Honorific Epithet of SE Asian Kings Dr Uday Dokras Phd SWEDEN
Introduction: In my earlier article called DEVRAJA, GOD KING or King of Gods? I have tried to underline that the meaning attributed to the word Devaraja, supposed to have been first taken upon himself, by Jayavarman II is a little off the center. Similar titles self-congratulatory or otherwise were the trend of the day in a society that equated astrology as guiding principles of every-day and also Imperial life- a give and take between the Micro- cosmos and Macro-cosmos used quite effectively by the rulers of that era to control the populous as well as protect their supremacy.
In this paper I will try to explain why the term Chakravartin was awarded to him Jayavarman II (some say posthumously others say during his consecration or coronation?
In Sanskrit inscriptions, kings are called by many different titles, usually for metrical reasons, and a convincing argument must examine all occurrences of these various terms which is not the purpose of this paper, here we shall deal with the term Char
Kravartin which was posthumously awarded to Jayaraman II.
CHAKRAVARTIN: In Indian religions, a chakravarti (Sanskrit: चक्रवर्तिन् cakravartin, Pali: cakkavatti) is an ideal universal ruler, especially one who rules the entire Indian sub-continent (as in the case of the Maurya Empire, despite not conquering the southern kingdoms). The first references to a Chakravala Chakravartin appear in monuments from the time of the early Maurya Empire, in the 4th to 3rd century BCE, in reference to Chandragupta Maurya and his grandson Ashoka.
In Hinduism, a chakravarti is a powerful ruler whose dominion extends to the entire earth. The Indian concept of chakravarti later evolved into devaraja concept of divine right of kings, which was adopted by the indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Southeast Asia through Indian Hindu Brahmins scholars deployed in courts. It was first adopted by Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms such as Majapahit and through them the Khmer Empire, and subsequently by the Thai monarches.
The word cakra-vartin- is a bahuvrīhi compound word, translating to "one whose wheels are moving", in the sense of "whose chariot is rolling everywhere without obstruction". It can also be analysed as an 'instrumental bahuvrīhi: "through whom the wheel is moving" in the meaning of "through whom the Dharmachakra ("Wheel of the Dharma) is
turning" (most commonly used in Buddhism). The Tibetan equivalent Tibetan: ཁོར་ལོས་སྒྱུར་བའི་རྒྱལ་པོ་, Wylie: khor los sgyur ba'i rgyal po translates "monarch who controls by means of a wheel". In Buddhism, a chakravarti is the secular counterpart of a buddha. The term applies to temporal as well as spiritual kingship and leadership, particularly in Buddhism and Jainism.
The nature of the the kingdoms assailed by Jayavarman II and their extent is subject to debate. It may have had limited or entirely notional influence over some of the tributary states, Geographical and economic constraints suggest that rather than a regular centralised authority, the outer states were most likely to have been connected mainly by trade connections, which were probably a royal monopoly. At various times in History Kings took upon themselves fancy named to increase the majesty of their position.
Rajamandala- circle of kings
⦁ Maharaja
⦁ Rajasnagara
⦁ Raja
⦁ Devanampriya Priyadarshi’ Emperor Ashoka of the Gupta Empire (India) was not only called Chakravartin but also ‘Devanampriya Priyadarshi’ - "Beloved of the Gods joined to ⦁ Priyadasi, which means - "Humane."
⦁ Rajadhiraja- King of Kings:-There are many unsupported reconstructions of these title was such as this one which Claude Jacques,1A talks of the the existence of an institution of “roi des rois” (“king of kings”, Sanskrit rājādhirāja) among other contemporary Cambodian kings. It is contended by him that “the king of Angkor is often called rajadhiraja in the inscriptions, or an equivalent title”. In Sanskrit inscriptions, kings are called by many different titles, usually for metrical reasons, and a convincing argument must examine all occurrences of “rājādhirāja”.
Character Chakravartin from Asura's Wrath - an action video game developed by Cyber Connect2 and published by Capcom. As one can see there was a tendency to intermix religious dogma and societal concepts because none of the migrated religions had taken deep root. The fear of challenging, manipulating , being mischivious and making a tardy use of religion to suit a purpose was the order of the day amongst the Rulers. See how the Khemer switched their religion from Hinduism to Buddhism as one changes one’s garments.
For example, Dvaravati a period that lasted from the 6th to the 11th century was a disparate conglomeration of principalities of Mon people. But it is also the name of Dvārakā, also known as Dvāravatī (Sanskrit द्वारका "the gated [city]", possibly meaning having many gates, or alternatively having one or several very grand gates), which was a sacred historic city and in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism the name Dvaraka is said to have been given to the place by Hindu God Shri Krishna a major deity. It( the city) being one of the Sapta Puri (seven sacred cities) of Hinduism.
In the Mahabharata, it was a city located in what is now Dwarka
, formerly called Kushasthali, the fort of which had to be repaired by the Yadavas. In this epic, the city is described as a capital of the Anarta Kingdom. According to the Harivamsa the city was located in the region of the Sindhu Kingdom. In the Hindu epics and the Puranas, Dvaraka is called Dvaravati and is one of seven Tirtha (pilgrimage) sites for spiritual liberation. The other six are Mathura, Ayodhya, Kashi, Kanchipuram, Avantika (Ujjain) and Puri.
The city is described as near the sea, in modern-era Gujarat; a painting of the city in the 19th century
14 Ratnas of Chakravartin, 17th century JAIN manuscript.
King Bharata was the first chakravartin (universal emperor or possessor of chakra) of avasarpini (present half time cycle as per Jain cosmology) in Jain tradition. He was the eldest son of Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara of Jainism. The ancient name of India was named "Bhāratavarsha" or "Bhārata" or "Bharata-bhumi" after him. He had two sons from his chief-queen Subhadra named Arkakirti and Marichi. He is said to have conquered all the six parts of the world and to have engaged in a fight with Bahubali, his
brother, to conquer the last remaining city. The Jain chronology places Rishabhanatha (in historical terms), as someone who lived millions of years ago. He is believed to have been born 592.704 x 1018 years ago and lived for a span of 8,400,000 purva. His height is described in the Jain texts to be 500 bows (1312 ells), or about 4920 feet/1500 meters. That does not help us much.
In Jainism, a Chakravartin Samrat was characterised by his possession of Saptaratna, or "Seven Jewels."
Ratna-Chakra, a miraculous diamond serrated discus that never misses its target
⦁ Empress
⦁ Divine Jewellery
⦁ Immense Wealth
⦁ Huge Army of ⦁ War-Chariots
⦁ Huge Army of Cavalry
Some lists cite navaratna or "nine jewels" instead, adding "Prime Minister" and "Son"
ASTROLOGY in their MIDST: The Khemer kings subscribed to the doctrine of a parallelism between the microcosmon and the macro-cosmos by which according to which the forces from the planets and stars coud bestow welfare and prosperity or wreck havoc. Thus, the astrologocam significance on the lives of people was considered more than it is today.1
Pre Jayavarman II Era or “Pre- Ankorean Era” : It is a definite compliment that historians call the period prior to the “discovery” of Jayavarman II as the Pre Ankorean period- equating him with the creation of Angkor.
Prior to the “coming” of Jayavarman II, the area had already witnessed the development of a couple of earlier states that shared many characteristics with the later [[Khmer}} Empire, such as Funan and Zhenla. The period before 802 is called the Pre-Angkorian Era. From the 1st century onwards, much of south-east Asia began to adopt Indian influences.
Chinese documents indicate that during the 1st century, major sea trade routes developed between China and India., via south-east Asia. As a result, the people of south-east Asia became involved in trade along the way. Along the trade routes, ports soon developed to cater for the needs of the merchants, bringing great wealth to the region.
Funan
According to Nan Qi Shu, Funan, which was located in the Mekong Delta region, became an important trading power on the trade route between China and India during the period 100-550: 'The Funan market is the meeting place of between eats and west … as Funan offers a place of passage from one ocean to.another.'
Archaeological excavations at Oc Eo, a site in Vietnam, reveal evidence of an important port, being called south-east Asia's 'first great cosmopolitan trading city.' Numerous artefacts have been excavated at Oc Eo, including gold medallions of the Roman Emperor Antonius Pius (c.152), iron from the Philippines and mirrors from China, hinting at goods received from around the world. Indian inscribed seal stones and Buddhist and Hindu statues demonstrate influence of Indian religion and culture upon the Mekong Delta region.
==Zhenla==
As Funan began to decline and the economy began to shift from trade to agriculture, the territory to the north of Funan, called Zhenla began to prosper. Stone inscriptions indicate that the area was not united as a single country but was ruled by a number of regional leaders. Ishanavarman I p) of Sambor Prei Kuk then managed to bring Funan, and much of the area covered by modern-day Cambodia, under control. His great-grandson, Jayavarman I, continued to expand the kingdom, controlling a large bureaucracy. However, after the kingdom broke up into smaller competing states, the Khmer Empire then came into existence under the unification of these states.
Let us consider once again the foundation of the kingdom under Jayavarman the II nd. It has been oft written and I quote: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
In 790 a young Cambodian prince, claiming to be descended from the rulers of Funan, was consecrated in eastern Cambodia under the title ( son of Jayavarman I) Jayavarman II. Part of the ceremony involved breaking ties with “Java,” which probably was a reference not to the island of Java but to the kingdom of Srivijaya on the island of Sumatra.
Over the next 10 years, Jayavarman extended his power northward into the Mekong River valley until, in 802, he was reconsecrated as a chakravartin (the ancient Indian conception of world ruler) in northwestern Cambodia. The capital seems to have been located in the Kulén Hills, north of the present-day provincial capital
of Siĕmréab, where he died in 835. Despite the high status accorded him by subsequent Angkorean kings, Jayavarman II seems to have left no inscriptions of his own, and the monuments that can be dated to his reign were small and hastily built.
Khmer empire c. 1200.
Establishment of Kambuja-desa: Sketchy to a fault, the information- by that I mean both knowledge and facts is mired in deceptive understanding of the region not necessarilt brought about by misinformation but by subscribing to a narrative that was already laid down but on weak foundation.
Jayavarman’s real accomplishment was less tangible and lasted longer, for he appears to have established what came to be called Kambuja-desa, a confident, self-aware kingdom that superseded and came to control a range of smaller states. He was Cambodia’s first nationally oriented king. It is not known whether smaller states were forced into submission or joined of their own volition. Despite the grandeur of the Angkorean temples that were built over the next four centuries, Jayavarman II’s successors were often powerless or constrained by opposing forces. Revolts and usurpations were frequent, as were foreign invasions.
Rulers were the object of rival claims by family members, priests, generals, and bureaucrats. Some kings, especially usurpers, had more freedom of action than others. Those who ruled in periods of peace were also in a better position to undertake building programs and public works. Like their counterparts in medieval Europe, Cambodian kings were far removed from ordinary people. The king was perceived primarily in religious terms, and he ensured the fertility of the soil and the well-being of the kingdom through the
rituals he performed. In exchange for his protection, the people were subject to intermittent military service and corvée duty and were also called on to provide labour without payment for Buddhist and Hindu religious foundations and for local elites.
During his rule, Jayavarman II is credited with establishing a new capital at Mount Kulen in north-western Cambodia. Mount Kulen was regarded as sacred and Jayavarman II
ordered the construction of a three-tiered temple on the mountain. Jayavarman II appointed a high priest and ordered that only the descendants of the family of his high priest were able to become high priests in the future. While we do not have reliable written records of the actions that Jayavarman II took to expand the Khmer Empire, we do know that after his death, the extent of the empire was quite large. As Jayavarman II's power grew, he felt increasingl secure and moved his capital city from Mount Kulen to Hariharalaya, near the great inland lake- Tonle Sap.
Hydrologvical Constructions: Jayavarman II's son, Jayavarman III, succeeded him, beginning construction of an irrigation network, designed to help improve rice production. Jayavarman III, was succeeded by his cousin, Indravarman, who further expanded the system of artificial lakes and irrigation canals. King Yasovarman I succeeded Indravarman, moving the capital to Yasodharapura.
Toward the end of the 9th century, soon after Jayavarman II’s death, the Cambodian capital shifted to the northern shores of the Tonle Sap, near present-day Phumĭ Rôluŏs. A king named Indravarman I (ruled 877–c. 890) constructed a large reservoir and several temples there, including a pyramidical structure called the Bakong—the first Cambodian temple to be built primarily of stone rather than brick. The so-called “temple mountain” became the model for the many larger royal temples at Angkor that served as monuments to the greatness of their patrons and, subsequently, as their tombs.
The Khemer empire later was to claim relationships with Champa, Cambodia, Siam, southern Burma, and Vietnam, and even sent missions to China. Going as far and including Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan, and eastern Indonesia, over which authority was claimed in the Nagarakretagama- an Old Javanese eulogy to Hayam Wuruk, written on lontar as a kakawin by Mpu Prapanca in 1365 (1287 Saka year). The Nagarakretagama contains detailed descriptions of the Majapahit Empire during its greatest extent. The poem affirms the importance of Hindu–Buddhism in the Majapahit empire by describing temples and palaces and several ceremonial observances.
Although the Khemer rulers extended their power over other lands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade.
Indravarman’s son and successor, Yaśovarman I (ruled c. 890–c. 910), moved the capital again, now closer to Siĕmréab, to a location that subsequently became Angkor—a name derived from the Sanskrit word nagara, meaning “city.
The city that Yaśovarman founded, Yaśodharapura, retained that name and remained Cambodia’s capital until it was abandoned in the 16th century. The temple mountain, Bakheng (literally “Mighty Ancestor”), was built on a natural hill that overlooked Yashodharpura in the centre. Yaśovarman built a large reservoir nearby.
One of the largest cities of its time, walls of Yaśodharapura measured 2.5 miles (4 km) on each side. After several decades of warfare, dislocations, and disorder—Yaśodharapura itself was abandoned for nearly 30 years—until Rajendravarman II (944–968) restored it and peace is said to have followed for a century.
He was succeeded by Jayavarman V (968–c. 1000), who built Banteai Srei—and in Yaśodharapura itself, Jayavarman V began work on the imposing temple mountain Ta Keo, which was completed under his successor, Suryavarman I (ruled c. 1004–c. 1050). Suryavarman I, an innovative and demanding monarch, was a usurper with links to princely families in what is now northeastern Thailand. His rise to power involved the subjugation of many areas that had become semi-independent under his predecessors, and his reign resembled
that of Jayavarman II two centuries earlier. Suryavarman extended the Khmer empire westward into present-day Thailand, where he constructed the large mountaintop temple known as Preah Vihear. During his reign the number of cities ruled from Yaśodharapura grew from roughly 20 to nearly 50, and foreign trade increased, along with tighter central bureaucratic control. His successor consolidated those gains, put down a dangerous rebellion, and was responsible for the temple mountain known today as the Baphuon.
The closing years of the 11th century were ones of turmoil and fragmentation. At different times, two and even three “absolute monarchs” contended simultaneously for the title of chakravartin. At the end of the century, however, a new dynasty—which was to last for more than a century—began to rule at Angkor. Its most powerful monarch took the name of Suryavarman II (ruled 1113–c. 1150), although he probably was not descended from the earlier king of that name. Like his namesake predecessor, Suryavarman II was
a formidable military campaigner. He avenged earlier attacks on Angkor by armies launched from the kingdom of Champa, in what is now south-central Vietnam, and led expeditions into northern and southern Thailand.
Builder of Angkor Wat: Suryavarman built the temple and tomb and some say an astronomical observatory as well, dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. Intricate carvings known as bas-reliefs, depicted events from the Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana—stretching out for almost a mile.
Jayavarman II
Depiction of Surya Majapahit (emblem of Majapahit) consists of nine Hindu deities (top) or eight sun rays (bottom). Pics of emblems from Ulundanu Bratan temple, Bali.
Rajasnagara Majapahit “Chakravarti”: One of the quaint titles taken by an king of that area(Today’s Indonesia ) was Rajasnagara]. Literally meaning King of the City. In fact, this title was common in that region with the result that a number of Rajasnagaras arose over a time period.
There is a geographical location called Rajasanagara Cinunuk,Jl. Pandanwangi, Cibiru Wetan, Cileunyi, Bandung, Jawa Barat 40624, Indonesia.
Hayam Wuruk also known as Rajasanagara, ruled Majapahit in 1350–89. During this period, Majapahit attained its peak with the help of the prime minister Gajah Mada. Under Gajah Mada's command (1313–64), Majapahit conquered more territories and became the regional power.
Majapahit could then be compared to modern Indonesia’s borders, but was a Hindu nation within a religiously diverse region of the world.
Like Jayavarman II, it was during his rule that the empire extended its influence throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Due to the geography of the region direct rule of so many isolated kingdoms was not easy and instead the best way to interpret the influence of Majapahit across the numerous islands is to draw comparisons between the system of tribute that had been employed by China for hundreds of years and the system of tribute that Rajasanagara used.
Further influences of China can be seen through the monetary system that Rajasanagara expanded during his rule. The growth of trade and specialized industry created a need for a more robust system of currency that could account for lots of trade of small monetary value. While the Empire had gold and silver it lacked copper for coins and instead imported Chinese copper coins for use in its own economy.
But because he had a heir from both a wife and a concubine he decided to split the Empire upon his death. This led to a civil war that destroyed the influence and legitimacy of the Majapahit leading to its decline and fall.2
==REFERENCES
⦁ I have used the word SE Asian because at that time the area included Indonesia as well as today’s Cambodia
1A. Angkor: Cities and Temples-by Claude Jacques and Michael Freeman | 1 December 2008
⦁ Heine-Geldern, R. (1942). Conceptions of State and Kingship in Southeast Asia. The Far Eastern Quarterly, 2(1), 15-30. doi:10.2307/2049276.
⦁ According to the epic poem The Nagarakretagama, in praise of King Rajasanagara of Majapahit, it lists Makassar as one of the kingdom's tributaries in 1365.
