr.) Per Pfad der Lehre, Berlin 1919, Hei¬ delberg 1970

R.O. Franke (tr.) Dhamma-worte , Jena w 1923 Walter Markgraf (tr.) Der Pfad der Wahrheit , Munich 1912 Hans Much (tr.) Das hohe Lied der Wahrhei t des Buddha Cautaroa, Hamburg 1920

The Dhammapada - East and West

F. Max Muller -(tr.) Leipzig 1885

K. E. Neumann (tr.) Der Wahrhcitpfad , Leipzig 1893, Mun¬

ich 1921, Zurich-Vienna 1957 Kurt Schmidt (tr.) in 5prtJche und Lieder, Constance 1954

L. von Schroder (tr.) Worte der wahrheit, Leipzig *1892 Theodore Schultze (tr.) Leipzig 1885

Albrecht Weber (tr.) in ZDMG XIV, Leipzig 1860, and Indischc Strcifen I, Berlin 1868

Hebrew - Partial tr. by Schlomo Kalo as tfipi Buddha, Jaffa

Hungarian

KrnO HGtcrtyi (tr.) AMM, Budapest 1953 ,

GyOrgy Kovacs (tr. - unpublished) Budapest 1932

Icelandic - Sdren Sdrensen (tr.) Reykjavik 1954

Italian - Eugenio Frola (tr.) L^rma della Disciplina , Turin 1962 Luigi Martinelli (tr.) in Btica Buddhist a c vtica cris - tia/ia , Florence 1*971

P.E. Pavolini (tr.) Antoloyia di morale buddhistica , Milan 1908; repr. in Testi di morale buddhistica' Lunciano 1912, 1933

Lin Yu tang (in tr.) in La saggezza dell • India % Bompiani i960 .

Latin - V, Fausbtfll (ed. and tr.) Copenhagen 1855, OsnpbrUck

Kdre Lie (tr.) Oslo 1976

Polish - St. Fr, Micha^ski (tr.) Sciezka Pcawd y, Warsaw 1925, Lodz 1948

Portuguese

Nissim Cohen (ed. and tr.) A Scnda da Virtude, Sao Paulo 1985

G. da Silva (comp, from various eds) SSo Paulo 1978 Lin Yutang (in tr.) in a Sabedaria da China e da India t Rio de Janeiro 1969

Russian - N.l. Gerasimova (tr.) Moscow 1898

174 Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2 (1989)

Toporov (tr.) Bibldrotrheca Buddhica XXXI, Moscow 1960

Serbo-Croat

Vesna Krmpoti<! (tr.) in Uiljadu lotosa , Belgrade 1971

Spanish - Carmen Dragonetti (tr.) El camino del Dha'rma , Lima 1964, Buenos Aires 1967

Juan Mascard (tr.) El camino do pcrfeccion, Mexico City 1976

Swedish - Rune Johansson (tr.) Duddhistiska Aforismor, Stockholm

L.N. (tr.) Buddhas Evongclium cllcr Dhammapadam t CGte- . borg 1927

Ake Ohlmarks (tr.) in Duddha taladc och sade, Stockholm

INDO-CENTRAL ASIAN TEXTS AND STUDIES

II.W. Bailey 'The Khotan Dharmapada', BSOAS XI, London 1943-6 Michael Balk d/itersuchungon zum' udanrvarga . Untersuchungen Bertlch- sichtiging mittelindischer Parallelen und eines tibeti- schen Kommentars. Ph.D. diss., Bonn 1988 B.M. Barua and S. Mitra (ed. ) PraArit Dhammapada, Calcutta 1921, repr. Delhi 1988. (Selected trss in Laurence W. Fawcett Seeking Gotama Duddha in His Teachings , privately published, Radnor, Penn., 1962, pp.50-6)

A.A.G. Bennett ’The Text of the Dharamapada \ The Maha Dodhi 66, Calcutta 1958

'The Prakrit Dharmapada' (6 parts). Ib., 66-7, 1958-9 'The Smritivarga of the Sanskrit Dharmapada’. Ib. 69, 196 1

J.* Brough (ed.) The Candharl Dharmapada , London 1962 S. L6vi ’Textes sanscrlts de Touen-houang.. . Dharmapada...’, JA, Paris 1910

- ’L’Apramada-Varga . Etude sur les recensions des Dharma-

padas ' , JA 19 12

Kogen Mizuno 'A Comparative Study of Dharmapadas' Buddhist Studies in Honour of llamma lava Saddhatissa , ed . G. Dhammapala et

The Dhammapada - East and West

al, Nugegoda 1984

'Dharmapadas of Various Buddhist Schools' Studies ir. Pali and Duddhism , ed. A.K. Narain, Delhi 1979 P.K. Mukherjee 'The Dhammapada and the Udanavarga', Indian //is.to- rical Quarterly XI, Calcutta 1935 Hideaki Nakatani 'Remarques sur la transmission des Dharmapada’ Bulletin d'Studes Indiennes 2, Paris 1984 R. Pischcl 'Die Turfan-Rczensionen des Dhammapada ’, SPAW XXXIX, Berlin 1908

Bernard Pauly (ed. from Pelliot Collection) 'Fragments Sanskrits de Haute Asie': XV Udanavarga 33 (Brahmanavarga) with parallel versions in Prakrit and Tibetan rec nsions,... and Dhammapada , .JA 1961

Pavel Poucha Inst itut iones linguae Tocharicae. 2. Chrestomathia

Tocharica (Prague 1956). Incl. edited fragments of the' Tochartan Dharmapada and Udanavarga with their corresponding parallels in Pali, Sanskrit and Tibetan

L. Schmithausen 'Zu den Rezensionen des Udanavarga', WZKS XIV, Vienna 1970

Ch. Wlllemen 'The Prefaces to the Chinese Dharmapadas. Fa ChU Ching and Ch'u Yao Ching', Toung Pao LIX, Leiden 1973 Dharmapada , A Concordance to Udanavarga, Dhammapada, and the Chinese Dharmapada Literature, Brussels 1974 Introduction to The Chinese Udanavarga , Brussels 1978

OTHER STUDIES

Andrd Chddel 'Le Dhammapada, recueil de sentences bouddhiques' , Bulletin de la Soci6t& Suisse des Amis de l'Extrdme - Orient V, Berne 1943

Mahinda Palihawadana 'Dhammapada and Commentary':Some Textual Prob¬ lems and Brough’s Comments on Them', vidyodaya journal of Arts, science and Letters , Silver Jubilee No., Nuge¬ goda 1984 .

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EARLY RELATIONS BETWEEN INDIA AND TBE WEST*

Etienne Lamotte

In the first century of the Christian era* the history of India 5 was marked by the peaceful co-existence of several kingdoms of both local and foreign origin: in the north-west, the great Indo- Scythlan empire of the KUisanaa which stretched from the Caspian v Sea to Varanasi and from Kadmir to the region of Bombay;... In the ’ Deccan, the Andhra kingdom of the Sitakarnie, the Ksaharita kin,- f doe of SurXette and tha Sake satrapy of UJ Jayinis to the extreme

south of the -peninsula, the Dravldlan kingdoms of tbe keralaa or Ceras (Calicut and Travancore), the PIndyas (Madura region) and the Colas .(Trlchinopoly and Tanjore). wV s -

Until the end of the pre-Christian era, India had lived in . isolation and had baen able to assimilate without difficulty the ' hordes of foreign conquerors who had ventured across the north^ K west frontier: Graeco-Bactrlans, Scythians and Parthlans. She

had compelled them to bow to indigenous habits and customs end £ inculcated her beliefs in them. At the beginning of the Christian £ era, the situation changed radically. The development of trade t routes by land and sea brought India into, daily contact with the great neighbouring civilisations of the Vest and the Bast* ’ The trans-Iranian routes and the .tricks of Central Asia were crossed i by merchants; Graeco-Alexandrian ships commissioned by ftoman

capital regularly touched at the ports of Barbarlcon, Barygasa, SopSra and the Malabar coast; the Chinese themselves occasional¬ ly visited the settlements on the east coast. In fact, India had not sought these contacts; it was the foreigners, attracted by her wealth, who started the trading which was to intensify as the centuries passed. It was no longer possible for the In¬ dians to remain in an isolation caused by Ignorance or disdain; it was in their own interest to establish trade relations, welcome the merchants from overseas and exchange raw materials and manu¬ factured goods as well as ideas with them. A new opportunity arose for India to make the voice of her thinkers and philosophers heard and, before showing in a study to follow to what degree ^he responded, >e would like to examine here the possibilities

Buddhist Studies Review 5 f 2 (1988)